o = we a4 — ‘ 4 tw q | | | } y ‘ AMEN! } A Ayes Ce a a er ae ed ae ty die a age a () = # tem A i. = ail one (ts, Ob OPES 5 rt . * - ‘ eae ‘ } eet at be “sieiy “ores Pe Tyee a Pad KEE qbk, (oak) igs) 2 ‘ 4 CE SEARO bles fee Meow oni a : . 4, sheds i ‘ oe $e Bey, L} ‘ va he aa fb ¥4 in . ’ q . 4 “ LORE Tea - « as te es Ry ong Licht Pa Aaa rer rae ar S.J 2 Ue ey ae ay : a cused iw fit Loos ha we fal ek. Preface. This paper describes the results of oceanographic investigations in the north-eastern Atlantic made in July 1910, during a cruise with the Norwegian gun-vessel Frithjof. I wish here first of all to express my deep gratitude to His Majesty the King of Norway, to the Norwegian Government, and to the autho- rities of the Norwegian Navy for their most valuable assistance in sending the ship, at my request, into the North-Atlantic, and by giving me every facility for making observations on board during the cruise. I hope the following pages will prove that results of sufficient value to justify their obligingness, have been attained. It is also my pleasant duty to offer my sincere thanks to Captain Caspar S. Erlandsen, the Commanding Officer of the Frithjof, for the great interest he took in my work from the very beginning, and for the valuable assistance and many facilities he gave me in every respect. I wish to thank the other officers on board, especially Commander Gabriel Mérch and the navigating {Officer Commander J. Smith- Johannsen, for their never-failing readiness to help and for their great -kindness. To the many men of the crew who were constantly working at my winches, and to the electricians who looked after the electric motor, I owe my warmest gratitude. I will further specially mention the two Boatswain’s Mates, Adolf Martinius Johansen and Nikolai Adolf Nilsen, who worked hard as my trustworthy assistants during the eruise. They always helped me in my work day and night, and also Nansen, North Atlantic. Hydrogr. Suppl. z. IV. Bd. 1 2 2 Fridtjof Nansen. took regular observations of the strata between the surface and 200 metres, while I was below. | I am very grateful to the Cadets on board, who took the obser- vations of the sea-surface during the whole cruise. Special thanks are due to the electric firm Norsk Elektrisk & Brown Bovery of Christiania for lending me an electric motor for the soundings. Finally I wish to take this opportunity ‘of thanking my’ friend Dr. Bjorn Helland-Hansen for hiss great help in arranging and superintending the titrations of the water-samples and I also thank Mr. Illit Grondahl B. A. who made most of the titrations of the samples. I. Introduction. During recent years, especially since 1900, the Oceanography of the Norwegian Sea has been well studied, chiefly by the Norwegian Marine and Fishery-Investigations organized and led by Dr. Johan Hjort. Thus the physical conditions of this sea-basin have become far better known than those of any other area of the deep Ocean; it is in fact the only part of the Ocean in which the physical condisiaas are to ‘some extent known in detail. The study by Dr. Bjérn Helland-Hansen and myself [1909] of the physical observations collected during the Norwegian researches, brought to light what an important influence variations in the Nor- wegian Atlantic Current have upon the physical conditions (of the sea as well as of the atmosphere) of this sea-area and neighbouring regions, especially Norway. It appeared that variations in the temperature of the Atlantic Current from one year to another, were followed by corresponding variations in the winter-climate of Norway, and also by variations in the fisheries of the North Sea and at Lofoten, etc. We found a remarkable similarity between the annual variations in the surface-temperatures of the current in May and the variations in the harvests of Norway, the growth of the pine forests, ete. We also pointed out the possibility of a relation of some kind between the. annual variations of this current and cosmic causes (variations of the sun-spots). Several later investigations seem in various respects to confirm the correctness of our conclusions. Owing to the inadequacy of the material of observations at our disposal, from other regions of the Sea, we were not able to decide The Waters of the North-eastern North Atlantic. 3 whether the observed annual variations in the volume and temperature of the Norwegian Atlantic Current were due to variations in the physi- cal conditions of the North Atlantic, south of the Wyville Thomson Ridge and the Faeroe-Iceland Ridge, or of other causes, e. g. varia- tions in the Hast-Icelandic Arctic Current. In order to approach the solution of this important problem, it is naturally necessary to study the physical conditions and the circulation of the North Atlantic, and it. would be of special interest to know the conditions of the so-called “Gulf-Stream”, west of the British Isles, supposed to form the Norwegian Atlantic Current running towards the northeast, chiefly through the Faeroe-Shetland Channel. Considering the important interest connected with the northern areas of the North Atlantic, between Ireland, Iceland, Greenland, New- foundland, and the American coast, it is, indeed, remarkable how very little the physical conditions of this region have been studied by modern scientific methods. The consequence being a deplorable lack of know- jedge, which is, as yet, an impassable hindrance to our being able to solve the above mentioned problems of the circulation of the Nor- Wwegian Sea. Having been continually hampered in our oceanographic studies by our ignorance of the above mentioned region, and feeling keenly the necessity of more knowledge in this respect, I have, for years, been planning an investigation, on a modest scale, of the physical con- ditions of the north-eastern North-Atlantic. My object was first of all to trace dut the great leading features in the circulation of the sea in this region. Various circumstances hindered me from carrying out my plan. In 1909, however, I fitted out my little yacht “Vesleméy” for the purpose. The Nansen Fund gave a grant of Kr. 5000,00 towards the expences of the equipment. Otherwise the cost of this cruise as well as the cruise and investigations of subsequent years has been borne by myself. Owing to several unexpected difficulties I was not able to start till two months later in the summer than intended, and there was not sufficient time left that season for such a long cruise. I had therefore to turn to investigations nearer home. Being busy with other work in 1910, I could not afford the time for a long cruise that summer, but in order to be enabled to do some- thing of importance in the way of a preliminary research, I asked the Norwegian Government whether a ship of the Norwegian Royal Navy could possibly be sent on her summer-cruise into those waters, and 4 Fridtjof Nansen. there could be given me an opportunity of taking oceanographic ob- servations at a number of stations during the voyage; | would procure all instrumental outfit and gear, and would defray all extra expences connected with these observations. Our War and Navy Department. and the naval authorities met my request with great kindness. It was arranged that the gun-vessel “Frithjof”, the training ship of the Cadets, should take me on board in Belfast in the beginning of July 1910. From Ireland we should follow a straight course across the southern part of the Rockall Bank towards a point in about 61° N. Lat. and 37° W. Long. (off the east coast of Greenland), then to Seydis Fjord on the east coast of Iceland for taking coal, and thence back to Norway passing north of the Faeroes. My plan in proposing this route was first of all to study the region of the so-called “Gulf Stream” west of Ireland and the Rockall Bank by a number of Stations with comparatively short intervals. Secondly to study the physical conditions in the area east of southern Greenland where I suppose that an important part of the bottom-water of the North Atlantic is being formed by emission of heat from the surface during the Winter.’) The latter part of my investigations had, however, to be given up, owing to the fact that the coal which the “Frithjof” had obtained was less durable than expected. In order not to risk running short of coal Captain Erlandsen therefore wisely decided to shape our course for the east coast of Iceland earlier than originally intended. In this manner I got an oceanographic section northward towards the submerged shelf of eastern Iceland which proved to be of much interest. On our way home from Iceland I intended to study the Hast- Icelandic Arctic Current, by stations at short intervals; and I also hoped to get an opportunity of ascertaining by soundings whether the supposed bank to the north-east of the Faeroes, indicated by a sounding of 204 fathoms (373 metres) of the “Véringen” in 1876, really exists. Finally I wished to take a section with a great number of stations across the Faeroe-Shetland Channel. With the one exception of the region south west of Iceland and east of Greenland, the program was successfully carried out, in a very short time, thanks to the excellent manner in which the cruise was conducted by Captain Erlandsen, and to the kind and always ready help of the officers and crew of the “Frithjof”, both day and night. 1) Cf. Nansen, 1912, The Waters of the North-eastern North Atlantic. 5 II. The Route of the Frithjof and the Sections. The route of the Frithjof, with the oceanographic stations, is shown in Fig. 1, and also in the charts Pls. I—VII. We left Belfast on July 6, 1910, and reached. Seydis Fjord, Iceland, on July 13. On July 16", we went to Mjé Fjord just south Fig. 1. Sections I—V of the Frithjof, July 1910; the Sections (A and B) of the Fram, June and July 1910; Scottish Sections C, D, M, and N of August 1910; Danish Sec- tions E and F of May and June 1905, and H and K of May 1908; Section P of the Porcupine, June 1869. of Seydis Fjord, and on the afternoon of the same day we put to sea on our homeward voyage. On July 21** we reached Bergen. The observations of Temperature and Salinity, collected during the cruise, are given.in the Table appended to this paper, with dates, hours, and depths. On the basis of these observations, five sections have been drawn. 6 Fridtjof Nansen. Section I (Pls. IX—XI) runs along the first part of the route from the shallow sea just north of Ireland, where we were on July 6%, 1910, across the Rockall Channel nail Rockall Bank to Station 12, where we were on the evening of July 9%, 1912. Section II (Pl. XIJ— XIII) runs from Station 12 to Station oh on the submerged shelf off the east coast of Iceland, where we were on July 12, 1910. From this station we went in x Seydis Fjord, where we stayed for three days. Section III (Pls. XIV—XV) runs from the mouth of the Mjé Fjord (July 16%) to Station 35 (July 18*) north-east of the Faeroes. Section IV (Pls. XVI—XVII) runs from Station 35 to Station 39 (July 19%), on the Faeroe Platform. Section V (Pls. XVI—XVII) runs from Station 39 across the Faeroe- Shetland Channel to Station 48 (July 20**) north of Shetland. III. Instruments and Methods. Sounding Machine and Winch. The sounding machine belonging to the Frithjof, with a steel-wire of 2 mm diameter, was used for the automatic water-bottle. The ma- chine was placed on the deck aft, and the line ran out over a meter- wheel at the stern of the ship. A steel-wire of 3 mm diameter was used for all deep-sea obser- vations not taken with the automatic water-bottle. I had constructed a special winch for the hauling up of the line. It was made by the “Tenfjords mekaniske Verksted” (Aalesund). The winch was very handy to manipulate. By a special arrangement it could also be used for automatic sounding, even with the wire of 3 mm. For hauling in, the winch was connected with an electric motor, kindly lent me as already mentioned, by the electric engineering firm Norsk Elektrisk & Brown Bovery, Christiania. When the motor went at full speed, 150 or even 200 metres of line could be hauled up in one minute. From this winch, the line was rolled on to a drum by hand. As the electric current at our disposal onboard was not quite suitable for the electric motor, the latter could not develop its full power. The consequence was that whenever more than 1200 or — 1500 metres of 3 mm wire were let out, the motor was not strong enough to haul it up again. For fear something might break, I had The Waters of the North-eastern North Atlantic. 7 therefore to give up the hope of taking observations from depths greater than 200 metres, and even this depth I only ventured to risk attempt- ing a few times. Water-Bottles. A new automatic, insulating water-bottle of my own con- struction was used for depths between the surface and 400 to 500 metres. By comparisons with the temperature readings of the Richter reversing thermometers, it was proved that this instrument gave a quite satisfactory insulation of the temperature down to 400 or 500, or even 600 metres. ; With this water-bottle we could easily take observations down to 200 or 300 metres, while the ship was going at a speed of between seven and eight knots which, being most economical as to coal, was our ordinary speed during the cruise. In order to reach a depth of 300 metres we had then to let out about 600 metres of line. As we had not more line on the winch we could not reach deeper while the ship was going at a speed above seven knots. The bottle was hauled up by hand. The depth was measured, at the moment the bottle was closed, by a double depth-meter based on the principle of the compression of air. For taking observations at depths greater than 200 or 300 metres we had to stop. Owing to its handiness, the automatic water-bottle was then generally used, down to 400 or 500 metres. Beyond this limit, the temperatures were taken with the Richter reversing thermo- metres. Two stop-cock water-bottles of my construction, with arange- ment for reversing thermometers, were attached to the side of the line at different depths during most deeper soundings. They always worked well, closed thightly, and gave perfectly trustworthy water-samples. A new reversing stop-cock water-bottle of my construction was much used, on the side of the line or at the end. In order to protect the reversing thermometer against too much heating while being hauled up through warmer water-strata, it is here placed inside the water- bottle, which is to some extent insulated by a casing of ebonite. This precaution seems, however, to be unnecessary with the Richter revers- ing thermometer, even in the Tropics, as its readings cannot easily be _ spoilt by additional mercury being shaken down after the reversing of the instrument. For less perfect thermometers, the arangement may be useful. The water-bottle has a simple construction, and is handy to work. 8 Fridtjof Nansen. By using simultaneously the above mentioned three water-bottles, attached to the line at certain intervals, it was possible to complete a series of deep-sea observations down to 1500 or 2000 metres in a couple ~ of hours. A Pettersson-Nansen water-bottle was used at some of the first stations, but the spiral-spring working the arrangement for the reversing thermometer, then got out of order and could not be repaired on board. | Thermometers and Temperatures. All thermometers used during the cruise were some years old. I tested their freezing-points before we started. They showed no appre- ciable alterations from the corrections found in previous year. All readings of the thermometers during the cruise (except those of the sea surface) were taken with the reading lens of my construction; appreciable errors of parallax are consequently not probable. The surface-temperatures were taken by the Cadets. Most tempe- ratures taken with the automatic water-bottle were read off and ente- red in the journal by the two petty officers Adolf Johansen and N. A. Nilsen. All readings of the reversing thermometers were taken by me. The temperatures of the sea-surface were taken with an ordinary thermometer immersed in water taken up in a water bucket. The thermometers used for the automatic water-bottle were from Gustav Miller, Ilmenau i. Th. They were made of “Jena Normal glass 164”. Their scales had not been specially tested, but as these scales were well made on the whole, and showed, whenever occa- sional tests were made, no errors exceding 0.1° C., the temperatures of the Table may be considered trustworthy as far as the readings go. The three Richter reversing thermometers, always used with the stop-cock water-bottles No. I and II and the reversing water-bottle, had been tested at the German Reichsanstalt in Charlottenburg in March 1909, and had got their corrections determined, as usual in accordance with the indications of the hydrogen thermometer. Their number re- ceived at the Reichsanstalt were: P. T. R. 37544 used in the reversing stop-cock water-bottle; P. T. R. 37547 used in the Pettersson-Nansen water-bottle and in the stop-cock water-bottle No. Il; P. T. R. 37552 ‘used in the stop-cock water-bottle No. I. The temperatures given in the Table have been corrected for the errors of the scale and the freezing-point corrections and, in the ease 7. The Waters of the North-eastern North Atlantic 9 of the Pettersson-Nansen insulating water-bottle, also for the adia- batic cooling. The readings of the Richter reversing thermometers have also been corrected for the thermic expansion of the broken off mercury after the reversion of the thermometer. The latter corrections were computed for each thermometer from the volume of the mercury broken off at 0° C. 2790 2780 §=62770 §=— 2760 §9= 2750 )=— 2740 )=— 2730 = 2720 3500 3540 3520 3530 3540 om. 4° ee I aE aS 7 OM Fa UCC ety 2 Fig. 2. Vertical Curves of Temperature (broken line), Salinity (unbroken line) and Density (dotted line), at Station 3. In curves of temperature and density, a black dot indicates observations with the automatic water-bottle, a ring observations with the Pettersson-Nansen water-bottle, a cross observations with the reversing water-bottle. In the curve of salinity, a black dot indicates salinities obtained by single titrations, a cross by several titrations, an asterisk salinities obtained both _sby titrations and interferometer. The accuracy of the values of temperature thus obtained by the reversing thermometers employed, may in most cases be expected to be within + 0.01°C. The readings of the reversing thermometer No. 37544, used in the reversing water-bottle, exhibit, however, some- what strange irregularities at Station 3 and 4, as is demonstrated by the vertical temperature curves of these stations (see Figs. 2 and 3). The upper parts of these curves, above depths of 400 (Station 4) and 10 Fridtjof Nansen. 600 metres (Station 3), where the temperatures were taken with the automatic water-bottle or the Pettersson-Nansen insulating water- bottle, have regular shapes similar to the forms of the curves of the other stations in the neighbourhood (ef. those of Stations 1, 2, and 5, in Fig. 15), their very regular slopes lying between that of the curve 28-00 2790 2780 2770 2760 2750 2740 2730 «2720 ©2740 3500 3540 3520 3530 3540 : Om. 4° J° o we yi bg 22° 7 ee ange ts 65", N45 a le : Fig. 6. Section I of the Frithjof, July 1910, along the line I in Fig. 1. Explanation and Scales see Fig. 4. The sections demonstrate the gradual decrease’ of the Salinities and the Temperatures during the northward flow of*the water. Salinity. In Amundsen’s southern section, westwards from southern Ireland (Fig. 4) the salinity of all water is above 35.30°%/o. and to a great extent above 35.40°/5,. There are even small volumes of water with salinities above 35.50°/o. It is, however, probable that MY The Waters of the North-eastern North Atlantic. 31 : aC DaB Dad eGoF E~ Ded tee 28V.08. 28.08 F7 -08 Fig. 7. Danish Section of May 1908, along the line H in Fig. 1. Explanation and Scales see Fig. 4. . lower salinities, even below 35.30/) would have occurred in the sec- tion if it had been continued farther westwards. 39, Fridtjof Nansen. In the Frithjof section (Fig. 6), across the Rockall Channel from the shelf north of Ireland, the salinity of the water between the surface and 600 metres is chiefly between 35.30 and 35.37°/99; there is only a small volume of water with a salinity of about 35.40°/o9, 58 o¢ 56 55 7.V1.05 7.05 6.105 6.vI.05 TEST OCET PENS SAE 7 Fig. 8. Danish Section of June, 1905, along the line E in Fig. 1. Explanation and Scales see Fig. 4. of what it is in the Frithjof and there are no other traces of sali- nities approaching 35.50°/9. In Amundsen’s northern section (Fig. 11), chiefly north of the Rockall Channel, the volume of the water with salinities above 35.30°/99 has been much reduced. As the section runs obliquely to the direction of the current, this water has there a greater extension then would be the case in a transverse section, e. g. like the Danish Section F (Fig. 12). The salinities of Amundsen’s section are on the whole comparatively low. There are, however, still slight traces Of salinities above 35.40°/o) at Stat. 22, in 35 and 40 metres. The salinities of the Danish Sec- tion H (Fig. 7), of May 1908, are very similar to those of the Frithjof section: In the two Scottish Sections C and D (Figs. 9 and 10), of August 1910, the salinities are not much lower; but these short sections do not show the westward distribution of the waters of the Irish Current. The Danish Section E (Fig. 8) is also incomplete; but the Section D (Fig. 12) is much longer and demon- strates a great reduction of the trans- versal extension of the water of above 35.30°/oo, to much less than the half section (compare Fig. 12 with Fig. 6); the current is evidently to a great extent formed by water which has a somewhat lower salinity. In the Faeroe-Shetland Channel the waters of the current have still lower salinities. Some salinities of the two Danish sections E and F appear to be The Waters of the North-eastern North Atlantic. somewhat high as compared with those of the Frithjof section and Amundsen’s northern section, the salinities above 35.40°/o) at the Danish Station 53 (Fig. 12) may be especially mentioned. The sali- SoM 25.Viil. 10. ke Ds) 75+ 25 1000 Fig. 9. Scottish Section of Aug. 1910. along the line C in Fig. 1. Explanation and Scales see Fig. 4. SeK Sel SeH ScF 23.vill.40 23.0100. 22. Vill.10 20.Vill, 10 “ s 2.2 + | 73: :67 L AY LSLONE me. R eK eceee L800m. 1400m 93) Fig. 10. Scottish Section of Aug., 1910. along the line D in Fig. 1. Explanation and Scales see Fig. 4. nities at Amundsen’s Stations 23 and 22 (Fig. 11), just north of this station, were considerably lower. From a comparison of the Danish and the Norwegian observations, one might infer that the current has carried more saline water in May 1905, than in July 1910. T Nansen, North Atlantic. Hydrogr. Suppl. z. IV. Bd. his would 5 34 Fridtjof Nansen. be in accordance with the fact that the water of the current wasspro- bably warmer in 1905 than in 1910, as will be mentioned later.’) It has, however, to be considered, that no certain conclusions of the kind © may be drawn from sections where there are such great distances be- tween the stations. Our Frithjof Section I proves how the vertical distribution of salinity and temperature may differ greatly at short distances (cf. Fig. 6, Stations 1, 2, and 3); and e. g. Amundsen’s two _~Stations 22 and 23 (Fig. 11) were not so near the continental slope as 47 18 19 20 §.vil.40 S.vt.100 0 - 6. Vil. 10 4 , ‘0. : J-G ¢ KR IN : Fig. 11. The northern Section of the Fram, July, 1910, along the line B in Fig. 1. Explanation and Scales see Fig. 4. the Danish Station 53 (Fig. 12). There is a remarkable resemblance between the salinities (35.41 and 35.39°/o)) of the latter station and those (35.39 and 35.41°/o5) of the Scottish Station Se. H of August 22nd, 1910, in Section D (Fig. 10). The two stations have perfectly similar positions on the continental slope, the Scottish station some distance south-west of the Danish one (see Fig. 1). These two vertical series of observations may therefore naturally corroberate each other as to the accuracy of the determinations of salinity. But these values of salinity (about 35.40/99) are higher than those found near the conti- nental slope in the Frithjof section, which were about 35.35 and ’) On a previous occasion [cf. Helland-Hansen and Nansen, 1909, p. 32] — it was pointed out that the Danish determinations of the salinities of water-samples taken in May 1903, had a tendency towards giving higher values than the Nor- wegian titrations of samples taken practically simultaneously in the same regions. But this naturally does not involve there being a similar tendency in 1905. The Waters of the North-eastern North Atlantic. 35 35.37°/o0; and according to information that Dr. Helland-Hansen has kindly given me, the latter values agree perfectly with the salinities found by his very careful observations at some stations of the Michael Pod AE Oe Fig. 12. Danish Section of May, 1905, along the line F in Fig. 1. Explanation and Scales see Fig. 4. Sars (during the Murray-Hjort Expedition) of August 5th and 6th, 1910, in the Rockall Channel between the Frithjof stations and the Scottish stations. The highest salinity found by Helland-Hansen in the Channel was 35.37°/o), and that was only observed once near the conti- nental slope. 36 Fridtjof Nansen. These observations have not, however, yet been published. The possibility that the Scottish salinities of August 1910, may to some extent be too high, is not excluded, considering that the Scottish series of observations from the Faeroe-Shetland Channel, taken in the same month, have often somewhat inaccurate values. The Temperature of the Water gradually decreases northwards, as is clearly demonstrated by the sections. Let us first compare the sections from 1910. In Amundsen’s southern section (Fig. 4) the isotherm of the 10°C. descends to 450 and 500 metres. In the Frithjof section (Fig. 6) it is raised to between 50 and 100 metres, while the isotherm of 9°C. descends to 700 and 800 metres. Farther north, in the Scottish Sec- | tions C and D (Figs. 9 and 10) taken nearly seven weeks later, the isotherm of 9°C. is in about 400 or 500 metres, though the water strata above that level have been heated during the summer. In ~ Amundsen’s northern section (Fig. 11) the isotherm of 9°C. descends © to 300 metres at Station 17 west of the Scottish Section D (see Fig. 1); but at the stations farther to the north-east, it lies between 100 and 200 metres. The sections from earlier years exhibit very much the same de- crease of temperature northward. The Porcupine section (Fig. 5) of June 1869, was taken some distance south of the Frithjof section (see Fig. 1, I and P). The temperatures at 250 fathoms (457 metres) of the former section are very like those at 400 metres of the latter. The temperatures at 500 fathoms (914 metres) of the Porcupine section are higher than those at 1000 metres of the the Frithjof section, and the isotherm of 8°C. seems to lie slightly lower. In the Danish Sections H (Fig. 7), E (Fig. 8), and F (Fig. 12), of May 1908, June 1905, and May 1905, there is also a northward de- crease of temperature. But the sections of different years are of course not. quite comparable in this respect, as the temperature of the waters — carried by the current varies from year to year; it is naturally also of importance in what month of the year the sections are taken. Ife. g. the Danish Section H, of May 28—30, 1908, be compared with the — Frithjof section, it is striking that, although it is farther north and was taken almost six weeks earlier in the season, its temperatures are not much lower, the isotherm of 9°C. is in about 500 metres, and the temperature at 1000 metres was even higher than at any of the Frithjof stations to the south. It gives the impression that the current was warmer in 1908 than in 1910. It has, however, to be considered The Waters of the North-eastern North Atlantic. 37 that in the region of Section H, the Rockall Channel is narrower than in the region of the Frithjof section. The northward flowing water may thus be somewhat more compressed in Section H. In the Danish Section F (Fig. 12) the isotherm of 8° C. has very nearly taken the place of the isotherm of 9°C. in the Frithjof section; it descends almost to 900 metres near the continental slope. But as the current was probably warmer in 1905 than in 1910 (see later) the isotherm may not have descended so deep in the latter year as in the former. Fig. 13 represents a longitudinal section along the Rockall Channel (see Fig. 1, Line L) through Station 12 of the Fram (Fig. 4), Stations 3 and 4 combined’) of the Frithjof Section (Fig. 6) the western station of the Scottish Section C (Fig. 9), the two most western stations com- bined of the Scottish Section D (Fig. 10), and Stations 21 and 22 com- bined of the northern Fram Section (Fig. 11). The section has also been continued across the Wyville Thomson Ridge and along the Faeroe- - Shetland Channel, through the two Danish Stations of May 11, 1910,”) the Scottish Stations 19 C and 14 A of May 1910,*) and the Frithjof Station 46. This longitudinal section, along the Rockall Channel, _ demonstrates fairly well the vertical distribution of salinity and tem- perature (also density) along the axis of the Current in the summer of 1910 (June, July, and August). It has, however, to be kept in view, that the observations at the Scottish Stations (Fig. 13, C and D) are taken more than a month and a half later than the others; owing to the heating during the summer, the temperatures of the surface- layers are comparatively higher, and their densities correspondingly lower, than those of the other stations from June and July 1910. Owing to the great variations in temperature and salinity, often occurring at short horizontal distances in the transverse sections of a current (cf. Fig. 6), a longitudinal section may easily give misleading representations as to the distribution of temperature and salinity, if *) The observations at the different depths at these two stations give very nearly the same mean values of temperature, salinity, and density, as the means of _ all Stations 1 to 5, which would naturally have given the most trustworthy represen- _ tation of the waters of the current. | *) See Bull. Hydrogr. 1909—1910. Copenhague 1911, B. 1, p. 46. *) See Bull. Hydrogr. 1909—1910. The values of salinity obtained at the the two Scottish Stations 19 C and 14 A show very great irregularities, which seem to indicate that the determinations have been incorrect, and this is the reason why the shapes of the isohalines (especially of 35.20 and 35.109) are so irregular, differing so much from the shapes of the isotherms. 38 Fridtjof Nansen. the stations through which it is drawn, be not chosen with care. Where there are transverse sections of the current, the most representative E B ry $ Al2 D 2422 et 19¢ tha fe 26.V1.10 . Vii. 40. Viti. 10. 24.V.10 20.40 31-3 : 2 6, Os 9.3 « 10-9 +08 SEO II SSRIS SSL SSCS OSS xx SOOO raratas °S SEN? By a <> eres mY Se 25%, PS cx NSN DC) Ske 0.600% p Wied ee —— . fe i ee ee eee i a ; 45+-05 8 i alk +5025 \ ; 44-05 2000 m 20D0 m. 18 00m. ii — (371-045) (54| 36 ) nig (37,05) Hi . (yi/ AD il Fig. 18. Longitudinal Section from Ammundsen’s Station 12 (A 12) of the Fram, HN H along the Rockall Channel (along the line L in Fig. 1), across the Wyville Thomson nil Ridge, along the Faeroe-Shetland Channel to Station 46 of the Frithjot (F 46). The Mat observations were taken in May, June, July, and August 1910. Horizontal Scale Hi 1: 12,000,000, Vertical Scale 1:13,500. | stations may be chosen (cf. Fig. 13, A 12), or still better the means’ of { several representative stations may be taken, as in Fig. 13, F 3 & 4, DD. and 5B Al <& 22: The Waters of the North-eastern North Atlantic. 39 The best plan would naturally be to take, for each level, the means of the observations at all stations in each transverse section across the current; but this would require complete transverse sections. Our section Fig. 13, is pro- bably fairly representative. It exhibits the northward decrease of temperature and salinity, and the increase of density, which are demonstrated by the rise of the isotherms (the broken lines) of 12°C., 10°C., 9°C., the isohalines (the unbroken lines) of 35.40 and 35.30°/o, and the isopyenals (the dotted lines) of 27.20, 27.30, 27.40, and 27.50°/59. The northward rise of the isohalines proves that dur- ing their northward course the waters in the underneath part of the current are gradually inter- mixed with the underlying strata, which have lower salinities and temperatures. The result is a lowering of the salinity, as well as temperature, of the overlying waters, while the salinity and temperature of the underlying waters may be increased. This may, for instance, be the explanation why, at 1000 metres, _ the salinities are higher (35.25 °/9) at the Scottish stations (Fig. 13, C and D) than at the Frithjof stations (Fig. 13, F 3 & 4) farther south. It might also be expected that the temperatures would be Noe spies Tivos, HEH 97-2 Fig. 14. Danish Section of May, 1908, along the line K in Fig. 1. Explanation and Scales see Fig. 4. higher, which they are not in Fig. 13; at the Stations 1 and 5 of the Frithjof Section (Fig. 6) there were, however, much lower temperatures (6.5° C.) at 1000 metres. It has also to be kept in mind that the vertical circulation during the winter, caused by the cooling of the sea surface, will lower the temperatures directly or indirectly to considerable depths, 40 Fridtjof Nansen. during the northward course of the water-masses. As mentioned be- fore, the vertical circulation in combination with the precipitation, will also gradually lower the salinity of the water-strata; but the steep rise of the isohalines, especially that of 35.30°/o9, may indicate that for the deeper strata this reduction is of less importance than that caused by the intermixture with the underlying waters. The oblique convection currents caused by the unequal cooling of the sea surface in neigbouring regions, as mentioned above (p. 19), may, however, also have some effect upon this northward rise of the isotherms and iso- halines. The comparatively rapid increase of the density of the waters du- ring their northward course, demonstrated by the rise of the isopyenals, is due to the cooling of the sea-surface during the winter and the vertical-circulation thus produced. This horizontal distribution of den- sity with isopyenals rising northwards along the Rockall Channel will naturally have a tendency to accelerate the northward flowing current. The rise: of the isopyenals cannot in this case indicate an eastward ‘movement of the waters, transversally to the section, because the waters must necessarily move through the channel, along and not against the continental slope. Our longitudinal section (Fig. 13) along the Rockall Channel, and the various transverse sections demonstrate how misleading some current representations and descriptions of the movements of the water, really are. I may specially mention the German expressions , Auftriebwasser” and ,Anstauungswasser” which may convey the idea of waters moving upwards and downwards as represented in Dr. G. Schotts sections of the Ocean [1902, Pls. XX VIII—XXXI]. Such ideas might lead to the con- clusion that in the northern part of the longitudinal section of the Rockall Channel Fig. 13, there was an upward movement of cold water from below, while, in the southern part of the section, there was a down- ward movement of warm water from above. The movements must, however, go in the opposite direction; the cold water in the north has a tendency to sink and to be overflowed by the warmer water coming from the south, but which is gradually cooled on the way. In transverse sections of currents, the differences in level of the cold and warm water-strata on both sides of a current, are of course as a rule not due to upward or downward movements of the cold and warm waters, for the strata in the sections may as a rule be very nearly in a state of lateral equilibrium, the differences of level being — simply due to the effect upon the moving waters of the Harth’s rotation. ee ae The Waters of the North-eastern North Atlantic. 4] Where the velocities of the current are decreasing from the surface- layers downwards, the moving strata must naturally slope transversally to the direction of the current, in the northern Hemisphere deepest on its right side, and in the southern Hemisphere vice versa. The isohalines and isotherms of the surface chart and the charts, or horizontal sections, for the depths of 50, 100, 200, 300, 400 and 500 metres (Pls. II—VIII), give an idea of the motion of the waters through the Rockall Channel towards the Faeroe-Shetland Channel. These charts are based upon the observations taken during the cruise of the Frithjof as well as those taken almost simultaneously during Amundsen’s cruise in the Fram, June 20‘ to July 7, 1912. The Scottish obser- vations in August 1910, at the stations marked with crosses, have also been used. The Vertical and Horizontal Distribution of Temperature, Salinity, and Density in Section I, across the Rockall Channel. The trustworthiness of the observations in the section of the Rockall Channel has already been discussed at length above (p. 9 et seq). As was then pointed out, the vertical distribution of density, as given by the observations at Stations 3 and 4, especially at 600 and 800 metres, seems improbable, but on the other hand it is difficult to understand how these observations could be wrong, and besides, there is a certain agreement between them. It is also striking what a close resemblance there is on the whole between the vertical temperature curves of these stations and those of stations taken in the Rockall Channe! in earlier years (see infra, Figs. 31, 33). Fig. 15 represents the vertical curves of temperature at the diffe- . rent stations in the channel, Fig. 16 represents the corresponding curves of salinity, and Fig. 17 those of density. A distinction may be observed between two types of these curves, especially in the temperature and density curves. The temperature curves of Stations 2 and 5 represent the one type; they slope very regularly, and down to 1500 metres they practically concur. The salinity curves of these two stations also exhibit great similarity, as do the density curves. All these curves have, on the whole, very regular shapes with comparatively gradual slopes. The curves of Station 6 belong to the same type; they show comparatively cold water with high density, but with compara- tively low salinity, as might be expected because the station was on the slope of the Rockall Bank and was influenced by the bank- water. 42 ; PaLegjoe Nansen. The other type is represented = the curves of Station 1, on the continental slope, which have much steeper gradients. They show — colder water (bank-water) with a higher density in the top-layers, between — the surface and about 250 metres. But below this level was warmer 04° Sie 6° c Fat 3° oe ee as ZZ? Fig. 15. The Vertical Curves of Temperature at Stations 1—6 in the Rockall Shannel: Black dot denotes observations obtained with automatic water-bottle, ring with the Pettersson-Nansen bottle, cross with the reversing bottle, asterisk with the stop-cock bottles (or at Station 2 the Pettersson-Nansen bottle with beserving thermometer). water with lower densities, but higher salinities, than at Stations 2 and 5. The curves of Stations 3 and 4 belong, on the whole, to the latter — type. The curves of temperature and density of both stations are much alike. Their upper portions, above the level of 600 or 400 metres, slope regularly, at angles between those of the curves of Station 1, and those of Stations 2 and 5. Between 600 and 1000 metres their shapes — The Waters of the North-eastern North Atlantic. 43 are very peculiar, but as regards their average gradients they resemble the curves of Station 1. Near 1500 metres and lower they again approach the curves of Stations 2 and 5. | _ . It looks as if the curves of the latter type indicate a vertical circulation which has given them their steep gradients down to 800 ‘and 1000 metres. They are in shape very like the curves of the Porcu- pine stations of 1869 and those of the Danish stations of 1905, 1906, and 1908 (see Figs. 31—33). _ The curves of the former type 34-90 35-00 35-10 35:20 35:30 35-40 —_ = (the Frithjof Stations 2 and 5) ‘6 LF} exhibit hardly any traces of a Yi ies yertical circulation. It looks as bd A if the cold water from below had Te een lifted sufficiently to almost Assy obliterate the traces of the verti- cal circulation. All temperature and density ‘curves of our stations in the Rockall Channel demonstrate very conspicuously the effect of the heating to which the surface layers, down to about 100 metres, had Nb ‘ «been exposed during the spring and ny the first summer months of 1910. Vt~ -The salinity curves also demon- ‘strate a commencing reduction of the salinity of the uppermost sur- face-layers. This reduction of the . salinity would naturally be much more developed towards the autumn. If we now look at the transverse Section I of the Rockall Channel (Fig. 6, and Pls. IX, X), we see that a Stations 2, 5 and 6 (with the curves of the first, regular type) the isohalines and isotherms rise fairly regularly to comparatively high levels, while the Stations 1, 3, and 4 (with curves of the second type) are near the depressions of the waves of the isotherms and isohalines; but, as mentioned before, the temperature curves of the latter stations have most resemblance to the curves of earlier years. = = SS ~ = > =. —_ a = =) o . \s . ci ~ ¢ x Fig. 16. The Vertical Curves of Salinity at Stats. 1—6. Dots, crosses and asterisks have same meaning as in Fig. 2. 44 Fridtjof Nansen. The Horizontal Motion of the Water. The isopyenals of Section I (Pls. XI and IX) across the Rockall Channel, may give some information about the horizontal movements of the water in this region. Provided that the average direction of the move- ments is approximately that of the channel, and is more or less perpen- dicular to the section, and provided that there was lateral equilibrium " 98.00 27:90 27:80 27-70 2760 2750 27-40 27305 \7iae Vig. 17. The Vertical Curves of Density (ot) at Stats. 1—6. Marks mean the same as in Fig. 15. in the moving waters, the isopyenals prove that the average horizon- tal movement of water through the channel was very slow at the time the section was taken, unless the water at greater depths than 1500 metres flowed with considerable velocity in the same direction; which, however, is hardly probable. The isopyenals of values between 26.70 and 27.30, in the strata — between the surface and 100 metres, run more or less horizontally, and The Waters of the North-eastern North Atlantic. 45 instead of sloping towards the right side of the current they rise to higher levels over the shelf north of Ireland. Consequently, if there was lateral equilibrium in this part of the section, the velocities of the north- wards moving current, whatever they may have been, were not decrea- sing from the surface downwards to below 100 metres at this place, unless there were a drift current, created exclusively by the wind in these upper layers. If, however, near the continental slope (Sta- tion 1), the northward movement was more rapid at 100 metres than near the surface, this would explain the rise of the isopyenals in this region. But the comparatively high densities of the top-layers at Station 1 may also be due to the cooled winter-water from the shelf, which is to some extent hindered from sinking down along the slope by the northward-moving water which, owing to the Earth’s rotation, is deflected towards the right against the slope. The isopyenal of 27.40 has a distinct inclination from about 100 metres over the Rockall Bank to about 640 metres at Station 1 near the continental slope on the right side of the current. Putting aside the great and peculiar undulations of this isopyenal, its inclination from the left towards the right indicates that the water of these strata was, on the whole, moving slowly northwards with velocities which decreased downwards from the level of about 250 metres. The rise of the isopycnal of 27.40 above the Rockall Bank is evidently due to the comparatively high density of the cooled winter-water of the bank (cf. above p. 25). This water is probably sinking slowly down along the side-slopes of the bank in the section, and the rise of the isopyc- nals in this region cannot therefore be taken as. a certain indication of any horizontal movement, because the water-strata have probably not attained their lateral equilibrium near these slopes, e. g. at Stations 6 and 8. But at Station 5 the gradients of the isopycnals are probably not much affected by the sinking water nearer the slope. The curves in Fig. 17 show that the vertical distribution of density was almost identical at Stations 2 and 5, below the level of about 250 metres. Above that level, the densities were somewhat higher at Station 2 than at Station 5. Provided the current in this region was chiefly created by difference of pressure, and not directly by the wind, that there was approximately lateral equilibrium in the section, and that the velocities of the horizontal water-movements were decreasing from 250 or 300 metres downwards, we may thus infer that, on the average, there was no transfer of water in a northerly direction between these two stations; 7. ¢. if in one part of the section, @ g. 46 Fridtjof Nansen. between Stations 4 and 5, the water was moving northwards this must — have been compensated by a corresponding southward movement in- another part, ¢. g. between Stations 2 and 3. Judging from Section I, the northward transport of water must then have occurred along chiefly the eastern side of the channel, between Sta- tion 2 and the continental slope. It is in fact just what has been repeatedly observed in the Nor- wegian Sea, vz.: the sea currents run with their greatest vel- ocities along the edges and slopes of the continental shelves; inside the edges their velocities are very small, and the velocities also decrease rapidly seawards from the slope. This was especially noticed along the edge of the submerged shelf off northeastern Green- land [cf. Helland-Hansen and Koefoed, 1909], off Norway |ef. Helland-Hansen and Nansen, 1909], and in the Faeroe-Shetland Channel. On the Calculation of the Velocities of Ocean Currents. Before we attempt to compute the velocities of the Irish Current through the Rockall Channel, it might be desirable to say a few words in general about the possibility of computing the velocities of the currents by means of the distribution of density in transverse vertical sections. In the case of currents caused by pressure-gradient and the Harth’s rotation alone, and running at all depths parallel to the coast which is on the right hand side of the current,*) it is clear, if the current shall be stationary, that in a transverse vertical section of the current the component of the pressure-gradient perpendicular to the coast must at each level be exactly equal to the deflecting force due~ to the Harth’s rotation, pressing the moving water against the coast. If the velocities of the current decrease downwards, as they generally do in the sea, the deflecting force due to the Earth’s rotation is so much greater in the upper strata than in the lower ones, as the hori- zontal velocities are greater, because the deflecting force is proportional — to the velocity of the water. If there is lateral equilibrium, the pressure- gradient in each stratum must consequently also be proportional to the velocity of the water, in order to counterbalance the deflecting force. — The consequence must be that the upper layers are so much more — piled up against the coast (or depressed near the coast which means the same thing) than the Jower ones, as their velocities are greater. *) We discuss here the conditions on the northern hemisphere only. The Waters of the North-eastern North Atlantic 47 The layers will thus be depressed on the right hand side of the current and will slope more or less towards the coast. This fact was used by Prof. V. Walfrid Ekman in 1901 for computing for me the probable difference between the velocities at the surface and at 200 metres in a section from Norway to Bear Island across the North Cape Current [see Nansen 1901, p. 160; 1902, p. 285]. Dr. B. Helland-Hansen [1905, p. 4 et seq.| has by a modification of Bjerknes’s formula developed this method of computing the velocities of currents into a very convenient form. The method is, however, not quite adequate to the computation of the differences of velocity at different depths in currents caused directly by the wind, unless the motion be parallel to the coast at all depths in the current, which, however, is evidently very seldom the case. Owing to the influence of the Earth’s rotation, the direction of the motion in a drift-current, caused directly by the wind, will deviate to the right of the wind direction (in the northern hemisphere), and the directions of the motion of the water will differ more or less in the different strata downwards. As has been proved by Prof. V. Walfrid Ekman [1905, 1906] this will be the case to some extent even if the water of the current be stored up against a coast on its right hand side. It is, however, obvious that owing to the friction, the tangential pressure of the wind on the water-surface, and of the water-strata sliding on top of each other, will, as it were, attempt to move the water in the direction of the wind, and these tangential pressures will offer-some resistance against the deviation of the current due to the Earth’s rotation. If the current be stationary, the deflecting force, due to the Harth’s rotation, must consequently in this case be counterbalanced by a certain component of the tangential pressure (which will increase with the angle of deviation) in addition to the pressure-gradient due to the storing up of the deflected water against the coast. In other words, the pressure-gradient cannot in this case be as great as in the case when the deflecting force is not counteracted by any tangential ‘pressure, and a computation of the difference of the velocities of the current at different depths must give too small values if it be based only upon the pressure-gradients, 7. e. upon the inclination of the strata. If the coast is on the left hand side of the current, the conditions will be much the same as above described, only that the water of the cur- rent will be sucked out from the coast instead of being piled up against 48 Fridtjof Nansen. it. The strata will slope towards the right hand side of the current — in the same way, and the pressure-gradient will be the same. If there is a line of resistance on the side of a current in the open sea, offered ~ by water moving in directions different from that of the current, this line of resistance may have approximately the same effect as a coast, provided that no water from the current is allowed to flow across it, or no water flows across it into the current. 3 If the density of the strata of the sea increases much down- wards, the directions of the motion at different levels will deviate less from each other and may even approach uniformity (cf. Ekman 1906). As there will then be less tangential pressure to counteract the deflecting force due to the Harth’s rotation, the gradient of the strata will be greater, and a computation of the differences of velocity at different depths, based upon the pressure-gradient, will consequently give more accurate values. | It would carry us to far away from our subject to go into more detail in this respect here. What has been said above may be sufficient to show that a computation of the differences of velocity vertically in a current, based upon the inclination of the strata (or the difference of density) in a transverse section of the current, will not be able to give more than the lower limit of the possible values of these differences of velocity, if the current be created more or less directly by the wind; but the greater the differences that exist verti- cally between the densities of the strata, the nearer will the values thus computed come to the actual ones. A simple method for computing the above values may be saad in the following way: If in a transverse vertical section of an ocean current the mean density of the strata between the surface and a certain depth be lower in one part of the section, on the right hand side of the current, than in another part, on its left hand side, the sea- surface must consequently be slightly higher in the former place. Ii a be the slight gradient thus produced, the pressure gradient is G sin a, where G is the acceleration of gravitation. Let us take two stations, 1 and 2, in such a vertical section. Station 1 is more on the right hand side of the current than station 2. Let qi: be the mean density between the surface and the depth h at the one station and q, the mean density between the same levels at the other station, and gq, >q:. Let d be the distance between the two stations, v the component of velocity of the current at the surface, — directed perpendicularly to the direction of the section, and w, the cor- The Waters of the North-eastern North Atlantic. 49 responding component at the depth /. If there is lateral equilibrium in the section, the deflecting force of the moving water, due to the Earth’s rotation, should be equal to the pressure-gradient. We have then 2 (Uo — vp) o Sin gp = G sina (2 — qi) *h gic d ee a WAG 3 -d a sin p (1) sin a= Vo rae Cn — where @ is the angular velocity of the Earth (—0.0000729), and @ the geographical latitude. If G be expressed in centimetres and h and d in metres, the value of v)—v, will be in centimetres per second. Instead of computing the difference of velocity between the surface and a cer- tain depth, one can naturally also compute in the same manner the difference of velocity between any two levels in the sea. One _ has, however, to keep in view that the values obtained only refer to com- ponents of the motion perpendicular to the direction of the section; and moreover if the current be more or less directly created by the wind, the values obtained are only possible minimum values. It should also be noticed that above the fact was not taken into consideration that the coefficient of thermal expansion of sea-water is much increased with pressure, and thus some inaccuracy in our com- putations will arise, if there are great differences between the temperatures at the same levels at the two stations. Corrections for these differences of temperature could of course be introduced, but then our method would hardly be simpler than the more accurate method of computation based upon Prof. Bjerknes’s theory, for which he has arranged convenient tables [Bjerknes, 1910]. By drawing the vertical density curves of the two stations in the same manner as the curves in Fig. 17, our above method can be much simplified. With a planimeter one can then easily measure the area between the two curves, and between any two levels. By multiplying the quantity thus obtained by a constant k (which may most simply be found empirically once for ever) and dividing by dsing, one obtains directly the difference between the velocities at the two levels. If the scale of the ordinate system of the density curves be so arranged that along the ordinate 2 cm 4100 metres of depth, and along the abcissa 2 cm = 0.0001 of density (7. d. 0.1 of o), and the area between the curves be measured in square centimetres, the constant k will be = 16.381, if d (the distance between the stations) be expressed in kilometres. If the area between the curves be a, we have then Nansen, North Atlantic. Hydrogr. Suppl. z. IV. Bd. 4 50 Fridtjof Nansen. a:-16.381 Vo — Up, = ~ d sin The computation may naturally he still more simplified by aranging a table giving the value of ew for each degree of latitude. Let us now return to our section across the Rockall Channel, and by means of the above method we may attempt to compute the velo- cities of the current running northwards along the continental slope, between stations 1 and 2. Let us first consider the water-strata between the depths of 250 and 750 metres, where we have observations at both stations. The mean density of these water-strata should be about 1.027384 at Station 1, and 1.02744 at Station 2,*) or if we measure the area between the two density curves as mentioned above, we find a=11.2 cm’. The distance between the two stations was about 38.8 kilometres. Computed by means of the equations (1) or (2) the velocity component of the northward movement of the water per- pendicular to the section should then have been 5.7 cm per second greater at 250 metres than at 750 metres. It is not probable that the water at 750 metres, was at rest — cm/sec, . if : (2) ; between Stations 1 and 2; the gradients of the isopyenals in the section - (Pls. IX and XI) rather indicate that the water below this depth was also moving northwards along the continental slope. The curves of density of the different stations (Fig. 17) also indicate that the water cannot have been at rest at 750 metres, and hardly at less than 1500 metres, because the differences of density are too great. If we assume that the density curve of Station 1 would have had a shape approaching that of Station 3 (see Fig. 17) if it could have been con- tinued downwards over the continental slope, and moreover that the water of the deeper strata, down to 1500 metres, were flowing north- wards, and that the velocity was decreasing downwards to about 0 at this level, the velocities of the northward current may then have been, at the depth of 1000 metres 9.8 cm/sec., at 750 metres 17.3 cm/sec., at 500 metres 20.9 cm/sec., at 250 metres 23.0 cm/sec., and at 100 metres below the surface 22.2 cm/sec., which is about 10.4 naut. miles, or 25 kilometres, in 24 hours. The mean northward velocity of the 1) For the computation of the latter value the observations taken at 400 metres (Station 2) at 6,30 p. m. (July 6. 1910) were used. If the observations taken at the same depth 25 minutes later (6,55 p. m.) be used, the mean density, will be higher. The Waters of the North-eastern North Atlantic. 51 whole body of water between 100 and 1500 metres should then have been about 14 cm per second, 7. e. 12 kilometres, or 6.5 naut. miles, in 24 hours. It has, however, to be kept in view, that the above computations are very unreliable, as there are no observations near the continental ‘slope deeper than 750 metres, and we have to find the probable den- sities at lower levels by a hypothetic continuation of the curve of Station 1 in Fig. 17. Another difficulty is the fact that the two ob- servations taken with an interval of 25 minutes at 400 metres, at Station 2 (see the Table), seem to indicate that the vertical distribution of density was not stable in that region. The first observation at 400 metres, at 6.30 p. m. (July 6, 1910) gave 8.93°C., and 35.34°/9, hence a density of 27.42, while the observation only 25 minutes later (at 6.55 p. m.) at the same depth with the same instrument gave 8.38° C. and 35.31 °/oo, hence a density of 27.49 (which may be some- what high as the salinity of 35.31°/o) is possibly a few hundredths too high). Both observations were taken with the Pettersson-Nansen water-bottle and a “Nansen-thermometer”, and I can see no possibility of a mistake as to depth or temperature. Two hours earlier a tem- perature of 9.5° C. (with 35.37°/o and o; = 27.35) was observed at 215 metres, and an hour earlier 8.27° C. (with 35.255°/o9, and 27.46) at 600 metres. In those 25 minutes there should thus have been a change in the water at 400 metres which equalled a vertical displacement of about 160 metres, if we may judge from the apparent decrease of temperature with the depth, according to the serial observations. Our computation of the mean density of the strata between 250 and 750 or 1500 metres will therefore be somewhat unreliable. If we use the density obtained by the last observation at 400 metres at Station 2, the mean density of the strata will be higher, and the computation will give a greater velocity at 250 metres. Let us, however, assume that the values of velocity found above are fairly correct, and that the water between 100 metres and the surface was also flowing northwards between Station 2 and the con- - tinental slope, but with velocities decreasing upwards. We might then estimate the mean northward velocity of the whole body of water between the surface and 1500 metres to be somewhere about 12 kilo- metres in 24 hours. The distance between Stations 1 and 2 was 38.8 kilo- metres. Between these stations there should accordingly have been carried about 698 cubic kilometres of water every 24 hours, é. e. about 29 cubic 52 Fridtjof Nansen. kilometres hourly, or 8 million cubic metres of water per second.’) But a calculation such as this is naturally very uncertain, being based upon an altogether inadequate number of observations. It was pointed out above that in the case of currents caused more or less directly by the wind, the values of velocity found by the above method could only be considered as minimum values. It seems hardly possible, however, that the current through our section across the Rockall Channel has to any appreciable extent been caused directly by the wind, for in that case it could not have been limited to such a narrow belt along the continental slope, but would rather have been extended in breadth over the whole area affected. The descent of the isopycnals at Stations 3 and 4 may indicate that there has been some kind of vortex-movement in this central part of the channel. Provided that there has been lateral approximate equi- librium in the section, the gradients of the isopyenals of 27.40—27.71 might indicate that between Station 2 and Station 3 the water was moving in some southerly direction, at least between 100 and 1000 metres, and the velocities of the movement were decreasing with the depth from a maximum at about 200 metres. Near the surface there is a rise of the isopyenals near Station 3, which may indicate a decrease of the velocity of this same movement, from the level of the maximum upwards towards the surface. The distance between stations 2 and 3 is about 76 kilometres. Let us assume that the density curves of stations 2 and 3 in Fig. 17 are fairly correct, although there are no observations at the depths between 1000 and 1500 metres. Provided that the water was approximately at rest at 1500 metres, we then find by our above method the following velocities of the southward movement between these two stations, along components directed perpendicularly to the section: at 100 metres below the surface 13.7 cm/sec., at 250 metres 13.6 cm/sec., at 500 metres 12.9 cm/sec., at 750 metres 11.2 cm/see., and at 1000 metres 6.0 cm/sec: Between Station 4 and Station 5 the water may again have moved in a northerly direction. As the area between the density curves 1) Dr. B. Helland-Hansen [1907, p. 9] computed the volume of water carried by the current through the Faeroe-Shetland Channel in August 1902, to be about 4 million cubic metres per second. But the velocity of the current was then sup- posed to decrease downwards to 0 at about 600 or 700 metres. The observations of May and June 1904, gave for the same current through that channel a volume of © 4.5 million cubic metres per second [see Helland-Hansen and Nansen, 1909, p. 169}. The Waters of the North-eastern North Atlantic. 53 of stations 2 and 3 is very nearly the same as that between the curves of stations 3 and 5 we may conclude that on the whole very nearly the same volume of water is carried northwards between stations 3 and 5 per second, as is carried southwards between stations 2 and 3. The above rough computation presupposes that there was lateral equilibrium in the section, which, however, may be very doubtful, and the values obtained are therefore unreliable; but they may none the less give some idea of the nature of the motions. It appears consequently to be probable that there has been some vortex movement in this sea. In the middle of the channel the vortex- movement has had an anticyclonic direction, by which in the central part of the vortex, at Stations 3 and 4, the water with a nearly uni- form density of about 27.40, has been pressed down to great depths approaching 1000 metres. It is obvious that in a sea, where the differences of density vertically are so small, even slow movements*may be able to stir great water- masses, and the effects will be extended to much greater depths than where the densities of the strata differ more. In such a sea it is even possible that great vertical vortex movements (with horizontal axes) may occur. It is possible that the occurrence, at Station 3, of water of 917°C. and 35.34°/,, at 800 metres, lower than water of 8.70° and 35.27°/5) at 600 metres, if these observations be actually correct, may be explained by such vertical vortex-movements. It should be noticed that there was an interval of two hours between the two ob- servations (see the Table). At 400 metres (Station 3) 9.18°C. and 35.35°/o9 were observed at 2.39 a. m. (July 7, 1910). This was appa- rently the same kind of water as the observations gave two hours and a half later (at 5.05 a. m.) at 800 metres. It may seem difficult to believe that there is not some error in these observations, e.g. by the reversing water-bottle used ad 800 metres having been reversed at some higher level, but as was pointed out above (p. 12), there is apparently a certain system in all observations at Stations 3 and 4 from 400—1000 metres. And the two observa- - tions, mentioned above (p. 51), at 400 metres at Station 2, taken with an interval of 25 minutes only, might indicate great vertical move- ments in this sea at that period, or great differences at short distances horizontally. A great horizontal vortex-movement in the Rockall Channel may also be indicated by some of the charts for different depths, e. g. for 400 and 500 metres (Pls. VII and VIII). The chart for 100 metres 54 : Fridtjof Nansen. (Pl. IV) might indicate that the water of 35.41 and 35.42°/ at about 100 metres at Station 4 and west of it (see Section I, Pl. X) has been carried so far westwards by an anticyclonic vortex-movement. Disregarding these possible vortex-movements and other details, the general result of our study of the vertical distribution of density in Section I, may be that the northward flow of the water of the Irish Current through the Rockall Channel, — which also forms the Atlantic Current through the Faeroe Shetland Channel — is chiefly limited to a narrow strip along the continental slope on the eastern (right) side of the channel. The velocities of the current may have their maximum at about 200 or 250 metres, and are decreasing from that level downwards as well as upwards. The surface layers may probably be carried along with the underlying water-strata, but their movements are much influenced by the changing winds, ete. The sections, mentioned before, north and south of the Frithjof Section, give similar representations of the vertical distribution of den- sity, which is on the whole increasing from the south, from the southern section of the Fram (Fig. 4), towards the north, to the Scottish Sec- tion D (Fig. 10), the northern section of the Fram (Fig. 11), and the Danish Section F (Fig. 12), as was pointed out above (see p. 40, and Fig. 13). In the southern section of the Fram (Fig. 4) the isopyenal of 27.30 has a somewhat similar eastward inclination, towards the right hand side of the current (west of the Porcupine Bank as well as east of it), as the isopyenal of 27.40 in the Frithjof Section. The rise of the iso- pyenal over the banks is evidently due to the winter cooling of the bank waters, as mentioned before. The isopyenal of 27.40 in Amund- sen’s Section (Fig. 4) lies much lower, but is evidently sloping east- wards. The isopycnals of values lower than 27.20, near the surface above a depth of 100 metres, run more or less horizontally, rising slightly over the banks, The Porcupine Section of 1869, and the Danish Section H, of May 1908, across the Rockall Channel, give hardly any indications of a northward movement of the waters. In the Porcupine Section (Fig. 5) the isotherms (and consequently also the isopyenals) do not descend appreciably deeper on the eastern side of the channel than on its western side. It seems, however, probable that this would have been somewhat different if there had been more stations, with a greater number of observations, near the eastern continental shelf. + ee 8 The Waters of the North-eastern North Atlantic. 55 In the Danish Section H (Fig. 7), north of the Frithjof Section, the densities at the Station Da C, in the middle of the channel, are prac- tically the same as those at the same levels at Station Da D, near the Rockall Bank, and the isopycnals are nearly horizontal between the two stations. Hence we may conclude, that there has probably been no northward transport of water of importance through this part of the channel. As in the Frithjof Section, the northward flow of water must therefore have occurred nearer the continental slope on the eastern side of the channel; where, however, we have no ob- servations. All three sections, the Porcupine Section, the Frithjof Section, and the Danish Section H, consequently indicate that the current through the Rockall Channel must on the whole be slow and that the north- ward flow of water is chiefly limited to a comparatively narrow belt along the continental slope on the eastern side of the channel, 7. e. on the right hand side of the current. This is probably also the case in the Danish Section F (Fig. 12), where the isopyenal of 27.50 has taken the place of the isopyenal of 27.40 in the Frithjof Section. The steep inclination of the isopycnal eastwards from the Faroe Bank is evidently to some extent due to the cooling of the water over the bank during the preceding winter, and the heavier bank-water was probably still sinking down along the slope. The isopycnals. of 27.40 and 27.30 are here near the surface, above a depth of 50 metres. If we assume that between Stations 52 and 53, separated by a distance of 109 kilometres (59 naut. miles), the vertical distribution of’ density was approximately as given in Fig. 12, and that the water at 1100 metres was practically at rest, we find that the velocity of the north-eastward motion of the water (7. e. perpendicularly to the section) should be about 3.5 cm/sec. at the surface, 2-6 cm/sec. at 250 metres, 2.4 cm/sec. at 500 metres, 1.6 cm/sec. at 800 metres, and 1.0 cm/sec. at 900 metres. The mean velocity of the whole body of water between the surface and 1100 metres would then be about 2 cm. per second, _ or 1.7 kilometres (0.9 naut. miles) in 24 hours. Between Stations 52 and 53 about 204 cubic kilometres of water should thus be carried north-eastwards in 24 hours, or about 2.4 million cubic metres per second. The above computations are of course very unreliable as they are based upon a much too inadequate observation material. The _ values obtained are evidently too small. It is, however possible that some water may also be carried north-eastwards west of Station 52. 56 | Fridtjof Nansen. The high densities of the surface layers of this section (Fig. 12) as compared with those of the Scottish Section D (Fig. 10), the Frithjof Section, and also those of Amundsen’s northern section (Fig. 11) are chiefly due to the much earlier date of the observations, they being taken in the last days of May, instead of in August and thé . | beginning of July, when the sun had heated the surface layers a great . deal more. } Owing to the oblique direction of Amundsen’s northern section (Fig. 11) we cannot form any very definite conclusions from the shape of its isopyenals as to the velocities of the current. The vertical distri- bution of density is, however, similar to that of the other sections. The isopycnal of 27.40 has an intermediate position at about 200 metres, rising to 100 metres in the north-eastern part of the section which crosses the Danish Section F (Fig. 12). Owing to the earlier season of the latter section this isopycnal has there a still higher position. In the Danish Section K (Fig. 14) north-eastwards from the Rockall Bank, the isopycnals of 27.40 and 27.30 have very much the same po- sition as in Amundsen’s section (Fig. 11); they are very nearly in the same depth over the bank (cf. also the Danish Section H, Fig. 7, and the Frithjof Section, Fig. 6), but north-east of the bank the isopyenal of 27.40 descends somewhat deeper in Fig. 14 than in Fig. 11. The conclusion we arrive at from our examination of the diffe- ee a ee rent sections of the Rockall Channel is consequently that, Atlantic — water with comparatively high salinities keeps flowing slowly north- eastwards along the continental slope off the west coast of Ireland and Scotland. VI. The Deep-Water of the Rockall Channel, partly from the Mediterranean Sea. At a depth of 1500 metres, at Station 2a, near the continental slope on the Irish side of the channel, a temperature of 4.08° C. and a salinity of 34.97°/o9') were observed. This water thus approaches 1) By a titration of this sample, made in August, 1911, Mr. I Grondahl found a salinity of 34.90°/ 5. As the value seemed rather low, Dr. Helland- Hansen kindly made two titrations of the sample in January 1912, and found 34.97 and 34.99°/o. He writes January 8, 1912, from Bergen that there is little water left in the bottle, and some evaporation may have occurred by the repeated | opening of the bottle, but it cannot be much. On May 17*, 1912, I examined the sample with the interferometer and found a salinity of 35.005°/o. There was then ’ The Waters of the North-eastern North Atlantic. 57 , the type of the regular deep-water of the North Atlantic, which, near the sea-bottom, has temperatures approaching 2° C. and salinities about 34.90 or 34.92°/o) [ef. Helland-Hansen 1911, 1912; Brennecke 1911; Nansen 1912]. We may therefore assume that the Atlantic __ deep-water also occurs in the Rockall Channel, but it has there some- what higher temperatures and salinities, owing to admixture with warmer and salter water. Near the continental slope, at Station 2a, this mixed water has been lifted to a higher level (1500 metres) than in the middle of the channel, at Stations 3 and 4. The rising of the cold deep-water along the continental slope to much higher levels than in the central region of the sea basin, is a feature which has been regularly observed off the west coast of Norway. The deep-water with salinities between 34.90 and 35.00°/o) and temperatures about or somewhat lower than 4° C. may possibly form a continuous layer across the Rockall Channel at depths of about 1600 and 1700 metres or even more (cf. Figs. 15 and 16, and Pl. IX). It is, however, a most remarkable fact that at greater depths, at 2000 and 1900 metres, near the bottom at Stations 4 and 5 (see Pl. IX) much higher salinities and alsa higher temperatures were found. Six titrations of the water-sample from 2000 metres at Sta- tion 4, gave a mean value of 35.38°/o9.1) Four titrations, and several _ determinations with the interferometer, of the sample from 1900 metres at Station 5 gave 35.31°/o.°) The temperature was at 2000 metres 5.41° C. and at 1900 metres 4.83°C. I can find no possibility of any mistakes in these cases. If by some unaccountable accident the water- bottle had been reversed in both cases at some levels between 200 and 600 metres, while being hauled up, this might account for the only a small quantity of water in the bottle. Helland-Hansen’s determinations are very accurate, as are my own, but, considering the probability of a slight eva- poration, perhaps even before Helland-Hansen’s first titration, I have accepted 34.97°/o9 as the most probable value. ) The salinities found by the titrations were the following: December 1910 d4by 1. Gréndahl) 35.35°/o,, March 1911 (by Helland-Hansen, but titration hurriedly made) 35.34°/o), Aug. 1911 (by I. Gréndahl) 35.38 and 35.43%, January 1912 (by Helland-Hansen) 35.38 and 35.40/99. There was too little water left in the bottle to give accurate results by an examination with the interferometer. *) The sample was kept in a bottle holding 500cc. The titrations were made by Helland-Hansen in January 1912, and gave: 35.30, 35.32, 35.29, and 35.33. In May 1912 I examined the sample with the interferometer and found a salinity Of 35.31%. 58 Fridtjof Nansen. high salinities, but then the observed temperatures would be much too low, for they ought then to have been above 8° C. at least, even if — it be assumed that the water-bottle was hauled up so quickly that — the thermometer did not get time to aquire the temperature of the — stratum before it was reversed. There is no possibility of the water- bottle having leaked, the stop-cocks were perfectly tight during the whole cruise, and no drop of water could possibly get in or out of the closed bottle. The water with these high salinities at 1900 and 2000 metres, underlying water-strata with a much lower salinity and lower tempe- - rature, must apparently have been intermixed with water from the Mediterranean Sea, carried into the Atlantic by the undercurrent through the Straits of Gibraltar. The comparatively warm but heavy water of this outflowing undercurrent, forming an intermediate layer in the eastern Atlantic near the Spannish Bay was first discovered by Dr. W. B. Carpenter [1871; 1872; 1874; Carpenter and Jeffreys 1871] dur- ing the Porcupine-Expedition in 1870. In spite of its comparatively high temperature (above 10 or 11° C.) this water has a high density, owing to its very high salinity, above 36°/o or even partly above 36.5°/o9; it, therefore, sinks down algng the continental slope outside the strait until it reaches strata with similar densities, and forms there, between 800 and 1400 metres, an intermediate layer, with a secondary maxi- mum of salinity. This intermediate layer extends over great areas in the eastern regions of the North Atlantic, and has been traced for — great distances along the continental slope’). The water spreads only a short distance towards the south-west along the African coast, more widely westwards towards the Azores [cf. Helland-Hansen, 1912, p. 296], but its widest extension is northwards along the continental slope, as might be expected owing to the deflecting effect of the Harth’s rotation. During the slow northward movement the high salinity of the water of this intermediate stratum will be gradually reduced by admixture with overlying and underlying water. By admixture espe- cially with the latter, and to some extent by contact with the colder water, the temperature will also be lowered, and the density will be 1) Cf. Buchanan, 1885, p. 966; 1888, p. 194; Buchan, 1895; Schott, 1902, p- 185; Thoulet (Prince of Monaco), 1902, 1905; J. N. Nielsen, 1907, p. 21; W. Brennecke, 1909, p. 71, Pl. 20; Schmidt, Nielsen, and Jacobsen, 1910, p. 248; Johan Hjort, 1911; Helland-Hansen, 1911; 1912, p. 292 et seg. See also Krimmel, 1907, p. 338 etce., 1911, p. 616 et seq. The Waters of the North-eastern North Atlantic. 59 somewhat increased’). Some part of the water will thus gradually sink to lower levels. This is obviously the origin of the water with the remarkably high salinities at 1900 and 2000 metres in the Rockall Channel. During the Prince of Monaco’s cruise in the Princess Alice in 1903, three vertical series of temperatures and water samples were taken in the Bay of Biscay. The temperatures observed are very in- teresting, and the salinities observed, if they were correct, might seem to prove that even the deep-water, at depths of 4000 and 4500 metres, in the Bay of Biscay, is intermixed with water from the Mediterranean Sea. But the values of specific gravity and salinity found, are unfor- tunately not trustworthy. According to the values given by Prof. Thoulet [1905, p. 86 and 88] the following observations were made”): Stat. 1504 Stat. 1556 Stat. 1563 Depth 13. VIII. 1908 7. IX. 1903 10. IX. 1908 in Metres | 44934’ N., 4939’ W. | 45°27° N., 6905’ W. | 44943’ N,, 6924! W. t° Cc. | Soo t° Cy S loo . t° Cc. | S°lo0 500 10.7 35.65 | 11.4 | 35.65 12 | 35.56 1000 9.8 59 9.9 BD 10.0 AG 1500 6.3 sis) 6.5 59 6.6 39 2000 4.3 5D 3.2 30 2500 3.2 58 3.0 52 3.9 21 3000 2.8 43 3.2 AD 3500 2.7 BT 1.8 B34 4000 25 34 4500 A ly 12 These values of salinity for the deep strata, at depths greater than 2000 metres, are more or less improbable. LE. g. water with tem- peratures of 2.8° C, and 3.2° C. cannot possibly have salinities of 35.43 °%o and 35.45% 9, as observed at 3000 metres. Let us assume that the water has been formed by an intermixture of the Mediterra- nean water, carried through the Straits of Gibraltar, with the regular *} As was mentioned above (p. 17), by intermixture of waters with approxi- 'tmately the same density but with different salinities, the mixed water will have a higher density than any of the original waters. In the above case the Mediterranean - water, will also be cooled by contact with surrounding waters, and the density will be still further increased. *) The salinities are computed by Knudsen’s Tables from Thoulet’s specific _ gravities (s 3). His values of Halogen give much higher values of salinity, and do not at all agree with his specific gravities. 60 _ Fridtjof Nansen. deep-water of the North Atlantic. Let us moreover assume that the — values of the former water be 10.8° C. and 36.15°/o) [ef. Helland- Hansen, 1912, p. 294], and those of the latter 2.4° ©. and 34.92%. A simple computation will show that an intermixture of these two — waters giving a salinity of 35.44°/o), should have a temperature of © about 5.9° C., provided that the temperature be not changed by. con- tact with other water. There is, however, no conceivable agency which could lower the temperature of the water to about 3.0° 0. Even if it be assumed that the water at 3000 metres in the Bay of Biscay was produced by a direct intermixture of the deep-water of the © North Atlantic (of 2.4° C. and 34.92°/),) with the Mediterranean water — of 12.87° C. and 38.39°/,, in the Straits of Gibraltar [cf. Helland- ~ Hansen, 1912, p. 293], which would be the most favourable condi- tions imaginable, for producing cold water with a high salinity, — the intermixed water with a salinity of 35.44°/) would still have a temperature of about 3.9° C. Though these determinations of the deep-water of the Bay of | Biscay might appear to support my view as to the origin of the deep- water of the Rockall Channel, they have unfortunately to be given up, as the values of salinity are obviously much too high. | Some very important vertical series of temperature and salinity — were, however, taken in the northern region of the Bay of Biscay by — the Danes in 1905 and 1906, and on the German expedition with the Planet in January 1906 (sée Fig. 18). Some of these observations are given in the following table (see p. 61). | At the Planet Stations 2, off Portugal (see P 2 in Figs. 18 and 19), the water at 800 metres (10.7° C., ‘35.79 °/o9) was very simi- ~ lar to water found at the same level in the Spanish Bay where 10.4° C. and 35.73°/o9 were observed at Station 3 of the Planet Ex- pedition [Brennecke, 1909, p. 51], and about 10.7° ©. and 35.90°/o9 at Stations 29 and 30 (see Fig. 18, MH 30 and Fig. 19, MH 30) of the Murray Hjort. Expedition in 1910 [cf. Helland-Hansen 1912, . p. 294]. At the Danish Station Da I in 46° 30’ N and 7° 0° W (see Fig. 18, — Da I) the same kind of water occurs between 800 and 1200 or even — 1500 metres, and it can be traced towards the north-west as far as — the Danish Station Da III in 50° 16’ N and 12°55’ W (Fig. 18, Da III), © with comparatively high salinities at between 800 and 1200 metres. The many vertical series of observations taken in the same region south- — west of Ireland- by the Irish Oceanic Survey, in 1905—1910 [ef. Bull. Trimestriel, ta! also perhaps emus traces of this: Kind of @ 4 - ‘p U0TZLYS WOIJ SUOTVVAIOSGG (; ‘'p. pue ‘eg “eZ SUOT}L}gG WOIf SUOT}EAIOSGO Jo sonyea uo (, ‘G pure [ SUOTPLYS Fe OPVU SUOTZVAIOSGO OY} Jo Moye, ole soNn[eA UREUT oY} SeTjOW ONS pue sovyIns useMjoq syydep Ig (, ‘YSty 00} yeYMouos ATqeqoid ‘eyeMoovUT 9q 0} po}e}s st ainzerodme} OY, “M ,0Z o@T PUY “N ,GoGG Ul ‘90GT 9UNL pugs UO UOTVe}s YstULG oY} Woy ore sUOT}eAIESGO ese], (; 61 S0°SE TOE L°S LOVE 93 (,8¢°¢S | (pF (c00°¢S | (e FF (66°FS | (0°F LOPE | 68'S LOFE | O'S sores | OF Toe | et goes | LP zeae | 9'¢ aecg | a9 egag | ag 9T'Gg | Sg Ieee | L'9 LyGg | 92 Le pce | 98 63Ge | 6L tras | 18 29'Gs | 0G 99°c8 | T6 Luce | L'6 (06'EE | (92 8° GE 68 66°GE 68 6E°SE LS 6F'E G6 OL'SE OOT OL°SS VOT - 6L'98 L‘OT O8'SE L’8 68'S 9°6 6G'GE Vol So°aé 9°OT LG'Gé 9°01 PEGE 06 gocg 6°8 bras O'Or 67'SE GOT 8Q°as SO 69'GE OT LEa¢ G6 6g°cE ETE T9°SE SIT 96°96 L'6 CE'as ¥'6 9F'Sé 9°01 a°GE Guk T9°Gé LTT OL°SE O'sT 66°46 Vet PE'es Tel OS'ce. | O'el 19°G€ SET 67° SE OTT P9°SS 8ST FS°as PST The Waters of the North-eastern North Atlantic. 19S 9 o} 10S ‘0 of OS | Oe aa: Oi, £. YoS: Poets te PO aera i Merce eae , M/S¥06 "N/0%09S | M SE06 ‘N/GPoSS |M/SG0ZT ‘N/9T00G | MLOFoST ‘N Fo8F| AM Fo ‘N Z%09P | M/O0oL ‘N OL09F |A\TSoIT ‘N 6lolF | SOW O16T ‘A ‘9 | 906I “IA ‘E2 9061 ‘LA °¢ 9061 ‘LA ‘h 9061 ‘19% | 906K ‘XE ‘TT 906 ‘I ‘8z ae P (,Jolyziag AI &d Il %a Il 8d L‘d I eq 3'd 62 Fridtjof Nansen. water; but as a rule these series do not descend deeper than about — 1000 metres, and the values obtained seem often somewhat puzzling, 2000 Kilometres 100 0 0 4 v4 3 * 500 6 7 8 9 1000 naw. miles Fig. 18. Bathymetrical Chart of the North Atlantic. Isobaths are drawn for depths of 200, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, and 500 metres. Depths greater than 3000 metres are denoted by three different degrees of shading, 3000—4000 metres, 4000—5000 metres, and more than 5000 metres. At the Danish Station IV in 55° 45’N and 9° 35’W and at the Frith- jof stations, there are no distinct traces of this intermediate layer of saline water, though the comparatively high salinities of 35.29%, at 1000 metres at the Danish station, and 35.23°/5) at the Frithjof Sta- ~ CO co al © ~ ©O Co ero 2) 3 gs qf SS oD) wie ~~ $22 Ss oa me a 2S CO SEap 3 ictal 5 5 a, is =| m a = as2 a 22% a % es 5 a5 § = D eo \ : E ce , at x \ a o BS ean 8 m\2 — DM ee \] ~ 4 mM ~ an Ax . AS \\ 3 (eb) . en) qj 5 \) Y Bios] eA a. \ a ra ~ Ra Ss AAS 2 © 2 = AN S) K R\S A os 8 S C7 ® 4 ~ oP] = KS 73 = é BS 5 ~ as eke S al =| % a= ree : Bs 5 es} o abe S | — ps SS ° 2 <) ”M es obey fa op) A 2 £5 8 aoe = D> = 2 = = SSS : OS V 1 a see so x OS \ ® (eb) 8 $ see 2 $ = PS 2 8, Rd: poe se NS \ 3 cont a S > oP >" ose SS aS x KO 2 age > > 4 nD ESS Xp S ee SS Ss : “x > ee Sexe Soy: S| — ns} ee Ss SS So os y = — ae SSS So os $ S 3S ae SS se ‘oo : in fy ; ss Sef Ke = — oD ae ae ee ahs: xe 3 eS SS 55 Sos = a ae ee ae} 23 ee SS S55 CO NS? SSS fence Xx SoS Ss << KS ores _. ae PSS SS a SS q : DS ie Ss SSS ya SSS XK SA seseses Sos Sh Sos SS ‘o) pA Sess SSS Sp _— CO oe Ce + x SSS s ~ Po) ees Sos ISOS nt * cos SS Sees eS SSS bs S58 Ses fo) _ : Psscse Fi eee n S Ss oe ISS k esate ON M2 wee Ss 1x SS Ss be ss =e Se _ 58 es _ ; | Sy | Bo ee oY o — NS 2

40 i if Moe 81 OF mb 054-89 71X89 07*-8 Sex SS / 03x189,-0. x:89A0-4x-99 oo oD = Fig. 51. The Observations of Temperature and Salinity at different depths (in metres) at Stations 35—48, introduced in a section according to the intervals of time be- tween the observations, and regardless of the distances between the stations. The hours from 6 p. m., on July 18, to 8 a. m. on July 20, 1910, are marked along the sea-surface. A ring (at the foot of the Figure) denotes upper meridian passage of the moon, a black disc lower meridian passage. be a few hours after the passages of the moon, when they might be expected to occur (cf. the Danish observations of May 1910 [Knudsen, 1911)).: : In this manner the height of the ,waves’ of Sections IV and V may have been increased; but these ,waves” cannot have been merely tidal phenomena, as we know no instances of waves of such dimen- sions being thus formed. Moreover, at Station 41 was the summit of 116 Fridtjof Nansen. | is a ,subsurface wave’, but on the surface the salinity was at the time unusually low (34-98°/o9), and this cannot be explained by any verti- cal oscillation, but easily e. g. by horizontal vortex-movements having carried water with low salinity to that locality. In the region of Sta- — tions 42—44 there was a body of water with high salinity (above — 35-20°/o9) near the surface. This agrees well with the occurrence of the trough of a “wave” at Station 43, but the occurrence of this — saline surface layer cannot easily be explained by any vertical oscil-_ latory movement. What the “waves” of Section V actually represent, whether they - are due to horizontal vortex-movements or other movements, is still | somewhat difficult to decide, as the movements of the water in this — region appear to be very complicated. In order to attain to a more definite conception as to.the possible relation between the tidal wave and the “waves” of the equilines in the sections, I have examined 14 Scottish sections across the Faeroe- Shetland Channel, taken from August 1902 to June 1905 (see Helland- Hansen 1905; Robertson 1905, 1907; Bull. de Résult. ne Copen- hague). In ear sections there were well developed * waves” , and in most cases the observations at the summits of the “waves” were taken between two and three hours after the meridian passages of the moon, | while the observations coinciding with the deepest troughs of the waves | were taken as a rule between 8 and 10 hours after the ole of | the moon. In six sections the “waves” were not well developed, although » | the four sections were taken at the full of the moon or shortly before; but it has to be admitted that in most cases the observations of these sections were not taken at hours (after the passages of the moon) when the summits or the troughs of the tidal waves might be expected — to have passed the stations. | In a few cases, however, troughs of waves were observed at times when there should have been crests if the waves had been tidal waves. At Stations Sc. 13 on December 10, 1902, and Sc. 19B on June 26, 1905, there were deep troughs, though the observations were taken about 2 hours and 3 hours after the passages of the moon. But these stations were on the continental slope on the east | side of the channel, where the strata may always be expected to be: much depressed owing to the north-eastward current and the deflecting force due to the EHarth’s rotation. 7 The Waters of the North-eastern North Atlantic. 117% In the southern Scottish section across the channel, of August 1904, there was, however, a distinct trough of a wave at station Sc. 19B, near the middle of the channel, although the observations were taken between 2 hours before and 2 hours after the passages of the moon, when one might expect to have been nearer the crest of the tidal wave. It is not easy in this manner to arrive at any definite conclusion as to the relation between the “waves” of the sections and the tidal wave, and a more thorough study of this important problem Has to be postponed to a later occasion. The general impression received by our investigations above, is none the less that the tidal wave has some influence upon the “waves” observed in the sections, the greatest’ dif- ference in height between the crests and the troughs of the latter waves being abserved when the observations coincide with the tide- period. It has, however, to be kept in view that, the question is much complicated by the horizontal vortex-motions and other motions of the water in the Faeroe-Shetland Channel. It is to be hoped that when the observations of the four simulta- neous Scottish and Norwegian Sections across the channel, of August 8—15, 1910, have been published and discussed, we shall know more about the nature of these phenomena. Helland-Hansen and I have already compared the. many observations of 1910 and other years, we have found that the question is an extremely difficult one; and our impression is that there are often very active vortex-movements or similar movements in the channel, by which detached bodies of water with different salinities may be formed. The steep inclination of the isopyenals of 27.60, 27.70, and 27.80 from Station 41 towards the slope off the Faeroe Platform indicates that the Atlantic water running south-eastwards between Stations 37 and 38 of Section IV, continues to some extent its course along the slope into the Faeroe-Shetland Channel. As Section V has a westerly direction, it probably crosses this current obliquely, and this may to some extent be the reason why the inclination of the isopycnals are less steep in this section than in Section IV. The isopyenals of 27.50, 27.40 etc. above 100 metres have a nearly horizontal course westwards from Station 41 (see Pl. XVII). This may indicate either that the water of these top-layers does not run south-eastwards with ~ a greater velocity than the underlying strata, below 200 metres, or _also that the direction of the surface current has been nearer to the direction of the section. 118 Fridtjof Nansen. Provided that there was lateral equilibrium in the section between — Stations 40 and 41, that the direction of the current formed an angle of 60° to 70° with the direction of the section, and that the water had no motion near the bottom, at 450 metres, at station 41, we find by the method described above (p. 49) the following velocities in centi- metres per second in the current between stations 40 and 41: M Depth in metres Surface} 100 | 200 | 250 | 300 400 Bates 0 and 450 Velocity in cm/sec. | 12.0 | 14.1 | 12.1 | 9.7 | 6.2 | © | 8.7 From a rough calculation we thus find that about 0.96 million | cubic metres of water should be carried southwards between station 40 — and 41. This is less than half the volume of water carried south- eastwards along the slope between stations 37 and 38, to the north- west of stations 40 and 41. If this be correct, me must conclude that a great deal of the water flowing south-eastwards between stations 37 — and 38, is carried away in some easterly direction before it reaches stations 40 and 41. On the Shetland side of the channel the water between the sur- face and 700 metres, or deeper, was obviously running with considerable velocities north-eastwards along the continental slope between Stations 45 and 46. The water over the continental shelf at Station 48 has evi- dently had very little motion, as is generally the case over the shelves, and we find here as usual that the water near the bottom, at depths — of 100 and 150 metres, is heavier than the water at the same levels over the continental slope. It seems probable that this heavier water is the winter-water still remaining near the bottom on the shelf. Provided that there was lateral equilibrium in the section between stations 44 and 47, that the mean direction of the north-eastward — current has formed an angle of about 70° with the direction of the © section, and that the water had no motion at 700 metres (which is — very doubtful), we find the following horizontal velocities between — stations 46 and 47: RE eee, —————— ane § — 9 4 Depth in metres Surface} 100 | 200 | 300 | 400 | 500 between Velocity in cm/sec. | 27.4 | 23.6 | 22.0 | 17.8 | 90 | 84 | ae Between Stations 46 and 47 the velocities of the current were — slower, and between stations 44 and 45 there was very little northward — motion. : Re The Waters of the North-eastern North Atlantic. 119 From .a rough calculation I have found that the north-eastward | current along the continental slope between stations 44 and 47 carried away 4 million cubic metres of water per second. This agrees remarbably well with the volumes of the same current computed for August 1902 (4 million cub. m./sec.) and for May and June 1904 (4.5 million cub. m./sec.) [see Helland-Hausen, 1905, p.9; Helland-Hansen and Nansen, 1909, p. 169]. It has to be kept in view that all the above 1 pats 0k of the velocities of the currents, and of the volumes of water carried by them, are based upon the supposition that there was lateral equilibrium in the sections, and that consequently the slopes of the isopycnals were exclusively due to the horizontal motion of the water and the deflecting force caused by the Earth’s rotation. But this supposition is hardly correct for, as was shown above (p. 117); the “waves” or undulations of the equilines in the sections are probably also to some extent influenced by vertical motions (oscillations) of the water strata which may either increase or decrease the apparent gradients of the isopycnals in the sections. On the other hand we have supposed that the water had no motion at the depth of 600 or 700 metres. This may be very doubtful. If the water at this depth was flowing in the same direction as the overlying strata the computed velocities of the current would have to be increased accordingly. In the central part of the channel there has Seas been a vor- tex-movement, such as has also been found in earlier years. The water between Stations 44 and 43 has probably been moving rapidly in a southerly direction at all depths between the surface and 500 or 600 metres, while between Stations 43 and 41 the water has been moving in an opposite direction. _ An interesting feature in Section V is the occurrence of a great body of water with salinities between 34.90 and 34.86°/o), which was tarely observed in the Scottish-sections across the channel further south. This is evidently the Arctic water of what Helland-Hansen and I [1909] have called the “tongue”. XIII. The supposed Bank north-east of the Faeroes. A sounding of 373 metres (204 fathoms) was recorded at Sta- tion 38 of the Norwegian North Atlantic Expedition, of July 17, 1876, m 63°1' N. Lat., 3°58’ W. Long. [cf. Mohn, 1887, p. 45, Pl. Ij. 120 Fridtjof Nansen. This solitary sounding seemed to indicate the existence of a bank far out in the deep sea north-east of the Faeroes. But as the existence of this bank was never indicated by any other soundings, and as a number of soundings taken by the Michael Sars along the northeastern edge of the Faeroe submerged shelf (7. e. between the Faeroes and this supposed bank to the north-east) indicated a regular steep slope from the edge of the shelf towards the oceanic deep (at least as deep as beyond 600 metres [cf. Nansen, 1904, Pl. XXIII]), I always considered the existence of this bank somewhat doubtful, but having had no opportunity of examining it, I considered it most correct to draw the bank in the bathymetrical charts [see Nansen, 1904, Pls. I and XXIII, ef. also Helland-Hansen and Nansen, 1909, PI. J]. In order to get more trustworthy information about the bathyme- trical features in this important region where the waters of the East Icelandic Arctic Current and the Atlantic Current, running north of the P Faeroes, enter the Faeroe-Shetland Channel, the homeward course of the Frithjof was directed to the locality of Stations 38 of the Norwegian North Atlantic Expedition, and from that place towards the Faeroes. The following soundings were taken: Station | N. Lat. W. Long. Depth - | | | 62° 58‘ 4°07‘ 1050 metres | no bottom 35 62.956: 3° 43! 1240 , | no bottom 36 62° 48/ 4° 10/ 1300 > i 37 62° 40‘ 4° 35/ 780. te 38 62° 33/ 5° OI’ 500 39 62° 24.5/ 5°27! BOT These soundings seem to prove that the bank does not exist, at least not with the extent and in the locality hitherto assumed. The first sounding above should have been nearly in the same locality as the sounding of 1876, but it has not been introduced in the chart Fig. 52. The latitudes and longitudes of our soundings may be con- sidered as very trustworthy, as we had bearings of the Faeroes at Station 39, which agreed well with our dead reckoning and our astronomical observations. , : I have discussed the matter with Prof. Mohn, who has carefully re-examined all data regarding the sounding at Station 38 of July 17, 1876, but without finding any indications of a mistake, as to depth — or locality. The position was computed by dead reckoning, but as they had left the Faeroes the day before, the weather being good, and had q The Waters of the North-eastern North Atlantic. 121 taken only two stations (Stations 36 and 37) in the Faeroe-Shetland Channel on the way, there does not seem to be much probability of any great mistake in this respect. Fig. 52. Bathymetrical Chart of the Sea north and north-east of the Faeroes. Depths in metres. Soundings in upright figures by the Frithjof 1910. If, therefore, we have to accept the depth and locality of Sta- tion 38, 1876, as approximately correct, the only explanation seems to be that the sounding has happened to hit some isolated small cone ris- ing above the bottom of the deep sea somewhere to the north of our soundings. Table, _ giving the Observations taken on board the Frithjof, July 6%—21*, 1910. 1st Column. Observation-Station’s Number. 2nd Column. Date and Hour (local time) of the Observations. 3rd Column, North Latitude. 4th Column. Longitude West of Greenwich. The last nine surface-observations taken on July 20—21, 1910,were taken East of the Greenwich Meridian. 5th Column. Depth in Metres. A line under the number indicates bottom. 6th Column. Instrument used. B= Bucket used for surface-water: the tempera- ture was taken with an ordinary thermometer inserted in the water of the bucket, the observations were made by the Cadets. A=the Automatic Insu- lating Water-Bottle. PN,=the Pettersson-Nansen Insulating Water-Bottle with the Nansen Thermometer No. P. T. R. 37550. PN, =the Pettersson-Nansen Water- 122 Fridtjof Nansen. Bottle with the Richter Reversing Thermometer No. P. T. R. 37547. RB=the 4 Reversing Stop-Cock Water-Bottle with the Richter reversing thermometer No. ' P.T.R. 37544. I—Stop-Cock Water-Bottle with the Richter reversing thermo- meter No. P. T. R. 37552. II =Stop-Cock Water-Bottle with the Richter reversing thermometer No. P. T. R. 37547. | 7th Column, t®°C. The corrected Temperature (Centigrade) in situ. 8th Column, So. Salinity per mille. An asterisk after the number indicates — that several titrations were made of the water sample. i after the number in- — dicates that the sample was examined with the Lowe Interferometer. 9th Column, ot. Density (i. e. (s = a 1) 1000) at the temperature in situ when the pressure is reduced to one atmosphere. Depth | Water- +E * Metres | bottle S loo July 1910 6, M 55%. 28% 0 F%00% 0 B 10.7 34.138 | 26.16 2,.00.a,m. | 56° 32’ | 7°25’ 0 Z 12.6 81 34 Bo 3 25 A 94 85.12 | 927,12 ee 55 ; 0 165 27 B00, 10 . 118 34.80 pene 4.00 , bs ° 35") .9@ bot 0 B 9 65 35 BOB, 19 A 12.3 35.11 63 Dr hy 60 : 9.1 .29 27.35 Otis 48 : 2 29 33 6.00, 55° a9 | SP 16" 0 B 12.8 10 26.53 rh ae 28 A 11.2 34 | 27.02 8,00. .5 BH. 42" i BRAT” 0 B 12.9 05 26.47 OO, 60 A 9.2 33 27.36 OS Tits 9 ; 12.7 075 | 26.53 AAEY 88 B 9.25 32 27.35 TO00: - Gb° 46") oy: 0 B 12.8 10 | 26.53 61, 28 A 9.51) 38 27,35 TL". 65 ‘ A .B5 35 10°" 5 120 3 5? Bh, ene] oss 160 = 657 37 32] N bb? 48". | "9°25" 0 B 13.0 22 | 26.58 0.17 p.m. er ait 200 A 9.4 36 27.36 1 SUS ss mae tie 300 : A 37 37 BON, vies aay 400 § 3 85 37 1.30), fe bie 600 PN, 16 35 40 amogie a We ote 750 PN, 8.96 34 A2 00 0 B 134 21 26.51 4,00 , 55 DL uiieoe 41‘ 0 = 5 35 58 mY ee 27 A 12.3 | 84 hie 60 10.3 36 | 27,20 cent Jia 114 2 9.7 36 .30 Oe 215 ‘ 5 37 35 5.45, 55° 63’ | 10° 00° 600 PN, 8.27 .255 46 9 6.00 , wy hens nO” 0 B 13.2 345 | 26,64 BO 5. ie * 0 400 PN, 8.93 84 | 27,42 Ov is mee » on 400 3 38 31 AQ 1) The journal has 7.5°C. which is probably an error for 9.5° C. The Waters of the North-eastern North Atlantic. 123 Date Depth | Water-| 45 P r * > ade Metres _| bottle uit S*o0 ik | 3 Eitan stan July 1910 | | 6, 8.00 p.m. | 55° 54’ | 10° 10! 0 B.) | we 35.30 | 26.60 Qa a, Scy ek 1000 | PN, | 6451)| .17*.| 27.66 Ot, ri Peet 1500 4 4.082) | 34.97* .79 10.00 55° 56’ | 10° 20/ 0 B | 18.23 | 85.32 | 26.61 008. ; 10 At | 130 36 69 10, 39 : 12.2 39 87 BY, 95 . 9.8 36 | 27.29 38 180 : 4 35 BD M 55° 59’ | 10° 49° 0 B | 13.0 26 | 26.61 M 2 Rts hag 20 aed L187 29 69 7, 0.15 a. m 35 5 B .30 £78 40 , 94 e 9.8 Sue 1) 37.29 BET.» 150 , 9? 35 26? 200 , | 56°02" | 11°03! 0 Ba! 129 29 | 26.65 wy. 20 A 5 29 3 ao =| 56°03’ | 11° 10! 400 PN, | 9.18 35* | 27,39 3.09 ,, Tr ae 600 a 8.70 .27* 41 3 oe es xis 1000 RB 26%) 19% 42? 7 hols 1500 : 4.13 00% 82 a oot. Neate! 0 B, |, 1338 28 | 26.67 5.05, a yr tes 800? | RB | 9.17? .34*?| 27,39? Gin. | 56°05’ | 11° 18’ 0 Bui | 12:8 29 | 26.67 00 , ae bee 20 A 6 29 ae 6.07 , 40 ry Bee 345 88 2, 62 i 9.7 35 =| 27.30 STR, 135 : 5 34 32 Sie, | 56°08" | 11°.38" 0 Be. -|.130 33 | 26.67 ors, mee ayes 16 (nee BD .80 Oh, 20 reap abe: 1345 91 40 , 47 Sh aO.T B38 | 27.14 be, 80 ‘ 9.8 38 30 Da.» 140 i & 36 30 10.00 ,, | 56°11’ | 12° 03! 0 BY | 130 35 | 26.62 03, 20 AAP ber BT .88 1, 49 ww | 0.3 Boi | 2922 wa. 107 . 9.6 AL 36? 57 ) | 210 ; 44) 37* 37 tio, | 56°13" | 12°13’ | 402 af B5* 40 37 Ye gee 600? | RB 55? .B5* 33? Bete m.| 5 . |. » |: 1000 alt (828 23% | (AB a» Lae os tae BOO 4 4,90 .04* 715 10 “ae ae: 2000 y 5.41 38* 97 N ves 0 B. | 13.4 345 | 26.60 2.00 p.m. | 56°13’ | 12° 13‘ 0 5 9 36 50 1) The Nansen-Thermometer of the insulating water-bottle gave 6.41°C., not allowing for the adiabatic cooling. *) The Nansen-Thermometer of the insulating water-bottle gave 411°C. not allowing for the adiabatic cooling. 8) The journal has 9.34 (9.3)° C. = 9.269 C. The 9.34 is probably an error for 8.34. *) The journal has 8.4°C., but this is evidently an error for 9.3° C, 124 Fridtjof Nansen. Date | Stat. Depth | Water- and Hour | N. Lat. | W. Long. P POG. 0 No. he: 8 Metres | bottle ey 8°00 July 1910 | | N, £00p em, | G6017") | 2° 38" ) B 14.9 35.41 ZO: bs, 19 A 12.8 RS) Ni vo eae | 48 - 10.87 .385 pos Se 105 y 10.1 42 oS oer 150 : 9.7 30 6.00 , Ho" 237) |) 13°03" 18 Fs 12.6 3D LOA, 45 s 14 355 20° 5, 104 ES 10.1 35 1) ane 180 us 9.7 P| Cr, 0 B 13.8 OMA iss 567 27/0) aso 19 450 A 8.8 34 ais, gs ate 600 II 40 30 oA eh Minin 1000 RB 6.51 17% 5 8.14 ” ” ” ” >] 1400 II 4 50 .O1*! . 14 ” ” ” ” ” 1 900 RB 83 sa 1*" DD me ay » on 202 A 9.2 30 .00 ” ” ” ” ” 0 B 13 6 [ .08]? 10.00 , DG?-29" | FZ9.30" 0 7 4 30 At 3 ae 21 A 12.4 28 ll , 49 { 10.2 Ot 25 102 " 9.6 36 oN eae 165 4 ‘Ge 45 M 56°.34° | 18° 52! 0 B 13.2 .28 SpOO aM. |. gs) tg ae 600 II 8.33 .26* 40 ” ” ” ” 2 400 A 6 Bly 6 OD ” ” ” ” ” 200 ” 9.2 4 1.05 ” ” ” ” ” 100 4 6 9) 15 ” ” ” ” ” 50 ” 10.2 Rf: 25 b) ” ” ” ” 20 y mb Bs | oo 2:00". 56° 36’ | 13° 58’ 0 B 13.2 Bi OO «5 56? 40" wi da? Ze 0 s 12.7 .26 OORe 19 A S| .265 21) oe 60 by 10.6 ol Gey’ 102 . 8.7 305 x35 145 z “| .295 6.00 , 56° 46’. | 14° 47’ 0 B 12.8 ot Ni? eee 22 A 11.9 32 By i: aos | 50 ‘ 9.6 30 oa 100 > 8.9 Be; | AA 170 - 6 .26 LOT sy 56° 50’ | 15° 07’ 250 eo fe | | | 2 | 7 (5 5,{ hea ee ee 140 A 8.4 A! PGES Sat i Onis a 230 : 26 |i ae .20 ” ” ” ” ” 54. ” 9.2 .30 i aa ae oe eae 28 “ 11.8 .30 10.00) 5 56° 55’ | 15° 18 0 B 12.6 255 his ee 18 A a - 29 oO 56 Pe 9.4 ‘DO, a5 oe 2 5 34 11. OOt a. | Sp S a 34 N B79 Oa h15° 87" | 0 B 12.9 .26 The Waters of the North-eastern North Atlantic. 125 Date Stat. r Depth | Water- 0 0 s and Hour | N. Lat. | W. Long. Aikicas | bottle t S "loo ‘ July 1910 | 8, 11.55 a. m. Pe se: A 11.9 35.31 | 26.87 N 50 : 1?! 30 | 27.01? 0.15 p.m. 100 . 9.7 B32 270 ao 190 : 3 34 35 moe! §6| 5T°10' | 16° 00! 0 B 13.1 30 | 26.62 05 , it a Aveta 400 A 8.6 295 | 27.44 8 Cie mi edrn: tet 200 : 9.0 30* 38 ee ee Goon [PM | B40 |} a8 48 . ie At SUG be 900 RB 7.95 20 AT 7 ae | 100 A 9.4 .40* 38 ae 50 f 6 35 31 3.00 » 25 f 10.3 B34 18 4.00 57° 12’ | 16° 18! 0 13.7 33 | 26.52 ts ae 20 A 11.4 ae)» 50 ‘ 9.4 32 | 27.32 ae 100 : 3 B4 a 150 r sil 30 B34 Gee. | 57°19’ | 16° 45/ 0 12.5 .B2 | 26.76 a oo 2), ee 20 A i 32 8 a | 50 x 10.8 315 | 27.08 — | 98 | 9.4 34 34 . ae 150 rl i B4 37 48, 57° 22’ | 16° 52‘ 390 a ae 33* 45 ga, Sa, pits | bee 270 ‘ 9.05 26" ht 85 Gr A. aay Nes 1000 RB 7.16 18*i| 58 OC. :, a, ae ie 600 Il 8.55 28% A4 8.00 , 57° 23’ | 169 59! ) B 12.7 28 | 26.69 10.00 , by og" .17° 25" 0 ; A 26 73 a « Ae Fae 25 A aie 26 87 8). | 50 d 9.6 O60 )| Manet a 100 05 26 33 a 145 1 Sl .30* 36 M 57° 33’ | 17° 53! 0 12.0 27 | 26.82 M - ANY ae 17 A 114 255 92 9, 0.09 a. m. 50 n 9,3 26 | 27.29 : ae 100 bs; .26 B31 a | 190 : iS Si 32 > | 22 i 11.3 26 | 26.94 a7 55 ‘, 10.8 DA OF 02 7 . |: | 95 : 9.2 31* | 35 m8, | 57°38’ | 18° 20° 0 B 11.75 28 | 26.87 3.00 , | 57°40’ | 18° 29° 600 Il 8.25 25 | 27.46 10 m, ah TE a 1000 RB 6.70 Get 1 62 22, coat é 400 Il 8.37 1255 A4 400 , | 57°40’ | 18° 30/ 0 B 11.75 27 | 26.87 6.00 , | 57°45’ | 18° 58/ 0 ” 8 32 90 00 , LaAns QM 20 A 5 31 94 ae | 57° 46/ | 18° 59’ 50 A 9.8 28 | 27.22 5 ee 95 3 2°) .28* 32 *) The journal has 12.1° C., which is obviously an error, possibly for 11.1% C. *) The journal has 8.2°C., but it should obviously be 9.2°C., 126 Fridtjof Nansen. Depth | Water- Btat. and Hour | N. Lat. | W. Long. ¢? C S "loo oO, No. ee Metres | bottle July 1910 | | ) 9, 6.30 a. m. to A 9.11) | 35.29* | 27.35 8.00 , 5° biP | AGO 24 0 B 11.9 30 26.86 0, 20 A 10.44) 26 27.10 a6; 50 x 9.9 a; 100 n A 27% 28 40 165 ao ae o4 0:35", | or? Doe Poe aes 600 | I 8.25 235, 45 2 M a es eee 1000 RB 5.64 .09** .70 11 Bt 5 ee: ag 380 A 8.75 .26 39 45 ot ie eS 300 e 9 Zi 87 10.01 3 ene x 200 ¢ 9.2 31* .B5 .00 579 54‘ | 19° 492’ 0 B 11.9 28 26.85 na 100 A 9.5 31 27.30 23 48 J 10.1 30* 19 +) ae 22 if 11.5 31 26.94 N 58° 02‘ | 20° 24! 0 B Pe TED, 30 A 10.8 .20 99 0.05.p. m 52 ~ a7 17 27.15 is, 95 = 3 .18* 23 cou! g 150 4 1B) 18 25? BAK)” 58° 05‘ | 20° 46’ 0 B Th 23 26.96 70D, 25 A 10.8 19 98 204 , 50 : 15 23 DT AD “uG > 105 Fi 9.1 23 30 oD se 150 . o* 29 4.00 _ ,, 68° 10° 7-91946! 0 B 10.8 15 26.95 00 , 22 A 14 97 TO 45 k 9.9 21 27.15 20, 100 ,) 8.9 .20 OL =) oe 145 ‘a 6 22 oe 0), 58° 17’ | 210 ase 0 B 10.6 165 | 26.99 MOO" 55 17 A .63 17 99 06 , 50 f 9.05 20 27,29 i a 105 ‘ 8.5 23 .40 | 30 140 iM 5 24 AL i 185 F 6 26 AL AO? 100 ‘ 9 23 $3] 50 55 . 10.1?) .20 10? 55 20 4 9 22 26.98 8.00 , bs? 225 | 22° OL 0 B 142 21 94 12 ie é nye Zia 9004) I 7.40 b* 27.51 ‘ E a ot cae 10904) II 6.55 O8*i 58 7 i Pane Pt oe 1380*) RB 4.58 | 34.97*i ao 1) The journal has 8.1° C. and 9.4° C., but it should obviously be 9.1° C. and 10.4° C. *) The journal has 8.15° C.; but it should probably be 9.15° C. 8) The journal has 11.1° C., which may be an error for 10.1° C. 4) 1500 metres of line were out, and the instruments were placed at 1000, 1200, and 1500 metres, but owing to the drift of the ship the line had at the sea- — surface an angle of about 40° with the vertical. The depths have therefore been reduced to the probable values of 900, 1090, and 1380 metres. The Waters of the North-eastern North Atlantic. 127 W. Long. July 1910 9,9.00 p.m. | 58° 22’ | 20° 01/ || 400 I 8.44 | 35.22 | 27.41 eo ks, Uk 600 II naa 42 A S00 RB | 7.54 | 15 49 10.00 58° 30’ | 21° 50! 0 Bl 49 19 | 26.78 M 58° 43 | 21° 30! 0 4 ‘4 21 88 10, 0.10 a. m. 20 A 6 a ea: 20 50 i 9.9 255 | 27.18 Ses 95 ‘ 9 26 19 ae 175 : a 255 | 32 2.00 » | 58°59! | 21° 10! 0 Bi, |. 113 21 | 26.90 ke, 18 A 4) 165 9 IDs 51 , | 10.6 25 | 27.06 20: 100 9.1 255 | 32 45 ese: Mids LOB) 1 peatel (tae 01] 400 , | 59°10’ | 20°51° 0 11.2 11 | 26.84 05 29 A | 108 14 94 ie 45 } 8.9 17 | 27.29 30 , ia ae 9 19 '30 os Mes os | 196) tee dl | feetty 6.00 , | 59° 22’ | 20° 30: Brak a2 01 | 26.77 Se ae 19 A | 1085 his 9 10 50 : 9.05 221 | 27.30 i, 100 i 8.9 20 31 ae . 145 { 9 18 30 8.00 , | 59°34’ | 20° 19° 0 Bev) 412 12 | 26.85 ‘ a 20 A | 102 19 | 27.08 * ae 45 i 9.8 17 14 Cie 100 : ‘1 18 26 a 200 f 8.8 20 '33 10.00 > | 59°50! | 19° 54! 0 B | 109 17 | 26.95 ears) Wo) 21 A 6 17 | 27.00 08 * 45 i 9.8 23 18 a, 102 ; 3 ‘21 17 a. 145 ; 8.8 23% ‘35 11.10 , | 59°58’ | 19°48’ | 1000 RB | 5.977 Ovi | .67 SS a: 600 Iq | 812 17 ‘42 a 400 I ‘43 165 2S N 60° 02 | 19° 40 0 B+ 44 16 | 26.85 2.00 p.m. | 60° 16’ | 19° 20' 0 t 2 20 91 00, 20 A | 109 20 '97 09 ; 48 i 9.9 165 | 27.12 - ie 100 ( ‘4 165 '20 50 145 i 8.9 18 ‘30 4.00 , | 60°28! | 19° 01! 0 Bo 6.0 17. | 26.93 00, 20 A | 10.7 16 97 ae. 48 i 9.9 165 | 27.12 ee 100 i BB) ily okt 30 2: 160 i 7 17 ‘32 ; 6.00 , | 60° 42’ | 18° 49° 0 B | 11.75 18 | 26.80 ; 05 > 18 A | 10.75 17 97 507% 45 ; 9.9 17 | 27.12 25° 100 j 8.2 18 40 | 35 160 ‘ 7.75 19 45 Stat. 0. 14 15 and Hour 1 agus July 1910 10, 8.00 p.m. ” ” ” ” N. Lat. 60° 54° ” ” 61° 26" 61° 39° 61° 45’ 62° 04! G2° 13° 62° 20 Fridtjof Nansen. W. Long. Uy pas) DAA ke 16° 59 16° 39° Depth Water- Metres | bottle ~~] 1 > >is + 3 ps 11.2 e ray OO, Pe, OS i BER Date 1) The journal has 9.7°C., it may probably be an error for 7.9 C. 2) The journal has 10.5° C., but this is evidently an error for 9.5° C. The Waters of the North-eastern North Atlantic. 129 Date and Hour | N. Lat. | W. Long. | 1t. Depth | Water- t? Cc 0 . | Metres | bottle S "loo *t July 1910 11, 6.00 p.m.| 62° 46‘ | 15° 13° 0 B 10.6 35.19 27.01 oe . 20 A 43 le a 085 10%, 55 cs 8.5 17 .3D 24 +, 100 a ee | 165 41 ab ys 200 fe 7.89 18 45 7.23 \'» 62° 54’ | 15° 01° 22 8 8.95 16 ot 205 1; Bey in a ee 53 ” 81 18 31 35 ? ” ” ” ” 102 n 3 17 38 50 ” ” ” ” ” 200 ” fi! 6 18 50 16 8.00 os gat) 301 ” 4 18 53 7 44 ” ” ” ” ” 400 I 40 a 52 A4 ,, Sees 600 Il 33 16 53 rae “Tie oie 1000 RB 5.61 .075* .69 8.00 . Bt) 2 as 0 B 11.0 18 26.94 10.00 63° O04‘ | 14° 44! 0 of 108 i’, 23 Av) 18 27.11 05 , 55 8.8 195 wa oer 105 J ih 18 42 ao 200 7.8 18 47 M Ga’ 16° | 14° 93° 0 10.7 M ,, ee 22 A 9.4 18 a 12, 0.10 a. m. 52 - 4 16 .20 Bt ga 95 5 2 15 .22 td, 165 8.6 14 231 4 2.00 , 63° 28’ | 14° 03° 0 9.8 21 17 Abe 25 A ol A? 25 04 48 d a 16 33) 20. 104 re 8.1 .165 41 i 200 F 7.8 21 49 4.00 , 63°39" | 13° 44! 0 9.4 Ag 22 17 0B) 45 eyes oie § 600 A 7.2 Ab D4 30... ae “5, Mi 400 . A 16 52 AD5 ” n ” ” 200 ” 6 mW 49 ON ., 102 i 8.2 16 39 0D) . 55 _ Ca | . a7 34 5.00 , | 25 z i 165 23 6.00 , 63° 45’ | 13° 34° 0 B 6 15 16 oO . 24 A .O .165 27 1) 55 : 8.33 165 37 P| 100 ; 7.81 17 46 a | 200 e 45 au 51 8.00 , G5 57". | 13° 14’ 0 B 9.9 24 17 Os. oe Ae bee | 20 A 3 ms U5) 20 O8--. | 50 oh 8S .045* 19 3D y 63° 594 | 13° 09° 600 coarse sand 18 4 , By os AE 500 A 3.2 34.99 27.88 ae neers 400 *. 5.5 35.05 .68 s 25 ” ” ” ” ” 300 ” 6.95 15 mY o0> 200 4 7.35 .165 D2 50 , 100 Z 7.65 165i 48 10.00 , | 64°05’ | 13° 00’ 0 B 9.6 16 16 N ea17" |} 12° 29° 0 % JY Nansen, North Atlantic. Hydrogr. Suppl. z. IV. Bd. 9 ~ 130 _. Fridtjof Nansen. Date Stat Depth | Water- 's dH . Lat. | W. Long. Sg 4° 6. 0 No a : our | N. Lat. | W. Long Metres | bottle t° C S%0 |. % July 1910 |(12,11.35a.m| 64°17’ | 12929° || 480 i | B06) GR ey aE 450 | A |—015 | 34.805*i| 27.98 19 | O10p. mi} *F. , oe eS A 715i 95 | 2) 2 2 je | 20 | || Boe | a | cae a, Uber ney ae 8s 400 » | a ed By .93 Mo: ., ~ 105 f at 35.10 50 | iO 53 50 i, a 01 .36 | OF 4 22 s 56 | 34.695 12 | 200 ,, | G4029") hee 2" 0 B 9.6 56 26.70 | $00 i559 Paes ate 155 A 0.1 Nh 27.93 | HB:.,, : 100 > |) a 92 | 26 | BB . 133 | 72 '82 | 182 55 | 25 “ 3.4 605. 555 | ee of ea CO 29" 0 Bs 9.3 49 26.69 20 | OG: °,; Bh bse See 155 A 0.01 76 27.93 bh dk Se eR on ce aoa : 31 | 695 | 86 is: a 50 - 1.6 .68 17 OU 55 25 re 3.4 6100 © ,; | 649. 54% 1 12° 20" 0 B 9.4 59 - | 26.75 AD es, 175 A 0.1 “73° | 27.90 ey 97 4 2 72 89 AO ,, 55 " 55 71 86 45, | 25 be 3.6 58 Ay a1" 8.00 ,,. | 64° 57”* | 12° 06° 0 B 10.0 38 =| 26.50 OD gd RRS Farrag 3 cook 104 A 0.3 72 «| 27.88 05 ,, 52 ; 1.7 66 15 BD: as 10 4.6 2o** a7 955: ,, 50 iy 2.9 A2 45 19.00. ,,.| 6b?-10‘: | 12° b2° 25 ms 3.45 34 34 WO.. 5 es ger a 268 0 4.00 36 30 M Mouth of Seydis Fjord 0 " ‘5.4 33.15 26.19 16,.4:60 ,, | 65% 12’; | 13° 37% 0 ¥; 10.7 28.91 22.12 50 ,, | Mouth of Mjé Fjord 50 A 2.4 34.51. - | 27.57 5D, 20 ; 4.2 79 62 5.25 ne 45 : 2,9 ‘43 52 Bo. | 6% 12". | 18° 20" 25 .. 4.0 16 14 6.30 ., | : 50 . 2.2 53 60 OO 45 30 a 4.0 BT .26 7.00 ., | 65°11’ | 18° 8° 0 B 5.0 : 30... | 65° 10’ | 12°52’ |} 180 22 BBs Sys: as Rat oh 160 A 0.5 695 85 Vai) eee. POSED ; 0.4 "695 | 186 DO :, 50 " 1.7 61 .70 BD; : 22 ‘, 41 AT 37 9.00. ,,.1)65°08" | 12° 82’ 0 B 6.5 | 33.78 | 26.55 20%. 260 A |—03 BOs, 240 a — 0.1 34.75* | 27.93 BOK, Mees 6 0.5 71 87 j10.20 ,, | 65°07" | 12°16" | 210 | } 23 BO yg HiT tape hes 3 165 » ) 165" | 94 35 ” 8 ” 9 | 95 ” 0.2 75 91 Bre | 52 4 O04 70 | .86 42 ,, 20 " 5.4 | 51 26 The Waters of the North-eastern North Atlantic. 131 Date Stat. and Hour No. Lt Depth | Water- |. 0 4 0 Metres | bottle sa S "loo *t | July 1910 116, 11.00 p.m.| 65° 06' | 12° 14! 0 B 64 |3442 | 27.06 . 45, | 65°05! | 11°59/ 4] 250 ae 304 A, b—O8 27 96 a ee 103 : 13 "5 '85 M 52 2.0 68 "4 17, 0.05 a.m 23 : 43 53 ‘40 1.00 , | 65°04’ | 11°46! 0 B 5.8 BA 24 45 5 | 65°03’ | 11° 40° || 450 eee fe 350 AY | Oa 85 | 28.03 Meee fe 202 Ey ae ay 78 | 27.97 Ree pe 100 d 5 77 ‘91 aay 52 : 3.0 67 65 37, : 23 : 53 515 | 27 3.00 . | 65°02! | 11° 25/ 0 B 6.6 57 16 4.35 . | 65°00! | 11°00! || 500 aa A 150 > bp 10/95 89 | 28.05 ee | | eS o00 4 7 79 | 27.92 eee |. a ee 100 ‘ 4.6 96 71 a | id at Soe 0 B 8.6 35.03 23 2, 50 A 7.0 08 ‘50 > . | 30) ; 4 07 | 44 7.00 . | 64°52 | 10° 32! 0 B 2 |34.84 29 25 , | 64°50’ | 10924/ || 580 —, eae 500 pa eae vs 89* | 28,05 —) - ia Be 300) : 4 86* | .02 5D ” ” ” ” ” 200 ” oe 85 27.98 lh a Sa ie 100 4 25 875 | .85 16". 50 : 4.62 89 65 23° 25 ‘ 6.75 ‘87 37 9.00 . | 64°47 | 10° 12° “0 B 79 87 21 10.05 . 25 x 8.35 | 35.14 35 ‘ae 50 : 6.6 065 | BB 30 ., | 64°40’ | 9°46’ || 500 , |—04 |34.925*| 28.08 Sie eed, pa ds toe 93 08 eee, ei BRO Th or ae 93* | .09 me it, AES | gan) RB. | .86 ‘gai | 10 . ee gba ot 200 A 0 ‘87 ‘02 a aaa stog 202 * 1 19 | 27.95 , lll Sea ot ape A 3.7 '89 ‘15 a en 0 B 95 | 35.07 ah 1.00 p.m.| 64° 25’ | 9° 22! 0 B 82 |34.92 20) io. | 250 A 0.75 '875 | .98 25 | 100 2 1.75 77 '83 35 60 : 4.1 93 74 as 30 é 6.2 95 ‘bl 3.00 . | 64°25 | 8°53! 0 B ‘9 88 '36 40° 240 A (2.2121); (875 |[ 83} 430 , | 64°20' | 8°34’ || 9200 II 0.60 245*| 97 29 ae 400 Be My 87 | 28.03 a iy 600 iy i pokat '915*| 08 *) The temperature is much too high, as the water-bottle was hauled up too owly. 132 Fridtjof Nansen. Date Stat. Depth | Water- nd H N. Lat. |W. Long. P aA. 0 ‘ Ca ‘i eee Metres | bottle Pas S*o0 *t ie , ‘foiyin0 | | a 17, 4.30 p.m.| 64°20’ | 8°34! || 200 A 05 | 34.94* | 27.97 29 OD be are os Wes 100 Ms 2.3 85 .85 50 : ph icin is pas 52 Ki 4.9 815*| 58 eas 23 ‘ 6.4 "92 46 5.00 » | 64°19! | 9°39! 0 B 79 '93 "35 6.30 © 170 A 05 '87 99 ey? 105 ! 215 | am "36 Bi, 45 : 3.9 87 "79 7.05 5 | 25 : 495 | eel hose 00 > | 64°12 | 8°05! 0 B 78.| 30 95 g25 > | 64°06" | 7°48/ | 200 I 057 | 86 98 Fae Oey ae pos uae Il 14 | [98 | 28.02 Se al) Cae 7 goo | RE a 06 30 NO: a oN ie 200 A 65 84 | 27.96 ORGIES a MA aay i 195 | (838% | .86 0 Bees ahs 50 2 4.7 .98 68 ey iret 29 : 645 | “O95*) gl 9.00 , | 64°04’ | 740" | 0 83 | 35.02 26 11.00 5 | 63°57’ | 7°15 | 0 ; 6 | 3497 | 18 35 7 O4 62 ‘90 47 Bh | 50 i 4.0 "79 "64 53 | 100 4 2.7 375 | 184 a fis 0.03a.m.| 68°50’ | 7°01/ || 200 : 06 87 ‘99 et 400 " |_'93 | ‘93 | 28.08 100 ” | 63°47" | 6°53! 0 B gs | 35.03 | 27.19 3.00 . | 68°40’ | 6° 28/ 0 ; 9.2 16 ‘98 25 | 50 763 | 17 "48 ie. 20 A 89 | 34.83 02 ae 100 ; 39 ‘95 85 a (4.09 ” | 63°35’ | 6°15’ || 200 : 193 | 92% | 98 1. 400 i 05 ‘94* | 28.05 5.00 - | 63°33/ | 6° 07° 0 B 9.8 34 | 26.88 7.00. | 68°24° | 5° 40! 0 ; ui ‘81 ‘92 8.05 » 400 071 '87* | 28.02 33 ee ” | 63°19" | 5°26" | 200 i ‘95 | (86 | 27.96 ae 300 ; ‘4 'g8* | 28.01 30 > 102 d 21 51? | 27.59? 25° | 52 ; 263 | Gas 61 Bs, 22 : 865 | 85 08 9.00 ” | 63°18" | 5°23 0 B 9.4 35 | 26.96 11.00 > | 638° 11° | 5° 02 0 ; 100 | 35.15 | 27.09 100p.m.| 63° 04/ | 4° 38 0 ° | 2 A Se ce a ea a Po aii 0.03 | 3490 | 28.04 34 at nh ae ue? MIU ogi ‘ 155 | .87 | 27.98 Se male, ie cee At ong : 049 | .87 99 Bae) ee ft ne 100 ‘ 490 | 95 7 eke 51 ; 6.94 | 35.07 50 Rode, 25 790 | .00 31 3.00” | 63°02! | 4°18! 0 be 20 06 5.00, Galt » 0 0 ” 3 [35.28 7)] [ 14] 1) The rubber washer was defective. The Waters of the North-eastern North Atlantic. 133 Date Depth | Water- d H N. Lat. | W. Long. COAG, Ss? ae 7 as Metres | bottle log *t July 1910 18, 6.50 p.m.} 62°56’ | 3°44‘ || 1240 7 . crete Ae 0 B 10.3 | 35.13 27.02 Se Age tile 400 A 0.49 | 34.89* | 28.01 ah Ae Wie iy 2 200 2 2.74 .90 27.85 40 ” | ” ” | ” ” 300 ” 0. 64 . 85 * . 97 50 | 100 ‘ 6.45 | 35.14 627 57 52 “ 7.42 14 49 8.06 , 30 4 8.32 18 385 9.00 , | 62°51‘ | 4°03! 0 B 10.4 165 08 55 , | 62948' | 4° 10! 1300 on) Deas At) tla ete A 3.7 | 84.94 79 Ad ” ” ” ” ” 102 ” 6.9 35.17 59 On ate = il 53 a 7.52 155 49 10.00, see Sits 300 é 0.9 | 34.81 92 05 ” ” ” ” n 26 ” 9.05 35.165 26 2 dae AR 400 I 1.06 | 34.89 97 a ee 2 500 II 0.34 | .895*i| 28,02 11.00 , | 62946’ | 4°18 0 B 10.4 | 35.14 27.01 19, 0.30 a.m.) 629 40’ | 4° 35/ 780 20 » “are a 300 A 0.55 | 34.87 .99 ms aug | 200 s 1.3 83 91 40 n ” ” ” ” 100 ” 4.55 .96 we 52 ” ” ” ” ” 50 ” 7.4 35.02 40 57 n ” ” ” ” 22 ” 8.4 07 .29 DO md) ao 400 I 0.05 | 34.86 28.01 50 ” ” ” ” ” 600 II — 40 91 .O7 100°"; tape a Je 0 B 10.9 | 35.12 26.91 250 . | 62°33’ | 5°01‘ 500 a” ae 26 301 A 5.65 | 35.01 27.63 1 ieee ae 200 i 7.35 165 52 a m es a a 0 B 9.95 16 10 ae Ae ae 400 I 9.22 | 34.84 .85 A » oe in ets 104 A 7.65 | 35.17 A8 15 ” ” ” ” ” 50 ” 8.05 .20 45 ce | 25 15 19 33 ie. | 62°27" | 5° 23° 0 : 10.00 20 13 moe, G29 257.) 59 27" 207 .20 n ” ” ” ” 197 A TA 30 =, lB te 100 ‘ 6 9) ” ” ” ” ” 50 a 8 2 40, toma 4 , SOS | es 9.5 | pee | 62°16" | 5° 07’ 0 B 8 20 16 8.35 , | 62908’ | 4° 40! 286 40 , ae oe 250 A 7.3 ml) 53 Oo hy ing rary 200 - AB 20 4 57 ” » »” mS 100 ms 8 24 oe 9.00 , 5 ee ee 8.15 225 AD 06 *; 22 s 9.6 23 29 10.00 , | 62°03/ | 4° 28° 0 B 10.1 AT 09 11.10 , | 61958’ | 4°16! 450 26 , eb 3 Boke 300 I 2.70 | 34.90*i 86 eee tae 430 Tie eS .92%i | 28.08 134 Fridtjof Nansen. Date Stat.) and Hour |_N. Lat. | W. Long. Dept, ACER hae S/o o, INOW eth. cata Metres! bottle | : : July 1910 | 41 (as ats 61° 58‘ 4° 16 200 A 5.75 35.05 / 27.65 lols: Xe ee 100 e3 7.42 abe 3) or 40 ee D5 ” Oo apts A4 45 ,, 25 M 8.79 34.965 wy N 61° 57’ 4° 11! 1) B 9.6 .68 26.79 1.00 p.m.| 61°55‘ | 4° 06! 0 : 11.2 35.20 91 2.00 ,, | 61°50’ | 3°45/ || 850 DD iss Bae aes 2 ln (i 3U0 A 5.6 O05 27.67 me AS OS aos, 5 eee CO ss GA. lo 53 ro ee og tee 1038 % a .16*i AT 42 aS: 43 Bo tes ae 50 | Se 9.05 .165*i 26 Slee AE I Cat ths po 10.158: | oe 07 m0 re Ai 1 Ves 410 Il 3.51 34.94 81 30 ,, sh oe 615 I 0.31 885* | 28.015 i, een Ae 820 RB — .62 88* 06 On), 61° 49‘ 3° 43° 0 B IFS 35.23 26.92 |, .,500°,, | 61° 44" | Boag" @ 6 24 87 eM) ve..t | he ae 3° 18° 400 | II (1?) 4.15 34.95 27.76 Daa iy EE Bors | 600 | 1 (2) | 0.25 '89* | 28.02 43 | ml... wn nibs 800 RB — 238 89* 06 | 15 Aracs cub 300 A 7.15 | 35.12 27.52 | a” | me 200 es 7.45 16 50 | 40._,, : = ee 103 A 8.35 22 41 | 45 2 aa 8.85 22 33 ht Maio ae ba 10.9 26 02 fo alee Wig al? 8 ba 3° 3" 0 B 11.6 .255 26.88 S20 ..:5,. Halen OF 2° 49° 400 I 0.46 34.86 27.99 bn ee a AEA GES 600 II — .38 89 28.05 an) iron pas ot 800 RR — .63 .90* 08 44 OD os ay om Nee 300 A 1.92 oe | 27.89 : ee er a 200 4 5.92 35.12 .68 2D ae ion Te: =e 100 : V4 165 51 ght 1h aay > hop eee Sal : 8.3 20 40 OD" we, 20 . 9.25 15 21 9:00 “26h? oe. | 29 45" 0 B | 11.4 20 26.88 11.00 ,, | 61928’ | 2°21! 0 f 3 [ .68]2) 10.58 , Seg he: on fee 400 I 0.45 885*i| 28.01 DBiAy Cee Pi Be 500 II — 15 [ .04]°) 45 58 shay A 600 RB — Al 34.92 09 12:55" Se eer 100 4h 2 7.69 |35.19 | 27.49 |) Oe lea, Pn cl BOO" pe Te 6.76 0s*i 54 OD. ane ee ey 300 RB 1.83 34.891 92 20, 0.05 a. m. | 22 A 8.64 35.145 31 10 jt | 50 i 072) 14 39 1,00: et ae 2 o10* 0 B 10.8 09 26.90 He fae , | 61°20! | 1°55‘ || 680 ey iene Pt ed 400 I 474 00 27.73 1) The rubber washer was defective. *) The glass bottle was cracked; later titrations gave 35.07, 35.25, and even — 36.29 9/90. 4 8) The journal has 3.07° C,, which is evidently an error for 8.07° C. Stat. No. 48 47 | The Waters of the North-eastern North-Atlantic. 135 Date Depth | Water- t°C go s en o N. Lat. Long. rs ilbaal gg ci loo ' July 1910 W 20, 2.25 a.m.| 61° 20’ 1° 55‘ 500 Il Ligs 34.89* | 27.93 Pe es ane sity } 650 RB |—0.91 885*| 28.08 MB! ae Loo is 110 A 7.9 35.17 27.44 ae, bh rity. by 50 “ 8.75 16 30 (Bae y vee cs Leger 20 2 10.7 16 26.97 BUS, ido i 300 i 6.7 13 27.59 BOs 6, paras, vb hE 200 FS 7.6 18 50 SOG. | 61° 19’ 1? 53‘ 0 B 10.9 075 | 26.87 aoe, | 61° 14’ 1° 36‘ 0 : 11.6 255 88 30. , | 61°13’ | 1°28/ || 265 : SOU) 5 ‘a gs 1k 204 A 8.5 32h QRAT yan 100 4 8 25 *i mY ey 48 sd 9.55 31*i 29 me 22, ¥ 11.7 .30*i| 26.90 aoe >| 61° 11° 1° 10! 0 B er! 20 88 8.00 , 10‘ 0° 54‘ 25 A 82 30 88 o5- , 50 s 9232 29 Ar ks 1 100 “ 8.81 30 40 25 TOP | wp Py, AQ 9.00 61° 09° 0° 44’ 0 B 12.5 RY 26.72 11.00 08‘ 28‘ ) a A 29 “1D 1.00 p.m O7' | Bs ‘ 0 ‘ a) sak vi5) 5 | a 05‘ 18‘ 0 . 13.2 23 BD 5.00 , 02‘ 48‘ 0 J i) 33.19* | 24,99 7.00". 00‘ 1° 18’ O _ 05 17 98 S00". =) +1 60° 58’ 48' ) “4 Au) 21 25,02 Teo. 4 56‘ 2° 15" 0 it 12.6 wl 10 21;/ 1.00 a.m 54‘ 45‘ 0) # 11.9 395 38 ait oan 52‘ of to" 0 z 0 58 70 ay 49‘ 45’ 0 2 7.8 34.12 296.63 7.00_; 47‘ 49 14/ hes es 8.0 33.86 39 Literature. 1910—1911. 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Meddelelser fra Kommissio- nen for Havundersogelser. Ser. Hydrografi, Bd. I. No. 12, Kobenhavn 1908. . Knudsen, Martin, Hydrography. The Danish Ingolf-Expedition. Vol. I. No. 2, Copenhagen 1899. . Knudsen, Martin, Contributions to the Hydrography of the North Atlantic Ocean. Meddelelser fra Kommissionen for Havundersogelser. Ser, Hydrografi, Bd. I, No. 6, Kobenhavn 1905. . Knudsen,. Martin, Danish Hydrographical Investigations at the Faroelslands in theSpring of 1910. Medd. f. Komm. f. Havundersogelser. Ser. Hydrografi, Bd. II, No. 1, Kobenhavn 1911. Geophysikalische Beobachtungen der Plankton- Expedition. Ergebnisse der Plankton-Expedition der Humboldt-Stiftung. Bd. I, C. Kiel und Leipzig 1893. Bd. 1, Stuttgart 1907. Bd. Il, Stuttgart 1911. verschiedenen Tiefen. Bull. phys.-math. del Acad. de St. Petersbourg, T. V, 1847. See also Poggendorfs Annalen, Erganzungsbd. II, 1848. . Marchi, Luigi de, La distribuzione verticale della salsedine e della temperatura e i movimenti convettivi verticali in mare. R. Comi- tato Talassografico Italiano. Memoria VI. 1912. . Matthews, Donald J., Report on the Physical Conditions in the Eng- lish Channel, 1903. First Report on Fishery and Hydrogr. Invest. in the North Sea and Adjacent Waters (Southern Area) 1902—1903. Marine Biologi- cal Association of the United Kingdom. London 1905. Matthews, Donald J., The Surface Waters of the North Atlantic Ocean south of 60° N. Latitude, September 1904 to December 1905. Second Report (Southern Area) on Fishery and Hydrographical Investigations in the North Sea und Adjacent Waters. 1904—1005, Part 1. North Sea Fisheries Investigation Committee. London 1907. Matthews, Donald J.. Report on the Physical Conditions in the Eng- lish Channel and adjacent Waters, 1904 and 1905. Second Report (Southern Area) on Fish. and Hydrogr. Invest. etc., 1904—1905, Part II. North Sea Fisheries Investigation Committee. London 1909. . Matthews, Donald J,, Report on the Physical Conditions in the Eng- lish Channe] and adjacent Waters, 1905 with a note on the mean conditions for 1903—1909. Third Report (Southern Area) on Fish. a. Hydr. Invest. etc. North Sea Fish. Inv. Comm., London 1911. . Maury, M. F., The Physical Geography of the Sea and its Meteoro- logy. 8th ed. London 1860. 138 1887. 1869, 1884. 1912. 1901. 1902. 1904. 1905. 1906. 1912. 1904. 1905. 1907. 1870. 1900. 1847. 1793. 1815. 1907. 1888. Fridtjof Nansen. Mohn, H., The North Ocean, its Depths, Temperature, and Cir- culation. The Norwegian North-Atlantic Expedition 1876—78. Christiania 1887. Miihry, A.. Lehre von den Meeresstrémungen. Gdéttingen 1869. See also Peterm. Mitt. 1874. / Murray, John, Report on the Deep-sea Temperature Observations obtained by the Officers of H. M. S. Challenger during the years 1873—76. Challenger Rep. Physics and Chemistry, vol. I. 1884. Murray, John, and Hjort, Johan, The Depths of the Ocean. London 1912. — Nansen, F., Some Oceanographical Results of the Expedition with the Michael Sars 1900. Nyt Magazin f. Naturvidenskab, Bd. XXXIX. Kristiania 1901. Nansen, F., The Oceanography of the North Polar Basin. The Nor- wegian North Polar Expedition 1893—96. Scientific Results. Vol. III, No. 9, Christiania 1902. Nansen, F.. The Bathymetrical Features of the North Polar Seas. Norw. N. Pol Exped. 1893—96. Scient. Res. Vol. IV, No. 13. Christiania 1904. Nansen, F., Die Ursachen der Meeresstromungen. Petermanns geogr. — Mitteilungen 1905. Heft I und II. Gotha. . Nansen, F., Northern Waters. Captain Roald Amundsen’s oceano- graphic. observations in the Arctic Seas in 1901 etc. Vid. Selskabets | 7 Skrifter 1906. I. Math.-naturw. Kl. No. 3. Christiania 1906. Nansen, F., Das Bodenwasser und die Abkthlung des Meeres. Inter- nationale Revue d. gesamten Hydrobiologie u. Hydrographie. Bd. V, Heft 1. Leipzig 1912. Nielsen, J. N.. Hydrography of the Waters by the Faroe Islands — and Iceland during the Cruises of the Danish Research Steamer ~ Thor in the Summer 1903. Meddelelser fra Kommissionen f. Havundersdégelser. Serie Hydrografi, Bd. I, No. 4. K6benhavn 1904. Nielsen, J. N., Contributions to the Hydrography of the Waters North of Iceland. Medd. f. Komm. f. Havundersog. Serie Hydrografi, Bd. I, No. 7. Kébenhavn 1905. Nielsen, J. N., Contribution to the Hydrography of the North- eastern Part of the Atlantic Ocean. Medd. f. Komm. f. Havundersog. Serie Hydrografi, Bd. 1, No. 9. K6ébenhavn 1907. | . ji Petermann, A., Der Golfstrom und Standpunkt der thermometrischen ~ Kenntnis des Nord-Atlantischen Oceans und Landgebiets im Jahre 1870. Petermanns Mitteilungen, Bd. XVI, Gotha 1870. Pettersson, Otto, Die hydrographischen Untersuchungen des Nord- atlantischen Ozeans in den Jahren 1895—1896. Petermanns Mitteilun- — gen 1900. Pouillet, Eléments de Physique. 5ieme éd., tom. II, 1847. Rennell, James, Observations on a Current that often prevails to © the Westward of Scilly, endangering the Safety of Ships that approach the British Channel. Philos. Transactions, R. Soc. London. — Vol. LXXXIII, Part If, 1793. Rennell, James, Some farther observations, on the current that 4 often prevails, to the westward of the Scilly Islands. Philos. Trans- | action, R. Soc. London. Vol. CV, Part. II, 1815. Robertson, A. J.. Report on Hydrographical Investigations in the | Faeroe-Shetland Channel and the Northern Part of the North Sea during the years 1904—1905. Second Report on Fishery and Hydrographical — Investigations in the North Sea and Adjacent Waters 1904—1905. Part 1. North Sea Fisheries Investigations Committee. Rottuk, Die wahrend der Forschungsreise 8S. M.S. ,Gazelle* aus-— gefihrten Tiefseelothungen, Wassertemperaturmessungen, Strom- bestimmungen und Beobachtungen tiber die Farbe und Durch-~ sichtigkeit des Meerwassers. Die Forschungsreise S. M. S. »Gazelle* 1874—%6. Herausgeg. v. d. Hydrographischen Amt der Admiralitat. Bd. If. Berlin 1888. The Waters of the North-eastern North Atlantic. 139 1868. Sary, Annales Hydrogr. 1868. Compt. Rend. de l’Acad. LXVII, p. 483; LXVIII, p. 522. 1910. Sehmidt, Johs., Nielsen, J. N. and Jacobsen, J. P., Fra den danske | oceanografiske Ekspedition til Middelhavet i Vinteren 1908—09. Geografisk Tikskrift, Bd. 20. K6benhavn 1910. . Schott, Gerhard, Weltkarte zur Ubersicht der Meeresstrémungen. Deutsche Seewarte 1898. . Schott, Gerhard, Ozeanographie und maritime Meteorologie. Wissen- schaftliche Ergebnisse der deutschen Tiefsee-Expedition auf dem Dampfer »Valdivia® 1898—1899. Vol. I. Jena 1902. . Supan, Alexander, Die jahrlichen Niederschlagsmengen auf den Meeren. Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen 1898. . Thomson, C. Wyville, The Depths of the Sea. 2nd ed. London 1874. . Thomson, C. Wyville, The Atlantic. London 1877. . Thoulet, J., Considérations sur la circulation océanique dans le Golfe de Gascogne. Comptes Rendus, CXXVI, Paris 1898, p. 293. . Wegemann, Georg, Die Oberflachen-Stromungen des nordatlanti- schen Ozeans noérdlich von 50° N.-Br. Inaug.-Dissert. Altona 1900. . Witte, Emil, Aspiration infolge der Mischung von Wasser. Geo- graphischer Anzeiger, Oktober 1910, p. 223. Explanation of the Plates. Pl. I. Chart showing the route of the Frithjof (July 6—20, 1910) with the obser- vation-stations 1—48. The route of the Fram, with observation-stations, June 20—27 and July 4—7, 1910, is also given. Isobaths are drawn for 200, 500, 1000, 2000, 3000, and 4000 metres. Pi. IVI. Charts showing the horizontal distribution of Temperature and Salinity at depths of 0, 50. 100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 metres. Pl. IX. SectionI of the Frithjof (Stats. 1—12, July 6—9, 1910), showing the vertical distribution of Temperature, Salinity, and, for depths greater than 1000 metres, also of Density (ot). Horizontal Scale 1: 3,000,000. Vertical Scale 1: 10,000. Broken lines represent [sotherms, unbroken lines Isohalines, and dotted - lines represent Isopyenals. Black dots inidcate observations with the Automatic Insulating Water-Bottle, rings observations with the Pettersson-Nansen Water- Bottle and a Nansen Thermometer, crosses observations with the stop-cock water-bottles (or in a few cases the Pettersson-Nansen Water-Bottle) and reversing thermometers. | Pl. X. Section I, showing the vertical distribution of Temperature and Salinity to the depths of 1000 metres. Lines and marks indicate the same as in Pl. IX. Horizontal Seale 1:3,000,000. Vertical Scale 1 : 5,000. P]. XI. Section I, showing the vertical distribution of Density (ot) to the depths _ of 1000 metres. The dotted lines represent Isopycnals. The marks indicate the same as in P]. IX. Pi. XII. Section If of the Frithjof (Stats. 12—21, July 9—12, 1910), showing the vertical distribution of Temperature and Salinity. Lines and marks indicate the same as in Pl. [X. Horizontal Scale 1: 3,000,000. Vertical Scale 1: 5,000. Pl. XIII. Section II. showing the vertical distribution of Density (c+). Pl. XIV. Section III of the Frithjof (Stats. 22—35, July 16—18, 1910), showing the vertical distribution of Temperature and Salinity. Lines and marks indicate the same as in Pl. IX. Horizontal Scale 1: 3,000,000. Vertical Scale 1: 5,000. Pl. XV. Section III, showing the vertical distribution of Density (ct), Pl. XVI. Sections IV and V of the Frithjof (Stats. 35—48, July 18—20, 1910, sho- wing the vertical distribution of Temperature and Salinity. Lines and marks in- ae the same as in Pl. IX. Horizontal Seale 1: 3,000,000. Vertical Scale _ Pl. XVII. Sections IV and V, showing the vertical distribution of Density (ct). j a . ‘zor afi > Internat. Revue Hydrograph. Suppl Serve. Surface Tatel Fi. i ~~*-+ The Rowle & the Fare ne July toro, Seate= 1 004000. 4 Fridtrof N ae ridtjof Nansen. Verlag von Dr.Werner Klinkhardt Leipzig: Ci a LOR: Photolithogr. Julius Klinkhardt, Leipzig. ~~ * ae N ‘ ’ “s a > ‘ 6 es i. Ys ». *% vw \ —, ry MOOS) BIRTET 5 W oe 100 Metres Photolithogr. Julius Klinkhardt, Leipzig. . hel ae an a) {m0e.= 50 Metres lo} i=} fo} a2 o 3 om > re mS RG) ---- --- The Route of the Fram, Photolithogr. Julius Minkhardr, Lewzic Fridtjof Nanset. Verlag von Dr. Werner Klinkhardt, Leipzig. ade ee av Internat. Revue Hvdrograph. Suppl Serie, eee, Ss I =2 3 | y p° ° <—T —— —— The Route of the Frittjof July 1910 Seats 4.00 M sot Eee cs ---- ----- The Route of the Fram,Juncand i 7310. Cale 1: 3,000,000 fi 4 Pees Ceres Scale 1:9,000,000 500 Metres Photolithogr. Julius Minkhardt, Leipzig Fridtjof Nansen. Verlag vor. Dr. Werner Klinkhardt Leipzig. bed hanna + nue Waren pdb etm ate erage alt one eens coal yee en, sain i £3 a ame , a | PSLRA SRR POR AR eS Sela 6-9" Faas ahem mma \ ere a ee a “ wr - Ye oat - : a= Oe ea ee ¥ : , % oy e i one S. anne Aaa Ee he we eZ Mi em os rf ¢ 4 ir et Cast 'G P y y ee : y! ; Pt as i eh fee a SUN. “ | om oe : > yan iw. 2 H A. " Mi “-. : ve ¢ i. { a ) ssaccnnit eR i 0 : : . a jon ‘ ¥ Pures he ; ; 7 . ro) va ‘a ’ ol A +h ~@ +AS 1 -~ % \ ‘ ; ‘ . 1 ‘ a ¥. way ’ he SHA i ‘ : ) oe ‘ a | ‘ “* x Oe % 49 46 %, vy ei ‘ ‘ oy . \ - a “ . : i ie | Horizontal Seale 7:3000000. Lam. ry, 3 Kilometres, Internat. Revue Hvdrograph. Suppl M. Serve. : Tafel IX 12 14 10 ) 8 7 6 i) 4 ©} 2a 2 4 9. Vil. 40 9. 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F : : ) 5 ae = a 'B S ¢ Dv 17) S = 3 2 $ , hu). 4-0/ | Revue Hvdro Section IV 39 838 37 JON 79-1 Internat. ~~ Wee... af ae tae Po } ;. ie “ ' peat ica Say War a worn a ee onan — = = o« —~ = * ae ~ 0 + tte eres — a a ia é 4 Hy ' © > » a , h "oa * : f : A re ce ¥ 4 Pa a o- a er 4 ee Nz f — ’ ay COPEL & peel eae Lt hi ma x “e: ee | ar i 4. » . Y cS ‘ a = Sos : ~~ a ia ; : x : . = - . v ‘ce re 7 .< my “_ ? «it 3 — “4 < mel te - = _ Lt oc o ‘ "ax: 3 . > » ue a oer 6 ee ; —— " [Pere 2 Bs ~~ ? P ‘ ee . F = se an Rood _ 7 ‘> 4 7 -% 2 « ~ Aen = on : ; . E : * : : ; | - St? Mots a teen ETS ee Ee | 4 ? . Internat. Revue Hydrograph. Suppl I Serie. Section IV Sea 3s. 37 . 36 35 /9Mi JONI JONI /3¥il /g-Vil ry — = ™ nN = Se) so —~ > moe s~ x .“0 “85! i2g-0i'-. -97_..” 28-01 +. Stee. x ; 23-02 N mx i] ~! Fridtjof Nansen. Verlag von Dr.Werner Klinkhardt, | ET 4 Latel XV. iS aatieetietiedh aineimeieiiin deen pce, ake ame mee or OR Ee ee gem mere yal - ‘ , . ‘ ‘ : 7 Lf Pe Pos. ae x, » : ea " > — ne Ne ery om te eae) se tl! - Pr naan 2 4 a a rv cpl Aen ll, lille eileen | GC Nansen, Fridtjof 491 The waters of the N36 north-eastern North Atlantic PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY wieges 2 WALli SOd JIHS AVE JONVY G » ape in Sl RE of St Fy oe MAIASNMOG LV 1.LN