^
THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
DAVIS
4603
STATE OF CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS
PUBLICVTIONS OF THE
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
EDWARD HYATT, State Engineer
BULLETIN No. 44 SOUTH COASTAL BASIN INVESTIGATION
WATER LOSSES UNDER NATURAL CONDITIONS
FROM WET AREAS IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
PART I
Report of a Cooperative Investigation by the
Division of Irrigation, Bureau of Agricultural Engineering,
United States Department of Agriculture.
PART II
Report of a Cooperative Investigation by the
Water Resources Branch Geological Survev,
United States Department of the Interior.
1933
LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA DAV IS
FOREWORD
The value of water that can be put to beneficial use in southern California is so great that it seems advisable to call attention to existing wastage along streams and in other wet-surfaced areas of that region. Studies that have been made recently lead to the conclusion that the possibility of utilizing such sources of supply to advantage is worthy of the most serious consideration. This bulletin gives basic data which may be applied in evaluating water now wasted that might be put to profitable uses.
The bulletin is in two parts: Part I, a report of investigations made by the Division of Irrigation, Bureau of Agricultural Engineer- ing, U. S. Department of Agriculture, dealing with the disposal of water by evaporation and transpiration in various parts of southern California, and Part II, a report of investigations made by the Water Resources Branch, Geological Survey, U. S. Department of the Interior, dealing with loss of water from Santa Ana River in lower Santa Ana Canyon. Both reports were made cooperatively with the Division of Water Resources, Department of Public Works, State of California. It is believed that the publication of these two reports will throw needed light upon the little-understood subject of waste of water through natural causes.
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PART I
CONSUMPTIVE USE OF WATER BY NATIVE PLANTS
GROWING IN MOIST AREAS IN SOUTHERN
CALIFORNIA
By Harry F. Blaney
(1) At stations in Santa Ana Valley and Coastal Plain near Santa Ana, Prado and San Bernardino,
(2) In the Mojave River Area near Victorville,
(3) In Coldwater Canyon near Arrowhead Springs, located in the San Bernardino Mountains, and
(4) At Baldwin Park and other evaporation stations in southern California.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART I
Page
FOREWORD 5
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL 15
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 16
ORGANIZATION, STATE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS 17
ORGANIZATION, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 18
Chapter I
INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 19
Introduction 19
Summary 20
Santa Ana, Prado, and San Bernardino Stations 20
Victorville Station 23
Coldwater Canyon Investigations 24
Evaporation from free water surfaces 25
Chapter II
INVESTIGATIONS IN THE SANTA ANA RIVER VALLEY AND COASTAL
PLAIN 26
Santa Ana Station 26
Description of site 26
Station equipment 28
Method of filling soil tanks 29
The Mariotte tank 30
San Bernardino Station 32
Description of site 32
Station equipment 33
Prado Station 34
Description of site 34
Station equipment 34
Meteorological records 35
Operation of tanks 40
Sources of errors in tank experiments 40
Santa Ana Station 41
San Bernardino Station 45
Prado Station — 45
Protection from rainfall 45
Soil alkali in tanks 47
Consumptive use of water 49
Evaporation from soil surfaces in tanks 49
Use of water by salt grass — 50
Use of water by Bermuda grass 53
Use of water by tules and cat-tails 58
Use of water by willows 64
Use of water by wire rush 66
Adjustment factors 67
Soil characteristics 68
Mechanical analyses 6 8
Moisture equivalent 69
Porosity, specific yield and specific retention 70
Apparent specific gravity "2
Chapter III
INVESTIGATIONS IN MOJAVE RIVER AREA 74
Procedure J6
Consumptive use of water 81
Chapter IV
INVESTIGATIONS IN COLDWATER CANYON 88
Equipment 93
Controls 93
Flume for winter measurements 94
Flow recorders 96
' Evaporimeter 97
Evaporation and transpiration losses along the stream channel 99
Loss from stream between controls 99
Loss from stream above the highest control 114
Comparison of use between controls with meteorological data 116
Yield of water from drained slopes on Arrowhead Mountain 119
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10 CONTENTS — PART I
Chapter V
EVAPORATION PROM FREE WATER SURFACES 122
Baldwin Park Key Station 122
Miscellaneous evaporation records 124
PART II
GROUND WATER SUPPLY AND NATURAL LOSSES IN THE VALLEY OF SANTA ANA RIVER BETWEEN THE RIVERSIDE NARROWS AND THE ORANGE COUNTY LINE 141
Table of Contents, Part II 142
PUBLICATIONS OF THE DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES 173
CONTENTS — PART I
11
LIST OF PLATES
Plate Page
Geographical locations of stations Frontispiece
I. Plan of Santa Ana Station 27
II. Mariotte tank connected to soil tank to maintain a constant water level in the soil and supply water, evaporated or transpired, Santa
Ana station, 1929-1932 31
III. Board housing for Mariotte tanks at San Bernardino 33
IV. Circular metal covers to protect soil tanks from rainfall while allow- ing free circulation of air over the tank surface 4G
V. Monthly use of water by salt grass in tanks having various depths
to water table 52
VI. Bermuda grass in tanks in field of similar growth at San Bernardino.
The tanks are in the center of the picture showing heavier growth 57
VII. Comparison of use of water by Bermuda grass at San Bernardino with that of salt grass at Santa Ana and evaporation from water in
Tank No. 16 at Santa Ana_- 58
VIII. A. Tules growing in tank six feet in diameter at Santa Ana station,
1931, with small tanks of tules and cat-tails at the right GO
B. Cat-tails growing in small tank, Santa Ana station, 1931 60
C. Tules growing in small tank, Prado station, 1931 60
IX. Hourly rate of use of water by tules, evaporation from standard
Weather Bureau pan and air and water temperatures, Prado
station 61
X. Willow tree growing in 6-foot tank, Santa Ana station, 1931 65
XI. Moist area along the Mojave River above the Upper Narrows near
Victorville, California 76
XII. Plan of Victorville station 77
XIII. Arrangement for tank No. 2 to supply water and to measure amount
of evaporation and transpiration 7S
XIV. Arrangement for tank No. 3 to regulate supply of water and to
measure amount of evaporation and transpiration 78
XV. A. General view of Victorville station, taken October 31, 1931 79
B. View taken October 31, 1931, of swamp where two tanks were
located, the stadia rod being held between the two tanks 7 9
XVI. View of tank No. 1, taken October 31, 1931 80
XVII. Monthly evaporation and use of water from tanks No. 1, No. 2 and
No. 3, February, 19 31-February, 1932 : 81
XVIII. Mean monthlv evaporation and use of water from tanks No. 1,
No. 2 and No. 3 83
XIX. Aerial view of Coldwater Canyon showing location of the controls 89
XX. A. Alders in canyon bottom viewed from an overhanging cliff 91
B. Alders in canyon bottom about midway between the middle and
lower controls 91
XXI. Middle Coldwater control showing 3-inch Parshall measuring fluVne
and flow, recorder 93
XXII. Combination flume for measurement of water at both high and low
stages 95
XXIII. Flow recorder installation at lower Coldwater control 96
XXIV. A. Evaporimeter with shallow black pan 24 inches in diameter 98
B. Evaporimeter showing weighing mechanism and record cylinder 9 8
XXV. Evaporimeter charts 99
XXVI. Fluctuation in the water table in Coldwater Canyon, September 7-15,
1932 100
XXVII. Flow at Middle Coldwater Canyon control, August 9-15, 1931 102
XXVIII. A. Drop in flow in Coldwater Canyon, August 11-12, 1931 103
B. Daily evaporation-transpiration cycle, Ontario willow and reed tank,
September 11-12, 1930 103
XXIX. Use of water between controls In Coldwater Canyon and daily maxi- mum temperatures at San Bernardino during 1932 113
XXX. Comparison of loss of water from evaporimeter and air temperature
near mouth of Coldwater Canyon, September 7-15, 1932 118
XXXI. East slope of Arrowhead Mountain draining into Coldwater Canyon — 120
12 CONTENTS — PART I
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Monthly temperatures, rainfall and miles of wind movement at Santa Ana
station 36
2. Monthly temperatures, rainfall and miles of wind movement at Prado station 37
3. Monthly temperatures, rainfall and miles of wind movement at San Ber-
nardino station 38
4. Rainfall by storms at Santa Ana station 39
5. Rainfall by storms at San Bernardino station 39
6. Installation data on tanks used at Santa Ana station 42
7. Installation data on tanks used at San Bernardino station 45
S. Analyses of station water supplies and water from annular spaces of soil
moisture tanks at Santa Ana and San Bernardino stations 47
9. Alkali salt concentrations and pH values of composite soil samples from various depths in soil moisture tanks at the Santa Ana and San Bernar- dino stations 48
10. Relation of soil moisture to depth of water table in tanks at Santa Ana
station 51
11. Record of weekly evaporation from soil and use of water by salt grass in
tanks at Santa Ana, California, May, 1929, to September, 1930__Between 52-53
12. Record of weekly use of water by salt grass in tanks at Santa Ana,
California, October, 1930, to November, 1931 Between 52-53
13. Summary showing monthly use of water by salt grass and tules and evapo-
ration from soil and water surfaces, May, 1929, to April, 1930, in tanks
at Santa Ana, California Between 52-53
14. Summary showing monthly use of water by salt grass, tules, cat-tails,
willows and wire rush and evaporation from soil and water surfaces, May, 1930, to April, 1931, in tanks at Santa Ana, California__Between 52-53
15. Summary showing monthly use of water by salt grass, tules, cat-tails,
willows and wire ru.sh, and evaporation from water surfaces, May, 1931,
to April, 1932, in tank at Santa Ana, California Between 52-53
16. Record of weekly u.se of water bv Bermuda grass in tanks at San Bernar-
dino, California, May, 1929, to September, 1930 54-55
17. Record of weekly use of water by Bermuda grass in tanks at San Bernar-
dino, California, October, 1930, to November, 1931 56
18. Summary showing monthly use of water by Bermuda grass and evaporation
from "water surfaces. May, 1929, to April, 1930, in tanks at San Ber- nardino, California Between 58-59
19. Summary showing monthly use of water by Bermuda grass and tules and
evaporation from water surfaces, May, 1930, to April, 1931, in tanks at San Bernardino, California Between 58-59
20. Summary .showing monthly use of water by Bermuda grass and tules and
evaporation from water surfaces. May, 1931, to April, 1932, in tanks
at San Bernardino, California Between 58-59
21. Estimated consumptive use of water by tules and cat-tails in swamps based
upon tank experiments and percentage of swamp use to tank use 63
22. Summary of tank investigations showing estimated annual consumptive use
of water in moist areas •' 67
23. Mechanical analyses of soil from tanks at Santa Ana and San Bernardino
stations 68
24. Moisture equivalents of soil from tanks at Santa Ana and San Bernardino
stations 69
25. Comi>ari.son of the computed specific yield of soils in the absence of a water
table with the observed specific yield of the same soils having high water tables — 71
26. Porosity, specific yield and specific retention of soils in tanks having high
water tables 72
27. Apparent specific gravity of soils in tanks at Santa Ana and San Bernardino
stations. 73
28. Monthly summary showing evaporation, consumptive use of water from
tule tanks, use of water expressed in per cent of evaporation, wind move- ment, rainfall, and temperatures at Victorville station, February ], 1931, to February 28, 1933 82
29. Evaporation from free water surfaces in the Weather Bureau pan and
tanks Nos. 1, 2, and 3, December 5, 1930, to January 29, 1931 85
CONTENTS — PART I 13
Table Page
30. Summary by months of mean t(^mperatures, wind movement, evaporation,
and consumptive use of water from tule tanks Nos. 1, 2, ami 3, and use of water from tule tank No. 3 expressed in per cent of evaporation at Victorville station 87
31. Classification of trees between middle and lower controls in Coldwater
C^an.Non 90
32. Cla.ssilication of trees between upper and middle controls in Ooldwater
Canyon 92
33. Comparison of estimated loss by evaporation from stream and total loss
between middle and lower controls in Coldwater Canyon, September S-14, 1932 101
34. Daily maximum and minimum temperatures in Coldwater Canyon of the air,
the stream, and the water in the evaporation pan, September 8-14, 1932 101
35. Daily maximum and minimum discharges at middle and lower controls in
Coldwater Canyon, August 1 to October 17, 1931 105
3G. Daily maximum and minimum discharges at each control in Coldwater
Canyon, June 24 to November 3, 1932 106-107
37. Daily loss of water from the stream between middle and lower controls
in Coldwater Canyon, August 1 to October 17, 1931 110
38. Daily loss of water from the stream between middle and branch controls
and lower control in Coldwater Canyon, June 25 to November 2, 1932 111
39. Daily loss of water from the stream between the upper and middle controls
in Coldwater Canyon, July 15 to November 2, 1932 112
40. Daily loss of water from the stream indicated by dips in discharge curve
at middle control in Coldwater Canyon, August i to October 17, 1931 114
41. Daily loss of water from the stream indicated by dips in discharge curve at
upper control in Coldwater Canyon, July 15 to November 2, 1932 115
42. Monthly mean maximum and minimum temperatures at the mouth of Cold-
water Canyon, at Alpine, and at San Bernardino, June to October, 1931 and 1932 117
43. Loss of water from atmometers at Coldwater Canyon, July 18 to October
24, 1932 117
44. Com])arison of loss of water from atmometers, evaporimeter, and loss of
water between middle and lower controls, September 8-14, 1932 119
45. Precipitation 1931-32 season 120
46. Monthly evafporation records at cooperative key station at Baldwin Park,
California, 1932-1933 ___— 123
47. Monthly evaporation records at Santa Ana, California, 1929—1932. Observed
by the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, U. S. Department of Agri- culture 125
48. Monthly evaporation records at San .Bernardino, California, 1929-1932.
Observed by the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, U. S. Department of Agriculture 126
49. Monthly evaporation records at Prado, California, 1930-1933. Observed
by the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, U. S. Department of Agri- culture 127
50. Monthly evaporation records at Ontario, California, 19,28-1931. Observed
by the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, U. S. Department of Agri- culture 127
51. Monthly evaporation records at Victorville, California, 1931-1933. Observed
by the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, U. S. Department of Agri- culture 128
52. Monthly evaporation records near Pomona, California, 1903-1905. Observed
by the Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. Department of Agriculture 128
53. Monthly evaporation records at Chula Vista, California, 1918-1933. Observed
by the Weather Bureau, U. S. Department of Agriculture 129
54. Monthly wind movement at Chula Vista, California, 1918-1930. Observed
by the Weather Bureau, U. S. Department of Agriculture 130
55. Monthly evaporation records at Riverside, California, 1924-1933. Observed
by the Citrus Experiment Station, University of California 131
56. Monthly evaporation records at South Haiwee Reservoir, California, 1924—
1932. Observed by Bureau of Water Works and Supply, City of Los Angeles 132
57. Monthly evaporation records at Fairmont Reservoir, California, 1923-1932.
Observed by Bureau of Water W^orks and Supply, City of Los Angeles. J 132
58. Monthly evaporation records at Silver Lake Reservoir, California, 1930-
1933. Observed by Bureau of Water Works and Supply, City of Los Angeles_ 133
59. Monthly evaporation records at lower Fernando Reservoir, Callf<jrnia, 1930-
1933. Observed by Bureau of Water Works and Supply, City of Los Angeles, 133
60. Monthly evaporation records at Chatsworth Reservoir, California, 1931-1933.
Observed by Bureau of Water Works and Supply, City of Los Angeles 134
61. Mt)nthly evaporation records at Encino Reservoir, California, 1930-1933.
Observed by Bureau of Water Works and Supply, City of I^o.s .\ngeles 134
14 CONTENTS PART I
Table Page
62. Monthly evaporation records at Azusa, Monrovia, Whlttier, Telegraph Road
and Collins Road, and Long Beach, California, 1929—1931. Observed by the San Gabriel Valley Protective Association 135
63. Monthly evaporation records at Pine Canyon station, San Gabriel River,
1930-1933. Observed by the Pasadena Water Department 136
64. Monthly evaporation records at Little Cienaga, California, 1929—1933.
Observed by Los Angeles County Flood Control District 136
65. Monthly evaporation records at Big Dalton Dam, California, 1930—1933.
Observed by Los Angeles County Flood Control i)istrict 137
66. Monthly evaporation records at Pnddingstone Reservoir, California, 1929—
1933. Observed by Los Angeles County Flood Control District 137
67. Monthly evaporation records at Pacolma Dam, California, 1930—1933.
Observed by Los Angeles County Flood Control District 138
68. Monthly evaporation records near Acton (Mellon), California, 1931—1933.
Observed by Los Angeles County Flood Control District 138
69. Monthly evaporation records at El Segundo, California, 1931-1933. Observed
by Los Angeles County Flood Control District 139
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
Mr. Edward Hyatt, State Engineer, Sacramento, California.
Dear Sir : I have the pleasure to transmit herewith for publication a report ' ' Consumptive Use of Water by Native Plants Growing in Moist Areas in Southern California."
The report was prepared by Harry P. Blaney, assisted by Colin A. Taylor, A. A. Young and Harry G. Nickle, and is, I believe, one of the most comprehensive presentations of research data available dealing witli the consumptive use of water by various uoncrop plants native of southern California and the Southwest in general. It is of economic and practical importance in considering problems of water conser- vation and use.
As a final chapter there is brought together data on evaporation from a free-water surface, that will be of great value to engineers and others dealing with water utilization, especially its storage in open reservoirs.
The investigations on which tlie report is based were siip|)orted by and the report was prepared under cooperative agreement between the Division of Water Resources of the California State Department of Public Works and the Division of Irrigation of the P>ureau of Agricul- tural Engineering, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Respectfully submitted,
Berkeley, California, June 3, 1933.
Chief, Division of Irrigation, Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The aiithors acknowledge the assistance rendered by members of the Division of Irrigation of the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, United States Department of Agriculture, especially Dean W. Blood- good, Associate Irrigation Engineer, Dean C. Muckel, Junior Civil Engineer, and H. W. Kistner, who assisted in the preparation of the manuscript, and A. Lincoln Fellows, Senior Irrigation Engineer, who edited it.
The advice and assistance of Harold Conkling, Deputy State Engineer, is recognized. Acknowledgment is made of the assistance rendered by P. C. Ebert, Jarret Oliver, and K. R. Melin of the United States Geological Survey. W. P. Rowe of the Board of Water Commis- sioners, City of San Bernardino, and M. N. Thompson, Engineer of the Orange County Flood Control District, also rendered valuable assistance.
Acknowledgment is made to A. S. Amaral of the Appleton Land and Water Company for providing the site for the experiment station at Victorville, of the courtesies extended by II. S. Ward of the Arrow- head Springs Company in the ColdAvater Canyon Investigations, and to the Los Angeles County Flood Control District and San Gabriel Valley Protective Association for furnishing the site for Baldwin Park Key Station.
Scientific names for native plants were determined at the Herba- rium of the University of California.
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ORGANIZATION
STATE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
Earl Lee Kelly Director of PuUic Worlis
Edward Hyatt State Engineer
The South Coastal Basin Investigation was conducted under the supervision of
Harold Coxkling Deputy State Engineer
2 — 4503 ( 1^
ORGANIZATION
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BUREAU OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
DIVISION OF IRRIGATION
Cooperating in South Coastal Basin Investigation
AV. AV. McLaughlin Chief of Division
This report "was prepared by
Harry F. Blaney
Irrigation Engineer
Assisted by
Colin A. Taylor Assistant Irrigation Engineer
A. A. Young Assistant Irrigation Engineer
Harry G. Nickle Junior Hydraulic Engineer
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CONSUMPTIVE USE OF WATER BY NATIVE PLANTS GROWING IN MOIST AREAS IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
By Harry F. Blanet *
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION
In southern California the natural water supply is exceedingly limited, while the demands for water are great and its value is high. In some sections the value of continuous-flow gravity water ranges from $100,000 to as much as $200,000 per second-foot,** depending upon its use. Both present and future agricultural, domestic, and industrial development depends upon the adequacy of the water supply. Under these circumstances it is economically important to utilize the available water supply to the fullest extent. For this reason federal, state, county, city, and other agencies are working along lines to deter- mine ways and means by which water, now wasted, may be conserved for beneficial use.
The Bureau of Agricultural Engineering in cooperation with vari- ous agencies is making studies to determine the contributions of rainfall to the ground water of valley floors, consumptive use of water by plant life on both irrigated and nonirrigated lands, irrigation water require- ments of different crops, replenishment of underground storage of water by spreading, evaporation losses, and noneconomic use of water by native plants growing in moist areas. This report deals with the consumptive use of water by various types of indigenous vegetation commonly found in meadows and swamps and along stream beds, evapo- ration losses from soils without vegetative growth in areas of high water table, and evaporation from free water surfaces.
In considering the adequacy of public water supplies in the past, too little attention has been given to use of water by noncrop plants. In most instances such plants are so located that they get their supplies of water before settled communities get theirs, and therefore such use must be considered in estimating water available for other purposes.
For areas where large amounts of money are spent to develop and deliver water for irrigation at heavy annual cost to the irrigators, the water that could be saved by preventing the growth of uneconomic plants may be reckoned as approximating in value that of an equal amount of water in storage. For citrus fruits the cost of water is frequently as high as $15 to $20 per acre-foot and in some instances it is much higher. Tules, willows, and alders growing in irrigation canals, drainage ditches or stream channels or on their banks are usually exposed in narrow strips to sun and wind so that their consumption of
* Irrigation Engineer, Division of Irrigation, Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
** State of California Department of Public Works Bulletin No. 36, Cost of Irrigation Water in California, by Harry F. Blaney and Martin R. Huberty. (1930.)
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20 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
water is very liiyli. Linin<>' canals to check see})a^'e losses and' diverting stream flows into conduits conserve water by eliminating losses due to such aquatic growths as well as by decreasing the seepage.
In many instances irrigation and domestic supplies are obtained by diverting water from the lower reaches of canyons, the bottoms of which usually are covered with vegetation. The amount of water lost through consumptive use by that vegetation may be of considerable importance where the flow of the stream is relatively small and studies have therefore been undertaken to measure such losses.
Evaporation records from standard Weather Bureau pans are valuable in estimating evaporation losses from reservoirs and consump- tive use of Avater by native vegetation growing in moist areas. Very few data have been published on evajjoration in southern California, accordingly all available records are included in this report. Among these are those kept by the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering at several stations in cooperation with the State Engineer of California and those kept in other localities by local agencies.
SUMMARY Commencing in 1929 and continuing thereafter investigations of evaporation and transpiration losses in moist areas have been conducted by the Division of Irrigation, Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, United States Department of Agriculture, in cooperation with the Division of Water Resources, Department of Public Works, State of California, and other agencies. Stations were established at Santa Ana, Prado, San Bernardino, Victorville, Coldwater Canyon and Baldwin Park. The results obtained are summarized in the following discussion.
Santa Ana, Prado, and San Bernardino Stations
Data regarding evaporation from bare uncultivated soil and use of w^ater by noneconomic native growth found in moist areas in Santa Ana River Valley have been collected for the three-year period immedi- ately preceding May 1, 1932. Results of the first year's work have already been published.* Investigations were conducted at three sta- tions, although the greater part of the work was done at Santa Ana, with smaller stations at San Bernardino, 50 miles distant, and at Prado, midway between the other two. The Prado station w^as established a year after the others and work there is being continued. The other two stations have been dismantled. The soil at the Santa Ana station is classed as a Hanford fine sandy loam** and that at San Bernardino as Chino silt loam. The work at Prado did not include soil moisture studies and the soil class was not determined.
The investigation included studies of evaporation from soil, consump- tive use of water by salt grass and Bermuda grass in tanks wdth pre- determined water levels, use of water by tules and cat-tails in submerged soil, and by willow and wire rush. Some experiments in evaporation from water surfaces also were included. Soil evaporation and use of water studies were carried on at Santa Ana in unbroken columns of soil in 12 tanks and with disturbed soil in three tanks. All soil moisture
* California State Department of Public Works Bulletin No. 33, Rainfall Pene- tration and Consumptive Use of Water in the Santa Ana River "Valley and Coastal Plain, bv Harrv F. Blaney, C. A. Taylor, and A. A. Young.
** Soil Survey of the Anaheim Area, California. Bureau of Soils, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS 21
experiments were carried on in triplicate to average errors and the effects of soil differences. The following: snmraaries and conclusions are given from the data obtained during the investigation :
1. ^Mariotte tanks Avere nsed with all soil tanks to supply and main- tain a constant water table in the soil. Their value lies in the ease with which periodic measurements of water used may be made as they are automatic in operation. Great care is necessary to protect the ^Mariotte tank against temperature changes or from leakage of air into the tank or the connecting pipe system.
2. Evaporation tests from bare soil were conducted with both dis- turbed and undisturbed soil in tanks, separately. No evaporation occurred from tanks of undisturbed soil having a water table 4 feet below the surface. When the water table was raised to 3 feet from tlie soil surface the evaporation averaged 0.1 acre-inch per acre per month. Tanks of undisturbed soil having water tables at a depth of 2 feet lost an average of 0.445 acre-inch per acre per month for 15 months. In contrast with losses from undisturbed soil, three tanks filled with dis- turbed soil having a 2-foot depth to water level had a mean monthly loss by evaporation of 1.599 acre-inches per acre, while the average loss from undisturbed soil for the same period was 0.404 acre-inch per acre, or about 25 per cent. In disturbed soil the opportunity for evaporation was greater as the soil contained more moisture. Evapora- tion from undisturbed soil is more comparable to that lost under field conditions than is that from disturbed soil. These data indicate that there will be no evaporation from the light textured soils of the Hanford series when the water table is 4 feet or more below the ground surface.
3. Use of water by both salt grass and Bermuda grass was influ- enced by the availability of moisture in the soil and the depth to water table. Grasses in tanks having the highest water tables used the most water. During the year ending April 30, 1932, salt grass grown in tanks having water tables 1 foot in depth used water at the rate of 42.75 acre-inches per acre; with a 2-foot depth, 36.23 acre-inches; and with a 5-foot depth, 22.12 acre-inches per acre. In general, the ratio of the use of water to depth of water table b}* Bermuda grass was about the same as that of salt grass. From these data, it is concluded that use of water by these grasses is not excessive and does not exceed the amount that would be used by many cultivated crops grown under the same conditions of soil moisture.
4. Consumptive use of water bj- tules or cat-tails grown in tanks in exposed locations is not closely indicative of the true use by these plants growing in their natural environment. Growths in exposed tanks are subject to greater solar radiation, lower humidity and greater wind movement conditions than are found under natural swamp condi- tions; and use of water by swamp growth transplanted to exposed locations is inordinately high. Numerous instances of tules in tanks using an acre-inch or more of water per 24 hours at the Santa Ana station and an extreme use of 3.6 acre-inches per acre per 24 hours at Prado were noted. Taken as a percentage of evaporation from a standard Weather Bureau pan the use of water by tules or cat-tails in exposed tanks varied from 168.3 per cent for cat-tails at Santa Ana to 451.7 per cent for triangular stem tules at Prado. From other experi- ments bv the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering it is evident that
22 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
if the size of tanks was extended to swamp areas the consumptive use would decrease to a relatively small fraction of that used by exposed tanks. Very little is known as to the proi^er factor to be applied, but a limited investigation indicates that consumptive use of water by tules or cat-tails in densely grown natural swamp areas may be as low as 30 per cent of the consumptive use by similar growth in isolated tanks having extreme exposure to the elements.
5. Willow uses more water than either of the two wild grasses with which tests were made. A single clump of willow used 52.71 acre-inches per acre with a water table at a depth of 2 feet during an eleven-month period. This was 83.5 per cent of the evaporation from a standard Weather Bureau pan. The willow was fully exposed and the consumptive use may have been higher than would be the case from an area of equal size in a willow thicket. As a moist area noneconomic growth, the willow is responsible for Avaste of water which might other-wise be put to a more beneficial use. On the other hand, willows will grow in gravelly river bottoms Avhere they furnish protec- tion against erosion. Any benefit obtained by removal of such protection to increase the water supply may be offset by damage by floods carrying sand and gravel into valuable farm communities. No data are available indicating a factor for reduction of consumptive use by wdllow^s grown in exposed and isolated tanks to that used by natural growth in large areas.
6. Wire rush grows in a limited area in the Santa Ana Valley where high ground water exists. Its consumptive use measured from a 2-foot water table is high, exceeding that from grasses or willow. In July, 1931, it amounted to 13.75 acre-inches per acre, which was 2.8 times the amount used by salt grass during the same period and grow- ing at the same location. As far as is known, wire rush has no value for live stock and the water it consumes is an economic loss. No data exists for determination of a factor to reduce consumptive use from tank growth to that by natural field groAvth, but some factor should be applied.
7. Soil tests were made to determine mechanical analysis, moisture equivalent, porosity, and apparent specific gravity of soils in tanks. About 20 per cent of the soil at the Santa Ana station was fine enough to pass a No. 200 screen. Soil in the San Bernardino tanks was considerably finer. Moisture-equivalent values as determined at Santa Ana were not constant, varying from 5.8 to 13.0 per cent in different tanks. The moisture equivalent of the top foot of soil at San Ber- nardino was about 30 per cent, or nearly twice that of the subsoil at a depth of 3 feet. Porosity tests of soil in tanks show an average of 40.2 per cent at Santa Ana and 47.4 per cent at San Bernardino.
8. Specific yield and specific retention in relation to high water tables, the sum of the two equaling the total porosity, also were deter- mined. Each of these varies with the depth to the water table, the greater yield occurring with the least depth, and the greater retention with the greater depth. Porosity of the disturbed soil is about the same as in the undisturbed soil, but the specific yield is much less and specific retention is correspondingly greater. In the Chino silt loam at San Bernardino, the specific yield is small in comparison with the specific retention. The percentages measured as specific yield and
WATER LOSSES P^ROM WET AREAS 23
specific retention are apparent rather than real, as they apply only to conditions of hi^-h water table. True values can be obtained only when measured from a high colunui of soil, disregarding the fringe of capillary moisture.
9. Alkali deposits occurred on the surface of several soil moisture tanks at the Santa Ana station, depending in amount on the depth to water table in the tank, ^luch of this alkali was originally present in the soil, but it was increased by the small amounts in solution in the water consumed. During the first two seasons, when the soil tanks were covered during rain storms. th(> concentration of alkali on the surface increased month by month. During the third season, much of the surface deposit was carried back into the soil by rainfall pene- tration, causing a redistribution. Chemical analyses of soils taken from the tanks at the end of the investigation show a high pH value and where the water table was close to the tank surface a very high con- centration of salts in the top inch of soil. As salt grass is alkali resistar:iC it is doubtful if the rate of transpiration was affected.
Alkali was very much less in amount at the San Bernardino station, and no deposits occurred on the tank surfaces. Water used in the tests was from an artesian well and was relatively pure. The distribu- tion of salts was greater in the top soil, decreasing in amounts toward the water tables. The same was true of the pH values.
Victorville Station .
In November, 1930, an experiment station was established near Victorville for the purpose of measuring evaporation and transpiration losses from moist areas along the Mojave River and for recording meteorological data. The work was correlated with the stream flow measurements being made by the U. S. Geological Survey to determine the consumptive use of water between gaging stations at several loca- tions on the river.
The experiment station was located in and on the bank of a small cienaga on the east side of the IMojave River. The equipment consisted of three tule tanks, a standard Weather Bureau evaporation pan, an anemometer, a set of standard maximum and minimum thermometers and a thermograph housed in a standard shelter, a rain gage and a ground well. Previous investigations regarding consumptive use of water by native A^egetation along stream channels* indicate that if data from tanks are to be used in estimating losses from larger areas under field conditions, the tanks should be set in a field of natural growth similar to that in the tanks. Two tule tanks were therefore placed in the swamp, one 2 feet in diameter and the other 6 feet in diameter. A third tule tank, similar to those used at the Santa Ana, Prado, and San Bernardino stations, was set in the ground on the bank for the purpose of demonstrating the effect of exposure on the use of water by plants grown in tanks. The standard Weather Bureau evaporation pan was also placed on the bank with similar exposure.
Observations were made on evaporation, consumptive use of water from tules, "u-ind movement, rainfall, and temperatures from Febru- ary 1, 1931, to February 28. 1933. The results indicate the following conclusions :
* California State Department of Public Works Bulletin No. 33, Rainfall Pene- tration and Consumptive Use of Water in the Santa Ana River Valley and Coastal i'lain, by Harry F. Blaney, C. A. Taylor, and A. A. Young. Chapter 4.
24 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
1. Based on the 25-month period of record, the mean annnal con- sumptive use of -water by tules growing in a tank 6 feet in diameter, located in a swamp with natural conditions replicated, was found to be 78.5 acre-inches per acre.
2. For the same period, the mean annual evaporation from a standard Weather Bureau pan located on the bank near the swamp was 82.5 inches. By applying a conversion coefficient of 0.7 to this value, the mean annual evaporation from a lake surface is indicated to be 58 inches.
3. The ratio of the mean annual consumptive use of water by the tules to the mean annual evaporation from the standard Weather Bureau pan for the period of record is 0.95.
4. Based on the mean record for the two growing seasons from ]\Iay to October, inclusive, the evaporation from a lake surface is indicated to be 40 inches, while for the same period the consumptive use of water by tules would be 62 acre-inches per acre. This exceeds the loss by evaporation from the free water surface of a reservoir by 22 inches.
5. The investigation demonstrates the impracticability of applying to field conditions records of tests made in isolated tanks of tules grown apart from their natural environment.
Coldwater Canyon Investigations
The investigation into the lo.sses (tccurring along the stream chan- nels above the usual points of diversion was started in Coldwater Canyon near San Bernardino in 1931 and continued through 1932. The combined evaporation and transpiration by the native vegetation grow- ing in the canyon was determined by accurately measuring the water at various points along the channel. The controls were on bed rock so that the amount of water entering the upper end of each section of channel was known as well as the amount leaving each section.
The losses from two sections of the canyon are reported, the average elevation above sea level of one being 2400 feet and of the other 2800 feet. The average width of the canyon bottom fill in the lower section is 49 feet, and in the upper section it is 44 feet.
The results of this study show a loss from the lower section of the canyon of 72 acre-inches per 1000 feet of canyon for the six-month period from May to October, inclusive, 1932. This is at the rate of 64 acre-inches per acre of canyon bottom fill. For the same period in the upper section of canyon, the loss was found to be at the rate of 50 acre- inches per acre of canyon bottom fill.
The evaporation from the water surface in the stream is shown to he only a small part of the total loss by evaporation and transpira- tion. The water surface of this stream is almost completely shaded and the evaporation rate would be greater in open areas where the water surface is exposed to the sun. The maximum loss in the canyon occurred during the month of August. 1932, being at the average rate of 0.44 acre-inch per acre per day in the lower section, and 0.35 acre- inch per acre per day in the upper section. In October the average rate of loss was 0.26 acre-inch per acre per day in the lower section and 0.20 acre-inch per acre per day in the upper section.
Enough water is consumed during the growing season along each mile of canvon similar to the lower section to meet the annual irrigation
WATER LOSSES PRO:\r WET AREAS 25
requirements of approximately 16 acres of citrus. For the upper section, the loss in each mile wonld meet the irrigation requirements of 11 acres of citrus.
Evaporation from Free Water Surfaces
The Bureau of Agricultural Engineering' has been keeping evapora- tion records at several stations in southern California in cooperation with the State Division of Water Resources, since 1928. Other agen- cies also have been making observations. These agencies do not always use the same type of evaporation pan and results from the different types are not comparable. For this reason a cooperative, experimental key station has been established at Baldwin Park for the purpose of correlating the data being collected by the various organizations and for determining factors that may be used to reduce the observations on various types of evaporation pans to a comparable basis. This inves- tigation is expected to continue for several years, until sufficient data are available for the purpose.
The Los iVngeles County Flood Control District, the 8an Gabriel Valley Protective Association, the Pasadena Water Department, the California State Division of Water Resources, and the United States Geological Survey are cooperating with the Division of Irrigation, U. S. Bureau of xVgricultural Engineering, in conducting this investigation. Three types of evaporation pans have been installed at the station :
1. Standard Weather Bureau pan, 4 feet in diameter by 10 inches
deep, set upon a wooden platform above ground.
2. U. S. Bureau of Agricultural Engineering type, 6 feet in diam-
eter by 3 feet deep, set 2.75 feet in the ground.
3. Los Angeles County Flood Control District type, 2 feet in
diameter by 3 feet deep, set 2.75 feet in the ground.
Records of evaporation from free water surfaces in pans and tanks, collected by various agencies in southern California, are tabulated in Chapter V.
AVith few exceptions all records of evaporation are comparatively recent, the majority being obtained since 1929. The oldest record available, that at Pomona, was of short duration — from 1903 to 1905. One record Avas begun at South Haiwee Reservoir, Inyo County, in 1924, and one at Fairmont Reservoir in Antelope Valley in 1923 by the City of Los Ajigeles. Both records are continuous to the present date. The longest record available is at Chula Vista, San Diego County, main- tained bv the U. S. Weather Bureau continuouslv since 1918.
CHAPTER II
INVESTIGATIONS IN THE SANTA ANA RIVER VALLEY
AND COASTAL PLAIN
By A. A. Young *
This chapter deals ^vHh. the consumptive use of water in the Santa Ana River basin by varions types of moist area native vegetation commonly found along stream beds, swamps and cienagas, and the evaporation from moist soil without vegetative growth.
As originally outlined the plan of the investigation was to deter- mine by tank experiments the use of water by wild grasses, and evapo- ration from bare soil in moist areas. Two experiment stations were established, one at Santa Ana and one at San Bernardino in 1929, and a third, at Prado, was added in the following year. In the vicinity of each are certain areas with relatively high ground water supporting moist area native growth from which samples were selected for trans- planting into tanks for study.
A progress report giving results of studies at Santa Ana and San Bernardino stations of consumptive use of water by salt grass and Bermuda grass, and evaporation from uncultivated bare soil for the year ending May 1, 1930, has been published.** Since that bulletin was M-ritten several changes and additions have been made to the original set-up and the experiments have been extended to include the measurement of consumptive use of water by round stem tules and triangular stem tules, cat-tails, wire rush and willows grown in tanks. These studies were continued for an additional two years following the published progress report in 1930, and the data assembled during that period are presented herewith as a final report! of the investigations made.
SANTA ANA STATION Description of Site
Following a survey of western Orange County early in 1929, in which a study was made of soil type and soil moisture conditions, a small plot of ground was selected as the site for the Santa Ana experi- ment station for studies of consumptive use of water by moist area vegetation. The plot is in a level 10-aere field of small native vegeta- tion, 4 miles west of Santa Ana and about 7 miles inland from the coast. It is free from windbreaks and shade and is generally suitable in regard to soil, climatic conditions, and exposure to the elements for the studies undertaken. The station ground is 50 by 100 feet and is surrounded bj' a tight woven Avire fence for protection. Plate I is a general plan of the station showing the arrangement and uses of the various tanks.
* Assistant Irrigation Engineer, Division of Irrigation, Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, U. S. Department of AgricuUure.
** Part II. Bulletin No. 33, Rainfall Penetration and Consumptive Use of Water in the Santa Ana River Valley and Coastal Plain. 1930. State of California, Department of Public "Works, Division of Water Resources.
t Credit is due to Dean C. Muckel, Junior Civil Engineer, Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, for valuable assistance in collection of data from October, 1930, to December, 1.931, and in preparation of the report.
(26)
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
27
PLATE I
\y
50 feet
I I
1 ,
23/ie
Thermometer Shelter
2 o---e---------0
3 0---0------------------0
4 o=-Q---- ----- -=0 O— -— ------S-----0 13
to
50---S------0 ^ 0^'-"-"-"'-"^"-~0'^
6 0-- -B-- ---------- -O O"-"' =--"-"Q-"^"0 15
— O
Rain^a^e
7 0--€3--
8 0----Q-
BO--U-
-o
--0
II o-o---— ------ o
21 O
220I i2 0-^-====--^0
19 O leQ 23"Evap.tank
•7 0
^ G-O" -*
18 O
Oil tests
Well
Tules
24
-n
Willow
250 Y/ire rush
20 ( ) 4 ft. Pans
Anemometer No. 488
PLAN OF SANTA ANA STATION.
28 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
The climatic conditions at this point are representative of the coastal climate of southern California. Summers are warm and dry while winters are moderate. Coastal fog's are of frequent occurrence and tend to modify evaporation from water surfaces and transpiration losses by plants.
Soil at the station is of alluvial origin, classified as Ilanford fine sandy loam which grades into coarse yellow sand at a depth of 6 to 7 feet.* It is probably lacking' in humus and contains a small amount of alkali although not enough to affect the growth of the type of vege- tation under investigation. An ample supply of good water for use in the experiment tanks was found at a depth of a few feet.
Station Equipment
The equipment first installed early in 1929 consisted of 12 soil tanks, each connected to a IMariotte supply tank, a set of maximum and minimum thermometers and a thermograph set in an instrument shelter, a standard rain gage, a standard Weather Bureau evaporation pan, a circular sunken evaporation tank of the same diameter as the soil tanks and a shallow well with a hand pump to supply water for the various tanks. Later, two anemometers and three additional soil tanks with Mariotte control were added, making 15 soil tanks in all.
Soil tanks are of the double type with an annular space between the inner and outer shell. The inner tank, 23^^ inches in diameter by 6 feet in depth, is suspended in the outer tank by means of a heavy angle-iron rim around the top. The bottom of the inner tank is removable and bolted in place by long rods to the supporting top rim. The inner tank holds soil, and the outer is a reservoir for water Avhich passes into the soil through perforations in the tank wall and in the bottom plate. Each soil tank unit is connected by a pipe to a INIariotte supply tank which regulates the height of the water table in the annular space between the inner and outer tank walls and supplies water to the tank growth as needed.
From time to time additional tanks of simple construction were added in which tules, cat-tails, willows and wire rush were grown in order to measure consumptive use of water by each variety. One tule tank and one tank for willows were each 6 feet in diameter by 3 feet deep. Smaller tanks, used for other swamp growth, were each 25 1 inches in diameter by 2.7 feet deep. Each of the 6-foot tanks used water in such quantities that it was necessary to provide them with supply tanks equipped with automatic feed control to provide watey as needed, and at the same time hold the water level in the crop tank at a constant level. This could have been accomplished by i\Iariotte con- trol, but in this case a needle valve operated by a float was found satisfactory. When the water surface in the crop tank dropped, due to transpiration and evaporation losses, the float dropped also, opening the needle valve and admitting more water. When the water surface returned to its original level, the valve closed and the flow ceased. A water glass and a graduated scale on the side of tlie supply tank allowed readings of amounts of Avater Avitlidrawn. This type of control has been in use at all three stations during the investigations.
* Soil Survey of the Analiiim Area. California. Bureau of Soils, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS 29
The evaporalioii pan was set upon a \v()()(U'ii grillage in accordance with iiistnictions issued by the Ignited States AVeather Bureau for pans of this type. Evaporation losses Avere measured by a hook gage gradu- ated to thousandths of a foot and mounted on the side of the pan. At the northwest corner of the grillage an anemometer was mounted on a stand so that the level of the cups was about V2 inches above the top of the pan and about 24 inches above the ground surface. Originally, a second anemometer was set 12 inches above the ground surface, mid- way in the row of soil tanks, to measure ground winil, but it was used only during the tir.st year of the investigation.
Method of Filling Soil Tanks
Heretofore a method frequently used for placing soil in experi- ment tanks has been to separate layers of soil as excavated from a trench and place them in the tank in the same order as originally found in the ground. This process broke up the soil structure, increased the volume, and changed the density. If tamped into the tank, alternate layers of loose and dense material resulted, with structural arrange- ments of soil particles entirely different' from the original. Soil mois- ture experiments with soil so placed have not always proved satisfac- tory. To rectify this condition the first tanks used in this investigation were filled without materially changing the original soil structure. The plan followed was to fill each tank by forcing the bottomless inner shell over a core of soil of the same diameter of the tank until full, at the same time excavating around the tank shell as the filling proceeded.
At first use was made of a heavy screw jack resting upon a crib of timber blocks, which in turn rested upon the angle-iron rim, with the jack working against an overhead cable anchored in the ground on each side of the excavation. As the tank sank into the soil under the pressure, a gradually increasing pile of cribbing was used to support the jack against the cable. The anchors to which the cable was fas- tened were of a type generally used to anchor gaw wires and were set in auger holes bored in the ground.
Friction of soil against the outside of the tank was relieved by excavating around the tank as the work proceeded. This excavation generally kept a few inches ahead of the cutting edge of the tank, cutting a core slightly larger than the tank diameter, the core being shaved to the proper size as the cutting edge of the tank moved doAvnward.
As the tank gradually filled, the skin friction on the inside rapidly increased, tending to cause compression in the soil. After the first two or three attempts, it was found that the tank shell would slide over the trimmed core of soil more readily if a sharp blow was given at the to]) of the tank, using a short piece of timber as a driver. This impact broke the bond of the inside friction, resulting in less tendency toward soil compression and allowed increased speed in the work. A few of the last tanks to be filled were driven over the trimmed core of soil by impact alone.
When the inner tank shell was filled, the soil column was cut off l)y jacking the bottom plate across the bottom edge of the tank and l)olting it to the angle-iron rim at the top. The whole was then hoisted above the ground by chain block and tripod. The outer shell was ther. set in place in the excavation, and the inner slu'U with its soil content
30 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
was lowered iuto the outer, where it hung suspended from the heavy iron rim around the top.
As a means of comparing results of evaporation from similar soil placed in tanks by different methods, three tanks of the same size as those described were filled with loose soil taken from an excavation made to a depth of 6 feet. In making the excavation each foot of soil removed was kept separate from the others and placed in the tanks in the original order, foot bj^ foot. Before the tank was completely filled, it was flooded with water to compact and settle the material in a uniform manner. Water was added from time to time until it drained from the bottom through a pipe connection. Very little settlement occurred after the initial settlement and there is no doubt as to this method producing a more uniform soil density' than is obtained by placing and tamping the soil in layers.
The Mariotte Tank
This device consists essentially of a supply tank equipped on the principle of the Mariotte flask to supply water to the soil tank through a connecting pipe. A 12- by 36-inch galvanized-iron range boiler, chosen because of its solid construction, rigidity of its connections, and practicability of keeping it air-tight, was found satisfactory for the purpose. Mounted upon the side of the supply tank is a vertical length of glass tubing, each end of which is fitted with a rubber stopper perforated to admit a small connecting pipe. The lower pipe connects -svith the supply pipe between the Mariotte tank and the soil tank, while the upper connects with the top of the supply tank. Upon the glass tube is mounted a meter stick or scale upon which differences in daily readings determine the amount of water withdrawn. A valve in the connecting pipe makes it possible to shut off the flow of water when the supply tank is being refilled. A waste pipe also is set into the connecting pipe to discharge excess water from the soil tank into a receiving vessel. The lip of the waste pipe is set at the level of the water in the soil tank. The tank equipment is shown in Plate II.
A vent tube of small diameter passes through the rubber stopper at the top of the glass gage. This tube is open at both ends and the level of the soil water is determined bj' the elevation of the bottom end of the vent. In Plate II, the water table in the soil tank is shown as being at such a depth that it is necessary to extend the vent tube downward into an extension well below the supply pipe.
Previous experience has determined that A'ariations in temperature cause changes in the vapor pressure in the jMariotte tank above the water surface, causing fluctuations in the water level. Every effort was made, therefore, to insulate the IMariotte tanks against temperature changes. The Santa Ana ]\Iariotte tanks were completely buried in the ground except for a small entrance provided with a narrow door- way for making readings of the graduated scale. They were further protected from the cooling effect of rainfall on the surrounding soil by a galvanized iron roof, beneath which was free circulation of air.
For the benefit of those who may be interested in the theory of operation of the Mariotte tank, a brief description follows. The vent tube provides the Mariotte control feature which maintains a constant water level in the connected soil tank. In operation, the Mariotte tank is filled -with water and the valve in the connecting pipe is opened.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
31
PLATE II
.0-9
^1^
I !
t--_-
ni c
i^*sii.r-^M<x^;li^^^^,ix!i>^,£S^^j^
^
VI ^ -,
D- -^ —
"5 ^
+- i-
C 3
0) VI
> .
<0
E S o
v> t:
W "
hA (-1
K <
< ^
^ 2
^ 00
O O
Z «
1-1 >-'
< 0-
IS <
< K
O «
H o
2
<
O (/)
O
Q
H O [I) 2 2 O
u
2
<
U
H O
Pi
<
s
32 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
allowing' water to fiow to the soil tank. As the water level drops in the supply tank a partial vacuum is formed above the water surface and the water drops in the vent tube from the original level to a point depending- upon the degree of vacuum established. This point is determined by the ditference in the pressure heads, due to atmospheric pressure and the partial vacuum in the supply tank. Water will con- tinue to fall in the vent tube, but at a greater rate than in the Mariotte tank, until the pressure head corres])onding to the atmospheric pressure minus the pressure head caused by the partial vacuum is balanced by a column of water equal to the ditference in elevation between the water surface in the Mariotte tank and the bottom of the vent. Water will then stand in the vent at the bottom of the tube with the pressure at this point atmospheric.
If the water continues to flow, air will enter the glass gage through the vent tube, bubbling upward through the water in the gage to enter the top of the supply tank. Water will continue to rise in the soil tank up to the level of the lower end of the vent, at which point the atmos- pheric pressure in the soil tank and the bottom of the vent tube is the same. As there is no ditference in pressure and both points are at the same level, there is no head to cause further flow and bubbling will cease. AVhen the water table in the soil falls below the bottom of the vent, the balance of pressures is again disturbed and a flow of water will again start from the Mariotte tank, replacing the amount used.
Some of the difficulties in the accurate use of the Mariotte tank should not be overlooked. As the partial vacuum in the tank must be maintained at all times, pipe connections must be air-tight. Air leaks through the many joints in the system disturb the balance of pressure necessary for automatic control. Thorough insulation against tempera- ture changes inside the tank have been previously mentioned. Such changes cause expansion or contraction of the tank itself, of the water in the tank and also of the air in the chamber above the water. The combined result is to cause changes in the vapor pressure with a result- ing influence upon effective regulation.
Water in the glass tube will fall with an increase in temperature in the Mariotte tank, and readings on the scale taken at this time will be erroneous. A test of the effect of temperature on scale readings showed that an increase of 30° F. in air temperature caused a fall of 1 cm. in the water surface in the glass gage. The temperature change inside the Mariotte tank during the test was not measured. When the temperature returned to the starting point the water in the gage returned to its original position. If the gage readings are taken at an early morning hour each day, the difference in the readings will repre- sent a true rate of loss as early morning temperature changes are too small to affect vapor pressure. Eeadings taken at other times of the day may be in error unless complete insulation of the supply tank is
effected.
SAN BERNARDINO STATION Description of Site
In choosing a site for tank experiments in the upper Santa Ana River Valley, a small plot on the grounds of the Antil Pumping Plant of the San Bernardino Water Department,* about 1 mile east of town,
* The Municipal Water Department of the City of San Bernardino, tlirougli tlie courtesy of William Starke, as.sisted in maintaining this station.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
33
was selected after a stiidj^ of soil and ground-water conditions in the vicinity. The plot lies in a level field of Bermuda grass, at some dis- tance from any buildings, and has excellent exposure.
Climatic conditions at this point are representative of the interior climate of southern California, and summers are hot and dry. Winter temperatures are lower than at the Santa Ana station, and rainfall is greater.
Soil used in the experiment tanks was taken in place at the station site and is classified as Chino silt loam.* Although the location of the station is in an area of high ground water, no evidence of alkali appeared on the tank surfaces during the 3 years of operation. Fluc-
PLATE III
f
•.•^%r..-
,%
BOARD HOUSING FOR MARIOTTE TANKS AT SAN BERNARDINO.
tuations of ground water level, varying from 2^ to 6 feet from the sur- face, occur each year, being lowest during the summer months. The station is supplied with artesian w^ater from the city pumps.
Station Equipment
Tank equipment at the San Bernardino station is similar to that at Santa Ana, although not the same in number of tanks. Four soil tanks, each 23^^ inches in diameter, were set with their tops level with the ground surface. Because of existing high ground water, these are 40 inches in depth instead of 6 feet. Each tank is connected with a ]\rariotte supply tank to furnish water to the soil tank as needed and to maintain a constant water level in the soil.
* Soil Survey of the Riverside Area, California. Bureau of Soils, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture.
3 — 4503
34 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
Because of ground water conditions, it was not deemed advisable to set the Mariotte tanks under<;round for protection from temperature changes as at Santa Ana. Instead, each tank was placed above ground enclosed in a white painted board shelter. This is shown in Plate III. Each shelter box has a narrow doorway opening before the glass gage and a hinged top to allow access for refilling the tank when empty. To provide insulation against temperature changes as much as possible, the space between the tank and the sides of the box are filled with wood shavings and the tank is wrapped with asbestos paper.
Evaporation was measured from a standard Weather Bureau pan mounted on a timber grill and from a ground tank 23iV inches in diameter by 2.7 feet in depth. This tank was set mth the rim 3 inches above the ground surface and the water surface was held near the ground level. All eva])oration readings were obtained with a hook gage equipped with a vernier reading to thousandths of a foot. A four-cup anemometer was mounted on the platform of the pan, with the cups about 12 inches above the top of the pan.
A single tank, 23iV inches in diameter by 2.7 feet in depth, was used in which consumptive use of water by round stem tules in sub- merged soil was measured. It was set in the ground with about 3 inclies of the rim exposed and connected to a supply tank through a float arrangement, previously described. A glass gage and a graduated scale mounted on the side of the supply tank allowed measurements of water withdrawn for plant use.
Additional equipment consisted of maximum and minimum tlier- mometers housed in a standard shelter and an 8-iuch rain, gage:
PRADO STATION Description of Site
A small station was established near Prado on the Santa Ana River, midway between Santa Ana and San Bernardino, during the sunnner of 1930, for collection of meteorological records, measurement of evapo- ration from a water surface, and consumptive use of water by trian- gular stem tules. The site is on slightly sloping ground near the lower end of the Prado basin and is fully exposed to sun and wind.
The climate is intermediate between the interior climate at the San Bernardino station and the coastal climate at Santa Ana, as it is tempered by the ocean breezes blowing through the Santa Ana canyon into the Prado basin. This station Avas operated in cooperation with the U. S. Geological Survey.
Station Equipment
The Prado station is equipped with a standard Weather Bureau evaporation pan, a ground tank growing tules for measurement of consumptive use of water, a thermograph housed in a standard shelter, a rain gage, and an anemometer. The evaporation pan and the tule tank are each equipped with a supply tank connection operating through a float valve arrangement to supply and maintain a constant water level in the pan or the tank. T'^se of water in each case is meas- ured on the chart of a w^ater stage recorder mounted with a float in the supply tank. This arrangement operates satisfactorily, the hourly rate of use being computed from the chart. A barograph also is used
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS 35
at iutervals. The station is protected from intrusion by a high wire fence with a gate, which is kept locked.
METEOROLOGICAL RECORDS
The three experiment stations just described are spaced at nearly equal intervals of about 25 miles along the Santa Ana River. While the distances between the stations are not great, the topography of the area is such as to cause material differences in climate. The Santa Ana River Valley is divided into two distinct basins, known as the upper and lower, connected by the lower Santa Ana canyon. The Santa Ana station lies on the coastal plain of Orange County below the canyon and has a distinctly coastal climate characterized by ocean breezes and light summer fogs, both of which modify the summer tem- peratures. The Prado station, in Prado basin, Riverside County, is in the lower part of the upper basin at the upper end of the canyon. It is slightly remote from the coast but not far enough away to be removed entirely beyond the effect of the coastal breeze. The principal difference is the absence of coastal fog, with some increase in tempera- ture. The San Bernardino station, San Bernardino County, in the upper basin, is removed farther from the effect of ocean modifying influences. The climate is classed as interior and the temperature is higher in summer than at either of the other two stations.
The prevailing winds are from the southwest, off the ocean, and pass through the Santa Ana canyon by the Prado station. The total yearly wind movements here and at Santa Ana are about equal, but during the summer months the greatest movement occurs at Prado. This condition combined M'ith higher summer temperature results in a higher rate of evaporation than at the other stations.
Rainfall is deficient throughout the whole of the Santa Ana River basin except in the higher mountain districts, and occurs almost entirely between November and April, inclusive. Other months are almost devoid of precipitation.
Meteorological data for the three stations for the period of the investigation, showing monthly mean maximum, mean minimum and mean temperatures, rainfall, and wind movement in miles per month are given in Tables 1 to 3, inclusive. Rainfall at Santa Ana and San Bernardino is shown for storm periods in Tables 4 and 5.
36
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
TABLE 1
MONTHLY TEMPERATURES, RAINFALL, AND MILES OF WIND MOVEMENT AT SANTA
ANA STATION
|
Temperature, degrees Fahrenheit |
Rainfall in inches |
Wind |
|||||
|
Month |
Mean maximum |
Mean minimum |
Mean |
Maxi- mum |
Mini- mum |
movement in miles |
|
|
1929— |
74 76 81 85 79 80 77 72 62 66 68 72 70 75 81 82 77 80 77 70 68 68 76 76 77 81 85 84 84 79 68 63 61 62 69 72 |
51 53 60 60 58 52 41 41 40 44 46 47 48 55 57 59 54 47 43 36 40 45 42 49 56 56 64 62 55 50 42 37 37 40 41 42 |
63 65 71 73 69 66 59 57 51 55 57 60 58 65 69 71 66 64 60 53 54 57 69 63 67 69 75 73 70 65 55 50 49 51 55 57 |
91 95 89 96 98 101 91 86 76 87 89 88 83 88 95 93 90 95 95 82 85 75 92 88 92 99 94 96 97 97 83 73 77 87 87 89 |
41 43 52 51 42 36 33 30 30 33 33 39 40 47 48 51 48 39 30 24 30 49 33 41 50 49 57 56 43 39 28 30 30 29 33 35 |
0.03 .11 |
|
|
July |
|||||||
|
.35 |
1,695 |
||||||
|
October - - |
1,745 |
||||||
|
November - |
1,806 |
||||||
|
1,547 |
|||||||
|
1930— Januarv |
5,55 .55 2.99 .80 1.23 .02 |
1,743 |
|||||
|
1,682 |
|||||||
|
2,212 |
|||||||
|
April - |
1,970 |
||||||
|
May |
2,228 |
||||||
|
June |
1,871 |
||||||
|
July |
1,671 |
||||||
|
Aiiffust - |
1,518 |
||||||
|
Sentember - |
.02 .07 1.47 |
1,381 |
|||||
|
1,322 |
|||||||
|
1,534 |
|||||||
|
December - _ _ _ - |
1,389 |
||||||
|
1931- Januarv |
3.82 2.28 .03 2.68 ,67 .07 |
1,382 |
|||||
|
1,378 |
|||||||
|
March - |
1,830 |
||||||
|
1,736 |
|||||||
|
1,781 |
|||||||
|
1,670 |
|||||||
|
July |
1,656 |
||||||
|
.43 .29 .09 1.69 4.70 2.04 4.53 --- |
1,415 |
||||||
|
1,201 |
|||||||
|
1,121 |
|||||||
|
November - - - - |
1,223 |
||||||
|
December - |
1,136 |
||||||
|
1932— January |
1,335 |
||||||
|
February ._ |
1,371 |
||||||
|
1,510 |
|||||||
|
1,659 |
|||||||
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
37
TABLE 2
MONTHLY TEMPERATURES, RAINFALL AND MILES OF WIND MOVEMENT
AT PRADO STATION
|
Temperature, degrees Fahrenheit |
Rainfall in inches |
Wind |
|||||
|
Month |
Mean maximum |
Mean minimum |
Mean |
Maxi- mum |
Mini- mum |
movement in miles |
|
|
1930— June |
81 92 90 82 82 77 |
49 52 55 50 41 39 |
65 72 73 66 62 58 |
102 106 100 103 101 98 |
40 42 47 41 28 25 |
||
|
July |
2,034 |
||||||
|
August |
6"27" 1.43 |
1 858 |
|||||
|
September |
1,540 |
||||||
|
October |
1,232 1,438 1,950 |
||||||
|
November _ - |
|||||||
|
December |
|||||||
|
1931— January -, . _ |
2.47 3.53 .09 2.17 .55 |
1,738 979 |
|||||
|
Febmarv |
|||||||
|
March |
1,373 |
||||||
|
1,646 |
|||||||
|
May - - |
80 85 94 93 89 81 69 |
52 53 63 61 52 49 37 |
66 69 79 77 71 65 53 |
94 100 105 106 102 95 93 |
43 46 53 53 41 39 23 |
1970 |
|
|
June |
1,840 |
||||||
|
July. |
2,240 |
||||||
|
.16 .15 1.89 2.69 4.77 2.29 5.29 .12 .82 |
1,922 |
||||||
|
Septemb-er |
1,496 1,249 1,257 1,223 1,679 |
||||||
|
October - __ __ |
|||||||
|
November . |
|||||||
|
1932— January' .. . - |
|||||||
|
February _ _ |
1,217 |
||||||
|
1,512 |
|||||||
|
April - |
1,313 |
||||||
|
Mav |
2,116 |
||||||
|
June - ._ |
82 85 88 84 79 83 65 |
50 54 54 54 47 39 34 |
66 70 71 69 63 61 50 |
102 92 102 98 92 93 85 |
43 45 44 49 32 29 27 |
2,285 |
|
|
July - |
2,418 |
||||||
|
August |
2,304 |
||||||
|
1,892 |
|||||||
|
October . .- .- |
.73 |
1,743 |
|||||
|
1,398 |
|||||||
|
December |
1,578 |
||||||
38
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
TABLE 3
MONTHLY TEMPERATURES, RAINFALL AND MILES OF WIND MOVEMENT AT SAN BERNARDINO STATION
Month
1929-
May
June
July
August
September- October
November- December..
1930—
January
February.-.
March
April
May..
June --
July
August
September.
October
November. December. .
1931—
January
February...
March
April
May
June
July
August
September -
October
November- December- -
1932—
January
February...
March
April
Temperature, degrees Fahrenheit
|
Mean |
Mean |
|
maximum |
mmimum |
|
82 |
47 |
|
88 |
50 |
|
95 |
57 |
|
98 |
60 |
|
88 |
55 |
|
85 |
46 |
|
80 |
34 |
|
75 |
33 |
|
61 |
36 |
|
74 |
38 |
|
70 |
41 |
|
77 |
45 |
|
74 |
43 |
|
86 |
52 |
|
96 |
54 |
|
95 |
57 |
|
84 |
50 |
|
82 |
44 |
|
77 |
39 |
|
72 |
27 |
|
68 |
35 |
|
66 |
40 |
|
76 |
37 |
|
79 |
44 |
|
83 |
52 |
|
86 |
53 |
|
98 |
62 |
|
95 |
61 |
|
89 |
51 |
|
81 |
47 |
|
69 |
37 |
Mean
65 69 76 79 72 66 57 54
49 56 56 61 59 69 75 76 67 63 58 50
52 53 57 62 08 70 80 78 70 64 53
Maxi- mum
94
108
106
106
107
98
91
85
76
87
88
95
95
101
106
104
102
94
90
79
82
73
92
94
95
101
107
108
99
100
93
Mini- mum
37 39 49 51 41 31 26 25
24 31 28 35 34 42 43 50 42 34 28 19
25 30 24 35 42 46 53 51 40 37 23
Rainfall
in inches
0.12
.53
4.71 1.06 3.99 1.33 1.76
1.24 2.08
2.15
3.73
.60
2.73
.89
.06
"i"57
.24 1.14 3.17 3.59
2.61
5.99
.20
.72
Wind
movement
in miles
1,012 1,183 1,589 1,255
1,434
1,357
1,864
1,143
947
900
679
879
895
1,086
1,257
748 798 890 816 797 1,177 1,013
902 1,168 1,391 1,391
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
39
TABLE 4 RAINFALL BY STORMS AT SANTA ANA STATION
|
1929-30 |
1930-31 |
1931-32 |
|||
|
Storm period |
Rainfall in inches |
Storm period |
Rainfall in inches |
Storm period |
Rainfall in inches |
|
1930— .Tan 5-6 |
0.80 4.27 .48 .45 .10 .41 2.51 .07 .80 1.19 .02 .02 .02 .02 |
1930— Oct. 8-9 |
0.07 .65 .82 .40 2.49 .10 .03 .80 1.82 .04 .01 .41 .03 2.68 .67 .05 .02 .02 .41 .02 .04 .23 |
1931- Oct. 1 |
0.01 |
|
Jan 9-19 |
Nov. 13-17 |
Oct. 8 |
.02 |
||
|
Jan 26-27 |
Nov. 26-29 |
Oct. 17-19 |
.06 |
||
|
Feb ''0-22 |
1931— |
Nov. 1-2 |
.03 |
||
|
Feb 26-27 |
Nov. 7-11 |
.20 |
|||
|
Mar 3-5 |
Nov. 14-15--- |
.83 |
|||
|
Mar. 13-18 |
Jan. 5-8 |
Nov. 26-27 |
.63 |
||
|
Mir ''9 |
Jan. 13 |
Dec. 8 |
1.49 |
||
|
Anril ''9-30 |
Jan. 23 |
Dec. 10-11 |
.16 |
||
|
May 1-4 |
Jan. 30-31 |
Dec. 14 |
.50 |
||
|
May 8 |
Feb. 3-4 |
Dec. 20-25 |
.87 |
||
|
^Iay 16 |
Feb. 6 |
Dec. 29-31 |
1.68 |
||
|
June 20 |
Feb. 8 |
1932— Jan. 1-3 - - |
|||
|
Sept. 30 |
Feb. 10-12 Mar. 11 |
.23 |
|||
|
April 21-27 |
Jan. 12-15 |
.78 |
|||
|
May 24-25 |
Jan. 26- |
.03 |
|||
|
Jiine 4—5 |
Jan. 31 - |
1.00 |
|||
|
June 25 |
Feb. 1-9 |
3.26 |
|||
|
Aug. 12 - - |
Feb. 13-18 April 24-26 |
1.27 |
|||
|
Aug. 28 |
.35 |
||||
|
Sept. 2-3 |
|||||
|
Sept. 24-25 |
|||||
|
Sept. 30 . |
|||||
|
Totals, October 1 to September 30 |
11.16 |
11.81 |
13.40 |
||
TABLE 5 RAINFALL BY STORMS AT SAN BERNARDINO STATION
|
1929-30 |
1930-31 |
1931-32 |
|||
|
Storm period |
Rainfall in inches |
Storm period |
Rainfall in inches |
Storm period |
Rainfall in inches |
|
1930— •Jan. 5-14 |
4.23 .48 1.06 .48 2.39 1.12 .02 1.31 1.54 .11 .11 |
1930— Oct. 8-10 |
1.24 1.45 .63 .83 .33 .69 .30 .35 2.28 .05 .67 .38 .60 2.73 .89 .06 .36 1.21 .09 .09 .06 |
1931— Oct. 1 |
0.13 |
|
Jan. 26-27 |
Nov. 13-17 |
Oct. 18 |
1.01 |
||
|
Feb. 19-26 |
Nov. 26-27 |
Nov. 7 |
.02 |
||
|
Mar. 4-5 |
1931— Jan. 1-2 |
Nov. 10-11 |
.16 |
||
|
Mar. 14-16 |
Nov. 14-15 -- |
1.35 |
|||
|
Mar. 30-31 |
Nov. 19 |
.25 |
|||
|
April 13-14 |
Nov. 26-27 |
.99 |
|||
|
\pri! 28-30 |
Jan. 7-8 |
Nov. 30 |
.40 |
||
|
.May 1-4 |
Jan. 31 |
Dec. 8 |
1.02 |
||
|
May 8 |
Feb. 1 - |
Dec. 10-11 |
.42 |
||
|
May 17-18 |
Feb. 4-6 |
Dec. 14 |
.23 |
||
|
Feb. 8.. |
Dec. 20-21 |
.21 |
|||
|
Feb. 11-15 |
Dec. 25.. |
.36 |
|||
|
Feb. 19 |
Dec. 27-28 |
1.35 |
|||
|
Mar. 24 . |
1932— |
||||
|
April 22-29 |
|||||
|
May 25-26 |
.34 |
||||
|
June 5 |
Jan. 12-13 |
.40 |
|||
|
Aug. 10-11 |
Jan. 15 |
.49 |
|||
|
Aug. 28-29 |
Jan. 26 -.. |
.06 |
|||
|
Sept. 2 |
Jan. 31 . |
1.32 |
|||
|
Sept. 25 -•-. |
Feb. 1 |
.53 |
|||
|
Sept. 30 |
Feb. 6-9 |
2.95 |
|||
|
Feb. 13-18 |
2.47 |
||||
|
Feb. 29 . |
.04 |
||||
|
Mar. 2 |
.01 |
||||
|
Mar. 14.. |
.19 |
||||
|
April 24-27 |
.72 |
||||
|
Totals, October 1 to September 30 |
12.85 |
15.29 |
17.42 |
||
40 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
OPERATION OF TANKS Sources of Errors in Tank Experiments
In conducting investigations of the consumptive use of water by- plant life two methods, each of which has certain advantages when used under the proper conditions, are available to the investigator. These are as follows :
1. Determination of consumptive use by field-grown crops by-
studying soil samples taken with a soil tube.
2. Quantitative measurements of consumptive use by crops grown
in tanks.
Both methods have been used since studies were first begun in this field, but as knowledge of the subject increased there have been improve- ments in both method and equipment. The practice of taking field soil samples at various depths by means of the soil tube for determina- tion of soil moisture is applicable to practically all conditions of soil and crop, and consumptive use of water data may be derived from results so obtained. Similar results may be obtained by measurement of water applied to crops grown in tanks. On account of limitations in the size of tanks that may be used in experimental work, such experi- ments generally include only field or other crops having limited root systems.
Previous investigators have approved the tank method of studying consumptive use of Avater, though it is subject to some errors which must be overcome as far as possible to secure applicable results. Hence, it is necessary to have some knowledge of the various sources of error. The factors influencing transpiration determinations with rooted plants in tanks as sources of experimental errors have been outlined by Kiesselbach* as follows :
1. Character of potometer and contents.
a. Limitation of amount of soil.
1. Througli size of potometer.
2. Through number of plants grown in potometer.
b. Limitation of fertility of soil.
c. Improper distribution of soil moisture.
d. Evaporation from surface of soil.
e. Entrance of rain water.
f. Exposure of potometer and consequent effect on soil temperature.
g. Unintentional lack of uniformity in soil.
2. Environment.
a. Testing under unnatural habitat.
3. The plant.
a. Plant individuality.
1. Insuflicient number of replications.
2. Disease and injury.
b. Stage of maturity.
1. Insufficient development.
4. Errors due to methods of computation.
5. The personal element in drawing conclusions.
These factors apply also to transpiration plus soil evaporation, which is termed consumptive use of water or sometimes use of water. In the investigation reported herein a number of these sources of error were anticipated and efforts were made to minimize them b}' the selec- tion of tanks of sufficient size to provide soil capacity for proper growth of the types of vegetation chosen for study, by the method of filling the tanks with undisturbed soil and by protection from exposure to
* Transpiration as a Factor in Crop I'roduction, Nebraska Agricultural Experi- ment Station Research Bulletin No. U, by T. A. Kiesselbach. 1916,
WATICR LOSSES FROi\[ WET AREAS 41
diurnal changes of temperature by setting all tanks in the ground with tlie tops level with the ground surface. The growth in any tank should not exceed the number of plants of the same crop ordinarilj^ grown in an equal area under normal field conditions. Not only should the area per plant be maintained but also the volume of soil available for plant roots is important. In tanks having high water tables the soil volume is sometimes limited, curtailing growth of the root system and likewise affecting the aerial growth. jMoreover, a small volume of available soil will soon lose its fertility if heavily cropped. This is especially true of anj^ investigation extending over, more than one crop year when the soil in the tank is unchanged. A sufficient lack of soil fertility may result in a higher water requirement per unit of drv matter produced and be the cause of a considerable source of error.
A further error also exists when the spread of area of foliage grown in a tank exceeds the tank area. Cases of this kind are found when the groAvth droops or spreads beyond the tank limits. In such a case computation of consumptive use per unit of tank area gives an amount in excess of the true consumptive use as the crop area is in excess of the tank area.
Experimental records of consumptive use of water by plant growth in tanks include evaporation from the soil as well as water transpired through the stomata of the plant leaf. To the agriculturist and others interested in determining the amount of irrigation water which should be applied to soil in order to produce a normal crop, a separation of the water losses into evaporation and transpiration is not important and the water requirement of a crop as determined by experiment generally includes both soil evaporation and plant transpiration. In making such experiments, evaporation and transpiration can not readily be separated from each other except through the use of methods that are inapplicable to field conditions. Evaporation from soil tanks having the same climatic exposure varies with the degree of soil satura- tion, soil texture, and crop shading. In the tanks used in the experi- ments described herein both the degree of crop shading and the soil moisture at the tank surface varied greatly. Both are greatest for those tanks having the highest water tables. It is evident, therefore, that it is not proper to subtract soil evaporation from consumptive use of water by the crop to arrive at the transpiration alone.
Lack of natural euAdronment is also an important source of error in conducting consumptive use of water studies by the tank method. As transpiration and evaporation are closely related to climatic condi- tions, tank experiments with crops nuist be conducted where the experi- mental growths can be maintained in their natural environment. Experiments with field crops should be carried on in fields of the same crop variety, those with grasses should be in meadows where the same kind of grass has a natural growth and experiments with swamp growth must be conducted in a swamp area where humidity is high, to obtain results that are at all comjiarable with actual swamp con- sumptive use.
Santa Ana Station
Because of errors which might occur in the use of water by evapora- tion or consumptive use of water by crops in different soil tanks, it was thought best to operate all tanks in sets of three, the depth to water
42
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
level and variety and age of crop being identical in each. Twelve tanks were filled with undisturbed soil and three with loose soil settled in svater. Complete installation data on tanks in ^^se at the Santa Ana station, giving the diameter, the use made, period covered by test, content, and depth to water table are shown for each tank in Table 6.
TABLE 6 INSTALLATION DATA ON TANKS USED AT SANTA ANA STATION
Tank number'
1-2-3
1-2-3
1-2-3
4-5-6
4-5-6
7-8-9
7-8-9.---- 10-11-12.. 10-11-12-- 13-14-15.. 13-14-15.-
16
17»
18"
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
|
Dia |
Beter |
|
of tank |
|
|
in inches |
|
|
23 1/16 |
|
|
23 |
1/16 |
|
23 |
1/16 |
|
23 |
1/16 |
|
23 1/16 |
|
|
23 1/16 |
|
|
23 1/16 |
|
|
23 |
1/16 |
|
23 |
1/16 |
|
23 |
1/16 |
|
23 |
1/16 |
|
23 |
1/16 |
|
23 |
1/16 |
|
23 |
1/16 |
|
25 |
1/2 |
|
48 |
|
|
25 |
1/2 |
|
25 |
1/2 |
|
72 |
|
|
72 |
|
|
25 |
1/2 |
|
48 |
Purpose of tank
Evaporation . Evaporation . Use of water - Evaporation _ Use of water - Use of water - Use of water. Use of water - Use of water - Evaporation - Use of water - Evaporation - Evaporation . Evaporation - Use of water. Evaporation - Use of water - Use of water - Use of water - Use of water . Use of water. Evaporation .
Period of test
Beginning
May, 1929 Oct., 1929 Oct., 1930 May, 1929 Oct., 1930 May, 1929 Oct., 1930 May, 1929 Oct., 1930 July, 1929 Oct., 1930 May, 1929 .A.ug., 1929 \ug., 1929 Aug., 1929 Mav, 1929 Mav, 1930 May, 1930 May, 1930 Mav, 1930 Aug., 1930 May, 1931
Ending
Oct., 1929 Oct., 1930 April, 1932 Oct., 1930 .\pril, 1932 Oct., 1930 April, 1932 Oct., 1930 April, 1932 Oct.. 1930 April. 1932 April, 1932 Mav, 1930 May, 1930 April, 1932 April, 1932 .April, 1932 .April, 1932 April, 1932 April, 1932 April, 1932 April, 1932
Content of tank
Bare soil
Bare soil
Salt grass
Bare soil
Salt grass
Salt grass
Salt grass --
Salt grass
Salt grass
Bare soil
Salt grass
Free water surface
Water covered with oil film
Water covered with oil film
Round stem tules in water
Free water surface
Triangular stem tules in water
Cat-tails in water
Round stem tules in water
Willow
Wire rush
Five per cent sodium chloride solution.
Depth to
water
table in
feet
' Undisturbed soil was used in Tanks Nos. 1 to 12, inclusive; disturbed soil in Tanks Nos. 13, 14, and 15.
2 Results of these experiments are published in State of California. Department of Public Works Bulletin No. 33.
When the station was first installed, in 1929, four tanks had an original growth of salt grass growing on the column of soil enclosed in them, two others had salt grass transplanted in them, and the rest had bare surfaces. Use of water by salt grass and evaporation from bare, uncultivated soil was measured from these tanks from May, 1929, to October, 1930, when several changes in water levels were made and all bare-soil tanks had salt grass transplanted in them. The new grass did not make good growth at first, and until gro^\•th began in the following spring the recorded use of water was largely due to soil evaporation rather than to consumptive use by the transplanted gi'ass. No further changes were made in the crop grown or in the depth to water table in any soil tank after the changes noted in October, 1930.
For reasons which will be given later, measurements of evaporation from bare, uncultivated soil surfaces in Tanks Nos. 1, 2, and 3 were begun with an initial water table depth of 4 feet and were continued thus throughout the summer of 1929. It soon became evident that this water-table depth was greater than the limit of capillary rise of the soil moisture. This was evidenced in part by the lack of soil moisture in surface soil and proved beyond doubt by the fact that there was no withdrawal of water from the Mariotte supply tanks during a five- month period which included tlie warmest months of the year.
In October following the period during which no evaporation occurred the water-table levels were raised from 4 to 3 feet from the
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS 43
surface and the evaporation test was continued. There was immediate response in loss of water from tlie supply tanks, but indications were that the large initial losses from the JMariotte tank were partly absorbed by the dry soil as capillary moisture, and that only a small part was lost by soil evaporation. This adjustment of soil moisture continued for a period of four to six weeks until the capillary demand was satis- fied, after which a small but rather uniform rate of evaporation con- tinued.
The evaporation test with water tables at a 3-foot level continued for the following 12-month period to October, 1930, at which time a number of changes in depth to water tables in some tanks were made and all soil evaporation tanks were transplanted to salt grass. It was rather hard to get this started and in some cases light surface irriga- tions were applied as the tank surfaces were generally quite dry. Moreover, the time of year was not the best for starting new growth and the grass was slow in developing a root system. Consequently the recorded use of water during the winter or dormant season by those tanks in which grass was newly transplanted was almost entirely caused by evaporation from the soil surface rather than l)y consumptive use. The increase in use of water beginning in jNIarch, foUoAving trans- planting, shows definitely that this was the end of the dormant period for the salt grass in this set of tanks.
The second set of tanks, Nos. 4, 5, and 6, containing undisturbed soil, were first used for measurement of evaporation from the soil surface with the water table at a depth of 2 feet. As this depth was well within the limit of capillary rise, evaporation began immediately after the soil received water and continued until October, 1930, when the soil evaporation tests were completed. The first two months of record in 1929 showed a high rate of loss from the iMariotte supply tank, which may be accounted for as ad.justment and increase of moisture held in the soil following establishment of a fixed water table. Such losses were observed in every case where the water table was raised to a higher level.
Immediately following completion of the evaporation test, the tanks in this set were transplanted to salt grass, the water table remaining unchanged. As with the first set of tanks, the grass was slow to start and some early surface irrigation was necessar}^ Consequently, the water used during the following winter when the grass was in the dor- mant stage was almost entirely soil evaporation. Increase in growth began in the following February and these tanks were soon covered with a luxuriant growth of grass which completely shaded their soil surfaces. Kecords were made until April 30, 1932, when the investi- gation was completed.
The third set, including Tanks Nos. 7, 8, and 9, was first operated with a 2-foot water table, but with salt grass sod instead of bare sur- faces. Tank No. 9 was the only one to have an original crop of grass at the outset. In this tank the grass root system was fully developed and remained undisturbed, exceept where the shell of the tank cut off lateral roots as it was forced into the ground. The other two tanks were bare, and it was necessary to transplant grass and tlevelop root systems before the maximum use of water was attained. The trans- planted grass showed a very heavy and healthy growth of 6 inches or
i .n
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San Bernardino Station
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44 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
more. Tank No. 9. on the other hand, had a heavy mat of short stemmed grass which did not compare in height with the new growth.
Records were kept of the consumptive nse of water nnder these conditions from j\Ia.y, 1929, to October, 1930, when the water table was raised from 2 feet to 1 foot, remaining at this level until the end of the investigation. From the very beginiiing, these tanks had moist soil surfaces on which accumulations of powdery alkali occurred, and with the rise in the water table, this became more pronounced. The concentration, however, was not sufficient to cause injury to the salt grass, which increased in height and density with the higher water table.
Tanks Xos. 10, 11, and 12, comprising the fourth set, were covered with the original salt grass sod found growing on the surface when the tanks Avere filled, and therefore had fully developed root systems from the beginning. Prom the first this groAvth was very dry and sparse and did not increase in density when additional water was sup- plied. The initial water table was at a depth of 4 feet and consump- tive use of water measurements were made under these conditions from May, 1929. to October, 1930, when the water table was lowered to 5 feet. At this depth the experiment was continued until the investiga- tion was completed. As the water table was always below the limit of capillary rise, the tank surfaces remained dry in contrast with others which were always moist. In consequence, there was little or no soil evaporation and no surface deposit of alkali.
Tanks Nos. 13, 14, and 15 were installed during the summer of 1929, for the purpose of comparing evaporation from soil in tanks filled by different methods. The comparisons were to be with Tanks Nos. 4, 5, and 6, ]n-eviously described. Each set had the same depth to water, the same bare surfaces, and contained the same type of soil, except that Tanks Nos. 4, 5, and 6 contained undisturbed soil, while Nos. 13, 14, and 15 were loosely tilled.
These comparisons of evaporation from soils of different structural arrangement were continued until October, 1930. At this time the soil evaporation studies were discontinued and all bare tanks were transplanted to salt grass for further comparative studies. After both sets of tanks were transplanted to salt grass, the comparison was con- tinued without changes in depth of water tables until the investigation was discontinued. Both sets of tanks produced good growths of grass, although that grown in the loose soil was not as heavy as that grown in the undisturbed soil.
In addition to use of soil tanks with ^Nlariotte connections for evaporation and consumptive use of water studies, several tanks of simple design were used for growths of tules, willows, and wire rush. As tules are aquatic plants accustomed to grow in swamps with their roots submerged, the tanks in which they were grown were maintained with water tables about 2 inches above the soil level. The height of the water table was determined by an index point in each tank. In the smaller tanks the water table was raised to the index point each morning by using a measured anu)unt of water. In larger tanks this involved a greater amount of work and supply tanks were operated to maintain llic proper water level and supply water as used. In the
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
45
willow and wire rush tanks, the water table was kept 2 feet below the soil surface with sliglit fluctuations.
San Bernardino Station
The four tanks used at the Antil Plant of the San Bernardino Water Department were installed for measurement of consumptive use of water by Bermuda grass, of which there was a heavy crop growing in the yard in which the tanks were set. As the tanks were filled with undisturbed soil each had a good stand of grass with root systems fully developed from the beginning of the investigation. At this station tanks were operated in duplicate, one pair having a depth of water table of 3 feet and the other of 2 feet below the soil surface. These depths were unchanged throughout the investigation. Each soil tank was connected to a ^Nlariotte supply tank from which the daily amounts of water used were measured.
Besides the four soil tanks, one tank of round stem tules was maintained to determine the consumptive use by this growth. This tule tank was coimected with a supply tank through a float valve to supply water as needed and hold the water table at an index point about 2 inches above the soil level. Installation data giving the number of tanks, periods of use, and content of each tank are shown in Table 7.
TABLE 7 INSTALLATION DATA FOR TANKS USED AT SAN BERNARDINO STATION
Tank number'
1-2 3-4 5-- 6-
7--
Diameter of tank in inches
23 1,16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 4S
Purpose of tank
Use of water. Use of water. Evaporation . Use of water. Evaporation _
Period of test
Beginning Ending
May, 1929 May, 1929 Mav, 1929 April, 1930 May, 1929
Jan., 1932 Jan., 1932 April, 1932 April, 1932 April, 1932
Content of tank
Bermuda grass
Bermuda grass
Free water surface
Round stem tules in water. Free water surface
Depth to
water
table in
feet
' Undisturbed Chino silt loam soil used in Bermuda grass tanks. Prado Station*
Only one crop tank has been used at the Prado station in deter- mination of consumptive use of water. This tank contains a dense growth of triangular stem tules grown in submerged soil as at the other stations. A supply tank is used in connection with the tule tank, the connection being made through a float valve. Measurement of water withdrawn from the suppl}' tank is shown on recorder charts by means of a water stage recorder, and weekly or semiweekly visits are made to the station to replenish the water supply and renew the charts. This station is still in operation and will be continued. Protection from Rainfall
During the wet seasons of 1929-30 and 1930-31, covers were pro- vided for all soil tanks to prevent changes in soil moisture content due to rainfall. The covers (Plate IV) were of light metal, circular in design and ^\■^th sloping tops, and Avere set on legs a few inches high to allow full circulation of air over the protected tank surface. While it was impossible to keep all rainfall from the tanks be(!ause of absence from the station at the exact beginning of each storm, they were set as
* Thf United States Geological Survey, cooperated in maintaining this station through the courtesy of F. C. Ebert.
46
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
soon as possible and removed when the rain ceased. The amount of addi- tional moisture the tanks received from rainfall Avas negligible and was soon evaporated.
There is objection to using covers as the shade they give reduces both evaporation and transpiration. At the time they w'ere used, however, both evaporation and transpiration were at a minimum on account of overcast sky and increased humidity. Also, because covers were raised above the soil tanks by the legs on which they stood, normal air movements were not restricted.
Beginning with the 1931-32 rainy season, it was decided to have all soil tanks exposed to rainfall and covers were not used as during
PLATE IV
CIRCULAR METAL COVERS TO PROTECT SOIL TANKS FROM RAINFALL WHILE ALLOWING FREE CIRCULATION OF AIR OVER THE
TANK SURFACE.
the two previous seasons. Under these conditions each rain changed the water content of the soil. The additional soil moisture was dis- posed of by evaporation and transpiration or the excess drained off through the overflow outlet to be caught and mea,sured in a container. On account of changes in soil moisture, withdrawals of water from the Mariotte tanks did not give a correct index of consumptive use by the soil tanks. Recourse to taking soil moisture samples from each tank at the beginning of each month was therefore necessary. Consumptive use was computed as the algebraic sum of the change in soil moisture, rainfall during the period, water drawn from the supply tank, and waste water measured in the overflow containers. Certain inaccuracies inherent to this method could not be avoided. Probably the most important of these was caused by inability to obtain soil moisture samples immediately above the water table in the soil tank. This soil was saturated to such an extent that it could not be held in the soil tube, and the samples obtained indicated less moisture than actually existed.
WATER LOSSES FRO^I WET AREAS
47
Since tanks were protected from rainfall durini>' the first two years and exposed dnrinti- the third year, results from tank studies are not entirely comparable. Greater evaporation occurred from tanks subject to rainfall, both from the soil surface and from moisture intercepted by the grass. On a heavy growth of grass, the latter item might be considerable during an entire season. There was every reason to sup- pose that consumptive use of water by crops grown in tanks exposed ro rainfall during the wet season would exceed that used in tanks protected from rain, and the records show this to be true.
SOIL ALKALI IN TANKS
Most western soils contain alkali salts in various amounts and the soil at the Santa Ana station was no exception. As the station was pri- marily for the investigation of consumptive use of water by salt grass, which is tolerant of a considerable concentration of salts, no eifect on the rate of transpiration was expected. Several tanks w'ere used for soil evaporation studies, and it is probable that in a few of these gradual deposition of alkali on the tank surface had some influence in reducing the amount of evaporation. The greatest evaporation from any tanks occurred from those holding disturbed soil, although the most alkali was evident on their surfaces.
As the processes of evaporation and transpiration continued month after month, the original amount of alkali in the soil was increased by constant addition of water to the soil tanks. This water was obtained at the station from a shallow Avell and chemical analysis showed it to be relatively free from injurious salts and in every waj' suitable for tank use. Water used in the experimental work at the San Bernardino station was supplied from an artesian well and was even better for the purpose than that at Santa Ana. Samples of water from the annular spaces of a number of tanks at both stations also were analyzed and the results of both anatyses are shown in parts per million in Table 8. The carbonates are entirely lacking in both water supplies and bicarbonates and sulphates are the principal salts. No accumula- tion of salts is sho-\ra in the water of the annular space as they are carried into the soil for distribution. Apparently water used at the Santa Ana station is fair and the San Bernardino supply is good for irrigation.
TABLE 8
ANALYSES OF STATION WATER SUPPLIES AND WATER FROM ANNULAR SPACES OF SOIL MOISTURE TANKS AT SANTA ANA AND SAN BERNARDINO STATIONS'
|
Source of sample |
Classification of salts in parts per million |
|||||||
|
Station |
01 |
CO, |
HCO, |
SO, |
Ca |
Mg |
Na |
|
|
Santa Ana . |
Shallow well Shallow well Tank No. 2 Tank No. 5. Tank No. 8 Tank No. 11. - Tank No. 14 Artesian well. Tank No. 2 Tank No. 4 |
55 57 130 62 36 41 61 19 17 25 |
0 0 0 18 27 21 30 0 0 0 |
220 317 88 73 70 137 140 156 152 178 |
100 98 170 66 55 53 95 42 57 33 |
78 81 54 18 18 20 24 38 40 38 |
40 27 37 12 10 10 15 30 38 36 |
25 |
|
Santa Ana |
76 |
|||||||
|
Santa Ana |
70 |
|||||||
|
Santa .\na |
75 |
|||||||
|
Santa -\na _ - |
75 |
|||||||
|
Santa .\na . |
85 |
|||||||
|
Santa Ana.- |
117 |
|||||||
|
Sar Bernardino |
10 |
|||||||
|
San Bernardino San Bernardino -- |
0 0 |
|||||||
' Samples for analysis were collected during October, 1930, except the second well sample at Santa Ana which was taken in January, 1932.
48
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
The migration of alkali salts through the soil, either upward or downward, is dependent upon the movement of soil water, in both direc- tion and amount. In the presence of a water table within the reach of capillary action, this movement ordinarih' is upward and when there is high evaporation there is a rapid concentration of salts at or near the surface. If the movement of salts was always in one direction, many fields would soon be ruined for production of crops. Fortunately, heavy rains and the surface application of irrigation water tend to carry the salts downward.
In the soil tanks at Santa Ana, soil alkali accumulated during the dry season on the surface of those tanks having high water tables. In some cases white deposits were noticeable. During the wet season of 1931-32, these deposits were carried downward into the soil by penetra- tion of rainfall, and as the tanks were dismantled in May. 1932, much of the alkali had little opportunity to return to the surface. Exceptions occurred in Tanks Xos. 7, 8, and 9, in which the water tables were but 1 foot from the surface and a high concentration of salts was redeposited
TABLE 9
ALKALI SALT CONCENTRATIONS AND pH VALUES OF COMPOSITE SOIL SAMPLES FROM VARIOUS DEPTHS IN SOIL MOISTURE TANKS AT THE SANTA ANA AND
SAN BERNARDINO STATIONS-
' Samples for analysis were collected during June, 1932.
WATER LOSSES FRO:\[ WET AREAS 49
iu the top inch of soil. About two months after the last heavy rain in the spring of 1932, samples of horizontal sections of soil in various tanks Avere collected for chemical analysis. The results of these analyses are shown in Table 9. The salts shoAm are predominately sodium salts, and extracts from the high carbonate soils were all black, indicat- ing black alkali. There was no calcium present in the solution, due to the high content of the carbonate ion. Also, the amount of sulphates present is of no importance. The pH values at the Santa Aiia station are very high, ranging from 8.4 to 10.6. These values indicate a highly alkaline reaction.
In the tanks of undisturbed soil where depth to water table was 2, 3, or 5 feet, the surface concentration of salts in the top inch of soil was not excessive. With a water table 1 foot from the surface, there was an extremely heavy deposit of salts in the top inch, measur- ing as high as 3200 parts per million of carbonate. In general, greater deposits occurred at or near the surface in those tanks having the highest water tables. The same was true at the San Bernardino station, although the bicarbonates exceeded the carbonates in amount, which was the opposite of the Santa Ana condition. The pH values do not indicate an excessively alkaline reaction.
CONSUMPTIVE USE OF WATER Evaporation from Soil Surfaces in Tanks
In making studies of evaporation from bare soils at the Santa Ana station, distribution of soil moisture under natural conditions as found at the station site determined the initial maximum depth to the water table in the first set of tanks. In excavating around the tanks as they were filled, the upper 15 inches of soil was observed to be moist from previous rains, while the soil from 15 to 30 inches iu depth was found to be extremely dry. Below this dry belt was capillary moisture arising from the perched water table found at a depth of 6 to 7 feet. It was evident, therefore, that the limit of capillary rise in undisturbed soil with which the tanks were filled was the difference between the depth to the water table and the lower limit of the dry area, or slightly less than 4 feet. This measure was, therefore, adopted as the depth to the lowest water tables in the soil evaporation tanks. From this 4-foot water table, no soil evaporation occurred at any time during the warm summer months between May and October. Data regarding Aveekly amounts of evaporation from- soil surfaces obtained at the Santa Ana station, where water tables were at different depths, are found in Table 11. Monthly data relating to the same tanks are given in Tables 13 and 14.
No losses by evaporation occurred when the water table w'as at a depth of 4 feet, but there were small losses when it was raised to 3 feet and still greater losses at 2-foot depths, confirming the initial conclusion that the limit of capillary rise was about 4 feet. For a six- month period during the winter of 1929-30, when evaporation was at its lowest, the total evaporation from the tanks having 3-foot water tables averaged but 0.913 acre-inch per acre. For the same period, evaporation from tanks having water tables at a 2-foot depth was 1.775 acre-inches per acre.
4—4503
50 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
In order to liave a coniparisou of evaporations from both disturbed and undisturbed soils, further tests were carried on with soil looselj^ settled in water as the tanks were filled. Diflt'erences due to the methods of filling the tanks became apparent immediately at the outset. Although both sets of tanks had water tables at the same depth, the moisture content in the loosely filled soil was enough to keep the soil surface moist, Avhile the surface in tanks of undisturbed soil was dry.
For comparison of monthly records of soil evaporation under the two conditions of soil structure, further reference is made to Tables 13 and 14, which show the monthly use of water by all tanks. For the same six -month winter period of 1929-80, during which evaporation from undisturbed soil having a 2-foot depth to the water table was 1.775 acre-inches per acre, the disturbed soil with the same water table evaporated 6.889 acre-inches per acre, or nearly four times as much.
In applying the results of these experiments to field conditions, it is obvious that only data secured from experiments with undisturbed soil should be used, and that measurements of evaporation from dis- turbed soil do not represent a true criterion for natural soil moisture losses. The large difference in the rate of evaporation for disturbed and undisturbed soils, indicates the advisability of further experimental work of this character. It also seems to cast doubt on the accuracy of results of some previous experiments along the same line.
Use of Water by Salt Grass
Salt grass {Distichlis spicata) is most often found in somewhat alkalied areas of shallow water table, the limit of depth from which the roots may draw moisture depending upon the soil type. In various investigations the limiting depth to water at which it has been found has varied. In one small locality with heavy soil, in the lower Santa Ana River basin, it was observed where the ground water was at a depth of 11 to 12 feet, but in general the limiting depth in lighter soils is about 6 feet. Moreover, it was found to exist only in those areas that were classified by the United States Bureau of Soils as containing some alkali.
The growth of the plant is spread by means of a thick creeping root stalk within the upper few inches of soil from which finer roots extend downward in search of moisture. The stifle, light green leaves rise from each joint of the root stalk and sometimes spread to form a considerable sod. The grass has a distinctly salty taste and, although it is sometimes used for pasture, stock do not thrive on it. The grow- ing period in southern California is from February to December and although the grass dies or becomes dormant in the Avinter, there is some discharge from the water table throughout the winter months. Salt grass is not an excessive user of water. Its habit of growth in alkali soils has caused the plant to protect itself against toxic effects of alkali salts by a decreased rate of transpiration.
Until recent years, the area devoted to salt grass in the lower Santa Ana River basin has been considerable, but the advent of drainage systems and extension of the cultivated area has crowded out the salt grass from a number of districts. Various salt-grass areas still exist, however, especially where the ground water continues to remain near the surface. This investigation was begun to measure the consumptive
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
51
use of water by salt grass for comparison with nse of water by other wild growths in order to determine the net draft on the ground water supply by native vegetation.
In experiments with salt grass grown in tanks at the Santa Ana station, distribution of moisture above the water table was determined by means of soil-moisture samples. Depth to water in the different tanks ranged from 1 to 5 feet. Reference to Table 10 shows the average soil moisture in the top foot of soil, when the water table was 1 foot from the ground surface, to be 27.1 per cent and that it decreased rapidly until the water table was 3 feet in depth, or near the limit of the capillary rise. With the water table below 3 feet there was little difference in the moisture content of the top foot of soil.
It is evident, then, that there was greater soil evaporation in the tanks having the highest water tables. In the same tanks there was also greater transpiration because of a heavier crop of grass, due, in turn, to a higher moisture content. As consumptive use of water includes both soil evaporation and plant transpiration, it follows that plant growth in tanks having the highest water tables has the higher
TABLE 10
RELATION OF SOIL MOISTURE TO DEPTH OF WATER TABLE IN TANKS
AT SANTA ANA STATION
|
Average soil moisture content in per cent |
||||
|
Depth of sample in feet |
Depth to water table in soil tanks, in feet |
|||
|
1 |
2 |
3 |
5 |
|
|
1 2 |
27.1 |
15.5 21.3 |
6.7 9.7 21.4 |
7.6 10.7 |
|
3 |
18.7 |
|||
|
4 |
20 5 |
|||
|
5 . . |
29 5 |
|||
consumptive use. This is indicated in Plate V, which shows a compari- son of monthly use of water by each set of salt grass tanlvs. The set having the highest water table, shown by the solid bar, used the most water. It will be noted that bars representing tanks of disturbed soil show a greater use of water than do tanks of undisturbed soil, when both have the same depth to water table.
The draft of salt grass on the ground water supply depends upon the depth to the water table and the soil structure. This may be estimated by comparison with results of tank experiments made dur- ing this investigation. When an irrigated area is extended to include uncultivated lands, the resulting net draft on the ground water supply is the difference between the amount of water required by cultivated crops and by the indigenous growth which the cultivation replaces. If the cultivated crop uses no more water than the native growth in the same area, no depletion results because of the change. Practical experience and scientifie experiments have indicated the necessary water requirements of crops, but little information is available as to the consumptive use of water by noneconomic plant life.
52
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
PLATE V
MONTHLY USE OF WATER BY SALT GRASS IN TANKS HAVING VARIOUS
DEPTHS TO WATER TABLE.
Although the presence of salt grass is always an indicator of ground water, these experiments have demonstrated that its consump- tive use is not excessive when compared with water requirements of many cultivated crops. In general, farming operations are conducted on water-free soil of sufficient depth to allow ample root development. The average depth to free water naturally varies with each locality, but a minimum of 5 or 6 feet is considered a safe depth for many field crops. For the 12-month period ending April 30, 1932, salt grass grown in tanks having a depth of 5 feet to water table, used an average of about 22 acre-inches of water, including rainfall. During this period, conditions were the same as in natural salt-grass areas. This consumptive use is no more than that used by various crops of low water requirement, and is less than amounts required by alfalfa, citrus, or walnuts. In tanks having a water-table depth of 2 feet, the 12-month consumptive use for the same period was about 36 acre-inches per acre, which is sufficient, with careful management, to produce a fair crop of alfalfa. In most salt-grass areas in the Santa Ana basin the ground water occurs at depths exceeding 4 feet and the average seasonal draft is, therefore, Ioav. It is concluded, therefore, that the yearly water requirement of salt grass in this area is generally less than that of cropped lands.
Data on the weekly use of water by salt grass at the Santa Ana station from May 7, 1929, to November 3, 1931, are given in Tables 11 and 12. On the latter date, readings at the station were discontinued,
|
■ORNIA, MAY, |
1929, TO SEPTEMBER, 1930 |
1 |
||||
|
e (ith fixed water table four feet |
Bare soil with fi-\ed water table two feet |
|||||
|
iw the ground surface |
below the ground surface |
|||||
|
Tank |
Tank |
Mean |
Tank |
Tank |
Tank |
Me&n |
|
No. 11 |
No. 12 |
No. 13 |
No. 14 |
No. 15 |
||
|
0.000 |
0 180 |
0.095 |
||||
|
.000 000 .000 |
.277 .127 .066 |
.117 .060 .042 |
||||
|
.022 .021 115 .191 .333 265 .444 .462 .551 .508 .508 |
.097 .179 .234 .519 .482 .366 .587 .636 .823 .944 .870 |
.057 .088 .138 .311 .344 .315 .482 .621 .790 .742 .716 |
||||
|
|
||||||
|
' '"o'^i" |
""'"0'449" |
" ' 6"353" |
0'352 |
|||
|
.439 |
.373 |
.620 |
.848 |
.866 |
1 465 |
1.060 |
|
579 |
.561 |
.518 |
.542 |
.824 |
1.197 |
.854 |
|
593 |
.689 |
.657 |
.392 |
.738 |
1 336 |
.822 |
|
.308 |
.625 |
.512 |
.488 |
.514 |
.749 |
.584 |
|
.466 |
.276 |
.419 |
.552 |
.450 |
.685 |
.562 |
|
.273 |
.270 |
.295 |
.318 |
.524 |
.546 |
.463 |
|
.138 |
.515 |
.352 |
.531 |
.479 |
.748 |
.5S6 |
|
415 |
.737 |
.574 |
.572 |
372 |
696 |
.547 |
|
.243 |
.646 |
.431 |
.499 |
.502 |
.588 |
.530 |
|
.259 |
.487 |
.326 |
.490 |
.385 |
.546 |
.474 |
|
147 |
.343 |
.188 |
.403 |
.438 |
641 |
.494 |
|
297 |
.123 |
.278 |
.511 |
.417 |
.600 |
.509 |
|
196 |
.021 |
.186 |
435 |
.385 |
.492 |
.437 |
|
.173 |
.000 |
.139 |
.403 |
.309 |
.491 |
.401 |
|
.177 |
.000 |
.139 |
.371 |
.310 |
.395 |
.359 |
|
.138 |
.036 |
.148 |
.295 |
.245 |
.197 |
.246 |
|
.107 |
.070 |
.131 |
.159 |
.266 |
.324 |
.250 |
|
.138 |
.022 |
.109 |
.128 |
.246 |
.175 |
.183 |
|
.099 |
.222 |
.172 |
.211 |
.192 |
.386 |
.263 |
|
.114 |
.117 |
.136 |
.286 |
.267 |
.363 |
.305 |
|
1 .148 |
.095 |
.169 |
.272 |
.287 |
277 |
.275 |
|
.043 |
.063 |
.063 |
.137 |
.234 |
.085 |
.152 |
|
.000 |
.010 |
.021 |
.063 |
.140 |
.097 |
.100 |
|
.000 |
Oil |
.039 |
.137 |
.288 |
.160 |
.195 |
|
.021 |
.010 |
.067 |
.042 |
^ .235 |
.160 |
.146 |
|
.053 |
.000 |
.046 |
.106 |
.277 |
.181 |
.188 |
|
.125 |
.032 |
.095 |
.126 |
.211 |
.256 |
.198 |
|
063 |
.010 |
.081 |
.148 |
.171 |
.255 |
.191 |
|
.127 |
.021 |
.105 |
.169 |
265 |
.203 |
.212 |
|
.095 |
.000 |
.081 |
.181 |
.203 |
.331 |
.238 |
|
.074 |
.000 |
.046 |
.203 |
.448 |
.159 |
.270 |
|
.084 |
.074 |
.091 |
.192 |
.320 |
.201 |
.238 |
|
201 |
.064 |
.209 |
.234 |
.288 |
.385 |
.302 |
|
159 |
.115 |
.172 |
.256 |
.320 |
.330 |
.302 |
|
148 |
.159 |
.251 |
.290 |
.394 |
.417 |
.367 |
|
276 |
.190 |
.297 |
.278 |
.331 |
.341 |
.317 |
|
212 |
.212 |
.240 |
.299 |
.351 |
.471 |
.374 |
|
191 |
.168 |
.198 |
.299 |
.246 |
.268 |
.271 |
|
180 |
.170 |
.247 |
.332 |
.278 |
.394 |
.335 |
|
179 |
.168 |
.246 |
.437 |
.373 |
.416 |
.409 |
|
306 |
.233 |
.318 |
.362 |
.426 |
534 |
.441 |
|
.305 |
.180 |
.320 |
.383 |
.471 |
.578 |
.477 |
|
.295 |
.222 |
.342 |
.373 |
.449 |
.524 |
.449 |
|
255 |
.222 |
.329 |
.340 |
.309 |
.426 |
358 |
|
.319 |
.243 |
.335 |
.361 |
.202 |
.439 |
.334 |
|
329 |
.274 |
.381 |
.394 |
. 277 |
.589 |
.420 |
|
.306 |
.316 |
.391 |
.405 |
.342 |
514 |
.420 |
|
.404 |
.349 |
.470 |
.405 |
.406 |
.503 |
.438 |
|
382 |
371 |
.463 |
.459 |
.514 |
.727 |
.567 |
|
.456 |
360 |
.488 |
.415 |
.428 |
.514 |
.452 |
|
318 |
.382 |
.467 |
.426 |
.469 |
.621 |
.505 |
|
445 |
.284 |
.395 |
.395 |
.405 |
.438 |
.413 |
|
318 |
.284 |
.332 |
.321 |
352 |
.383 |
.352 |
|
276 |
.349 |
.413 |
.375 |
.427 |
.535 |
.446 |
|
349 |
338 |
.438 |
.427 |
.427 |
.514 |
.456 |
|
414 |
320 |
.418 |
.386 |
437 |
.492 |
.438 |
|
265 |
267 |
.322 |
.342 |
.288 |
.405 |
.345 |
|
.339 |
244 |
.328 |
.322 |
.247 |
.352 |
.307 |
|
286 |
233 |
.300 |
.311 |
.299 |
.394 |
.335 |
|
1 |
TABLE 11 RECORD OF WEEKLY EVAPORATION FROM SOIL AND USE OF WATER BY SALT GRASS IN TANKS AT SANTA ANA, CALIFORNU, MAY, 1929. TO SEPTEMBER, 1930>
Week ending
1929-
May May May May June JuDe June June July July July July July Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Sept. Sept. Spet. Sept. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Dec.
Evaporation from bare soil and use of water by salt grass in acre-incbes per acre
|
Dec. 10 Dec. 17 - |
|
Dec. 24 |
|
Dec. 31 |
|
30- |
|
Jan. 14 . |
|
Jan. 21 . |
|
Jan. 28 |
|
Feb. 4 |
|
Feb. 11 |
|
Feb. 18 |
|
Feb. 25 |
|
Mar. 4 |
|
Mar. 11.. .. |
|
Mar. 18 ... . |
|
Mar. 25 .... |
|
April 1 |
|
April 8 ' |
|
April 15 |
|
April22 |
|
April 29 |
|
May 6 |
|
May 13 |
|
May 20 |
|
May 27 |
|
June 3 _ |
|
June 10 . |
|
June 17.. . |
|
June 24. .. |
|
July 1 |
|
July 8 |
|
July 15... |
|
July 22 |
|
July 29-... |
|
Aug. 12 . |
|
Aug. 19... . |
|
Aug. 26 |
|
Sept. 2 |
|
Sept. 9 |
|
Sept. 16 Sept.23 |
|
Sept.30... |
Bare soil with fi-\ed water table three feet below the ground surface
Tank No. 1
Tank No. 2
Tank No. 3
Mean
Xo evaporation from Tanks Nos. 1, 2 and 3 with water table at depth of four feet, May 1 to October 1, 1929
0.115 .084 .084 .074 .075 .105 .074 .081 .074 .004 .063 .053 .074
.074 .074 .011 .010 .010 .032 .031 .021 .064 .043 .021 .021 .021 .021 .000 .021 .000 .084 .042 .010 .032 .000 .011 .000 .042 .022 Oil .042 .021 .064 .010 .042 .042 .042 .033 .126 ,021 .032 .031
|
0 890 |
0.413 |
|
306 |
.499 |
|
.180 |
.254 |
|
064 |
,095 |
|
.106 |
.180 |
|
.053 |
.064 |
|
.084 |
.126 |
|
032 |
.042 |
|
.084 |
094 |
|
,031 |
,074 |
|
.043 |
.085 |
|
.000 |
.021 |
|
,000 |
.075 |
|
,000 |
.032 |
|
,000 |
.042 |
|
,000 |
.010 |
|
.000 |
.032 |
|
,000 |
.010 |
|
,000 |
.021 |
|
.000 |
.021 |
|
.000 |
,021 |
|
,000 |
,022 |
|
,000 |
,042 |
|
.000 |
021 |
|
OOO |
,032 |
|
,000 |
,052 |
|
000 |
,000 |
|
000 |
,053 |
|
,000 |
031 |
|
.000 |
,032 |
|
.021 |
,032 |
|
.011 |
.042 |
|
,000 |
.052 |
|
oil |
,021 |
|
.000 |
.000 |
|
oil |
,032 |
|
.000 |
,000 |
|
.000 |
.011 |
|
.010 |
.000 |
|
.021 |
,000 |
|
.021 |
,063 |
|
.000 |
.003 |
|
.032 |
.084 |
|
.000 |
.053 |
|
,000 |
.032 |
|
,000 |
.000 |
|
,000 |
.042 |
|
.000 |
.011 |
|
.000 |
,042 |
|
,000 |
,042 |
|
,000 |
,073 |
|
,000 |
.074 |
.473 ,296 .173 .078 ,120 ,074 ,095 ,053 ,084 .056 .064 .025 .060
,036 ,039
007 ,014 .007 .018 .017 ,014 ,029 ,028
OH
018 ,024
007
018
017 ,011 ,046 ,032 .021 ,021 .000 ,018 ,000 .018
Oil .010
042 .028 .060 .021
025 .014
028 .015
056 ,021
036
035
Bare soil with fixed water table two feet below the ground surface
Tank No 4
.561 .445 .359 .275 ,296 ,233 .222 .232 085 .190 ,169 ,180 ,169 .170 .158 .157 .159 .158 .094 ,032 .105 .127 ,126 ,106 .147 .127 .126 ,106 ,127 ,075 .053 .053 .106 ,063
,116 ,074 ,031 .021 .032 .021 .052 .074 ,021 .031 ,064 .010 ,053 ,032 ,063 .074 .084
143 .063 ,074 ,042 ,095 ,073
105 .105 .074
095 ,095 .095 .137 .105 .116 .084 .105 .086
127 ,074 ,094
095
Tank No. 5
0 600 ,597 ,523 .450 .449 .449 .355 .323 ,251 .229 ,188 ,177 ,167 293 .251 ,249 ,218 .241 ,261 ,177 ,W6 ,157 .166 ,156 ,125 ,178 ,187 .156 ,135 ,104 .137 .074 ,063 .104 .116
.105 .074 ,010 ,000 .043 .031 .063 .042 ,021 .043 .074 .041 ,064 ,063
115 ,095
178 ,146 ,053 ,106 .104
116
126 .145 .105
146 .156 .094 .125 .125 .125 ,136 ,137 ,135 ,157 ,177 ,137
104
125
Tank No. 6
0 274 263 .232 ,223 ,210 .136 ,158 ,115 .180 ,168 ,180 -147 ,169 ,136 ,158 .126 157 155 184 .020 .084 105 ,073 .084 ,106 ,115 ,096 ,095 ,095 ,096 ,064 ,074 .042 .096 .063
.074 .073 .032 .042 .032 .021 .063 .063 .042 .042 .032 ,031 ,042 .064 .021 ,073 ,063 ,116 063 063 ,031 ,063 064 084 ,084 ,053 ,094 ,084 ,085 ,126 ,053 094 074 073 085 085 105 074 084
0,541 ,470 ,400 ,344 ,311 ,294 ,249 ,220 ,221 ,161 .186 .164 .172 .199 .193 .178 .177 .185 .201 097 084 ,122 .122 .122 .112 .147 .137 ,126 .112 .109 .092 .067 .053 .101 .081
.098 .074 .024 .021
Salt grass with fixed water table two feet below the ground surface
Tank No. 7
.024 .059 .060 ,028 ,039 .057 .027 ,053
053 .066 .081 .108 , 135 ,060
077 ,059 ,091 ,088
111 ,098 .091 .115 ,091 .102 ,129
094 .115 ,098 ,104 ,109 ,133 .105
091
101
0 296 ,275
275 .371 ,626
964 ,975
1 632 I 281 1 217 1 282 1 325 1 208 1 154 1 048 1,165 1,101 1 144
,744 816
.646
.785 890
,667
.848 ,636 .647 .521 .413 .317 .286 .434 .435
■ .297
.148
.137
.192
.243
.211
,286
,222
,201
265
,223
,328
,435
.499
,540
,668
678
,382
.647
.721
,953
954
1 134
,890
,974
1 174
1,133
1 521
1,454
1 155
1 303
1 228
1,068
1 453
1 312
1 250
996
,891
Tank No. 8
0 862 ,561 ,293 .429 .481 ,398 .670
1 167 1 178 1 251 I 442 1,462 1 315 1 283 1 271 1 314 1 314 1,430
840 .945 .661 ,881 ,998
735 ,736 ,840 ,923 .661 .713 ,565 .429 ,324 ,313 ,471 ,460
.345
.031
.000
.105
.250
,187
,313
,136
,188
.281
229
,387
.491
,544
,650
.800
.756
.386
,713
,788
1.062
1 050
1.231
944
1,051
1 336
1.272
1 703
1 555
1 513
1 597
1 125
1,167
1 578
1 410
1 314
1 050
Tank No. 9
.801
0 699 1,003
,624 ,741
1 111 1 007
.975
1,461
1,154
1,132
1 323
1 335
1.176
1,334
1,166
1,282
1-227
1 292
868
,890
,605
,838
933
689
,689
,817
,784
572
.593
.478
.392
.265
.307
,434
,392
,329
,127
063
.148
.244
.169
.318
.146
,211
,275
233
,392
,520
,539
,732
,943
921
478
764
.953
1,048
,995
1 228
890
964
1 227
I 217
1 579
1 505
1 398
1 452
1 187
1 123
1 527
1 389
1 314
1,049
953
818
0 619 613 397 514 ,739 ,790
873 1,420 1,204
1 200 1,349 1,374 1 233 1 257 1 162 1 254 1,214 1 289
,817 ,884 637 835 940 697 ,698 ,831 ,852 ,623 ,651 621 ,411 ,302 ,302 ,446 ,429
.324
.102
.067
.148
.246
,189
,306
.169
.200
.274
228
,369
,482
,527
,641
,804
,785
,415
,708
,821
1,021
1 000
1 198
908
,996
I 246
1 207
1 601
1 505
1 355
1,451
1 180
1 119
1 519
1 370
1 293
1,032
937
,846
Salt grass with fixed water table four feet below the ground surface
Tank No. 10
Tank .No. 11
0 105 074 ,053 .032 ,053 ,063 ,064 ,223 216 ,314 ,414 764 ,996 ,773 ,770 1,049 ,413 ,690 ,604 ,514 ,343 .403 540 403 ,233 ,073 ,414 ,340 243 .240 .270 217 .166 ,196 ,176
,265 .084 052 ,106 ,169 084 ,127 ,169 .168 .147 .063 .116 .361 ,243 446 424 ,297 234 392 ,393 .415 .476 510 510 444 540 552 656 637 647 ,700 457 ,393 ,615 626 ,520 .435 402 ,382
0 000 000 000 000 022 021 115 191 333 265 444 462 561 508 508 439 579 593 308 -466 -273 -138 445 -243 259 147 297 196 173 177 -138 -107 -138 099 114
148 -043 000 000 021 -053 125 063 127 095 074 084 201 159 148 276 212 191 180 179 306 305 295 255 319 329 306 404 382 456 318 445 318 276 349 414 265 339 286
Tank No. 12
0 180 277 -127 .096 .097 ,179 .234 .519 ,482 .366 587 ,636 ,823 ,944 870 373 .561 ,689 ,625 ,276 ,270 ,515 .737 .646 .487 ,343 ,123 ,021 .000 .000 .036 .070 .022 .222 .117
.095 .063 ,010 Oil ,010 .000 .032 .010 .021 .000 .000 ,074 ,064 ,115 ,159 ,190 ,212 .168 .170 .168 ,233 ,180 ,222 ,222 ,243 274 316 ,349 371 360 382 284 ,284 349 338 320 ,267 244 233
0 095 .117 ,060 .042 .057 .088 .138 .311 .344 .315 .482 .621 .790 742 716 620 518 ,657 512 ,419 ,295 ,352 674 .431 ,326 .188 ,278 .186 ,139 .139 ,148 .131 .109 .172 .136
.169 .063 .021 ,039 ,067 ,046 095 ,081 105 ,081 ,046 .091 .209 ,172 251 ,297 .240 .108 247 246 .318 .320 ,342 ,329 ,335 .381 391 470 ,463 .488 .467 .395 .332 .413 .438 ,418 ,322 ,328 300
Bare soil with fixed water table two feet below the ground surface
Tank No. 13
,542 ,392 .488 ,552 ,318 ,531 572 ,499 ,490 ,403 511 435 403 371 ,295 ,159 ,128 ,211 ,286
.137 .063 .137 .042 .106 .126 .148 ,169 ,181 ,203 .192 ,234 ,256 .290 278 .299 299 332 ,437 ,362 ,383 373 ,340 ,361 ,394 ,405 .405 ,459 415 .426 395 .321 375 ,427 386 ,342 .322 .311
Tank Xo. 14
Tank Xo. 15
0 449 866 824 738 514 450 524 479 372 502 ,385 ,438 .417 ,385 ,309 310 245 ,206 ,246 192 267
234 .140
.235 .277 .211 .171 ,265 ,203 ,448 320 ,288 320 394 331 351 ,246 278 ,373 426 471 449 309 ,202 .277 342 406 ,514 428 469 405 352 427 427 437 288 247 299
0 353
1 465 1 197 1 336
749 685 546 748 696 588 ,546 641 600 ,492 ,491 395 ,197 ,324 ,175 386 ,363
.277 085 .097 .160 .160 .181 .256 ,255 203 331 .159 ,201 385 330 ,417 ,341 ,471 ,268 .394 .416 534 578 .524 ,426 ,439 589 514 .503 .727 514 .621 .438 .383 535 514 ,492 .405 .352 .394
' All tanks covered during rains. Tanks Nos. 1 to 12, inclusive, contain undisturbed soil. Tanks Nos. 13 to 15, inclusive, contain disturbed soil. 4503— Bet. pp. 52-53
TABLE 12 RECORD OF WEEKLY USE OF WATER BY SALT GRASS IN TANKS AT SANTA ANA, CALIFORNIA, OCTOBER, 1930, TO NOVEMBER, 1931'
Week ending
1930-
Oct. 7. Oct. 14. Oct. 21- Oct. 28. Nov. 4. Nov. 11. Nov. 18. Nov. 25. Dec. 2. Dec. 9. Deo. 16. Dec. 23.. Dec. 30..
1931-
Jan. 6.. Jan. 13.. Jan. 20.. Jan. 27.. Feb. 3.. Feb. 10.. Feb. 17.. Feb. 24.. Mar. 3.. Mar. 10.. Mar. 17.. Mar. 24.. Mar. 31.. April 7.. April 14.. April 21.. April 28.. May 5.. May 12.. May 19.. May 26.. June 2.. June 9.. June 16.. June 23.. June 30.. July 7.. July 14-. July 21-- July 28-- Aug. 4-- Aug. 11-- Aug. 18-. Aug. 25.. Sept. 1.. Sept. 8.. Sept. 15.. .Sept. 22.. Sept. 29.. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. No
13. 20. 27. 3.
Use of water by salt grass in acre-inches per acre
Salt grass with fixed water table three feet below the ground surface
Tank No.l
0 022 063 063 052 .064 .031 .085 .094 .032 075 044 ,032 .053
.042 .021 Oil 042 Oil .010 Oil .021 .063 .063 073 .158 .265
.709 .583 ,636 763 ,826 646 637 509 678 520 467 ,318 ,530 382 424 458 .466 ,414 .403 329 .338 .286 ,361
Tank No. 2
0 021 021 Oil 00 00 00 00
.00 00 00 00
,021 021
021 00
,00 021 00 00
,00 021
.148 137 042 074 116
,085 126 159
.116
Tank No. 3
0 021 032 ,021 ,00 .00 00 00 00 ,021 032 021 063 ,010
Oil ,021 063 042 021 Oil 00 ,073 158 ,064 126 105 032 095 169 ,243 ,064
.074 ,128 ,212 .179 666 602 614 572 635 561 487 404 615 308 424 424 403 402 360 361 256 317 ,371
0 021 039 032 017 ,021 010 028 031 018 036 022 039 028
025 014 .025 035 Oil 007 004 038 123 088 080 112 138 090 148 .201 .090
,300 ,276 ,322 427 ,621 536 569 530 622 547 477 372 566 354 417 436 421 402 382 336 307 296 354
Salt grass with fixed water table two feet below the ground surface
Tank No. 4
0,063 095 085 063 096 084 127 ,084 ,032 084 042 095 105
073
042
042
063
053
063
117
105
170
264
244
303
403
.530
,647
688
,477
328
,593
698
,762
732
679
,774
,944
1 163
1 038
1 028
1 060
1 164
1 102
923
710
1 059
891
837
859
815
783
784
572
552
477
,709
Tank No. 5
0 084 156 063 084 lib 094 136 073 Oil 074 031 053 146
063
021
053
104
137
094
198
219
,281
408
399
492
807
757
955
1 016
431
,397
862
,997
912
987
817
966
1 219
1,419
1 261
1 272
1 252
1 387
1 251
1 062
293 997 978 999 914 831 839 629 534 525
Tank No. 6
0 063 116 063 126 032
,063 094 064 031 053 063 063
,116
042 053 031 ,043 042 ,126 042 052
,201 275 371 255 ,192 327 ,456 510 552 508 604 794 911 890 869 912 995 043 839 679 857 753 721 742 720 646 658 519 552 370 594
0 070 ,122 070 091 081 080 1.9 074 ,025 ,070 .045 ,070 .122
,059
.039
042
070
077
,094
,119
.125
,226
,336
,322
,398
,605
496
626
693
388
306
694
.717
726
,767
,668
781
986
1 164
I 060
1 056
1 075
1 182
1 099
,941
732
1 070
880
845
867
,816
,753
,760
573
,546
457
,701
Salt grass with fixed water table one foot below the ground surface
Tank No. 7
0 668 656 551 478 424 446 317
180
232
253
318
286
180
222
318
372
425
392
476
561
625
.763
806
350
360
615
742
806
901
817
1 048
1 387
1 769
1 568
1 642
1 685
1 845
1 707
1 409
1 282
1 747
1 302
1 240
1 218
1 081
974
837
722
658
530
.783
Tank No. 8
0 649 880 685 482 409 692 344
083
230
283
376
230
021
199
355
397
418
335
493
629
,619
777
829
346
252
894
1 072
975
1 262
1 031
1 303
1 725
1 923
1 650
1 756
1 702
1 818
1 577
1 347
1 018
1,618
1 051
1 061
1 061
966
819
682
619
555
503
713
Tank No. 9
0 605 646 .509 605 445 509 327
234
,275
,275
,411
,266
211
,274
359
423
425
424
530
635
699
880
901
287
381
912
1 038
933
1 132
912
I 101
1 536
1 727
1 546
1 674
1 676
1 824
1 601
1 389
1 060
1 717
1 165
1 240
1 134
1 039
732
763
710
625
642
.784
0 641
727 582 522 426 649 ,329
,246 270
,368 260
,137
,232 344 397 423 384 500 60S
,845
,327
,331
807
951
906
1 098
920
1 161
1 549
1 806
1 588
1 691
1 687
1 829
1 628
1,382
1 120
1,094
1 169
1 180
1 134
1 029
842
,761
684
613
526
760
Salt grass with fixed water table five feet below the ground surface
Tank No. 10
0,264 ,213 ,191 148 158 .213 .074
,095 ,073 ,074 .042 .107 .202 .224 .180 ,213 .234 .191 .190 .191 .415 ,477 488 ,169 ,213 351 435 .404 ,433 478 563 ,646 ,774
721 594 520
,751 550 563 636
,456 650 608
,572 444
,327 393
Tank No. 11
0 169 213 221 105 096 116 084
063 062 053 ,084
074 148 180 191 147 138 212 275 095 202 245 318 371 222 126 232 403 509 340 457 466 572 488 413 393 466 349 360 457 361 295 338 316 244 274 ,316
Tank No. 12
0,234 ,200 095 ,180 ,126 106 074
,096 ,126 ,052 .131 .148 148 095 148 191 063 ,159 169 181 117 ,159 ,148 ,00
084 ,201 147 200 551 ,413 ,445 426 404 389 ,456 ,338 ,467 668 244 264 ,307 286 ,285 294 254 234 226
0 219 209 ,169 144 126 ,145 ,077
086 084 060 086 127 175 160 164 159 148 177 183 173 223 283 304 088 208 298 377 388 246 268 314 416 611 480 580 531 606 533 488 417 558 522 389 449 371 377 377 394 314 278 ,312
Salt grass with fixed water table two feet below the ground surface
Tank No. 13
0 268 310 267 .276 .311 .278 449 391 181 321 320 383 374
236
159
191
235
267
189
266
329
393
493
437
524
567
599
718
759
577
371
557
729
718
792
,727
,824
.908
1,015
1 005
I 026
1 080
1 111
I 134
984
866
1 026
1 144
1 261
1 145
973
899
866
664
,643
557
771
Tank No. 14
0 244 319 244 ,288 ,396 ,395 439 ,431 ,298 ,395 471 ,588 492
235 128 192 224 236 ,140 362 342 459 689 656 689 ,610 ,654 .769 ,844 535 373 535 674 706 611 654 717 824 ,985 1 006 973 1 060 1,048 983 866 728 919 889 673 856 759 792 739 600 556 492 610
Tank No. 15
0 266 299 322 320 406 405 427 492 266 374 406 ,513 ,395
,234
084
169
256
,299
,160
,364
503
,695
867
685
663
652
,739
910
867
480
364
600
791
866
941
856
1 037
1 348
I 486
1 401
1 346
1 454
I 369
1 348
1 153
930
I 411
1 069
I 047
1 036
995
388
878
656
689
512
770
'Tanks Nos. 1 to 15 inclusive covered during rains. Tanks Nos. 1 to 12, inclusive, contained undisturbed soil; Nos. 13 to 15, inclusive, contained disturbed soil. 4503— Bet. pp. 52-53
TABLE 13
SUMMARY SHOWING MONTHLY USE OF WATER BY SALT GRASS AND TULES AND EVAPORATION FROM SOIL AND WATER SURFACES, MAY,
1929, TO APRIL, 1930, IN TANKS AT SANTA ANA, CALIFORNIA"
|
Tank No. |
Content of tank |
Deptli to water table, in feet |
Diameter of tank, in inches |
Amount of water used in inches of depth |
Number of months of record |
Total amount used, in inches |
Per cent of |
|||||||||
|
May June |
July |
August |
September |
October |
November |
December |
January |
February |
March |
April |
Tank No. 16 |
Tank No. 20 |
||||
|
1 |
4-3 4-3 4-3 4-3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 |
23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 25 1/2 48 |
No evaporation from Tanks Nos. 1, 2 and 3 with water table at depth of four feet. May 1 to October 1, 1929 |
(=) (=) (') 0 474 815 453 581 3 319 3.737 3 571 3 542 1 907 1 408 1.792 1.702 2.069 2.256 3,038 2 454 5,762 23,750 5.654 |
0.399 1.493 1,399 1 097 559 708 ,421 563 3 413 3 696 3 447 3 519 1 377 1 164 2 457 1,666 2 221 1 857 2,770 2 283 5.640 28.380 6.060 |
0.370 .338 .443 384 444 552 371 456 2 662 2 861 2 458 2.660 1.326 869 .117 .771 1,695 1.431 1.957 1.694 4 884 23,350 5.256 |
0.275 .074 .265 ,205 339 ,462 ,307 ,369 1 630 1,736 1 557 1.641 .914 .621 .467 ,634 .911 1.067 1.263 1 080 3 060 11.300 3 444 |
0.179 .000 .126 .102 .242 .200 .242 .228 .858 .554 .752 .721 .549 .191 .189 .310 .651 1.067 .673 .797 1,860 1,860 2.280 |
0 148 000 074 074 189 .189 179 186 984 896 867 .916 612 347 042 334 454 1 829 916 733 2 436 3.610 2.872 |
0,085 ,000 ,137 .074 148 201 .147 .165 1 293 1 441 1,473 1,402 ,729 454 ,148 .444 862 1.418 1,118 1 133 3 384 6 020 4 476 |
0 084 000 .137 ,074 316 536 ,263 371 2 502 2 862 3,326 2.897 1.463 ,837 ,719 1 006 1,219 1,460 1.677 1.452 4 968 17 590 6 048 |
7 7 7 7 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 9 9 9 9 liH 9 12 |
||||
|
2 |
||||||||||||||||
|
3 |
||||||||||||||||
|
2.010 |
7.7 |
6.7 |
||||||||||||||
|
4 |
2 160 2 418 1 076 1 885 1 440 2.417 3,501 2 453 .275 000 .702 .326 |
1 099 1 555 ,663 1.106 4 916 3 296 4 978 4.397 .477 .592 1 304 .791 |
0.709 .908 .727 .781 5.630 5 964 5 410 5 635 2,714 1,866 2 714 2,431 |
0 696 1.084 .651 810 5 019 5.908 5 666 5 531 3.451 2 330 3 097 2 959 1.834 2 792 4.223 2,950 8,328 23.460 8.904 |
||||||||||||
|
5 |
||||||||||||||||
|
7.501 |
11 2 |
10 6 |
||||||||||||||
|
7 |
||||||||||||||||
|
8 -- |
||||||||||||||||
|
9 - |
Salt grass sod |
|||||||||||||||
|
36 314 |
56 0 |
50. 0 |
||||||||||||||
|
10 |
||||||||||||||||
|
11 |
||||||||||||||||
|
12- |
||||||||||||||||
|
Mean 13 |
Salt grass sod Baresoil |
13.374 |
21.4 |
19.0 |
||||||||||||
|
14 |
||||||||||||||||
|
15 |
||||||||||||||||
|
Mean |
Bare soil |
14 576 62.002 139.320 70.514 |
36 2 100 0 345 5 110,4 |
32 5 |
||||||||||||
|
16- |
5 574 |
7,910 |
8.196 |
|||||||||||||
|
19 |
Round stem tules in submerged soil* |
309 7 |
||||||||||||||
|
20 |
Water in standard Weather Bureau pan |
8 394 |
8 234 |
8 892 |
100.0 |
'Tanks Nos. 1 to 12, inclusive, contained undisturbed soil; tanks Nos. 13 to 15. inclusive, contained disturbed soil. All tanks covered during rains. - Water table raised from four to three feet, October 1, 1929. ' Record began May 8, 1929. ' Not applicable to field conditione.
4503— Bet. pp. 52-53
TABLE 14
SUMMARY SHOWING MONTHLY USE OF WATER BY SALT GRASS. TULES, CAT-TAILS, WILLOWS, AND WIRE RUSH, AND EVAPORATION FROM
SOIL AND WATER SURFACES, MAY, 1930, TO APRIL, 1931. IN TANKS AT SANTA ANA, CALIFORNIA* '
Tank No.
I--- 2.--
3 --
Mean.
4 --
6..- 6..-
Mean.
9 Mean
10...
11 .
12 -
Mean
13 .,
14 ..
15 .
Mean
16 ..
19 ..
20 -. 21... 22- - 23 -. 24-.. 25 ..
Content of tank
Bare soil planted to salt grass October, 1930 Bare soil planted to salt grass October. 1930 Bare soil planted to salt grass October. 1930
Bare soil planted to salt grass October, 1930
Bare soil planted to salt grass October, 1930 Bare soil planted to salt grass October. 1930 Bare soil planted to salt grass October, 1930
Bare soil planted to salt grass October. 1930
Salt grass sod'. Halt grass sod'- Salt grass sod'
Salt grass sod' -
Salt grass sod=. Salt grass sod-. Salt grass sod ^
Salt grass sod*.
Bnre soil planted to salt grass October. 1930- Baresoil planted to salt grass October. 1930- Bare soil planted to salt grass October, 1930-
Bare soil planted to salt grass October, 1930^
\Vater in circular sunken tank
Hound stem tides in submerged soil'
Water in s andard Weather Bureau pan. Triangular stem tules in submerged soil'
Cat-tails in submerged soil'.
Round stem tulea in submerged soil'
Willow* -
Wire rush*
Depth to
water
table, in
feet
2-1 2-1 2-1
4-5 4-5 4-5
4-5
|
Diameter |
|
|
of tank. |
|
|
in inches |
|
|
2S |
1/16 |
|
2H |
1/lfi |
|
23 |
1/16 |
|
23 |
1 16 |
|
23 |
Mfi |
|
23 |
1/16 |
|
23 |
1/16 |
|
23 |
1/16 |
|
23 |
1/16 |
|
23 |
1/16 |
|
23 |
1/16 |
|
23 |
1/16 |
|
23 |
1/16 |
|
23 |
1/16 |
|
23 |
1/16 |
|
23 |
1/16 |
|
23 |
1/16 |
|
23 |
1/16 |
|
23 |
1/16 |
|
23 |
1/16 |
|
23 1/10 |
|
|
25 1/2 |
|
|
48 |
|
|
25 1/2 |
|
|
25 1/2 |
|
|
72 |
|
|
72 |
|
|
25 1/2 |
Amount of water used in inches of depth
May
0 147 043 147
358 398 .284
3 180 3 485 3 709
3 458
1 655
1 003
.792
1 600 1 590 1.880
1 090
5 988 22 565
6 792 12 301 11 875 10 230
3 275
June
0 075 021 .043
368 .564 295
4 426 4 834 4 563
2 173 1 292 1 024
1 575 1.366 2.138
1 C93
li 440 23 088
6 948 15 896 13 520 12 428
4.988
July
0 138 074 242
485 573 421
5 740
6 664 0 281
2 720 1 707 1 545
1 854
1 914
2 472
2 080
7 824 28 595
8 544 23 286
16 906
17 211 7 343
August
0 158 .000 095
.084
422 586 326
5 697
6 056 5 894
2,461 1 473 1 414
1 699
1 792
2 213
1 901
6.744 24 793
7 392 24 292
14 924
15 946 7 803 5 735
September
0 221 000 242
154
422 595 390
4 314 4 600 4 505
1 898 1 410 1,170
1 489 1 399 1 782
1 557
5 588 19 754
5.828 21 942 11.210 13 058
6 628 6 427
October
0 232 .053 074
349 .429 368
.382
1 250 1 288 1 308
1 302
5 032 18 352
5 500 21 012 10 140 12 043
5 359
5 682
November December
0 274 .000 021
.380 388 285
I 187 881 ,784
,951
1 407 1 741 1,751
1 033
3 816 12 956
4 262 15 031
7 427
8 602 3 545 5,031
0 204 042 ,126
336 314 295
1 834
2 084 2 066
1 995
635 430 ,549
538
1 515
2 063 1 805
1 794
3 144 8 024 3 312 6 405 5 214
3 322 2,115
4 233
January
0 116 043 158
,221 ,305
1,141 1 129 1 344
274 .242
.938 .896 .882
.905
2.194 3 730 2 890
2 894
3 007 2 587
2^654
February
0 074 084 168
444 .730 336
830 508
1 263
2.472 2,365 2,736
2 165 2 100 2 201 2 005 2,950
March
0 601 ,454 .401
1.267 2.231
1 749
2.035
2 084 2.247
2.122
.891 729 710
2 191
2 514 3,199
2,635
5 454 5 183 5 778
5 901 0 847 8 553
3 922
6 781
April
0-517 ,571
2 426 3,214
1 145
2,262
2 618 2 581 2 820
1,602 773 ,450
2 759 2,909 3,081
2 916
5 212
8 386 6,016
9 789 7 891
11 508 5 724 7 761
Number of months of record
Total amount used, in
inches
59 908 177 790
65 998 160 974 111 067 117 689
52 707
40,260
Per cent of
Tank No. 16
100 0 290 8 110 2 268 7 185 4 190 4 91 3 110,7
Tank No. 20
90 8 269 4 100,0 243 9 168 3 178 3
83 5 105 8
1 Water table raised from two feet to one foot October, 1930,
> Water table lowered from four to 6ve feet October, 1930.
■ Tanks Nos. 1 to 12, inclusive, contain undi.sturbcd soil. Tanks Nos. 13 to 15, inclusive, contain disturbed soil.
* Rainfallinckided in water used but changes in soil moisture on account of rainfall disregarded. 'Tanks Nos. 1 to 15, inclusive, covered during rains,
• Totals are not given for soil moisture tanks as conditions are not comparable throughout the vear due to changing water levels and planting new grass, » Not applicable to field conditions.
4503 — Bet, pp. 52-53
SUMMARY SHOWING MONTHLY USE OF WATER BY SALT GRASS, TULES, CAT-TAILS, WILLOWS AND WIRE RUSH, AND EVAPORATION FROM WATER SURFACES, MAY, 1931, TO APRIL, 1932; IN
TANKS AT SANTA ANA, CALIFORNIA ' •
|
Content of tank |
Depth to water table, in feet |
Diameter of tank, in inches |
Amount of water used in inches of depth |
Number of months of record |
Total amount used. in inches |
Per cent of |
|||||||||||||
|
Tank No. |
May |
June |
July |
August |
September |
October |
November |
December |
January |
February |
March |
April |
Tank No. 16 |
Tank No. 20 |
|||||
|
1 2 3 Mean i 6 |
Salt grass sod- |
3 3 3 3 2 '2 2 2 1 1 1 1 S 5 5 5 2 2 2 |
23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1, 16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/10 23 1/16 23 1/16 25 1/2 48 25 1/2 25 1/2 72 72 25 1/2 48 |
3 041 .964 1 238 1 748 3 815 4 747 2 997 3 853 5 318 6 382 5 636 5 779 2 608 1.312 1 099 1.673 3.731 3 382 5 037 4 043 6.850 27 057 8 050 24 777 14.940 19.073 4 484 10 304 7 318 |
2.725 2.153 2.667 2 515 4 809 5.771 4.111 4 »97 7 546 7,683 7 482 7,570 3 415 2 037 1 814 2 422 4 725 4 514 6 222 5 154 8 100 31 564 8,904 31,697 20,208 19 681 4 602 13,752 8,148 |
1,909 2,079 2 099 2 029 4 049 4 695 3,552 4 099 6.482 5.707 6 Oil 6 067 2 744 1.845 2.183 2.257 4 404 3 851 5 152 4 469 7 102 25 746 7.462 30 823 17,429 14 885 3,306 12 702 7,018 |
1 868 1 740 1 770 1 793 3 549 3 974 3 041 3 521 4 799 4 170 4 420 4 463 2 363 1 558 1 166 1 696 4 684 3 283 4 212 4 060 5,942 19. 372 6,206 29 382 14 978 12 431 2 702 10 729 5 834 |
1 558 I 483 1 453 1 498 2 786 2 990 2 343 2 706 3 202 2 768 3 106 3 025 1 968 1 309 1 154 1 477 3 105 2 676 2 663 2 915 4 266 14 240 4,698 20 408 12 055 7 304 1 476 8 254 4,642 |
1,831 1 832 1 841 1 835 2 225 2 367 2 266 2 286 2 101 1 782 1 964 1 949 2 086 1 683 1 558 1,769 2 633 2 546 2 288 2 489 2 734 6 089 3 094 6 015 5 307 5 063 1 655 4 853 2,698 |
1.436 |
1.834 2 329 |
1 647 2 132 1 748 I 842 " : 950 1 950 "' 1 893 1 294 1 594 ■2 557 1 215 -' 364 2 046 ,401 "761 581 1 602 3 509 2 730 1 568 2 397 ,815 1,065 1 583 1 902 |
2 643 3 288 3 652 3 194 2 947 2 626 3 646 3 040 2 578 2 212 1 740 2 177 2 164 2 720 2 612 2 499 2 811 1 657 2 312 2 260 3 504 6.052 -! 980 5 830 6 031 4 775 2 850 4 106 4 536 |
4.166 3.042 2 771 3.326 3 476 3 574 3 025 3 358 4 202 3 608 3.140 3 650 2 521 1 186 1 733 1 813 4 017 4.822 3 886 4 242 4 442 11 717 5 858 11 832 11 180 8 717 4 035 8 649 5.126 |
11 10 10 n 11 11 12 12 11 11 12 12 11 12 11 12 12 11 12 12 12 11 12 12 11 11 12 10 12 |
||||
|
2 445 1,941 1,604 1 487 1 214 1 435 2 046 1,067 1,191 1 435 1547 1,685 1 616 840 1,108 1 010 .986 1 448 i 988 1 971 |
|||||||||||||||||||
|
2 082 2.789 2.424 1 690 2 301 1.628 |
23 803 |
49 3 |
42.2 |
||||||||||||||||
|
2,764 3 777 1 814 2 785 3 043 4 044 3 983 3 690 1 637 1.263 1 450 2.804 2,609 3 164 2.859 5 746 17 372 6 886 17 198 11 214 15 714 4 760 8.621 6 334 |
|||||||||||||||||||
|
36 231 |
|||||||||||||||||||
|
Mean |
67 7 |
57 3 |
|||||||||||||||||
|
7 |
|||||||||||||||||||
|
g |
42.748 |
||||||||||||||||||
|
9 |
1 069 1 349 1.011 1.664 1.538 1 404 1.870 1 055 1 230 1.385 1.788 1 267 2 376 2.431 1.744 1,346 1,275 |
79 9 |
|||||||||||||||||
|
67 0 |
|||||||||||||||||||
|
10 |
|||||||||||||||||||
|
11 - ..- |
Salt grass sod |
22 121 |
|||||||||||||||||
|
12 . ... |
41 3 |
||||||||||||||||||
|
Salt grass sod. ... |
35 0 |
||||||||||||||||||
|
13 |
Salt grass sod |
||||||||||||||||||
|
14 |
36 443 53 524 162 986 63 232 183 992 117 483 109 804 32 915 S3 453 57 004 |
||||||||||||||||||
|
15 |
Salt grass sod Salt grass sod Water :n circular sunken tank Round stem tules in submerged soil'_ Water in standard Weather Bureau pan Triangular stem tules in submerged soil' |
||||||||||||||||||
|
Mean...._ 16 19 20 - 21 22 |
66 2 100 0 313 0 118.1 343 8 225 6 210 9 61 5 165 9 106 5 |
56 1 84.7 266.1 100.0 291.0 |
|||||||||||||||||
|
23 |
Round stem tules in submerged soil* Willow" |
'2 2 |
179.2 52 1 |
||||||||||||||||
|
24 --- |
.705 |
||||||||||||||||||
|
25 |
Wire rush* _ . _ 5% NaCI solution in standard W. B. pan |
||||||||||||||||||
|
28 |
1.484 |
2,004 |
90.2 |
'Tanks Nor. 1 to 12. inclusive contain undisturbed soil. Tanks Nos. 13 to 15, inclusive, contain disturbed soil.
' Wil!ow unhealthy and lost most of its leaves during latter part of the sumraer.
'Tanks Nos. 1 to 15, inclusive, covered during rains prior to December 1, I93I. except during the first half of November, 1931.
' Rainfall included in water used but changes in soil moisture on account of rainfall disregarded.
' Not appplicable to field conditions.
From December 1, 1931 to May 1, 1932. all tanks were exposed to rainfall.
4503— Bet. pp. 52-53
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS 53
althoug'li sufficient data were collected to obtain monthly totals through- out the following spring. Some weekly totals were omitted. Because of changes in depths to water tables in October, 1930, true records could not be obtained pending soil moisture adjustments and data for these periods are not included. At other times accident or failure of the Mariotte tanks to function properly is responsible for omissions.
A complete summary of all work done at the Santa Ana station for each of the three years of the investigation is given in Tables 13, 14 and 15, which show the monthly use of water by all soil and water tanks. Descriptions of contents of tanks are included, and percentages of use of water by each moist area growtli with reference to evaporation from water surfaces is likewise tabulated. These data are the most valuable of the report.
Use of Water by Bermuda Grass
Bermuda grass {Cynodon dactylon) is a perennial with long, creep- ing, jointed stems, often several feet in length. It spreads largely by rooting at the nodes, although it also seeds abundantly. Where condi- tions are favorable it forms a dense turf, frequently becoming a pest in lawns by driving out or smothering other laAvn grass. It is found groov- ing wild in many localities, always in exposed places, as it is intolerant of shade. Bermuda grass is not an indicator of ground water, as is salt grass, although the experiments indicate that it may use slightly more water than salt grass when it is available. It is frequently used for pasture and makes good feed for stock.
Excellent conditions for experimenting with Bermuda grass were found at the San Bernardino station. The yard in which the tanks were set was covered with a dense growth of the grass, so that tests of consumptive use of water were made with tank crops surrounded by a natural growth of the same variety. The principal difference between tank and field conditions was in depth to water table. In the tanks, the water table was fixed at definite levels during the three years of record, while the outside ground water fluctuated between 2^ and 6 feet below the ground surface.
Data on weekly use of water by Bermuda grass grown in tanks at San Bernardino are given in Tables 16 and 17. In November, 1931, daily readings at the station were discontinued, because of high ground water entering the tanks through the waste pipes and changing the water levels. Records of weekly and monthly use of water immediately before and after the first week in October, 1930, are not comparable as at this time the grass was maliciously burned off from all four tanks. Previous to the burning, each tank had a heavy crop of grass which used over \ acre-inch of water per week. Immediately after the burn- ing, this loss was reduced over one-half. As the burning was done in the fall, no recovery was possible until the following spring when new growth a])i)eared on all tanks. In spite of the loss of grass, there was a small but continuous loss of water from each tank throughout the winter months. Plate VI shows the appearance of the grass in the tanks and in the surrounding field before burning took place. Tank growth is showni in the center of the picture as being higher than the surrounding grass.
54
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
TABLE 16
RECORD OF WEEKLY USE OF WATER BY BERMUDA GRASS IN TANKS AT SAN BERNAR- DINO, CALIFORNIA, MAY, 1929, TO SEPTEMBER, 1930i
Week ending
192»-
May 14 May 21 May 28 June 4 June 11 June 18 June 25 July 2 July 9 July 16 July 23 July 30 Aug. 6 Aug. 13 Aug. 20 Aug. 27 Sept. 3 Sept. 10 Sept. 17 Sept. 24 Oct. 1 Oct. 8 Oct. 15 Oct. 22 Oct. 29 Nov. 5 Nov. 12 Nov. 19 Nov. 26 Dec. 3 Dec. 10 Dec. 17 Dec. 24 Dec. 31
Use of water by Bermuda grass, in acre-inches per acre
Fixed water table three feet below ground surface
Tank No. 1 Tank No. 2
1.155
1 006
.828
1.198
.879
.828
1.558
1.389
1.187
1.175
1.497
1.137
1.490
1.121
1.212
1.098
1.118
.688
.742
.508
.582
.656
.901
.542
.466
.406
.400
.264
.232
.074
.149
.200
.205
.167
Mean
Note: — Records for tank No. 2 could not be relied upon before October.
0.942 .403 .762 .902 .540 .382 .365 .261 .126 .286 .127 .201 .084
0.799 .652 .652 .684 .473 .391 .315 .246 .100 .217 .164 .203 .125
Fixed water table two feet below ground surface
Tank No. 3
1.293 1.112 1.081 1.621 1.292 1.070 1.993 1.653 1.537 1.622 1.823 1.315 1.631 1.601 1.495
1.494 1 548 .837 1.219 .520 .636 .912 .667 .594 .772 .317 .498 .424 .327 .212 .266 .212 .201 .201
Tank No. 4
1
325
.964
.869
1.072
.859
.921
1.451
1.336
1.314
1.356
1.655
.964
1.388
1.304
1.281
1.273
1.177
.869
.911
.497
.636
.742
.645
.583
.593
.286
.392
.372
.349
.128
.255
.137
.233
.181
Mean
1.309
1 038
.975
1.347
1.075
.996
1.722
1.495
1.425
1.489
1.739
1.140
1.510
1.452
1.388
1.383
1.362
.853
1.065
.508
.636
.827
.656
.588
.683
.301
.445
.398
.338
.170
.260
.175
.217
.191
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
55
TABLE 16— Continued
RECORD OF WEEKLY USE OF WATER BY BERMUDA GRASS IN TANKS AT SAN BERNAR- DINO, CALIFORNIA, MAY, 1929, TO SEPTEMBER, 1930'
Week ending
1930-
Jan. 7 Jan. 14 Jan. 21 Jan. 28 Feb. 4 Feb. 11 Feb. 18 Feb. 25 Mar. 4 Mar. 11 Mar. 18 Mar. 25 April 1 April 8 April 15 April 22 .\pril29 Mav 6 Mav 13 May 20 May 27 June 3 June 10 June 17 June 24 July 1 July 8 Julv 15 July 22 July 29 Aug. 5 Aug. 12 Aug. 19 Aug. 26 Sept. 2 Sept. 9 Sept. 16 Sept. 23 Sept. 30
Use of water by Bermuda grass, in acre-inches per acre
Fixed water table three feet below ground surface
Tank No. 1 Tank No. 2
.105 .139 .202 .160 .044 .063 .138 .265 .298 .373 .285 .180 .213 .211 .466 .571 .774 .287 .362 .448 .648 .741 1.258 .625 .953 1.256 1.186 .816 1.452 1.217 .573 .689 .974 .994 .890 .678 .783 .468 .403
.222 .188 .190 .148 .180 .074 .222 .232 .264 .264 .106 .105 .329 .201 .159 .688 .624 .370 .370 .338 .830 .870 .965 .955 .995 1.312 1.334 1.441 1.558 1.112
1.483 .858
1.007 .531 .890
Mean
.169 .163 .186 .154 .112 .068 .180 .249 .281 .318 .196 .143 .271 .206 .312 .630 .699 .329 .366 .393 .739 .806 1.112 .790 .974 1,284 1.260 1.129 1.505 1.165
1.187
.768 .895 .500 .647
Fixed water table two feet below ground surface
Tank No. 3 Tank No. 4
.148
.190
.127
.010
.064
.147
.212
.276
.181
.201
.074
.116
.614
.561
.657
1 039
.785
.296
.255
.627
1.058
1.167
1 345
1.175
1.219
1.515
1.399
1.633
1.578
1.496
1.409
1.093
1.146
1.473
1.249
1.145
.775
.753
.498
.179
.116
.106
.032
.042
.106
.125
.297
.233
.265
.191
.222
!l91
.223
.381
.901
.773
.626
.317
.339
.794
.933
1.271
1.208
1.166
1.484
1.271
1.398
1 452
1.346
1.071
1.123
.933
1.408
1.167
.985
.826
.561
.689
Mean
.164
.153
.117
.021
.053
.126
.168
.287
.212
.233
.132
.169
.402
.392
.519
.970
.779
.461
.286
.483
.926
1.050
1.308
1.192
1.193
1.500
1.335
1.516
1.515
1.421
1.240
1.108
1.040
1.441
1.208
1.065
.801
.657
.594
' All tanks covered during rains. Tanks contain undisturbed soil.
56
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
TABLE 17
RECORD OF WEEKLY USE OF WATER BY BERMUDA GRASS IN TANKS AT SAN BERNARDINO, CALIFORNIA, OCTOBER, 1930, TO NOVEMBER, 1931'
Week ending
|
1930- ^Oct. |
7 |
|
Oct |
14 - |
|
Oct. |
21 . |
|
Oct. |
28 |
|
Nov. |
4 .. |
|
Nov |
11 ' |
|
Nov. |
18 |
|
Nov, |
25 , |
|
Dec. |
2 |
|
Dec. |
9 |
|
Dec. |
16--, |
|
Dec. |
23 |
|
Dec. |
30--.- — 1 |
1931—
Jan. 6- Jan. 13- Jan. 20- Jan. 27- Feb. 3- Feb. 10- Feb. 17- Feb. 24- Mar. 3- Mar. 10- Mar. 17- Mar. 24. Mar. 31- April 7- April 14- April21_ April 28- May 5- May 12- May 19- May 26- June 2- June 9- June 16- June 23- June 30- July 7- July 14- July 21- July 28- Aug. 4- Aug. 11- Aug. 18- Aug. 25. Sept. 1- Sept. 8- Sept. 15- Sept. 22. Sept. 29. Oct. 6- Oct. 13- Oct. 20- Oct. 27. Nov. 3. Nov. 10-
Use of water by Bermuda grass, in acre-inches per acre
Fixed water table three feet below ground surface
Tank No. 1 Tank No. 2
0 319 .137 .105 .096 .169 .126 .083 .116 .137 .116 .095 .084 .148
.021
.042 .043 .042 .021 .159 .148 .264 .274 .231 .392 .562 .435 .519 .317 .382 .795
1.145 .966 .816
1.420
1.281 .996 .858 .858
1.144 .658 .404 .563 .806 .731 .487 .424 .371 .435 .200 .306
0.297 .168 .212 .127 .276 .244 .294 .274 .169 .181 .148 .116 .073
.011
.042
.117
.126
.095
.382
.720
.668
.480
.414
.499
.762
.743
.605
797
.786
.817
1.389
1.409
1.633
1.410
1.335
1.304
1.336
.594
1.155
.858
.562
.679
.655
.445
.508
.615
.522
.233 .212
Mean
D 308 .153 .159 .112 .223 .185 .189 .195 .153 .149 .122 .100 .111
.016
.042
.080
.084
.058
.271
.434
.466
.377
.323
.446
.662
.589
.562
.557
.584
.806
1 267
1.188
1.225
1.415
1.308
1.150
1,097
.726
1.150
.758
.483
.621
.731
.588
.498
.520
.447
.217 .259
Fixed water table two feet below ground surface
Tank No. 3 Tank No. 4
0.457 222 ^233 .340 .340 .413 .202 .255 .074 .170 .169 .147 .105
.043 .052 .147 .147 .212 .402 .403 .563 .562 .689 .836 .911 .222 .412 .985 .049 .860 .689 .615 .763 377 749 527 674 876 1.666 1.568
.420 .144 .419 .849 .625 .155 .836 .721 .594 .583 .476 .392 .742 .297
0.276 .371 .294 .224 .244 .244 .202 .190 .127 .126 .116 .116 .136
.042 .053 .021 .063 .138 .307 .328 .509 .434 .488 .836 .837 .254 .360 .710 .934 .711 .773 .456 .679 .293
1.516
1.409
1.687
1.538
1 345
1 322
1.239
.678
1.442
.605
.551
.859
.784
.752
.666
.266 .253 .541 .425
Mean
0.367 .297 .264 .282 .292 .329 .202 .223 .101 .148 .143 .132 .121
.043
.053
.084
.105
.175
.355
.366
.536
.498
.589
.836
.874
.238
.386
.848
.992
.786
.731
.536
.721
1 335
1.633
1.468
1.681
1.707
1 506
1.445
1.330
.911
1.431
.727
.588
1.007
.810
.737
.630
.371 .323 .642 .361
• All tanks covered during rains. ' Grass burned off tanks.
Tanks contain undisturbed soil.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
57
Plate A'll sliOAvs a comparison of the consumptive use of water by Bermuda grass and salt grass, and also evaporation from the water surface of a ground tank of the same size as the soil tanks. The ground tank was No. 16 at the Santa Ana station. The water table in each case was 2 feet in depth during the period indicated, and the results
PLATE VI
ietk
■■■«
W-
BERMUDA GRASS IN TANKS IN FIELD OF SIMILAR GROWTH
AT SAN BERNARDINO. THE TANKS ARE IN THE CENTER
OF THE PICTURE SHOWING HEAVIER GROWTH.
given are the averages of three tanks of salt grass and of two tanks of Bermuda grass. respectiA^ely. During the period of record the total use of water by salt gra.ss was 29.6 acre-inches per acre, while that by Bermuda grass was 34.7 acre-inches per acre.
Although consumptive use by Bermuda grass is the greater, the maximum 12-month record from ]May to April during the three years of measurement was but little more than 3 acre-feet per acre in a year
58
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
when the tanks were protected from rainfall. If there had been no protection consumptive use would have been slightly increased. The San Bernardino district has an interior climate which increases evapora- tion and consumptive use of water to an amount greater than that in the coastal climate of Orange County, and irrigation requirements also are higher. The use of water by Bermuda grass is probably somewhat higher than the use by citrus, but less than that by alfalfa. Bermuda grass, therefore, does not make an excessive demand upon the ground water supply.
Monthly consumptive use of water by Bermuda grass for the period covered by the investigation is shown in Tables 18, 19 and 20. These tables also show the total use of water for each year, ending April 30. Some months are omitted, but percentages of use for the
PLATE VII
vap
I Ai pa/7 Bernardino (Bermuda) " At Santa /}na (Salt Grass)
I. from ground iank >. 16 a/ San fa ^na
5
Apr.
:
I
May- iJune.lJuly.
^ ^-
\
Aug.
R
<
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
1931
COMPARISON OF USE OF WATER BY BERMUDA GRASS AT SAN BERNARDINO
WITH THAT OF SALT GRASS AT SANTA ANA AND EVAPORATION FROM
WATER IN TANK NO. 16 AT SANTA ANA.
months of record, based on the evaporation from both the circular sunken evaporation tank and the Weather Bureau pan, separately, are given for the same period. It is through these percentages that com- parisons of consumptive use with the same or different crops grown under different climatic conditions may be made.
Use of Water by Tules and Cat-Tails
A study of consumptive use of water by aquatic growth was begun in the summer of 1929 at the Santa Ana station by transplanting rooted plants of round stem tules into a single tank. In the following spring investigation of triangular stem tules and cat-tails was begun at Santa Ana and later one tank of triangular stem tules at Prado and one tank of round stem tules at San Bernardino were included.
The round stem tule or common bulrush (Scirpus acutus) is a perennial plant with a round, dark green stem which grows to a height of 6 to 12 feet. It is found in abundance in some sections where water
VCES, MAY, 1929, TO APRIL,
|
Number of months of record |
Total amount used |
Per cent of |
||||
|
;iary |
March |
April |
Tank No. 5 |
Tank No. 7 |
||
|
1 647 V676 1.662 '742 ^.676 1.709 1 .676 |
1 136 .877 1.006 1.122 .975 1 048 3.912 |
2 139 1.798 1.968 3.063 2.373 2 718 5.400 |
12 6 12 12 12 12 2 12 |
|||
|
32.526 |
51.2 |
45 5 |
||||
|
37 266 63 572 13 858 71 490 |
58.6 100.0 105 3 112 5 |
52.1 88.9 95 6 |
||||
|
'456 |
5 016 |
5.376 |
100.0 |
|||
|
IR SI |
JRFACES |
, MAY, 1< |
)30, TO |
|
Number of months of record |
Total amount used |
Per cent of |
|||||
|
nary |
March |
April |
Tank No. 5 |
Tank No. 7 |
|||
|
1 |
.495 .211 .353 .253 (•) .058 |
0.169 .391 .280 2.036 1.674 , 1.855 4 953 8 883 5 766 |
9 9 10 11 11 11 12 11 12 |
||||
|
'2 |
2.334 2 334 2.700 2.457 2.579 4 064 13 399 4-892 |
||||||
|
I 3 |
23 833 |
49 3 |
43.0 |
||||
|
4 |
|||||||
|
5 6 7 |
31 010 53 396 170 880 61.594 |
61 3 100.0 334.1 115 4 |
53.0 86 7 291.9 100 0 |
||||
TABLE 18
SUMMARY SHOWING MONTHLY USE OF WATER BY BERMUDA GRASS AND EVAPORATION FROM WATER SURFACES, MAY, 1929, TO APRIL,
1930, IN TANKS AT SAN BERNARDINO, CALIFORNIA'
|
Tank No. |
Content of tank |
Depth to water table, in feet |
Diameter of tank, in inches |
Amount of water used, in inches |
of depth |
Number of months of record |
Total amount used |
Per cent of |
|||||||||||
|
Ma>-= |
June |
July |
August |
September |
October |
November |
December |
January |
February |
March |
April |
Tank No. 5 |
Tank No. 7 |
||||||
|
1 |
3 3 3 2 2 2 |
23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/18 23 1/16 48 |
4 280 |
5 216 |
5 489 |
S 345 |
2 901 |
2,771 |
1 255 1 505 1 380 1 641 1 410 1 525 4 704 ' 4 980 |
0 719 .761 .740 1 007 849 928 3 480 s'sie" |
0 650 886 ,768 ,475 433 454 2 220 "2 316 |
0 647 676 B62 742 876 709 2 676 3 456" |
1.136 .877 1,006 1 122 ,975 I 048 3,912 5 016' |
2,139 1,798 1,968 3,063 2,373 2 718 5,400 |
12 6 |
||||
|
2 Mean |
32.526 |
51 2 |
|||||||||||||||||
|
4.280 5 340 4 840 5,090 6,090 |
5 216 6 348 4 854 5,601 7.596 |
5 489 7 144 5 872 6 508 8 892 |
5 345 6 804 5 660 6 232 7 740 8 296 8 808 |
2 901 3 785 3 337 3 561 5 426 5 562 5 690 |
2,771 3 061 2 722 2 892 5 436 5 580 |
||||||||||||||
|
3 |
12 12 12 12 2 12 |
||||||||||||||||||
|
4 |
|||||||||||||||||||
|
37 266 63 672 13 858 71 490 |
58.6 100 0 105 3 112 5 |
52 1 |
|||||||||||||||||
|
88.9 95.6 100 0 |
|||||||||||||||||||
|
6 7 |
|||||||||||||||||||
|
Water in standard Weather Bureau pan |
7.780 |
8.892 |
9 780 |
' Tanks contained undisturbed soil. All grass tanks covered during rains. ^Records began May 8. 1929. but May totals are proportioned for full month.
TABLE 19
SUMMARY SHOWING MONTHLY' USE OF WATER BY BERMUDA GRASS AND TULES AND EVAPORATION FROM WATER SURFACES, MAY, 1930, TO
APRIL, 1931, IN TANKS AT SAN BERNARDINO, CALIFORNIA' '
|
Tank No. |
Content of tank |
Depth to water table, in feet |
Diameter of tank, in inches |
Amount of water used, in inches of depth |
Number of months of record |
Total amount used |
Per cent of |
||||||||||||
|
May |
June |
July |
August |
September |
October' |
November |
December |
January |
February |
March |
April |
Tank No. 5 |
Tank No. 7 |
||||||
|
1 |
Bermuda grass. _. |
3 3 3 2 2 2 |
23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 48 |
2.031 2 163 2.097 2.916 2 500 2.708 4 572 16 935 5 496 |
4 552 4.524 4.538 5.560 5.235 5 393 5 976 22.125 6 588 |
4 872 5 997 5 435 6.710 8 135 8 423 8 804 30 052 8 078 |
3,898 |
2 533 3,625 3,079 3 520 3 358 3 439 5,124 17.417 6 472 |
0 720 .963 .842 1 337 1 261 1 299 4,860 '13,989 5 208 |
0 626 1 034 ,780 1 188 ,890 1 039 3 506 '12 860 3 788 |
0 506 593 550 ,623 .547 585 2 851 '5 365 2 634 |
0 169 .391 ,280 2 036 1,674 , 1,855 4 953 8 883 5 788 |
9 9 10 11 11 11 12 11 12 |
||||||
|
2 . |
0 495 211 353 2 253 (•) 3 058 |
2 334 2,334 2,700 2 457 2 579 4 064 13 399 4 892 |
23 833 |
49 3 |
|||||||||||||||
|
Mean |
Bermudagrass |
3 898 5 608 5 066 5 337 6,844 26,108 7 536 |
43 0 |
||||||||||||||||
|
3 |
Bermuda grass |
||||||||||||||||||
|
4 |
Bermudagrass |
||||||||||||||||||
|
Mean |
Bermudagrass. |
31 010 53 396 170 880 81 594 |
61 3 100 0 334 1 115 4 |
63 0 |
|||||||||||||||
|
6 |
2 789 4.047 3 100 |
86 7 |
|||||||||||||||||
|
6 |
291 9 |
||||||||||||||||||
|
7 . . |
Water in standard Weather Bureau pan .... |
100 0 |
|||||||||||||||||
' Tanks contained undisturbed soil.
*Grass burned off Tanks Nos. 1 to 4, October 4, 1930.
» Use for November computed from 21-day record.
* Ijse for December computed from 20-day record.
^Use for January computed from 25-day record.
•Heavy rains ruined record.
'.411 grass tanks covered during rains.
•Not applicable to field conditions.
4503 — Bet pp. 58-59
TABLE 20
SUMMARY SHOWING MONTHLY USE OF WATER BY BERMUDA GRASS AND TULES AND EVAPORATION FROM WATER SURFACES, MAY, 1931,
TO APRIL, 1932, IN TANKS AT SAN BERNARDINO, CALIFORNIA' '
|
Tank No. |
CoDtent of tank |
Depth to water table, iu feet |
Diameter of tank, in inches |
Amount of water used, in inches of depth |
Number of months of record |
Total amount used |
Per cent of |
||||||||||||
|
May |
June |
July |
August |
September |
October |
November |
December |
January |
February |
March ('1 |
April |
Tank No. 5 |
Tank No. 7 |
||||||
|
1 |
3 3 3 2 2 2 |
23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 23 1/16 48 |
1 959 2 759 2.359 3 677 3 086 3 382 4 850 18 067 6,794 |
2.798 3,969 3 384 4 780 4 304 4 .542 5.734 21 705 7 384 |
6 002 6 168 5.585 7 474 6 646 7 060 6 727 29 250 8 918 |
3 931 4.813 4 372 5 595 4 566 5 081 fi 886 23 233 8 062 |
2.653 2 465 2 559 3 528 3,306 3,417 5,448 '12,876 5,808 |
1 759 1 919 1,839 2 332 |
2 456 2 204 2,330 2 425 2 523 2 474 2,674 5 381 3 482 |
1,886 .757 1 322 2 057 1,854 1 986 2,786 5 050 2 098 |
1.129 |
9 8 9 9 8 9 12 11 12 |
|||||||
|
2 . |
|||||||||||||||||||
|
Mean |
Bermuda grass Bermuda grass Bermuda grass Bermuda grass |
1.129 1 540 1 573 1 557 3 008 4 151 3.126 |
24 879 |
58 3 |
49 3 |
||||||||||||||
|
3_ |
|||||||||||||||||||
|
4 |
|||||||||||||||||||
|
2 332 4 596 7 575 4 812 |
31 801 54 933 141 922 65 134 |
74 5 100 0 272,7 118,6 |
63 0 |
||||||||||||||||
|
5 |
2,892 '3 134 |
4 232 5 839 5,240 |
5 100 8 795 6 276 |
84 3 |
|||||||||||||||
|
6_ |
228 9 |
||||||||||||||||||
|
7.- |
100.0 |
||||||||||||||||||
' Tanks contained undisturbed soil.
' All grass tanks covered during rains prior to December 1, 1931.
*Tules eaten off by stock in September.
* Hea\'j' rains ruined record for Bermuda grass tanks.
' Not applicable to field conditions.
4503— Bet. pp. 58-59
WATER LOSSES FRO:\r WET AREAS 59
is plentiful and grows with its roots submerged in the shallow water along the edges of stream channels and in swamps. It is a great nuisance in drainage ditches.
The triangular stem tule (Scirpus olncyi) is similar to the round stem variety, being an aquatic plant that grows in areas of shallow water. The stems are three cornered and grow with considerable density, but are not generally as tall as the round stem tules. The cat-tail {Typha lati folia) is a perennial marsh plant with flat leaves that is frequently classed as a tule, although it belongs to an entirely different family. Its cylindrical head is filled with thousands of small cottony seeds which are spread by the wind. The cat-tail is found wherever there is sluggish water. It spreads rapidly from seed and is hard to eradicate.
Both tules and cat-tails were grown in tanks set in the ground with 2 inches of rim surface exposed. Water was held on the tank surface to a depth of approximately 2 inches so that the roots were entirely submerged. It seems probable that air is supplied to the root systems of growths of this type through the coarse cellular structure of the stems. The surrounding ground surface w^as free from vegeta- tion during the first season, but later was covered with grass.
All tule or cat-tail tanks were in exposed locations, subject to the full effect of solar radiation and wind movement. In this respect, tules grown at the stations differed from tules in swamps where a certain degree of protection is afforded by increased vegetation and a larger growing area. Consumptive use by swamp growth is partly controlled by greater humidity overlying the swamp area. It is probably true, too, that temperatures within the swamp are lower than those outside. Both factors would combine to cause a lower use of water by swamp plants than by those in exposed tanks.
In general, it appears that aquatic plants in exposed tanks do not attain the maximum height of stalk growth that is found under natural conditions. Tank growth rarely exceeds 5 or 6 feet in height when fully exposed, and more often is less, whereas natural swamp growth of tules or cat-tails frequently grow to a height of 10 or 12 feet. The highest growth occurs in the swamp interior, with shortej' stalks around the water's edge. In this respect the outside growth in a swamp is com- parable to that in experimental tanks.
To determine whether size of tank had an effect on consumptive use of water, an additional tank, 6 feet in diameter, was transplanted to round stem tules at the Santa Ana station. The density of growth at no time equalled that in the smaller tank and the consumptive use per unit of area was consequently less. A comparison of the data obtained from two tanks for tlie month of September, 1931, shows that the smaller tank had a density of 87 stems per square foot of tank area, which used water at the rate of 19.37 acre-inches per acre per month, M-hilo the larger tank had only 57 stems per square foot of area using 12.43 acre-inches. The exposure of both tanks was identical. Carrying the comparison further to determine the consumptive use per individual stalk indicates that each tule used tlie same amount of water, regardless of density of growth or size of tank in which it grew. Plate VIII-A shows the 6-foot tule tank, No. 23, with the small tule tank. No. 19, at the right.
60
DIVISION OP WATER RESOURCES
PLATE VIII
if*
1 (
A^
It,
•^, i,0>C
S
Q »<..^
4
^l:,
A. TULES GROWING IN TANK SIX FEET IN DIAMETER AT SANTA ANA STATION, 1931, WITH SMALL TANKS OF TULES AND CAT-TAILS
AT THE RIGHT.
Hi'
ir'i.-»i
;.i^
B. CAT-TAILS GROWING IN SMALL TANK, SANTA ANA STATION, 1931.
C. TULES GROWING IN SMALL TANK, PRADO STATION, 1931,
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
61
The cooperative station at Prado was intended principally to deter- mine the rate of use of water by tales in connection with a study of the flow of the Santa Ana Kiver that was being made by the United States Geological Survey. As the station was isolated and daily visits were not practicable, recording devices were attached to both tule tank and Weather Bureau evaporation pan. From the records so obtained the hourly rates of consumptive use and of evaporation have been computed. These are plotted in Plate IX, which shows air and water temperatures, consumptive use of water by tules in an isolated tank, and evaporation from a four-foot pan for each hour of the day from August 21 to August 28, 1931, inclusive. There were periods during the early morning hours when the loss of w^ater was too small to be recorded and evaporation or transpiration, during those hours, has been listed as zero. Characteristic of both evaporation and transpiration is the daily increase or decrease with a rising or falling temperature. The minimum rate occurs near sunrise and the maximum is in the after- noon. Consumptive use is greater than evaporation and responds more readily to sunlight and changes of temperature. The rate of evapora- tion does not increase rapidly until water in the pan has been warmed
PLATE IX
HOURLY RATE OF USE OF WATER BY TULES, EVAPORATION FROM
STANDARD WEATHER BUREAU PAN AND AIR AND WATER
TEMPERATURES, PRADO STATION.
by the sun and is relatively slow in comparison with the rate of con- sumptive use, which increases rapidly, comes to a peak sooner, and declines more quickly.
On the morning of August 28 temperature was less than normal and a light rain occurred shortly after noon. The effect of the rain in deferring the morning increase in consumptive use and in evaporation from water until about 2 p.m. is shown on the chart. The rain was apparently the cause of a small decrease in the rate of evaporation until its effect was overcome by a rise in temperature. In general, the highest air temperature occurred at about 1 or 2 p.m., while the highest water temperature occurred about two hours later. The same interval also is noticeable in minimum temperatures. Observations in other localities have shown that the highest consumptive use of water by tules
62 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
occurs at approximately the time of highest air temperatures, although such is not the case in this instance.
Coastal Avinds continuing through several hours each day pass over the Prado station and, in combination with high temperatures, are responsible for a continued increase in both evaporation and transpira- tion until 3 or 4 o'clock in the afternoon. This accounts for a larger consumptive use than at other localities in the Santa Ana basin.
Because of their exposure and abnormal conditions affecting growth, use of water by tules grown in tanks was excessive. At Santa Ana station, round stem tules used more water than did the triangular stem tules or the cat-tails, their gro-\\i;h being greater in point of density and height of stems. Their consumptive use frequently amounted to more than 1| inches in depth per day and at one time averaged an inch a day for a period of six weeks. Tules at the Prado station had a higher consumptive use than did those of the same A-ariety at Santa Ana, partly because of slight climatic differences, but also because of differences in height and number of stems. The maximum daily use at Prado was 3.6 acre-inches per acre on a day of high temperature and wind movement.
Intensive investigations near Victorsdlle, undertaken to determine the proper adjustment factor to be used in reducing consumptive use of water by tules groAvn in tanks to the actual amount used by swamps, are discussed in the folloAAdng chapter. In this study, one 2-foot tank containing tules Avas fully exposed to Avind and sunshine Avith a result- ing large use of Avater. A large tank set in a protected area of a SAvamp used a much smaller amount. Further investigation by the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering in the Sacramento-San Joaquin delta indi- cates a factor of 0.46 for cat-tails and tules for a 20-day period in August, 1930. Reporting on this and other Avork, Charles H. Lee* has adopted a tentative factor of 0.50 for making the reduction, admitting that the value may be changed Avhen further data are available. By applying the results of the Victorville investigation to the measured losses from isolated tanks used in southern California, it is found that the adjustment factor ranges in these experiments from 0.29 to 0.55 as shoAvn in Table 21.
AYliile the relation betAveen the Avater requirement of a crop and evaporation from a Avater surface during the groAving season is not constant, month by month, it is the most practical means of making comparisons of consumptive use, not only from year to j'ear, but between localities having different rates of evaporation. For this purpose the best records for comparison are those of standard Weather Bureau eA^aporation pans, which are in more general use in investigational Avork than pans of other sizes or depths. For the Victorville station, where tules were grown in a swamp area, the percentage of consumptive use in the swamp with reference to CA^aporation from the "Weather Bureau pan is computed for an average year, the result being about 95 per cent. In the average year the consumptive use for each month is taken as the average of all records for that month. Neglecting other factors, such as variety, density of groAvth, and seasonal variations in evaporation and transpiration, this percentage has been applied to evaporation
* BuUetin No. 28, Economic Aspects of a Salt AA'ater Barrier Below Confluence of Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers, Division of Water Resources, 1931.
WATER liOSSES FROM WET AREAS
63
records at Santa Ana, i'rado, and San Bernardino. In other words, 95 per cent of the evaporation at a station is estimated to be the con- sumptive use of water by aquatic growth in a natural swamp area in tliat locality. Ilaviuir computed the estimated consumptive use in a swamp, the percentage of computed swamp use to the observed tank use, mav be determined. This was the method followed in compiling Table 2i.
TABLE 21
ESTIMATED CONSUMPTIVE USE OF WATER BY TULES AND CAT-TAILS IN SWAMPS BASED UPON TANK EXPERIMENTS, AND PERCENTAGE OF SWAMP USE
TO TANK USE
|
Station |
Tank number |
Aquatic growth |
Observed consumptive use from exposed tank, in acre-inches per acre per year |
Evaporation from Weather Bureau pan, in inches per year |
Computed consumptive use from swamp, in acre-inches per acre per year |
Swamp consumptive use, in per cent of observed consumptive use |
|
Victorville . |
Triangular stem tules- _ Round stem tules TriangTilar stem tules. . Cat-tails |
272.2 188.3 172.5 116.9 115.4 251.3 162.1 |
'82.5 66.6 66.6 66.6 66.6 77.4 66.1 |
'78.5 63 4 63.4 63.4 63.4 73.6 62.9 |
28.8 |
|
|
19 21 22 23 |
33 7 |
|||||
|
Santa Ana Santa Ana |
36 8 54 2 |
|||||
|
Santa Ana |
Round stem tules Triangular stem tiiles- - Round stem tules |
55.0 |
||||
|
Prado |
29.3 |
|||||
|
San Bernardino |
6 |
38.8 |
||||
|
Mean percentage . |
39.5 |
|||||
' The observed swamp consumptive use at Victorville is 95.2 per cent of the evaporation from the Weather Bureau pan. This percentage multiplied by the evaporation at each station equals the computed swamp use for that locality.
In the last column of the table there is a large difference in per- centages. These are due in part to differences in density of gro^^i:h in each tank. Disregarding small dift'erences in rates of transpira- tion, which may exist in different varieties of aquatic growth, the total use of water by adjacent tanks should correspond rather closely, pro- vided that the dry weight of crop matter is nearly the same. Trans- piration is nearly proportional to the transpiring area and is conse- quently more where there is a heavy growth than where the growth is light. Each tank used had different density of growth and a different consumptive use. In Tank No. 22 cat-tails did not spread and produce as thick a growth as is natural in .swamp areas, nor did they reach the height of stems found in swamps. The same is true of round stem tules in Tank No. 23. In both cases, the observed consumptive use is less than that of triangular stem tules at Santa Ana or of round stem tules at San Bernardino, and the percentage of computed swamp use to observed tank use is much higher than the average for other tanks. Likewise, consumptive use by tules at Prado is high and its relation to swamp use is correspondingly low.
The results of the tule tank experiments indicate the impractica- bility of applying to field conditions records of tests made in isolated tanks of tules grown apart from their natural environment.
64 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
Use of Water by Willows
Willows are water-loving shrubs or trees found in areas of com- paratively high ground water. They often grow in the coarse material forming di'y stream channels, where they draw moisture from the underflow. The root system of some varieties includes a long tap root which enables the plant to receive moisture from a water table at a considerable depth. Willows have been observed in a very sandy soil where depth to water table was about 10 feet.
Investigation of consumptive use of water by a single willow {Salix laevigata) bush was begun at the Santa Ana station in 1930. The bush consisted of a single clump of 20 stems from one-half to an inch and one- quarter in diameter growing from the same root. The average height was about 7 feet. This bush was transplanted into a metal tank, 6 feet in diameter hy 3 feet deep. Measurement of consumptive use was begun in May, 1930, and continued for two years. The spread of bush area was the same as the tank area and consumptive use was computed on that basis. The soil in the tank was bare, consequently the total use includes soil evaporation. Water in the soil stood 2 feet below the surface. As the soil in the tank was shaded by the willow growth and grass and weeds grew up around the tank, evaporation was probably no more than occurs under ordinarj^ conditions of scattered brush growth. Previous experiments with evaporation from disturbed soil having the same water table depth show losses ranging from less than 1 to nearly 3 inches per month, depending upon the season. Evaporation from the willow tank should be relative^ small on account of shade and protection due to overhanging branches.
During both years of the investigation stems and leaves of the willow were heavily infested with aphis and the red ants that are found with them. During 1930 the tree was sprayed regularly, every effort being made to control the pest, and apparently no harm was done. In the following year, defoliation began early in the summer and was com- plete by September, several weeks earlier than is normal. During this period consumptive use records are not for a healthy tree in full leaf. In the following spring of 1932, the third of the investigation, a normal growth of new leaves appeared at the regular time, indicating that no permanent damage to the tree had occurred. Plate X shows the Avillow growing in a 6-foot tank at Santa Ana in May, 1930, before vegetative growth surrounded the tank.
Soil in the willow tank originally contained some alkali. During the summer months, when evaporation was at a maximum, white alkali was deposited on the tank surface. As the daily amount of water was added to the tank the total amount of alkali increased. These salts went through seasonal changes in location in alternate wet and dry seasons as they were carried down to the water table by winter rains and returned to the surface by summer evaporation. During the period when the tree was losing its leaves alkali was visible on the tank surface, but apparently not to exceed the amount of the previous year when no defoliation occurred. The willow is normally a user of relatively pure water and does not grow where salts are found in high concentration. The defoliation may have been due either to presence of alkali or to infestation.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
65
Consiiniptive use of water by the willow groAvth by months is shown in Tables 14 and 15. The maximum monthly use in the year in which the growth was in good condition, amounting to 7.8 acre-inches per {'cre, occurred in August. In comparison with evaporation from a Weather Bureau pan, consumptive use exceeded evaporation only dur- ing the months of August and September. The total use during a period of eleven months, shown in Table 14. was 52.7 acre-inches per
PLATE X
WILLOW TREE GROWING IN 6-FOOT TANK, SANTA ANA
STATION, 1931.
acre or 83.5 per cent of the evaporation from a Weather Bureau pan for the same period. It is evident that willows grown in tanks under the conditions of this experiment, are fairly large users of ground water. The amounts used exceed consumptive u.se by either salt grass or Bermuda gra.ss, but are less than consumptive use by tules under natural swamp conditions.
An adjustment factor has been computed for tules to adjust con- sumptive use of water by tank growth to similar growth in large areas,
5 — 4503
66 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
but no basis exists for computing the proper factor for use with willows. Because there is a great natural difference in the habits of growth of tules and willows, the same factor will not apply to both. Tules naturally grow in swamp areas, whereas willows are found in scattered areas of dry land, sometimes in isolated clumps, small groups, or in large bodies of ))rush. AVhere isolated growth occurs, conditions of temperature, sunlight, and wind movement are the same as for tank growth, and consumptive use is nearly the same in all cases. In dense grovrths of brush, however, conditions are changed to reduce the factors mentioned and transpiration also is less. In this case, an adjust- ment factor should be applied to the observed consumptive use by willoM'S grown in tanks to arrive at the correct figure for field con- ditions. In many instances willows grow as a fringe along water courses, and endjankments of ditches. They are also found in large areas interspersed with open places that are sometimes of considerable size. Considering differences in the spread of willow growth it is evi- dent that an adjustment factor is not a constant that can be used under all conditions, but is a variable depending upon density and size of brush. Due to the present lack of data, any factor arrived at must be only an estimate, subject to revision later when further evidence is available. For willow growth in the Santa Ana Kiver basin, which is ]iartly in solid blocks of brush and partly scattering, it is estimated that consumptive use is 75 to 100 per cent of the amount of water necessary for isolated tank growth, with an average of 85 per cent.
Use of Water by Wire Rush
Wire rush (Juncus hallicus) grows in limited areas of high ground water in the Prado basin where it is found in association with salt grass. In appearance it is a heavy, tough, Avire-like grass growing from a thick creeping rootstalk. In places where it was observed, it did not exceed 10 or 12 inches in height. Some of this growth was transplanted into a small tank at the Santa Ana station in the summer of 1930 for the pur- pose of making a consumptive use of water study, as indications were that it might be a large user of water. During the first year of the study a considerable amount of salt grass Avas included with the wire rush, but in the following year the heavier growth had croAvded out the salt grass.
A fixed water level was maintained at a depth of 2 feet in the tank, although where a natural growth occurred in tlie fields there were seasonal fluctuations of ground water at greater depths. This depth was the same as that chosen for investigations of consumptive use by salt grass, Bermuda grass, and willows. During the first winter, the wire rush tank was protected from rainfall, as were all soil moisture tanks, but during the second year it was exposed to all rains.
A summary showing monthly use of water b,y wire rush is given in Tables 14 and 15. The maximum use for any month was 13.75 acre- inches per acre during July, 1931. The total use for a ten-month period was 83.45 acre-inches per acre or 141.8 ])er cent of the evapora- tion from a Weather Bureau pan for the same period. In comparison with consumptive use by grasses and willows, the wire rush has appeared to be a heavy user of water and it is fortunate that the area restricted to its growth is limited.
WATER T,OSSES FRO:\r WET AREAS
67
Adjustment Factors
Previous tables have shown weekly' or monthl_y use of water by each oTowtli at tlie several stations, but Table 22 contains the observed average yeai'ly eonsumplive use and also an estimated factor for adjust- ment of such use to consumptive use over large areas. This factor for tules and cat-tails is based upon experiments carried on at Victorville and reported in Chapter III. No experiments have been made to deter- mine a factor for grasses, but conditions of tank growth are so nearly those of the tield, that factors for these crops have been taken as 100 per cent. A tentative factor of 85 per cent has been adoi)ted for willow as previously stated.
TABLE 22
SUMMARY OF TANK INVESTIGATIONS SHOWING ESTIMATED ANNUAL CONSUMPTIVE USE OF WATER IN MOIST AREAS
|
Type of vegetation |
Depth to water table, in feet |
Location |
Length of effective record, in months |
Observed average consumptive use, by vegetation in tanks, in acre-inches per acre per year |
Estimated factor for adjustment to large areas, in per cent |
Estimated annual depth of consumptive use, in acre-inches per acre per year |
|
2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 2 3 |
19 11 5 17 31 11 17 10 32 31 22 33 24 23 24 28 17 19 |
4.7 1.6 0.0 42.1 36 0 24.8 13 2 19.6 36,2 28.8 162 1 188.3 115.4 116.9 172 5 251.3 52.7 84.5 |
100 0 100.0 100.0 100 0 100 0 100.0 100.0 100 0 100.0 100.0 '38,8 '33.7 <55.0 '54. 2 '36.8 •29.3 85 0 |
4 7 |
||
|
Santa Ana ... |
1 6 |
|||||
|
Santa Ana |
0 0 |
|||||
|
Salt grass |
Santa Ana _ |
42 1 |
||||
|
Salt grass . |
Santa Ana |
36 0 |
||||
|
24 8 |
||||||
|
Santa Ana... |
13.2 |
|||||
|
Salt grass Bermuda grass Bermuda grass Round stem tules _ |
Santa Ana San Bernardino San Bernardino San Bernardino |
19.6 36.2 28.8 62 9 |
||||
|
63.4 |
||||||
|
Santa Ana |
63.4 |
|||||
|
Cat-tails |
Santa Ana |
63 4 |
||||
|
Triangular stem tules. Triangular stem tules. Willow |
Santa Ana |
63.4 |
||||
|
2 2 |
Prado ,. Santa Ana Santa Ana |
73.6 47.8 |
||||
|
Wire rush |
||||||
1 Evaporation from surface of bare soil.
2 Tules grown in tank 251^ inches in diameter. ' Tules grown in tank 6 feet in diameter. 'See Table 21.
No data are available for estimating an adjustment factor for wire rusli. While the tank in which it grew was not set in a field of similar groAAih, it Avas surrounded by grass and weeds. It is possible, since it did not grow in its natural habitat as did the salt grass, that change of environment was responsible for an increased consumptive use as is the ease with tules in isolated tanks.
In Table 22 there are also presented estimates, based upon experi- ments, of the annual drafts upon the ground water by noneconomic native growths found in moist areas in the Santa Ana basin. These estimates are only for those depths to ground water at which the
68
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
experiments were conducted and are not applicable to other localities with markedly different climatic conditions.
SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
The top soil at the Santa Ana station was overlying a coarse water bearing sand at a depth of 6 to 7 feet. It contained considerable mica and some alkali in qnantities not detrimental to the varieties of vege- tation nsed in the investigation. A thin layer of finer than average material lay at a depth of about 4 feet in all Santa Ana tanks, a mechanical analysis of which showed that 29 per cent should be classed as very fine sand and 59 per cent as silt. This fine material was unim- portant, as in all tests except one it lay below the water table and could have no effect on capillary rise of moisture or rate of transpira- tion. In the one case referred to, where it was a few inches above the water table, it apparently had no influence on rate of movement of soil moisture. Soil at the San Bernardino station is classed as Chino silt loam and is relatively free from alkali.
Mechanical Analyses
Mechanical analyses of soil from five tanks at the Santa Ana station and from two tanks at the San Bernardino station were made, and the percentages of different sized soil particles are shown in Table 23. Each sample of soil, representing 1 foot in depth and weighing
TABLE 23
MECHANICAL ANALYSES OF SOIL FROM TANKS AT SANTA ANA AND SAN BERNARDINO STATIONS
Tank number
Depth of sample, in feet
Per cent of material retained on screens of the following s'zes
No. 14
No. 28
No. 48
No. 100
No. 200
Per cent
of material
passing
screen
No. 200
|
SANTA ANA STATION |
|||||||
|
3 |
1 |
0 |
0 |
14 |
42 |
21 |
21 |
|
3 |
2 |
0 |
2 |
23 |
46 |
14 |
15 |
|
3 |
3 |
0 |
1 |
17 |
39 |
21 |
22 |
|
3 |
4 |
0 |
2 |
13 |
49 |
16 |
20 |
|
5 |
1 |
0 |
2 |
22 |
43 |
15 |
18 |
|
5 |
2 |
0 |
1 |
13 |
45 |
19 |
22 |
|
5 |
3 |
0 |
1 |
12 |
36 |
20 |
31 |
|
7 |
1 |
0 |
2 |
17 |
42 |
16 |
23 |
|
7 |
2 |
0 |
1 |
16 |
42 |
18 |
23 |
|
7 |
3 |
0 |
1 |
14 |
42 |
16 |
27 |
|
12 |
1 |
0 |
2 |
13 |
35 |
20 |
30 |
|
12 |
2 |
0 |
1 |
1(1 |
33 |
21 |
29 |
|
12 |
3 |
0 |
1 |
18 |
32 |
19 |
30 |
|
12 |
4 |
0 |
1 |
17 |
47 |
13 |
22 |
|
12 |
5 |
0 |
3 |
13 |
51 |
20 |
13 |
|
12 |
6 |
1 |
12 |
45 |
22 |
4 |
10 |
|
15 |
1 |
0 |
4 |
20 |
47 |
14 |
15 |
|
15 |
2 |
0 |
2 |
18 |
44 |
18 |
18 |
|
15 |
3 |
0 |
2 |
16 |
46 |
19 |
17 |
|
2 |
1 |
|
2 |
2 |
|
2 |
3 |
|
4 |
1 |
|
4 |
. 2 |
|
SAN BERNARDINO STATION |
||||||
|
0 |
2 |
16 |
28 |
13 |
41 |
|
|
0 |
2 |
21 |
23 |
13 |
41 |
|
|
1 |
4 |
18 |
38 |
13 |
26 |
|
|
0 |
1 |
29 |
30 |
14 |
26 |
|
|
0 |
1 |
20 |
29 |
19 |
31 |
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
69
TABLE 24
|
MOISTURE EQUIVALENTS OF SOIL |
FROM TANKS |
AT SANTA ANA AND |
|||
|
SAN BERNARDINO STATIONS |
|||||
|
Tank |
Depth of sample, |
Moisture equiv- |
Tank |
Depth of .sample, |
Moisture equiv- |
|
number |
in feet |
alent in per cent |
number |
in feet |
alent, in per cent |
|
SANTA ANA STATION |
SANTA ANA STATION |
||||
|
1 |
1 |
5.8 |
11 |
1 |
10.4 |
|
2 |
8.1 |
2 |
11.0 |
||
|
3 |
8.7 |
3 |
12.2 |
||
|
4 |
6.2 |
4 |
11.9 |
||
|
2 |
1 |
6 5 |
12 |
1 |
11.0 |
|
2 |
8.2 |
2 |
13.0 |
||
|
3 |
9.4 |
3 |
12.3 |
||
|
4 |
7.8 |
4 |
12.2 |
||
|
3 |
1 |
6.6 |
'13 |
1 |
6.3 |
|
2 |
7.1 |
2 |
6.2 |
||
|
3 |
9.2 |
||||
|
4 |
8.9 |
'14 |
1 2 |
6.2 6.7 |
|
|
4 |
1 |
7.0 |
|||
|
2 |
8.3 |
'15 |
1 2 |
6.5 6.6 |
|
|
5 |
1 |
8.3 |
|||
|
2 |
9.0 |
SAN BERNARDINO STATION |
|||
|
6 |
1 |
8.7 |
1 |
1 |
30.6 |
|
2 |
8.4 |
2 3 |
19.7 15.2 |
||
|
7 |
1 |
8.6 |
|||
|
2 |
9 0 |
2 |
1 2 |
31.2 21.4 |
|
|
8 |
1 2 |
10.3 9.8 |
3 |
16.3 |
|
|
3 |
1 |
29.4 |
|||
|
9 |
1 2 |
11.4 11.7 |
2 |
19.8 |
|
|
4 |
1 |
28.6 |
|||
|
10 |
1 2 3 4 |
9.9 12.6 12.0 9.4 |
2 |
19.3 |
' Tank Nos. 13, 14 and 15 contained disturbed soil, all others contained soil in place.
about 1000 gTams, was air dried and screened to the point of refusal. Results at Santa Ana show that about 40 per cent of the sample was retained on a No. 100 screen and nearly half that amount passed the No. 200 screen.
Soil at the San Bernardino station was finer and a larger per- centage passed the No. 200 screen.
Moisture Equivalent
Moisture equivalent is a measure of the value of the moisture retentiveness of a soil and is obtained by subjecting a sample of 80 grams to a constant centrifugal force of 1000 times the force of gravity for a period of 30 minutes. Experiments by many investigators have determined that moisture equivalent is a close measure of the field capacity. Tt is more easily interpreted as regards soil moisture reten- tion than is possible by sej)aration of soil particles into groups as determined by mechanical analysis. Colloidal matter in the soil, as an important factor in affecting specific yield or s])ecific retention, is not apparent in determinations of mechanical analysis, but does affect the percentage of moisture retained. High moisture equivalents are obtained from fine grained soils containing quantities of colloidal
70 DIVISION OF NYATER RESOURCES
matter, while low values come from coarse materials of low water holding capacity.
Soil moisture samples at the Santa Ana station, outside of soil tanks, show average moisture of 2 to 3 per cent in the upper soil after a long dry period and about 12 per cent four days after a heavy rain. The former percentage is the Avilting point for this soil, while the latter is near field capacity. Samples taken from soil tanks show moisture equivalents that approximately agree with field capacities previously determined. This is shown in Table 24 of moisture equiva- lents, as determined from samples taken from above the water tables in tanks at both Santa Ana and San Bernardino.
Moisture equivalents of Chino silt loam at San Bernardino are higher than at Santa Ana because of fine soil particles, as evidenced in Table 23, and a greater variation occurs at the different depths. The San Bernardino top soil has a high moisture equivalent, while for subsoil it is decreased one-half.
Porosity, Specific Yield, and Specific Retention
At the end of three years of investigation at the Santa Ana station and previous to dismantling the soil tanks, tests were made of the soils in various tanks to determine (1) porosity, (2) specific reten- tion, and (3) specific yield.
Porosity is a measure of the total voids in a soil and is represented as a percentage of the total volume. It varies inversely with the size of soil particles and is greater for clay soils than it is for sand or gravel.
Specific retention is a measure of the water holding capacity of a soil and is recorded as a percentage of the total volume. In deter- mining specific retention, it is necessary to consider the depth to water table, as more water is held in a soil in close proximity to the water table than at several feet above it.
Specific yield is the amount of water which will drain from a soil by gravity. It also is measured as a percentage of the total volume. It is influenced by the size of soil particles and is greater for soils of coarse material than for soils composed of finer grains. It depends also upon the amount of capillary moisture resulting from a high water table. It is evident that both specific retention and specific yield are entirely relative and not altogether functions of the soil, as they depend on the depth to ground water and are different with each change in depth within the capillary fringe. Stearns* sa,ys, "Obviously, in any direct test, whether made in the laboratory or in the field, the true specific retention of the material can be ascertained only by using a high column of the material and disregarding the lower part that lies within the capillary fringe." In considering these characteristics, it is obvious that the specific retention is the complement of the specific yield and that the sum of the two is equal to the total porosity.
Water tables in the tanks in which these tests were made were from 2 to 5 feet below the surface, or mostly within the limits of capillary rise, and therefore the specific yield and specific retention as given in this report refer only to the conditions nnder which the tests were
* Laboratory Tests on Phv.sical Properties of Water Bearing Materials, by Norah D. Stearns. (U. S. Geol. Sur. Water Supply Paper 596-F, p. 13S.) 1927.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
71
made. Tliey are not true results as would be found in the absence of a water table. For example, the true speciiic yield of a soil is measured by the quantity of water which it will yield after it lias been saturated and allowed to drain. Where a high water table exists, there can not be complete drainage.
A measure of specific yield is approximated by the difference between the porosity of a soil and its moisture equivalent by volunu". This represents the pore space remaining in a soil sample after it has
TABLE 25
COMPARISON OF THE COMPUTED SPECIFIC YIELD OF SOILS IN THE ABSENCE OF A
WATER TABLE WITH THE OBSERVED SPECIFIC YIELD OF THE
SAME SOILS HAVING HIGH WATER TABLES
|
Tank number |
Porosity, in per cent |
Moisture equivalent, in per cent by volume |
Specific yield, in per cent |
||
|
Station |
Computed (without water table)' |
Observed (with high water table) 2 |
|||
|
1 2 10 U 314 1 3 |
38.3 44.8 39 5 36 4 41.9 43.5 51.3 |
11.5 13 5 17.4 16.8 9.1 31.2 36.9 |
26 8 31.3 22.1 19.6 32.8 12.3 14.4 |
23 0 |
|
|
24.5 |
|||||
|
Santa Ana |
15 2 |
||||
|
15 5 |
|||||
|
Santa Ana _ _ _ _ - |
9.8 |
||||
|
San Bernardino . _ __ - |
9.9 |
||||
|
San Bernardino _ - . |
6.6 |
' Computed specific yield equals porosity minus moisture equivalent by volume.
= Observed specific yield equals porosity minus specific retention.
' Tank No. 14 contained disturbed soil. In all other tanks the original soil column was ujibroken.
been centrifuged. To show the difference between the computed spe- cific yield and the observed specific yield as measured in the tank tests, Table 25 has been prepared. Here the porosity as determined by meas- urement minus the moisture equivalent equals the computed spe- cific yield. In the adjoining column the observed porosity minus the specific retention equals the measured specific yield. The variation in the two values is due entirely to capillary moisture resulting from a high water table.
In making these tests, soil moisture was first determined in each tank and the water content of the soil was computed. Measured quan- tities of water were poured into the tanks, raising the water level until the soil was saturated. The volume of water required for saturation added to the capillary moisture was then equal to the total pore space, and fi'om this the percentage of porosity was computed. The capillary moisture above the water tables was incapable of further drainage and was, therefore, equal to the specific retention. Specific yield is the difference between total porosity and specific retention. These quan- tities are given in Table 26 for soils in various tanks at both the Santa Ana and San Bernardino stations.
It is shown in this table that both specific yield and specific reten- tion vary with depth to water. The higher yields occur in those tanks having the sliallower water tables. It will be observed that porosity of disturbed soil in Tank No. 14 was close to the average of all tanks, but that the specific retention greatly exceeded that of undisturbed soil.
72
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
This accounts for the frequently moist surface in this tank and for the high rate of soil evaporation from disturbed soil. One column of Table 26 includes a check of porosity by computation using the formula
As
P^lOO (1 ), where P is porosity, As is apparent specific
Sp. gr.
gravity, and Sp. gr. is the real specific gravity, which has been assumed to have a value of 2.65.
Chino silt loam is composed of finer material than is Hanford fine sandy loam and, therefore, the porosity is greater. The finer material holds a larger proportion of soil moisture which results in an
TABLE 26
POROSITY, SPECIFIC YIELD AND SPECIFIC RETENTION OF SOIL IN TANKS
HAVING HIGH WATER TABLES
|
Station |
Tank number |
Depth to water table, in feet |
Depth of soil tested, in inches |
Specific jield, in per cent |
Specific retention, in per cent |
Observed porosity, in per cent |
Computed porosity, in per cent' |
|
1 2 Mean 10 1! Mean =14 ks |
3 3 3 5 5 5 2 |
36 0 34.08 35.04 61.2 58 44 59.82 30 12 |
23 0 24.5 23.75 15 2 15 5 15.35 9.8 |
15 3 20.3 17 8 24 3 20 9 22.6 32 1 |
38.3 44.8 41 55 39 5 38 4 37.95 41.9 |
39.6 |
|
|
Santa Ana -- - |
36.2 |
||||||
|
Santa Ana Santa Ana |
37.9 40.4 |
||||||
|
Santa Ana - |
44.5 |
||||||
|
Santa Ana Santa Ana - - .. |
42.45 46 9 |
||||||
|
Santa \na, Mean of all tan |
40.2 |
41.5 |
|||||
|
San Bernardino - |
1 3 11 tanks |
3 2 |
34.56 22.2 |
9.9 6.6 |
33.6 44.7 |
43.5 51 3 |
49.8 |
|
San Bernardino- -. |
43.3 |
||||||
|
San Bernardino Mean of a |
47.4 |
46.6 |
|||||
> Computed by formula: Porosity=100| 1
;ity=100l ]
Apparent specific gravity
Real specific gravity ' Tank Xo. 14 contained disturbed soil. In all other tanks, the original soil column was unbroken.
)
increased specific retention and a smaller specific yield. For tanks having a water-table depth of 3 feet in fine sandy loam, the specific yield averaged 23.75 per cent of the volume of soil tested, but for Chino silt loam, the yield was but 9.9 per cent. The computed porosity of this soil agrees verv closelv with that found bv actual test.
Apparent Specific Gravity
Apparent specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight of a unit of dry soil to that of an equal volume of water. It is sometimes called volume weight. It varies with the soil material and is highest for soils having the lowest porosity. It is always less than the real specific gravity.
Apparent specific gravity of the soils in a majority of tanks at both stations was determined for use in computing the equivalent depth of water in inches above the water table in each tank. These
WATER LOSSES PROM WET AREAS
73
determinations were not made until the winter of 1931-32, when it became necessary to measure the change in water content in the soil each month, due to soil moisture increases from rainfall. Determina- tions were made fi'om samples taken from each foot of depth, using- a new soil tube. The weight and volume of each sample was obtained and apparent specific gravity computed by dividing the dry weight of the sample in grams by its volume in cubic centimeters.
There is considerable variation in the results and this may account for some discrepancies in consumptive use by different soil tanks, although the majority of values are close to the mean at each station. Check determinations made at points outside the tanks agree with those in the tanks. Values found in tanks containing disturbed soil are somewhat less than those in undisturbed soil, as might be expected. It will be noticed that the top foot of soil at San Bernardino has a lower apparent specific gravity than the second or third foot. Results of all apparent specific gravity determinations at both stations are given in Table 27.
TABLE 17
APPARENT SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOILS IN TANKS AT SANTA ANA AND
SAN BERNARDINO STATIONS
|
Tank number or loca- tion of sample |
Apparent specific gravity at |
|||||
|
Station |
Depth in feet |
|||||
|
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
Mean |
||
|
1 2 5 6 10 11 12 14 15 5 feet north of Tank No. 1 4 feet south of Tank No. 8 5 feet south of Tank No. 12 4 feet north of Tank No. 6 Mean 1 2 3 4 Mean |
1 61 1 07 1.41 1.51 1.56 1 54 1.48 1 34 1 42 1 57 1 50 1 44 1 49 1 50 1.35 1 33 1.37 1 34 1 35 |
1.60 1 70 1.63 1.46 1 57 1 40 1 49 1.46 1 28 1.47 1 53 1 47 1 47 1 50 1 50 1 52 1 62 1 58 1.56 |
1.58 1.70 |
1.60 |
||
|
Santa .A.na |
1.69 1.52 |
|||||
|
1 49 |
||||||
|
Santa .\na Santa Ana Santa .\na Santa .\na |
1.64 1 45 1.44 1.46 |
1.53 1 49 1 48 |
1 58 1.47 1.47 1 42 1.35 |
|||
|
Santa .\na |
1.44 |
1.36 |
1.46 1.52 |
|||
|
Santa Ana Santa Ana Santa Ana San Bernardino -. San Bernardino |
1.57 1.56 1 54 1.44 1 51 |
1.58 1 44 1.48 |
1.52 1.49 1.51 1.43 1.45 |
|||
|
1.50 |
||||||
|
1 46 |
||||||
|
San Bernardino.. - |
1.48 |
1.46 |
CHAPTER III INVESTIGATIONS IN MOJAVE RIVER AREA
By Colin A. Taylor and Harry G. Xickle *
Along the ]\Iojave River there are moist areas where the non- economic use of water by natural vegetation is considerable. In Octo- ber, 1930, the State Engineer of California requested that cooperative investigations be undertaken as follows: (1) That the U. S. Bureau of Agricultural Engineering establish an experiment station along the Mojave River near Victorville for the purpose of measuring the evaporation and transpiration losses from moist areas and of recording meteorological data; (2) that the U. S. Geological Survey establish additional gaging stations along the ]\Iojave River, and an effort be made to determine consumptive use of water between stations by stream flow measurements. The work as outlined was started in November, 1930, by the cooperating agencies. Stream flow measurements along the river are still being made, but the experiment station has been dis- continued. This chapter presents the data collected at the Victorville experiment station on evaporation and transpiration losses from moist areas along the IMojave River.
The Mojave River** is situated in San Bernardino County, Cali- fornia, and constitutes the chief drainage system of the northern slopes of the San Bernardino Mountains. The mountain headwaters comprise two distinct branches. East Fork, or Deep Creek, and West Fork, which unite at the base of the mountains to form the main river. This junction is known as the Forks. Below it, the river, in its course of 90 miles across the desert plain, receives no surface tributary of con- sequence, but there is an underground contribution from springs. The course of the river is first northward 30 miles, then northeastward 20 miles, and finally eastward 40 miles. The river ends in dry lakes at an elevation of less than 1000 feet above sea level. The mountain water- shed of the river, 217 square miles in area, extends from an elevation of 8000 feet at the summit of the range to 3000 feet at the Forks. The upper portion has heavy precipitation and the main tributaries are never dry where they leave the mountains. In summer the water sinks in the river a short distance below the Forks but appears again as ^sur- face flow several miles below, reaching the Upper Narrows at Victor- ville, 14 miles below the Forks. The surface flow continues through the Lower Narrows 4 miles farther down stream and during the summer again sinks several miles below Oro Grande after supplying several irrigation ditches. The water is then brought to the surface for short distances at a number of other points, these points being farther apart and the flow diminishing in ([uantity toward the lower
* Prepared by C. A. Taylor, Assistant Irrigation Engineer, and Harry G. Niclcle, Junior Hydraulic Engineer, Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, U. S. Department of Agriculture. K. R. Melin of the U. S. Geological Survey assisted in conducting field work.
** Bulletin No. 5. Report on the Utilization of Mojave River for Irrigation in Victor Valley, California. State of California, Department of Engineering. (1918.)
(74)
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS 75
end of the stream. At each point of reappearance the water supports a considerable amount of noneeonomic vegetation. Tn describing these points in tlie rivei-, Thompson* states:
''Wherever the water is at or close to the surface there is more or less evaporation, not only from the surface streams but also from the ground water supply through direct upward capillary movement and by transpiration from the plants. In some places as summer approaches the evaporation becomes so great that the water is disposed of more rapidly than it reaches the surface, and the stream dwindles and disappears. But even when the stream no longer exists water is gen- erally present a few feet below the surface, except in places where the ground water is not held near -the surface by submerged rock "dikes" or dams. xVs the end of the dry season approaches and evaporation becomes less, more water reaches the surface and the stream becomes wider and deeper and has a greater linear extent. The end of the stream may be seen to advance on cool daj's and at night and to retreat on warm days. ' '
One of the moist areas adjacent to the river extends for several miles above the Upper Narrows at Victorville. Both surface and under- ground flow must pass over the bedrock at the Upper Xarrows, and the level of the underground water immediatelv above this obstruction fluctuates little, the water being brought to the surface by the con- striction of the channel. The ground water, therefore, is usually at or near the surface over much of the area.
Several flood channels have been cut through this moist area by the river during periods of high water. After careful consideration of possible sites, one of these channels, located on the east side of the river just above the Upper Narrows, was selected as the site of the Victorville station. The only surface water that enters this channel is flood water from the river and flood waters due to torrential rain storms falling upon the adjacent higher areas. The bottom of the channel has been cut down below the general ground-water level, so that there is a free stream flow of the raised water and a swampy area (cienaga) is formed. This channel is about 1600 feet in length and from 10 to 70 feet in width, is not isolated from the main moist area, and contains a dense growth of tules. The outflow from the cienaga joins the main channel of the river at the Narrows. The altitude of the station is about 2700 feet above sea level.
A low earth dam was built at the lower end of the channel chosen and a Parshall measuring flume with a water-stage recorder was installed to measure the outflow. The records obtained are not given in this report but it is believed that when analyzed they may be found useful in correlating the results of the tank experiments presented in this chapter with the stream-flow measurements made by the U. S. Geological Survey in the main channel of ]Mojave River.
During the latter part of November, 1930, evaporation and trans- piration apparatus was established for the purpose of obtaining basic data. Evaporation, temperature, rainfall, and wind movement records were started November 22, 1930, but no tules were planted in the tanks
* "The Mohave Desert Region, California," by David G. Thompson, U. S. Geo- logical Survey Water-supply Paper 578, p. 375.
76
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
until January 29, 1931. Records were continued until March 1, 1933, when the station was dismantled.
PROCEDURE
A general view of the moivst area above the Upper Narrows is shown in Plate XI. The small flood channel on which the station is located is designated by an X marked on the plate. About midway of the length of this small channel, previously described, a section of the swamp and an area of the adjacent higher ground were inclosed with a fence for protection against animals. The bank is 4 to 5 feet higher than the level of the swamp. The enclosure is approximately 20 feet
PLATE XI
MOIST AREA ALONG THE MOJAVE RIVER ABOVE THE UPPER NARROWS NEAR VICTORVILLE, CALIFORNIA.
by 64 feet and includes space in the swamp for the tule tanks, and space on the bank for a tule tank, supply tanks, a ground water well, and evaporation station equipment. The plan of the station is shown in Plate XXL The equipment consists of three tule tanks, a standard Weather Bureau evaporation pan, a four-cup anemometer, a set of standard maximum and minimum thermometers and a thermograph housed in a standard shelter, a rain gage, and a ground-water well.
Previous investigations by Blaney and Taylor on consumptive use of water by native vegetation along stream channels* indicate that if data from tanks are to be used in estimating losses from larger areas under field conditions, the tanks should be set in a field of natural growth similar to that in the tanks. The native vegetation should completely surround the growth in the tanks so that the exposure is normal. Otherwise it is necessary to use large reduction factors the
* "Bulletin No. 33, Chapter 4, "Rainfall Penetration and Consumptive Use of Water In the Santa Ana River Valley and Coastal Plain," Division of Water Resources, California State Department of Public Works.
WATER LOSSES PRO"M WET AREAS
77
PLATE XII
Lotver bench of Mojave Rive
Direction of flow.
\
\
^'#.'"
- X %-
_\_..
eal-e
Swamp
Water line at \ edqe of sm/an^p^
I C ■
Thermomefer'i shelter I
^
-X X X X
Ram <
Supply Tank .
Ground wsten
; A \
Tank NO I. , y
PLAN OF VICTORVILLE STATION.
values of which are difficult to determine, and which at best can be only very approximate. Therefore, besides the primary purpose of determining- the consumptive use of water by tules, it was desired to demonstrate the impracticability of attempting- to determine their use of water in swamps from experiments conducted with tules planted in isolated tanks outside their natural environment.
Tule Tank No. 1, 2 feet in diameter and 3 feet deep, was set in the ground on the bank for the purpose of demonstrating the effect of exposure on the use of water by plants grown in tanks. The rim of this tank was set 1 inch above the surrounding ground surface. This tank was filled with soil taken from the swamp. A sparse growth of salt grass around Tank No. 1 did not reach higher than an inch at any time during the season, so that the growth in the tank had a full exposure. The evaporation pan was placed on the bank in the standard manner and had good exposure, similar to that of Tank No. 1.
Two tule tanks were placed in the swamp. Tank No. 2 being 2 feet in diameter, and Tank No. 3, 6 feet in diameter. Both tanks are 3 feet deep and set in the swamp 30 feet from the bank. Cradles for the tanks were made of 2-inch redwood planks and supported on piling so that the elevation of the rims of the tanks was approximately 4 inches above the water surface of the surrounding swamp. Pipe lines wei-e connected to the tanks 1 foot below the rim and extended to supply tanks located in a sheltered dug-out in the bank. The tanks were filled with swamp soil.
A ground water well was sunk in the northeast corner of the plot with a casing extending 30 inches below the ground water into a coarse ^and. Records of the height of the ground water were kept at this well, but the fluctuations were very slight. The water supply for the various tanks was obtained from a cased well about 2 feet in diameter and 3 feet deep, located near the edge of the swamp.
78
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
- Jt was necessary to use a supply tank with each tule tank to main- tain the water level between narrow limits. Tule Tanks Nos. 1 and 2 are directly connected to separate water supply tanks, 4 feet in diameter and about 1 foot deep. A cone-shaped metal cover with an air vent was fitted over the supply tanks, and a second cover was placed over the sui')ply tanks to eliminate evaporation. With this arrangement the fluctuations in the water surfaces of the tule tanks are reduced by the replenishment of water from the supply tanks. Plate XIII shows
PLATE XIII
$yvamp water surface r^fi/jyyQH
^■h=-=^
TanH N92
/
dank
P'P^^ \ %'p>P^
Supply tank B
(O
4
ARRANGEMENT FOR TANK NO. 2 TO SUPPLY WATER AND TO MEASURE AMOUNT OF EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION.
PLATE XIV
^-
3y/amp wafer surface
ace-^
TanH No- 3.
» VaJve
I 5fillyyell
r=75^
ARRANGEMENT FOR TANK NO. 3 TO REGULATE SUPPLY OF WATER AND TO MEASURE AMOUNT OF EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION.
WATER LOSSES PROM WET AREAS
79
PLATE XV
W.
A. GENERAL VIEW OF VICTORVILLE STATION, TAKEN OCTOBER 31, 1931.
B. VIEW TAKEN OCTOBER 31, 1931, OF SWAMP WHERE TWO TANKS WERE LOCATED, THE STADIA ROD BEING HELD BETWEEN THE TWO TANKS.
80
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
the arrangement to supi)ly water for tule Tank No. 2 and also 'the still well for measuring- the amonnt of water used. Because of the volume of water required to supply tule Tank No. :>, a different arrangement was necessary there. This tank was supplied through an automatic float-valve feed connected to a supply tank of larger capacity. Plate XIV shows the arrangement for regulating the supply of water and measuring the amount used in tule Tank No. 3.
Beginning November 22, 1930, Tanks Nos. 1, 2, and 3 were main- tained with free water surfaces until January 29, 1931, when they w'ere planted with tules {Scir])iis olnciji). During the installation of the equipment, the old tules around the tanks were broken down and the tanks were not completely surrounded with new growth until about ]\Iay, 1931. Prior to May 15 the side exposure of Tank No. 2 was some- what greater than that of Tank No. 3 but after that date the surround- ing growth completely hid the rims of both tanks and thereafter the exposure of the tules in Tanks Nos. 2 and 3 Avas similar to tliat of the natural swamp tules.
PLATE XVI
1,%^
•i
-.^>
ft.
VIEW OF TANK NO. 1, TAKEN OCTOBER 31, 1931.
WATER LOSSES F^ROM WET AREAS
81
Plate XV-A is a general view of the station taken October 31, 1931, showing the location of the cliniatolopieal apparatus, while Plate XV-B shows the location of Tanks Xos. 2 and 3, in the swamp, where they are surrounded by natural swamp growth. Plate XVI, taken on the same date, shows the tule growth in Tank No. 1.
CONSUMPTIVE USE OF WATER
Table 28 records, by months, for the period from February 1, 1931, to February 28, 1933 ; the evaporation from a standard Weather Bureau pan ; the consumptive use of water from tule Tanks Nos. 1, 2, and 3 ; a percentage comparison of the consumptive use of water from the tule tanks expressed in per cent of the evaporation ; the wind move- ment ; the rainfall ; and average daily maximum and minimum tempera- tures. A comparison of the losses, from February, 1931, to February, 1932, from the three tule tanks and from the evaporation pan is shown graphically in Plate XVII.
PLATE XVII
60
C 01
30
Or 20-
O'T
Q-O)
10-
DIM
m
Feb. 1 Mar. Apn , May Jui'^g ; July Aug. |Sept. j Oct. ) Nov. | Dec.
0
Standard Weather Bureau Fi
evaporation pan 4ft in diameter:[j
-Tank No I, Two ft. in diameter, located on bank.
Tank N^Z, Two ft. in diameter; located in swamp.
Tank N03, Six ft. in diameter, located in swamp.
1931
'"1 \~m7inrr^M~h^M~y^
Jan.
Feb.
1932
MONTHLY EVAPORATION AND USE OF WATER FROM TANKS NO. 1, NO. 2. AND NO. 3, FEBRUARY, 1931-FEBRUARY, 1932.
In April the tules in Tank No. 1, located on the bank, began to use water at a relatively high rate that increased rapidly until the highest use Avas reached in July, when it amounted to 4.55 times the evajioration, or 55.83 acre-inches per acre. After reaching a peak in July and August the use dropped until the plants were killed by frost in November, after which there was a continued loss by evapora- tion. There was practically no green growth in this tank until May, 1932, as indicated in Table 28, the use being shown to be much less than the evaporation from the AVeather Bureau pan in March and April. After the tules .started to grow in 1932 they used Avater rapidly until the highest use was reached in August, when it amounted to 78.99 acre-inches per acre, which was 6.77 times as great as the evaporation from the Weather Bureau pan.
The use of water from tule Tank No. 2, located in the swamp, was found to be considerably less than that from Tank No. 1 as the growing season advanced, although the tanks were of the same diameter. In
6 — 4503
82
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
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WATER LO^iRES FRf^r WET AREAS
83
1931 the highest use from Tank No. 2 occurred in May, before the tank was entirely surrounded by swamp growth, and amounted to 16.03 acre-inches per acre, while the highest use for Tank No. 1 occurred in July, and amounted to 55.83 acre-inches per acre. The use in July from Tank No. 2 was 14.37 acre-inches per acre, which is approximately one-fourth of the use from Tank No. 1 for that month. This difference must be due to the relative exposures of the two tanks, since the density of stalks was not materially different. When the tules were set out in 1931 the plants in Tank No. 2 started to grow and use water earlier than the plants in Tank No. 1, because they were warmed by the rising water that flowed around the tanks in the swamp. A flood in May, 1932, damaged Tank No. 2 and the connected supply tank, so that the record from this tank is incomplete for 1932. The record for 1931, however, supplied the data necessary for the principal objective — demonstration of the effect of exposure on the use of water from 2-foot tanks. This is shown graphically in Plate XVII. A comparison on a mean monthlv basis for the entire period of record is shown in Plate XVIII. *
PLATE XVIII
Jan.
\ Indicating excessive use 44*^ of tvafer, due to plants y//y_ \in no I Tank being _ away from natural environmenf.
Nov. Dec.
MEAN MONTHLY EVAPORATION AND USE OF WATER FROM TANKS NO.
NO. 2, AND NO. 3.
1,
A complete record was obtained from tule Tank No. 3 during both the 1931 and 1932 seasons. This tank was 6 feet in diameter and had a normal swamp expo.sure with a growth of tules completely surround- ing the tank, so that there was a replication of natural conditions. The highest monthly use of water from this tank occurred during July in each year, amounting to 14.65 acre-inches per acre in July, 1931, and 13.61 acre-inches per acre in Juh% 1932. The mean annual use of water from this tank based on the 25-month period from February, 1931, to February, 1933, is 78.45 acre-inches per acre. This value was
84 mvisTox OF water resources
obtained by averaging the monthly values for each calendar month and then totalino- these twelve monthly averages.
. This value, 78.45 acre-inches per acre per year, represents the average annual loss of water dnring this period from tule swamps of the area with the water table at the ground surface or above. No reduc- tion factor should be applied to this value, since the tank was set in a SAvamp and completely surrounded by a growth similar to that in the tank. The rim of the tank Avas completely hidden from the rays of the sun so there conld be no rim effect, and the tank was bedded nearly 3 feet deep so that there conld be no abnormal temperature variation or restriction of root activity.
^Measured losses from the moist area on Temescal Creek compare favorably' with the losses from the 6-foot tank at Victorville. The loss for\he 30-day period from April 28 to May 27, 1929, for the swamp growth on Temescal Creek was 12.9 acre-inches per acre.* For the month of May, 1931, tule Tank No. 3 at Victorville nsed water at the rate of 11.62 acre-inches per acre per month, and the maximum rate measured in July, 1931, was 14.65 acre-inches per acre per month. The cross-hatched area on Plate XVIII shows the relatively large loss of water from Tank No. 1 as compared with Tanks Nos. 2 and 3, where natural conditions were replicated. In this connection, it will be noted in Plate XV that the tule growth in the tanks in the swamp was 6 feet high, whereas the growth in Tank No. 1 on the bank (Plate XVI) averaged approximately 3 feet in height. These pictures were taken October 31, 1931. This indicates that the number of pounds of dry matter produced in the different tanks bears no rational relationship to the amount of water consumed when tules are grown in exposed tanks, such as tule Tank No. 1. That is, the loss of water from a natural swamp can not be computed from the relation of pounds of water used per pound of dry matter produced as determined from tules grown in isolated tanlcs. During July and August, 1931, Tank No. 1 used between three and four times as much water as either Tank No. 2 or Tank No. 3, yet the ultimate size of the plants produced in Tank No. 1 was only one-half the size of the plants in the swamp tanks. The results indicate that the controlling factor in the consumption of water is the exposure of the tanks and demonstrates, quite forcibly, that natural conditioixs must be replicated before data are of value in estimating field losses.
The diameter of a tank is a factor of importance when evaporation from a free water surface is being measured, as demonstrated by R. B. Sleight.** For the period from March 5 to November 13, 1916, Sleight found the evaporation from a 2-foot tank to be 117 per cent of that from a tank 6 feet in diameter.
However, with plants growing in a tank set in a similar growth of sufficient density so that radiation from the sun does not strike the edges of the tanks, the size of the tank should not materially affect the rate of loss per unit area from like densities of plant growth. Before May 15, 1931, the surrounding swamp growth had not shielded
* Bulletin No. .3 3, "Rainfall Penetration and Consumptive Use of Water In the Santa Ana Hiver Valley and Coastal Plain," Division of Water Resources, California State Department of Public Works (Page 68).
** "p:vaporation from the Surface of Water and River-bed Material," (Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. X, No. 5, July, 1917.)
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
85
the tank rims fully and tiile Tank No. 2 shows the higher rate of loss. Thereafter, differences in losses from the two tule tanks may be ascribed to a variation in the density of growth. By comparing the losses from tnle Tanks Xos. 2 and 3, from Juno 1 to October 31, 1931, it is found that the loss is 49.93 acre-inches per acre from the 2-foot tank, and 55.08 acre-inches per acre from the 6-foot tank. For this period, the loss from the 2-foot tank is 91 per cent of the loss from the G-foot tank, as compared to Sleight's ratio of 117 per cent for free water surfaces. The correlation of tank size is negative and diffci-ence in use must be due to some other factor such as density of growth.
Prior to the planting of tules in the tanks on January 29, 1931, all three tanks were maintained with free water surfaces. The evapora- tion in inches and rate of evaporation in inches per 30 days for the Weather Bureau pan and Tanks Nos. 1, 2, and 3, and also the evapora- tion from Tanks Xos. 1, 2, and 3, expressed as percentages of the evapo- ration from the Weather Bureau pan for the period, December 5, 1930, to January 29, 1931, are given in Table 29. During the period of these
TABLE 29
EVAPORATION FROM FREE WATER SURFACES IN THE WEATHER BUREAU PAN AND TANKS NOS. 1, 2, AND 3
December 5. 1930, to January 29, 1931
Pan or tank
Standard Weather Bureau pan (4 feet in diameter)
Tank No. 1 (2 feet in diameter) located on bank near Weather Bureau
pan
Tank No. 2 (2 feet in diameter) located in swamp ._
Tank No. 3 (6 feet in diameter) located in swamp
Total
evaporation
in inches
4 20
2.16 6 91 4.19
Rate of evaporation
in inches per 30 days
2.29
1.18 3.77 2.29
Per cent of
evaporation
from standard
Weather
Bureau pan
100
51 165 100
evaporation .studies from free water surfaces, the mean daily maximum temperature was 65 degrees Fahrenheit, the mean daily minimum tem- perature was 11.5 degrees Fahrenheit, and the total wind movement was 1389 miles. The evaporation from the 6-foot tank (Tank No. 3), located in the swamp, was practically the same as that from the Weather Bureau pan (4 feet in diameter), the values being 4.19 and 4.20 inches, respectively, while the loss from the 2-foot tank (Tank No. 2), located in the swamp, was 165 per cent of that from the Weather Bureau pan. The 2-foot tank (Tank No. 1), located on the bank near the evaporation pan and set in the ground so that its rim was 1 incli above the sur- rounding ground surface, lost 51 per cent as much as the Weather Bureau pan.
This demonstrates the effect of exi)osure and location on the rates of loss from the different tanks. Tanks Nos. 2 and 3 were located in the .swamp and the rising ground water from the swamp channel flowed around them continuously. Tlie rising water in the swamp carried .sufficient heat so that no ice formed on the water surface around the two tanks, even though a minimum air temperature of zero degrees Fahrenheit was recorded on December 23, 1930. The heat from this swamp water was transmitted to the water in the tanks most effectively
86 DIVISION OP WATER RESOURCES
in the case of the small tank 2 feet in diameter and to a less extent in the case of the 6-foot tank. The Weather Bureau pan, 4 feet in diameter and 10 inches deep, is set entirely above the ground, and receives heat from the sun on its sides as well as on the water surface, and it has also a maximum exposure to air movement. The 2-foot tank, located on the l)ank and sunk in the ground, could receive but very little heat energy from the dry cold ground surrounding it, but probably some of the heat received on its water surface was conducted down through the water and away into the soil. Accordingly, the evaporation from the 2-foot tank on the bank was least ; and that from the 2-foot tank in the swamp was greatest, the latter being, in fact, 8.2 times as much as the former. The water in Tank No. 2 received enough heat energy from the swamp water to keep it relatively warm, while the water surface in Tank No. 1 remained relatively cold. The fact that the rate of evaporation is relatively high when the temperature of the water is greater than that of the air, has l)een pointed out by Rohwer.*
A comparison of the evaporation from Tanks Nos. 2 and 3 shows the loss from Tank No. 2 to be 1.65 times that from Tank No. 3. It is of interest to note that studies at the Salton Sea in 1910, using exposed tanks, showed a ratio of 1.48 to 1 for the loss from a 2-foot tank com- pared to that from a 6-foot tank.** In 1916, Sleight found the ratio of the loss from a 2-foot tank to that from a 6-foot tank to be 1.17 to 1 for tanks sunk in the ground. The higher ratio found at the Victor- ville station is luidoubtedly due to the heating effect of the surrounding water as noted above.
As stated above, Table 29 indicates that the loss by evaporation from the free water surfaces in the cienega is relatively high during tlie winter. The reason for the high losses is that the rising water is relatively warmer than the air during the winter months.
In further demonstration of the extreme effect of exposure on rates of evaporation and transjnration from tanks, it should be noted that during December and January Tank No. 1 lost b.y evaporation less than one-third as much as Tank No. 2, but, in Jul.v, 1931, conditions were reversed and the consumptive use by evaporation and transpira- tion from the tules in Tank No. 1 was nearlv four times as much as from Tank No. 2.
Mean monthly values for the entire period of record, for the evaporation and use of water from tule Tanks Nos. 1, 2 and 3, together with the climatological data, are given in Table 30. The mean annual evaporation from the Weather Bureau pan, as shown in Table 30, was 82.46 inches. Tlie mean annual consumptive use of water from tule Tank No. 1, which liad the same ex]iosure on the bank as the evaporation pan, was 272.24 acre-inches per acre, Avhile from tule Tanks Nos. 2 and 3, located in the swamp and characteristic of swamp conditions, there were used 84.45 acre-inches per acre and 78.45 acre- inches per acre, respectively. Plate XVTTI shows the mean monthly evaporation and use of water from Tanks Nos. 1, 2 and 3.
* "Kvai^oration from Free Water Surfaces," by Carl Rohwer, United States Department of ARriciiUure, Technical Bulletin, No. 271. (1931.)
** Studies on the Phenomena of Evaporation of Water Over Lakes and Reservoir.s. Summary of the Results of the Salton Sea Campaign. By F. H. Bigelow. Monthly Weather Review, Vol. 38, No. 7. (1910.)
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
87
TABLE 30
SUMMARY BY MONTHS OF MEAN TEMPERATURES, WIND MOVEMENT, EVAPORATION,
AND CONSUMPTIVE USE OF WATER FROM TULE TANKS NOS. 1, 2, AND 3, AND
USE OF WATER FROM TULE TANK NO. 3, EXPRESSED IN PER CENT
OF EVAPORATION AT VICTORVILLE STATION'
|
Temperature, in degrees Fahrenheit |
Wind move- ment, in miles |
Evapora- tion from a standard Weather Bureau pan (4 feet in diameter) in inches |
Use of water, in acre- inches, per acre |
Use of water from tule tank No. 3, in per cent of evaporation from standard Weather Bureau pan |
||||
|
Month |
Mean maximum |
Mean minimum |
Tule tank No. I (2 feet in diameter) located on bank |
Tule tank No. 2 (2 feet in diameter) located in swamp |
Tule tank No. 3 (6 feet in diameter) located in swamp |
|||
|
.Tanuarv |
52 55 70 74 81 86 97 94 88 76 66 52 |
21 24 30 35 42 46 52 52 44 37 26 22 |
1,458 1,299 1,680 1,818 1,746 1,396 1,245 1,114 1,044 1,020 897 1.120 |
2.40 3.32 6.67 7.79 9.92 10 38 12.12 10.68 8.22 5.44 3.52 2.00 |
2.81 2 54 4.61 7.25 17.62 35 47 63.38 59.54 46 38 25.28 4 61 2.75 |
1.74 3.08 5.26 8.16 11.11 14.21 14 37 9 87 7.17 4.31 3 05 2.12 |
1.74 2.02 3.82 5 08 8.78 10.80 14 13 12 32 10 04 5.86 2.42 1.44 |
72 |
|
February March .\pril May |
61 57 65 89 104 |
|||||||
|
.Julv |
117 |
|||||||
|
.August... |
115 |
|||||||
|
Seotember . . . |
122 |
|||||||
|
October |
108 |
|||||||
|
NovemI:)er |
69 |
|||||||
|
December |
72 |
|||||||
|
Totals per year |
15,837 |
82.46 |
272.24 |
84.45 |
78.45 |
^5 |
||
' This table is based on all data from February 1, 1931, to February 28, 1933. ' Per cent based on totals per year.
As tule Tank No. 3 replicated SAvamp conditions, the mean annual use of water from this tank was employed in determining a factor to be applied in calculating- swamp use from an evaporation pan record. As the mean annual evaporation from the standard Weather Bureau pan was 82.46 inches and the mean annual use of water from tule Tank Xo. 3 was 78.45 acre-inches per acre, the use of Avater from the tule swamp area Avould be 95 per cent of the eA^aporation from the Weather Bureau pan.
The evaporation from a lake surface may be estimated as 0.7 of the mea.sured loss from a standard Weather Bureau pan. The mean annual evaporation from a lake surface is, therefore, indicated to be 58 inches. The mean annual loss from tule Tank No. 3, Avhich replicated natural conditions, Avas 78.45 inches. This indicates that the annual use by tules would be 20 inches more than the loss from a lake surface. Tliis is probably a maximum differential and Avould be expected in a swamp area completely coA^ered Avith tules groAving in water.
It may be seen from Plate XI that a considerable portion of the moist area aboA'e the Narrows is coA'ered Avith a scattered groAvth of cottonwoods interspersed with patches of open sandy areas. The dense tule groAvths are restricted principally to sections along the main chan- nel of the riA'er and in the swampy areas such as the one on which the station Avas located. The mean annual consum]:)tiA'e use for the entire moist area Avould undoubtedly be appreciably less than the value of 78 acre-inches per acre per year determined for the tule sAvamp areas.
If the period from ]May to October, inclusive, be considered, and a comparison made for that interval, it is found that tlie use of Avater by the tules Avas 61.93 inches, and the estimated evaporation from a lake surface, 40 inches. The difference is 22 inches, and for this period, the loss of water from a tule sAvani]) area would be 155 per cent of the loss from a free Avater lake surface.
CHAPTER IV INVESTIGATIONS IN COLDWATER CANYON
By Colin A. Taylor and Harry G. Nickle*
In many instances water supplies for irrigation, domestic, and industrial uses are diverted from the lower reaches of canyons and the water is allowed to flow through many miles of open channel bordered by growing vegetation. A large portion of the water used originates in the mountain watersheds and must pass through the canyons before it reaches the irrigated areas of the valleys. There is little information available as to the amount of water lost in such canyons through evaporation and transpiration from the native vegetation.
Losses from the moist land bordering the lower sections of Temescal Creek, four miles southeast of Corona, were investigated by the Divi- sion of Irrigation of the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering early in 1929. The growth was typical of the moist areas bordering the streams in the valleys, with willows and tules predominating. The results ** indicated that large losses must occur from similar growths along the Santa Ana River and that the supply of water diverted in the lower Santa Ana Canyon for irrigation in Orange County must be consider- ably diminished because of the loss of water in the moist areas adjacent to the river.
Since the losses from the areas supporting willows, tules, and kindred moist land growths were indicated to be of considerable magni- tude, it was deemed advisable to extend the study to canyon reaches in which alder growths predominated, above the usual points of diver- sion from the streams. It was the purpose of this study to obtain data on the loss of water during the growing season by evaporation and transpiration from a typical small canyon and on the amount of addi- tional water which might be derived were the water supply diverted at a higher point on the stream.
The experimental data for this stud}' were obtained in Coldwater Canyon, located near ArroAvhead Springs in the San Bernardino Mountains in the upper basin of the Santa Ana River, approximately 7 miles north of the city of San Bernardino. This canyon was chosen as being representative of many of the smaller canyons of southern California.
The data were collected during the growing seasons of 1931 and 1932. In 1931, two bedrock stations, hereinafter called "controls," were installed in the canyon. The "lower control" was located about one mile above the mouth of the canyon, and the other, designated as the "middle control," was located 2090 feet upstream from the lower
* Prepared by C. A. Taylor, Assistant Irrigation Engineer, and Harry G. Nickle, Junior Hydraulic Engineer, Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
** "Rainfall Penetration and Consumptive Use of Water in Santa Ana River Vallev and Coastal Plain," by Harry F. Blaney and C. A. Taylor, State of California, Department of Public Works Bulletin No. 33, Chapter IV, 1930.
(SS)
WATER LOSSES FRO'Sl WET AREAS
89
PLATE XIX
n
'-'(•. ^^:
73
J
o
X
z o o
a
H
O
•-V
Z
o
<
y
o
J
o
2
O
Z
o >
z < u
H <
|
„...,^,j^ |
||
|
r |
.^ |
|
|
4, V ■ ^^**. |
,>i '\>Si^^-
Q
o u
<
en a <
90
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
control. In 1932 the same controls were continued and, in addition, another bedrock control, designated as the "npper control," was installed 5875 feet npstream from the middle control, and a snpple- mentary bedrock control was installed on the only branch entering- the main canyon from the east between the middle and lower controls, at a point about 300 feet above its month. This branch canyon enters the main canyon 800 feet above the lower control.
The approximate elevations above sea level of the conti'ols are 2300 feet for the lower control, 2500 feet for the middle control, and 3100 feet for the upper control.
A general view of Coldwater Canyon is shown in Plate XIX, the white marks indicating the location of the controls.
The canyon bottom vegetation between the controls is composed mostly of alders, bay (California laurel), sycamore, willow, and maple, with a few oak, mountain mahogany, cedar. si:)ruce, and cottonwood trees. Also, there is considerable smaller growth of grapevine, black- berry, poison oak, ferns, etc. Table 31 shows the number and kinds
TABLE 31
CLASSIFICATION OF TREES BETWEEN MIDDLE AND LOWER CONTROLS
IN COLDWATER CANYON
|
Number of trees |
||||||||
|
Diameter, in inches |
Alder |
Sycamore |
Bay |
Willow |
Maple |
Oak |
Mountain mahog- any |
Total |
|
Less than 2 |
33 159 144 150 105 59 33 16 13 13 11 1 |
3 16 10 8 ti 3 4 10 1 1 2 |
4 30 2 1 |
14 |
2 7 4 6 1 1 2 |
2 |
51 |
|
|
2- 4 |
1 |
227 |
||||||
|
4- 6 |
162 |
|||||||
|
6- 8 |
166 |
|||||||
|
8-10 |
112 |
|||||||
|
10-12 |
64 |
|||||||
|
12-14 |
1 |
40 |
||||||
|
14-16 |
23 |
|||||||
|
16-18 |
23 |
|||||||
|
18-20 .-- |
2 |
16 |
||||||
|
20-22 |
12 |
|||||||
|
22-24 |
3 |
|||||||
|
36-38 |
1 |
1 |
||||||
|
Totals Per cent |
737 81 9 |
71 7.9 |
37 4 1 |
25 2.8 |
23 2 5 |
5 0.6 |
2 0.2 |
900 100 0 |
of trees between the middle and lower controls, and Table 32 is a similar table of the trees between the upper and middle controls. These two tables show the difference in vegetation of the two sections of the canyon. In the lower section the alders constitute 81.9 per cent of the total number of trees, while in the upper section they consti- tute only 47.9 per cent of the total number. The lower percentage of alders in the upper section is accounted for principally by the increased number of bays which constitute but 4.1 per cent in the lower section, but make up 26.1 per cent of the total in the upper section. The lower section has a higher percentage of larger trees, while between the upper and middle controls the percentage of smaller trees is the greater and also the number of different kinds is greater. Views of the canyon bottom vegetation between the middle and loAver controls are shown in Plate XX.
WATER LOSSES FROM NVKT AREAS
91
PLATE XX
A. ALDERS IN CANYON BOTTOM VIEWED FROM AN OVERHANGING CLIFF.
B. ALDERS IN CANYON BOTTOM ABOUT MIDWAY BETWEEN THE MIDDLE
AND LOWER CONTROLS.
92 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
TABLE 32
CLASSIFICATION OF TREES BETWEEN UPPER AND MIDDLE CONTROLS
IN COLDWATER CANYON
|
Number of trees |
|||||||||||
|
Diameter, in inches |
Alder |
Bay |
Maple |
Willow |
Syca- more |
Oak |
Moun- tain mahog- any |
Cedar |
Spruce |
Cotton- wood |
Total |
|
Tjpco than 2 |
67 222 193 242 184 175 84 48 26 15 13 12 3 2 |
258 371 52 11 5 3 1 |
48 81 56 26 10 5 5 1 1 |
62 82 24 8 3 1 1 |
11 60 34 24 15 |
18 32 4 2 |
30 8 |
1 5 1 1 |
495 |
||
|
2- 4 |
861 |
||||||||||
|
4- 6 |
364 |
||||||||||
|
6 -8 |
314 |
||||||||||
|
8-10 |
1 |
218 |
|||||||||
|
10-12 |
184 |
||||||||||
|
12-14 |
9 7 2 3 3 |
1 3 |
101 |
||||||||
|
14-16 |
59 |
||||||||||
|
16-18 |
29 |
||||||||||
|
18-20 . - |
1 |
19 |
|||||||||
|
20-22 |
1 |
17 |
|||||||||
|
22-24 |
1 |
13 |
|||||||||
|
26-28 - |
3 |
||||||||||
|
28-30 |
2 |
||||||||||
|
30-32 |
1 |
2 1 1 2 |
3 |
||||||||
|
34-36 |
1 |
2 |
|||||||||
|
36-38 |
1 |
||||||||||
|
38-40 |
1 |
3 |
|||||||||
|
Totals.. Per cent |
1,286 47.9 |
701 26 1 |
234 8.7 |
181 6.7 |
169 6 3 |
63' 2 4 |
38 14 |
9 0.3 |
6 0.2 |
1 0.0 |
2,688 100.0 |
Above the upper control the growth in the main canyon bottom is principally alders, with some sycamores, willow, maple, bay, etc. The main canyon divides into two main branches, at a point 1920 feet above the upper control. Many of the smaller branch canyons above the forks have dense groAvths of ferns and underbrush.
Between the middle and low^er controls there are only two branches entering" the main canyon, one from the east on which the branch con- trol was located, and one from the west vhich has an excellent bedrock exposure just as it enters the canyon. The west branch canyon con- tributed no water during the periods recorded in this report. There were no visible indications of water entering the canyon between the middle and lower controls during the period of record, except during the first part of the 1932 season as measured at the branch control.
There are several branch canyons entering the main canyon betw^een the upper and middle controls. There were no visible indications of any water entering- the canyon betAveon these controls at any time during the 1932 season.
The material filling the main canyon bottom between the middle and lower controls ranges in width from 25 to 80 feet for the most part, and has an average width of 49 feet and an area of 2.36 acres. Between the upper and middle controls, tiie material filling the canyon bottom ranges in width from 15 to 80 feet for the most part, and has an average width of 44 feet and an area of 5.89 acres. On both sides the canyon walls are very precipitons.
The length of canvon in which surface water flowed was measured in October, 1931, after the flow had recovered to its maximum connected flow for the season. Above the forks, 1920 feet from the upper control, there were 13,170 linear feet of branch canyons in which surface water
WATER LOSSES FR01\T WET AREAS
93
was flowin<i>. Tliis makes a total above tlie upper control of 15,090 linear feet of canyon, including' all the branches, that had flowing water at the end of the 19;?1 p'l'owing season.
Above the lower control the area of the watershed is 3.4 square miles, of which area the east branch, on which the branch control is located, drains 0.9 s(}uare mile.
Records were obtained during the 19)11 season at the middle and lower controls on the main canyon, from August 1 to October 17, and also during the 1932 season at the three controls on the main canyon, from June 24 to November 3. Water was also measured at the branch control from June 24 to July 9, 1932, no water passing this branch control at any other time during the periods of record.
EQUIPMENT
Controls
In 1931, the two bedrock controls were established in Coldwater Canyon at the locations previously described. At each of these con- trols, a low concrete dam was biiilt on bedrock across the bed of the stream. The flow of water was passed through a 3-incli Parshall meas- uring flume placed in one end of each dam, and water stage recorders were installed to record the head on each flume. On September 17 of the same year a flow recorder for recording the discharge directly was installed at the lower control and Avas operated during the remainder of the season. The flow recorder is described in detail on page 96.
PLATE XXI
MIDDLE COLDWATER CONTROL SHOWING 3-INCH PARSHALL MEASURING
FLUME AND FLOW RECORDER.
94 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
In 1932, flow recorders operated with 30-inch floats were installed at the two controls operated in 1931 and bedrock exposures were selected for the locations of the upper and branch controls. Low con- crete dams were built on these sites and the flow passed through flumes in the dams, water stage recorders being set for recording the gage heights.
Plate XXI is a view of the middle control showing the 3-inch Parshall measuring flume and the flow recorder.
Flume for Winter Measurements
In order to measure small summer floAvs accurately and also to obtain a record of large winter flows, a combination flume, such as is shown in Plate XXII, was found desirable. This combination flume consists of two Parshall measuring flumes, one large and one small, so arranged that both large and small flows pass through the converging section of the large flume, but the small flows are by-passed from the dip in the large flume into a basin above the small flume and thence through this latter flume, while the greater part of the large flows continues on through the larger flume.
A record of the larger discharges is obtained by a recorder operated by a float in a still well connected to a larger flume, and a record of the smaller discharges is obtained by a flow recorder operated by a float in a still well connected to the smaller flume. Some overlap is j)rovided so there is a small range during which a record may be obtained from both flumes. Two separate recorders may be used, or one duiDlex recorder is sufficient if it is desired to record gage heights only.
Plate XXII shows a combination of 3-inch and 2-foot Parshall measuring flumes, providing a range in discharge up to 23 second- feet. The sizes of both flumes may vary according to the accuracy and range desired. It should be recognized, however, that there are certain limitations on the accuracy of measurements over very wide variations in flows, and the selection of sizes should depend on whether the greatest accuracy is desired at very high, medium, or low stages.
The application of Parshall measuring flumes to measurements in mountain canyons involves problems not ordinarily met with in valley areas. The stream gradient is steep, often 10 per cent or more, and the water tends to cut a narrow channel and travel at a relatively high velocity and carry a large bed load as well as a considerable amount of suspended material.
A large flume placed, for example, directly in a stream channel where the grade is as high as 10 per cent will have a rating curve quite different from the standard calibration. It may pass as much as 30 per cent less water than that given for the lowest gage heights in the standard tables. The reason for this is that a small stream of Avater entering the center of a wide flume at high velocity tends to proceed through the center of the flume without changing its cross section greatl}', leaving dead water along each side of the wide flume. . At high stages, the flume may pass more water than is indicated by the gage height in the standard tables, because of the high velocity of approach
WATER LOSSES FRO.Ar WET AREAS
95
PLATE XXII
COMBINATION FLUME FOR MEASUREMENT OF WATER AT BOTH HIGH
AND LOW STAGES.
across the entire width of the flume. The large flumes should, therefore, be rated iu place when the conditions are extreme, such as are indicated in the example cited.
With clear water it is best to set the gaging station so that there is the least possible grade in the approach channel to the flume. "Where heavy loads of detritus are being transi)orted, deposition will occur in tlie entrance to the flume where the grade is flattened at the installa- tion, and enough debris may lodge to affect the measurement. Usually, however, other conditions, sucli as bedrock exposure in the channel, will determine the location of the station, and it will be found more economical to rate the large flume for the given set of conditions after other factors have determined its location.
%
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
Flow Recorders
At first when ordinary water stage recorders were used it was necessary, in order to obtain sufficient accuracy, to take off hourly values from the water-stage recorder charts. The work of taking off these hourly values and from these values computing the loss each day was found to be a long and laborious process. In order to eliminate a large part of this routine work, thereby saving much time, it was decided to use flow recorder attachments on the recorders at the controls.
Accordingly, a flow recorder attachment was purchased and installed in Coldwater Canyon in conjunction with the water stage recorder at one of the controls in September, 1931. This flow recorder attachment consisted essentially of an adjustable spiral cam that mechanically solved the flow formula. The cam was geared to a float pulley wheel and the pencil cord was attached to the cam. The float turned the pulley wheel and. through the cam, moved the pencil to record the flow directly in units of discharge. A flow recorder installa- tion is shown in Plate XXIII.
PLATE XXIII
FLOW RECORDER INSTALLATION AT LUWKK CULUVVATh-K
CONTROL.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS 97
This first flow recorder attaeliment was installed to operate by a 12-incli float. After testing in the field, it was found that the pencil lag- on the record chart was too great for tlie work being undertaken. This lag amounted to as much as 0.020 second-foot and as the fluctua- tions that were being measured amounted to 0.200 second-foot and less, the error was 10 per cent or more.
In order to secure greater sensitiveness, the gears were eliminated, the cam was balanced, and a 30-inch float was used. Nonadjustable cams were designed and made for use with 3-inch Parshall measuring flumes. With the improved flow recorder attachment, the pencil lag was reduced to 0.002 second-foot for flows above 0.50 second-foot, and for flows of less than 0.20 second-foot no lag could be detected.
By using these flow recorder charts, the loss per day may be obtained directly by superimposing two charts, one from each control, on top of a light-table, and planimetering the area between the two curves. This area represents the daily loss between controls and, when multiplied by the proper constant, can be converted into whatever units are desired.
Evaporimeter
It became apparent, during the course of the investigation of the loss of water along stream channels by evaporation and transpiration, that the study would be materially aided if a continuous record could be obtained of the transpiration opportunity. Briggs and Shaiitz* showed that the evaporation from a shallow black pan correlated more closely with actual transpiration than that from any of the other devices which they tested. Loss of water from deep paas is affected by heat storage within the water. During the morning much of the heat received from the sun is used in raising the temperature of the water, and if the tank is 10 inches or more deep there is a lag of several hours in the curve of evaporation, behind the cycle of insolation. As the depth is decreased, the lag becomes less. The practical lower limit for the depth to be used appeared to be that depth which would be sufficient for one complete day's record on the hotter days. The 4-foot pan maintained at Ontario from 1928 to 1930 showed a peak rate of slightly less than 0.50 inch per day; therefore 0.60 inch was chosen as the most practical maximum depth for the water in the evaporimeter.
A Fergusson recording rain gage was used as the recording device. The evaporimeter pan was made 2 feet in diameter and 0.7 inch deep. This pan was attached to a cylinder that would fit inside tlie rain gage and take the place of the usual rain-gage bucket. The pan and recorder were then placed in a box 30 inches square by 27 inches high, to provide lateral heat insulation. The evaporimeter is shown in opera- tion in Plate XXIV-A with a standard 8-inch rain gage to the right. The recording mechanism is shown in Plate XXIV-B. The chart scale is 9 to 1 ; that is, 9 inches on the chart is equivalent to 1 inch of evapo- ration. Record charts are shown in Plate XXV for typical days in August and October, 1931.
* Reprint from Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. IX, No. 9, May, 1917. "Comparison of the Hourly Evaporation Rate of Atriiometers and Free Water Sur- faces with the Transpiration Rate of Medicago Sativa," by Lyman J. Briggs and H. L. Shantz.
7—4503
98
DIVISION OP WATER RESOURCES
PLATE XXIV
A. EVAPORIMETER WITH SHALLOW BLACK-PAN 24 INCHES IN DIAMETER.
B. EVAPORIMETER SHOWING WEIGHING MECHANISM AND RECORD
CYLINDER.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
99
Wind action affects the instrument, since the change in air pressure, as each gust passes, causes a vertical movement of the pan and pro- duces a wavy line on the chart. In this way a continuous record is obtained of the time the wind blows and also a relative indication of its intensity.
During cold winter months the water in the shallow pan freezes solid, and an accurate record of the evaporation from an ice surface may be obtained since the mechanism is of the weighing type.
PLATE XXV
|
>' |
re o .fl ,. V.--. t i 3 « - " ■ - ' ,- ■ o |
|
r "v |
t J:
X.
n t--tf7C7 o/'v ■ :■ vd? T-~--
EVAPORIMETER CHARTS.
EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION LOSSES ALONG THE
STREAM CHANNEL
Loss from Stream Between Controls
The loss from a section of canyon was obtained by subtracting the volume of water leaving from the volume of water entering the section. Because of a possible storage differential in the section between the beginning and the end of any period, this method will result in small departures from the true dift'erences in short periods, such as a 24-hour period, but in longer periods this difference will be negligible.
That this differential storage exists is shown by Plate XXVI, which presents a graph of the fluctuation in the water table September
100
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
7-15, 1932, in a ground-water pit located a short distance upstream from the lower control and about ten feet from the stream. From this graph it is seen that there would be a small storage differential each day between September 9 and 12, but that this diiferential is almost zero between September 8 and 9 and from September 12 to 15, and that the storage differential over the entire period would be only an extremely small portion of the use of water during the period. As between September 8 and 15, the storage differential is represented by 0.85 inch. Assuming the specific yield to be 8 per cent, this represents a depth of water of 0.068 inch which spread over 2.36 acres — the area between the middle and lower controls — gives a volume of 0.16 acre-inch. The total use between those controls for this period was 7.39 acre-inches. Hence the differential storage over the entire period is only 2.2 per cent of the total use of water for this period of one week, which is no doubt higher than usual as a hot wind was blowing during the early morning hours of September 8. For longer periods, such as a month, the percentage would be considerably less.
|
PLATE . |
XXVI |
|||||||||||||
|
September 1932 |
||||||||||||||
|
Change in ground water elevation, in inches. |
8 th |
9 tin |
loth |
II th |
12 th |
13 th |
14 th |
|||||||
|
Noon Rising sfac, |
v\ |
Fall!r f |
a stage |
<--\ |
/- |
|||||||||
|
^-^ |
\ / |
^ |
/ |
\J |
\y |
Ky |
V |
\ |
vy |
|||||
|
1 , 1 |
V |
|||||||||||||
FLUCTUATION IN THE WATER TABLE IN COLDWATER CANYON,
SEPTEMBER 7-15, 1932.
To obtain the volumes of water passing each control not equipped with a flow recorder it was necessary, in order to attain sufficient accuracy, to take off hourly values from the water-stage recorder charts. Later, when the flow recorders were installed, the daily volumes of water passing each control could be planimetered directly from the flow recorder charts.
A section of the discharge curve at the middle control is shown in Plate XXVII. This plate shows the record of discharge at the middle control from August 9 to August 15, 1931. It includes four warm days, August 9, 10, 11, and 15 ; one day on which rain fell, August 12 ; and two cool, cloudy days, August 13 and 14.
The eft'ect of evaporation is indicated by a comparison of the evaporation from an evaporation pan, placed in the middle of the stream so that water of the stream entirely surrounded the pan, and the loss between the middle and lower controls. During the period from September 8 to 14, inclusive, 1932, the average depth of evapora- tion from this pan was 0.0076 foot per day. Assuming an average width of stream surface of 3 feet the total volume whicli Mould be evaporated in the length of 2090 feet between the middle and lower
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
101
controls, if the same rate were maintained, would be 0.013 acre-inch per day. Between these controls the average measured loss of water per day durino; this period was 1.06 acre-inches. Therefore the evapo- ration would be only 1.2 per cent of the total measured loss. These values are shown in Table 33 together with the daily comparisons during the period.
TABLE 33
COMPARISON OF ESTIMATED LOSS BY EVAPORATION FROM STREAM AND TOTAL LOSS BETWEEN MIDDLE AND LOWER CONTROLS IN COLDWATER CANYON
September 8-14, 1932
Date
1932— September 8 September 9 September 10 September 11, September 12 September 13 September 14
Averages
Depth of
evaporation
from tank
2 feet in
diameter
surrounded
by stream,
in feet
0.015 .007 .000 .007 .008 .005 .005
.0076
Estimated
evaporation
from stream
in acre-inches'
0.026 .012 .010 .012 .014 .009 .009
.013
Loss between
middle and
lower controls,
in acre-inches
1.44
1.19 .91 .86
1.01 .97
1.01
1.06
Estimated
evaporation
loss expressed
as a percentage
of total loss
1.8 1.0 1.1 1.4 1.4 .9 .9
1.2
tank.
> Evaporation computed for a stream surface 3 feet wide by 2,080 feet long at same rate as evaporation from 2-foot
The true rate of evaporation from the stream would no doubt be less than the rate from the evaporation tank, as the average daily maximum temperature for the period was 2.4 degrees higher in the tank than in the stream. Air and water temperatures for this period are given in Table 34. It can be seen from Plate XX, which shows a typical section of the canyon, that the water surface of this stream is
TABLE 34
DAILY MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM TEMPERATURES IN COLDWATER CANYON OF THE AIR, THE STREAM, AND THE WATER IN THE EVAPORATION PAN
September 8-14, 1932
Date
1932—
September 8 September 9 September 10 September 11 September 12 September 13 September 14
Averages
Temperature, in degrees Fahrenheit
Water in stream
Maximum
68 68 67 66 66 66 65
66.6
Minimum
62 64 60 58 58 58 00
60.0
Water in the evaporation pan
Maximum
71 72 69 68 67 68 68
69.0
Minimum
62 64 61 60 59 58 59
60.4
Air
Maximum
100 93 86 85 87 85 83
88.4
Minimum
87 81 60 58 60 63 59
66.9
102
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
|
PLATE |
XXVII |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
August 1931 |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
0.6 0.5 in C --0.3 o |
c»th |
10 -th |
II th |
12 th |
i?4th |
14. th |
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ii Rain. 21 in. |
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||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
1 |
FLOW AT MIDDLE COLDWATER CANYON CONTROL, AUGUST 9-15, 1931.
almost completely shaded and the indicated evaporation rate can not be applied to open areas where the water surface is exposed to the sun.
If transpiration is the main factor in causing the daily drop in a stream flow, the demand on the stream for water to take care of the transpiration needs of the vegetation growing in the canyon might be expected to follow a typical rate of transpiration curve. That it does tend to do this is shown by a comparison of a daily cycle of loss in discharge from Coldwater Canj'on to the daily cycle of a typical rate of transpiration curve.
A graph of the drop in stream flow occurring at the upper and lower controls is shown in Plate XXVIII-A. Plate XXVIII-B shows a record of the loss of water by evaporation and transpiration on September 11-12, 1930, from a tank of mixed swamp vegetation, chiefly wire rush, tule, and willow at Ontario.
The Ontario tank record shows 94 per cent of the loss occurring betAveen 8 a.m and 8 p.m. or between 2| hours after sunrise and 2 hours after sunset, and the peak rate of loss occurring between 1 and 2 p.m. Only 6 per cent of the loss occurs between 8 p.m. and 8 a.m., and the loss between midnight and sunrise is very low. The supply of heat energy available for vaporizing this water comes from the sun, and the insolation reaches a peak at noon and drops to zero at sunset; but there is some storage of heat in the ground and the overlying air, and therefore the cycle of transpiration lags behind the radiation cj^cle. Air temperature is an index of the heat energy available and, in Plate XXVIII-B, it is shown to have a good correlation with the rate of transpiration during the daylight hours. Both of the curves for the drop in stream flow have the same general shape as the rate of transpi- ration curve. The cross-hatched area between the two curves repre- sents the loss of Avater suffered by the stream as it passed from the middle to the lower control.
The demand of transpiration first affects the water table under- lying the soil in which the trees are rooted and, as the water table drops, water moves from the stream to replenish the draft. The maxi- mum rate of drop in flow would be expected shortly after the time of maximum transpiration opportunity. The discharge curves shown in
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
103
PLATE XXVIII
0.3
+:
o
15
C0.2
O
0
0)
(/)
■OA
0
Ll
o
Uaximum rates of change in ^
in flow past lower control
^rop m flow past ' middle control.
A
Lu SAM
85
jr 80 c
JZ
\ Evaporation -franspiraf ion
/7/,'^ temperature
8 P.M.
B. ;
/
75
70
65
a;
i_
OJ X!
u 60 £
55
Mdt 4Al;r.~' 8AM.
A. DROP IN FLOW IN COLDWATER CANYON, AUGUST 11-12, 1931.
B. DAILY EVAPORATION-TRANSPIRATION CYCLE, ONTARIO WILLOW AND REED TANK, SEPTEMBER 11-12, 1930.
104 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
Plate XXVII I- A have the maximum rats of change in flow occurring shortly after noon ; that is, there is a point of inflection on each dis- charge curve between 12 noon and 1 p.m. However, an elemental section of the stream passing the upper control at noon will not reach the lower control until approximately 3 p.m. It will lose water continu- ously as it passes down the channel to replenish the draft on the water table caused by transpiration. The maximum rate of loss should occur at approximately the same time at all points on the stream, but the effect of the time taken for each elemental section to move down the canyon is to displace the point of minimum flow to the right, as shown in the graph. For this reason, the loss in flow curve for the middle control, sho-s^ai in Plate XXVIII-A, is moved to the right 45 minutes, the time taken for an elemental section of water to move from the middle to the lower control. The curve of difference in flows, which is a measure of the evaporation and transpiration between controls, rises rapidly to a peak shortly after noon and then, as the water table is recharged, it gradually falls and approaches zero before sunrise of the next day. The position of the water table depends largely on the relation of the rate of use from the water table by the vegetation to the rate of recharge of the water table from the stream. The change in this relation is the chief reason for such fluctuations in the ground water as are shown on Plate XXVI, the water table reaching a maximum level in the morning and a minimum in the afternoon.
If the water table is completely recharged at the time of maximum stream flow early in the morning, and there is no transpiration or evaporation at that time, the total flow into the section must equal the total flow from the section. The total flow into the section is the total of the observed surface inflow and any underground inflow, as from hidden springs. The total flow from the section is the total observed surface outflow plus any underground seepage which leaves the section. If there is neither any underground inflow nor any underground seepage, it follows that in the stated case the observed inflow and the observed outflow must be equal.
As long as there is no inflow into a section between controls the water table is supplied only from the stream, and therefore the water table will never be higher than the water in the stream. From this it follows that the stream wall never drain the water table and can not gain in flow as it passes through a section where there is no under- ground inflow.
The daily maximum and minimum discharges at each of the con- trols for the days of record are given in Tables 35 and 36. An exami- nation of these tables shows that during all the period of record in 1931 and during the periods in 1932 from June 25 to July 26 and from August 19 to November 3 the maximum daily discharge at the lower control never exceeded by any significant amount the combined discharges at the middle and branch controls. From this it follows that there could be no underground inflow between these controls during those periods, unless there was deep percolation as well.
It is possible that a combination of underground inflow and deep percolation might result in a daily difference of zero or thereabouts in maximum discharges at the controls, but the deep percolation, if it existed, would be approximately the same for different stages during
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
105
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106
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
TABLE 36
DAILY MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM DISCHARGES AT EACH CONTROL IN COLDWATER
CANYON
June 24, to November 3, 1932
Date
June 24. June 25- June 26- June 27- June 28- June 29- June 30.
1932
10. 11- 12. 13- 14- 15- 16- 17- 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July 25
July 26
July 27
July 28
July 29
July 30
July 31
August
August
August
August
August
August
August
August
August
August 10
August 11
Augast 12
August 13
August 14
August 15
August 16
August 17
August 18
August 19
August 20
August 21
August 22
August 23
August 24
August 25
August 26
August 27
August 28
August 29
August 30
August 31
Maximum discharge in second-feet
Upper control
0.682 .682 .651 .665 .690 .653 .641 .626 .615 .621 .615 .615 626 .607 .616 .615 .612 .608 .603 .586 .577 .578 .572 .568 .570 .576 .603 .618 .615 .603 .596 .591 .589 .559 .539 .528 .528 .527 .516 .507 .503 .503 .514 .551 .593 .605 .626 .579
Middle control
0.742 .735 .750 .737 .705 .705 .710 .726 .734 .734 .719 .687 .666 .697 .702 .703 .705 .703 .714 .667 .655 .639 .628 .648 .660 .633 .606 .600 .594 .593 .595 .576 .592 .572 .574 .578 .574 .570 .563 .547 .539 .526 .523 .523 .530 .540 .577 .589 .579 .567 .569 .558 .553 .517 .490 .480 .478 .476 .462 .455 .454 .455 .469 .517 .566 .583 .606 .555
Lower control
0.737 .726 .733 .719 .681 .680 .689 .713 .724 .727 .710 .673 .648 .677 .680 .682 .687 .683 • .699 .653 .630 .614 .600 .624 .641 .612 .578 .571 .562 .557 .559 .557 .575 .557 .561 .568 .554 .549 .559 .540 .536 .528 .519 .522 .528 .543 .591 .601 .586 .573 .580 .567 .556 .513 .479 .452 .453 .449 .433 .426 .424 .426 .440 .495 .553 .569 .593 .548
Branch control
0.010
.009
.008
.007
.008
.005
.004
.003
.002
.002
.002
.001
.001
.001
.001
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flaw
No flow
No flew
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
Minimum discharge in second-feet
Upper control
0.407 .397 .395 .434 .430 .380 .363 .360 .356 .358 .356 .356 .348 .330 .337 .333 .329 .327 .320 .307 .304 .296 .296 .296 .297 .318 .366 .371 .358 .348 .342 .329 .308 .283 .271 .273 .269 .266 .260 .256 .259 .268 .284 .389 .415 .421 .443
Middle control
0 394 .364 .408 .384 .343 .334 .321 .344 .386 .402 .397 .356 .310 .312 .321 .332 .337 .337 .402 .368 .290 .259 .245 .245 .313 .314 .240 .211 .196 .193 .198 .188 .199 .197 .172 .171 .173 .166 .171 .160 .142 .135 .123 .128 .140 .139 .172 .240 .237 .226 .221 .218 .194 .156 .121 .099 .107 .104 .102 .088 .081 .080 .080 .136 .284 .316 .324 .358 .193
Lower control
0.335 .316 .360 .331 .283 .262 .255 .285 .336 .356 .353 .308 .256 .252 .260 .272 .282 .277 .355 .324 .226 .193 .177 .176 .255 .260 .175 .144 .128 .125 .126 .123 .138 .135 .119 .115 .122 .118 .122 .110 .090 .084 .075 .077 .092 .098 .141 .222 .206 .198 .194 .187 .157 .115 .069 .051 .058 .057 .056 .036 .035 .035 .036 .091 .241 .277 .282 .324 .147
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
107
TABLE 36 — Continued
DAILY MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM DISCHARGES AT EACH CONTROL IN COLDWATER
CANYON
June 24, to November 3, 1932
Date
1932
9.
September September September September September September September September September September 10 September 11 September 12 September 13 September 14 September 15 September 16 September 17 September 18 September 19 September 20 September 21 September 22 September 23 September 24 September 25 September 26 September 27 September 28 September 29 September 30 October 1 . . October October October October October October October 8 October 9 October 10 October 11 October 12 October 13 October 14 October 15 October 16 October 17 October 18 October 19 October 20 October 21 October 22 October 23 October 24 October 25 October 26 October 27 October 28 October 29 October 30 October 31 November November November
Maximum discharge in second-feet
Upper control
.522 .523 .506 .490 .480 .451 .446 .438 .458 .470
.468 .453 .477 .544 .555 .520 .509 .500 .485 .481 .503
.510 .526 .523 .510 .416 .452 .527 .570 .646 .624 .535 .509 .504 .490 .457 .463 .514 .530 .505 .514 .506 .523 .524 .510 .466 .466 466 .483 .484 .494 .493 .488 .522 .553
Middle control
.498 .482 .474 .457 .441 .430 .385 .370 .365 .412 .429 .436 .422 .397 .414 .427 .423 .454
.458 .448 .443 .457 .460 .462 .458 .483 .498 .518 .514 .501 .393 .433 .519 .564 .646 .629 .517 .487 .480 .475 .423 .443 .503 .515 .486 .466 .475 .495 .491 .473 .422 .428 .428 .459 .465 .479 .474 .468 510 .548
Lower control
.476 .462 .451 .431 .412 .417 .364 .320 .322 .384 .411 .408 .394 .373 .386 .413 .409 .440 .526 .542 .492 .459 .437 .428 .424 .439 .444 .458 .451 .467 .486 .509 .502 .486 .363 .405 .502 .548 .631 .618 .493 .460 .462 .453 .385 .418 .487 .499 .467 .447 .462 .487 .488 .465 .414 .414 .415 .448 .453 .470 .460 .458 .504 .548
Branch control
No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow
Minimum discharge in second-feet
Upper control
.279 .268 .261 .254 .247 .243 .230 .240 .256
.246 .265 .255 .351 .470 .347 .322 .305 .283 .276 .291 .305
.355 .369 .356 .244 .243 .290 .473 .400 .551 .391 .328 .317 .327 .292 ^282 .300 .438 .389 .417 .408 .372 .368 .374 .360 .366 .340 .335 .354 .372 .386 .368 .394 .512
Middle control
.130 .121 .110 .089 .076 .073 .069 .052 .074 .113 .097 .098 .093 .103 .086 .098 .110
164 .131 .118 .142 .181 .166 .244 .183 .263 .244 .295 .265 .135
111 ,174 .465 .346
.291 .208 .216 .237 .195 .160 ,197 .405 .311 .346 .330 .292 .286 .295 .251 .284 .267 .257 .283 .312 .334 .298 .345 .505
Lower control
.083 .077 .064 .042 .034 .031 .029 .013 .034 .084 .068 .061 .057 .063 .053 .062 .082 .219 .429 .204 .163 .125 .087 .077 .106 .140 .129 .216 .141 .233 .206 .269 .232 .104 .072 .137 .437 .309
.244 .161 .178 .206 .157 .119 .159 .379 .280 .309 .301 .266 .265 .276 .244 .261 .240 .227 .255 287 .313 .269 .323 .497
Branch control
No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow No flow
108 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
the periods of measurement, since the changes occurring in the head are very slight. Therefore, either the inflow and deep percolation would continue to be equal during the season, or else the inflow would fall off because of the drying of shallow springs. The former would not affect the results, and the latter would result in a constantly gaining difference in the discharges at the time of daily maximum flow which would not return to earlier values. An examination of Tables 35 and 36 shoAvs that the latter case did not occur, and that no combination of deep percolation and inflow from shallow springs existed.
If deep percolation existed it would be the same approximately throughout the season, as has already been stated in the previous para- graph. It is not conceivable that it would change from day to day, since the temperature of the underflow does not vary appreciably. Hence, if percolation did exist, it would prohibit the values of daily differences in maximum discharges at the controls from ever reaching a zero value. This is not the case, as a zero value was reached several times in 1931, and in 1932 a value of 0.004 was reached on September 28, 0.003 on October 23, and zero on November 3. Hence, no deep percolation could exist by itself.
In case evaporation and transpiration are occurring at a time of daily maximum discharges, the flow from the section will be less than the flow into the section and the difference in maximum discharges will have a positive value. The same effect also will be caused by the water table's not being completely recharged from the stream by a time of daily maximum discharges. It takes time for this recharge to take place, and if the use by the vegetation has been high in the previous day the water table will not be completely recharged during the night. These two cases, either separately or together, account for the large number of daj^s when there was a greater maximum discharge at the middle control than at the lower control, as shown in Tables 35 and 36. This difference in daily maximum discharges reached high values of 0.038 second-foot on August 26, 1931, after an excessively hot period, and 0.050 second-foot on September 8, 1932, after a hot night during which a hot wind was blowing doAvn the canyon.
The growing seasons of 1931 and 1932 differed materially. During 1931 there were several summer rains accompanied by cloudy weather at about the time of the rains. These conditions caused the use by the vegetation to be less, on the average, this result being due not only to the cloudy weather's preventing as much sunshine from reaching the vegetation as would otherwise have occurred, but also to the fact that the rain itself reduced use from the water table by the vegetation. During 1932, no summer rains occurred and a greater amount of sun- shine reached the vegetation, these conditions being more favorable to a large use from the water table, which in turn is fed by the stream.
An examination of Tables 35 and 36 shows that the values in these tables during the two seasons reflect the different conditions of the two seasons. In 1931 only a few days show any appreciably larger daily maximum discharges at the middle control than at the lower control, while in 1932 a great many of the days show daily maximum discharges which are appreciably larger at the middle control than at the lower control, because of tlie continued high use by the vegetation.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS 109
Also, the seasonal rainfall prior to the two growing seasons differed. The rainfall for the year ju-ior to the 1931 season was 15.31 inches at San Bernardino and 2S.98 inches at Alpine. For the year prior to the 1932 season it was 21.96 inches at San Bernardino and 55.83 inches at Alpine. The increase in rainfall varies from over 40 per cent during the second year at San Bernardino to over 90 per cent at Alpine. The Coldwater Canyon watershed lies between the two, but closer to Alpine and the average rainfall over the watershed was per- haps 70 per cent greater in the 1931-32 rainy season than it was in 1930-31.
As a result of the greater rainfall in the 1931-32 season, the stream flow was sustained at a much greater volume in 1932 than in 1931. The flow during the spring months was beyond the capacity of the flumes installed and it was not deemed advisable to make the large additional outlay necessary to measure the larger flows accurately. For this reason and also because of possible complications resulting from side inflow, records were not started in 1932 until June 24. Inflow from the east branch Avas measured from June 24 to July 9 at the branch control, which was on bedrock, but no more water passed the control after that date. A survey of the main canyon at that time showed no surface indications of springs between the middle and lower controls.
However, during the period from July 26 to August 19, 1932, there is evidence that there was some underground inflow between the middle and lower controls. That this was the ease during a part of this period is shown by the greater daily maximum discharges at the lower control than at the middle control for some of the dates for the period, as shown in Table 36.
To evaluate this underground inflow during the period between July 26 and August 19, 1932, the differences in daily maximum dis- charges at the controls in question were compared with the maximum temperature recorded at San Bernardino on the preceding day, using all values during 1932 except the period in question. This showed that the amount of water charged to side inflow increased slowly and uni- formly until about August 11, after which it dropped off quite rapidly. The daily loss between the middle and lower controls Avas corrected accordingly from July 26 to August 19. On nine days during this period, the side inflow was sufficient to make the daily maximum dis- charges slightly higher at the lower control than at the middle control. However, the measured flow at the lower control was never at any time as great as the flow at the upper control.
In. 1931 the lowest dail}^ maximum discharge at the lower control was 0.210 second-foot on August 26, and the absolute minimum flow was 0.002 second-foot during several days in August. In the following year the lowest daily maximum discharge at the same control was but 0.320 second-foot on September 8, and the absolute minimum flow was but 0.013 on the same date. On October 17, 1931, the last date on which measurements were taken in that season, the daily maximum discharge at the lower control was 0.380 second-foot with a daily mini- mum discharge of 0.258 second-foot, while on the same date a year later the daily maximum discharge had recovered to 0.487 second-foot with a daily minimum discharge of 0.379 second-foot.
110
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
In the preceding paragraphs the effect of the various factors affecting the measurement of the evaporation and transpiration from the canyon bottom on tlie section between the lower control and the middle and branch controls has been discussed. The same factors and conditions have a similar etfect on the section between the middle con- trol and the upper control.
An examination of Table 36 shows that the daily maximum dis- charge at the middle control never exceeded the daily maxinnim dis- charge at the upper control, except on October 10, when it was due to rain causing surface run-off between the controls. Hence there is no inflow unless there is also deep percolation. Deep percolation is elim- inated as a po.ssibility, except for the remote chance that the intiov.' and outflow would balance, by the occurrence of equal daily maximum discharges at the two controls on the cloudy morning of October 9.
The daily losses between the middle and branch controls and ^he lower control are given for 1931 in Table 37 and for 1932 in Table 38 and between the upper control and middle control for the 1932 season in Table 39.
TABLE 37
DAILY LOSS OF WATER FROM THE STREAM BETWEEN MIDDLE AND LOWER CONTROLS IN COLDWATER CANYON
August 1, to October 17. 1931
|
Date |
Loss in acre-inches |
Date |
Loss in acre-inches |
Date |
Loss in acre-inches |
|
1931 Aug. 1 |
*0.55 .76 .60 .78 .76 .57 .65 .73 .66 .56 .49 *.87 .97 .87 ..3 .88 .91 1.04 .99 .96 1.00 .38 .47 .56 |
1931 Sept. 1 Sept. 2 |
0.33 '.23 .74 .62 .49 .40 .37 .55 .57 .63 .22 27 .47 .42 .65 .25 .29 .32 .25 .08 *.20 |
1931 Oct. 2 Oct. 3 |
0 22 |
|
Aug 2 |
* * |
31 |
|||
|
Aug. 3 |
Sept. 6 -- |
Oct. 4 |
42 |
||
|
Aug 4 |
Sept. 7 |
Oct. 5 |
39 |
||
|
Sept. 8 Spet. 9 -. --- |
Oct. 6 Oct. 7 |
34 |
|||
|
19 |
|||||
|
Aug. 7 |
Sept. 10 Sept. 11 |
Oct. 9 Oct. 10 |
01 |
||
|
Aug 8 |
OS |
||||
|
Aug. 9 |
Sept. 12 Sept. 13 |
Oct. 11 |
n?, |
||
|
Aug. 10 |
Oct. 12 Oct. 13 Oct. 14 Oct. 15 |
15 |
|||
|
Aug. 11 |
Sept. 14 |
.■^l |
|||
|
Aug. 17 |
Sept. 15 |
30 |
|||
|
Aug. 18 Aug. 19 |
Sept 16 |
35 |
|||
|
Sept. 17 |
Oct. 16 Oct. 17 |
34 |
|||
|
Aug. 20 |
Sept. 18 --- Sept. 19 |
17 |
|||
|
Aug. 21 - |
|||||
|
Aug 22 |
Sept. 26 |
||||
|
Aug. 23 |
Sept. 27 |
||||
|
Aug. 24 - |
Sept. 28 |
||||
|
Aug. 25 |
Sept. 29 |
||||
|
Aug. 26 |
Sept. 30 - - |
||||
|
Aug. 29 |
|||||
|
Aug. 30 |
|||||
|
Aug. 31 --- |
|||||
|
Average per day (for complete days) Average per day per 1,000 feet of canyon. |
.75 .36 |
.42 .20 |
.25 |
||
|
.12 |
|||||
•Portion of day only.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
111
TABLE 38
DAILY LOSS OF WATER FROM THE STREAM BETWEEN MIDDLE AND BRANCH CONTROLS AND LOWER CONTROL IN COLDWATER CANYON
June 25, to November 2, 1932
|
Day of month |
Loss in acre-inches |
|||||
|
June |
July |
August |
September |
October |
November |
|
|
1 |
0 85 .75 .66 .64 .68 . 1 07 .83 1 02 .96 .92 .96 .83 .61 .94 1.05 1.09 1.15 98 .91 1.05 1.16 1.17 1 33 1.32 1 26 1 20 1.07 .91 1 04 1 04 1.07 |
1.10 1.11 1.15 1.21 1.20 1.27 1.22 1.19 .92 .76 .91 1.01 .92 .86 .95 1.08 1.31 1.38 1.41 1.29 1.25 1.28 1.15 1.18 1.15 .99 .71 .60 .58 .50 .69 |
1.07 .97 .95 1.12 1.01 1.03 1.28 1.44 1.19 .91 .86 1.01 .97 1.01 .95 .78 .61 |
0.64 .48 .60 .70 1.00 .76 .51 .64 |
0.40 |
|
|
0 |
.12 |
|||||
|
3 |
||||||
|
4 |
||||||
|
5 |
||||||
|
6 --. |
||||||
|
7 |
||||||
|
8 |
||||||
|
9 - |
||||||
|
10 |
.92 .96 .82 .58 .85 1.01 .76 .44 .58 .69 .54 .45 .33 .29 .31 .44 .54 .58 .48 .42 .43 .52 |
|||||
|
11 |
||||||
|
12 |
||||||
|
13 ..- |
||||||
|
14 |
||||||
|
15 |
||||||
|
16 - - |
||||||
|
17 |
||||||
|
18 |
||||||
|
19 |
||||||
|
20 |
.94 .94 .81 .68 .58 .42 .83 .54 |
|||||
|
21 |
||||||
|
22 |
||||||
|
23 -- |
||||||
|
24 |
||||||
|
25 26 |
0.70 .72 .76 .82 1.04 .95 |
|||||
|
27 |
||||||
|
28 |
||||||
|
29 |
||||||
|
30 |
||||||
|
31 |
||||||
|
Average per day Average tier day per 1.000 feet of canyon |
.83 .40 |
.98 .47 |
1.04 .50 |
.91 .44 |
.61 .29 |
|
During' the 54 days of full record in August, September, and October, 1931, that is, during the latter half of the growing season, the average loss from the stream between middle and lower controls per 1000 feet of canyon per day was 0.25 acre-inch.
For the 1932 season the record begins earlier, and during 124 days of record in June, July, August, September, and October the average loss from the stream between middle and lower controls per 1000 feet of canyon per day was 0.42 acre-inch.
The record for 1932 is more complete and it was not interrupted by rainy periods such as occurred in 1931. A graph of the use of water in acre-inches between the middle and lower controls in 1932 is sliown on Plate XXIX. The measured daily use between controls is shown, and through these points a smooth average curve has been drawn. Ordinates to this smooth curve give the average daily use between the middle and lower controls in acre-inches during any part of the season, and the area between this curve and the baseline for any period of time represents to scale the total use during that period.
112
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
TABLE 39
DAILY LOSS OF WATER FROM THE STREAM BETWEEN THE UPPER AND MIDDLE
CONTROLS IN COLDWATER CANYON
July 15, to November 2, 1932
|
Day of month |
Loss in acre-inches |
||||
|
July |
August |
September |
October |
November |
|
|
1 |
2.04 2.12 2 23 2.25 2 53 2 36 2.23 2.13 2.09 1.53 1.76 1.79 1.62 1.66 1.70 2.11 2.29 2.55 2.32 2 40 2.43 2.51 2.67 2.54 2.67 2 15 1.47 1.11 1.38 .75 |
0.98 .60 .75 1.65 1.91 1.04 .14 .47 |
0.73 |
||
|
2 |
2.08 2.28 2.43 2 50 2.52 2.73 2.81 2 54 1.88 |
.16 |
|||
|
3 . |
|||||
|
4 |
|||||
|
5 |
|||||
|
6 |
|||||
|
7 . |
|||||
|
8 |
|||||
|
9 |
|||||
|
10 |
.89 1.53 1.38 1 14 1.36 1.71 1.64 .95 1.00 1.22 1.30 1.36 1 30 1.31 1.58 1.38 1.44 1.30 1.03 .88 .77 1.02 |
||||
|
11 |
|||||
|
12 |
|||||
|
13 |
|||||
|
14 |
|||||
|
15 |
1.90 1 80 1.93 1.41 1.00 1.74 1.96 2.11 1.96 1.77 2.05 2.10 1.96 2.05 2.24 2.18 2.29 |
----- 1.89 |
|||
|
16 |
|||||
|
17 |
|||||
|
18 |
|||||
|
19 |
|||||
|
20 |
|||||
|
21 |
|||||
|
22 |
1.70 1.97 2.12 1.96 |
||||
|
23 |
|||||
|
24 |
|||||
|
25 |
|||||
|
26 - |
|||||
|
27 |
|||||
|
28 - |
|||||
|
29 - |
|||||
|
30 |
|||||
|
31 |
|||||
|
Average per day per 1,000 feet |
1.91 .33 |
2.05 .35 |
2.23 .38 |
1.19 .20 |
|
The total use of water between the middle and low^er controls for the six months, May to October, 1932, is indicated as 72 acre-inches per 1000 feet of canyon or 64 acre-inches per acre of canyon bottom.
During 1931, the greatest daily loss from the stream between middle and lower controls was 0.50 acre-inch per 1000 feet of canyon on August 23, and during 1932 it was 0.69 acre-inch per 1000 feet of canyon on September 8. In the latter case the loss is ecjual to 0.61 acre-inch per acre, the maximum daily loss for both seasons.
During August, 1932, the average daily loss from the stream between middle and lower controls per 1000 feet of canyon per day was eciuivalent to 1.05 southern California miner's inches, continuous flow.
During the 92 days of record during July, August, September, and October of the 1932 season the average daily loss from the stream between the upper and middle controls was 1.77 acre-inches per day, or 0.30 acre-inch per day for each 1000 feet of canyon between the controls. As the area between these controls is 5.89 acres, the loss per day per acre was 0.30 acre-inch.
A graph of daily use of water for this section, similar to the graph for the lower section of the canyon, is also shown on Plate XXIX. The area below the average curve in this graph indicates the total use
(
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
113
PLATE XXIX
|
...... |
|||||||||||||||||
|
Ul 120 \/) Qj 100 ^ 80 (V ^ 60 3 in Q) r> _C '^ U _C 1 gi 0 o c ■ 1.5 QJ "^ Z) 1-0 0.5 o |
Da |
. 1 I.I ilv maximunr 1 ! |
II III 1^ 1 ^1 1 1, T temperatures at San Bernardino \ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 |
■ |
|||||||||||||
|
{\ |
n^ |
yi |
|||||||||||||||
|
V |
L/L |
A |
1 |
J |
W |
Sa« |
Jl |
ll |
.f^ |
||||||||
|
11 |
U' |
\ |
"1 |
1 |
|||||||||||||
|
1 |
1 |
1 |
|||||||||||||||
|
1 |
of wai 1 |
er |
be |
tw( |
sen |
Up |
pet |
'• and Middle 1 1 1 |
C( |
Dntrob |
|||||||
|
n-.n^-' |
A, |
/" |
n |
/^ |
|||||||||||||
|
— " |
1 |
'\)^ |
1 |
J |
Li Lt^ |
JS |
|||||||||||
|
"^ |
L |
If |
^ |
||||||||||||||
|
Jse of 1 |
wate 1 |
r b |
>et |
1 /veen 1 |
Mi |
dd |
le c |
and |
Voy |
/vet |
-Cc |
)ntr |
0l5 |
||||
|
_/lr |
^^ |
r r' |
\ |
ii |
|||||||||||||
|
^ |
J |
L> |
\ |
'V |
\ |
yii_i |
^ |
^ |
/F |
\ |
■--rn |
||||||
|
u |
u^ |
||||||||||||||||
|
May June Jurly Auq^. Sept. Oct 1932 |
USE OF WATER BETWEEN CONTROLS IN COLDWATER CANYON AND DAILY MAXIMUM TEMPERATURES AT SAN BERNARDINO DURING 1932.
of water between the upper and middle controls for the months May to October, inclusive. This use is indicated to be 50 acre-inches per 1000 feet of canyon and. since the canyon bottom area averages one acre for each 1000 feet of canyon, the use of water in the canyon bottom is 50 acre-inches per acre.
During August, 1932, the average daily loss from the stream between the upper and middle controls per 1000 feet of canyon was equivalent to 0.74 southern California miner's inch, continuous flow.
From the graphs on Plate XXIX, a comparison by months can be made of the losses in the two sections of canyon. The average rate of use of water per 1000 feet of canyon between the middle and lower controls was 0.47 acre-inch per day during July, 0.49 acre-inch per day during August, 0.42 acre-inch per day during September, and 0.30 acre-inch per day during October in 1932. Between the upper and middle controls, the average rate of use of water per 1000 feet of canyon was 0.33 acre-inch per day during July, 0.35 acre-inch per day during August. 0.30 acre-inch per day during September, and 0.20 acre-inch per day during October.
8 — 4503
114
DIVISION OP WATER RESOURCES
The averag-e rate of use of water ])er acre of canyon bottom fill between the middle and lower controls in 1932 was 0.42 acre-inch per day during July, 0.44 acre-inch per day during August, 0.37 acre-inch per day during September, and 0.26 acre-inch per day during October. Between the upper and middle controls, the average rate of use of water per acre of canyon bottom fill was 0.33 acre-inch per day during July, 0.35 acre-inch per day during August, 0.30 acre-inch per day dur- ing September, and 0.20 acre-inch per day during October. In the upper section, each 1000 feet of canyon has one acre of canyon bottom fill.
Loss from Stream Above the Highest Control
The highest control on the stream during the 1931 season was the control which later was called the middle control. During the 1932 season the upper control was the highest control on the stream.
The losses indicated by the daily cycle in the discharge curves at the middle control in the 1931 season and at the upper control in the 1932 season were evaluated in the following manner. The actual volume passing the control was subtracted from that volume which would have passed the control had a sustained flow occurred throughout the day equal to the average of the maximum flow on the day considered and the maximum of the next succeeding day. This value does not represent all of the loss by evaporation and transpiration occurring in the canyon bottoms above the control. It may, however, be con- sidered as a fair approximation of the loss that might be reclaimed most readily by carrjang the water down the main canyon in pipes. Table 40 shows the amount of water during the days of record in 1931 that
TABLE 40
DAILY LOSS OF WATER FROM THE STREAM INDICATED BY DIPS IN DISCHARGE CURVE AT MIDDLE CONTROL IN COLDWATER CANYON
August 1, to October 17, 1931
|
Date |
Loss above middle control in acre-inches |
Date |
Loss above middle control in acre-inches |
Date |
Loss above middle control in acre-inches |
|
1931 Aug. 1 |
*2.02 3.35 1.78 3.33 2,89 3.21 3.27 3.29 3.00 2.88 2.69 *2.47 3.25 3.19 2.98 3.25 3.18 3.15 3.04 3.19 2.98 1.40 2 54 2.27 |
1931 Sept. 1 Sept. 2 Sept. 5 |
1 54 *1.64 *1.81 2.34 2.37 1.93 2.05 1.64 2,24 2.19 2.44 1.01 1.32 2.06 1.89 2.22 .62 1.72 1.65 1.74 1.57 *1.70 |
1931 Oct. 2 Oct. 3 Oct. 4 Oct. 5 |
1.70 |
|
Aug. 2 - |
1.68 |
||||
|
Aug 3 |
1.81 |
||||
|
Sept. 6 |
1.82 |
||||
|
Aiiff .5 |
Sept. 7 -- |
Oct. 6 Oct. 7 |
1.42 |
||
|
Alicr ^ |
Sept. 8 - |
.66 |
|||
|
Aue 7 |
Sept. 9 |
Oct. 9 |
.27 |
||
|
Aiiff 8 |
Sept. 10 |
Oct. 10 Oct. 11 Oct. 12 |
.98 |
||
|
Aug 9 |
Sept. 11 |
1.24 |
|||
|
Aug 10 |
Sept. 12 |
1.52 |
|||
|
Aug. 11 |
Sept. 13 Sect. 14 |
Oct. 13 Oct. 14 |
1.53 |
||
|
Aug 17 |
1.45 |
||||
|
Auf 18 |
Sept. 15 |
Oct. 15 |
1.30 |
||
|
Aug. 19 |
Sept. 16-- |
Oct. 16 Oct. 17 ---- |
1.48 |
||
|
Aug 20 |
Sept. 17 |
*1.01 |
|||
|
Aug 21 |
Sept. 18 -- |
||||
|
Aug. 22 |
Sept. 19--- |
||||
|
Aug. 23 |
Sept. 26 |
||||
|
Aug 24 |
Sept. 27 --. |
||||
|
Aug. 25 |
Sept. 28 |
||||
|
Aug. 26 |
Sept. 29 |
||||
|
Aug 29 |
Sept. 30 |
||||
|
Aug. 30 |
|||||
|
Aug. 31 - - |
|||||
|
Average per day (for |
2.91 |
1.82 |
1.35 |
||
•Portion of day only.
WATER LOSSES PROM WET AREAS
115
iiiig-ht be reclaimed above tbe middle control, if the water from the larger springs were carried in pipes and the stream bed kept dry. Table 41 similarly shows the amount of water during the days of record in 1932 that might be reclaimed above the upper control, if the
TABLE 41
DAILY LOSS OF WATER FROM THE STREAM INDICATED BY DIPS IN DISCHARGE CURVE AT UPPER CONTROL IN COLDWATER CANYON
|
July 1 5, to November 2 |
1932 |
||||
|
Day of month |
Loss in acre-inch« |
s |
|||
|
July |
August |
September |
October |
November |
|
|
1 |
2.85 2.81 2.81 2.88 2.84 2.71 2.68 2.74 2.62 2.30 2.35 2.40 2.46 2.44 2.59 2.69 2.78 2.71 2.55 2.62 2.60 2.65 2.59 2.50 2.66 2.39 1.42 1.54 1.74 1.25 |
1.57 1 48 1.56 2.48 1.76 2.04 .32 1.50 .02 1.45 2.05 1.81 1.70 1.66 1.79 1.86 .74 1.30 1.11 1.11 1.33 1.46 1.34 1.50 1.02 1.19 1.33 1.30 1.06 1.04 1.20 |
1 03 |
||
|
9 |
2.50 2.57 2.55 2.42 2.29 2.10 2.34 2.12 1.95 |
.13 |
|||
|
3 |
|||||
|
4 |
|||||
|
5 |
|||||
|
6 |
|||||
|
7 |
|||||
|
8 |
|||||
|
9 |
|||||
|
10 - - |
|||||
|
11 |
|||||
|
12 |
|||||
|
13 |
|||||
|
14 |
|||||
|
15 |
2.84 2.79 2.64 2.29 2.32 2.72 2.72 2.62 2.62 2.62 2.58 2.69 2.86 2.92 2.88 2.83 2.80 |
||||
|
16 |
1.93 2.38 1.28 .48 1.85 1.97 2.10 2.24 2.20 2.08 |
||||
|
17 |
|||||
|
18 |
|||||
|
19 |
|||||
|
20 . . |
|||||
|
21 |
|||||
|
22 |
|||||
|
23 |
|||||
|
24 |
|||||
|
25 |
|||||
|
26 |
|||||
|
27 |
|||||
|
28 - . |
|||||
|
29 |
|||||
|
30 |
|||||
|
31 . . |
|||||
|
Average per day |
2.69 |
2.47 |
2.07 |
1.39 |
|
water from the larger springs were carried in pipes and the stream bed kept dry. There are, however, many small springs in branch canyons or on hillsides from which the water seeps slowly through a mantle of soil toward the main canyon. When there is little or no evaporation and transpiration, water from these small springs reaches the main canyon and contributes to the flow in the main channel, but on warm days the water from these small springs may not reach the main canyon at all, as it may be intercepted and used to meet the transpira- tion needs of the vegetation which has roots in the soil through or over which the water must pass. During periods of increased transpiration, more and more of these small springs are cut off from the main canyon and the maximum flow measured at a control on the main canyon becomes less each succeeding day. When the days are cloudy and cool, transpiration is decreased and the soil reservoirs that have intercepted these flows become filled and water from the smaller springs again reaches the main canyon. Then the maximum flow in the main canyon increases from day to day. This is a factor that operates to cause a
116 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
seasonal drop in the discharge to a low point in August and a recovery during September and October before any rain of importance has occurred.
October 9, 10, 11, 1931, were cool cloudy days and the transpira- tion loss was very low and the maximum daily flow increased to 0.46 second-foot at the middle control. In contrast to this, August 24, 25, and 26, in the same year, were three days at the end of a long period of hot weather, and on the mornings of August 25, 26, and 27 the maxi- mum flow was only 0.25 second-foot at the middle control. The dif- ference between 0.46 second-foot and 0.25 second-foot, or 0.21 second- foot, represents a loss of water originating in these small springs, but this flow was entirelj- intercepted so that none of the water represented by this value of 0.21 second-foot reached the middle control at any time on August 24, 25, and 26. A flow of 0.21 second-foot is equiva- lent to 5.0 acre-inches per da3\ This is a loss that might be reclaimed if each spring were sought out and developed at its source. The draft on the connected flow measurable by the dip in the discharge curve at the middle control on August 24, 25, and 26 is given in Table 40 and averages 3.1 acre-inches per day. The loss between the middle and lower controls on those three days averaged 1.0 acre-inch per day. This makes a total of 9.1 acre-inches per day, for the average loss per day on August 24, 25, and 26 in 1931, and is chargeable to evaporation and transpiration between the springs, where the water first comes to the surface, and the lower control.
The source of the summer flow is within an area of 0.2 square mile between elevations of 3100 and 4250 feet in the stream bed. The drainage area back of the stream bed elevation of 3100 feet is 1.3 square miles and the elevation of the divide ranges from 5200 to 5800 feet. The seasonal precipitation recorded at Alpine at an elevation of 5750 feet was 53.66 inches in 1931-32, yet the first steady spring flow in Coldwater Canyon is below an elevation of 4250 feet.
The flow at the lower control was never as great as that measured at the upper control during the period of measurement from July 15 to November 3, 1932. The significance of this fact is that there was no effective yield of water as summer flow from the portion of the water- shed tributary to the stream below the upper control, which portion is 62 per cent of the watershed area above the lower control. Since there was no gradual gain in flow as the stream passed through the 7965 feet of canyon between the upper and lower controls, it indicates that prac- tically all the moisture from rainfall that might have been slowly moving downhill through the soil mantle over this lower portion of the watershed was intercepted by the vegetation before it reached the canyon bottom.
COMPARISON OF USE BETWEEN CONTROLS WITH METEOROLOGICAL DATA
During the 1932 season records were obtained from an air thermograph, maximum and minimum thermometers, and an atmometer located near the mouth of the canyon, and also from an atmometer located near the lower control in the canyon.
Monthly mean maximum and minimum temperatures are shown in Table 42 for the months of record in 1932 at the mouth of the canyon.
4
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
117
TABLE 42
MONTHLY MEAN MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM TEMPERATURES AT THE MOUTH OF COLDWATER CANYON, AT ALPINE, AND AT SAN BERNARDINO
|
June to October, |
1931 and 1932 |
|||||||||
|
Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit |
||||||||||
|
Month |
Alpine, United States Weather Bureau, Squirrel Inn Station, elevation, 5,750 feet |
San Bernardino, United States Weather Bureau Station, ele- vation 1,150 feet |
Arrowhead Springs near mouth of Cold- water Canyon, elevation 2,000 feet |
|||||||
|
1931 |
1931 |
1932 |
1932 |
1931 |
1931 |
1932 |
1932 |
1932 |
1932 |
|
|
Mean maxi- mum |
Mean mini- mum |
Mean maxi- mum |
Mean mini- mum |
Mean maxi- mum |
Mean mini- mum |
Mean maxi- mum |
Mean mini- mum |
Mean maxi- mum |
Mean mini- mum |
|
|
June |
71.5 85.1 79.2 74.8 71.9 |
46.5 62.6 60.8 47.6 39.4 |
74 5 80 6 81.1 83.4 66.9 |
42.3 51.1 53 6 53.7 41.5 |
90.5 103.2 100.0 92 3 83.3 |
55.4 65.0 63.0 54.1 50.0 |
86.0 92 9 93.7 91.2 82.0 |
48 4 52.0 51.9 48.7 43.7 |
||
|
July |
||||||||||
|
94.5 92.9 79.9 |
61.4 |
|||||||||
|
September |
60.5 |
|||||||||
|
October |
56.8 |
|||||||||
|
. Average June to n(>t.nhpr |
76 5 |
51.4 |
77.3 |
48.4 |
93.9 |
57 5 |
89.2 |
48.9 |
||
TABLE 43 LOSS OF WATER FROM ATMOMETERS AT COLDWATER CANYON
July 18. to October 24, 1932
|
Loss in cubic centi- |
Loss in cubic centi- |
||
|
meters from atmo- |
meters from atmo- |
||
|
Period |
meter "A" with full |
meter "B" under |
Ratio B/A |
|
exposure located near |
trees in canyon bot- |
||
|
mouth of canyon |
tom near lower control |
||
|
July 18-Aug. 1 |
1,077 |
962 |
0.89 |
|
Aug. 1-Sept. 1 |
2,274 |
1,767 |
.78 |
|
Sept. 1-Oct. 1 |
1.898 |
1,588 |
.84 |
|
Oct. 1-Oct. 24 |
1,382 |
1,013 |
.73 |
|
July 18-Oct. 24 |
6,631 |
5,330 |
.80 |
Values are also given in Table 42 of the monthly mean maximum and minimum temperatures at the Squirrel Inn and San Bernardino "Weather Bureau stations for June to October, inclusive, during 1931 and 1932.
Table 43 gives the use from each of the atmometers during the periods between readings from July 18 to October 24, 1932.
For the period from September 7 to 15, 1932, a more intensive study was made of the meteorological data at Coldwater Canyon. An eva])orimeter (described in detail on page 97), a hygro-thermograph, and a second atmometer were placed near the mouth of the canyon in addition to the maximum and minimum thermometers, rain gage, and atmometer already there. Two thermographs, one to record the air temperature and the other to record the temperature of the stream, and an additional atmometer were placed near the lower control in the canyon. There were also installed at the same location an evaporation
118
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
pan sunk in the stream channel and completely surrounded by the stream, and a recorder on a ground water pit about 10 feet away from the stream.
Readings were taken at all installations throughout this period each day near sunrise, near sunset, and at various other times. Rela- tive humidity was determined with a sling-psychrometer near the mouth of the canyon and at various locations in the canyon. The maximum and minimum discharges at the middle and the lower controls also were carefully checked each morning and evening.
PLATE XXX
September 1932
UJ
COMPARISON OF LOSS OF Vi'ATER FROM EVAPORIMETER AND AIR
TEMPERATURE NEAR MOUTH OF COLDWATER CANYON,
SEPTEMBER 7-15, 1932.
Plate XXX shows the comparison, during the period, of the air temperature near the mouth of the canyon with the evaporation from the evaporimeter at the same location. Note that insolation is the primary causative factor controlling the loss from the evaporimeter, since it is very nearly in phase with the radiant energy cycle and reaches a maximum each day just about noon. The air temperature lags behind and does not reach a maximum generally until around 2 p.m.
The daily evaporation from the evaporimeter compared with the daily loss from the atmometers, both in the canyon and at the mouth of the canj^on, is given in Table 44 together with the daily loss between the middle and the lower controls.
The record of the fluctuations during this period in the ground water pit has alreadj^ been referred to and is shown on Plate XXVI. The evaporation from the evaporation pan also has been discussed and the dailj^ values given in Table 33.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
119
TABLE 44
COMPARISON OF LOSS OF WATER FROM ATMOMETERS, EVAPORIMETER, AND LOSS OF WATER BETWEEN MIDDLE AND LOWER CONTROLS
September 8-14, 1932
|
Loss in cubic centimeters from atmometer near mouth of canyon |
Loss in cubic centimeters from atmometer in canyon |
Loss in inches from evapo- rimetcr near mouth of canyon |
Loss in acre-inches from stream between middle and lower controls |
Per cent of average loss for the week |
|||
|
Date |
Atmometer near mouth of canyon |
Evapori- meter near mouth of canyon |
Loss from stream between middle and lower controls |
||||
|
1932 September 8 September 9 September 10 September 11 September 12 September 13 September 14 |
129 70 45 54 65 61 52 |
--- 42 54 54 45 44 |
0 50 .34 .25 .28 .30 .28 .24 |
1.44 1.19 .91 .86 1.01 .97 1.01 |
190 103 66 79 96 90 76 |
160 109 80 89 96 89 77 |
136 113 86 81 96 92 96 |
|
Average |
68 |
.31 |
1.06 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
The daily maximum and minimum temperatures of the water, both in the stream and in the evaporation pan sunk in the stream, and the daily maximum and minimum air temperatures in the canyon are given in Table 34.
YIELD OF WATER FROM DRAINED SLOPES ON ARROWHEAD
MOUNTAIN
During the last mile of its course, Coldwater Creek skirts the east slope of Arrowhead Mountain, which may be identified in Plate XIX by the natural outline of an arrowhead on the southwest face of the mountain. The cutting of the main canyon has proceeded more rapidly than that of the side canyons so that the side canyons drop off on a very steep grade as they enter the main channel. This has left excellent bedrock exposures at the lower ends of many of the side canyons and there was therefore an opportunity to observe the yield of water from the drained slope above these bedrock exposures.
Plate XXXI is a vieAv of the east slope of Arrowhead Mountain taken from a point across Coldwater Canyon on the divide between that canyon and Strawberry Canyon. The elevation of the trail shown at the bottom of the view is approximately 2300 feet and of the moun- tain peak 3510 feet.
Seasonal rainfall records for 1931-32 to February 19 are given in Table 45. On February 19, 1932, each side canyon was explored for evidence of water flowing in its bed. No evidence of any yield of water was found in any of the canyons to the left of the point marked A in Plate XXXI. To the right of the point marked A, every channel had flowing water in it. It may be noted from Plate XXXI that there is a marked change in the density of the vegetation to the right of the line marked A-B. To the right of this line, the vegetation is less dense and there are more rock outcrops than to the left of the line. The elevation of the point marked B is approximately
120
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
TABLE 45 PRECIPITATION 1931-32 SEASON
|
Station |
Distance from Arrowhead Mt. |
Elevation above sea level |
Total rain July 1, 1931, to Feb. 19, 1932 |
|
■ |
Miles |
Feet |
Inches |
|
San Bernardino (U. S. Weather Bureau) Newmark Reservoir (San Bernardino Water Dept.) |
6.5 3.5 4.5 4.5 3.0 0.5 |
1,150 1,400 1,850 2,700 5,750 2,000 |
20.87 24 30 |
|
Devil Canyon Gate (San Bernardino Water Dept.) _ _ ^ |
28 47 |
||
|
Devil Canyon Nursery (U. S. Forest Service) .- |
32 76 |
||
|
Alpine (U. S. Weather Bureau Squirrel Inn Station) |
53.66 '24 39 |
||
' No record prior to October IS, 1931.
3000 feet. Probably more rainfall was received at the higher eleva- tions and water percolating downward from the higher areas found its way into the channels in which the flow was observed. There was no further rain of importance after February 19 and three weeks later all of the channels had dried up and there was no more flow in them during the season of 1931-32.
It therefore appears that the soil mantle on the slopes to the left of the line A-B had sufficient capacity to intercept and hold all of the rain that fell during the 1931-32 season. This amounted to at least 24.39 inches as recorded at Arrowhead Springs Hotel, and in the 19-day period from February 1 to February 19, 11.55 inches fell. It may appear rather astonishing that this large amount of rain coming ■\\dthin a period of 19 days at the end of the 1931-32 rainy season, was held without storm run-off by the soil mantle to the left of the line
PLATE XXXI
EAST SLOPE OF ARROWHEAD MOUNTAIN DRAINING INTO COLDWATER
CANYON.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS 121
A-B. However, the imderljing rock is granite and it has apparently been weathered to considerable depth. The rock was found to be weathered and seamed to depths of 30 feet and more in the road cuts along the new Arrowhead high-gear road opposite the entrance to Arrowhead Springs one mile west of the area. Hoots of chamise were found in seams along the faces of the road cuts as deep as 29 feet below the top of the cut.
The capaeit}' of the soil mantle to hold moisture on the slope of a mountain depends, among other things, on the soil depth. If the average thickness of the soil mantle on a 45-degree slope were 2 feet, the equivalent depth for the same volume of soil on a horizontal plane would be 2.8 feet. Rainfall is measured by the amount falling on a horizontal plane and if equivalent depth of the soil mantle on the same plane be considered, it is apparent that the capacity for the storage of water from rainfall as soil moisture on a slope is relatively large. Water from rainfall in its movement downhill after penetrating to bedrock may be intercepted and held in the pockets of deeper soil that lie in the depressions through which the water moves in its progress towards lower elevations. In the canyon bottom, though the rate of loss is high, the area of the canyon bottom fill is but a small portion of the watershed and the actual loss by evaporation and transpiration from the canyon bottom vegetation is less than 2 per cent of the seasonal precipitation falling on the watershed. The larger portion of the precipitation must be accounted for on the drained slopes.
Most of the steady spring flow that feeds Coldwater Creek comes from the higher reaches of the canyon above an elevation of 3500 feet where the seasonal precipitation is high. The source of all of the steady summer flow was found to come from within an area of 0.2 square mile between elevations of 3100 and 4250 feet in the stream bed. The area contributing to the surface drainage back of the stream bed elevation of 3100 feet is 1.3 square miles and the elevation of the divide ranges from 5200 to 5800 feet. The first steady stream flow in Coldwater Canyon is found at an elevation of 4250 feet, yet a precipi- tation of 53.66 inches was recorded at Alpine during the 1931-32 season. Alpine is at an elevation of 5750 feet. There is a considerable area over the divide that lies above an elevation of 4250 feet from which the surface drainage waters flow northward. The close proximity of the larger springs to this area of high elevation that receives a relatively large amount of precipitation suggests that a considerable amount of deep seepage must be occurring over this upland area. The results of this investigation point to deep seepage from these upland areas above an elevation of about 3500 feet as the source of most of the summer flow. A more complete study should be made of this problem by tracing the source of all of the summer flow coming from all of the drainage systems radiating from Strawberry Peak.
CHAPTER V EVAPORATION FROM FREE WATER SURFACES*
In any study of water supply a knowledge of unavoidable losses occurring in transmission and storage is important, and in this connec- tion evaporation from free water surfaces is of primary importance. The rate and amount of evaporation are dependent upon climatological factors and vary with each locality in conformity with atmospheric conditions. Evaporation losses from reservoirs used for storage of W'ater materially reduce the quantities available for domestic, indus- trial and agricultural uses. Although much of such losses can not be prevented, a knowledge of their magnitude and of the factors which influence evaporation is desirable for use in devising means of reducing them to a minimum, in estimating the available supply, and in deter- inining the economic feasibility of a project, taking into consideration the evaporation losses from proposed reservoirs. For these reasons the Division of Irrigation of the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering has been making evaporation studies** in the AVest for many years.
Evaporation data are also valuable in estimating consumptive use of water by native vegetation growing in moist areas. Since 1928 the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering has been keeping evaporation records at several stations in cooperation with the State Division of "Water Resources and other agencies also have been making such obser- vations. Not all of these agencies use the same type of evaporation pan, and results from the different types are not ahvays comparable. For this reason, a cooperative key station was established at Baldwin Park in 1932 for the purpose of correlating the data that are being collected by the various organizations and for determining factors that may be used to reduce the observations on various types of evaporation pans to a comparable basis. Heretofore, very few data on evaporation in southern California have been published and it is the purpose of this chapter to bring together such records and make them available for general use.
BALDWIN PARK KEY STATION
The Los Angeles County Flood Control District, the San Gabriel Valley Protective Association, the Pasadena Water Department, the California State Division of Water Resources, and the United States Geological Survey are cooperating with the Bureau of Agi'icultural Engineering, in conducting this investigation. Three types of evapora- tion pans have been installed at the station :
1. Standard Weather Bureau type of pan, 4 feet in diameter by 10 inches deep, set upon a wooden platform above ground.
!
* Prepared by Harry F. Blaney, Irrigation Engineer, Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, United States Department of Agriculture.
** "Evaporation from the Surfaces of AVater and River-bed Materials," by R. B. Sleight (Journal of Agricultural Research. Vol. X, No. 5. July .30, 1917) and "Evaporation from Free Water Surfaces," by Carl Rohwer, IJ. S. Department of Agriculture Technical Bulletin No. 271.
(122)
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
123
2. U. S. Bureau of Agricultural Engineering type, 6 feet in
diameter bj^ 3 feet deep, set 2.75 feet in the ground.
3. Los Angeles County Flood Control District type, 2 feet in
diameter by 3 feet de^p, set 2.75 feet in the ground.
The standard Weather Bureau pan is the one most commonly used throughout the west and the one from wliich the majority of records are available. In southern California the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering has used this type of pan at each of its experiment stations. The 6-foot tank set in the ground is used in various localities on the valley floor, while the 2-foot tank is used in the mountain watersheds. Other equipment at the Baldwin Park station consists of a Livingston spherical atmometer, maximum and minimum thermometers, a thermo- graph for recording temperatures, a barograph for barometric pressure, an anemometer for wind movement, and both automatic and standard rain gages.
Monthly evaporation records obtained from the three types of pans at the Baldmn Park station are given in Table 46.
TABLE 46
MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT COOPERATIVE KEY STATION AT BALDWIN PARK, CALIFORNIA, 1932-1933
|
Depth in inches |
||||||
|
Month |
Standard Weather Bureau pan |
Bureau of Agricultural Engineering pan |
Los Angeles County Flood Control District pan |
|||
|
1932 |
1933 |
1932 |
1933 |
1932 |
1933 |
|
|
2.47 3.49 4.79 5.28 6.89 8.15 9.49 |
1.89 2.38 3.61 4.16 6.43 6.89 7.75 |
2 213 |
||||
|
February.- -- -.- |
3 145 |
|||||
|
March |
4 880 |
|||||
|
April - - |
5 8^5 |
|||||
|
May |
7 750 |
|||||
|
June |
----- 7.26 4.81 4 43 4.06 2.22 |
9 085 |
||||
|
July ----- |
8.30 8.02 5.64 5.00 4.23 2.07 |
9 310 9 395 6.565 5 630 4.805 2.367 |
10 040 |
|||
|
August |
||||||
|
September |
||||||
|
November-- |
||||||
|
December -.- |
||||||
Description of pans:
Standard AYeather Bureau pan — 48 inches in diameter by 10 inches deep.
Bureau of .Agricultural Engineering pan — 6 feet in diameter by 3 feet deep, set 2.75 feet in the ground.
Los .Angeles County Flood Control District pan — 2 feet in diameter by 3 feet deep, set 2.75 feet in the ground. Gage held in center of pan by metal cross bar below water surface.
Elevation of station: Approximately 400 feet.
Remarks: This station is operated cooperatively by the following agencies: Bureau of .Agricultural Engineering, U. S. Department of Agriculture; Geological Survey, U. S. Department of the Interior; Los Angeles County Flood Control District; Pasadena Water Department: San Gabriel Valley Protective Association; Division of Water Ilesources, Department of Public Works, State of California.
It is expected that this investigation will be continued for several years, until sufficient data are available for correlating the evapora- tion records that are being collected by the various agencies. The value of many of these records will be greatly enhanced if the proper coefficients can be determined to reduce the measured los.ses to the equivalent evaporation from a lake surface. It is hoped that eventually every type of pan in common use will be installed at Baldwin Park key station, and that the proper conversion coefficients will be determined.
124 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
No definite conclusions should be drawn at this time from the results of the first year's work. However, the data presented in Table 46 indicate that the evaporation loss from the Los Angeles County Flood Control pan is greater than that from the standard Weather Bureau pan at Baldwin Park during 1932. The cause of this result is not apparent at this time as Sleight * found that the loss from a standard Weather Bureau pan was greater than that from his 2-foot pan, but it is possible that the discrepancy is due to differences in con- struction and especially to the use of a cross bar in the Los Angeles pan that was not used in the Sleight type. This cross bar was intro- duced to make possible measurements of depth in the center of the pan.
MISCELLANEOUS EVAPORATION RECORDS
Evaporation stations maintained by the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering at locations other than Baldwin Park have been previously described in Chapters II and III.
In addition to observations of evaporation from standard Weather Bureau pans at the Santa Ana and San Bernardino stations, records were obtained from circular tanks 23 inches in diameter by 32 inches deep, set 30 inches in the ground. Measurements were made with a hook gage in a still well to prevent inaccuracies due to surface move- ment. The normal rate of evaporation from the sunken tank was more uniform than that from the Weather Bureau pan as the water in the tank maintained a more even temperature. The total evaporation, however, was less than that from the pan. Experiments by Sleight* at Denver indicate that evaporation from a similar tank 24 inches in diameter by 3 feet deep, set 2.75 feet in the ground was 86.2 per cent of that from an adjacent standard Weather Bureau pan for the period April to November 1916. This agrees closely with the average ratio of 88.8 per cent derived at Santa Ana and 86.6 per cent at San Bernardino for the three-year period ending April 30, 1932. The difference in depths of the tank at Denver and those in California is probably of no importance, but the difference of one inch in diameter may have had a slight effect on the evaporation.
Evaporation data collected by the Bureau of Agricultural Engi- neering at Santa Ana, San Bernardino, Prado, Ontario, and Victorville stations are summarized in Tables 47 to 51, inclusive.
A canvass was made for other evaporation records and these are published herewith as Tables 52 to 69, inclusive, through the courtesy of agencies collecting them.
* "Evaporation from the Surfaces of Water and River-bed Materials," by R. B. Sleight, Journal of Agi'icultural Research, Vol. X, No. 5, July 30, 1917.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
125
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126
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
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WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
127
TABLE 49 MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT PRADO, CALIFORNIA, 1930-1933
Observed by the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, United States Department of Agriculture
|
Month |
Depth in inches |
|||
|
1930 |
1931 |
1932 |
1933 |
|
|
4 028 2.432 5.748 6.077 7.762 9.124 11.518 9 855 7.627 5.391 3.558 2.501 |
4.208 5.'m 6.028 8.180 9.137 9.985 10.470 7 051 5.999 5 389 2.746 |
3.129 |
||
|
4.391 |
||||
|
March - _ - - - - - |
5 261 |
|||
|
April |
5 426 |
|||
|
May |
7 514 |
|||
|
9.016 |
||||
|
Julv - - - - |
11.003 9.852 |
|||
|
October |
||||
|
November |
5.018 3.804 |
|||
|
Total |
75.621 |
|||
Type of pan — Standard Weather Bureau pan. Description of pan — 48 inches in diameter by 10 inches deep. Elevation of station — 480 feet (approximately^.
Remarks: In cooperation with the Geological Survey, U. S. Department of the Interior; and the Division of Water Resources, Department of Public Works, State of California.
TABLE 50
MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT ONTARIO, CALIFORNIA, 1928-1931
Observed by the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, United States Department of Agriculture
Month
Depth in inches
1928
1929
1930
1931
January
February...
March
April
May --
June
July
August
September.
October
November.. December..
Totals.
3.39 6.28 6.04 7.37 9.74 9.28 8.25 4.44 3.46 1.96
1.87 1.85 3.53 3.83 7.31 8.59 10.17 10 55 6.39 6.21 4.96 3.32
1.51 2.57 3.54 5.19 5.25 6.76 8.43 7.65 4.98 3.48 2.95 1.74
68.58
54.05
2.17 2.19 5.02 5.23 6.11 6.70
Type of pan — Standard Weather Bureau pan. Description of pan — 48 inches in diameter by 10 inches deep.
Elevation of station — Approximately 1,000 feet.
Remarks: The record for 1930 and 1931 represents evaporation within the city limits where buildings are reasonably close together, limiting both wind movement and hours ot sunshine at the pan. It does not represent conditions in open agricultural districts as does the record for 1928 and 1929. In cooperation with Division of Water Resources, Department of Public Works, State of California.
128
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
TABLE 51 MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT VICTORVILLE, CALIFORNIA, 1931-1933
Observed by the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, United States Department of Agriculture
|
Month |
Depth in inches |
||
|
1931 |
1932 |
1933 |
|
|
January |
2.52 2.79 6.51 7.75 9.20 10.22 11.99 11.67 8.34 5.72 3.89 2.08 |
2 29 |
|
|
February _ |
3.28 6.83 7.83 10.63 10.55 12.26 9.68 8.10 5.17 3.14 1.92 |
3 88 |
|
|
March |
|||
|
April |
|||
|
May |
|||
|
June - - . |
|||
|
July |
|||
|
August- |
|||
|
September |
|||
|
October |
|||
|
November- |
|||
|
December- _ |
|||
|
Total,. |
82.68 |
||
Type of pan — Standard Weather Bureau pan. Description — 48 inches in diameter by 10 inches deep. Elevation of station — 2,700 feet (approximately).
Remarks: In cooperation with the Geological Survey, U. S. Department of the Interior; and the Division of Water Resources, Department of Public Works, State of California.
TABLE 52 MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS NEAR POMONA, CALIFORNIA, 1903-1905
Observed by the Ofifice of Experiment Stations, United States Department of Agriculture
|
Month |
Depth in inches |
||
|
1903 |
1904 |
1905 |
|
|
January |
2.78 2.57 3.69 5.00 6,50 8.20 9.34 9.37 7.23 5 37 4 05 2.94 |
1.93 |
|
|
February - _ |
1.65 |
||
|
March - |
3.73 |
||
|
April . - |
4 08 |
||
|
May . - - - |
5 98 |
||
|
June |
7.73 |
||
|
July August |
9.07 9.37 6.29 6.63 4 25 2.51 |
8.93 9 02 |
|
|
September |
7 45 |
||
|
October |
5.28 |
||
|
November... December . ... |
|||
|
Total |
67.04 |
||
Description of tank — Rectangular tank 22 by 36 inches by 30 inches deep, set 29 inches in the ground. Elevation of station — Approximately 870 feet.
Reference: Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 177. Remarks: In cooperation with the State of California.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
129
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130
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
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132
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
TABLE 56
MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT SOUTH HAIWEE RESERVOIR, CALIFORNIA,
1924-1932
Observed by Bureau of Water Works and Supply, City of Los Angeles
|
Month |
Depth in inches |
||||||||
|
1924 |
1925 |
1926 |
1927 |
1928 |
1929 |
1930 |
1931 |
1932 |
|
|
January |
*1.68 3.22 *5 32 5.33 9 04 9 30 10.85 9.98 7.10 *3.31 *2.28 *1.68 |
1.75 2.27 3.19 6.49 6.46 9 15 9.28 7.07 6 35 3.53 2 45 1.24 |
1 91 1.97 3.73 4.84 6.89 8.00 8.90 6 80 5 50 3.92 3.80 *2.54 |
*1.75 *3.10 5 76 4.30 6.80 7.00 7.85 7.70 6,72 3.80 1.64 *1.35 |
*1 00 *1.18 3 39 5.26 5 02 7.36 8.35 6.00 6.25 3 15 2 00 *1.65 |
n.75 1 94 3.71 4 22 6.10 5 80 8.15 7.11 6 61 4 70 2.50 1 81 |
n.oo *2.31 3.13 3 67 5.87 5.94 8 00 7.80 6.70 3.17 2.48 *1.13 |
*1.75 *2.15 2 23 3.13 3 90 7.14 8.00 6.94 6 10 3 56 ♦2.57 *1.00 |
*1.00 |
|
February - |
*1.52 |
||||||||
|
March |
5.10 |
||||||||
|
6 95 |
|||||||||
|
May |
7.00 |
||||||||
|
June - -- |
8.05 |
||||||||
|
July |
12.80 |
||||||||
|
Auffust |
11.63 |
||||||||
|
September October |
8,45 3.95 |
||||||||
|
2.24 |
|||||||||
|
1.76 |
|||||||||
|
Totals -. --- |
69.09 |
59.23 |
58 80 |
57.77 |
50 61 |
54 40 |
51 20 |
48.47 |
70.45 |
Type of pan— Colorado land pan. Description of pan— 3 by 3 by IJ^ feet deep, set in the ground.
Elevation of station — 3,800 feet.
Record furnished by H. A. Van Norman, Chief Engineer and General Manager.
Remarks: 'Portion of record'estimated.
TABLE 57
MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT FAIRMONT RESERVOIR, CALIFORNIA,
1923-1932
|
Observed by Bureau of Water Works and Supply, City of Los |
Angeles |
|||||||||
|
Month |
Depth in inches |
|||||||||
|
1923 |
1924 |
1925 |
1926 |
1927 |
1928 |
1929 |
1930 |
1931 |
1932 |
|
|
*2.88 *3.57 5.75 7.31 14.15 15.75 16.67 17.91 14 35 7.70 4.42 *2.91 |
3.46 4.11 6.92 7.14 9.14 12.16 *17.48 n5.92 *11.02 *7.42 4.20 2.85 |
3 02 3.02 4.97 4.53 10.58 16.26 18.51 16.47 12.12 8.43 5.75 2.09 |
3 02 3.82 4 89 7 52 11.31 12.74 16.89 15.34 9.64 8.14 3.99 1.73 |
2.14 3.58 5.09 7.61 10 51 13.64 16.27 16 44 11.83 7 33 4.12 2.50 |
2 94 3.24 5.22 6.48 12.25 11.67 18.08 16.08 10.13 7.84 5.51 4.44 |
2.81 4.10 4.59 8.06 8.79 14.24 17.69 14.92 9.47 6.10 4.54 1.81 |
2.74 3.13 6.85 7.56 12.12 12.76 18.26 14 27 9 63 6 41 3.42 2.26 |
2.39 |
||
|
2.67 |
||||||||||
|
March |
5.98 |
|||||||||
|
April - - |
7.66 |
|||||||||
|
May - - |
9.42 |
|||||||||
|
14.36 |
||||||||||
|
July |
17.62 |
|||||||||
|
August |
16 00 |
|||||||||
|
Septennber |
12 15 |
|||||||||
|
7.63 |
||||||||||
|
5.38 3.34 |
5 70 |
|||||||||
|
December |
2.24 |
|||||||||
|
Totals- ... |
113.37 |
101.82 |
105.75 |
99.03 |
101.06 |
103.88 |
97.12 |
99.41 |
103.82 |
|
Type of pan— Colorado land pan. Description of pan— 3 by 3 by 1}4 feet deep, set in the ground.
Elevation of station— 3,050 feet.
Record furnished by H. A. Van Norman, Chief Engineer and Genera! Manager.
Remarks: 'Portion of record estimated.
WATER LOSSES FRO:\I WET AREAS
133
TABLE 58
MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT SILVER LAKE RESERVOIR,
CALIFORNIA, 1930-1933
Observed by Bureau of Water Works and Supply, City of Los Angeles
January. -- Februa^y.-
March
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October
November- December..
Month
1930
7.58 6.21 5.75 4,13 2.93
Depth in inches
1931
4.80 4.74 6.28 5,68 7.01 8.22 7.32 6.10 4 89 3.89
1932
3.43
4.30 5.63 5.50 6.27 7.19 7.52 5.16 4.62 3.49 2.28
1933
2.65 3.72
Type of pan — Floating pan. Description of pan — 30 inches square by 18 inches deep.
Elevation of station — Approximately 440 feet.
Records furnished by H. A. Van Norman, Chief Engineer and General Manager.
TABLE 59
MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT LOWER- FERNANDO RESERVOIR,
CALIFORNIA, 1930-1933
Observed by Bureau of Water Works and Supply, City of Los Angeles
|
Depth in inches |
||||||
|
Month |
Standard Weather Bureau pan |
Floating pan |
||||
|
1930 |
1931 |
1932 |
1933 |
1930 |
1931 |
|
|
9 06 7.54 11.62 8.72 7.51 9.45 11.71 9.76 9.33 8.07 6.23 |
8.23 |
|||||
|
February |
8.20 8.09 |
|||||
|
March ......1 |
8.48 9.37 4.49 6.30 9.72 10.32 8.13 8.64 13.02 6.02 |
|||||
|
April . . - |
||||||
|
May . |
5.06 |
|||||
|
Jme . |
6.93 |
|||||
|
july - |
8.94 |
|||||
|
August |
8.32 |
|||||
|
September |
8 13 |
|||||
|
October ..---. |
10.97 12 94 10 69 |
8.25 7.97 6.43 |
6.37 |
|||
|
November |
4.65 |
|||||
|
December. |
||||||
Description of pans:
Standard Weather Bureau pan — 48 inches in diameter by 10 inches deep. Floating pan — 30 inches square by 18 inches deep.
Elevation of station — .\pproMmate!y 1,140 feet.
Records furnished by H. A. \'an Norman, Chief Engineer and General Manager.
134
DIVISION OP WATER EESOURCES
TABLE 60
MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT CHATSWORTH RESERVOIR,
CALIFORNIA, 1931-1933
Observed by Bureau of Water Works and Supply, City of Los Angeles
Month
January. -- February..
March
April
May
June
July
August
September. October. -- November. December.
Total -
Depth in inches
1931
10.106 8.260 7.475 5.245 3.686
1932
4.095 3.302 5.890 7.235 7.615 8.410 10.100 10.350 7.355 7.655 7.600 4.310
83.917
1933
4.688 5.425 6.605 5.705
Type of tank — Los Angeles County Flood Control District.
Description of tank: 2 feet in diameter by 3 feet deep; set 2.75 feet in the ground.
Elevation of station — Approximately 900 feet.
Records furnished by H. A. Van Norman, Chief Engineer and General Manager.
TABLE 61
MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT ENCINO RESERVOIR, CALIFORNIA, 1930-1933
Observed by Bureau of Water Works and Supply, City of Los Angeles
|
Depth in inches |
||||||||
|
Month |
Standard Weather Bureau pan |
Floating pan |
Los Angeles County Flood Control Dis- trict tank |
|||||
|
1932 |
1933 |
1930 |
1931 |
1932 |
1933 |
1932 |
1933 |
|
|
.Taniiarv |
4.36 6.19 5.66 4.90 6 07 7,84 9 60 8.91 7.84 5.95 4.79 |
4.19 |
||||||
|
"FpKriiarv |
5.00 6.85 |
3.59 4.93 |
5.22 |
|||||
|
March |
5.14 6.64 6 16 7.65 8.39 10.04 7.10 6.25 5,41 3.39 |
7.38 |
||||||
|
May |
8.48 9.56 10.16 13.00 8.14 7,58 7.49 3.70 |
|||||||
|
July |
9.98 11.14 7.21 6.56 7.15 3.32 |
. |
||||||
|
9.19 7.14 6.47 4.56 3.95 |
||||||||
|
October |
||||||||
|
November |
||||||||
Description of pans:
Standard Weather Bureau pan — 48 inches in diameter by 10 inches deep.
Floating pan — 30 inches square by 18 inches deep.
Los Angeles County Flood Control District tank — 2 feet in diameter by 3 feet deep; set 2.75 feet in the ground.
Elevation of station — Approximately 1,020 feet.
Records furnished by H. A. Van Norman, Chief Engineer and General Manager.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
135
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136
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
TABLE 63
MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT PINE CANYON STATION, SAN GABRIEL RIVER, 1930-1933
Observed by the Pasadena Water Department
|
Depth |
in inches |
|||||||
|
Month |
Standard Weather Bureau |
pan |
Bureau of Agricultural Enginee |
ring tank |
||||
|
1930 |
1931 |
1932 |
1933 |
1930 |
1931 |
1932 |
1933 |
|
|
2.844 2.892 6.420 5.832 7.140 7.788 10.368 9.264 7.596 5 436 3.624 1.764 |
1.956 2.724 5 220 6.324 6.492 7.176 9.756 9 216 7.752 6 312 5 556 2.676 |
3.120 3.684 5.604 5.340 |
2.232 2.400 4.992 4.488 5.460 6 384 8.796 7.692 6 300 4.356 2.796 1.416 |
1 536 1.788 3-888 5 040 5.256 6.216 7.644 7.512 6,168 5,016 4,212 2 028 |
2.388 |
|||
|
Februarv - - |
3.012 |
|||||||
|
March - |
|
4 212 |
||||||
|
3 744 |
||||||||
|
June |
||||||||
|
July |
||||||||
|
October |
6.036 5.220 3 156 |
4,896 4.152 2.760 |
||||||
|
November - - - |
||||||||
|
Totals |
70.968 |
71.160 |
57 312 |
56 304 |
||||
Description of pan and tank:
Standard Weather Bureau pan — 48 inches in diameter by 10 inches deep.
Bureau of Agricultural Engineering tank — 6 feet in diameter by 3 feet deep; set 2.75 feet in the ground.
Elevation of station— 950 feet, U. S. G. S.
Record furnished by C. W. Sopp.
TABLE 64 MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT LITTLE CIENAGA, CALIFORNIA, 1929-1933
Observed by Los Angeles County Flood Control District
|
Month |
Depth in inches |
||||
|
1929 |
1930 |
1931 |
1932 |
1933 |
|
|
January |
1.12 |
2.78 .62 2.53 |
0.971 0.945 3.816 4.130 4.930 5.110 6.838 6.540 6.475 4.095 3.445 1.045 48.340 |
1.150 |
|
|
February. |
1.691 |
||||
|
1.23 1.67 |
3.120 |
||||
|
April |
|||||
|
May - - - |
3.87 3.62 4.12 |
||||
|
2.62 3 90 4.85 3.95 3.10 2.80 1.54 |
|||||
|
July |
5.51 4.98 3.40 2.78 2.52 1.71 |
||||
|
August |
|||||
|
3.96 3.245 2.073 .901 |
|||||
|
November |
|||||
|
Total |
|||||
Type of tank — Los Angeles County Flood Control.
Description of tank — 2 feet in diameter by 3 feet deep; set 2.75 feet in the ground.
Elevation of station — 4,650 feet.
Record furnished by E. C. Eaton, Chief Engineer.
Remarks: Located 1 mile north of Colbrook Camp.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
137
TABLE 65 MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT BIG DALTON DAM, CALIFORNIA, 1930-1933
Observed by Los Angeles County Flood Control District
January
February --
March
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October
November. December..
Totals.
Month
Depth in inches
1930
10.44 9 61
14 45 9 14
10.22 9.17 5.84
1931
4.66 3.86 8.86 7.74
8 02
9 80 12.76 11.97 11.16
7.32
5.085
3.025
94.260
1932
3.210 2.710 6.020 7.195 7.150 8 410 11.025 11 835 8,855 6.785 7.885 3.100
84.180
1933
4.250 4.350 6.470
Type of tank — Los Angeles County Flood Control, feet in the ground.
Elevation of station — 1,500 feet.
Records furnished by E. C. Eaton, Chief Engineer.
Description of tank — 2 feet in diameter by 3 feet deep, set 2 . 75
TABLE 66
MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT PUDDINGSTONE RESERVOIR, CALIFORNIA,
1929-1933
Observed by Los Angeles County Flood Control District
January.. - February..
March
April
May
June
July
August
September. October. _- November. December.
Month
1929
6 99
7 90 7.73 5 32
|
Depth in inches |
|
|
1930 |
1931 |
|
*2.29 |
*3.25 |
|
*2.76 |
*1.67 |
|
*3 60 |
5.78 |
|
4.52 |
*5 27 |
|
*4.64 |
5.86 |
|
6.73 |
7.29 |
|
11.65 |
10.17 |
|
10 52 |
9.16 |
|
7.37 |
8.66 |
|
7 43 |
6.04 |
|
*3 30 |
*3.74 |
|
5.24 |
*2.33 |
1932
♦2.24 *1.61 4.20 5.47 5.50 6.65 9.42 9.30 6.70 6 53 6.76 3.38
1933
3.30 3.88 5 32 5.18
Type of tank — Los Angeles County Flood Control. Description of tank — 2 feet in diameter by 3 feet deep, set 2.75 feet in the ground.
Elevation of station — 1,030 feet.
Record furnished by E. C. Eaton, Chief Engineer.
Remarks: *Incomplete for days of rain.
138
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
TABLE 67 MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT PACOIMA DAM, CALIFORNIA, 1930-1933
Observed by Los Angeles County Flood Control District
January
February.-.
March
April
May
June
July -.
August
September.
October
November. December..
Totals.
Month
Depth in inches
1930
4.85 9 80 9 06 9.29 9.06 6 07 7.10 4.46
1931
9.54 8.58 8.64 7.28 5 93 2.51
74.32
1932
2 330 1.915 5.435 6.565 5 280 7.815 9.285 9.045 7.830 7.290 7.810 3.355
73.955
1933
3.415
4 320
5 640 4 940
Type of tank — Los Angeles County Flood Control. feet in the ground.
Elevation of station— 1,900 feet.
Records furnished by E. C. Eaton, Chief Engineer.
Remarks: Located at mouth of the canyon.
Description of tank — 2 feet in diameter by 3 feet deep, set 2.75
TABLE 68 MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS NEAR ACTON (MELLON), CALIFORNIA, 1931-1933
Observed by Los Angeles County Flood Control District
Month
January
February..
March
April
May
June
July..
August
September.
October
November. December-
Total.
Depth in inches
1931
11.38 9.40 6.81 4 325
2.185
1932
2.636
1.945
5.885
6.925
7.795
10.180
13.375
13.980
10.935
7.940
6.490
3.130
91.216
1933
045 415 260 860
Type of tank — Los Angeles County Flood Control. Description of tank — 2 feet in diameter by 3 feet deep, set 2.75 feet in the ground.
Elevation of station — 3,100 feet.
Records furnished by E. C. Eaton, Chief Engineer.
Remarks: Located at North Branch of Escondido Canyon.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
139
TABLE 69 MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT EL SEGUNDO, CALIFORNIA, 1931-1933
Observed by Los Angeles County Flood Control District
Month
I
January -.- February..
March
April
May -
June
July -
August
September.
October
November. December. .
Total.
Depth in inches
1931
6.940 5.670 4.434 2.960
1932
3.210 2.845 5.415 6.945 7.525 7.450 7.650 7.435 5.445 5.005 4.395 3.529
66.849
1933
2.875 3 895 5.145 6.085
»
Type of tank — Los Angeles County Flood Control. Description of tank — 2 feet in diameter by 3 feet deep, set 2.7 feet in the ground.
Elevation of station — 135 feet.
Records furnished by E. C. Eaton. Chief Engineer.
Remarks: Location at Standard Oil Company.
I
PART II
GROUND WATER SUPPLY AND NATURAL LOSSES IN THE
VALLEY OF SANTA ANA RIVER BETWEEN THE
RIVERSIDE NARROWS AND THE ORANGE
COUNTY LINE
By Harold C. Troxell
A record of noneconomic loss of water along Santa Ana River from Riverside Narrows to the Orange County line together with an estimate of inflow from ground water above Lower Santa Ana Canyon.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART II
Page
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAlL. 143
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 144
■ORGANIZATION, STATE DEPARTMENT OP PUBLIC WORKS 145
ORGANIZATION, UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 146
GROUND WATER SUPPLY AND NATURAL LOSSES IN THE VALLEY OiF THE SANTA ANA RIVER BETWEEN RIVERSIDE NARROWS AND
THE ORANGE COUNTY LINE 147
Description of area 147
Purpose of investigation 14S
Classification of bottom land 148
Stream flow records 149
Effect of natural losses on inflow 150
Computation of changes in storage and corrected outflow 155
Computation of natural losses and inflow between Hamner Avenue and
Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway bridge stations 157
Relation of natural losses to evaporation - 168
Natural losses and inflow between Riverside Narrows and the Prado gaging
station 168
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Classification of bottom land along Santa Ana River, 1933 148
2. Measurements of Santa Ana River between Riverside Narrows and Prado,
1931 150
3. Natural losses and inflow, in second feet, on Santa Ana River from Hamner
Avenue to Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway bridge 160-167
4. Relation between evaporation and natural losses for area between Hamner
Avenue and Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway bridge on Santa Ana River 169
5. Estimated water supply of the valley of the Santa Ana River above the
Prado gaging station, 1930-1932 171
LIST OF PLATES
Plate Page
I. Map of Santa Ana River between Riverside Narrows and Prado showing
area of natural losses, 1933 Between 148-149
II. Typical cross-section of river channel 150
III. Relationship of outflow to transpiration, temperature and evaporation 151
IV. Typical gage-height record 153
V. Location of E series of wells 154
VI. Typical ground-water record 154
VII. Method used in computing changes in ground-water storage Between 156-157
VIII. Relationship between temperature, evaporation and corrected outflow
from Hamner Avenue to Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway 158
IX. Estimated inflow between Hamner Avenue and A., T. and S. F. Ry.
Bridge, 1931 159
X. Estimated inflow between Hamner Avenue and A., T. and S. F. Ry.
Bridge, 1932 159
XI. Water supply of Santa Ana River above Prado gaging station, 1932 170
(142)
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
Mr. Edward Hyatt State Engineer Sacramento, California
Dear Mr. Hyatt :
I am transmitting to you for publication by the State a report jirepared by Harold V. Troxell, entitled "Ground water supply and natural losses in the valley of the Santa Ana River between Riverside Narrows and the Orange County line." The report presents the results of an intensive study to determine the quantity of ground water that percolates into this stretch of the valley and is discharged either as surface flow or by evaporation or transpiration of the vegetation in the valley. The report is believed to be of value both because of the use tliat can be made of the data and conclusions which it contains in the further development of the water supply of the drainage basin of the Santa Ana River and because of the contribution which it makes to (liiantitative methods in ground water hydrology.
Very truly yours,
Washington, D. C, July 31, 1933.
Chief Hydraulic Engineer Water Resources Branch, U. S. Geological Survey.
(143)
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author wishes to acknowledge the cooperation and help rendered by F. C. Ebert and R. S. Lord, of the United States Geological Survey, and C. A. Taylor, of the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, United States Department of Agriculture, in preparing this report. Valuable aid was also rendered by the Orange County Flood Control District, through M. N. Thompson, chief engineer, in collecting part of the field data. The report was reviewed by W. G. Hoyt, A. C. Spencer, C. H. Pierce, and 0. E. ]\leinzer, and was edited by B. H. Lane, all of the United States Geological Survev.
(144)
ORGANIZATION
STATE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
Earl Lee Kelly Director of Public WorTis
Edward Hyatt State Engineer
The South Coastal Basin Investigation was conducted under the supervision of
Harold Conkling Deputy State Engineer
10—4503 ( 145 )
ORGANIZATION
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER RESOURCES BRANCH
N. C. Grover Chief Hydraulic Engineer
11. D. McGlashan District Engineer
F. C. Ebert Senior Hydraulic Engineer
This report was prepared by
Harold C. Troxell Associate Engineer
(146)
GROUND WATER SUPPLY AND NATURAL LOSSES IN THE
VALLEY OF SANTA ANA RIVER BETWEEN RIVERSIDE
NARROWS AND THE ORANGE COUNTY LINE
By Harold C. Troxell * Description of area.
One of the most useful streams in southern California is the Santa Ana River. It rises in the heart of the San Bernardino Mountains above San Bernardino and flows westward across the San Bernardino Valley, southwestward through the Jurupa Basin and along the south edge of the Chino Basin, through the lower canyon in the Santa Ana Mountains, and across the coastal plain to the Pacific Ocean near New- port Beach. Flow through this channel from the mountains to the ocean is continuous only during the winter flood periods. The section of the river channel involved in this report extends from Riverside Narrows to the Orange-Riverside County line.
South of the Jurupa Mountains and northwest of the city of Riverside the Santa Ana River passes through a granite canyon known as Riverside Narrows. This bedrock obstruction forces most of the water to the surface, forming a stream that flows continuously as far as the intake of the canal companies in Orange County. Most of this water at Riverside Narrows is return water from the irrigated areas around Riverside. According to old settlers the channel was drj^ dur- ing summer periods prior to the irrigation developments. The earlier measurements of discharge at this point showing the increase in dis- charge are given by W. C. Mendenhall in "Hydrology of San Ber- nardino Valley," (U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 142).
About 16 miles down stream from Riverside Narrows the Santa Ana River passes through a secondary coast range, the Santa Ana Mountains. These mountains are made up of shale and sandstone and form a barrier that concentrates and forces to the surface most of the underflow. In this 16-mile stretch the Chino Basin drains into the river along the north bank. The mountain streams of this area are exceedingly steep and flow over bare rock. Many of the storms that occur in southern California are violent and, falling on these mountain drainage basins, produce floods that rush across the plains, carrv^ing large quantities of granitic detritus. In this way the Chino Basin has been built up. These great beds of gravel and boulders have a high percentage of voids, and the flood waters passing over them are greatl}^ reduced, if not entireh- absorbed, adding to the supply in the imderground reservoir. The outlet of this underground reservoir is by seepage into the Santa Ana River between Riverside Narrows and Prado and by evaporation and transpiration in the bottom land of this stretch of the river. The velocity with which the water passes through the gravel is very slow, and the water is doubtless delivered to the river valley at a nearly uniform rate.
The Santa Ana Mountains and Temescal Basin, which drain into the river along the south bank, undoubtedly make a much smaller contribution, except possibly during storm periods.
* Associate Engineer, Water Resources Branch, U. S. Geological Survey.
(147)
148
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
Between Riverside Narrows and the Prado gaging station the Santa Ana flows tlirough an inner valley or flood channel in most places less than a mile wide, cut in the old alluvial deposits. Flood flows have deposited in this channel very absorptive gravelly material to a depth of 80 to 100 feet. ]\Iost of this bottom land is now over- grown with plant life, as shown on Plate I.
Purpose of investigation.
The purpose of this investigation was to determine the total quantity of ground water that reaches the valley or flood channel of the river in this area. It may be represented as the water passing the points marked a in Plate II. This quantity of water would be equal to the gain in the flow of the river if the losses by evaporation and transpiration were reduced to zero.
Classification of bottom land.
The character of the plant cover of the bottom land between River- side Narrows and the Prado gaging station is indicated on Plate I. The various areas on this plate have been computed and the results are given in Table 1. Between Hamner Avenue and The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway Bridge there are 2110 acres of river bottom land, classed as the area of natural losses. Throughout this area the water table ranges from ground surface to about 5 feet below it.
TABLE 1 CLASSIFICATION OF BOTTOM LAND ALONG SANTA ANA RIVER, 1933
Classification
Water surface
Swamp plants, sedges, rushes, etc.
Hea\'y brush cover
Light brush cover.
Heavj' tree cover
Light tree cover
Grass
Cultivated
Bare sand
Total area, acres
Hamner Avenue to Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Rail- way bridge
Per cent
5.5
6.4
7.1
10.1
34.9
1.1
23.7
4.8
6.4
100.0
2,110
Riverside
Narrows to
Prado gaging
station
Per cent
5.2
6.0
8.8
11.9
37.6
2.3
18.6
3.4
6.2
100.0
4,040
Howell ^ amply describes part of the area between the RiA-erside Narrows and Prado gaging stations. He classifies the flora as follows :
"Submerged aquatics of the ponds include Potamogeton crispus, Zannichellia palustris, Lenina trisulca, and Myriophyllum spicaUom, and the floating flora is com- posed of such widely distributed species as Azolla fllicioloides, Lemna minor, and Wolfiella Ungulata. In the shallow water of the marshes are found Typha angusti- folia, Cyperus melanostacliyus, Eleocharis rostellata, Scirpus validus, Scirpus ameri- canus. Polygonum hydropiperoides, Radicula luisturtinm-aquaticum,, Jussiaea cali- fomica, Oenanthe sarm&itosa, Samolus floribundus, Lycopus aviericanus, Bidens levis, and Helenium puherulum,. A large number of sedges and rushes are found on
« Howell, J. T., The Flora of Santa Ana Canyon Region : Madrono, Vol. 1, December, 1929.
PLATE I
Map of NTA ANA RIVER between Riverside Narrows and Prado
showing
Area of Natural Losses 1933
WATER SURFACE
SWAMP PLANT UFE:
TULES, MARSH GRASS, BRUSH, ETC-
HEAVY BRUSH COVER
GRASS
CULTIVATED AREA BARE SAND
|
LIGHT BRUSH COVER |
||
|
HEAVY TREE COVER |
• MISC MEAS |
|
|
LIGHT TREE COVER |
SCALE |
© USG.S. GAC |
|
0 1/4 1 1 |
1/2 1 |
1 1 |
MILES
HAMNtR AVE-
SANTA ANA RIVER AT HAMNER AVE.
|
Map of |
||
|
SANTA ANA RIVER between Riverside |
Narrows and Prado |
|
|
showing |
||
|
Area of Natural |
Losses |
|
|
1933 |
||
|
1 1 WATER SURFACE |
fill |
CRASS |
|
^^ SWAMP PLANT LIFC ^B TULES, MARSH CRASS, BRUSH, ETC' |
m |
CULTIVATED AREA |
|
tM3 HEAVY BRUSH COVER |
s |
BARE SAND |
|
V///\ ^(CHT BRUSH COVER |
||
|
EJ^ HEAVY TREE COVER |
• |
MISC MEAS SECTION |
|
t^ tlGHT TREE COVER |
o |
uses. CACINC STATION |
|
SCALE |
, |
/' , |
|
MILCS |
■lo03— Bet. pp. 118-145
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS 149
the moist flats of the rivei- bottom, anions which are Ci/pcnts laeviaatus, Cyperus esculcjitus, Elcocharis capitata, Elrocharis acicularis, Elcocharis montana, ticirpun vernus, Carex praegracilis, JuncJis balticus, Juncus hufonius,, Juncus torreyi, Junc^is ruoiUosus, and Juncus xiphioides. Other plants gi-owing on the moist flats with the sedges and rushes are Equisflion funst<niii, Dislichlis spicaiu, ISporobolus aspcrijolius, Sporobulus airoidcs, Cynodon davtylon. Paspaluvi distichum, Ccnchrus pauviflorus, Anemopsis cdUfornica. Jxanuiiculus cymbakiris, Psoralea orbicularis, Psoralea macros- tachya. Lythrutn califoruicu»i. Kpilubiu»i californicum, llydrocotyle ranunculoides, Hydrocotylc umbcUata, Hydrocutyle vcrticillata, Eustoma silcnijolimn, Lippia lanceo- lata. Petunia parviflora. Mirnulus cardinalis, Plantago hirteUa. Solidaffo occidentalis. Aster exilis, Baccharis emoryi, Bacchai-is viminea, Pluchea camphorata, Antemisia vnlc/aris. var. hcterophylla. On the sandy flats of the liver bottom grow four species of Willow — Salix laevigata, Salix nigra var. valUcola, Salix argophylla, and Salix lasio- lepis, besides Populus frcmontii, I'opulus trichocarpa, Alnus rhombifolia, and Pla- tanus racemosa."
The species found in this area are representative of the entire area between the Riverside Narrows and Prado gaging stations.
Stream flow records.
In the area discussed in this report tliere are five gaging stations maintained by the United States Geological Survey. The first of these stations, established in 1919 at the Orange-Riverside County line, is known as the station on the Santa Ana River near Prado. In 1929 a station was established at Riverside Narrows. During the summer periods since 1930 stations have been maintained at Hamner Avenue, the Auburndale Bridge and The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway Bridge. The installations at these three stations are removed during the winter, and the location of the stations is subject to a slight change from vear to vear because of changes in the character of the channel. The approximate location of each of these stations is shown on Plate I.
In order to determine the source of the gain in discharge of the Santa Ana River between Riverside Narrows and Prado, two series of discharge measurements, in June and August, 1931, were made at numerous points along the river. The results are given in Table 2. Additional miscellaneous measurements were made at many of these points during 1931 by the Orange County Flood Control District and the United States Geological Survey, and the results are given in Water-Supply Paper 721 of the Geological Survey.
Table 2 shows that the minimum flow is at some point below the J diversion ditch and above the old Pedley power house of the Southern California Edison Company. On both dates the flow decreased 10 second-feet or more in the first 6-mile stretch of the river channel below Riverside Narrows. Much of this loss might have been caused by the demand made on the water supply by the trees and other vegetation along the river. Not only was the 10 second-feet lost, but any addition that might have been made to the flow of the river in this area from underground sources w^as also consumed.
This table shows that from tlie Pedley power house to The Atchison, To|)eka & Santa Fe Railway Bridge the Santa Ana River is a gaining stream. The point of maximum flow is at or near the railway bridge. There are very few visible springs in the area, most of the water enter- ing the gravel in the bed of the stream. Hamner Spring is the only spring of any size that contributes to the flow.
If it were not for the natural losses, which are accounted for by plant life, the gains showm in Table 2 would represent the entire con- tribution of the areas adjacent to the river on the two days given. As this contribution, during the summer, is entirely in the form of ground
1
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS 149
the moist flats of the river bottom, among which are Cy penis laevigatus, Cyperus esciilentus, Eieocharis capitata, Eleorharis acic^dai-is, Eleocharis mantana, Scirpus cernus, Carex praegracilis, Jimciis baltims, Junctis hufonius, Juncus torreyi, Juncus rugulosus, and Juncus xiphioides. Other plants growing on the moist flats with the sedges and rushes are Equisetum funstvnii, Distichlis spicata, Spoi-obolus asperijolius, Sporobolus airoides, Cynodon dactylon, Pasp<ilum distichum, Ccnchrus pauciflorus, Aneinopsis caUfomica, Ranunculus cymbalaris, Psoralea orbicularis, Psoralea macros- tachya, Lythrum calif ornicuni. Epilobiuni californicum, Uydrocotyle ranu7iculo-ides, Hydrocotyle vmbellata, Hydrocotyle vcrticillata, Eustoma silenifoliurn, Lippia lanceo- lata. Petunia parviflora. Mimulus cardi)ialis, Plantago hirtella, SoUdago occidentalis. Aster exilis, Baccharis emoryi, Baccliaris viminea, Pluchea camphorata, Artemisia lulgaris, var. heterophylla. On the sandy flats of the river bottom grow four species of willow — Salix laevigata, Salix nigra var. vallicola, Salix argophylla, and Salix lasio- lepis, besides Populus fremontii, Populus trichocarpa, Alnus rliombifolia, and Pki- tanus racemosa."
The species found in this area are representative of the entire area between the Kiverside Narrows and Prado gaging stations.
Stream flow records.
In the area discussed in this report there are five gaging stations maintained by the United States Geological Survey. The first of these stations, established in 1919 at the Orange-Eiverside County line, is kno\^^l as the station on the Santa Ana River near Prado. In 1929 a station was established at Riverside Narrows. During the summer periods since 1930 stations have been maintained at Hamner Avenue, the Auburndale Bridge and The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway Bridge. The installations at these three stations are removed during the winter, and the location of the stations is subject to a slight change from year to year because of changes in the character of the channel. The approximate location of each of these stations is shown on Plate I.
In order to determine the source of the gain in discharge of the Santa Ana River between Riverside Narrows and Prado, two series of discharge measurements, in June and August, 1931, were made at numerous points along the river. The results are given in Table 2. Additional miscellaneous measurements were made at many of these points during 1931 by the Orange County Flood Control District and the United States Geological Survey, and the results are given in Water-Supply Paper 721 of the Geological Survey.
Table 2 shows that the minimum flow is at some point below the J diA'ersion ditch and above the old Pedley power house of the Southern California Edison Company. On both dates the flow decreased 10 second-feet or more in the first 6-mile stretch of the river channel below Riverside Narrows. IMuch of this loss might have been caused by the demand made on the water supply by the trees and other vegetation along the river. Not only was the 10 second-feet lost, but any addition that might have been made to the flow of the river in this area from underground .sources was also consumed.
This table shows that from the Pedley power house to The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway Bridge tlie Santa Ana River is a gaining stream. The point of maximum flow is at or near the railway bridge. There are very few visible springs in the area, most of the water enter- ing the gravel in the bed of the stream. Hamner Spring is the only spring of any size that contributes to the flow.
If it were not for the natural losses, Avhich are accounted for by plant life, the gains showTi in Table 2 would represent the entire con- tribution of the areas adjacent to the river on the two days given. As this contribution, during the summer, is entirelv in the form of ground
150
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
TABLE 2
MEASUREMENTS OF SANTA ANA RIVER BETWEEN RIVERSIDE NARROWS
AND PRADO, 1931
Miles
0
1.3
4.9
6.2 8.2 8.7 9.5 11.4
11.8 13.3
15.4
15.8 16.6 19.2
Location
Riverside Narrows station
Pedley Bridge -.
Above J ditch; 1 mile above Pedley power house
Diversion by J ditch
Pedley power house
Hamner Avenue station
Below Hamner Avenue Bridge
1 mile below Hamner Avenue Bridge
Above Hamner Springs
Inflow from Hamner Spring
Diversion Durkee Ditch
Auburndale Bridge station
IJ^ miles below Auburndale Bridge
Inflow from Lilliebridge pumps
Rincon Bridge
Inflow from Chino Creek
Below Chino Creek ---
Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway Bridge station Prado station
June 3
Time
.10 a.m. .40 a.m. .00 a.m. .40 a.m. .05 a.m. .30 a.m. .10 a.m. .15 a.m. .10 a.m. .45 a.m.
55 a.m.
20 a.m. .00 a.m.
00 a.m.
00 a.m. .05 a.m. .30 a.m. .30 a.m.
30 a.m.
Discharge
(sec.-ft.)
36 33 30
5. 25 34 36 37 46
5.
4. 50 53 11 75
3. 78 84 79
August 21
Time
7.15 a.m. 7.55 a.m. 8.55 a.m. 9.30 a.m. 8.20 a.m. 7.10 a.m. 8.40 a.m. 7.40 a.m. 7.40 a.m. 8.30 a.m.
9.55 a.m. 9.20 a.m. 10.00 a.m. 8.25 a.m. 9.00 a.m. 7.40 a.m. 7.10 a.m. 7.55 a.m.
Discharge (sec.-ft.)
27 27 25
5.4 17 24 29 31 34
3.8
4.2 29 30
7.5 46
2.6 48 45 38
water, it must pass a mass of root systems before appearing in the river as surface water. A typical cross section of the river channel is shown on Plate II. The quantity of water passing the points marked * would represent the gain of water in the river if the losses along the channel were reduced to zero.
Effect of natural losses on inflow.
The area along the river channel between the Hamner Avenue and The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway Bridge gaging stations was selected for a more detailed study of these natural losses. Graph D on Plate III represents the amount of water that drained out of the
PLATE II
Typical cross-section of river channel
INFLOW
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
151
PLATE in
I
1932 SANTA ANA RIVER
Relationship of Outflow (Hamner Ave. to A. !& SFRy Bridge) to Transpiratwn, Temperature, and Evaporation.
® TRANSPIRATION BASED ON WELL 0 RECORD.
® TEMPERATURE AT PRADO ■
© EVAPORATION AT POMONA.
© OUTFLOW HAMNER AVE- TO AT&S-F. RY. BRIDGE-
NOTE; 3 DAY MEAN VALUES USED.
152 DIVISION 0J<' WATER RESOURCES
area between Hamner Avenue and the railway bridge as surface flow in July, August, and September, 1932. This outflow was computed by subtracting the discharge measured at the Hamner Avenue gaging station from the discharge measured at the railway bridge station. If there had been no losses by evaporation and transpiration in this stretch, this water would have represented the ground water inflow to the area.
During this period weekly observations were made at Well B-3, just outside the zone of natural losses. These observations show that the water t<ible gradually declined from the middle of May, 1932 (when the observations were laegun) to September 8. The weekly decline ranged from 0.05 to 0.10 foot. After September 8 the water table showed a gradual rise until December 1, when observations were dis- continued. If the stage of the water table is an indication of the rate of inflow, then the rate of inflow gradually decreased from the middle of May until September 8. Therefore, it would seem that the fluctua- tions in the outflow, as shown on graph D, must have been developed by the evaporation and transpiration in the area of natural losses, between the points marked ^ on Plate II.
In computing the daily outflow numerous errors arise because of the time elements and inaccuracies in the data. The effect on the water table of either a day of very heavy natural losses or a day of light losses might not be completely transmitted to the discharge into the river for several hours. For these reasons it was decided to compute all the daily data of discharge into means for overlapping three-day periods. The records for temperature, evaporation, and transpiration were converted into corresponding three-day means.
During the summer all the flow in the Santa Ana River below Riverside comes from underground sources except during periods of direct run-off due to rainfall. Records for 3 years at the summer stations seem to indicate that the water surface of the river fluctuates practically in unison at all the stations, unless affected by other than natural conditions. A 10-day period of these records has been plotted on Plate IV, which shows how closely each record follows the others. The numerous minor fluctuations exhibited in these gage-height records are caused mainly by the movement of sand waves past the stations. To some extent the scouring and building up of the do^^^lstream chan- nel will likewise cause such fluctuations. The river is seldom more than 2 feet deep and usually less than 50 feet wide at each of these stations. Plate IV shows that the daily cycle is fairly uniform at all points. At each station the maximum stage occurs a few hours before noon and the minimum stage between 3 and 6 o'clock in the afternoon. The river can be compared to a long reservoir, the water surface of which passes through a daily cycle. Not only do the daily fluctuations occur in unison throughout this stretch of the river, but the longer cycles, such as that indicated by the record for August 5 to 25, show almost uniform change in the water surface of the river at the several gaging stations.
The E series of wells were dug and water-stage recorders installed on them during the spring of 1932, through aid furnished by the Orange County Flood Control District. Well E-1 was dug at the toe of a small bench parallel to the river channel, 1000 feet from the river.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
SANTA ANA RIVER-- Typical Gage- height Record
SANTA ANA RIVER AT
SANTA ANA RIVER AT
SANTA ANA RIVER AT
SANTA ANA RIVER AT
RIVERSIDE NARROWS HAMNER AVE. AUBURNOALE BRIDGE AT iS.F. RY. BRIDGE
GROUND WATER AT WELL E-3
The root systems uear this well form the outside edge of the zone of natural losses. The well is surrounded by a heavy growth of salt grass. Well E-2, situated 430 feet from the river, is surrounded bv voung trees. Well E-3 is only 30 feet from the edge of the river. Well E-4 was placed in the river at a point where it is about 130 feet wide. The locations of the wells in the E group are plotted on Plate V, which shows also the maximum and minimum altitude of the water table for July 20, 1932. as plotted from the records obtained in these wells. This plate shows the slope of the water table toward the river. Ten- day records of three of these wells, together with the gage-height record of the station at The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway Bridge, have been plotted on Plate YI.
An inspection of plates TV and VI shows the marked similarities between the ground water table at well E-3 and the gage-height record at the railway bridge station. It appears likely that the daily fluctua- tions in the river are caused chiefly by the fluctuations in the discharge of ground water into the river.
As shown on Plate I, the Lilliebridge Ditch discharges water into the river above the E group of wells. For a short time on both Sep- tember 5 and 6 the discharge from the ditch to the river was shut down. As a result the discharge in the river dropped. Plate VI shows that the water table at well E-3 immediately dropped also, even though it was several tenths of a foot higher than the water in the river. As shown on Plate IV. the shutting down of the ditch on July 17 caused a -imilar change in the water level in well E-3. Here again, the close interrelationship of the ground water and the surface water of the river is apparent.
The site of well E-t was selected because all the recorders along the river were at relatively narrow sections, and it was desirable to determine whether or not the daily river fluctuations at wade sections would be similar to those shown on Plate IV. The season's record at this well showed that daily fluctuations were entirely obscured bv tlie
154
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
PLATE V
SANTA ANA RIVER Location E series of wells
- LARGE TREES ••
Z
o
I-
488
,-- 487
,- 486
485
484
V- 483
PLATE VI
SANTA ANA RIVER- Typical Ground Water Record
© GROUND WATER AT WELL E ■ I
® GROUND WATER AT WELL E-2
© GROUND WATER AT WELL E-3
® SANTA ANA RIVER AT AT & S.F RY BRIDGE
i
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS 155
movements of sand waves and scour in the channel. The record seemed to have little if any relationsliip to the records at well E-3 or to those of the other river stations. This would seem to indicate that on very- wide sections of river channel the effect of ground water fluctuations on the stage of the water in the river is greatly reduced. In wells located along the river, such as well E-4, the condition of the channel do-vATistream from the station apparently controls, to a major degree, the level of the water surface at the well. Plate I shows that in this stretch of the river, sections as wide as that at well E-4 are few and cover only short distances of river channel.
Computations of changes in storage and corrected outflow.
The following equation gives the entire disposal of all the Avater entering any area along the river :
inflow = Natural losses ± Change in ground water storage + Outflow.
On Plate II the different members of this equation are illustrated. The inflow is the quantity of ground water passing the points marked ^; the natural losses are the quantity of water discharged through transpiration and through evaporation of both ground water and river water ; and the outflow is the measured gain in the flow of the river in the area.
It is possible for the natural losses to occur either from the ground water storage or from the inflow. If the losses are drawn entirely from storage, then the measured outflow will represent the inflow to the area. On the other hand, if the losses are drawn entirely from the inflow the storage will remain unchanged, and the outflow will be equal to the inflow minus the natural losses. Practically' the entire period of record falls between these two extremes. Possibly these rela- tions can best be illustrated by inserting figures in the basic formula as follows:
Inflow = Natural losses ± Change in storage + Outflow.
Second feet Second feet Second feet Second feet
(a) 50 = 10 + 5 4- 35
(ft) 50 = 10 + 0 +40
(c) 50 = 10 — 5 + 45
In each of these computations the inflow and natural losses remain constant, yet the measured outflow varies from 35 to 45 second-feet. In ^, 5 second-feet of the inflow was placed in storage, leaving 35 second-feet as outflow. In **, the storage did not change ; consequently the outflow represents inflow minus the natural losses. In °, 5 second- feet of the 10 second-feet of natural losses was drawn from storage, which would leave 45 second-feet of the inflow to appear as outflow. From these computations it is evident that if the inflow remains con- stant, then the outflow plus or minus the change in storage must vary inversely with the natural losses. Also, on days when the changes in storage are equal, then the outflow will vary inversely with the natural losses.
Tlie change in storage to be used in this equation was determined by the following method :
156 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
White,'' in his work on daily fluctuations of the water table in the Escalante Valley, Utah, developed the formula q = y (24r ± s) in which q is the depth of water used by the plants, y is the specific yield of the water-bearing material, r is the hourly rate of rise of the water table from midnight to 4 a.m., and s is the net fall or rise of the water table during- the 24-hour period. The hours of midnight to 4 a.m. were selected in determining the rate r, because during these hours the transpiration and evaporation losses would be at a minimum.
As shoT^Ti at the left on Plate VII, the measured daily outflow between Hamner Avenue and The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Rail- way Bridge was plotted against the daily tran.spiration ( 24r ± s) as computed from the record of well D. The (24r ± s) expressed in feet of ground water represents the amount the water table would have dropped if there was no recharge. The figure opposite each observa- tion represents the day of the month. The observations were next classified as to rising or falling water table, representing increase or decrease in storage. A curve was drawn such that it represents the average slope of a series of shorter lines drawn through consecutive points, having much the same change in storage. As a rule most of the observations to the left of the curve showed a drop in storage, while those to the right showed a gain.
As stated before, outflow ± change in storage should vary inversely with natural losses, provided the inflow does not change. It was next assumed that the difference between the quantity computed from this curve and the actual outflow represented the change in stor- age. For example, on September 30 the outflow was 35.7 second-feet. The curve shows that the outflow should have been about 37.2 second- feet if there had not been any change in storage. On this day the water table at well D came up 0.020 foot. The assumption was made that the building up of this storage by 0.020 foot required the 1.5 second-feet that failed to appear in the river. Likewise on August 19 the water table dropped 0.040 foot. The outflow for this day was 27.7 second-feet. The curve indicates that the discharge should have been 23.8 second-feet if there had been no change in storage. It was there- fore assumed that on this day the outflow was 3.9 second-feet greater than that shown by the curve, because its equivalent was drawn from storage to satisfy the demands represented by the natural losses.
The records of ground water fluctuations obtained on a few other wells in this area indicate that as a rule the daily change in storage was about in direct proportion to the change in storage at well D. It was therefore assumed that the changes shown by the record obtained at well D were in direct proportion to the mean changes in storage in the entire area between the Hamner Avenue and The Atchison. Topeka and Santa Fe Railway Bridge gaging stations. The daily changes in storage at Avell D were then plotted against the excess or deficiency in the outflow. If the inflow to the area had remained constant and the changes in storage at well D had been representative of the area, these points .should have plotted a well-defined curve. The movement of certain plotted points from the left of the curve to the right indicates
a White, W. N., A method of estimating ground water supplies based on di.s- charge by plants and evaporation from soil : U. S. Geol. Surv-ey "Water-Supply Paper 6.'>9, pp. i-105, 1932. MTiite states that the principle underlying this formula was in part suggested by G. E. P. Smith in his earlier work (p. 8).
PLATE VII
4503 — Bet. pp. 156-157
PLATE VII
^0.02
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SANTA ANA RIVER 1932 Method used in computing changes in- ground -water storage- Based on the records from well D-
4603— Bet. pp. 156-157
WATER LOSSE.S FRO:\r WET AREAS 157
that the inflow decreased during the period. For this reason, curves were drawn through small groups of consecutive observations, as the change in inflow would be little for short periods.
The average slope of these curves indicates that a change in stage of the water table amounting to 0.001 foot represents the equivalent of a change in outflow of 0.11 second-foot. If the changes in stage at well D represent the average for the area, then the average specific yield for the section of the gravel unwatered during the season is about 12 per cent. Using the factor of 0.11 second-foot per 0.001 foot of change in water level, the change in storage for the entire record was converted into second-feet. The daily measured outflow was then corrected for changes in storage. • The term "corrected outflow" as used throughout the remainder of this report represents the measured outflow plus or minus the change in storage.
Computations of natural losses and inflow between Hamner Avenue
and The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway Bridge stations.
In discussing the basic formula for the inflow, it was stated that if the inflow remains constant, the outflow plus or minus changes in storage will vary inversely with the natural losses. On Plate VIII are plotted the relations between the daily corrected outflow and the daily evaporation and temperature for July, August, and September, 1932. The figure opposite each point represents the day of the month. The fact that the observations as i3lotted shifted to the right is apparently due to gradual decrease in rate of inflow as the season progressed. The trend of consecutive observations had more to do in the development of the slope of the monthly curves than the mere averaging of the points, because during short periods the inflow would change little, leading only two principal variables — namely, corrected outflow and natural losses. Thus the third variable is practically eliminated, leav- ing a close relation between corrected outflow and temperature or evaporation, as represented by the slope of the curve. Curves similar to those on Plate VIII were also drawn for 1931.
The temperature record was obtained from the thermograph record at the Prado evaporation station. A stud}' of the ground water fluctua- tions showed that practically all the transpiration occurred between the hours of 8 a.m. and 4 p.m. each day. For this reason the daily tempera- ture figures here used represent the average temperature for the period of 8 a.m. to 4 p.m. The data seem to indicate that little or no trans- piration occurs in this area when the average daily temperature is below 60°. If the natui'al losses in this area varied in direct pro- portion with the temperature above 60°, then for each 10° more than 60° the loss would have amounted to 7.7 second-feet in 1931 and 8.0 second-feet in 1932.
For the period in 1931 the records from the evaporation pan at Prado were used in plotting the relation of evaporation to corrected outflow. In 1932, however, 0T\dng to imperfect operation of the apparatus, the daily evaporation record at Prado was not entirely satisfactory. For this reason, the record from the evaporimeter at Pomona, operated by C. A. Taylor, of the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, was used for 1932. This evaporimeter is less than 15 miles from the Santa Ana River area, and the evaporation there should
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS 157
that the inflow decreased during the period. For this reason, curves were drawn through small groups of consecutive observations, as the change in inflow would be little for short periods.
The average slope of these curves indicates that a change in stage of the water table amounting to 0.001 foot represents the equivalent of a change in outflow of 0.11 second-foot. If the changes in stage at well D represent the average for the area, then the average specific yield for the section of the gravel unwatered during the season is about 12 per cent. Using the factor of 0.11 second-foot per 0.001 foot of change in water level, the change in storage for the entire record was converted into second-feet. The daily measured outflow was then corrected for changes in storage. • The term "corrected outflow" as used throughout the remainder of this report represents the measured outflow plus or minus the change in storage.
Computations of natural losses and inflow between Hamner Avenue
and The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway Bridge stations.
In discussing the basic formula for the inflow, it was stated that if the inflow remains constant, the outflow plus or minus changes in storage A^all vary inversely with the natural losses. On Plate VIII are plotted the relations between the daily corrected outflow and the daily evaporation and temperature for Julj^ August, and September, 1932. The figure opposite each point represents the day of the month. The fact that the observations as plotted shifted to the right is apparently due to gradual decrease in rate of inflow as the season progressed. The trend of consecutive observations had more to do in the development of the slope of the monthly curves than the mere averaging of the points, because during short periods the inflow would change little, leaving only two principal variables — namely, corrected outflow and natural losses. Thus the third variable is practically eliminated, leav- ing a close relation between corrected outflow and temperature or evaporation, as represented by the slope of the curve. Curves similar to those on Plate VIII were also dra^^ii for 1931.
The temperature record was obtained from the thermograph record at the Prado evaporation station. A study of the ground water fluctua- tions showed that practically all the transpiration occurred between the hours of 8 a.m. and 4 p.m. each day. For this reason the daily tempera- ture figures here used represent the average temperature for the period of 8 a.m. to 4 p.m. The data seem to indicate that little or no trans- piration occurs in this area when the average daily temperature is below 60°. If the natui*al losses in this area varied in direct pro- portion with, the temperature above 60°, then for each 10° more than 60° the loss would have amounted to 7.7 second-feet in 1931 and 8.0 second-feet in 1932.
For the period in 1931 the records from the evaporation pan at Prado were used in plotting the relation of evaporation to corrected outflow. In 1932, however, owing to imperfect operation of the ap]iaratus, the daily evaporation record at Pi'ado was not entirely satisfactory. For this reason, the record from the evaporimeter at Pomona, operated by C. A. Taylor, of the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, was used for 1932. This evaporimeter is less than 15 miles from the Santa Ana River area, and the evaporation there should
158
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
PLATE VIII
< _ ^
q; 6Vi 90"
JULY
/:
SEPT
z • o
!<
IT
o
a. 3
SEPT
CORRECTED OUTFLOW
CORRECTED OUTFLOW
SANTA ANA RIVER 1932
Relationship between Temperature, Evaporation and Corrected Outflow from Hamner Ave. to A.T&S.F Ry.
vary directly v;^itli the evaporation at Prado. The 1931 data (Prado) seem to indicate that for each 0.10 inch of evaporation from the stand- ard Weather Bureau gage the corrected outflow is reduced 6.0 second- feet. The 1932 data (Pomona) gave 6.3 second-feet for each 0.10 inch of evaporation from the evaporimeter.
Next, the relation of the transpiration at well D to the corrected outflow was determined by the use of the formula (24r ± s), taken from the equation q = y (24r ±: s) . The results showed that for each 0.10 foot of ground water transpired, as computed by the formula (24r ±: s), there was a loss of 15.4 second-feet in the corrected outflow in 1931 and 17.6 second-feet in 1932.
From the data determined from Plate VTII and similar graphs Table 3 has been developed. This table gives the estimated inflow between the gaging stations at Hamner Avenue and The Atchison. Topeka and Santa Fe Railway Bridge. Column A represents the daily measured outflow from the area, that is, the gain in the flow of the river between the two gaging stations. The daily corrected outflow^ (outflow ± change in storage) is given in column B. If the natural losses in the area varied in direct proportion to the transpiration recorded at well D, the figures in column C represent these losses in second-feet. Then hy adding columns B and C, the daily inflow is determined.
Likewise, columns D and E represent the natural losses in the area if evaporation and temperature, respectively, are taken as indicators
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
159
of these losses. After these daily figures of natural losses were obtained, the means for each 5-day period were determined for each of the three methods. Then these results were in turn averaged. The addition of the natural losses to the corrected outflow gives the inflow to the area. The data given in Table 3 have been plotted on plates IX and X. The estimated inflow represents the amount of water passing the points marked ^ on Plate II, or the outside edge of the area of natural losses. On plates IX and X the difference between the graphs marked ' ' mean
PLATE IX
llii
«.-♦■'
tt
fri
SANTA ANA RIVER - 193 Estimated Inflow between Hamner Ave. and AT. &S.F. Ry. Bridge
§MEAN INFLOW MEASURED OUTFLOW CORRECTED OUTFLOW
JULY S 10 IS 20 25
• BASED ON TEMPERATURE AT PRADO
* BASED ON EVAPORATION AT PRADO
♦ BASED ON WELL 0
! AUGUST 10 15 20 25
I SEPTEMBER 10 15 20 25
PLATE X
-T !♦'
^^f
:>*
♦r^».
tA
I ♦'
f-n
:e:
SANTA ANA RIVER - 1932 . Estimated Inflow between Hamner Ave. and A-T&S.R Ry. Bridge
"® MEAN INFLOW ® MEASURED OUTFLOW © CORRECTED OUTFLOW
I JULY I I
5 10 15 20 25
♦ BASED ON TEMPERATURE AT PRAOO
♦ BASED ON EVAPORATION AT POMONA
♦ BASED ON WELL 0
I
31
AUGUST I Jfi >i 20 25
-il.
SEPTEMBER _!fl LI 2a 2i_
160
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
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inflow" and ''measured outflow" g'ives the quantity of water con- sumed in the area of natural losses. Tlie inflow has been plotted for every da.y b,y use of the three methods on these plates. ]\Iost of the apparent irregularities during Aug'ust and September, 1931, were due to surface run-off from rainfall, which could not be evaluated. The true relation holds only when all tlie water comes from subsurface sources.
Relation of natural losses to evaporation.
In order to make the data computed in Table 3 applicable else- where on the Santa Ana River, the natural losses over the area were determined as a function of evaporation. The resvilts are given in Table 4, in which the natural losses for each 5-day period have been converted into acre-feet. The average loss in feet over the whole area was computed by dividing the losses in acre-feet by the area in acres. This average was compared with the evaporation from a standard "Weather Bureau pan at Prado for the same periods, expressed in feet, and the ratio computed. This ratio gives the losses as a percentage of evaporation. For example, for the period July 1-5, 1931, the natural losses amounted to 0.109 foot, or 61 per cent of the evaporation from a standard Weather Bureau pan for the same period. The means of these percentages were computed for the three months in both 1931 and 1932. They were 68 per cent for 1931 and 64 per cent for 1932. The average for the two seasons was 66 per cent. These ratios do not, however, apply w^here the natural losses are compared to evaporation from a reservoir or other relatively large free water surface. By using the coefficient of 1.427 determined by Rohwer ■'' for the correction of the standard pan record, the natural losses for 1931 and 1932 are found to be nearly equal to the evaporation from a reservoir or other large free water surface.
Natural losses and inflow between Riverside Narrows and the Prado gaging station.
Between the gaging stations at Riverside Narrows and Prado there is 4040 acres of land subject to substantial natural losses. By means of the coefficient determined in the preceding tables, the natural losses within this area were computed and converted into acre-feet for each 5-day period from January to November, 1932. The results of these computations are expressed graphically on Plate XI.
A check on the computations for inflow for the area above the Prado gaging station was made by using the data collected at The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway Bridge for the period May to November. The area of natural losses above this station is 3580 acres. With the coefficient of 66 per cent the natural losses were computed from the evaporation pan record at Prado. The addition of these losses to the flow at the railway bridge gaging station gave the total inflow for the area between Riverside Narrows and the railway bridge. These results have been plotted on the graph in the form of a dotted line.
The 2| miles of river channel between The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway Bridge and the Prado gaging stations is cut through
" Rohwer, Carl, Evaporation from free water surfaces : U. S. Dept. Agri., Bull. 271, 1932.
WATER LOSSES FROIM WET AREAS
169
TABLE 4
RELATION BETWEEN EVAPORATION AND NATURAL LOSSES FOR AREA BETWEEN HAMNER AVENUE AND THE ATCHISON TOPEKA AND SANTA FE RAILWAY BRIDGE
ON THE SANTA ANA RIVER
(.'\rea, 2,1 10 acres)
|
Natural losses |
Evaporation at Prado |
|||||
|
Date |
Mean (second-feet) |
Acre-feet |
Feet |
Inches |
Feet |
Ratio |
|
1931— July 1- 5 July 6-10. July 11-15 July 16-20 July 21-25 July 26-31 .Aug. 1-5 Aug. 6-10 Aug. 11-15 .Aug. 16-20 .■^ug. 21-25 Aug. 26-31 Sept. 1- 5... Sept. 6-10 Sept. 11-15 Sept. 16-20 Sept. 21-25 Sept. 26-30 |
23 3 20.5 21.4 21.7 23.8 23.4 19.5 19.4 13.7 21.2 26.5 20.0 14.4 18.6 15.3 12.6 15.1 16.3 |
231 203 212 215 236 279 193 192 136 210 263 238 143 184 152 125 150 162 |
0 109 .096 .100 .102 .112 .132 .092 091 .064 .100 .125 113 .068 .087 .072 .059 .071 .077 |
2.12 1.76 1.80 1.74 1.92 2.22 1 57 1.70 1.10 1.71 2 24 L72 1 12 1 57 1 35 1.07 1.07 1.56 |
0.178 .147 .150 .145 .160 .185 .131 .142 .092 .142 .187 .143 .093 .131 .112 .089 .089 .130 |
0.61 .65 .67 .70 .70 .71 .70 .64 .70 .70 .67 .79 .73 .66 .64 .66 .80 .59 |
|
Mean |
.68 |
|||||
|
1932^ July 1-5 July 6-10 July 11-15 July 16-20 July 21-25 July 26-31 Aug. 1- 5 Aug. 6-10 Aug. 11-15 .Aug. 16-20 Aug. 21-25 Aug. 26-31 Sept. 1- 5 Sept. 6-10 Sept. 11-15 Sept. 16-20 Sept. 21-25 Sept. 26-30 |
15.3 16,5 17.8 17.4 18.3 20.8 23.2 17.9 14.3 22.5 24.3 14.8 20.5 20 3 14.0 10.7 12.0 8.7 |
152 164 177 173 182 248 230 178 142 224 241 176 204 201 139 106 119 86 |
0 072 078 .084 .082 ,086 .118 109 ,084 067 .106 114 083 097 .095 .066 .050 056 .041 |
i:362 1.565 1 571 1.528 2.056 2.203 2.205 1.578 1.112 1.980 2.085 1.523 1.622 1.327 1.225 .978 1.004 .884 |
0.114 .131 .131 .127 .172 .184 .184 .132 .093 .165 .174 .127 .135 .110 .102 .082 .084 .074 |
0.63 .60 .64 .65 .50 .64 .59 .64 .72 .64 .65 .65 .72 .86 .65 .61 .67 .55 |
|
Mean . |
.64 |
|||||
the Santa Ana Mountains. There are no live streams feeding the river in this section. If there is little inflow during the summer between these stations, the inflow for the area above the railway bridge gaging station should be nearly the same as that above the Prado gaging station. Plate XI shows that the two sets of figures for inflow agree remarkably well, the decrease in stream flow between the two stations being about equal to the computed natural losses.
One purpose of this plate is to show the extent of the losses between Riverside Narrows and the Prado gaging station. Of an inflow which was computed to be 48.5 second-feet, only 12.8 second-feet left the area as surface Avater during the 5-day period August 21-25, 1932. During the period August 1-5, 1930, only 5 second-feet were recovered from an inflow equally great.
170
DIVISION OF WATER KESOURCES
PLATE XI
WATER SUPPLY
of
SANTA ANA RIVER
above
PRADO GAGING STATION
1932
In order to show more clearly the disposition of all the rising- water above Prado, Table 5 was prepared. This table shows the esti- mated water supply above the Prado gaging station for two seasons, 1930-31 and 1931-32. The natural losses were computed, based on the evaporation pan record collected at Prado, except for three months, October, 1930, and February and May. 1932. During these months the record at Prado was incomplete. For the month of October, 1930, the record collected by the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering at Santa Ana was used. The record collected by the same bureau at Pomona was used for the months of February and May, 1932.
During the season of 1930-31 there was very little storm run-off due to rainfall, consequently the main source of the water passing the Prado gaging station was from the ground water inflow. Table 5 shows that of the 74,900 acre-feet of inflow into the area above Prado for this season, 17,500 acre-feet, or 23.4 per cent, were consumed by the natural losses in this area.
If the water of the Santa Ana River is more A^aluable at any one period of the year than another, it is during the summer irrigation season. During this period the entire flow of the river is diverted by the Santa Ana Valley Irrigation and Anaheim Union water companies. To augment this supply additional water is pumped along the canal systems in Orange County. An inspection of Table 5 shows that for the months of ]\Iay to September, 18,090 acre-feet entered the valley or flood channel of the Santa Ana River between Riverside Narrows and Prado during the season of 1930-31. Of these 18,090 acre-feet, 10,180 acre-feet were consumed by natural losses. This represents a loss of 56 per cent. For the same period during 1931-32, 18,280 acre- feet entered the flood channel of the river. During this season 9790 acre-feet were consumed by natural losses, or a loss of 54 per cent.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
171
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172' DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
Utilization of Water Supply.
The water which under natural conditions is consumed by uneco- nomic plant life could in large part be recovered by pumping from wells, Avhereby the ground water table would be drawn down below the root zone. The installation of pumps in this area would make available the large underground reservoir that now lies unused. The storage in this underground reservoir, as well as the summer inflow, could be drawn upon to meet the fluctuating demands for irrigation. During the winter the underground reservoir would be replenished by the inflow from the sides and also by at least some of the storm run-off that may otherwise be wasted into the ocean.
PUBLICATIONS DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
PUBLICATIONS OF THE
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS
STATE OF CALIFORNIA
When the Department of Public Works was created In July, 1921, the State Water Commission was succeeded by the Division of Water Rights, and the Department of Engineering was succeeded by the Division of Engineer- ing and Irrigation in all duties except those pertaining to State Architect. Both the Division of Water Rights ind the Division of Engineering and Irrigation functioned until August, 1929, when they were consolidated to form the Division of Water Resources.
STATE WATER COMMISSION
First Report, State Water Commission, March 24 to November 1, 1912. Second Report, State Water Commission, November 1, 1912 to April 1, 1914. •Biennial Report, State Water Commission, March 1, 1915, to December 1, 1916. Biennial Report, State Water Commission, December 1, 1916, to September 1, 1918. Biennial Report, State Water Commission, September 1, 191S, to September 1, 1920.
DIVISION OF WATER RIGHTS
♦Bulletin No. 1 — Hydrographic Investigation of San Joaquin River, 1920-1923. ♦Bulletin No. 2 — Kings River Investigation, Water Master's Reports, 1918-1923.
•Bulletin No. 3 — Proceedings First Sacramento-San Joaquin River Problems Con- ference, 1924.
•Bulletin No. 4 — Proceedings Second Sacramento-San Joaquin River Problems Con- ference, and Water Supervisor's Report, 1924.
•Bulletin No. 5— San Gabriel Investigation— Basic Data, 1923-1926.
Bulletin No. 6— San Gabriel Investigation— Basic Data, 1926-1928.
Bulletin No. 7 — San Gabriel Investigation — Analysis and Conclusions, 1929. •Biennial Report, Division of Water Rights, 1920-1922. •Biennial Report, Division of Water Rights, 1922-1924.
Biennial Report, Division of Water Rights, 1924-1926.
Biennial Report, Division of Water Rights, 1926-1928.
DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING
♦Bulletin No. 1 — Cooperative Irrigation Investigations in California, 1912-1914.
♦Bulletin No. 2— Irrigation Districts in California, 1887-1915.
Bulletin No. 3 — Investigations of Economic Duty of Water for Alfalfa in Sacra- mento Valley, California, 1915.
♦Bulletin No. 4 — Preliminary Report on Conservation and Control of Flood Waters
in Coachella Valley, California, 1917. ♦Bulletin No. 5 — Report on the Utilization of Mojave River for Irrigation in Victor
Valley, California, 1918. ♦Bulletin No. 6 — California Irrigation District Laws, 1919 (now obsolete).
Bulletin No. 7 — Use of water from Kings River, California, 1918. •Bulletin No. 8 — Flood Problems of the Calaveras River, 1919.
Bulletin No. 9 — Water Resources of Kern River and Adjacent Streams and Their
Utilization. 1920. ♦Biennial Report, Department of Engineering, 1907-1908. ♦Biennial Report, Department of Engineering, 1908-1910. ♦Biennial Report, Department of Engineering, 1910-1912. •Biennial Report, Department of Engineering, 1912-1914. •Biennial Report, Department of Engineering, 1914-1916. ♦Biennial Report, Department of Engineering, 1916-1918. ♦Biennial Report, Department of Engineering, 1918-1920.
• Reports and Bulletins out of print. These may be borrowed by your local library from the California State Library at Sacramento, California.
( 174 )
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No. |
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No. |
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No. |
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No. |
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No. |
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LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 175
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES Including Reports of the Former Division of Engineering and Irrigation 1 — California Irrigation District Laws, 1921 (now obsolete). 2 — Formation of Irrigation Districts, Issuance of Bonds, etc., 1922. 3 — Water Resources of Tulare County and Their Utilization, 1922. 4 — Water Resources of California, 1923. 5 — Flow in California Streams, 1923. 6 — Irrigation Requirements of California Lands, 1923. 7 — California Irrigation District Laws, 1923 (now obsolete). S — Cost of Water to Irrigators in California. 1925. 9 — Supplemental Report on Water Resources of California, 1925. 10 — California Irrigation District Laws, 1925 (now obsolete). 11 — Ground Water Resources of Southern San Joaquin Valley. 1927. in No. 12 — Summary Report on the Water Resources of California and a Coor- dinated Plan for Their Development. 1927. Bulletin No. 13 — The Development of the Upper Sacramento River, containing U. S.
R. S. Cooperative Report on Iron Canyon Project, 1927. Bulletin No. 14 — The Control of Floods by Reservoirs, 192S. •Bulletin No. 18 — California Irrigation District Laws, 1927 (now obsolete). ♦Bulletin No. 18-A — California Irrigation District Laws, 1929 Revision (now obsolete). Bulletin No. 18-B — California Irrigation District Laws, 1931 Revision (now obsolete). Bulletin No. 18-C — California Irrigation District Laws, 1933 Revision.
Bulletin No. 19 — Santa Ana Investigation, Flood Control and Conservation (with packet of maps). 192S.
Bulletin No. 20 — Kennett Reservoir Development, an Analysis of Methods and
Extent of Financing by Electric Power Revenue, 1929. Bulletin No. 21 — Irrigation Districts in California, 1929.
Bulletin No. 21-A — Report on Irrigation Districts in California for the Year 1929. Bulletin No. 21-B — Report on Irrigation Districts in California for the Year 1930.
Bulletin No. 21-C — Report on Irrigation Districts in California for the Year 19 31. (Mimeographed.)
Bulletin No. 21-D — Report on Irrigation Districts in California for the Year 1932.
(Mimeographed.) Bulletin No. 22 — Report on Salt Water Barrier (two volumes). 1929. Bulletin No. 23 — Report of Sacramento-San Joaquin Water Supervisor, 1924-1928. Bulletin No. 24 — A Proposed Major Development on American River, 1929. Bulletin No. 25 — Report to Legislature of 1931 on State Water Plan, 1930. Bulletin No. 26 — Sacramento River Basin, 1931. Bulletin No. 27 — Variation and Control of Salinity in Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta
and Upper San Francisco Bay, 1931. Bulletin No. 28 — Economic Aspects of a Salt Water Barrier Below Confluence of
Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers, 1931.
Bulletin No. 28-A — Industrial Survey of TTpper San Francisco Bay Area, 1930.
Bulletin No. 31— Santa Ana River Basin, 1930.
Bulletin No. 32 — South Coastal Basin, a Cooperative Symposium, 1930.
Bulletin No. 33 — Rainfall Penetration and Consumptive Use of Water in Santa Ana River Valley and Coastal Plain, 1930.
Bulletin No. 34 — Permissible Annual Charges for Irrigation Water in Upper San Joaquin Valley, 1930.
Bulletin No. 35 — Permissible Economic Rate of Irrigation Development in California. 1930.
Bulletin No. 36 — Cost of Irrigation Water in California, 1930.
Bulletin No. 37 — Financial and General Data Pertaining to Irrigation, Reclamation and Other Public Districts in California, 1930.
Bulletin No. 38 — Report of Kings River Water Master for the period 1918-1930. Bulletin No. 39 — South Coastal Basin Investigation, Records of Ground Water Levels at Wells, 1932.
Bulletin No. 40 — South Coastal Basin Investigation, Quality of Irrigation Waters,
1933. Bulletin No. 41 — Pit River Investigation, 1933. Bulletin No. 42 — Santa Clara Investigation, 1933.
• Reports and Bulletins oiit of print. Tliese may be borrowed by your local library from the California State Library at Sacramento. California.
176 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
Bulletin No. 43 — Value and Cost of Water for Irrigation in Coastal Plain of South- ern California, 1933.
Bulletin No. 44 — ^Water Losses Under Natural Conditions from Wet Areas in Southern California, 1933.
Biennial Report, Division of Engineering and Irrigation, 1920-1922.
Biennial Report, Division of Engineering and Irrigation, 1922-1924.
Biennial Report, Division of Engineering and Irrigation, 1924-1926.
Biennial Report, Division of Engineering and Irrigation, 1926—1928.
PAMPHLETS
Act Governing Supervision of Dams in California, with Revised Rules and Regula- tions, 1933. Water Commission Act with Amendments Thereto, 1933.
Rules, Regulations and Information Pertaining to Appropriation of Water in Cali- fornia, 1933.
Rules and Regulations Governing the Determination of Rights to Use of Water In
Accordance with the Water Commission Act. 1925.
Tables of Discharge for Parshall Measuring Flumes. 192S.
General Plans, Specifications and Bills of Material for Six and Nine Inch Parshall Measuring Flumes. 1930.
COOPERATIVE AND MISCELLANEOUS REPORTS •Report of the Conservation Commission of California, 1912.
•Irrigation Resources of California and Their ITtilization (Bui. 254. OflSce of Exp
U. S. D. A.) 1913.
•Report, State Water Problems Conference, November 25, 1916.
•Report on Pit River Basin. April. 1915.
•Report on Lower Pit River Project, July, 1915.
•Report on Iron Canyon Project, 1914.
•Report on Iron Canyon Project, California, May, 1920.
•Sacramento Flood Control Project (Revised Plans), 1925.
Report of Commission Appointed to Investigate Causes Leading to the Failure of St. Francis Dam, 192S.
Report of the California Joint Federal-State Water Resources Commission, 1930.
Conclusions and Recommendations of the Report of the California Irrigation and Reclamation Financing and Refinancing Commission, 1930.
•Report of California Water Resources Commission to the Governor of California on State Water Plan, 1932.
♦Booklet of Information on California and the State Water Plan Prepared for United States House of Representatives' Subcommittee on Appro- priations, 1931.
•Bulletin on Great Central "Valley Project of State Water Plan of California Prepared
for United States Senate Committee on Irrigation and Reclama- m tion, 1932. f
* Reports and Bulletins out of print. These may be borrowed by your local library from the California State Library at Sacramento, California.
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