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iftRir:. DEPT.

THE

WEEDS OF ONTARI'

By PROR F. C H.JRRISON, B.S.A.
Ontario Agricultural College

LIBRARY,

UNIVERSITY

—OF—-
CALIFORNIA.

PV1LI3HE* BY THE . . .

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TORONTO

MAJICH, 1900

AGfilC, DEPT.

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ONTARIO DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TORONTO.

SOME COMMON ONTARIO WEEDS

BY
PROF. F. C. HARRISON, B.S.A., ONTARIO AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.

a. Flower of Perennial Sow Thistle (Sonchus arvensis).
6. Flower of Annual Sow Thistle (Sonchus oleraceus).

A leading educational authority lately said he did not believe that
one farmer in a dozen could give the generally accepted common names
of twenty of our common weeds. Whether this is so or not, one thing is
certain, viz., that noxious weeds are spreading very rapidly in the Pro-
vince of Ontario, and farmers need all the information they can get to
assist them in preventing further loss from this very serious 'hindrance
to successful agriculture. Hence the preparation of this bulletin for the
Committee on Economic Botany appointed by the Experimental Union,
in connection with the Ontario Agricultural College.

Now that agriculture is to be taught in the public schools, it is to
be hoped that teachers will collect and press specimens of the worst
weeds, and that the illustrations and descriptions herein submitted may
be of some use to them in their work. A second series will appear before
long, if the demand for this bulletin warrants the publication of further
information along this line.

The writer wishes to express his thanks for the assistance rendered
by Wm. McCallum, B.S.A., who has labored unremittingly in collecting
^plants and seeds and in arranging material ; and to Norman Ross, B.S. A.,
for his exact and artistic pen-drawings of the plants and seeds found in
!the bulletin. Mr. Ross made the drawings from specimens collected in
jthis vicinity and photographs taken in the laboratory.

[i]

WHY WEEDS ARE INJURIOUS.

A weed has been defined as any plant out of place ; and, in that
sense, a wheat plant in a field of turnips is a weed.

Most weeds do considerable, and some very much, injury to the crops
in which they are found. They produce these effects in several ways :

1. They absorb soil moisture. The amount of water which is taken
up by weeds and evaporated from the surface of the leaves is very great.
For instance, an average Mustard plant pumps from the soil about four-
teen ounces, or seven -tenths of a pint, per day ; a sunflower, thirty-three
ounces ; and so on. The transpiration is generally in proportion to the
surface of the leaf : but thin leaves transpire, or throw off water, more
freely than fleshy ones. Consequently weeds having large leaf-surface
•draw from the soil and give off' through the leaves a large amount of
water, and thereby rob the surrounding plants. Many botanists consider
this waste of moisture the most serious injury done by weeds.

2. They use plant food. Weeds naturally make use of the same
food as the cultivated plants among which they grow. Consequently
they deprive a crop of a large amount of the available nourishment ; and
they rob the succeeding crop as well. For example, an analysis of the
Russian Thistle by Snyder showed "that it contains from 12 to 17 per
cent, as much nitrogen as there is in clover ; and an ordinary thistle of
this kind covering a square yard takes more potash and lime from the
soil than two good crops of wheat from the same area."

3. They shade, crowd, and choke useful plants. Weeds often grow
more vigorously than useful plants ; and, as a consequence, they shade, or
crowd, or partially choke the seedlings of the desired crop. Black Bind-
weed (Fig. 19), for instance, often covers completely a large part of the
plants among which it grows.

4. They increase the labour and expense of cleaning seed. At best,
it is difficult to clean many of the smaller seeds, such as clover, grass, and
rape seed ; and the difficulty is greatly increased when they are grown on
a dirty farm. It is almost impossible to clean clover seed by winnowing.
Hence the necessity that the land on which it grows be clean.

5. They interfere with a regular rotation of crops. A well balanced
rotation of crops conserves the fertility of the soil ; but it is often neces-
sary to depart from such a rotation when noxious weeds get possession
of the farm — to give undue attention to the growth of hoed crops, for
instance, or almost omit a certain crop altogether for a time, as in the
case of the oat crop on a farm overrun with wild oats.

6. They harbour the spores of injurious fungi. Many of the rusts
which attack grain crops find a resting place on weeds of the grass and
other families, which preserve them through the fall, winter, and spring.

7. Lastly, they offend the eye, or are, as we say, an eye&r e to good

farmers and all people of taste. They also interfere with the use of
mowers, binders, and other implements in taking off crops.

INTRODUCTION AND SPREAD OF WEEDS.

Most of the injurious weeds found in this Province have come directly
or indirectly from other countries. They are brought in and conveyed
from field to field and farm to farm in various ways :

1. By the wind. Seeds which are carried by the wind usually have
tufts of fine silky hair attached to them. Such are the seeds of the Dande-
lion, Canada Thistle, Sow Thistle (annual and perennial), Willow Herb, and
Cotton Grass. These and similar seeds are wafted to and fro, till they
become attached to the soil and commence to grow. In some cases, as in
the Dock and Wild Parsnip, the seeds are winged ; in others, the pod
containing the seed has flat and extended edges, exposing much surface
to the wind. The Penny Cress is an example of the latter.

Some weeds are rolled along the ground by the wind. To this class
belong the Russian Thistle and the Tumbling weed of the North- West.
When these weeds ripen, they break off close to the ground ; and being
light, they are easily carried by the wind, especially on an open prairie,
and the seeds drop out as the weed rolls from place to place.

An examination of snow drifts in Dakota, a few years ago, showed
the presence of many weed seeds. Thirty-two seeds of nine species were
were found in two square feet of a drift. In the same place it was
observed that a twenty-five mile wind carried wheat seed a distance of
thirty rods in a minute.

Seeds which become sticky when wet often adhere to leaves, and go
wherever the leaves are carried by the wind. This is true of the Plantain.

2. By water. Some seeds, especially those of aquatic plants, are
distributed by water. Darwin maintained that many seeds, dropping
into the sea or being washed in from the shore, might be carried nearly a
thousand miles by the movements of the water without injuring their
vitality. Seeds which float on the surface of water are carried to and
fro by the wind till they find a lodgment and begin to grow ; and many,
of various kinds, are carried from high to low ground and distributed far
and near by the rills and streams which flow from mountain, hill, and
upland after heavy rains and spring thaws. The common Speedwell and
Ragweed are often distributed in this way.

3. By birds and other animals. Seeds are distributed by animals
in a variety of ways. " It is estimated that about ten per cent, of all
flowering plants possess seeds which are dispersed by means of barbed or
cleaved processes." By these barbs or processes the seeds cling to the
feathers of birds and the hairy coats of animals, and in this way are car-
ried from place to place. To this class belong the Bur, Burdock, Hound's
Tongue, Bedstraw, Cockle, and such like. And the seeds of some plants,

such as Mistletoe and the Meadow Saffron, exude sticky substances which
cause them to adhere to birds and other animals.

In the hardened earth taken from the feet of birds Darwin found a
large number of seeds, many of which germinated ; and it is undoubtedly
true that seeds are often conveyed from one place to another in the dirt
that clings to the feet of animals.

Seeds often pass through the stomachs of animals without being
digested ; and during their passage they are conveyed hither and thither
by the animal and finally deposited, to grow and reproduce their kind,
whether of weeds or useful plants. Every farmer knows the truth of
this statement as regards cattle, horses, and swine ; and it may be men-
tioned that Darwin picked from the excrement of small birds twelve
kinds of seeds which were perfect in form and germinated in nearly
every instance.

Ants, locusts, and other insects also, do something in the way of
distributing the seeds of certain plants, including noxious weeds.

4. By man. Man himself, however, has most to do with the spread
of troublesome weeds, chiefly through the agency of railroads, imple-
ments, farm yard manure, feed stuffs, and impure seed.

Many weeds are carried from one province or country to another in
the fodder and litter used hy animals in transit on railways and in grain
carried by rail. More or less of the grain, litter, and fodder are scattered
at places along the track and at stations where grain and animals are
unloaded and cars cleaned out. Weeds thus get a start and spread to
neighbouring farms. The Russian Thistle was introduced in this way.

The constant changing of implements, with dry earth, pieces of sod,
etc., attached to them, from field to field and from one farm to another, is
a common method of spreading weed seeds all over farms and throughout
whole neighbourhoods ; and threshing machines from dirty farms are well
known sources of trouble under this head.

Fresh farmyard manure from city stables is very often full of weed
seeds, and should be rotted or piled and allowed to heat thoroughly
before it is applied to clean land. Wild lettuce, for example, was brought
from Toronto to the neighbourhood of Burlington in manure ; and in this
way many other pests have been distributed from towns and cities to the
farms of the Province.

Many new and troublesome weeds are introduced in feeding stuffs
and seeds of various kinds. In clover and grass seeds especially, there is
often a large number of weed seeds, and the farmer needs to be constantly
on his guard against infection from this source. Over sixty samples of
clover seed, obtained from fifty-eight seedsmen in Ontario, were examined
by the writer a few years ago, and more or less weed seed was found in
every sample. The following is a brief statement of the results obtained
from an examination of three samples.

CLOVER SEED.

Samples,
of clover seed.

Number of weed
seeds in one oz.
of Clover Seed.

Per cent. o[f
weed seeds.

Number of weeds
to clover plants
in an average
square yard.

Kind of weed seeds
fcund.

1. One of the best
of the 60 samples
obtained.

2. A sample of
average quality.

3. A sample of in-
ferior quality.

8

32
1,214

.04

.17
6.07

3 weeds to 7420
clover plants.

One weed to 742
clover plants.

24 weeds to 769
clover plants.

Grass and sorrel.

Foxtail, sorrel, chess
and chicory.

Foxtail, white
Cockle, Bindwe d
»nd chieorv.

The largest number of weed seeds found in one ounce of clover seed
was 9,080 : and over 200 weed seeds to the ounce were found in 12 out
of the 60 samples. Such figures ought surely to be a warning to all who
purchase either grass seed or clover seed for use on their farms. Those
who want seed should never fail to make a very thorough examination
with an ordinary eye-glass or otherwise before purchasing, in order to
satisfy themselves that the samples submitted are true to name and free
from impurities, always bearing in mind that the cheapest seed is almost
invariably the dearest — very much the dearest — in the end.

COLLECTION AND IDENTIFICATION.

Not only every seedsman, but every farmer, and every teacher in a
rural school, should have a collection of weed seeds for reference and
comparison, in order that he may be able to detect and identify such
seeds when they are in grass seed, clover seed, rape seed, or any other
kind of seed which is sold or offered for sale. A good collection can be
easily made in the summer months. All that is necessary is a number of
small bottles and a little attention at the right time. The so-called
homeopathic vials of one drachm capacity are suitable for the purpose,
but they should be carefully and plainly labelled. If they are not so
labelled, the collection will be valueless.

Fig. A.

Fig. B.

Fig. C.

6

A small magnifying glass is very useful in identifying seeds. What
is known as the Coddington lens (fig. A.), costing $1.50, is the best glass
for such work ; but the small eye-glass used by watch-makers (fig. B) will
serve the purpose fairly well. Even the cheap linen tester (fig. C) can be
used with advantage. Small sets of weed seeds can be purchased from
the College, — a set of 35 in small bottles for 75c.

CLASSIFICATION OF WEEDS.

Weeds may be classified according to the length of time they live, as
follows :

Annuals, or weeds which germinate, bloom, fruit, and di3 in one
year or season. Corn Cockle is an example.

Winter Annuals, which germinate late in summer or autumn, pass
the winter as seedlings or immature plants, and complete the cycle of
their existence by blooming, fruiting, and dying during the following
summer. Such are Chess and Shepherd's Purse.

Biennials, which produce leaves and roots the first year, and flowers
and seed the second year, after which they die. The Wild Carrot and
Evening Primrose are familiar examples.

Perennials, which last from year to year, blooming and seeding
annually. These are divided into two classes :

(1) Those with underground creeping stems, such as the Canada
Thistle.

(2) Those with roots which do not spread underground, such as
Chicory and Plantain.

It is important to know the class to which a weed belongs, as the
method of eradicating an annual is often very different from that
required to destroy a perennial.

ERADICATION OF WEEDS.

The most important points under this head are :

First, a determination to get rid of weeds and to keep the land clean.

Second, the method or methods of tillage and cropping.

As regards the latter point, the writer feels that he cannot do better
than submit the method outlined by our late Farm Superintendent,
Wm. Rennie, whose experience of over thirty years warrants him in
speaking with some confidence on the subject. Mr. Rennie's method not
only cleans the land but increases its fertility, and those who wish fuller
information should consult the College reports for 1895, 1896, and 1?^97.

For various reasons, very few farms in the older sections of the
Province of Ontario are free from weeds, and the question how to clean
our lands without incurring too much expense is one of the most impor-
tant which can engage the attention of Canadian farmers.

In the first place, I would say that all obstructions to cultivation,
such as piles of stone, must be removed — hauled away to the woods or
an out-of-the-way corner in winter or some other slack time. Secondly,
places for harboring weeds, such, for example, as snake fences, should be
got rid of as soon as possible. On the Ontario Experimental Farm,
nearly all field fences have been removed. The outside and lane tences
are almost the only ones left. Portable fences are used when required for
pasturing live stock.

Annuals and Biennials. — Wild oats, wild mustard seed, and some
other seeds belonging to these classes, have great vitality. If down
pretty well beyond the reach of the air, they will live for twenty years,
and will germinate as soon as they are brought near the surface.

The best way to destroy annuals and biennials is by thorough and
frequent shallow cultivation, early after harvest in stubble ground and in
sod plowed for the following year, and at the proper season (spring and
summer) among what are called " hoed crops," that is, potatoes, carrots,
turnips, mangels, Indian corn, etc. By shallow cultivation the seeds are
kept near the surface, and by frequent stirring of the soil they are made
to sprout ; and having sprouted, they can be killed by further cultivation.
Those which sprout late in the fall are destroyed by the winter frost.
It is impossible to get rid of such weeds by plowing the ordinary depth,
say seven or eight inches, once in the fall or at any other time. Plow
shallow (not more than four inches in sod and three inches in stubble
ground), and harrow and cultivate frequently, as by each stirring of the
soil fresh seed is made to sprout and what has already sprouted is
destroyed. When necesaary to loosen the soil to a greater depth, use a
grubber or a subsoil plow.

Perennials. — It is necessary to study the habits of perennial weeds,
to see how they grow and propagate themselves from year to year, in
order to keep them in check ; and a close examination of almost any of
them will show that the buds from which the young plants start are near
the surface of the soil. Hence shallow cultivation, similar to that men-
tioned above, is the effective method of destroying them. Deep plowing
only transplants the buds to a greater depth and increases the trouble.
Plow shallow (see preceding paragraph), and harrow and cultivate fre-
quently, using a grubber or subsoil plow when it is necessary to stir the
soil to a greater depth. As above, the cultivation must be early after
harvest and throughout the fall in stubble ground and sod, and in spring
and summer among corn, potatoes, and root crops. Ill-timed, irregular
or partial cultivation only makes all weeds grow more vigorously.

Canada thistles, sow thistles, couch-grass, bindweed, etc., can be de-
stroyed by the following method : Middle of May gang plow the land
about three inches deep and harrow thoroughly. In two weeks, when
the weeds are nicely up, cultivate with a common or spring-tooth cultiva-

tor provided with wide points that overlap so as to cut off every plant two
or three inches below the surface. Then harrow, to pull up the plants
and leave them to die. In the middle of June, there will be another crop,
and possibly a greater number of plants, but not so vigorous as the first
crop. Repeat the operations with the wide-point cultivator and the har-
row. In July, a few delicate plants will make their appearance and will
have to be destroyed in the same way. This will be sufficient for most
weeds ; but bindweed may need one or two extra cuttings with the wide-
points and a corresponding number of harrowings.

The preceding method will clean the land, but it involves the loss of
a year's crop ; so it is well to add, that land may be kept comparatively
free from weeds without the loss of a crop, by after-harvest cultivation
of all fields not in grass, begun with each field just as soon as the crop is
off and continued throughout the fall, first by shallow gang-plowing and
harrowing and afterwards at intervals, as above, by the wide-point culti-
vator and the harrow. This treatment followed by a hoed crop properly
attended to will destroy most perennial weeds and all annual and biennial
seeds that are near the surface.

Note. — To Mr. Rennie's method or methods, as above given, I would
venture to add one which we have seen carried out with the most satis-
factory results by Mr. Rennie on the College farm, and with marked
success by farmers in other parts of the Province. It may be put in the
imperative form, as follows : Sow much with red clover, in order to
have a rich clover sod to plow down for all or nearly all spring crops,
taking as far as possible only one crop of hay or pasture before plowing,
occasionally two, but not more than two. Plow the clover sod shallow, not
more than four inches, early after harvest, say the 1st to the 15th of
August, and harrow at once. Let it stand a couple of weeks ; then culti-
vate, the same way as it was plowed, two or three inches deep, with a
spring-tooth cultivator. After a while, cross cultivate a little deeper. If
possible, cultivate a third, or even a fourth time, going a little deeper
each time. Then, if you can manage to do so, rib it up with a double
mouldboard plow, as you would for a crop of turnips. When this is done
the available plant food (clover roots, etc.) is preserved in the center of
the drills, the water runs off early in the spring, and the drills can be
levelled with the cultivator and harrow, either for spring grain or for
hoed crops.

This method will not only clean land but will greatly enrich it.

INFORMATION FROM FARMERS AS TO NEW WEEDS ETC., IN DIFFERENT

PARTS OF THE PROVINCE.

At the request of the writer, the Bureau of Industries for the Prov-
ince, in 1898, kindly sent out a few questions about weeds to its regular
correspondents, and others, chiefly those who had done satisfactory ex-

9

perimental work in connection with the Experimental Union. A large
number of answers were received; and as part of the information contained
therein is not given elsewhere in the bulletin, some of the answers are
briefly referred to below. The questions were as follows :

1. What is the character of the soil in your township ? This was to
ascertain what species of weeds grow most abundantly in certain kinds
of soil ; and the information obtained will be found with the descriptions
of the different weeds in the following pages.

2. Are the weeds in your neighborhood more numerous and more
troublesome than they were ten years ago? The majority of the corres-
pondents say that weeds are far more numerous than they were, and
that the injury done by them is far greater. The Canada Thistle, how-
ever, is spoken of as much less troublesome than it was, — a fact due, no
doubt, to the vigorous methods taken to eradicate it from cultivated land,
and in a less degree to the law for its destruction on the highways.

3. Are the provisions of the weed law enforced in your township ?
About 95 per cent, answer no most emphatically. They say that a
number of townships appoint men to look after the Canada Thistle, but
that little or nothing is done with other weeds. " The township council
takes no action, because the councillors are afraid of losing votes at the
next election." "Pathmasters do not enforce the Act, for fear of incurring
the enmity of neighbors " ; and " rented farms, especially such as belong
to loan companies, are often overrun with weeds, to the great injury of
neighboring farmers."

4. What is the estimated annual loss ivhich you sustain from weeds?
Some of the answers to this question are amusing, but the great majority
of them show a full appreciation of the fact that a serious loss undoubt-
edly results from the existence of weeds among farm crops.

Some consider the weeds a blessing in disguise, as they compel lazy
and careless farmers to keep on cultivating the soil ; and very many, in
making their estimate, seem wholly to overlook the loss from the use of
plant food and the absorption of soil moisture by weeds. A number
estimate their loss at twenty -five cents per acre, and quite a few place it
as high as $5 per acre ; so, considering the whole list and counting labor,
with the loss of soil moisture, fertility, etc., we think that $1.00 per acre
is a conservative estimate of the annual loss throughout the Province.

5. What means do you use to destroy the weeds on your farm ? and
with what success ? Many full answers were given to this question ; and
the most valuable information contained in these answers has been set
forth under various heads in the descriptions which follow. One point,
however, which is strongly emphasized by many, may be mentioned in
passing, viz., that no method, however good it may be, is of any use,
unless it is faithfully carried out. A lack of thoroughness in the work
done for the destruction of weeds always results in failure.

10

6. What new iveeds have you noticed lately in your locality'? Are
they spreading rapidly! and hoiv have they been introduced?

Essex County. — Wild Lettuce is the worst of the newer weeds. Farmers should watch
closely for specimens of this plant and destroy them at once. The Sow Thistle and Russian
Thistle occur occasionally. The latter is reported from Pelee township.

Kent. — Wild Lettuce getting troublesome. False Fjax, Plantain, Russian Thistle, and
Sweet Clover gaining ground. Mustard bid in Camden township.

Lambton.— Wild Lettuce getting troublesome, especially in Sarnia, Moore, Sombra, and
Dawn townships. Bindweed, Oxeye Daisy, Blue We^d, and Wormseed Mustard reported as
among the newer weeds.

Elgin. — Blue Weed increasing the most rapidly of the newer weeds, especially in Aldborough
and Southwold townships— spreading southwards from the River Thames. Dodder reported
from Yarmouth township. Plantain and Wormseed Mustard spreading in certain districts.

Middlesex. — Blue Weed becoming plentiful and troublesome in Caradoc and Ekfrid
townships, Wild Flax in London and Lobo townships, and Plantain in Ekfrid.

Huron. — Mustard and Ragweed, although troublesome in many places, are comparatively
new in Ashfield township. Wild Flax spreading rapidly in Stephen township, the Perennial
Sow Thistle in Hullett, Bindweed in Tuckersmith, and Bladder Campion in the north-east
townships of the county. A word of warning to all farmers : look out for Dodder and Chicory !

Bruce. — Ragweed beginning to spread, having already got a foothold in Brant, Saugeen,
and Huron townships. Dodder reported from Bruce, Huron, and Kincardine townships, Plan-
tain from Amabel, and Bindweed from Brant.

Norfolk.— Ragweed very troublesome. Wild Flax spreading in a few localities, especially in
Windham township.

Oxford.— Ragweed by far the most prevalent of the newer weed?, coming from the roadside
and spreading rapidly over the country. Sow Thistle becoming plentiful in Blenheim. Plantain
and Wild Fhx spreading in North Norwich and North Oxford townships.

Perth, — Perennial Sow Thistle reported from every township. Ragweed appearing and likely
to give much trouble, if not looked after and destroyed. The Russian Thistle reported in Blanch -

Gfrey. — Ragweed spreading very fast in Proton, Egremont, Bentinck, and Sarawak townships.
False Flax establishing itself in Egremont, and Plaintain in Sydenham and St. Vincent.

Haldimand. — Dodder found among the newer weeds in Walpole township, Sow Thistle in
Moulton, Ragweed in Seneca, Penny-Cress in Sherbroake, and Wild Lettuce in West Cayuga.

Brant. — Mustard bad in Brantford Township, Ragweed in South Dumfries, and Dodder in
Burford, — all needing close attention and vigorous work,

Waterloo. — Penny-Cress giving a good deal of trouble and spreading fast, especially in Wilmot
and Waterloo townships. False Flax and Ragweed spreading in Woolwich and North Dumfries.

Wellington. — Perennial Sow Thistle spreading very rapidly in the centre townships. Worm-
seed Mustard reported by several correspondents in Puslinch. Wild Flax gaining a footing in
the county, and Dodder reported from several places, especially Erin, Eramosa, and Maryborough.

Wetland. — Russian Thistle reported by several correspondents in Stamford township, Wild
Flax in Pelham, and Prickly Lettuce and Penny-Cress in Willoughby.

Lincoln. — Dodder and Perennial Sow Thistle reported from Louth township.

Wentworth.- Dodder p'entiful in Ancaster and West Flamboro' townships, Wild Lettuce
beginning to spread in Saltneet, Wormseed Mustard in Beverly, and Plantain in Ancaster and
Binbrook townships.

Halton. — Wild Flax and Ragweed spreading fast ; also Bladder Campion and Blue Weed.

Peel. — Wild F ax reported by a number of correspondents as spreading rapidly in the Gore
of Toronto, Caledon, and Chingacousy townships. Penny-Cress found in the Gore.

Dufferin. — Wild Oats, Mustard, and Sow Thistle reported as the worst of the newer weeds.

Simcoe.— False Flax spreading fast in the northern parts of the county and especially plenti-
ful in the six southern townships. Mustard bad in Essa and Oro townships. Ragweed in Adjala
and Matchedash, Wcrmseed Mustard in Orillia, and Bindweed in Tecumseth.

Muskoka. — Blue Weed spreading from the townships of Watt and Monck. Bindweed in the
north of Stephenson township, and Perennial Sow Thistle in several localities.

York.— Wild Tares very troublesome in this county. Perennial Sow Thistle and Ragweed
among the newer weeds, which are on the increase in every township. Chicory reported as bad
in York, Markham, and Vaughan townships. Wild Flax in Scarboro' and the northern town-
ships. Plantain and Bladder Campion in Scarboro' and Noith Gwillimbury. Russian Thistle
said to have been found on several vacant lots in the City of Toronto.

Ontario.— Wild Tares very bad in the south part of Whitby township and rapidly spreading
in other townships, especially Uxbridge, Reach, and Scugog. Ragweed spreading in Reach and
Brock townships. Perennial Sow Thistle one of the newer weeds in the county.

11

Durham. — Ragweed, Oxeye Daisy, and Perennial Sow Thistle, the weeds most likely to
prove troublesome in this county.

Victoria.— Oxeye Daisy, Fahe Flax, and Perennial Sow Thistle among the newer weeds.

Northumberland. — Ragweed spreading rapidl}'. Wild Mustard plentiful alone: the line of
the Grand Trunk Railway. Dodder in Percy township, Wild Flax in Percy and Hamilton,
Plantain and Sow Thistle abundant in Seymour and Percy.

Peterborough.— Perennial Sow Thistle, White Cockle, Dodder, and Bladder Campion among
the newer weeds reported from the southern townships of the county.

Haliburton. — Oxeye Daisy spreading fast.

Prince Edward.— Blue Weed in Ameliasburg township, and said to bespreading southwards.
Chicory bad in portions of Hallowell. Bladder Campion and Perennial Sow Thistle in Hillier.

Hastings. — Blue Weed spreading fast and specially troublesome in south part of the county.
White Cockle, Dodder, and Wormseed Mustard reported from Thurlow, Tyendinaga, and Sydney
townships. No report from northern townshiof.

Lennox and Addington. — Ragweed establishing itself, especially in Camden township. Blue
Weed reported from Denbigh township, and Purple Cockle from Amherst Island.

Frontenac.— Dodder in Storrington township, and Blue Weed spreading, especially in the west.

Renfrew. — Perrennial Sow Thistle fast gaining ground in the county. Blue Weed spreading.
White Cockle bad in Bromley township, having been introduced in grass seed from western Ontario.

Lanark. — Blue Weed very bad in Montague, Drummond and Bathurst townships. Peren-
nial Sow Thistle abundant and spreading fast in Montague township.

Grrenville. — Perennial Sow Thistle reported as spreading in all the townships. Ragweed in
Edwardsburg and Augusta, Wormseed Mustard in Oxford, and Plantain in EJwardsburgh.

Carleton.— Sow Thistle spreading rapidly in Fitzroy and North Gower townships, and Blue
Weed becoming troublesome in the western portions of the county.

Dundas.— No report.

Russell.— Ribgrass, Ragweed, Cornflowers and Penny- Cress spreading in this county.

Stormont. — Perennial Sow Thistle lately introduced but spreading fast.

Glengarry. — Perennial Sow Thistle making rapid headway in every township. Other new
weeds spreading more or ICPS in this county are Ragweed, Penny-cress and Clr'cory.

Prescott. — Blue Weed very bad in Hawkesbury township, having been introduced from
Glengarry. Ragweed also becoming troublesome.

As to the ways in which the above weeds have been introduced, the
answers are various, but the great majority of the correspondents men-
tion two agencies as chiefly responsible : (1) Impure seed, especially
grass and clover seed ; (2) Threshing machines.

Several grades of clover seed are sold by seedsmen : — No. 1, or
the best quality, is usually clean, but most of it is exported, as Canadian
farmers will not pay the price asked for this grade ; No. 2, or second
quality, is the kind generally sold in country stores throughout the
Province. Of the sixty samples referred to on a previous page, by far
the worst were from country stores, for which fact we cannot say that
the storekeepers are to blame any more than the farmers who refuse to
pay the price necessary to secure the best seed,

We would again urge that every farmer, no matter what the asser-
tions or statements of sellers may be, should examine carefully with a
glass all grass and clover seed which he thinks of sowing on his land ;
and in case he discovers foreign seeds which he does not know, let him
send samples to the Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph, and all such
samples will be promptly examined and reported upon.

12

A NUMBER OF COMMON WEEDS, WITH POPULAR DESCRIPTIONS
AND NOTES ON ERADICATION.

FJG. 1.

FOX-TAIL, YELLOW FOX-TAIL, BOTTLE GRASS, OR PIGEON GRASS.
Ghameraphis glauca (L).

A common weed in stubble, fallow, or root fields. It has a perennial
root, with stems about two feet high, of erect habit of growth. At the
summit of that part of the leaf which sheaths the stem (the ligule) there
is a fringe of hairs. The leaves are flat, rough above, and smooth
beneath. The dense, close spike, which resembles millet, is bristly and
tawny yellow in color.

The seeds are £ in. long, various shades of brown in color, with
transverse wrinkles. They frequently retain their green color, and are
quite commonly found as an impurity in clover and grass seed. (See
Fig. 1, a). An average plant produces about 15,000 seeds.

Time of flowering, July- September.

Time of seeding, August-October.

Eradication. — Gangplow stubble ground about three inches deep
early in the fall ; as soon as the seeds have had time to sprout, cultivate
thoroughly ; repeat cultivation and rib the land with a double mould
board plow the last thing before the frost. Put in a hoed crop (potatoes,
roots, or corn) next spring and cultivate thoroughly throughout the grow-
ing season. Follow with a grain crop seeded with clover, without plow-
ing after the roots, for if the land is plowed it is liable to bring more
seed to the surface, When the sod is broken up, plow shallow in the
latter part of harvest, cultivate with harrow and cultivator throughout
the fall, and rib up as above.

In the early after-harvest cultivation of stubble ground, some harrow
the stubble as the first step ; and when the weed seeds have sprouted
under their light covering, then gang-plow and harrow, and stir after-
wards with the cultivator as time permits throughout the fall.

NOTE. — In all of the accompanying illustrations, in addition io the
representations of the plants, the seeds are shown both natural size and
enlarged.

FIG. 1.

YELLOW FOX-TAIL.

(Chameraphis gt&uca},

[13]

14

FIG. 2.

CHESS, CHEAT OR WHEAT THIEF.
Bromus secalinus (L).

A weed naturalized from Europe. It is a winter annual, with fibrous
roots and rough coarse leaves. It has large spikelets, dark green in
color, of characteristic shape, and grows from three to four feet high.

Many look upon Chess as degenerated wheat, because it appears
among fall wheat that has been winter-killed. This idea is erroneous
and without foundation. The fact is that Chess will mature seed under
adverse conditions, even though the plant be only a few inches high. The
seed possesses great vitality, and is often found in wheat and rye.

Chess is most commonly found among wheat and rye.

The flour made from it is dark-colored and has narcotic principles.
Care in the selection of seed grain and careful cultivation, tending to pre-
vent the maturing of the seeds, are the chief remedies. The planting of
a crop that can be harvested before the Chess matures is a good plan in
badly infested localities. An average plant produces about 1,000 seeds.

Time of flowering, June. Time of seeding, July.

" Chess is a typical plant belonging to the genus Bromus. Wheat
belongs to the genus Triticum. Chess will prod ace Chess and only
Chess, and a seed of wheat cannot be sown to produce Chess, and Chess can-
not produce wheat under the most favorable conditions of growth.

" In instances where parts of a plant, apparently a combination of
Chess and wheat were so united as to seem but one plant, close examina-
tion proved them to be parts of separate plants, and that the apparent
union was not real."

Eradication. — Avoid fall sown crops, and follow as far as practicable
the same method as is recommended for Mustard. In this case, however,
the meadow will require special attention, and any weeds that appear
must be removed. If many weeds appear in the meadow, it will be better
to break it up and follow the rotation suggested under Fox-tail.

FIG. 2.

CHESS.

(Bromus secalinus.)

[15]

16

FIG. 3.

WILD OAT.

Avenafatua (L).

An annual weed with erect and smooth sterns. The leaves and
stems are covered with white bloom, which gives a peculiar white-green
color to the whole plant. The head forms a loose panicle, with nodding
and spreading branchlets. The awn is long and bent, and covered with
brown hairs. It is bent most when dry ; but if moistened, it uncoils and
wriggles around, thus causing the seed to move appreciable distances.

The principal points of differences between the wild and cultivated
oat are (1) In the former the chaff is thick and .hairy, while in the
latter it is thin and hairless ; and (2) The wild oat has a long, stiff awn
which is bent and twisted when dry, while the cultivated oat either has
a much smaller and less stiff awn or none at all. An average plant
produces about 800 seeds.

Time of flowering, July. Time of seeding, July-August.

Dispersal — conveyed from place to place by threshing machines, and
as an impurity in seed -grain.

Wild Oats are at home in any soil that will grow cereals, and they
ripen their seeds among almost any cereal crop. The seeds possess won-
derful vitality, some of them remaining buried in the soil for years and
germinating as soon as they are brought under favorable conditions.

Eradication. — On a field infested with wild oats, cereal crops should
be dropped out of the rotation as far as possible ; and hoed crops, soiling-
crops, hay, and pasture should take their place. To get the land under
grass, it should be fallowed during part of the season, the cultivation
being frequent arid shallow, to destroy all seeds that may have germi
nated in the upper layer of the soil. The land can then be so wu. with
winter wheat and seeded, or with an early variety of barley, which
should be cut on the green side. The treatment mentioned is suitable
for pasture land, or land which has produced a hay or soiling crop during
the forepart of the season.

FIG. 3.
WILD OAT.
(Avena fatua.)

17]

18

FIG. 4.

COUCH-GRASS, TWITCH-GRASS, QUACK-GRASS, QUITCH-GRASS, OR QUICK-
GRASS ; ALSO WHEAT- GRASS.

Agropyron repens (L).

Couch-grass is a creeping perennial which grows from 1 to 3 feet
high. It has a jointed rootstock which penetrates deeply into the ground
and possesses great vitality. The plant produces spikes from 3 to 8
inches long. The small spikelets alternate at each notch of the flower
stalk, with the edge of the spikelet turned towards the stalk.

The seeds are about J in. long, and rather slender (Fig 4, a.). An
average plant produces 400 seeds.

Time of flowering, June-July.

Time of seeding, July-August.

Dispersal — the rootstocks are carried around by implements, and the
seeds are occasionally found in seed-grain.

Whatever value Couch-grass may have for pasture, its habit of tak-
ing and keeping possession of the soil renders it extremely objectionable.
It flourishes best in loamy or humus soils, from which it is especially
difficult to eradicate.

Eradication. — To destroy this grass, the cultivation should be such
as to prevent its appearing above the surface. Hoed crops of various
kinds, shallow cultivation, or a bare fallow on which buckwheat may be
sown and plowed under, will be found useful. A well manured and care-
fully cultivated rape crop is especially effective as a means of destroying
this grass.

The treatment outlined for Canada Thistle may be followed in com-
bating this weed.

FIG. 4.

COUCH GSASS.
(Agropyron repens. )

[19]

20

FIG. 5.

DOCK, CURLED DOCK, SOUR DOCK, OR YELLOW DOCK.
Rumex Crispus (L).

A deep-rooted perennial weed introduced from Europe.

It occurs around buildings, in neglected lanes, along waysides/and in
pastures. The stem is quite slender, and the leaves are from six to twelve
inches long, with wavy margins ; hence the common name, " curled
dock." The flowers are in racemes, green in color.

The seed is winged, and is carried considerable distances by the
wind. The manner of attachment of the seed to the wing is shown in
illustration (Fig. 5, a.). The seeds are light brown in color, triangular^
with sharp edges and tapering point. They are smooth and shiny
(Fig. 5, b).

The wind acts as an agency in scattering the seed, and it is a very
common impurity in clover and other seeds used on the farm.

An average plant produces about 17,000 seeds.

Time of flowering and seeding, July-August.

Eradication. — In most cases this weed can be kept in check by the
frequent introduction of well-cared-for hoed crops into the rotation. The
shorter the rotation, the better. The later sown hoed crops, especially
rape, are more effective than those sown earlier in the season. Before the
hoed crop is sown, this weed may be kept from breathing above ground
by going frequently over the field with a broad- shared cultivator, which
will cut the plants an inch or two below the surface ; but as the roots are
tough and strong, it may sometimes be necessary to use the gang-plow,
or even the single plow. About the 1st of July, the land may be sown
with rape in drills, say 26 inches apart, and kept clean, or nearly so, by
the horse -hoe and more or less hand hoeing. The rape can be pastured
off in the usual way during the fall ; and occasionally it may be neces-
sary to put another hoed crop on the same ground the following spring,
say a crop of corn ; but much depends upon the timeliness, regularity ,
and thoroughness with which the hoeing is done.

FIG. £.
CURLKD DOCK.

(Rumex cnspus.)

[21]

22

FIG. 6.

SORREL, OR SHEEP SORREL.
Eumex acetosella (L).

A perennial with running rootstocks. The stem is slender and erect,
with branches. The leaves are spear-shaped and quite characteristic.
The flowers occur in recemes and are green in color. The foliage has a
pronounced acid taste.

The seed is 1-16 in. long, triangular, smooth, and shining when naked,
but dull brown when invested by its covering. An average plant pro-
duces about 10,000 seeds.

Time of flowering, June- September.

Time of seeding, July-October.

Propagation — by its running rootstocks, and as an impurity in clover
seed, especially Alsike.

Eradication. — Sorrel is usually an indication of a poor, sandy, or
gravelly soil. It prefers acid soils, hence liming and manuring are effec-
tive remedies, when the land is well tilled. The remedies given for the
Dock (Fig. 5) are applicable to Sorrel, only it requires more frequent use
of the broad- shared cultivator, which should be used so as to cut the roots
just below the surface of the soil, without bringing up any of the creeping
rootstocks.

Fig. 6.

SHEEP SOBRBL.
( Rumex acetoseUa. )

[23]

24

FIG. 7.

LAMB'S QUARTERS, OR GOOSEFOOT.
Chenopodium album (L).

An annual weed widely distributed in cultivated land. It grows to
a height of from 2 to 6 feet. The stem is grooved and much branched.
The leaves are whitish green below and dark green above. The flowers
are unconspicuous and greenish in color.

The seed (Fig 7, a.) is black and shining, lens-shaped, and round,
about 1-16 in. in diameter.

Time of flowering, June- October.

Time of seeding, August-October.

Distribution - by seeds, especially as an impurity in clover and grass
seeds.

Eradication. — Late cultivation is especially necessary in combating
this weed, as it flowers and seeds till very late in the season. The land
should be gang-plowed shallow and harrowed immediately after harvest,
and cultivated at intervals until late in the fall, when it may be plowed
or ribbed up for a hoed crop the following spring. Subsequent treat-
ment the same as for Foxtail (Fig. 1).

FIG. 7.

LAMB'S QUARTERS.
(Chenopodium album.)

[25]

26

FIG, 8.

PIGWEED, OR REDROOT.
Amarantus retro flexus (L).

An annual, with pink root, stout, erect stem, and many branches.
It grows from 1 to 6 feet high. The leaves are light green in color, and
ovate in shape. The flowers are in spikes, which terminate branches or
are from the axils of the leaves, and are green in color.

The seeds (Fig. 8, a) are round and lens-shaped, smooth and shiny
black in color, resembling the seed of Lamb's Quarters, but slightly smal-
ler and thinner. An average plant produces 15,000 seeds.

Time of flowering, July-September.

Time of seeding, August- October.

Dispersal —the seed is distributed by the wind and as an impurity in
grass seed.

Eradication. — Special attention must be given to fall cultivation of
the soil, so as to prevent plants from ripening, and to sprout and destroy
the seeds which have fallen upon the ground. The land should be gang-
plowed shallow and harrowed immediately after harvest, and cultivated
at intervals until late in the fall, when it may be plowed or ribbed up
for a hoed crop the following spring. Subsequent treatment the same as
for Foxtail (Fig. 1).

FIG. 8.
PIG-WEED.

(Atnarantus retroflexus.)

[27]

FIG. 9.

PURSLANE, OR PURSLEY.
Portulaca oleracea (L).

Purslane is pre-eminently a garden weed and is readily recognized by
its fleshy leaves and stem, which lie prostrate on the ground. It is an
annual.

The stems are red, and the leaves wedge-shaped and clustered at the
ends of branches. The flowers are bright yellow, about J in. across and
open only during full sunlight for a few hours in the morning. The
seeds (Fig. 9, a), in small capsules, are black, kidney-shaped, and
extremely small. An average plant produces 60,000 seeds.

Time of flowering, July, until frost.

Time of seeding, August, until frost.

Dispersal — by seeds.

Purslane has been used as hog feed in very dry seasons, but the cost
of gathering it is too great.

Eradication. — Careful hoeing and constant cultivation. The latter
should be as early as possible. The same treatment should be followed
as that outlined for Foxtail (Fig. 1).

FIG. 9.

PURSLANE.

(Portulaca olcracca.)

FIG. 10.

CORN COCKLE, OR CORN CAMPION.
Agrostemma githago (L).

An annual adventive from Europe, about 1 to 3 feet high, with erect
habit of growth. It has but few branches, and the stems are all very hairy,
with whitish-green hairs. The leaves are rather long and narrow, with
pointed ends. The flowers are red to purple, and the flower cup (calyx)
has long lobes, three or four times the length of the petals.

The seed capsules are generally well filled with seed which is black
in color and kidney-shaped, with tubercles (small conical projections)
arranged in rows around the sides of the seed. (See Fig 10, a.) The
seed is about J in. across. An average plant produces about 500 seeds.

Time of flowering, July.

Time of seeding, August.

Dispersal — by birds, in manure, and as an impurity in seed grain.

It may be noted, in passing, that the seed is injurious to young
chickens, and the husks of the seed often elude the miller and appear as
black specks in flour, which is seriously damaged thereby. An old
writer, Gerarde, says:

" What hurt it doth among come (wheat) the spoyle unto bread, as
well in colour, taste, and unwholesomeness, is better known than desired/'

Eradication. — Sow clean seed ; and when the weed is not very thick
pull it by hand. Otherwise, use the same treatment as for Mustard,
<See Fig. 15).

FIG. 10.
CORN COCKLE.
Agrostemma githago.)
[31]

32

FIG. 11.

BLADDER CAMPION, OR Cow BELL.
Silene inflata (L).

A naturalized perennial which promises to be a bad weed in Ontario ;
and it is spreading very fast. It grows from 6 inches to 2 feet in height,
and branches from the base. The leaves are oblong and vary greatly in
size. The flowers are white, about J in. broad, and are arranged in a
loose panicle. The flower cup (calyx), veined and inflated like a bladder,
distinguishes the plant from others that resemble it.

The seeds are brown and kidney -shaped, with minute tubercles dis-
posed regularly over the surface (Fig. 11, a). An average plant produces
about 9,000 seeds.

Time of flowering, June-August.

Time of seeding, July-September.

Dispersal — by root stocks and as an impurity in seeds.

The Night-flowering Catchfly (Silene noctiftora), resembles the Blad-
der Campion ; but it is an annual, tall and very leafy, with a viscid secre-
tion all over its stem, often so profuse that the stems and leaves are cov-
ered with small insects entangled in it. It opens at night and possesses
a fragrant smell. It is not so bad a weed as its relative, the Bladder
Campion. In Fig. 11 are shown the seeds of these two plants, natural
size and enlarged That on the left is Bladder Campion, that on the
right is the Night-flowering Catchfly.

Eradication. — For these weeds practically the same treatment as-
outlined for the creeping perennials (Canada Thistle, etc.) will answer,
although the plow may have to be resorted to more frequently, instead
of the broad -shared cultivator, on account of the size and thickness of
the roots.

FIG. 11.

BLADDER CAMPION.

(Silene inflata.}

[33]

34

FIG. 12.

WHITE CAMPION, OR WHITE COCKLE.
Lychnis alba (L).

A biennial weed introduced from Europe, with hairy and branching
stems from 1 to 3 feet high. Like the Night-flowering Catchfly, it has a
viscid secretion, which attracts many insects. The leaves are oblong,
with acute tips The flowers are in loose panicles, white or pink in color,
and nearly f in. broad. As a rule they open at night and remain so
until the morning of the following day. The pod has short teeth around
the top, which curl back when dry, and the seeds are distributed by the
wind swaying the stem, when the seeds drop out. In. wet weather these
teeth straighten out and completely close the opening at the top.

The seed (Fig. 12, a) is brown in color and kidney-shaped, with
tubercles regularly disposed over the surface. An average plant pro-
duces 10,000 seeds.

Time of flowering, June-August.

Time of seeding, July-August.

Dispersal — by wind and as an impurity in seeds.

Eradication. — Exercise great care in cleaning seed grain, and exam-
ine all purchased grain with a sharp lookout for this seed. If the weed
be on the farm, follow the method outlined for Foxtail (Fig. 1) or Mus-
tard (Fig. 15).

FIG. 12.

WHITE COCKIF.

(Lychnis alba.)

[35]

36

FIG. 13.

PEPPER GRASS, OR TONGUE GRASS.
Lepidium Virginicum (L).

A native annual which grows from six inches to a foot and a half
high. The stem usually has many branches, and the lower leaves ter-
minate in a large lobe (with small lateral ones), with edges slightly cut
in along the margin. The upper leaves are tapering. The flowers are
small and white, with slender spreading flower stalks. The seed pods
are round, with a very small wing at the top and a notch at the extre-
mity. The end of a branch with seed pods is shown nearly natural size in
Fig. 13, a.

The seeds (Fig. 13, b) are reddish brown, flat and oval in shape, and
about 1-16 in. long. The average plant produces about 18,000 seeds.

Time of flowering, June-August.

Time of seeding, July-September.

Dispersal — by birds and as an impurity in clover seed.

Eradication. — Be careful to prevent the plants from seeding, and do
not plow them under when half ripe, as many of the seeds will germinate
even though partially matured. Pull and burn where only a few plants
exist, and when they are numerous use the method employed for the
eradication of Mustard (Fig. 15).

FIG. 13.

PEPPER Gmss.
(Lcpidivm Virginicvm )

[37]

38

FIG. 14.

PENNY-CRESS, BASTARD-CRESS, FRENCH WEED, WILD GARLIC, OR

STINK-WEED.

Thlaspi arvense (L). .

A winter annual, introduced from Europe, and a very bad weed. It
is very abundant in Manitoba and is becoming rather common in Ontario.
It grows as an erect plant, with a number of branches from the upper
part. The leaves are numerous during the tirst of the season, and clasp
the stem by ear-line lobes. The flowers are white and small, with spread-
ing flower stalks. The pods which succeed the flower are very charac-
teristic. They are nearly orbicular, about half an inch broad, quite flat,
with a broad wing all around, and notched at the top. Fig 14 shows this
peculiarity. Each pod produces about twelve seeds, which are dark
brown to black and oval in shape, with curved lines. An average plant
produces about 20,000 seeds.

The plant has a peculiar odour, resembling that of garlic, hence so;iie
of the common names. The seed also has a very pungent taste. When
eaten by milch cows, it imparts a disagreeable flavor to the milk.

Time of flowering, May-September.

Time of seeding, June -September.

Dispersal — chiefly by the wind.

Eradication. — Continuous growing of hoed crops with thorough
cultivation thereof, followed by heavy seeding with rye. In places where
the weed is very thick, mowing and burning is a good remedy. The
method outlined for eradicating Mustard is applicable to this weed.
(Fig. 15).

Jt

FIG. II.

PENNY CRESS.

(Thfaspi arvcnse.)

[39]

40

FIG. 15.

WILD MUSTARD, CHARLOCK, OR HERRICK.
Brassica sinapistrum (L).

Among the worst weeds in Ontario is the Wild Mustard, an annual,
naturalised from Europe, with fibrous roots and erect habit of growth.
The stem is rough, with stiff hairs somewhat scattered over the surface.
The branches arise from the upper part of the stem and bear oblong
leaves ; and the lower leaves have one terminal large lobe and several
smaller lateral ones (lyre-shaped). The flowers are yellow, showy, and
about f in. broad, with stout flower stalks, which are more noticeable
when the plant is in fruit. The pods, which appear on the lower part of
the stem whilst the top is still in flower, are from 1 to 2 inches long, and
are either spreading or ascending.

The shape of the pod is characteristic ; it is constricted between
the seeds, thus giving the appearance of a rounded enlargement where
each seed is borne. This appearance is termed " knotted." The
pod terminates in a two-edged beak, and the two valves of the pod are
strongly veined or ribbed.

The seed (See Fig. 15) is black, J in. in diameter, perfectly spheri-
cal, and very much like rape or turnip seed ; and it retains its vitality
for a long time when buried in the soil. An average plant produces
15,000 seeds.

Time of flowering, June- September. Time of seeding, July-Septem-
ber.

Dispersal — by birds and implements, but chiefly as an impurity in
seed.

Eradication. — Owing to the great vitality of the seed, Mustard is a
very hard weed to eradicate. The seeds, once in the ground, live for
years and continue to germinate as they are brought near the surface.
Hence it takes patience, a great deal of labor, and a long time to get rid
of the weed, when it once gets possession of the land. When present
only in small amounts, hand-pulling is the best method, provided the
pulling is done before seeds have formed ; arid as persons pulling in a
hurry cannot wait to examine for seed, it is best to put the weeds, as
they are pulled, in bundles where they can be burned when dry.

When fields are overrun with the weed, it is best to proceed as fol-
lows : Harrow stubble-ground early after harvest, or gang-plow and
harrow. As soon as the seeds have had time to sprout, cultivate thor-
oughly ; repeat cultivation at intervals ; and rib up with a double mould-
board plow the last thing in the fall. Put in a hoed crop, either roots or
corn, the following spring,and cultivate it thoroughly throughout the grow-
ing season. Cultivate and harrow well two or three times after roots or
corn, having first run the plow along each row of corn roots to cut the
roots and turn them up ; and rib up before the frost. (If the plow is

FIG. 15.
MUSTARD.

(Brassica stnapistrum.)
[41]

42

used after roots or corn, it is likely to bring more seed to the surface).
Sow a crop of grain the following spring and seed with clover. ^Pull
weeds by hand out of the grain crop ; take a crop or two of hay, or
pasture ; and break up the clover sod, treating it as outlined in the note
to Mr. Rennie's method of cleaning land. (See page 8). When neces-
sary at any stage in this method, use a grubber or subsoil plow to stir
the soil to a greater depth than is reached by the surface cultivation.

Spraying with 2 per cent. Copper Sulphate (10 Ibs. dissolved in 50
gallons of waterj, according to some authorities, gives good results, but the
Mustard must be young or the spraying will be valueless. This method
was tried here on some Mustard, and killed all the young plants touched
by the spray.

FIG. 16.

WORMSEED MUSTARD, OR TREACLE MUSTARD.

Erysimum cheiranthoides (L).

A native weed, which seems to be spreading rapidly through the
Province. Many specimens have been sent here for examination during
the past year.

An annual or winter annual with erect and branching stems from 8
in. to 2 ft. high. The foliage is bright green and abundant. The leaves
are long, tapering at the base into a short petiole, and they are covered
with T-shaped hairs. The flowers are yellow and about J in. across. The
little stalks (pedicels) holding the pods, come out from the stem obli-
quely, but the pod stands erect on the pedicel, parallel with the stem.
The pod is about an inch long and four-angled, with one row of seeds
in each cell. The S3eds are 1-16 in. long and light brown in color, with
a furrow on one side (Fig. I6a). An average plant produces 25,000 seeds.

Time of flowering, June-July. Time of seeding, July-August.

Dispersal — frequently as an impurity in Clover seed.

Eradication. — Hand pulling and burning is the best remedy when
the weed occurs in small quantities; but where there is much of it, the
following procedure is advised : Harrow stubble-ground early after har-
vest or gang-plow and harrow. As soon as the seeds have had time to
sprout, cultivate ; repeat the cultivation, and rib up the land with a
double mouldboard plow the last thing in the fall. Put in a hoed crop,
either roots or corn, the following spring, and cultivate thoroughly
throughout the growing season. Cultivate after the roots or corn, sow a
crop of grain, and seed with clover. If not too much, pull weeds by
hand out of the grain crop ; take a crop or two of hay or pasture ; and
break up the clover sod, treating it as outlined in note to Mr. Rennie's
method of cleaning land. (See page 8).

FIG. 16.

WOE M SEED MUSTARD.

(Erysimum chieranthoides.)

[43]

FIG. 17.
SHEPHERD'S PURSE.

Capsella bursa-pastoris (L).

A winter annual, naturalised from Europe, with a long, deep, tap
root. The root leaves are lobed and form a large rosette which lies close
to the ground, and in this state it passes the winter. The following
spring, a more or less branched stem arises, with arrow-shaped leaves
thereon. The flowers are very small and white in color, and are much
less conspicuous than the seed vessels, which are triangular in shape, and
are attached to the stalk or pedicel at the lower apex of the triangle.
From the character of these pods, the plant obtains its scientific and com-
mon name. The triangular pod is divided down the centre by a parti-
tion, forming two cells, each of which contains from 10 to 12 seeds. (Fig.
17, a). In size, the plant varies greatly from a few inches to two feet,
depending on the soil and locality. But even a very diminutive plant
produces many seeds. The seed is very small, light brown in color, and
oblong in shape, (Fig. 17). An average plant produces over 50,000
seeds. Fig. 17 shows shape of seed, also the arrangement of seeds in
the pod.

Time of flowering, early spring till the beginning of winter.

Time of seeding, early spring till the beginning of winter.

Dispersal — as an impurity in grass seed ; also by birds, as the pods
when ripe open and drop the seeds, which are eaten by birds, and often
evacuated without digestion or injury.

Eradication. — It easily succumbs to cultivation : and as the plant
spreads only by seed, persistent effort should be made to prevent seeding.
The method employed against the preceding weed may be used for eradi-
cating the Shepherd's Purse (Fig. 16).

FIG. 17.

SHEPHERD'S PUBSK.

(Gapsella buna-pastorif»)

L45]

46

FIG. 18.

FALSE FLAX, OR GOLD OF PLEASURE.
Camelina saliva (L).

This weed probably came to this country in imported flax seed. In
Europe it is cultivated for the fine oil extracted from the seed, which is
used in feeding cattle. Its common name arose from its supposed re-
semblance to flax.

An annual and winter annual, with simple or branching stems ; the
lower leaves are long, with a stem, or petiole ; and the upper ones clasp
the stem with arrow-shaped bases. The flowers are numerous, yellow,
and somewhat inconspicuous. The seed vessel, or pod, is pear-shaped or
globular, with a small projection from the upper end. The little stalks
holding the pods are slender and spreading or ascending. The seed is
brown and somewhat larger than that of Shepherd's Purse. (Fig. 18).
An average plant produces about 40,000 seeds

Time of flowering, June-August.

Time of seeding, July- August.

Dispersal — as an impurity in flax and clover see-1, and occasionally in
grain.

Eradication. — Where only a few plants or patches exist, pull by
hand. Where it is more plentiful, use the method detailed for Wormseed
Mustard (Fig. 16).

FIG. 18.
FALSE FLAX.
Camelina sativa )
[47]

48

FIG. 19.

BINDWEED,

Convolvulus arvensis (L).

A very troublesome weed which winds its tough and curling stems
around the stalks of various plants, partially chokes them, and thereby
hinders their growth. It is a perennial with a very extensive creeping
root which penetrates far into the soil, and any piece of the root pos-
sessing one or more buds is capable of starting new plants, hence it is
necessary to clean implements very thoroughly after they have been
used in a field containing this weed. The stems are branched and either
trail on the ground or climb by twisting around some other plant. The
leaves are rather small, with 2-4 lobes at the base, giving them an arrow-
headed shape. The flowers are white or rose-colored and 1 inch across.
The seeds, three in number, are large, black, and angular, and are held in
a spherical capsule (Fig. 19). An average plant produces about 160 seeds.

Time of flowering, June-September. Time of seeding, August-October.

Dispersal — chiefly by means of its creeping roots ; sometimes as an
impurity in seed grain.

Eradication. — This is a very difficult weed to eradicate and careless
cultivation only increases the trouble by carrying the roots from place
to place. Salting is recommended by some practical farmers who have
succeeded in eradicating this very troublesome pest ; but we cannot speak
from experience as to the value of this method of treatment.

The weed may be kept in check by the frequent introduction of
well cared-for hoed crops into the rotation, and the shorter the rotation
the better. The later sown hoed crops, especially rape, are more effectual
than those sown earlier in the season. Before the hoed crop is sown, the
weed may be kept in check by going frequently over the field with a
broad-share cultivator, so as to cut all the plants an inch or two below
the surface without bringing up any of the creeping rootstocks. About
the 1st July the land may be sown with rape in drills, say 26
inches apart, and during the early growth of the crop the weeds may be
kept in check by means of the horse-hoe, with more or less hand-hoeing.
If the land has been well manured or is naturally rich in vegetable
matter, the rape will make a rank growth and smother some of the
weeds. The rape may be pastured in the fall, and in extreme cases may
be followed by another hoed crop, such as corn. If the corn is well
cultivated and hoed, most, perhaps all, of the plants will be destroyed.

In some cases it may be advisable to summer-fallow, and in such
cases it is best not to plow more than is absolutely necessary, but to
depend mainly on the broad-share cultivator. Buckwheat sown on
summer-fallow and plowed under when coming into blossom, followed by
surface cultivation with the broad-share cultivator, will assist very much
in killing the weed. If necessary, the summer-fallow may be followed by
a hoed crop.

FIG. 19.
BINDWEED,
(Convolvulus arvensis.)

[49]

50

FIG. 20.

DODDER, CLOVER DODDER, DEVIL'S GUT, OR STRANGLE WEED.
Cuscuta epithymum (Murr).

Judging from the number of enquiries made about Dodder, we fear
that it'is spreading rapidly in the Province of Ontario.

The seed takes root in the soil and puts forth a shoot which winds
around some living plant. Having a good start, the shoot disconnects
itself from the earth and derives its nourishment from the juices of the
plant to which it clings. Drummond says : — " There are certain plants
— the Dodder for instance — which begin life with the best intentions,
strike true roots into the soil, and really appear as if they meant to be
independent for life. But after supporting themselves for a brief period,
they fix curious sucking discs into the stem (Fig. 20, (3)) and branches of
adjacent plants, and, after a little experimenting, finally cease to do any-
thing for their own support, thenceforth drawing all their supplies ready
made from the sap of their host. In this parasitic state the Dodder has
no need for organs of nutrition of its own, and Nature therefore takes
them away. Henceforth, to the botanist, it presents the degraded spec-
tacle of a plant without a root, without a twig, without a leaf, and hav-
ing a stem so useless as to be inadequate to bear its own weight."

The stems are very slender and red in color, curling around clover
or grass and completely choking it, as well as appropriating its juices.
It puts forth dense clusters of small whitish flowers, which are succeeded
by rounded pods, full of seeds. The seeds are small, grey, or yellowish
brown and round in shape. An average plant produces about 2,500
seeds. There are numerous species of dodder, parasitic on flax, onions,
and a variety of other herbs and small shrubs.

Time of flowering, June- July.

Time of seeding, July -September.

Dispersal— often as an impurity in clover and lucerne seed.

Eradication. — Guard carefully against it in clover and other seeds.
Cut before ripening, as near the ground as possible, collect, and burn
and modif v the rotation so as to leave clover out for a time.

Fig. 20 (4).
DoDDHEt SEED.
Natural size and en-
larged five times.

Fig. 20 (1). DODDBR ON GRASS AND CLOVER.

Fig. 20 (5). DODDER-
Showing the seeds
in situ.

Fig. 20 (3). DODDKR.
(a) Cross-section of Dod ler stem.
(6) Crops-section of Clover st«-m.
(c) Sucker from stem of Dodder.
51

Fig. 20 (2). DODDER GROW

INO OV STEM OV HOP.

(After Ktrner.)

52

FIG. 21.

HOUND'S TONGUE, DOG BUR, OR BURS.
Cynoglossum officinale.

A biennial weed, with erect hairy stem, of rank growth, and much
branched, one to three feet high. The lower leaves have petioles ; the
upper ones clasp the stem. They are 6-12 inches long and covered with
downy hair, and have a disagreeable odour resembling that of mice.
The flowers are small and lurid purple-red in color. The fruit consists
of a broad, rounded bur, J inch long, with one flat side and covered with
short spines which enable it to adhere to clothing or to animals (Fig. 21 ,
a). An average plant produces about 600 seeds.

Time of flowering, June-August.

Time of seeding, July-September.

Dispersal — chiefly by animals carrying the burs.

Eradication. — Spud or cut deep in fall and early spring ; the former
to destroy the plant in its first year, and the latter to complete the
destruction by removing those that escape the first cutting.

FIG. 21.

HOUND'S TONGUE.
(Cynoglossum officinale,}

[53]

FIG. 22.

BLUE WEED, VIPER'S BUGLOSS, BLUE THISTLE, OR BLUE DEVIL.
Echium vulgare (L).

A biennial weed naturalized from Europe, with deep tap root, which
penetrates to a great depth. During the first year, the portion above
ground is a rosette of leaves ; and from the centre of this, next season,
bristly, hairy, and erect stems arise one to two and a half feet hrgh. The
leaves are oblong, two to six inches in length, with both upper and lower
surface hairy. The flowers are numerous, arranged in a rich spire>
and are azure blue in color. The seeds are hard and brown in
color, with a broad base and angular body \ in. long (Fig. 22, a). An
average plant produces 3,500 seeds. The seeds are probably dispersed in
winter by the wind, as they remain for a long time on the plant.

Its names, both Latin and English, are significant of the notion that
it was an effectual remedy against the bite of a viper.

The weed prefers gravelly and lime soils.

Time of flowering, July- October.

Time of seeding, August-October.

Dispersal — by seeds, especially in winter when they are blown over
the snow.

Eradication. — This weed gives very little trouble in arable land, if
the cultivation is at all thorough. In fence corners, on roadsides, and in
waste places, cutting below the crown with a spud, is practically the only
effective method of destroying the weed. Sometimes, however, this is
impracticable, because of the number ; and in such cases, some special
treatment, similar to that recommended for the Dock (Fig. 5) may be
resorted to.

FIG. 22.

BLDE WEED.

(Echiurn vatgare.)

[55]

56

FIG. 23.

MULLEIN, OR VELVET DOCK.
Verbascum thapsus.

The mullein is a weed introduced from Europe, — very common in
vaste places, road sides, and gravelly or sandy pastures. It is a biennial,
^vith large, long roots, from which spring a tall and usually unbranched
stem, 2 to 6 feet high. Both stem and leaves are densely woolly all over,
with branched hairs. The leaves are whitish, thick, and velvety to the
touch. The flowers are yellow and arranged on densely crowded elon-
gated spikes. The capsule containing the seeds is about f in. long, and
the seeds are small, about 1-20 in. long, six-sided, with irregular ridges
running lengthwise between the sides. The color of the seed is dark
brown. An average plant produces 6,000 seeds.

Time of flowering, July-September.

Time of seeding, August-November.

Dispersal — as an impurity in clover and grass seed.

Eradication. — Spud or cut below the crown ; or dig up the roots
when young ; or break up the sod and grow hoed crops. It easily
succumbs to cultivation.

The Moth Mullein (Verbascum blattaria), is a worse weed than the
common mullein, as it infests meadows and bears far more seed. The
seed is often found as an impurity in clover and timothy. The plant
itself is smooth and slender, from 2-6 feet high, with dentate leaves. The
flower is yellow, with brown marks on the back of the petals ; and the
stamens have violet filaments. The seed is brown, very small, and six-
sided. Treat it the same as common mullein.

In Fig. 23 are shown the seeds of the mulleins — the upper seed is
the common mullein, the lower is the moth mullein.

FIG. 23.
MULLEIN.

(Verbascvm Thapsus.)
[57]

58

FIG. 24.

PLANTAIN, BLACK PLANTAIN, RIB-GRASS, OR RIB-WORT.
Plantago lanceolata.

This plant was once very generally believed to be a favorite food of
cattle, yet the opinion of most agriculturists is against it. It is con-
sidered a bad weed, especially when it appears in lawns. Numerous
inquirers ask what it is, and how to get rid of it. It is a perennial or
biennial, with a short thick root-stock, of erect growth, or, more gener-
ally, lying on the ground as a rosette of leaves. At the base of the
leaves there are tufts of brown hair; and the leaves themselves are long,
narrow, and tapering, with prominent veins, or ribs running lengthwise ;
hence some of the popular names. The flower-stalk is slender and
channelled, is without leaves, and terminates in a dense spike. The
stamens project from the inconspicuous flowers, giving a whitish appear-
ance to the whole head. The seeds are enclosed in small pods, each con-
taining two seeds. The seeds are about 1-12 of an inch long, brown and
shiny, with a grove on one side, in the centre of which is a black spot.
The opposite side is rounded, as are also the ends (Fig. 24, a). An aver-
age plant produces 1,200 seeds.

Time of flowering, June -September.

Time of seeding, July -September.

Closely allied to this plant is the Broad Plantain (Plantago major),
which has broad oval leaves and very long tapering spikes.

The seeds of both of these weeds are very common in clover and
grass seed ; and persons buying these seeds or lawn mixtures, should
examine closely and guard carefully against plantain seed.

Eradication. — If the plants are not numerous, cut below the crown
with a spud. If they are, use treatment outlined for Mustard (Fig. 15),

FIG. 24.
PLANTAIN.

( Plantago tanceolata. )

[59]

60

FIG. 25.

RAGWEED, HOGWEED, BITTERWEED, OR ROMAN WORMWEED.
Ambrosia artemisicefolia.

Ragweed is an annual. The stein is much branched and slightly
hairy, from 1 to 3 feet high. The leaves are very finely divided, the lower
.•surface being of a lighter color than the upper. The flower heads are
very numerous, from 1 to 6 inches long, green, and inconspicuous. The
-flowers are yellow, 1-6 inch across, infertile in the terminal spikes, and
fertile only at the base of the spikes. The seed is dark brown, with
& sharp tip, around which are arranged 4 to 6 spines, 3-16 inches long.
They have great vitality and remain in the soil a long time without
injury. An average plant produces about 5,000 seeds. The seed has a
bad taste and gives a peculiar odour to the milk of cows which eat it.

Time of flowering, July- September.

Time of seeding, August-November.

Dispersal — as an impurity in seed grain ; and by wind and water,
being borne long distances by freshets.

Eradication. — For the eradication of this weed, special attention
must be given to the fall cultivation of the soil, to prevent seeds from
ripening. Gang-plow or cultivate and harrow stubble ground immedi-
ately after harvest, and repeat cultivation at intervals until late in the
fall ; then plow or rib up and follow with a hoed crop. Subsequent
treatment, the same as for Mustard (Fig. 1 5).

FIG. 25.
RAG WEED.

(Ambrosia artemisicefolia,)
[61]

62

FIG. 26.

YELLOW DAISY, CONE-FLOWER, BLACK-EYED SUSAN, OR NIGGERHEAD.

Rudbeckia hirta (L).

A biennial and sometimes annual weed found in pastures and mead-
ows. It grows about 1 to 3 feet high. The stems are sparingly branched
and very bristly. The leaves are thick, hairy, oblong and tapering to-
wards the point. The flower is about 1 in. across, with orange yellow
rays or petals (10 to 20 in number) and dark purple brown discs almost
spherical or cone-shaped. The seeds are dark brown, almost black, four-
angled, and aboub J in. long, with no pappus, or tuft of hair (Fig. 26, a).
An average plant produces about 2,000 seeds.

Time of flowering, June-August

Time of seeding, July-September.

Dispersal — as an impurity in seed grain.

Eradication. — It can generally be killed by mowing, but it is some-
times necessary to break up meadow or pasture land, as suggested in note
to Mr. Rennie's method of cleaning land (see page 8), and follow with a
hoed crop. If this is well cared for, it will destroy all Cone-flower.

FIG. 26.
CONR FLOWEB.
( Rudbeokia hirta.
[63]

64

FIG. 27.

OXEYE DAISY, WHITE DAISY, WHITE WEED, OR POVERTY WEED,
Chrysanthemum leucanthemum (L).

The Oxeye Daisy is a weed naturalized from Europe, and is very
closely related to the Chrysanthemum, or national flower of Japan.

It is a perennial, with shorb, thick rootstocks, possessed of much
vitality. Very many stems spring from one root. It grows from 6 inches-
to 3 feet high. The leaves slightly clasp the stem, the lower ones narrow,,
long, and toothed along the edges, the upper ones small and without
teeth. They are slightly aromatic, more perceptibly so if bruised. The
flowers are 1 to 2 inches broad, on long stalks, with from 20 to 30 white
rays and bright yellow disc. The seed is about 1-12 in. long and angled,
with alternate white and black loiigtitudinal ribs. It has a short point,,
but no pappus (Fig. 27). An average plant produces 7,500 seeds.

Time of flowering, June-August.

Time of seeding, June-September.

Dispersal — chiefly in grass seed and by birds.

Eradication. — The Daisy is most troublesome in pastures, and cam
be got rid of only by breaking up the sod. It can be eradicated by the
method outlined for Canada Thistle (Fig. 29).

FIG. 27.

OXEYE DAISY.

(Chrysanthemum leucantkemum.)

[65]

FIG. 28.

BUEDOCK, GREAT BUR, CLOT-BUR, OR BEGGAR'S BUTTON.
Arctium lappa (L).

A biennial weed with tremendous roots, probably the largest of all
weed roots. This root is uniform in size for a foot below the surface ;;
further down, it is much branched and has a great hold on the ground.
The stem is much branched (from 4 to 9 feet high) and rough, with broad
rounded leaves, the lower surface of a lighter green than the upper. The
flower heads occur in clusters and are purple in color. The flower recep-
tacle, or involucre, as it is called, is composed of hooked spines, which are
very adhesive and do much injury to the wool of sheep. The seeds are
brown f in. long and spotted with darker brown (Fig. 28).

Time of flowering, July-September.

Time of seeding, August-October.

Dispersal — chiefly by animals carrying the seed from place to place.

The plant when burnt yields a good quality of alkaline ash, equal to
the best potash ; and a decoction from the roots is said to be equal to the
juice of Sarsaparilla as a blood purifier, etc.

Eradication. — Cut below the crown with a spud and burn the tops..

FIG. 28.

BURDOCK.

(Arc Hum lappa.)

[67]

68

FIG. 29.

CANADA THISTLE, OR CREEPING THISTLE.
Carduus arvensis (L. & ROBS).

This weed was originally introduced from Europe, and hence incor-
Tectly named Canada Thistle. It is a hardy perennial, with numerous
underground stems which bear a large number of shoots. (See Fig. 29,
illustrating two of these shoots.) It grows to a height of 1 to 3 feet.
The leaves are narrow and long, deeply indented into very prickly, lobed
segments. The leaf has a crimped appearance, and at the base slightly
clasps the stem. The under surface of the leaf is woolly, the upper
surface less so. It produces numerous heads containing flowers, which
are ^ to f inches across and of a lilac-purple color. The flower is smaller
than that of other thistles. The seed is grey, oblong, and about J in.
long, with slight longtitudinal markings. Attached to the top is a con-
spicuous tuft of long hairs (the pappus) (Fig. 29, a). The seed is carried
long distances by the wind. An average plant produces 3,500 seeds.

Time of flowering, June- August. Time of seeding, July-September.

Dispersal — chiefly by the wind.

Great care should be taken to prevent Canada Thistle from seeding.

Eradication. — The Canada Thistle can be eradicated in several
ways, if thorough work is done at the right time :

1st. By careful and persistent spudding, done in such a way as to
prevent the plant from developing top above the ground.

2nd. By early after-harvest cultivation of stubble ground.

3rd. By the frequent introduction of hoed crops into the rotation.

4th. By seeding much with clover, taking one or two crops of hay,
plowing the clover sod shallow early after harvest, and cultivating
frequently throughout the fall.

5th. By summer-fallowing.

Assuming that all land should be plowed in the fall, we may outline
-very briefly one or two methods of destroying thistles :

(1) In stubble ground for spring crop. — Gang-plow shallow and
harrow early after harvest (immediately after the crop is off) ; and as
soon as seeds have had time to sprout or thistles begin to appear, cultivate
thoroughly with a broad-share cultivator, the points or shares overlap-
ping far enough to cut all plants ; and harrow again, to pull up and
expose the plants that have been cut. Repeat the cultivation at inter-
vals throughout the fall, and plow in the usual way, or, if possible, rib
up with a double mould-board plow just before the frost. This systema-
tic cultivation from harvest till winter, will check thistles and other
weeds very much, and when followed by a hoed crop (mangels, corn,
turnips, carrots, beans, or rape), properly cultivated, it will not only clean
the land, but put it into good shape for a crop of grain (oats, barley, etc.,)
the next spring, which crop should be seeded with red clover.

FIG. 29.

CANADA IHISTLK.
(Carduus arvensis.)

[69]

70

(2) In sod (meadow or pasture) for spring crop. — After one or two,
but not more than two, crops of hay or pasture, plow shallow (not more
thnn four inches) early after harvest, say the 1st to the 15th of August,
and harrow at once. Let it stand a couple of weeks and then cultivate the
same way it was plowed, two or three inches deep, with a spring-tooth
cultivator. After a while cross-cultivate a little deeper. If possible
cultivate a third, or even a fourth time, going a little deeper each time.
Then, if you can manage to do so, rib it up with a double mould-board
plow the last thing in the ' fall. This will make a good foundation for
any crop the following spring — grain, roots, corn, or rape — and if the
portion in hoed crop is thoroughly cultivated with horse and hand hoes,
very few, if any, thistles will be left. The portion intended for rape
must be kept clean by surface cultivation till the time for putting in the
crop, say the last half of June or the 1st of July, after which it should
IDC treated like other hoed crops.

Some recommend a crop of fall rye on land which is intended for
rape the following summer, but the rye takes so much moisture from the
soil in the spring that the rape after it is apt to be a poor crop, unless in
favorable seasons.

If summer-fallowing is resorted to, it will be well not to plow any
more than is necessary, but to rely on surface cultivation with the broad -
share cultivator and the harrow, done in such a way as to cut the plants
two or three inches below the surface, without bringing up any of the
numerous rootstocks which run along a little lower down. It will also
be well to keep the fallow covered part of the summer by growing some
kind of green crop, say a crop of buckwheat, sowed rather thick and
plowed under when coming into bloom. This will help to prevent the
loss of nitrates which bare land suffers from washing, and will improve
the soil by increasing the supply of vegetable matter in it.

When necessary at any stage in the above method of cultivating either
stubble-ground or sod, say for mangels, use a grubber or sub- soil plow to
stir the soil to a greater depth than is reached by the surface cultivation.

FIG. 30.

CHICORY, OR WILD SUCCORY.
Cichorium intybus (L).

A perennial weed introduced from Europe, with long, deep tap-root,
which, when dried and ground up, is used in adulterating coffee and as a
substitute for it. The stems are almost leafless, from 1 to 3 feet high,
much branched, slightly hairy and whitish in color. The leaves, spread
out on the ground, are long, with irregular edges. The flower heads are
numerous, occuring in clusters, without flower stalks, on the naked
branches. The flowers are about 1J inches across, bright blue in color,

FIG. 30.

CHICORY.

(Cichorium intybus.)

[71]

72

-and are usually closed by noon. The seed is about J in. long, tapering
to a blunt point, the opposite end having a fringe of minute hairs around
the crown. The body of the seed is corrugated. An average plant pro-
duces about 3,000 seeds.

Time of flowering, July- October.

Time of seeding, August- October.

Dispersal — frequently as an impurity in clover and grass seed.

Eradication. — The method outlined for Canada Thistle may be fol-
lowed in eradicating this weed, but the plow may have to be used more
frequently than is advisable in combating thistles.

FIG. 31.

WILD LETTUCE, SOUTHEEN THISTLE, OR TIUJMPET-MILKWEED
(Erroneously called Prickly Lettuce.)

Lactuca Canadensis (L).

An annual or biennial plant with a leafy stem, which may attain a
height of seven feet. The leaves are deeply lobed, terminating in an
acute point, and have stalks or petioles, the lower ones being smaller
than those near the top of the stem- The stem branches at its summit
into a compound flower-cluster. The flowers are small, yellow in color>
and open only a few at a time. The seed is dark brown in color, flat, and
oval, with longitudinal ribs and a thread-like beak at the apex, and
possesses a small white tuft of hair (Fig. 31, a).

Time of flowering, June- October.

Time of seeding, July-October.

Dispersal — chiefly by the wind.

Eradication. — Where there is not much of it,rpull and burn before
ripening. Where this cannot be done, use the same method as for Mus-
tard (Fig. 15.)

Closely allied to this plant is the Prickly Lettuce (Lactuca scariola)r
but distinguished from it by its leaves, the midrib of which is quite spiny.
This variety is somewhat troublesome in pastures, but it can be eradicated
by cutting and burning before it seeds, or by following the same method as
for Mustard (Fig. 15).

FIG. 31.
WILD LETTUCE
(Lactuca Canadensis.)
[73]

FIG. 32.

ANNUAL Sow THISTLE, COMMON Sow THISTLE, OR MILK THISTLE.
Sonchus oleraceus (L).

An annual weed introduced from Europe. It grows 2-3 feet high,
lias fibrous roots aud leafy stem, and is not quite so large or coarse as
the Perennial Sow Thistle. The leaves are much lobed, and have short,
soft spines. Each head is many-flowered; but the flowers are small,
about J in. across, and of a pale yellow color. The seeds are brown, thin,
and about J in. long, with longtitudinal markings, and attached to the
top is a large tuft of fine hairs united at the base.

Time of flowering, June- August.

Time of seeding, July-August.

Dispersal — chiefly by the wind.

Eradication. — Cultivate stubble-ground and sod early after harvest
and throughout the fall as for Canada Thistle (See Fig. 29). Follow with
hoed crop, preferably corn or roots, and cultivate thoroughly throughout
the growing season. Use the cultivator, instead of the plow, after roots
or corn ; sow a crop of grain and seed with clover ; if practicable, pull the
weeds by hand out of the grain crop ; take one or two crops of hay or
pasture, and again break up the sod, plowing, harrowing and cultivating
as for Thistle? (Fig. 29).

FIG. 32.

ANNUAL Sow THISTLE.
(Sonchus oleraceus.)

[75]

76

FIG. 33.

PERENNIAL Sow THISTLE, FIELD Sow THISTLE, OR CORN Sow

THISTLE.

Sonchus arvensis (L).

A perennial weed, 1 to 3 feet high, with large and vigorous root-
stocks, full of a milky white juice. The stems are rough, and the growth
of the lower part of the plant is rank. The leaves are deeply cut and
furnished with small spines, and at their base clasp the stem. The flowers
are bright yellow, of fair size, J in. across, and quite similar to those of
the Dandelion. They close up in strong sunlight. The calyx, or flower
cup, is green and covered with yellowish bristles. The seed is brown' in,
color and about J in. long, with both longitudinal and transverse mark-
ings. To the top, a tuft of silken hair is attached (Fig. 33, a). An aver-
age plant produces about 2,000 seeds.

Time of flowering, June- August.

Time of seeding, June-August.

Dispersal — by running rootstocks, and the scattering of seeds by the
wind.

The Sow Thistle draws much water from the soil and is a heavjr
feeder. It is less troublesome on stiff clays than elsewhere.

Note. — Fig. 33, nearly natural size, shows the difference between:
Annual and Perennial Sow Thistles.

Eradication. — The method used for the eradication of the Canada*;
Thistle is recommended for this weed.

FIG. 33.
PERENNIAL Sow THISTLE.

(Sonchus arvensis.)

[77]

78

FIG. 34.

FLEABANE, OR HORSE WEED.
Erigeron Canadensis.

A tall hairy plant, very common in meadows. It is a winter annual.
The stem is much branched and is hairy. The leaves are downy, from 1
to 4 inches long. The flower heads are numerous, about J in. broad,
with white flower rays. The seeds are small, light in color, and 1-16 in.
long, with a pappus of short tufty hairs. An average plant produces
120,000 seeds (Kerner).

Time of flowering, June-September,

Time of seeding, June-September.

Dispersal — chiefly by the wind.

Eradication. — Having a small root, this weed can be easily pulled.
Hence, where there is not very much of it, hand-pulling is a satisfactory
means of eradication. As a rule, the weed is troublesome only in
meadows, and the frequent breaking up of meadow land tends to keep it
under control.

FIG. 34.

FLKABANB.

(Erigeron Canadensis }

[79]

80

The following table indicates comparative destructiveness of some
Ontario weeds, compiled from reports of correspondents in nearly ^every
township in^the Province.

Canada Thistle —

Mustard —

Wild Oat •

Couchgrass

Rag weed ~~

Ox-eye Daisy

False Flax •

Dock

Burdock

Foxtail

Pig weed

Perennial Sow Thistle

Blue weed ^

Annual Sow Thistle

Chess

Bindweed

Sheep Sorrell . .

Purple Cockle

Dandelion

Lamb's Quarters _

White Cockle

Purslane .

Moth Mullein ,

Shepherd's Purse

Wormseed Mustard

Dodder

Hound's Tongue

Eib Grass

Bladder Campion

Fleabane

Mullein ,

Pennycress

Cornflower :

Pepper Grass

Catchfly

Is

t r -Do1A^ ^ATE

YC 5881

I

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