Vol. 9, No. 2, 1978

WESTERN BlkhS

Quarterly JournoJ of WftiTrm I- i r! ■ = tMorfi piogisri

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lowed for agen crt'.i ,

WESTERN BIRDS

Volume 9, Number 2, 1978

SEABIRDS IN THE NORTHWESTERN PACIFIC OCEAN
AND SOUTH CENTRAL BERING SEA IN JUNE 1975

TERENCE R. WAHL, Department of Biology, Western Washington University,
Bellingham, Washington 98225

Between 6 June and 8 July 1975 I was a seabird observer on a cruise
from Hakodate, Hokkaido, Japan to Kodiak, Alaska, via the south cen-
tral Bering Sea, aboard the Hokkaido University Faculty of Fisheries
training/research vessel, TV Oshoro Maru. This paper reports the distri-
bution and relative abundance of species observed within the regions
visited.

AREA COVERED

The cruise track, with noon positions, count locations and local sea
surface temperatures, is shown in Figures la and lb. The track was
north of that sailed by Hamilton (1958) and south and east of that cov-
ered by Kuroda (1955, 1960), both of whom report on seabird distri-
butions in June cruises in the northwestern Pacific region. Our track
was west of the Bristol Bay areas censused in late summer by Bartonek
and Gibson (1972) and farther offshore for the most part than the areas
reported on by Murie (1959) and Trapp (1975). Transect counts were
tabulated by sea areas (Figure 2), which correspond with the Domains
used by Sanger (1972), as adapted from Dodimead et al. (1963). The
Oyashio/Kuroshio Confluence forms the southern boundary of the Tran-
sition Domain, the Northwestern Pacific and Pelagic Bering Sea areas
are within the Western Subarctic Domain, the Offshore Aleutians within
the Coastal Domain, and Bering Sea Continental Shelf area within the
Bering Sea Coastal Domain.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

Weather and observation conditions in the area were fairly typical for
the season (see Kuroda 1955), although visibility was perhaps more re-
stricted than normal (T. Fujii pers. comm.). General sea surface temper-
atures (Figure 2) were below long-term means in one area east of Japan

Western Birds 9:45-66, 1978 45

SEABIRDS

Figure la. Cruise track from Hokkaido to the Aleutians, locations of counts (heavy lines), noon positions 6-13 June 1975 (circles) and sea
surface temperatures (° C).

SEABIRDS

and in the Aleutians and Bering Sea areas (Clark and Miller 1975, Evans
and Miller 1975). Wind speeds (Figure 2) were generally moderate. Sea
conditions were relatively uniform, usually with swells of 1-3 m and
seas of 0-3 m. Cloud cover of 90%-100% and an effective horizon of
2000-5000 m were normal observation conditions, although periods of
fog restricting visibility to 100-250 m and occasional brief sunny periods
also occurred. Precipitation was infrequent and relatively light.

METHODS

Systematic observations were conducted during 112.2 hours from 6
June through 5 July while the ship was travelling a straight course at an
average speed of about 11 knots. Observations were made from bridge
wings approximately 6 m above the sea surface, from the side of the
ship offering minimum effects of wind, precipitation, spray and (rarely)
glare. Count periods usually lasted 30 to 60 minutes. Notes on all birds
seen within a 300 m, 90° arc from bow to one side of the ship were
tape recorded, with plumage, behavior and direction of movement noted
when possible, along with conditions of observation. Flocks or unusual

Figure lb. Cruise track in the Bering Sea, location of counts (heavy lines), noon
positions 13 June-5 July 1975 (circles), and sea surface temperatures (°C). Routes
between gill-net drift stations 13-24 June not shown.

47

Table 1. Daily totals of seabirds recorded within 300 m transects. Species seen outside transect width or hours are noted by +. Dashes indi-
cate no observation of the species on that date.

SEABIRDS

vO f'* Os Os <N <N m
in Os

ffl N H H

N CO N

f- X "t

v© <N N r-t ia i-H

m

in

i

1

fN

1

©

^H

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

i

1

1

1

!

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

*■

i

1

X

tn

1

422

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

I

1

1

m

1

1

1

H

in

1

1

1

1

m

I

1

CM

i—i

1

m

IN

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

i

1

1

+

1

1

1

i

1

1

1

V©

1

in

i

i

26

-

m

X

1

1

1

i

i

1

1

1

1

i

1

i

1

H"

1

1

1

i

1

1

1

in

^H

1

July

l-H

i

1

M

m

1

in

1

1

1

i

1

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1

1

IN

i

1

V©

1

1

1

1

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1

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29

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1

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1

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1

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1

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1

Os

ON

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1

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m

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

i

1

1

m

1

1

1

IN

i

1

1

1

+

1

28

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1

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24

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48

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rr>

«N

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+

1

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in

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20

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in

rn

m

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T— 1

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lH

»-H

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m

IN

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3077

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IN

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1

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1

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1

1

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1

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n

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1

1

1

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1

1

1

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1

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1

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1

1

1

1

1

1

1

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N

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IN

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1

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1

1

1

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1

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r»

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m

l-H

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1

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il

m

<N

-

1

1

i

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1

1

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1

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flJ

C

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>0

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24

49

1

1

1

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1

1

1

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l-H

IN

m

X

m

115

LI

J

1

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1

1

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1

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1

1

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<U

O

E

»-

o

u

T3

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fcu

p

Q ~

.E

* B

s a

I H

U M

bo v

v be

Ji cl

^ fiw

O -g

Sf |

(4 O
— » CO

p

U -

•O P

a, o

S "o
It -s

■s

P

o

J3 rt

o 5

Table 1 (cont.)

SEABIRDS

Total

226

141

+

l-H

196

442

115

2

37

i-H

m

101

l-H

87

+

46

19

200

7682

U1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1 1

rs

l

1

1

1

1

1

1

20

130

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m

1

1

1

rft

1

m i-H

1

l

1

1

m

1

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16

fM

in

5.0

m

r-

m

1

1

1

fM

l-H

fM i-H

H

l

1

1

i

1

1

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39

S

i-H

4.8

fM

00

in

1

1

+

165

34

l

+

1

i

1

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53

00

Os

m

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July

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fM

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98

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1

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i-H

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4.7

28

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fM

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79

178

5 1

1

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m

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fM

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+

00

m

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2.8

27

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1

1

1

l-H

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70

3.8

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74

3.5

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* .s
■o * =

ft I U

3 -r $ *2

•8 -g 3 .5

eL ~ «

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t

3

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3

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c < -g

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49

SEABIRDS

Table 2. Birds observed per 10 hours within 300 m transects, in each sea area.

Species/species groups

Oyashio/

Kuroshio

Confluence

North-

western

Pacific

Offshore

Aleutians

Pelagic

Bering

Sea

Bering Sea
Continental

Shelf

Albatrosses

24.5

9.6

+

—

Northern Fulmar

30.6

18.9

98.9

52.3

51.2

Shearwaters

46.3

52.6

1722.4

39.7

306.4

Gadfly petrels

39.5

6.3

1.4

Storm-petrels

374.1

29.1

87.4

73.9

39.2

Jaegers, skua

6.8

1.3

2.7

3.1

7.9

Glaucous-winged Gull

—

18.0

+

10.3

Kittiwakes

—

8.3

46.4

44.3

64.0

Murres

0.7

115.3

3.5

261.6

Small alcids

1.7

137.8

5.6

8.9

Puffins

18.4

6.3

38.3

3.8

45.3

Total birds/10 hours

540.8

134.1

2275.4 1

227.9

814.8

Total area censused (km 2 ) 82.7

162.5

115.2

116.3

110.3

Birds/km 2

9.6

2.5

36. 1 2

5.6

15.0

Hours of systematic
observation

14.7

30.2

18.3

28.7

20.3

1 Without shearwaters = 55 3.0 birds/ 10 hours

2 Without shearwaters = 8.8 birds/km 2

occurrences of birds noted beyond the 300 m transect width were re-
corded also. In addition, general data on environmental conditions, ship
speed, course and position were obtained from the ship’s log or officers
on watch. Several transect counts were aborted when fog closed in to
limit visibility, and observations were sometimes limited by wind-chill
resulting from ship motion and air temperatures as low as 2.9° C. Iden-
tifications were aided by 10x50 binoculars.

The numbers of birds following the vessel were adjusted to represent
minimum daily numbers (maximum numbers noted at any one time dur-
ing a count period or series of consecutive count periods). However, no
further allowances were made for effects of ship-attraction or repulsion
on some species (which may cause overstatement of numbers of alba-
trosses, fulmars, storm-petrels, gulls or flying puffins) or for varying ob-
servability of alcids on the water (which can understate abundance rela-
tive to flying alcids or larger, more visible species). Manikowski (1971)
reports that kittiwakes apparently accumulated at fishing vessels during
the day, with maximum numbers present before dark. Similar possible
variations in the Bering Sea are not taken into account here. Thus, cal-
culations of “densities” are not attempted (see King 1970 and Wiens et
al. 1977 for pertinent discussions of many factors involved). Physical
oceanography sampling (including sea temperature and salinity bottle

50

SEABIRDS

casts), plankton sampling, and other experiments were made frequently
beginning 12W June (12 June west of the 180° longitude date line), and
these were the principal functions of the ship from 24 June through 4
July. Nine experimental salmon gill-net sets were made between 12E
June and 24 June. The drift net (about 5 m deep and 5000 m long) was
released just before dark and retrieved at first light.

RESULTS

Table 1 gives daily totals of birds observed within the 300 m tran-
sects and additional occurrences outside transects. Specimens salvaged
from gill-net sets are given in Appendix 1. Relative abundances of spec-
ies/species groups noted within sea areas are shown in Table 2 and Fig-
ures 3-16.

Table 3. Relative abundance of color phases of Northern Fulmars observed within
transects, by sea area. Dark phase includes “black,” dark and medium gray; light
phase includes white bodied birds with gray or white wings.

Color Phase

Oyashio/

Kuroshio

Confluence

North-

western

Pacific

Offshore

Aleutians

Pelagic

Bering

Sea

Bering Sea
Continental
Shelf

Dark

100%

98%

98%

97%

80%

Light

2%

2%

3%

20%

Total birds (n)

45

57

168

151

142

Table 4. Relative abundance of kittiwakes observed within transects by sea area.

Black-legged

Oyashio/

Kuroshio

Confluence

North-

western

Pacific

Offshore

Aleutians

Pelagic

Bering

Sea

Bering Sea
Continental
Shelf

Adult

—

50%

58%

20%

66%

Immature

Red-legged

"

50%

21%

6%

13%

Adult

—

—

11%

22%

18%

Immature

—

—

9%

52%

2%

Total birds (n)

—

28

75

127

130

51

SEABIRDS

SPECIES SEEN AT SEA

BLACK-FOOTED ALBATROSS (Diomedea nigripes). Very few were seen
(Table 1). Sea surface temperature range was 6.0-10.2°C, with one seen at 4.3-
4.9°C.

LAYSAN ALBATROSS (Diomedea immutabilis) , Birds followed the ship al-
most continually in the Confluence area and Northwestern Pacific, and were at-
tracted to gill-net hauls on several occasions. Ten at 50°03'N, lyS^OS'E on 12E
June were the most seen at once, and two at 52° 50'N, 176°10'W on 20 June
were the most northerly recorded. Birds attempted to pull fish from the gill-net
(to about 0.5 m below the surface) with little apparent success.

NORTHERN FULMAR (Fulmarus glacialis). The absence of birds in mid-Pa-
cific (Figure 4) suggests that we had passed beyond the range of the northwestern
Pacific breeding population. Kuroda (1960) saw fulmars offshore from the Kuriles
and Kamchatka. Numbers increased on 12W June, and the species was common
on almost all days thereafter. Dark-phase birds predominated, although most were
noticeably lighter than birds seen on 6-8 June in the Confluence area, which were
extremely dark (“black”) birds. A generalized dark/light phase breakdown by sea
areas is given in Table 3.

Shuntov (1972) indicates very few dark fulmars are found in the area of the
Pribilofs at any time of the year. My sample was small and the Pribilofs them-
selves were fog-bound, but counts over the Bering Sea continental shelf within
140 km radius of the Pribilofs showed dark birds outnumbered light by about
2,6:1 (n=79), with light birds generally concentrated north of the islands. On nine
counts over the pelagic Bering Sea waters, between 185-370 km northwest and
southwest of the Pribilofs, dark birds outnumbered light by 16:1 (n=50). This
distribution generally agrees with the findings of G. Hunt (pers. comm.). The
presence of dark birds in the offshore areas could represent distribution of birds
from “dark” colonies in the Aleutians.

Fulmars did not follow the ship in the Confluence or Northwestern Pacific
areas and, while they were attracted to the stopped ship and were usually seen
over the ship’s wake in the Offshore Aleutians and Bering Sea areas, most appeared
evenly distributed over the sea surface to the limit of vision. Census numbers
were adjusted to maximum numbers seen in a count period or series of consecu-
tive counts. During our nine e.arly-morning net hauls, numbers present ranged
from 5-77 birds. Stopped-ship counts later at oceanographic stations ranged from
0-200, with an average of about 10.

SOOTY SHEARWATER (Puffinus griseus). This species was recorded in the
Confluence area and very small numbers were noted in flocks of the next species
thereafter (see Table 1). The combined distribution of Sooty and Short-tailed
shearwaters is shown in Figure 5.

SHORT-TAILED SHEARWATER ( Puffinus tenuirostris). Large flocks were
seen resting on the water near Amchitka Pass on 12E June, and concentrations
were evident near Unimak Pass on 4-5 July, although visibility was greatly restrict-
ed. Small numbers were noted in the Pelagic Bering Sea, but numbers increased
substantially over the Bering Sea Continental Shelf, after 28 June. Wiens et al.
(1977) report no shearwaters over the Bering Sea Continental Shelf area near the
Pribilofs in mid-June 1976; the species’ arrival time in the area is evidently quite
variable (see Shuntov 1972).

MOTTLED PETREL (Pterodroma inexpectata). Two birds moving north in
the Confluence area on 8 June were the first noted, and some were seen in the
Northwestern Pacific area (Figure 6). This agrees with general distribution given
by Nakamura and Tanaka (1977). Several birds were seen in the Pelagic Bering
Sea area, the most northerly being one at 55°54'N, 179°58'E on 25 June. These
records accord with Shuntov (1972), Kuroda (1955), and Kenyon and Phillips

52

SEABIRDS

(1965). It now appears the species is quite widely distributed over the cooler
North Pacific during its non-breeding season (Wahl 1975, Nakamura and Tanaka
1977, W. Hoffman unpubl. records) and also in the Sea of Okhotsk (Shuntov 1972).

SOLANDER’S PETREL (Pterodroma solandri). This large gadfly petrel was
seen in loose flocks On 7-8 June in the “warm** waters of the Confluence area
(6.0-10.8° C occurrence range), usually foraging in rather slow circles, often high
above the sea surface. (See Kuroda 1955, 1960 and Nakamura and Tanaka 1977).

KERMADEC PETREL (Pterodroma negle eta)} A bird seen briefly within 100
m at 42°01'N, 150°45'E in the Confluence area on 7 June showed head, body
and underwing pattern described for the light phase of this species (see Slater 1970).
Sea surface temperature was 5.7-6.2°C.

COOK’S PETREL (Pterodroma cookii). One was closely seen at 45°57'N,
169°10'E on 10 June, over sea surface temperature of 4.0° C. Another bird, pos-
sibly cookii , was seen at 45°59'N, 168°19'E, also on 10 June, over sea surface
temperature of 4.9-5. 3 °C.

HARCOURT’S STORM-PETREL (Oceanodroma castro). Twenty-two of the
white-rumped storm-petrels in the Confluence were identified as this species. Al-
most all storm-petrels there were flying to the east (see Kuroda 1960) into the
wind, many failed to show species-characteristic flight styles, and hence were un-
identifiable.

LEACH’S STORM-PETREL (Oceanodroma leucorhoa). Large numbers were
seen in the Confluence area on 6 June (Table 1, Figure 7). Numbers were then
seen in the Northwestern Pacific area approaching the Aleutians, and several were
seen over the deep waters of the Pelagic Bering Sea and southeast of the Pribilofs
at the continental slope.

SWINHOE’S STORM-PETREL (Oceanodroma monorhis)} I saw one small all-
dark storm-petrel at 42° 12'N, 152°20'E on 7 June over sea surface temperature
of 9.0° C. This species is the only small, dark-rumped storm-petrel described for
the region (Alexander 1954).

TRISTRAM’S STORM-PETREL (Oceanodroma tristrami )? Seven large, all-
dark birds seen in the Confluence on 7-8 June had a languid flight style reminis-
cent of the Black Storm-Petrel (O. melania) of the Eastern Pacific. Field marks
distinguishing this from Matsudaira’s Storm-Petrel ( O . matsudairae ) could not be
seen due to distance and light conditions, but distributional range suggests tris-
trami (Palmer 1962, Slater 1970).

FORK-TAILED STORM-PETREL (Oceanodroma furcata). This species first
appeared in the Northwestern Pacific. Figure 8 shows the greatest concentrations
near Amchitka Pass, over Petrel Bank north of the Aleutians, and southwest of the
Pribilofs over the continental slope. This was the most abundant species in the
Pelagic Bering Sea (Table 2) and was also quite consistently observed, along with
fulmars and Black-legged Kittiwakes, in the Bering Sea Continental Shelf area.
Along with those species, it was usually present (though often in small numbers)
when fish were cleaned after gill-net hauls.

RED-FACED CORMORANT (Phalacrocorax urile). Four were north of Bogos-
lof Island on 2 July and one was east-northeast of St. Paul Island in the Pribilofs
on 3 July.

HARLEQUIN DUCK (Histrionicus histrionicus). An immature male was ob-
served swimming about the gill-net at 52°16'N, 178°40'W for about an hour on
17 June.

TATTLER (Heteroscelus sp.). One bird passed the ship on 22 June, at 58°32'N,
176°43'W, headed northeast toward the Pribilofs. This was almost certainly the
Wandering Tattler (H. incanus).

POMARINE JAEGER (Stercorarius pomarinus). Birds were seen in the Con-
fluence, near the Aleutians, and especially near the Pribilofs and over the Bering

53

SEABIRDS

Sea Continental Shelf (Figure 9). Most were clearly attracted to kittiwakes at-
tending our ship.

PARASITIC JAEGER (Stercorarius parasiticus). Very few were seen (Table 1).
One immature at 45°55'N, 168°13'E on 10 June was farthest west.

LONG-TAILED JAEGER (Stercorarius longicaudus). Three adults were seen:
one in the Confluence, one near Amchitka Pass, and one north of the Aleutians
(Table 1).

SOUTH POLAR SKUA ( Catharacta maccormicki). A typical light phase bird
with pale, straw-colored head was seen heading east at 42°06'N, 151°40'E on 7
June in the Confluence area.

GLAUCOUS-WINGED GULL (Larus glaucescens). The low number of sight-
ings was due to the generally inshore distribution during the season (see Shuntov
1972). The species is attracted to ships and often ranges far offshore during non-
breeding seasons (Sanger 1973 and pers. obs.).

BLACK-HEADED GULL ( Larus ridibundus). A bird in breeding plumage was
seen on 13 June at 51°45'N, 180°00', headed northwest toward Semisopochnoi
Island.

BLACK-LEGGED KITTIWAKE (Rissa tridactyla). The species was seen daily
after 11 June. Numbers followed the ship, checking the wake, scavenged fish offal,
and gathered at oceanographic stations. Because both species of kittiwakes regu-
larly followed the ship, transect counts were corrected to represent minimum num-
bers. However, relative abundances (Table 2) in the Pelagic Bering Sea and Bering
Sea Continental Shelf areas were much greater than those given by Shuntov ( 1972).
This could be due to proximity to colonies, seasonality, ship attraction behavior,
inadequacies of census methods or sample size. Table 4 gives relative abundances
of the two kittiwakes in the sea areas. Black-legs predominated in all areas except
the Pelagic Bering Sea. Numbers at oceanographic stations in late June-early July
were greater than numbers seen earlier at fishing stations north of the Aleutians.
On 1 July about 120 Black-legs and 60 Red-legs, predominately adults of both
species, flocked at one stop. No kittiwakes were noted on 4 transect counts east
of 163°56'W (north of Amak Island) on 4 July.

RED-LEGGED KITTIWAKE (Rissa brevirostris). Small numbers were seen in
the Amchitka Pass area, and a few were noted when we passed within a few miles
of Bogoslof Island. The largest numbers were present west and south of Pribilofs
over the deep waters of the Bering Sea (Figure 11), where this species outnum-
bered tridactyla on 26, 27 and 30 June. Immature birds predominated over Pe-
lagic Bering Sea waters (Table 4), which suggests a seasonal distribution of non-
breeders.

SABINE’S GULL (Xema sabini). An immature was seen with a flock of kitti-
wakes resting near the ship on oceanographic station at 57°00'N, 168°30'W on
29 June.

ARCTIC TERN (Sterna paradisaea). One was in the mid-Northwestern Pacific
area on 10 June, and single birds were seen near the Pribilofs on 28 and 29 June.

COMMON MURRE (Uria aalge). Total numbers of murres were low, likely
reflecting inshore distribution near nesting colonies. Virtually all Common Murres
were seen relatively near the Pribilofs (Figure 12). While some murres were un-
identifiable as to species (Table 1), the blacker head and neck and generally heav-
ier, shorter-necked appearance of the Thick-billed Murres made most birds within
300 m transects identifiable.

THICK-BILLED MURRE (Uria lomvia ). This species was more widely distrib-
uted than aalge. Almost all of the relatively few murres seen in the Pelagic Bering
Sea were lomvia. However, the only large concentrations were noted near the
Pribilofs and just north of Bogoslof (Figure 13). Murres noted outside the tran-
sect width and hours also followed these patterns. On several occasions near Bo-

54

SEABIRDS

goslof, long lines of flying Thick-billed Murres were seen following the lead of one
or two Tufted Puffins.

PIGEON GUILLEMOT (Cepphus columba). Three birds were noted (Table 1),
all in breeding plumage. One inspected the gill-net for a few minutes on 17 June.

ANCIENT MURRELET (Synthliborampbus antiquus). This easily identifiable
species was seen primarily north of the central Aleutians (most were north of Adak
Island), near Unalaska Island, and east of the Pribilofs.

LEAST AUKLET (Aethia pusilla). Poor viewing conditions and unfamiliarity
with the Aethia and Cyclorrynchus auklets resulted in my recording a number of
unidentified “small dark alcids” both within and outside transects. The only no-
ticeable concentrations of small alcids were near Amchitka Pass (Figure 14). The
offshore cruise track and poor observation conditions near the Pribilofs and Uni-
mak Pass probably reduced counts of small alcids more than other groups. Speci-
mens of Least Auklets and other species salvaged from the gill-net are listed in
Appendix 1.

CRESTED AUKLET (Aethia cristatella) . Two birds at 46°20'N, 171°36'E
(about 685 km south of Attu Island) on 11 June were the first seen. Flocks were
seen flying south near Amchitka Pass on 13 June.

WHISKERED AUKLET (Aethia pygmaea). Only one bird was certainly iden-
tified, north of Adak on 18 June.

PARAKEET AUKLET (Cyclorrynchus psittacula ). As with other alcids, the
only concentrations noted were in the Amchitka Pass area on 13 June.

CASSIN’S AUKLET (Ptychoramphus aleuticus). Although quite familiar with
this species at sea, I did not identify it alive. Two specimens were taken from the
gill-net (Appendix 1).

HORNED PUFFIN (Fratercula comiculata). Two sub-adults were seen in the
Confluence area, and flying birds in adult plumage were seen in the Northwestern
Pacific area. The few other birds noted were in the Bering Sea Continental Shelf
area (see Figure 15). In addition, five birds were seen in a transect count south-
east of the Shumagin Islands on 6 July.

TUFTED PUFFIN (Lunda cirrhata). A number of apparently flightless sub-
adults were seen in the Confluence area. None of these birds were seen more than
100 m from the ship, and numbers shown for 7-8 June (Table 1) represent perhaps
only 33-50% of their abundance relative to other species. Adult birds were seen
almost every day from 9 June on, when the first two were seen at about 43°48'N,
161°53'E, 635 km from the nearest land in the Kuriles. Concentrations were seen
near Bogoslof, east of St. George Island, northwest of Unimak Island, and at the
northern entrance to Unimak Pass (Figure 16). Large numbers were seen also
near the Shumagins and Kodiak. The •species is attracted to vessels (see Kuroda
1955), and any calculation of absolute density must allow for this and its habit of
flying higher above the sea surface than other alcids. The only sub-adult seen out-
side of the Confluence area was one at 54°26'N, 177°00'W on 24 June.

OTHER SPECIES

Several additional seabird species were seen on 5 July in inshore Hokkaido
waters: Streaked Shearwater (Calonectris leucomelas) , Flesh-footed Shearwater
(Puffinus carneipes), Japanese Cormorant (Phalacro corax capillatus) , Slaty-backed
Gull (Lams schistisagus) , Black-tailed Gull (L. crassirostris) and Rhinoceros Auk-
let (Cerorhinca monocerata) . Additional species noted between Unimak Pass and
Kodiak on 5-8 July included Pelagic Cormorant (Phalacro corax pelagicus) , Com-
mon Eider (Somateria moliissima). Herring Gull (Lams argentatus), Mew Gull (L.
canus), Aleutian Tern (Sterna aleutica) , Marbled Murrelet (Brachyramphus mar-
moratus) and Kittlitz’ Murrelet (B. brevirostris).

\

55

SEABIRDS

60°

I

Figure 3. All species.

-50°

s

0— no birds recorded
present: <1/hr
t-10/hr

SI 10-50/hr
50-200/hr
>200/hr

170°

I

180°

I

170'

I

56

SEABIRDS

57

SEABIRDS

150 ° 160 ® 170 ° 180 “ 170 °

_i i j i : i

58

SEABIRDS

59

SEABIRDS

Figure 16. Tufted Puffin.

-50"

150° 160“

_l 1

J 1 L

60

SEABIRDS

The only passerine seen on the cruise was one female Common Redpoll (Acan-
thi* flammea ) which came on board in dense fog between St. Paul and St. George
islands on 29 June and stayed at least until dark.

Marine mammals identified during the cruise were Northern Sea Lion (Eumeto-
pias jubata). Northern Fur Seal (Callorhinus ursinus), 15-20 Killer Whales (Orcinus
orca) near Kodiak Harbor on 8 July, Dali Porpoise (Phocoenoides dalli) which was
widely distributed over the cruise route, and 3 Fin Whales (Balaenoptera physalus)
southwest of Kodiak Island on 6 July.

DISCUSSION

Ideally, replicate data are disirable to describe bird distribution in
sizable areas of the oceans. However, data from a single cruise are use-
ful when they add some specifics where broad generalizations had to
serve previously. Since the present cruise track was at least several miles
offshore, even in Amchitka Pass, transect counts were little influenced
by large numbers of birds close to colonies. No large concentrations of
birds at fishing fleets were encountered and, although one large flock
was observed within a transect, data are felt to be fairly representative of
“open water” abundance in June. Relatively little migration of species
nesting in the northern hemisphere was noted.

OYASHIO/KUROSHIO CONFLUENCE

The cruise track crossed the northern edge of the area where the cold
Oyashio current and the warm Kuroshio current meet in the western Pa-
cific. Sea surface temperatures (which were 1 2.8-1 3.6 °C on 5 June leav-
ing Japan) ranged from 5.3-11.3° C on 6-8 June (Figure 2), with changes
of as much as 1.2° C within one hour. Frequent periods of dense fog
greatly restricted hours of systematic observation, but counts and extra-
transect observations indicated that birds were abundant in the area (Fig-
ure 3), particularly gadfly petrels and storm-petrels. Laysan Albatrosses,
fulmars and shearwaters were also numerous, as were sub-adult Tufted
Puffins (Table 2). Albatrosses were the only birds attracted to the ship,
as we crossed this area without stopping. Sea surface temperatures along
our track were below the temperatures (up to 16°C) in the part of the
Confluence area visited by Kuroda (1955, 1960), and the main popula-
tions of “warm water” species were undoubtedly farther south.

I have found no ornithological descriptions of this interesting area,
other than reports by Kuroda (1955, 1960), Hamilton (1958) and Naka-
mura and Tanaka (1977). Hamilton’s (1958) brief sightings suggest that
noticeable concentrations of birds occur east to at least 180° longitude
in June. Personal observations (unpubl.) along 158° W in late October-
early November suggest similar if less dramatic conditions there. Sanger
(1972) does not estimate seabird abundance for the Confluence area.
He estimates 4.5 birds/km^ for the Transition Domain. My figure of
9.6/km2 (Table 2) for the Confluence area is considerably higher and

61

SEABIRDS

does not seem unrealistic, although biomass is likely low because of the
large numbers of small-bodied storm-petrels. Shuntov (1972) mentions
the area but gives no data on abundance.

Kuroda (1955) saw both Buller’s Shearwaters (Puffinus bulleri) and
Japanese Murrelets (Synthliboramphus wumizusume) in waters east of
Japan, and their absence on this cruise was probably a reflection of the
cool surface waters along our northerly track over the Confluence (Ku-
roda reported bulleri over sea surface temperatures of 14.5-1 6.0° C; our
maximum was 11.3°C in the Confluence). A number of authors have
demonstrated a distribution of species relative to surface temperatures,
salinity and associated food sources (e.g., Murphy 1936, Kuroda 1955,
1960, Szijj 1967, Gould 1971, Jehl 1973). The most common species
encountered on this cruise were widely distributed over the entire range
of sea surface temperatures, and species preferring warm waters were
obvious only in the Confluence area (e.g. Solander’s Petrel, Harcourt’s
Storm-Petrel). This area has been described oceanographically (see Fa-
vorite et al. 1976), and Ashmole (1971) and Gould (1971) describe the
concentration of planktivores along boundaries of converging water mass-
es. An intensive study of birds vs. oceanographic conditions here might
provide interesting insights.

NORTHWESTERN PACIFIC

Sea surface temperatures decreased fairly steadily as the Oshoro Maru
cruised northeastward toward the Aleutians. The numbers of birds ob-
served per km2 dropped to about 25% of the number observed in the
Confluence area. My figure of 2.5 /km^ is in general agreement with the
figure of 3.1/km^ given by Sanger (1972) for this area. Shuntov’s figure
for the “open ocean” area of the “northwest part of the Pacific Ocean”
south to 30°N is 1.6/km2. My personal observation (unpubl.) is that
abundances decrease greatly south of the Subarctic Boundary at about
40° N. Relatively low populations of birds between 30° and 40° N could
explain Shuntov’s lower figure. Kuroda (1955, 1960) indicated higher
densities near the Kuriles and Kamchatka compared to my count num-
bers from farther south and east. Shearwater numbers increased, and
kittiwakes and small alcids appeared as we approached the Aleutians.
Laysan Albatrosses were the only ship followers within this area, as they
had been in the Confluence. Other species ignored our non-stop passage.

OFFSHORE ALEUTIANS

Trapp (1975) presents data pertinent to this area, and Gabrielson
and Lincoln (1959) and Murie (1959) give information from inshore
observations. Sanger (1972) gives a summer figure of 7.8 birds/km^ for
the Coastal Domain, and Shuntov (1972) gives a figure of 11 /km^ for

62

SEABIRDS

the Offshore Aleutians area for June-August. My figure of 36.1/km2
(Table 2) includes a flock of 3000 Short-tailed Shearwaters which great-
ly affects both relative abundance and bird/km^. Disregarding shear-
waters, my figure would be 8.8/km2, which agrees well with Sanger and
Shuntov. Compared to the Northwestern Pacific area, my actual num-
bers of all species except albatrosses and gadfly petrels increased sub-
stantially within this area. Birds/hour for all species combined (Figure
3) are influenced primarily by numbers of shearwaters and Fork -tailed
Storm-Petrels and numerous small alcids in the area near Amchitka Pass
(Figures 5, 8, 14).

PELAGIC BERING SEA

Fork-tailed Storm-Petrels, Northern Fulmars, kittiwakes and Short-
tailed Shearwaters accounted for over 90% of the birds recorded. As in
the Offshore Aleutians area, fulmars, Fork -tails and kittiwakes were at-
tracted to gill-net operations. Sanger (1972) includes this area within
the Western Subarctic Domain and estimates a summer abundance of
3.1 birds/km^, and Shuntov (1972) gives 2.7/km2 for June-August. My
figure is 5.6/km2; the variation may be due in part to differences in geo-
graphic designations, methodology and allowances for ship-attraction.
Variation in species composition, seasonal distribution, air and water
temperatures probably justify study of this ornithologically-negiected
area as an entity separate from other deep-water areas of the North Pa-
cific.

BERING SEA CONTINENTAL SHELF

Data were gathered in this area (Table 2, Figure 3), but periods of
dense fog on 29 June and 20-30 knot winds and blowing spray com-
bined with fog on 5 July near Unimak Pass reduced both the number of
near-shore transects and birds recorded. Compared to the Pelagic Bering
Sea, the numbers of Short-tailed Shearwaters and murres increased over
the shelf, and storm-petrels showed a relative decrease. Birds/km^ were
probably equal to those of the Offshore Aleutians area. Large numbers
of Short-tailed Shearwaters and Tufted Puffins occurred near Unimak
Pass during a brief count on 5 July. However, abundances over the con-
tinental shelf, as in other areas, were not uniform: two counts about
330 km east-northeast of the Pr-ibilofs on 3 July indicated relatively low
numbers of birds there.

Sanger (1972) estimates 7.8 birds/km^ for all species for the Coastal
Domain, in which he includes the Bering Sea Continental Shelf. Shuntov
(1972) gives 18 birds/km2 for June-August. Wiens et al. (1977) noted
no shearwaters in June counts, but tentatively estimate about 12 birds
of all species/km2. Their counts probably included many more breed-

63

SEABIRDS

ing birds around the Pribilofs than my counts did, however. My figure
of 15/km2 (Table 2) is given for comparison.

As noted above, we did not encounter working commercial fishing
vessels on this cruise. The effects of very large concentrations of birds
found at fishing vessels on calculated densities of birds for a large area
are unknown. However, overall numbers of birds/km2 in areas where
extensive trawling and processing operations have been conducted for
years could be both greater over the area as a whole and more locally
variable when compared to areas where fishing effort has been less in-
tensive (see Shuntov 1972). The lack of replicate data prevents allow-
ance for effects of weather systems on bird distribution. Manikowski
(1971) reports considerable variation in seabird distribution and behav-
ior under different meteorological conditions and these could influence
data given here, especially for the Pelagic Bering Sea and Bering Sea Con-
tinental Shelf areas.

SUMMARY

Censuses of seabirds seen on a cruise from Hokkaido to Kodiak in
June 1975 provided data on relative abundance, particularly for three
areas of the North Pacific Ocean which have had little prior study: the
Confluence, the Northwestern Pacific, and the Pelagic Bering Sea. Birds
were numerous in the Confluence, with abundances of Solander’s Petrel,
Leach’s Storm-Petrel and sub-adult Tufted Puffins being particularly
noteworthy. Abundances were relatively low in the Northwestern Pa-
cific area, with Short-tailed Shearwaters and Leach’s Storm-Petrels the
most numerous species noted. Northern Fulmars, Short-tailed Shear-
waters, Fork-tailed Storm-Petrels and kittiwakes predominated over the
deep waters of the Pelagic Bering Sea. The numbers of immature Red-
legged Kittiwakes noted over the deep waters southwest of the Pribilofs
may be representative of the distribution of non-breeders in June. Dark-
phase Northern Fulmars substantially outnumbered light-phase birds in
all areas, including sample counts near the Pribilofs. The large numbers
of birds close to nesting colonies were not censused due to the offshore
cruise track. The greatest concentrations of offshore birds were noted
in the Confluence, near Amchitka Pass, near the Pribilof Islands, and in
waters over the continental shelf north of Unimak Pass.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I thank Haruo Ogi, Tsuneo Nishiyama and David A. Manuwal for
arranging my participation on the cruise. Takeji Fujii, Master of the
Oshoro Maru, and Jiro Fukuoka, Chief Scientist, especially were of great
assistance during the cruise. The officers, crew, students and scientists

64

SEABIRDS

were also very helpful and most congenial. Wayne Hoffman, Gerald A.
Sanger, Patrick J. Gould, Alex Benedict, Alice Benedict and Laurence
C. Binford offered valuable comments on earlier versions of this paper.

LITERATURE CITED

Alexander, W. B. 1954. Birds of the ocean, 2nd ed. Putman, New York.
Ashmole, N. P. 1971. Sea bird ecology and the marine environment. Pages 223-
286 in D. S. Farner, J. R. King and K. C. Parkes, eds. Avian Biology, vol. 1.
Academic Press, New York,

Bartonek, J. C. and D. D. Gibson. 1972. Summer distribution of pelagic birds in
Bristol Bay, Alaska. Condor 74:416-422.

Clark, N. and F. Miller. 1975. Sea surface temperature and environmental con-
ditions. Southwest Fisheries Center, Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv. Fishing Informa-
tion, June 1975.

Dodimead, A. J., F. Favorite and T. Hirano. 1963. Salmon of the north Pacific
Ocean— part II. Review of oceanography of the subarctic Pacific region. Int.
N, Pac. Fish. Comm. Bull. 13.

Evans, R. and F. Miller. 1975. Sea surface temperature and environmental con-
ditions. Southwest Fisheries Center, Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., Fishing Informa-
tion, May 1975.

Favorite, F., A. J. Dodimead and K. Nasu. 1976. Oceanography of the subarctic
Pacific region, 1960-71. Int. N. Pac. Fish. Comm. Bull. 33.

Gabrielson, I. N. and F. C. Lincoln. 1959. The birds of Alaska. Wildl, Manage.
Inst., Washington, D. C.

Gould, P. J, 1971. Interactions of seabirds over the open ocean. PhD Dissertation.
Univ. Arizona, Tucson. 110 p.

Hamilton, W. J,, III. 1958. Pelagic birds observed on a North Pacific crossing.
Condor 60:159-164.

Jehl, J. R., Jr. 197 3. The distribution of marine birds in Chilean waters in winter.
Auk 90:114-135.

Kenyon, K. W. and R. E. Phillips. 1965. Birds from the Pribilof Islands and vi-
cinity. Auk 82:624-635.

King, W. B. 1970. The trade wind zone oceanography pilot study, part VII: Ob-
servations of seabirds March 1964 to June 1965. U. S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Spec.
Sci. Rep. Fish. 586.

Kuroda, N. 1955. Observations on pelagic birds of the northwest Pacific. Condor
57:290-300.

Kuroda, N. 1960. Analysis of sea bird distribution in the northwest Pacific Ocean,
Pacific Science 14:55-67.

Manikowski, S. 1971. The influence of meteorological factors on the behaviour
of sea birds. Acta Zool. Cracov. 16:581-657.

Murie, O. J. 1959. Fauna of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska Peninsula. U. S.

Dept. Interior, Fish and Wildl. Serv., N. Am. Fauna 61:1-364.

Murphy, R. C. 1936. Oceanic birds of South America, 2 vols. Am. Mus. Nat.
Hist., New York.

Nakamura, K, and Y. Tanaka. 1977. Distribution and migration of two species
of the genus Pterodroma in the North Pacific. Misc. Rep. Yamashina Inst.
Ornithology 9:112-120.

Palmer, R. S. ed. 1962. Handbook of North American birds, vol. 1. Yale Univ.
Press, New Haven.

65

SEABIRDS

Sanger, G. A. 1972. Preliminary standing stock and biomass estimates of seabirds
in the subarctic Pacific region. Pages 589-611 in A. Yoshitada et al, eds., Bio-
logical oceanography of the northern North Pacific Ocean. Idemitsu Shoten,
Tokyo.

Sanger, G. A. 1973. Pelagic records of Glaucous-winged and Herring gulls in the
North Pacific Ocean. Auk 90: 384-393.

Shuntov, V. P. 1972, Seabirds and the biological structure of the ocean. (Transl.
from Russian). TT74-55032, NTIS. U. S. Dept, of Comm. 1974.

Slater, P. 1970. A field guide to Australian birds, vol. 1. Rigby, Sidney.

Szijj, L. 1967. Notes on the winter distribution of birds in the western Antarctic
and adjacent Pacific waters. Auk 84: 366-378.

Trapp, J. L. 1975. The distribution and abundance of seabirds along the Aleutian
Islands and Alaska Peninsula, fall 1974. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Kodiak,
Alaska. Unpubl. MS, 39 p.

Wahl, T. R. 1975. Seabirds in Washington’s offshore zone. West. Birds 6: 117-134.

Wiens, J. A., W. Hoffman and D. Heinemann. 1977. Community structure, dis-
tribution and interrelationships of marine birds in the Gulf of Alaska. Outer
Continental Shelf Energy Assessment Program annual report. 103 p.

APPENDIX 1

Specimens retrieved from gill-net operations. Approximate locations: 13 June—
50° 44’N, 179° 59'E; 14 June-52° 19'N, 178° 54'W; 17 June-52° 16'N, 178°40'W;
18 June-52 0 32'N, 177°40'W; 20 June-52 0 50'N, 176° 10'W; 23 June-53° 50'N,
176°43'W; 24 June— 53° 30'N, 176°42'W. Specimens noted HU to Hokkaido
University, Faculty of Fisheries; specimens destroyed for heavy metals analysis.
Specimens noted UW to University of Washington, Burke Memorial Washington
State Museum; specimen numbers follow.

Short-tailed Shearwater: 13 June, HU-1; 20 June, UW CEC 06, 07, 13; 24 June,
HU-1. Thick-billed Murre: 13 June, HU-1; 14 June, HU-2; 17 June, HU-3; UW
JR 211-214; 20 June, HU-1. Ancient Murrelet: 14 June UW JR 215; 18 June,
UW CEC 03. Least Auklet: 20 June, UW CEC 08; 23 June, UW CEC 05, 10. Crest-
ed Auklet: 13 June, HU-2; UW CEC 01j 02, 11; 20 June, UW CEC 12. Cassin’s
Auklet: 20 June, UW CEC 09; 24 June, UW CEC 04. Horned Puffin: 20 June,
HU-1. Tufted Puffin: 13 June, HU-1; 14 June, HU-1; 18 June, UW CEC 14.

Accepted 8 January 1978

APPARENT RESPONSE OF PICOIDES WOODPECKERS
TO OUTBREAKS OF THE PINE BARK BEETLE

ALLEN B. CROCKETT, CDM Environmental Consultants, 11455 West 48th Ave-
nue, Wheat Ridge, Colorado 8003 3

PAULA L. HANSLEY, 3192 Fourth Street, Boulder, Colorado 80302

In their discussion of the Northern Three-toed Woodpecker (Picoides
tridactylus), Bailey and Niedrach (1965:507) stated: “This species, with
the Downy [Picoides pubescens ] and Hairy [P. villosus] Woodpeckers,
was a great help in the preservation of the forests in western Colorado
threatened by the destructive bark beetles in 1939/’ They went on to
quote a statement by Noel D. Wygant regarding this event: “In some of
the large outbreak centers, woodpeckers built up a population as heavy
as a pair per acre.”

Since 1939, numerical responses of picids to insect infestations have
been noted repeatedly. For example, Blackford (1955) reported a large
increase of woodpeckers, especially P. tridactylus , during the fall and
winter following a forest fire in a Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)
and Ponderosa Pine (Pinus ponderosa) forest in Montana. Presumably,
the woodpeckers were responding to increased populations of prey spe-
cies, particularly boring beedes. Woodpeckers had declined to normal
numbers by March, however, and did not re-invade during the following
cold season.

The observed population increases of Northern Three-toed, Hairy, and
Downy woodpeckers in apparent response to bark beede (Dendroctonus
spp.) infestations in Colorado are of special significance. Most published
reports have dealt with outbreaks of the Spruce Bark Beetle (D. rufipen-
nis Kirby) in Engelmann Spruce (Picea engelmannii) stands in subalpine
spruce-fir forests (Hutchinson 1951, Yeager 1955, Knight 1958, Amman
and Baldwin 1960, Baldwin 1960, Koplin 1969 and 1972, Koplin and
Baldwin 1970). Although three widely separated areas were discussed
in these papers, five major similarities are evident:

(1) The woodpeckers that responded to bark beetle epidemics were
P. tridactylus, P. villosus, and P. pubescens, in decreasing order
of abundance.

(2) The increases in population were most significant in the non-
breeding season, although some higher breeding densities were
noted in large, long-term (panepidemic) areas. That is, imme-
diate responses resulted from aggregation or immigration.

(3) Bark beetle adults and larvae formed the major winter food
source for the three picids in infested areas (67-99 percent of
stomach contents).

Western Birds 9:67-70, 1978

67

PI CO IDES WOODPECKERS

(4) Woodpecker activity resulted in 45-98 percent decreases in bee-
tle survival. Beetle mortality was related to predation by picids
or to freezing, desiccation, parasites, and insect predators fol-
lowing removal of bark by picids.

(5) Secondary infection by other boring beetles, such as Pityoph-
thorus occidentalis and Ips pilifrons, may affect trees weakened
by Dendroctonus attack. Secondary borers likely lead to in-
creased intensity and duration of woodpecker response.

The 1975 and 1976 Audubon Christmas Bird Counts in Boulder, Col-
orado, have provided tentative evidence of a similar invasion by Picoides
woodpeckers in response to an increasingly severe outbreak of the Pine
Bark Beetle (D. ponderosae). This outbreak has affected Ponderosa Pine
primarily in overcrowded stands characterized by reduced vigor and, pre-
sumably, decreased resistance to attack.

The apparent response of picids to the Pine Bark Beetle is indicated
by two major trends. The first trend is the expansion of P. tridactylus
into montane pine from higher subalpine spruce-fir, where it normally
occurs (Bailey and Niedrach 1965, Bock and Bock 1974). Indeed, 1975
and 1976 mark the first recorded occurrences of P. tridactylus on Boul-
der Christmas Bird Counts. We have observed this picid in other bark
beetle-infested stands of Ponderosa Pine throughout the Front Range.
Perhaps this niche expansion should be expected, since three-toed wood-
peckers are generally regarded as opportunistic, irruptive species (Black-
ford 1955, Bock and Bock 1974).

The second trend is the increase in numbers of Hairy and Downy
woodpeckers during winters since 1972, when the outbreak reached ma-
jor proportions. Christmas Bird Count data must be analyzed carefully
because of yearly differences in the number of observers and the dis-
tances covered; however, these difficulties can be overcome to some ex-
tent through careful interpretation. Other factors influencing raw data
are count-day weather, amount and types of habitat covered, and gener-
al expertise of the participants. However, we do not feel that the latter
two factors have varied markedly in recent years, and our own exper-
ience suggests that counts of picids are less affected by weather than
counts of most species. Nevertheless, augmentive data are always de-
sirable, and we have therefore surveyed Ponderosa Pine woodlands west
of Boulder repeatedly since the 1976 Christmas Bird Count.

During the 25-year period 1951-1976, there was a close correlation
between numbers of observers and numbers of Picoides on Christmas
Bird Counts. From 1972 to 1976, however, observers in Boulder in-
creased 308 percent, while Picoides increased by 589 percent. A simi-
larly disproportionate rise in picid observations is shown by comparing
the ratio of Picoides observed to party miles. From 1951 through 1971,

68

PICOIDES WOODPECKERS

the average ratio-was 0.04, with a high of 0.11 in 1965 and 1967 and a
low of 0.02 in 1963. During the 1972-1976 interval, this ratio averaged
0.14, having increased to 0.20 in 1975 and 0.23 in 1976. Thus, since
the bark beetle outbreak began, numbers of Picoides have increased near-
ly twice as fast as observers, and approximately 3-5 as many have been
seen per party mile as during the previous twenty years.

Of course, the relative amount of suitable habitat surveyed each year
would also affect Christmas Count findings. Unfortunately, habitat pro-
portions were not recorded between 1956 and 1972. Even when habitat
proportions were noted, however, the data were not organized to show
how many woodpeckers were observed in each habitat type, and valid
comparisons are therefore not possible.

Although detailed habitat utilization data are not yet available for
the Boulder area, the preference of picids for bark beetle-infested areas
during 1976-77 was inarguable. Of 48 Hairy and Downy woodpeckers
observed in our study area on the western flanks of South Boulder Peak,
none was seen in an uninfested area. Moreover, uninfested areas (more
than one-half of the total) were essentially devoid of woodpeckers, ex-
cept for the ubiquitous Common Flicker (Colaptes auratus cafer). This
clumped distribution has been repeatedly observed in the area since the
1976 Christmas Bird Count. Indeed, clumping was so extreme that on
three occasions we observed two Hairy and two Downy woodpeckers
working diligently in one infected tree. Similar behavior was reported
by Baldwin (1960) and Koplin (1969).

Initial increases in woodpecker populations result primarily from im-
migration. This immigration could result from purposeful aggregation
by picids in the areas of heavy infestation, or it could merely represent
prolonged stays by picids that normally drift through during postbreed-
ing wandering and migration. Whether Picoides populations increased
by aggregation or drift, they apparently did so in response to the in-
creased winter food supply. Certainly, dead or dying “beetle” trees
present a highly visible cue to woodpeckers of high concentrations of
insect prey.

Koplin (1972) and Koplin and Baldwin (1970) reported 50- to 85-
fold increases in woodpecker abundance in Spruce Bark Beetle outbreaks
during winter, while breeding population responses have varied from no
increase in limited outbreaks to a 6- or 7-fold increase in the 1939-1952
panepidemic (Koplin 1972). The limited rise in breeding densities is not
surprising, because (1) woodpeckers are territorial and probably would
not tolerate excessive crowding, and (2) bark beetles are apt to be a
more significant food resource during the winter, when other prey spe-
cies are less abundant or less accessible. Otvos (1965) suggested that
Hairy Woodpeckers may be highly dependent on bark beetles during
winter.

69

PICOIDES WOODPECKERS

No increases of breeding densities in the Front Range have been re-
ported during the present bark beetle epidemic, but it is only now reach-
ing the extent of the 1939-1952 panepidemic, and continued surveys
will be necessary to determine adequately the extent and duration of
the apparent population expansion. Intensive logging activities designed
to control the bark beetle presently are underway and may reverse this
trend before it reaches its full potential.

LITERATURE CITED

Amman, G. D. and P. H. Baldwin. 1960. A comparison of methods for censusing
woodpeckers in spruce-fir forests of Colorado. Ecology 41:699-706.

Bailey, A. M. and R. J. Niedrach. 1965. Birds of Colorado, vol. 2. Denver Mus.
Nat, Hist., Denver.

Baldwin, P. H. 1960. Overwintering of woodpeckers in bark beetle-infested spruce-
fir forests of Colorado. Proc. 12th Int. Ornithol. Congr.:71-84.

Blackford, J. L. 1955. Woodpecker concentration in burned forest. Condor
57:28-30.

Bock, C. E. and J. H. Bock. 1974. On the geographical ecology and evolution of
the three-toed woodpeckers, Picoides tridactylus and P. arcticus. Am. Midi.
Nat. 92:397-405.

Hutchinson, R. T. 1951. The effects of woodpeckers on the Engelmann Spruce
Beetle, Dendroctonus engelmanni Hopk. M.S. Thesis, Colorado State Univ.,
Ft. Collins.

Knight, F. B. 1958. The effects of woodpeckers on populations of the Engelmann
spruce beetle. J. Econ. Entomol. 51:603-607.

Koplin, J. R. 1969. The numerical response of woodpeckers to insect prey in a
subalpine forest in Colorado. Condor 71:436-438.

Koplin, J. R. 1972. Measuring predator impact of woodpeckers on spruce beetles.
J. Wildl. Manage. 36:308-320.

Koplin, J. R. and P. H. Baldwin. 1970. Woodpecker predation on an endemic
population of Engelmann spruce beetles. Am. Midi. Nat. 83:510-515.

Otvos, I, S. 1965. Studies on avian predators of Dendroctonus brevicomis Le
Conte (Coleoptera:Scolytidae) with special reference to Picidae. Can. Entomol.
97:1184-1199.

Yeager, L. E. 1955. Two woodpecker population studies in relation to environ-
mental change. Condor 57:148-15 3.

Accepted 27 February 1978

70

NATIVE BIRDS OF LANAI, HAWAII

LAWRENCE T. HIRAI, 1323-2 Kinau Street, Honolulu, Hawaii 96814

The island of Lanai is a pear-shaped shield volcano, covering 361
km2, the sixth largest of the Hawaiian Islands. At its extremes, the
island is 29 km long and 2 1 km wide, with the highest point at Lanaihale,
1027 m (Figure 1; Armstrong 1973). Mean annual rainfall varies from
25 cm along the coast to 89 cm near the summit (Armstrong 197 3),
although a substantial quantity of water, estimated to be as much as the
annual rainfall, is directly intercepted from the cloud cover by the vege-
tation in the upper mountain areas (Ekern 1964).

I did a field study of bird species distribution and relative abundance
on Lanai from August 1975 until November 1976. I conducted surveys
and transect counts during this period to provide data for the United
States Department of Agriculture Hawaiian Fruit Flies Laboratory to
use in assessing possible effects of their Lanai fruit fly eradication pro-
gram on nontarget animals. Most of the avian species now found on
Lanai are introduced; however, some native birds are still present. Ac-
counts on the native species follow.

ISLAND OF LANAI

A native forest may have once covered most of Lanai, but by the
early 1900s cattle, sheep and feral goats had destroyed it (Perkins 1903,
Rothschild 1893-1900, Wilson and Evans 1890-1899). Presently the
native forest covers less than 7% of the island area (Armstrong 1973).

Today the principal forested area on Lanai is the mountain region,
with a great deal of the vegetation consisting of introduced Molassas
Grass (Melinis minutiflora) , guava (Psidium spj, eucalyptus (Eucalyptus
spj, Christmas berry (Schinus terebinthifolius) and Norfolk Island Pine
( Araucaria heterophylla). The native ohia-lehua (Metrosideros collina )
and false staghorn fern, or uluhe, (Dicranopteris spj are significantly
found only above elevations of 610 m. Since the 1920s most of the
central plateau has been in Pineapple ( Ananas comosus) production, oc-
cupying about 20% of the island (Armstrong 1973). Lanai City, where
most of the population of 2,200 reside, and Lanai Airport are strategi-
cally located on the plateau. About the only area on the plateau not
under Pineapple cultivation is Kanepuu, which has remnants of a dry
native forest that possibly once covered much of that section of Lanai.
The coastal areas of the island are covered by introduced Koa Haole
(Leucaena leucocephala) and Kiawe (a mesquite, Prosopis pallida) on
the southern and western half and a wind-swept grassy range and coast-
al belt of Kiawe on the northern and eastern half. Rather extensive
wind-eroded areas are found in many sections of Lanai, especially in
the north end.

Western Birds 9:71-77, 1978

71

BIRDS OF LANAI

The coastline is divided into a Pali Coast on the south and west half
from Kamaiki Point to Kaena Point and a Beach Coast along the north
and east half. The Pali Coast is dominated by 22 km of sea cliffs, reach-
ing heights greater than 305 m at Kaholo Pali (Armstrong 1973). Sea
caves, arches and stacks are found along this coast. The Beach Coast,
on the other hand, is low and flat, with broad expanses of alluvium and
beaches and no appreciable sea cliffs. Polihua and Hulopoe have ex-
tensive white-sanded beaches; Manele-Hulopoe and Kaumalapau are the
recreation and harbor centers of Lanai.

LANAI AVIAN HISTORY

Although the native forest of Lanai was much reduced by 1900, the
birdlife was still considered abundant (Munro I960, Perkins 1903), with
a petrel, owl, thrush and six members of the endemic Hawaiian Honey-
creeper family (Drepanididae) nesting on the mountain. However, by
the 1930s the native avifauna had been virtually eliminated, and until
recently only three species were considered present. A fourth, the Dark-
rumped Petrel, was rediscovered on Lanai during this study.

Extinct birds include races of the Thrush (Phaeornis obscurus lanai-
ensis), Creeper (Loxops maculata montana) and Akialoa (Hemignathus
obscurus lanaiensis), and populations of Ou (Psittirostra psittacea) and
Iiwi ( Vestiaria coccinea). The Lanai Thrush was common in the moun-
tain forest, especially at the north and south ends, until the 1920s. It
declined in numbers after 1923 (Munro 1960), although it was still con-
sidered “not uncommon” as late as 1934 (Munro in Gregory 1935). The
Lanai Creeper was common from about 460 m elevation to Lanaihale
in the 1890s (Perkins 1903, Rothschild 1893-1900, Wilson and Evans
1890-1899), but scarce by the 1930s, with the last sighting of a pair in
1937 (Munro 1960). The Lanai Akialoa inhabited the upper mountain
forest region and was rare even in the late 1800s, with the last definite
sighting of an individual in 1894 (Perkins 1903, Rothschild 1893-1900).
The Ou was quite common on Lanai in the 1890s but probably disap-
peared around 1932 (Munro 1960). Similarly, the Iiwi was considered
abundant throughout the island forest in the 1890s (Perkins 1903), still
fairly common up to 1923, but extirpated by 1929 (Munro 1960).

The causes of bird extinctions on Lanai are not definitely known,
but are believed to include mosquito-borne avian diseases from birds,
especially poultry, introduced with the establishment of the Pineapple
plantation in the 1920s (Munro 1960), the destruction of the native
mountain forest (Greenway 1967), and, to a limited extent, predation
by feral cats ( Felis catus ) and pigs (Sus scrofa ) (Munro 1960, Perkins
1903, Rothschild 1893-1900).

72

BIRDS OF LANAI

73

Figure 1. Island of Lanai, Hawaii (shaded island on inset map of main Hawaiian Islands).

BIRDS OF LANAI

EXTANT NATIVE SPECIES

WEDGE-TAILED SHEARWATER, Puffinus pacificus cblororhyn-
chus. This race nests in Hawaii on the Northwestern Islands, offshore
islands, Kauai and probably Niihau (Berger 1972). On Lanai a small
colony, numbering from 5 to 10 birds, probably nests on Puupehe Is-
land, a sea tower about 25 m high and 20 m in diameter, 45 m off of the
point between Manele and Hulopoe Bays. In June and July 1976, at
and after sunset, I observed light-phase Wedge-tailed Shearwaters flying
low over the water toward the islet, circling the rock and landing on the
grassy top. In August 1976 I saw a chick in a hole located near the top
of Puupehe Island. By mid-September 1976 shearwater activity around
the rock had ended. Other seabirds, notably the Bulwer’s Petrel (Bul-
weria bulzverii), may also nest on the island, but their presence there
could not be verified because of the difficulty in reaching the islet.
Other islets and stacks dot the Pali Coast and may also provide nesting
grounds for this shearwater.

DARK-RUMPED PETREL, Pterodroma phaeopygia sandwichensis.
This endangered Hawaiian race formerly nested on most of the main
islands, but is now considered restricted to Maui and Hawaii (Berger
1972). The population on Lanai was believed extirpated by pigs and
cats (Munro 1960), but night field work from June to October 1976
confirmed the presence of the Dark-rumped Petrel in the mountain for-
est (Hirai 1978). A possible colony, estimated from calls and sightings
to be about 100 individuals, was located in June 1976 at an elevation
of 850 m at Kumoa Gulch. Although I found no burrows, the petrels
probably nest on the ridge slopes, which are covered by uluhe fern and
ohia-leuha. From the available information, the breeding season of the
Dark-rumped Petrel on Lanai seems to be similar to that of the popula-
tion in Haleakala Crater, Maui, beginning in May and extending until
November.

WHITE-TAILED TROPICBIRD, Phaethon lepturus dorotheae. This
seabird is known to nest regularly in Hawaii only on Hawaii, Maui, Kauai
and a few of the offshore islands (Berger 1972). On Lanai I noticed this
tropicbird in all months of the year along the Pali Coast and in Maunalei
and Hauola gulches. It probably also inhabits other gulches on the
northeast side of the mountain. At one time I counted as many as 16
individuals in the gulches or against the sea cliffs. I found no nests dur-
ing this study, but I observed adults landing on ledges or entering holes
in cliffs along the coast and in the gulches in October 1975, from late
February through early June 1976 and in August 1976. The remains of
two young, feathered and lacking streamers, were found in Maunalei
Gulch in August 1975. From these observations, the breeding season
of the White-tailed Tropicbird on Lanai is prolonged and possibly year-
round.

74

BIRDS OF LANAI

RED-TAILED TROPICBIRD, Phaethon rubricauda rothschildi. This
tropicbird breeds on the Bonin and Hawaiian islands, most commonly
in Hawaii on the Northwestern Islands (Berger 1972). On Lanai I found
Red-tailed Tropiebirds along the Pali Coast, nesting in holes in the high
sea cliffs from February through August 1976. Usually I saw only one
or two individuals at one time but on 9 June 1976, near Kaholo Pali, I
counted as many as 10 adults against the sea cliffs and over the ocean.
I noted no Red-tailed Tropiebirds in the gulches on the island.

WHITE-CAPPED NODDY, Anous tenuirostris . This tern nests in
Hawaii on the Northwestern Islands, offshore islands, and at least on
the coasts of Maui and Hawaii (Berger 1972). On Lanai a colony of up
to 30 light phase individuals probably nests and/or roosts year-round in
sea caves or on the high cliffs at Kaneapua, a point of land adjacent to
Kaunolu Bay. I also saw a few individuals in the Hulopoe-Manele area,
and other colonies of White-capped Noddies may exist along the Pali
Coast.

I noted other seabird species along the coast of Lanai. Solitary
Brown Boobies (Sula leucogaster) and Great Frigatebirds (Fregata minor)
were observed along the Pali Coast. Terns (probably Sooty, Sterna
fuscata ) and noddies (probably Common, Anous stolidus) were noticed
out at sea flying low over the water in the direction of Oahu. The Black-
crowned Night Heron (Nycticorax nycticorax hoactli) was occasionally
seen on Lanai and the species is probably a regular, though infrequently
noticed, visitor from nearby Maui.

AMERICAN GOLDEN PLOVER, Pluvialis dominica fulva. This Pa-
cific race is the most common of the migratory shorebirds on Lanai,
found from sea level to Lanaihale. Although a few birds remained on
the island the whole year, most of the plovers departed for the nesting
grounds in Siberia and arctic America by early May and started to return
in mid-July. On the nine-hole city golf course I found plover numbers
increasing from less than 5 birds in June to over 30 from October
through April. In the mountain forest, I noted plovers on the unpaved
road.

RUDDY TURNSTONE, Arenaria interpres. This shorebird appears
to have a migratory cycle similar to that of the American Golden Plover.
I observed flocks of up to 15 turnstones in tilled Pineapple fields and
along the coastline, especially from Kaiolohia Bay to Halepalaoa Land-
ing in every month of the year except June.

BRISTLE-THIGHED CURLEW, Numenius tahitiensis. This bird is a
regular migrant from western Alaska to the Northwestern Hawaiian Is-
lands and, in smaller numbers, to the main islands (Berger 1972). On 18
July 1976 I saw a Bristle-thighed Curlew on the sandy beach at Polihua.

WANDERING TATTLER, Heteroscelus incanus. I found this winter
resident along the rocky shores, regularly at Puupehe Island, the Kaunolu

75

BIRDS OF LANAI

Bay area, from Kaiolohia to Halepalaoa Landing and at Naha. I saw a
few solitary tattlers on Lanai throughout the year.

SANDERLING, Calidris alba. On Lanai this shorebird occurred com-
monly in flocks of up to five individuals along the sandy shores of the
Beach Coast, especially from Kaiolohia Bay to Halepalaoa Landing,
from mid-July through April.

SHORT-EARED OWL, Asio flammeus sandwich ensis . This owl is
distributed on all the main Hawaiian Islands in a wide range of habitats
(Berger 1972). On Lanai I found Short-eared Owls in the grasslands on
the northern and eastern sides of the island, Kanepuu, in or near the
Pineapple fields, and over the mountain forest. The population size on
the island could be termed common, with the species apparently in no
immediate danger of being extirpated. Nesting information on this owl
in Hawaii is scant, and it may breed throughout the year, depending on
the food supply (Berger 1972, Munro 1960). In June and October 1976
I found young in the Kakaalani area, a Molassas Grass habitat.

AMAKIHI, Loxops virens. This species inhabits all of the main
Hawaiian Islands, divided into four subspecies found on Kauai, Oahu,
Maui-Molokai-Lanai, and Hawaii. It is believed to be the second most
common of the surviving honeycreepers (Berger 1972). The Lanai pop-
ulation (L. v. wilsoni) was considered common before the 1920s, but
then declined in numbers, possibly due to introduced bird diseases
(Munro 1960). More recently it has been said to be rare (Berger 1972).
During this study I briefly observed this bird in late February 1976
between Hauola and Maunalei gulches. For a few minutes I saw one
Amakihi and heard a second in a Norfolk Island Pine. On no other occa-
sion did I encounter Amakihi, raising the possibility that the population
on Lanai may be close to extirpation.

APAPANE, Himantione sanguinea. A single species inhabits six of
the main Hawaiian Islands and is believed to be the most common of
the surviving species of honeycreepers (Berger 1972). This bird was
considered rather abundant in the Lanai forest in the 1890s (Perkins
1903), but by the mid-1930s only a few remained (Munro 1960). I
found Apapane mainly in the native mountain forest, although I noted
occasional individuals in introduced vegetation at lower mountain eleva-
tions. Apapane were most common between Hauola and Maunalei
gulches and at Puu Nene. During this study I found no nests, but I saw
immature individuals in January and April 1976 in the Puu Nene and
Maunalei-Hauola areas respectively. There have been speculations of
interisland flights by Apapane (Berger 1972) and it may be that such
movements have previously restocked the population on Lanai. How-
ever, today the Apapane population on the island seems stable and
viable, although numbers are small and will probably never exceed the
very low hundreds due to the quality and quantity of the native forest.

76

BIRDS OF LANAI

SUMMARY

Based on field work conducted from August 1975 until November
1976, species accounts of the native birds on Lanai are given. Five
migratory shorebird species and eight native nesting species were found
on Lanai. The migratory shorebirds were mainly distributed along the
coastline in the nonsummer months, with American Golden Plovers and
Ruddy Turnstones also noted in the Pineapple fields. White-tailed and
Red-tailed tropicbirds, Wedge-tailed Shearwaters and White-capped Nod-
dies were present and evidently breeding along the Pali Coast. White-
tailed Tropicbirds were also observed in the gulches on the northeast
side of the island. Short-eared Owls were common over much of Lanai,
and a small but viable population of Apapane was found in the native
mountain forest. Amakihi were seen only once in the mountain forest
and the island population may be on the verge of extirpation. The
Dark-rumped Petrel was rediscovered during this study, probably nest-
ing in the mountain forest.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My appreciation goes to the many people in Honolulu and on Lanai
for their kindness and assistance during this study. Special thanks are'
extended to the personnel of the Hawaiian Fruit Flies Laboratory Lanai
field station and Kyong Nan Hirai. Andrew J. Berger kindly commented
on the manuscript. This study was conducted under the direction of
Andrew J. Berger on funds provided by the Hawaiian Fruit Flies Labora-
tory, United States Department of Agriculture, through the Department
of Entomology, University of Hawaii.

LITERATURE CITED

Armstrong, R. W. 1973. Atlas of Hawaii. Univ. Press of Hawaii, Honolulu.
Berger, A. J. 1972. Hawaiian birdlife. Univ. Press of Hawaii, Honolulu.

Ekern, P. C. 1964. Direct interception of cloud water on Lanaihale, Hawaii. Soil
Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 28:419-421.

Greenway, J. C. 1967. Extinct and vanishing birds of the world. Dover, New York.
Gregory, H. E. 1935. Report of the director for 1934. B.P. Bishop Mus. Bull. 133.
Hirai, L. T. 1978. Possible Dark-rumped Petrel colony on Lanai, Hawaii. Elepaio
38:71-72.

Munro, G. C. I960. Birds of Hawaii. Charles E. Tuttle, Tokyo.

Perkins, R. C. L. 1903. Vertebrata (Aves). Vol. 1, part 4, pages 368-465 in D.

Sharp, ed. Fauna Hawaiiensis. Univ. Press, Cambridge, England.

Rothschild, W. 1893-1900. The Avifauna of Laysan and the neighboring islands:
with a complete history to date of the birds of the Hawaiian possessions. R. H.
Porter, London.

Wilson, S. B. and A. H. Evans. 1890-1899. Aves Hawaiiensis: the birds of the
Sandwich Islands. R. H. Porter, London.

Accepted 4 August 1978

77

Sketch by Narca Moore

78

NOTES

WHITE-WINGED CROSSBILLS BREED
IN NORTHERN UTAH

KIMBERLY G. SMITH, Department of Biology and Ecology Center, UMC 5 3,
Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322

On 28 June 1977 Stephen B, Vander Wall observed White-winged Crossbills
(Loxia leucoptera) at an elevation of 2500 m on the crest of the Bear River Range,
13 km west of Laketown, northern Cache and Rich Cos., Utah. Having censused
this area monthly since May 1976, I am certain the species was not present before
the last week of June 1977. This occurrence in itself is surprising since only two
small flocks had previously been reported in Utah (Worthen 1973, Behle and Perry
1975). Subsequently, I suspected breeding activities in early July and made week-
ly observations to verify breeding. Also, I captured, examined and banded 19
White-winged Crossbills at a small (<75 ir»2) stock pond adjacent to a subalpine
meadow on 28 July (7 captured), 6 August (8) and 16 August (4). The pond was
the only source of surface water within several krn^ during 1977’s extreme sum:
mer drought in the region. Many species, including Red Crossbills (L. curvirostra ) ,
regularly visited the pond and were easily mist-netted. The nets were baited with
salt to attract crossbills (see Samson 1976). Birds stopped visiting the pond in
inid-August when it went dry. However, the addition of 200 1 of water on 14
August was effective in reattracting many species including crossbills.

From the number of unbanded birds visiting the pond and from censuses in
the area, I estimate the breeding population of White-winged Crossbills was rough-
ly 30 to 50 individuals. All nine red plumaged males captured had large cloacal
protuberances [x medial length (±S.E.)=7.4±1 .1 mm, range=5.8— 8,9 mm, mea-
sured with a vernier caliper] . Six of seven females had fully-developed brood
patches. Each of the three females caught on 16 August had a very wrinkled
apterium, a sign of active incubation (Kemper 1959). Two dull-plumaged first
year males had smaller cloacal protuberances, 5.1 and 4.9 mm, respectively. Fe-
males (n=6) averaged heavier than males (n=9). The weight data for females were
x=26.9±2.5 g, range=24.0— 30.0 g; for males, x=26.7±2.4 g, range=23.5 — 31.5 g
(measured with a 50 g Pesola scale). No sign of molt was found in any individual,
suggesting all birds were in reproductive condition (Tordoff and Dawson 1965,
but also see Kemper 1959).

On 1 3 September during a 2 h period several heavily streaked juvenile White-
winged Crossbills were observed at the pond, begging food from adults and drink-
ing water. No White-winged Crossbills were observed on 27 September and 8
October in 4 and 3 h of observation, respectively. Red Crossbills were still present
on the latter dates, but in greatly reduced numbers. The area received heavy rain
and some snow in mid-September and no birds were seen using the pond there-
after. However, small flocks (-10-40 birds) of White-winged Crossbills were again
seen in the forest feeding on spruce cones on monthly censuses from December

1977 through May 1978. An adult and a first year male collected on 16 March

1978 both lacked a cloacal protuberance.

Western Birds 9:79-81, 1978

79

NOTES

Casual observations made during many hours of pond watching and nest
searching (in which no nests were found) show that the White-winged Crossbill has
a breeding system like that of the Cassin’s Finch (Carpodacus cassinii) recently
outlined bv Samson (1976). Specific similarities include: 1) all adult males are
mated (paired); 2) all females are mated; 3) a population of unmated first year
males exists; 4) adult males cease singing when paired while first year males con-
tinue to sing; 5) the male’s “territory” revolves around the female; 6) first year
males are probably physiologically capable of breeding (have cloacal protuber-
ances). This type of breeding system seems adaptive for highly nomadic, irruptive
species such as the White-winged Crossbill which depend on a suitable cone crop
for breeding.

This report extends the known breeding range of this species more than 400
km farther south than the previous southermost breeding locality in the Wallowa
Mountains of northeastern Oregon (AOU 1957) and is the first confirmation of
nesting in the United States Rocky Mountain area. White-winged Crossbills pos-
sibly breed in Idaho, but this has never been confirmed (Burleigh 1972), and there
is circumstantial evidence of nesting in Montana (Skaar 1975). It is curious that
this invasion into Utah occurred after a winter in which White-winged Crossbills
were unreported in western North America (Smith 1977). However, the reason
behind this invasion seems clear. The year 1977 was the best Engelmann Spruce
(Picea engelmannii) cone year in 30 years, with some individual spruces having
over 4000 cones (T. W. Daniel, Department of Forest Science, Utah State Univer-
sity, pers. comm.). Subalpine Fir (Abies lasiocarpa) cones were also abundant,
but the White-winged Crossbills seemed to prefer the spruce cones. Another con-
tributing factor may be the apparent cone failure throughout western Canada in
1976 and 1977 (S. VanderWall, pers. comm.).

Tordoff and Dawson (1965) suggest that food, i.e., cones, could serve as both
proximate and ultimate factors (sensu Immelmann 1973) controlling breeding in
Red Crossbills. Ligon (1974b) experimentally proved that green cones of the
Pinon Pine (Pinus edulis) are proximate factors for the breeding of Pinon Jays
(Gymnorhinus cyanocepbalus), a corvid that is ecologically similar to the fringil-
lent Red Crossbill (Ligon 1974a). Although this report does not prove that cones
per se elicit the breeding response, the breeding of White-winged Crossbills in such
numbers so far south of their usual range supports the hypothesis that food is the
proximate factor regulating White-winged Crossbill breeding.

Keith Dixon, Douglas Andersen, Tex Sordahl, Stephen Vander Wall, William
Behle, and Harrison Tordoff made helpful comments on this report. I enjoyed
support from NSF grant DEB 75-13966 to James A. MacMahon while conducting
this research. Members of the Spruce-Fir Project provided companionship.

LITERATURE CITED

American Ornithologists’ Union. 1957. Check -list of North American birds. Fifth
ed. Am. Ornithol. Union, Baltimore.

Behle, W. H. and M. L. Perry. 1975. Utah birds: Check-list, seasonal and ecologi-
cal occurrence charts and guides to bird finding. Utah Mus. Nat. Hist., Salt
Lake City.

Burleigh, T. D. 1972. Birds of Idaho. Caxton Printers, Caldwell, Idaho.

Immelmann, K. 1973. Role of the environment in reproduction as source of
“predictive” information. P. 121-147 in D. S. Farner, ed. Breeding biology in
birds. Natl. Acad. Sci., Washington, D.C.

Kemper, T. 1959. Notes on the breeding cycle of the Red Crossbill (Loxia cur-
virostra) in Montana. Auk 76:181-189.

80

NOTES

Ligon, J. D. 1974a. Comments on the systematic relationships of the Pinon Jay
(Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus). Condor 76:468-470.

Ligon, J. D. 1974b. Green cones of the Pinon Pine stimulate late summer breed-
ing in the Pinon Jay. Nature 250:80-82.

Samson, F. B. 1976. Territory, breeding density, and fall departure in Cassin’s
Finch. Auk 93:477-497.

Skaar, P. D. 1975. Montana bird distribution. P. D. Skaar, Bozeman, Montana.

Smith, K. G. 1977. The changing seasons. Am. Birds 31:292-303.

Tordoff, H. B. and W. R. Dawson. 1965. The influence of daylength on repro-
ductive timing in the Red Crossbill. Condor 67:416-422.

Worthen, G. L. 1973. First recorded specimens of the White-winged Crossbill
from Utah. Wilson Bull. 85:243-244.

Accepted 13 June 1978

81

NOTES

NESTING OF SWAINSON’S HAWK IN SAN LUIS
OBISPO COUNTY, CALIFORNIA IN 1977

BRIAN JAMES WALTON, Coast Range Biological Research Institute, Box 2565,
Santa Clara, California 95051

The Swainson’s Hawk (Buteo swainsoni) was once a common raptor inhabit-
ing eastern San Luis Obispo County (Louis Silveria pers. comm., Fred Truesdale
field notes). It is now an uncommon breeding species throughout California and
nesting in San Luis Obispo County is extremely rare. I attempted to locate Swain-
son’s Hawk nesting territories during spring 1977 while conducting other research
in the Coast Ranges of California.

A pair of Swainson’s Hawks was reported to nest in 1976 on the San Juan
Creek, San Luis Obispo County (Ron Walker pers. comm.). The nest was occupied
in 1977 by Red-tailed Hawks ( Buteo jamaicensis) (Lynette Shirley pers. comm.).
I observed this nesting territory in 1977. It consisted of a large, isolated, dead
cottonwood (Populus sp.) in the dry floodplain of San Juan Creek which runs
through oak woodland, grassland and agricultural plant communities. The nest
was placed on one of the few remaining large horizontal branches of the tree. It
appeared that the nesting Red-tailed Hawks had added fresh sticks to the bulky
stick nest.

I surveyed the length of San Juan Creek (53 km) by automobile and foot travel.
Eleven similar territories were located. Nine sites contained large (approximately
20 m), isolated dead cottonwood trees with a buteo-type stick nest. One site had
two large dead trees that were isolated from other trees in the area and both trees
contained buteo-type nests. A final site contained a large, isolated dead cotton-
wood tree with only remnants of a stick nest. Live and non-isolated trees were
also checked. No Swainson’s Hawks were observed in those situations although
Red-tailed Hawks and Great-horned Owls (Bubo virginianus) were common (11
and 4 pairs respectively).

Of the eleven territories observed, seven were occupied. Five were occupied by
Red-tailed Hawks and two by Swainson’s Hawks. The two Swainson’s Hawk nests
were 6 km apart. One tree occupied by Red-tailed Hawks also contained Barn
Owls (Tyto alba ) in the hollow trunk.

Four Red-tailed Hawk nests contained two young each and one contained one
young. Each Swainson’s Hawk nest contained one young, both of which were
successfully fledged. The fledging success of the Red-tailed Hawk nests was not
determined. No egg counts were conducted.

Because the Swainson’s Hawk is: 1 ) occasionally mis-identified as the abundant
Red-tailed Hawk, 2) not generally used by falconers for hunting, and 3) currently
a widely spaced nesting species in California, it has received little of the attention
or study awarded other species in recent years. These nesting attempts are among
the few documented attempts for the central Coast Range region in the 1970s;
clearly there has been a large scale population decline and range reduction for this
species. Hopefully more researchers will document the occupancy and the pro-
ductivity of Swainson’s Hawk territories in other regions.

Accepted 27 April 1978

82

Western Birds 9:82, 1978

NOTES

A PROBABLE NESTING RECORD

OF THE NORTHERN WATERTHRUSH IN OREGON

MARK EGGER, 6460 N. W. Oak Creek Drive, Corvallis, Oregon 97330

On 4 June 1977 Sayre Greenfield, Alan Contreras and I observed a pair of
Northern Waterthrushes (Seirus noveboracensis) on the south bank of Crescent
Creek at Crescent Creek Campground, south of Davis Lake on the east side of the
Cascade Range in Deschutes County, Oregon. Although there have been at least
three previous sightings of the Northern Waterthrush in Oregon (Gabrielson and
Jewett, Birds of Oregon, 1940:508-509; Kridler, Auk 82:496-497, 1965; E. G.
Whiteswift pers. comm.), apparently this is the first time a pair of this species has
been seen in the state.

Crescent Creek is a deep, swift-moving stream bordered by heavy grasses and
lined with willows (Salix sp.) and a few stunted Red Alders (Alnus rubra). These
small, bushy trees form dense thickets extending 50-200 m from the edges of the
creek back to the beginnings of the dominant forest, a mixture of Ponderosa Pines
(Pinus ponderosa) and Lodgepole Pines (P. contortus). The deciduous thickets
are quite moist and are laced with small pools and wet areas.

The birds we observed appeared at about 1000, in response to imitations of
the call of the Pygmy Owl (Glaucidium gnoma), and were seen from a distance of
about 10 m directly across the creek under perfect, sunny observing conditions,
through 7x and 8x binoculars. They both emerged from the dense undergrowth
and perched together, tails bobbing and bodies held in a horizontal plane, for over
a minute in a dead willow on the creek’s edge. Field marks noted by all observers
included: pale colored tarsi, thin bill, dark crown, dark eye line, creamy-yellowish
superciliary line, dark back and rectrices, and underparts with a distinctly yellow-
ish wash and dark brown spotty streaking. The streaking reached up onto the
throats of both birds and grew finer in this region. However, on one bird the
streaks ended on the breast and sides, while on the other they extended, more
typically, well down onto the belly. Such highly visible dimorphism is not men-
tioned in the literature, and its significance in these birds is unclear. The strong
yellowish hue on the undersides renders somewhat unlikely the subspecies classi-
fication of S. n. notabilis, the common western race, and possibly places these
birds into either the eastern subspecies, S. n. noveboracensis, or the British Co-
lumbia race, S. n. limnaeus. The describers of the latter subspecies (McCabe and
Miller, Condor 35:196, 1933) write that it is less yellow than the eastern variety
and more yellow than the western. Sayre Greenfield, who is familiar with S. n.
noveboracensis in the Ithaca, New York area, noted at the time that the Crescent
Creek birds appeared fully as yellowish underneath as any he had seen in the east-
ern United States.

Perhaps most significantly, both waterthrushes remained in precisely the same
location for at least the next month. During June the pair was seen repeatedly
and photographed (Larry McQueen, Harry Nehls et al.) and one, presumably the
male, was heard singing on all occasions. On 21 June I returned to the site and
observed the singing male and, more briefly, the second bird low on the banks of
the creek, not more than 5 m from the location of the initial sighting. The second
bird disappeared almost immediately and made no sound, while the male contin-
ued its loud, crisp song from various spots as I followed it through the under-
growth. Its singing was quite persistent. A careful search of the more accessible
portions of the area failed to reveal a nest, but the waterthrush is a species noted
for clever concealment of its nest. The willow thickets back from the creek are
next to impenetrable and contain many small pools, any one of whose margins
may well have contained a waterthrush nest.

Western Birds 9:83-84, 1978

83

NOTES

The birds were last seen on 24 June by Harry Nehls and David Fix, Though
they were not seen thereafter, they were heard several times in July (Harry Nehls
pers. comm.). Their date of departure remains unknown. They were not present
when I searched the area on 10 August. Their absence on this date is not unex-
pected, for they are known to begin southward migration before the end of July
and to reach the South American wintering grounds as early as mid-August (Bent,
U. S. Natl. Mus. Bull. 203:484, 1940).

In summary, it is highly probable that these two Northern Waterthrushes at
least attempted to nest along Crescent Creek, considering that they were, in all
likelihood, a male and a female (obvious behavioral differences and possible sexual
dimorphism), that they remained in close proximity both to each other and to the
site of first observation for at least a month, and that timing and habitat were
ideally conducive to waterthrush reproduction. These observations and the sight-
ing of lone, singing male on 18 June 1977 by Larry McQueen (pers. comm.) on
the Little Deschutes River, not far from Crescent Creek, suggest the possibility of
the establishment of this species as a rare breeding bird in suitable habitat along the
eastern flanks of the Oregon Cascade Range. They should be watched for in the
future in this region, and all sighting should be carefully studied for subspecies
identification.

Accepted 6 May 1978

84

NOTES

BLACK-THROATED SPARROW VAGRANTS
IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST

EUGENE S. HUNN, Department of Anthropology, University of Washington,
Seattle, Washington 98195

Nancy Hunn and I observed a single adult Black-throated Sparrow (Amphispiza
bilineata) 16 May 1976 at the Pt. Grenville Coast Guard Station, Grays Harbor
Co., Washington. The bird was feeding actively on the lawn of the Coast Guard
facility with a flock of about five Savannah Sparrows (Passerculus sandwichensis),
three American Goldfinches (Carduelis tristis) and one White-crowned Sparrow
(Zonotrichia leucophrys) . The Coast Guard Station perches on a high promontory
facing the Pacific Ocean and surrounded by second growth coniferous forest typi-
cal of the coastal Sitka Spruce (Picea sitcbensis) zone (Franklin and Dyrness 1973:
58-63). Color photographs obtained with the aid of K. C. Johnstone of the U. S.
Coast Guard are not of publishable quality but do allow the bird to be identified.
Copies of these color slides have been deposited with the Washington Bird Record
File at the University of Washington Museum. A sketch drawn while the bird was
under observation is also in that file. The following details were recorded at the
time of the observation:

The bird was plump, sparrow-shaped with a dark grey conical bill. Its body
was scarcely if at all larger than the Am. Goldfinch and noticeably smaller than
the Savannah and White-crowned sparrows. However its tail was considerably
longer than that of either goldfinch or Savannah Sparrow, being nearly as long
as its body. The bird looked more or less like a cross between ajunco and a
chickadee. The crown was medium grey edged with slate back as far as the
eye. There was a broad white superciliary. The lores were black merging into
a dark grey face patch broken only by the white lower eyelid. The face patch
and crown merged into a grey nape on the side of the head behind the eye.
The chin, throat and breast were marked with a black diamond-shaped bib
outlined by the white malar stripe and breast. The malar stripe ended about
1 mm short of the bill which was edged all around with black. The sides [of
the breast] were pale grey which merged rather abruptly into the white out-
lining the black bib. The center of the belly to the under tail coverts was
whitish. The rear flanks were pale buffy white. The back and wings were
clear medium brown without streaking or wing bars. The tail was dark brown,
long and square. A white edge on the outer tail feather could be seen when the
bird spread its tail (which was not often, hence the white on the tail was diffi-
cult to discern). The legs were dark. I heard no vocalizations.

Subsequent attempts to find the bird on 18 and 20 May were unsuccessful. A cold
front moved onshore the night before the observation. This may have grounded
a group of north-bound migrants. Fair weather following may have allowed this
bird to move on.

The Pt. Grenville Black-throated Sparrow record just detailed is the first photo-
graphically documented report for the state of Washington. Mattocks, Hunn and
Wahl (1976:21) list the species as hypothetical, citing a sight record by W. L.
Dawson of two birds near Brooks Lake, Douglas Co., 31 May 1908. A third ap-
parently valid sighting is of a bird on the lawn of the Ohanapecosh Ranger Station,
Mount Rainier National Park, 23-24 May 1959. It was observed at close range by
rangers Sellers and D. May (USD1 1964; fide W. Harrington-Tweit). Since the
Pt. Grenville sighting, a single bird was noted 10 May 1977 south of Walla Walla
about 2 km north of the Oregon State line (K. Knittle pers. comm.). These and
extralimital records from western Montana, Idaho, British Columbia, Oregon and

Western Birds 9:85-89, 1978 85

NOTES

northern California are summarized in Table 1 and are shown in Figure 1 as open
circles. Known breeding sites in Wyoming, Utah, Nevada, southern Idaho, south-
eastern Oregon and northeastern California are shown as black circles. Records
which may indicate breeding, at least on a casual basis, are shown as half-dark,
half-open circles and the potential breeding range is outlined with dashes.

A single report of a bird beyond its normal range is of little note unless it can
be shown to reflect a more general pattern, in which case it is no longer an “ac-
cidental” occurrence. Thirty-one of 35 (89%) individual vagrant Black-throated
Sparrows in this region appeared between 6 May and 10 June and 22 (63%) of

Figure 1. Black-throated Sparrow distribution in the Pacific Northwest. Open
circles show locations of vagrants. Black circles show breeding sites. Circles half-
black, half-open show locations of possible breeding birds on the periphery of the
species’ known breeding range. The known breeding range is outlined by the solid
black line; the potential breeding range by the dashed line.

86

NOTES

Table 1. Potential breeding and vagrant Black-throated Sparrow records for the
Pacific Northwest. Audubon Field Notes and American Birds are abbreviated
AFN and AB.

SOURCE

BRITISH COLUMBIA

8 June 1959

Murtle Lake, Wells Gray
Provincial Park (1, specimen)

Godfrey 1966:389

MONTANA

10 June 1968

Missoula, Missoula Co. (1)

AFN 22:632

21 May 1975

Near Missoula (1, photographed)

AB 29:885

IDAHO

Potential breeding

Near Ellis, Pahsimeroi Valley

Burleigh 1972:411

Potential breeding

Cassia Co.

Burleigh 1972:411

6 May 195 3

Rathdrum, Kootenai Co.
(1, specimen)

Burleigh 1972:411

WASHINGTON

31 May 1908

Near Brooks Lake,

Mattocks, Hunn

Douglas Co. (2)

and Wahl 1976:21

23-24 May 1959

Ohanapecosh Ranger Station,
Mt. Rainier National Park (1)

USDI 1964

16 May 1976

Pt. Grenville, Grays Harbor
Co. (1, photo)

AB 30:882

10 May 1977

Near Walla Walla,
Walla Walla Co. (1)

AB 31:1027

OREGON*

Potential breeding

Wright’s Point, Harney Co.

Gabrielson and
Jewett 1970:565;
Dubois 1959:435;
AB 31:1165

Potential breeding

Silver Lake, Harney Co.

Gabrielson and
Jewett 1970:565

Potential breeding

Lake Abert, Lake Co.

T. Manolis
pers. comm.

Potential breeding

Nilakshi Ridge, Klamath Co.

Brown 1960:220-221

16 May 1959

Beaverton, Washington Co. (1)

Dubois 1959=435

17-19 May 1959

Baker, Baker Co. (1)

AFN 13:390

28 May 1959

Milwaukie, Clackamas Co. (2)

Dubois 1959:435

Shortly before
4 June 1959

Depoe Bay, Lincoln Co. (1)

Dubois 1959:435

ca. 4 June 1966

Brothers, Deschutes Co, (1)

AFN 20:588

23 May 1970

Lebanon, Linn Co.
(1, specimen)

AFN 24:638

23 May 1970

On coast, Curry Co. (1)

AFN 24:638

30 May-2 July 1970

Roxy Ann Butte, Jackson Co.
(3+, 2 banded)

AFN 24:638, 711

18 May 1975

Portland, Multnomah Co. (1)

AB 29:901

87

NOTES

Table 1 (cont)

SOURCE

31 May 1975
26 April 1977

Roxy Ann Butte (1)
Near Florence, Lane Co.
(1, photo)

AB 29:901
AB 31:1040

CALIFORNIA** (spring records west of the Sierra Nevada)

Potential breeding Near Honey Lake, Lassen Co. AB 29:21

6 June 1959

Near Patterson Pass,
Santa Clara Co. (2)

McCaskie and
DeBenedictis
1966:28
AB 26:807
J. Winter
pers. comm.

12 May 1972
14-20 May 1972

Near Areata, Humboldt Co. (1)

Pacific Grove, Monterey Co.

(1, photo)

17 April 1974
12 May-6 June 1974
16 May 1975
12-31 May 1977

Near Chico (1)
Farallon Is. (2)

Farallon Is., San Francisco C,o.(l) AB 28:850
Near Chico, Butte Co. (4) AB 28:850

AB 29:906
AB 31:1045

* A report of 12 seen 10 April 1975 near Finley National Wildlife Refuge, Benton
Co., Oregon (AB 29:901), seems unlikely and is without supporting details. A
report of potential breeding near Hampton, Deschutes Co. (AB 27:896), was
based on song only and has not been verified (H. Nehls pers. comm.).

** Most northern California reports were summarized by Jon Winter (pers. comm.)
from the American Birds regional editors’ files. In addition to those listed there
are eight fall reports, including six from the Farallon Islands, and two winter re-
ports. Of nine reports from the Sierra Nevada, one is for fall, one for winter and
the remainder between 3 May and 28 June.

these individuals were noted during the latter half of May. These contrast with
typical mid-April arrivals at northern California breeding sites (McCaskie and
DeBenedictis 1966:28). Most of these vagrant birds quickly move on. Almost all
reports involve single birds or pairs, and most are far from suitable habitat. In
short, these individuals appear to have overshot the mark during spring migration
and to have been wandering for some time.

There may also be a greater tendency for vagrancy of this type in certain years.
Three or more reports have been noted in four years (1959, 1970, 1975 and 1977)
with a total of seven sightings from four states in the spring of 1959, the year of’
the Canadian record. The spring of 1959 was characterized by severe drought
from the southwest (Monson 1959, Small 1959) to the northwestern extremity of
the Black-throated Sparrow’s breeding range at Malheur National Wildlife Refuge
in Oregon (Scott 1959). The widespread drought conditions of the winter of
1976 brought three sightings from as many states. The two northern California
coastal sightings in 1972 coincided with a drought restricted to the southwest.
However 1970, which saw three reports, was characterized as cool, and 1975,
with four reports, was an extremely cold and wet spring throughout the western
United States.

88

NOTES

In conclusion, drought conditions in the Black-throated Sparrow’s breeding
range may increase the probability of the vagrancy pattern described here. How-
ever other factors may also increase that probability.

I would particularly like to thank William Harrington-Tweit, Tim Manolis,
Philip Mattocks, Jr., Harry Nehls, Richard Stallcup and Jon Winter for generous
assistance in the preparation of this report.

LITERATURE CITED

Brown, R. McP. 1960. Black -throated Sparrows in south-central Oregon. Condor
62:220-221.

Burleigh, T. D. 1972. Birds of Idaho. Caxton Printers, Caldwell, Idaho.

Dubois, H. M. 1959. Black -throated Sparrows in northwestern Oregon. Condor
61:435.

Franklin, S. F. and C.T. Dyrness. 1973. Natural vegetation of Oregon and Washing-
ton. USDA Forest Service, General technical report PNW-8, Washington, D. C.
Gabrielson, I. N. and S. G. Jewett. 1970. Birds of the Pacific Northwest (sic)
with special reference to Oregon. Dover, New York. Originally Birds of
Oregon (1940).

Godfrey, W. F. 1966. The birds of Canada, Natl. Mus. Canada Bull. No. 203,
Ottawa.

McCaskie, G. and P. DeBenedictis. 1966. Birds of northern California. Golden
Gate Audubon Society, Berkeley, California.

Mattocks, P. W., Jr., E. S. Hunn and T. R, Wahl. 1976. A checklist of the birds
of Washington State, with recent changes annotated. West. Birds 7:1-24.
Monson, G. 1959. Spring migration. Southwest region. Aud. Field Notes
13:391-393.

Scott, O. K. 1959. Spring migration. Great Basin, central Rocky Mountain
region. Aud. Field Notes 13:390-391.

Small, A. 1959. Spring migration. Southern Pacific Coast region. Aud. Field
Notes 13:398-402.

U. S. Department of the Interior. 1964. Mount Rainier National Park checklist
of birds. 21pp. Mimeo.

Accepted 21 July 1978

89

NOTES

A DEFINITE RECORD OF THE TRUMPETER SWAN
FROM NEW MEXICO

DALE A. ZIMMERMAN, Department of Biological Science, Western New Mexico
University, Silver City, New Mexico 88061

An adult Trumpeter Swan (Olor buccinator) was illegally shot and killed on
Bear Canyon Reservoir in the Mimbres River Valley east of Silver City, New Mex-
ico, on or about 23 February 1977. One of my students, Wyatt Pickering, salvaged
the bird from the reservoir and although it had been partially eaten by fish or
turtles, I prepared it as a study skin (DAZ 2660) which presently is housed at
Western New Mexico University.

The bird’s measurements (wing 648 mm, total length 1350 mm), large relative
bill size, bill shape and reddish mandible edge initially suggested buccinator , but its
weight (ca. 8618 gr, plus at least 450 gr removed by scavengers) and 22 rectrices
(compared to 24 in the Trumpeter, and 20 in the Whistling Swan, O. columbianus)
made determination on external criteria less than certain. However, longitudinal
section of the sternum revealed the distinctive vertical loop in the trachea in its
special bone housing— the definitive identifying character of a Trumpeter Swan.
After being photographed, this section and other parts of the body skeleton were
preserved. The bird’s gonads were destroyed by shot, precluding sex determination.

Local fishermen reported seeing the swan, prior to its demise, for “at least a
month” as it flew in, alone, from an unknown feeding ground to roost on the res-
ervoir each evening. So far as is known, it was not seen alive by any bird student.

This is the first substantiated record of the species in New Mexico, and there
is no Arizonan or west Texan record of which I am aware. Indeed, so far as I can
determine, this constitutes the southernmost record for the species, at least in
recent years. D. E. Merrill’s report (Auk 1932:460) of a Trumpeter Swan shot
along the Rio Grande near Las Cruces, N.M., in November 1931 has not been and
cannot be accepted. (However, it was included without comment in J. S. Ligon’s
New Mexico Birds and Where to Find Them, Univ. of N.M. Press, Albuquerque,
1961.) Although allegedly “Mr. A. E. Archer made a skin of the specimen,” there
is no evidence that material was in fact preserved or properly identified.

Accepted 9 June 1978

90

Western Birds 9:90, 1978

NOTES

A VIOLET-CROWNED HUMMINGBIRD IN CALIFORNIA

JEROME A. JOHNSON, 14000 Old Harbor Lane, Apt. 103, Marina del Rey, Cal-
ifornia 90291

FRED R. ZIEGLER, 1219 C. Street, Wilmington, California 90744

Sometime during the morning of 6 July 1976 William Haggard of Santa Paula,
Ventura County, California noted a strange hummingbird at one of his feeders,
located in an oak-chapparal canyon. He identified the bird as a Violet-crowned
Hummingbird (Amazilia verticalis ) . On 17 July we visited the feeders and ob-
served the hummingbird several times at very close range. The following descrip-
tion was obtained:

Crown, and sides of head above eye, dull violet. Upper back greenish, slow-
ly becoming brownish on lower back. Upper surface of tail dark brown,
contrasting with lighter brown of lower back. Bill red. Underparts and sides
of neck, white. Indistinct dusky speckling on sides.

We took color photographs which are on file with the authors. The bird was
subsequently seen by many observers and remained at the Haggard residence until
late December 1976. It was also seen for a few days in early July 1977. During
the early part of its stay the bird visited the feeder area once every 45 minutes or
so, but later the visits became less frequent with one 2 week period in the late fall
when it was not seen at all.

This observation constitutes the first record of the Violet-crowned Humming-
bird in California, and the first anywhere outside of Arizona, New Mexico and the
Republic of Mexico. The normal range of the species extends from northeastern
Sonora, extreme southeastern Arizona, extreme southwestern New Mexico and
western Chihuahua south to Puebla, Guerrero and Chiapas. The species occurs in
the northern part of its range only during the breeding season and winters from
southern Sonora southward (AOU 1957).

The range of this hummingbird has apparently been spreading slowly north-
ward during the past 70 years. The first specimen for the United States was collect-
ed on 4 July 1905 in the Huachuca Mountains of Arizona and subsequent collec-
tions were made in the Chiricahua Mountains in 1925 and at Patagonia, Arizona
in 1948 (Levy 1958). In the early 1960s the Violet-crowned Hummingbird began
to show up almost every summer at feeders in Ramsey Canyon, Arizona (Sheppard
1968). In the summer of 1959 the first breeding record for the United States
was established with the finding of several nests in Guadalupe Canyon in extreme
southwestern New Mexico and extreme southeastern Arizona (Zimmerman and
Levy 1960). Until the fall of 1970, however, no Violet-crowned Hummingbird
had appeared in any area in the United States outside the mountains of southern
Arizona and New Mexico. But in late 1970 an individual appeared at a feeder in
Tucson, Arizona and remained until late February 1971 (Snider 1971). This was
the first winter record for the United States. Another was seen in the vicinity of
Tucson in October 1972 (Monson 1973). The trend to more northerly and west-
erly observations is continuing as is seen in the appearance of an individual in
Prescott, Arizona, between 11 and 19 October 1975 (J. Witzeman pers. comm.).

While the taxonomy of this species has a long and confusing history well be-
yond the scope of this note, it is generally believed there are three races: A. v.
violiceps, A.v. viridifrons and A.v. ellioti (Wetmore 1947, Phillips 1965). The first
two races mentioned occur from Puebla, Morelos and Oaxaca southward, while
ellioti is the northern race and thus the one most likely to occur in California.

Examination of 129 skins at the Moore Laboratory of Ornithology at Occi-
dental College revealed that the Santa Paula bird did not show the typical plumage

Western Birds 9:91-92, 1978

91

NOTES

of the northerly race of the Violet-crowned Hummingbird. The bird in Santa
Paula had a brown tail; only 8% of the specimens examined showed brown tails.
The two southerly races have substantial iridescent bronze coloring in the tail.
Furthermore the tail was darker than the back. Sixteen percent of specimens
showed tails (either greenish or brown) darker than the back. There was no sea-
sonal variation in the color of the tail. It is logical to assume that the bird in Santa
Paula was a representative of ellioti. In the first place, a few ellioti do have brown
tails. Secondly, and more important, the California bird had none of the bronze
tinge so noticeable in the tails of southern subspecies.

It was impossible to determine the sex of the bird seen in Santa Paula. Some
authors stress the blue-violet crown of the male as opposed to dull greenish-blue
in females and immatures. Inspection of skins revealed very substantial overlap
in the colors and brightness of the crown between the sexes, thus casting doubt
on the validity of this field mark.

We have conducted an extensive investigation into the possibility that the bird
was an escapee from captivity, having discussed the matter with several local au-
thorities on hummingbirds, including Luis Baptista of the Moore Laboratory,
Donald Bleitz of the Bleitz Wildlife Foundation and the curators of birds at the
Los Angeles and San Diego zoos. All believe the California bird was not an es-
capee. We were able to find only one instance of Violet-crowns kept in captivity.
About 8 or 9 years ago, Bleitz owned two birds which he eventually sent to the
San Diego Zoo. Zoo records show these birds died in May 1970 (A. Risser pers.
comm.). We also made inquiries of the Santa Barbara Zoo and several retail pet
dealers in the Ventura and Los Angeles areas. None of these sources knew of any
hummingbirds of any kind recently kept in captivity in southern California. We
also found that a roof blew off an aviary in Hawthorne, Los Angeles County, 8 or
9 years ago. Sixty birds escaped; none were Violet-crowns (D. Bleitz pers. comm.).
Detailed records of this investigation are on file with the authors and with the
California Bird Records Committee. Based on all the information at hand, we
believe that the chances that this was an escaped bird are minimal.

We would like to express our gratitude to Mr. and Mrs. William Haggard for
reporting the presence of the bird and for their kindness in permitting many people
to come onto their property to view it. Thanks are also due Luis Baptista for
allowing us to examine the excellent series of skins at the Moore Laboratory and
to Donald Bleitz for his assistance on the “escapee” question.

LITERATURE CITED

American Ornithologists’ Union. 1957. Check-list of North American birds, 5th
ed. Am. Ornithol. Union, Baltimore, MD.

Levy, S. H. 1958. A possible United States breeding area for the Violet-crowned
Hummingbird. Auk 75:350.

Monson, G. 1973. The fall migration. Southwest region. Am. Birds 27:99.
Phillips, A. R. 1965. Notas sistematicas sobre aves mexicanas. III. Rev. Soc.
Mex. Hist. Nat. 25:217-242.

Sheppard, J. M. 1968. Berylline and Violet-crowned hummingbirds in Arizona.
Auk 85:329.

Snider, P. 1971. The winter season. Southwest region. Am. Birds 25:610.
Wetmore, A. 1947. The races of the Violet-crowned Hummingbird, Amazilia
violiceps. Washington Acad. Sci. 37:103-104.

Zimmerman, A. and S. H. Levy. I960. Violet-crowned Hummingbird nesting in
Arizona and New Mexico, Auk 77:470.

Accepted 8 March 1978

92

Votumr % Number 2 h I^7S

Siabirds in the Nnnlwfslt'ii! Pftcrllc Orman and South

Central Bmuiji 2 m* a in June 1975 Ferfm^e H. Wtihi I i

Appieiit Rt^pnrtM ill hwfrfn Wm^Hp^mkr.i* n> Outbreak*

of the Stee Bark Fleet Ir 4 Men B, Cmcfa& Gnd Paula L Hanrity G7

M ativt: B i rd *. * A La i lai . H await if irh re i Htrti i 1 I

NOTES

Wliitc-wiii^ed Crossbills Bre« a 1 1 m Northern Utah

klmhtvly 0. Smdh 7ft

Ntstmp *A Stott it uum's l lawk ui San Lins Obispo Cfrurot

Cal i Ft h i i i ;i in 1977 B? m ft Jti \ \ ttffvn S3

A I'll liable Nr.'iiiri^ ftccurd ot rhr Niki hem Waten brush

in Qtrgmi Sff/tjfr fcggrr 88

Bins k-iliffijiirt! Hjaairtiw Vagrants in the Pjddfh

Nurthtot-M Enjtt'tw S, Harm 85

A. l'teliniic Rcmtml - ‘I thi 1 ru reprint Swan from

Ng-u Mi'Xtna DaLv _L ?Smm*irtmn "SO

A Viulrt-trotoiird HunuiiinglnNl in Califorriia

Iffltm? rL Johniau and Ffrd H Zr^jjhr 9 I

M iLriutcBpis should be mtlI to Alim M. Craig. 3 S32 Winston W.lV, CinTtSmhacl. CA
V 5-fVtfti. Few nutUn tif SFylt 4DMylt to t ririfnhutfvn to Wtsifr* r ftinii

(6 pp. munew available at no eo?T r'rom die Editor! and CHF. Style M A math ltd ed.,
1072 r&tf ultablr from Amefiertn In wirarr of ttiolfigicHl Sciencei, 3pno rt'bvonwn
At't„NW, WuhLngtnn, IX 'jjWHJlft For S#UU} +

PiifWy a re cfceHSJrai thftf are based a pan field t rutiiei g,f birds, ihat ^ bet h innkr-
Mtindabl-e and useful in xmateninq Mid <ihnt mike 1 fi^plificant eo nEribti Bun La
SCkCMlfk literature. Appropriate topics include dwrihurkm* miptllbn, CMlUfl.
behavior. ecology, pppidtiisil dyturtlfc*. habitat requirements, tbc effete of
dilution, ami technique* for identifying, KBsMing. round rcFOniing and pfaftto
(fruplmig birds in the Held, hjwtji nf grficrsl Imereti nHII be tnn^iileml rrpnlln
nf E heit geflgniptiiG' Origin, but particularly desired iirr pupet* dinting with iiudies
atsWnplUhc-d in e«r hunting at 1 Rocky Mmintnin states and provinces wesnt-.irrb.
including Alaska and Hawaii;, adjacent pwnw* u F the hirific Ocean and Mexico;
ami western I ex^->.

V 1 1 L h I'.I-. ,ir> t provided ’M i t f c sq»r*fflt Ol each :■:*:* I .“’-i I til r. pr.E:l” . .m si.-

ordered at amEirwi; cxpdW frwil I he Editor when pirwaf Is returned nr earlier -

Gand phfltoprajihs at rare ^nd. urmwisl hUtU, Ubtnt»tt|»nlii by all a r tide but
with caption including species. J*Llc. lonliti and other pcfriuent uifonnatiqn
ihotfkl be sctbimtted w Stephen Uymon, Gurney Aytawe, Red Kluff, CA
yfitiso.