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A(|UatiC H 01 bl C \ d© i i r tr wd rtrt HirMwtp,! ! » ■ ,1^ 1 1 1 1 J I C | i FLORIDA EXOTIC PEST PLANT COUNCIL - www.fleppc.org Officers Jim Bumey, Chair Aquatic Vegetation Control, Inc. 561/845-5525 LlJ2@aol.com Dianne Owen, Secretary Florida Atlantic University 954/236-1085 dowen@fau.edu Kristina Kay Serbesoff-King, Treasurer The Nature Conservancy 561/744-6668 kserbesoffking@tnc.org Karen Brown, Editor University of Florida Center for Aquatic & Invasive Plants 352/392-1799 kpbrown@mail.ifas.ufl.edu Mike Bodle, Immediate Past Chair South Florida Water Management District 561/682-6132 mbodle@sfwmd. gov Alison Fox, Chair-Elect University of Florida Agronomy Department 352/392-1811, Ext. 207 amfox@ifas.ufl.edu Directors Roger Clark (2nd year) Lee County Parks & Recreation 239/461-7453 Roger@leegov.com Drew Leslie (2nd year) Florida DEP Bureau of Invasive Plant Management 850/245-2822 Drew.Leslie@dep.state.fl. us Cressida Silvers (2nd year) USDA/ARS 954/475-0541 ext. 144 csilvers@saa.ars.usda.gov Jim Duquesnel (2nd year) Florida Park Service 305/451-1226 james.g.duquesnel@dep.state.fl.us Scott Ditmarsen (1st year) DowAgro Sciences 813/866-7090 scditmarsen@dow.com Jon Lane (1st year) USACOE Invasive Species Management 904/232-1044 Jon.S.Lane@saj02.usace.army.mil Tony Pernas (1st year) National Park Service Florida/Caribbean Exotic Plant Management Team 305/252-0347 Tony_Pernas@nps . gov Paul Pratt (1st year) USDA-ARS Invasive Plant Research Laboratory 954/475-6549 prattp@saa.ars.usda.gov Committee Chairs By-laws Dennis Giardina Fakahatchee Strand Preserve State Park 239/695-4593 Dennis.Giardina@dep.state.fl.us CAST Representative Dennis Giardina Ken Langeland (alternate) Editorial Karen Brown Education Leesa Souto Stormwater Management Academy 321/722-2123 Lsouto@mail.ucf.edu FNGA/FLEPPC Liaison Doria Gordon University of Florida The Nature Conservancy 352/392-5949 dgordon@botanyufl.edu -and- JB Miller St. Johns River Water Management District milleijb@aug.com Legislative Matthew King Palm Beach County 561/233-2400 mking@co. palm-beach. fl.us Local Arrangements Mike Bodle Membership Katy Roberts 727/726-1455 kroberts@ij.net Merchandise Tony Pernas Nominations Mike Bodle Outreach Tom Fucigna CZR Inc. 561/747-7455 tomfucignajr@hotmail.com Plant List Kathy Craddock Burks Florida Natural Areas Inventory 850/224-8207 Ext. 210 kburks@fhai.org Program Chair Cheryl McCormick University of Florida-IFAS Center for Aquatic & Invasive Plants 352/846-2516 cheryl@ufl.edu Research John Volin Florida Atlantic University 954/236-1115 jvolin@fau.edu Training Jim Duquesnel Vendors Todd Olson Aquatic Vegetation Control 561/845-5525 tolson@avcaquatic.com Webmaster Tony Pernas Task Force Chairs Australian Pine Robert Egan Habitat Restoration Resources 239/574-8173 HabitatRR@yahoo.com Brazilian Pepper Jim Cuda University of Florida Entomology Department 352/392-1901 Ext. 126 Jcuda@ifas.ufl.edu Carrotwood Chris Lockhart Habitat Specialists, Inc. 561/738-1179 chris@habitatspecialists .com Dioscorea Mike Bodle Grasses Greg MacDonald University of Florida Agronomy Department 352/392-1811 Ext. 228 gemac@mail.ifas.ufl.edu Lygodium Amy Ferriter/Tom Fucigna Skunkvine Brian Nelson SWFWMD 352/796-7211 Brian.Nelson@swfwmd.state.fl.us Chinese Tallow Cheryl McCormick Melaleuca Francois Laroche South Florida Water Management District 561/682-6193 flaroche@sfwmd. gov SOUTHEAST EXOTIC PEST PLANT COUNCIL www. se-eppc.org Officers President Brian Bowen Tennessee Dept Environment and Conservation Division of Natural Heritage 615/532-0436 Brian.Bowen@state.tn.us Vice President Joyce Bender Kentucky State Nature Preserves Commission 502/573-2886 J oyce .Bender@ky. us Secretary Kristen Gounaris Allen Richmond National Battlefield Park 804/795-5019 Kristen_Allen@nps.gov Treasurer Tony Pernas, Florida EPPC SE-EPPC Chapters and Regional Organizations: Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Mid-Atlantic, Mississippi, New England, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, USDA-Forest Service The Exotic Pest Plant Council has not tested any of the products advertised or referred to in this publication, nor has it verified any of the statements made in any of the advertisements or articles. The Council does not warrant, expressly or implied, the fitness of any product advertised or the suitability of any advice or statements contained herein. Wildland Weeds Winter 2005, Volume 9, Number 1 Table of Contents 4 The History of Tung Oil by Karen Brown and William Keeler 7 The tragedy of the commons revisited: Invasive Species by Sarah Reichard, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 9 Meet the Southeast Exotic Pest Plant Council 12 Monster Machines 15 Kentucky EPPC Trains Forestry Personnel by Joyce Bender, KY EPPC President 1 7 The City of Greenacres - A good place to live by Seretha George, Planning and Engineering Department 21 Pine Rockland Restoration in South Florida by Lauren Linares, Scheda Ecological Associates 23 Internodes The mission of the Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council is to support the management of invasive exotic plants in Florida’s natural areas by providing a forum for the exchange of scientific, educational and technical information. An exotic plant has been introduced to Florida, either purposefully or accidentally, from a natural range outside of Florida. A naturalized exotic plant is one that sustains itself outside of cultivation (it is still exotic; it has not “become” native). An invasive exotic plant not only has become naturalized, but it is expanding its range in Florida plant communities. Wildland Weeds (ISSN 1524-9786) is published quarterly by the Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council (FLEPPC) and the Southeast Exotic Pest Plant Council (SE-EPPC) to provide a focus for the issues and for information on exotic pest plant biology, distribution and control. Direct all editorial and advertising inquiries to: Karen Brown, Editor Wildland Weeds 7922 NW 71st Street Gainesville, FL 32653 352/392-1799; FAX 352/392-3462 kpbrown@ifas.ufl.edu Editorial Committee: Kathy Craddock Burks Jim Cuda Ken Langeland Michael Meisenburg Direct address changes to: Jackie Smith DEP - Invasive Plant Management 9737 Gumbo Limbo Lane Jensen Beach, FL 34957 561/722-2479 j ackie . c . smith@ dep . state . fl . us Design by JS Design Studio. Printing by Storter Childs. Gainesville, FL. On the Cover: A tracked skid steer with a feller buncher and a herbicide spray tank fells, bunches and sprays Australian pines trees ( Casuarina equisetifolia). For more monster machines, see pp. 12-13. Photo by Laurel Egan. WILDLAND WEEDS 3 The History of Tung Oil by Karen Brown and William Keeler While greatly enjoying the experience of studying local flora some years ago with the humorous yet venerable botanist, Dr. Dana Griffin of the University of Florida (now retired and birdwatching), I struggled to learn to identify the trees of Gainesville. One of my favorites was the tung oil tree, Aleurites fordii, because of its dead giveaway clue, the two tiny glands at the top of each leaf where it joins the petiole. This was as good as an answer written in the palm of one’s hand during a final exam. I later learned that tung oil trees were an invasive exotic tree listed as a FLEPPC Category II species.* Even later, I was surprised to learn there was a rich history of tung oil trees right here in my own backyard of Gainesville. 1932. University Archives, Department of Special and Area Studies Collections, George A. Smathers Libraries, University of Florida. 1946. Florida State Library and Archives, The Florida Memory Project. “Florida now has one of the most impor- tant opportunities which ever came South for a visit, knocking at her door.” (Dacy, 1927) History of American tung oil production After extensive stands of pine trees were cut for timber in the early 1900s, Gulf Coast farmers looked for a suitable cash crop for the large acreage left over. The U.S. was the primary market for Chinese tung oil, importing 12 million gal- lons (100 million pounds) in 1927, and almost 120 million pounds in 1933, with demand still exceeding supply Tung oil from southern China was extracted by hand from trees growing wild throughout the country; they were not cultivated. Due to the fluctuations in cost, quality, and delivery, China was a risky source of the high-grade tung oil that was far superior to any other type of oil. The first tung tree seed reportedly was brought to America from Hankow, China in 1905 by Dr. David Fairchild, then senior agricultural explorer for the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). Resultant seedlings were distributed to experiment stations in the South. In 1912 the Bureau of Plant Industry issued a spe- cial bulletin, carrying the personal approval of Secretary of Agriculture James Wilson, which urged growers to plant tung orchards and offered a limited number of free one-year old trees. In the same year, ten trees were planted at UF’s Agricultural Experiment Station in Gainesville. By 1927, there were some 400 growers and more than 10,000 acres of tung oil trees in Alachua and adjoining counties alone. In 1928, L.P. Moore (nephew of the Benjamin Moore Paints founder) of the Alachua Tung Oil Corporation in Gainesville built the first mechanized tung oil compressing mill in the world. This began the commercial production of tung oil in the U.S. The largest of Florida’s tung plantations at the end of 1937 was that of H.W Bennett in Alachua County. Mr. Bennett studied tung trees in their native China along the Yangtze River. He returned to plant 100,000 trees on 2,000 acres from 1930-1932, establishing China Tung Oil on “Tung Acres” just outside of Gainesville. In 1938, the USDA began an extensive research program on tung production at *Category II - Invasive exotics that have increased in abundance or frequency but have not yet altered Florida plant communities to the extent shown by Category I species. 4 WINTER 2005 Botanical Description and Distribution Aleurites fordii (Hemsl.) is in the Euphorbiaceae (Spurge) family. The USDA Plants Database (http://plants.usda.gov/) shows the tung oil tree occurring in Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Puerto Rico. The Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants (http://www.plantatlas.usf.edu/default.asp) lists vouchered specimens from Alachua, Citrus, Escambia, Franklin, Gadsden, Jefferson, Leon, Marion, Okaloosa, Santa Rosa, Suwannee and \‘ Walton counties, with the FLEPPC database (www.fleppc.org) adding Columbia County. Common names include tung oil tree, Chinese wood-oil-tree, hsiao t’ung shu, t’ung shu, t’ung yu, tung yan shu (Chinese), and Tungolbaum (German). ^ 7 “Tung” is the Chinese word for “heart” and refers to the heart-shaped leaves of the tung tree, which is native to southern China and Indo-China. The tung oil tree is a small deciduous tree up to 40 or more feet in height with smooth bark and a much-branched head. Branches are horizontal to semi-erect, often produced approximately in whorls. Leaves are glossy, dark green, alternate, long peti- oled and simple. Leaf blades are broadly ovate, 3-13 inches wide, entire with a cordate base and sharp point or with 2-5 sharp-pointed lobes. Two convex reddish-brown glands occur near the junction between the petiole and the leaf blade. The trees are monoecious (separate male and female flowers are borne on the same tree.) Flower petals are white tinged with red and yellow, darker at the base with dark red-branched lines running lengthwise. A prominent tuft of hairs occurs at the base of each petal. Flowers range from just over 1" to almost 3" in diameter. Petals range in number from 4-9. Fruits are 1-3" in diameter, dark green, turning brown upon maturity. Most are oblong to ovoid, but some are nearly spherical. Some have distinct longitudinal ridges. Fruit contains 3-7 large seeds, with 5 seeds being most common, ranging in size from 5/8" to 1-1/4" long with a brown coat and white flesh (Dickey, 1952). KAREN BROWN laboratories in Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Louisiana and Mississippi. In 1941, just prior to the outbreak of WWII, tung oil was declared a strategic item for defense use. All tung oil produced was to be used for war efforts only. All ammunition was "coated, and all ships were painted by products using tung oil.” Federal financial support programs were available, and the U.S. also helped planters in South America, particularly Argentina. Since there was an embargo on Chinese tung oil at this time, the domestic oil was prof- itable. The Pan American Tung Research and Development League was formed between tung oil producers in America and Argentina to work jointly on research and development and to pool tung oil from both countries to provide consistent supplies to U.S. consumers. Tung oil as a crop Tung oil trees thrive in moist, well- drained, slightly acid soil (Dacy). Trees begin to bear fruit in their third year and yield commercial quantities at four to five years of age. Maximum production occurs in the tenth to twelfth years of growth. Trees were expected to be commercially productive for at least 20 years after maxi- mum production occurred. Fruits fall to the ground from late September through November and are left for a few weeks to dry and cure. Nuts are separated from the hard outer shell, and pressed to extract the oil. Byproducts can be used for mulch or burned for fuel but cannot be used as feed for livestock due to the fruit’s toxic properties. Dried and pressed nuts yield about twenty percent oil. Under favorable conditions, an acre of tung trees will produce about two tons of nuts and eight hundred pounds (one hun- dred gallons) of raw tung oil annually. Late spring cold spells will kill spring growth and destroy the fruit for that year. However, the trees need from 200 to 400 hours below 45 degrees F for their dor- mancy period. (Moore/Davis) (Montgomery). The demi5e of American rung oil production Between 1934 and 1940, frost almost totally ruined the tung nut crop for four different years. The industry had expanded from Florida, Georgia, and Alabama, to Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, with Mississippi the largest producing state. Although price supports continued, Argentina could sell oil at lower prices and U.S. producers were operating at a loss. In addition, frosts were decreasing the extent and yields of tung oil groves. In the 1950s and 1960s, freezes wiped out commercial tung activities in parts of Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama and all of Georgia. Hurricanes Betsy (1965) and Camille (1969) dealt the final blows to the tung plantations in southern Mississippi and eastern Louisiana. Camille destroyed or damaged about half of the groves in the U.S., and destroyed the entire tung nut crop plus two thirds of the trees in Mississippi. Approximately 40,000 acres of groves were destroyed in one Mississippi county alone. Growers eligible for federal disaster compensation took it and went into other agricultural production. Unfortunately for the tung oil industry, Camille “came on the heels of what many thought would be the savior of the indus- try: a genetic breakthrough that produced late-blooming varieties capable of escaping late spring freezes.” (Fry) It also was believed the new clones would maintain typical production but on only half the acreage. However, there was little incentive for replanting. Oil is the lone economically WILDLAND WEEDS 5 Poisonous properties: “Poisonous soup sickens over 100 students in Hunan” A news report from central China’s Hunan Province told of thirteen students who brought tung oil to school and put it into the breakfast soup to protest the school’s food quality and price. Over 100 students were poisoned, with more than 40 sick enough to be hospitalized (www.chinaview.cn). Both the leaves and seeds of the tung tree are toxic if eaten, especially the seeds. In humans, a single tung nut can cause severe vomiting, diarrhea, cyanosis, respiratory depression, weakness, and possibly death (Everist, 1981). Effects are gastroenteritis, nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, dizziness, weakness, poor reflexes and dehydration. Onset of symptoms occurs in 30 minutes with recovery usually within 24 hours. Contact also can cause dermati- tis. Two other cases of accidental poisoning occurred in November 1992 and November 1994 when elementary and high school students in Taiwan ate tung nuts, mistaking them for chestnuts. The students were hospitalized and symptoms subsided within one to two days (Lin, et al, 1996). Uses of tune oil o The tung tree was once the prin- ciple commercial source of tung oil, used as a high-grade, quick drying oil in paint, varnish, linoleum and print- er’s ink (Dickey, 1952). The Chinese have used tung oil for waterproofing masonry, cloth, shoes, clothing, and paper. The oil, mixed with lime mortar or burned tung nut residue, was one of the world's first agents for waterproofing and caulking boats. When a 600 year old shipyard was excavated recently in Nanjing, China, caches of tung oil were found. Tung nut residue also was used in the manufacture of lampblack and Chinese ink, otherwise known as “India ink” (Federal Writers’ Project). One unreferenced article states that tung oil is highly regarded as a medi- cine in China, used as a remedy for insanity and in the treatment of burns, bruises, and swellings. Tung oil reportedly was mixed in the mortar that made the Great Wall of China, and Marco Polo is said to have brought a sample back to the western world from China. The Book of Poetry, Chinese folk songs compiled by Confucius, mentions that the oil was used in Chinese lacquers. }iailER[]C 1949. B.L. Kerce. Florida State Library and Archives, The Florida Memory Project. significant product of tung trees; it can not be grown for fiber, meal, or fertilizer as with soybeans and flax. The climatic hazards, increasing pro- duction costs, competition from substitute synthetic products (domestic consump- tion declined almost 50% between 1955 and 1970), and more productive uses of land spelled the end for commercial tung oil production in the U.S. Tung orchards were abandoned or bulldozed and used for other crops, pasture or timber. Today, the major growing areas of tung trees include China, Argentina, Paraguay, and parts of Africa. The only domestic activity on tung oil is research to molecularly deconstruct its oil producing enzymes in order to convert low-cost vegetable oils to value-added drying oils. (USDA-ARS) Spread in “Natural Areas have been controlled since 1998 by the Florida Department of Environmental Protection’s Bureau of Invasive Plant Management. Basal bark treat- ments of 15-20% Garlon 4 in oil work well, according to Drew Leslie of the Bureau. This 2005 ■ is fortunate due to the lack of natural enemies that exist. “The tree has no enemies that we have been able to discover that in any way affect it, either fungus or insect, nor have we been able to find that there is anything in China that affects the tree.” (Williamson, 1927) Conclusion It seems a sad story that a commer- cial crop that was so intensely researched, promoted and invested in was wiped out by the ravages of nature and the develop- ment of synthetic substitutes and prod- ucts of lesser quality. There was excite- ment in the air when tung oil production was on the rise and offering riches to investors and farmers. But today, the tree that held so much financial promise and captured people’s dreams has been rele- gated to a FLEPPC Category II exotic pest plant, an ignominious end for the tung oil tree. Although tung oil can be locally abundant, it is not seen as a major player in control projects to date (Leslie, pers. comm.). However, an estimated 84 acres References available from the author. Karen Brown, University of Florida, IFAS-Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants, kpbrown@ifas.ufl.edu, (352)392-1799. 6 WINTER 2005 Editor’s note: The following article appeared in the March 2005 issue of Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, a journal of the Ecological Society of America. It is reprinted with permission. The tragedy of the commons revisited: Invasive Species by Sarah Reichard, University of Washington, Seattle, WA I n the classic paper “The tragedy of the commons,” Garret Hardin (1968) explored the conflict that arises when an individual benefits from actions that may bring harm to others. He challenged the philosophical assumption of Adam Smith (1776, reprinted in 1936) that decisions reached individually will be the best decisions for an entire society and advocated “social arrangements” that produce responsibility. These arrange- ments might include some form of “mutually agreed upon coercion,” although perhaps “coercion and incen- tives” more accurately describes his intentions. Just as an individual who benefits from grazing cattle on the village commons may be depleting the resource for others, importers generally benefit from intro- duced invasive species that may cause harm in some way. These introduced species cause enormous economic (Pimental et al. 2000) and environmental (Mack et. al. 2000) problems, including competition for resources, alteration of ecosystem properties such as nutrient cycling and hydrology, and increased dis- turbances. Controlling problem species often requires application of pesticides and mechanical controls that are harmful to non-target species. Economic damage includes the loss of fisheries, forests, and suitable farmland, and the cost of control. Many species that become invasive are introduced intentionally as pets, gar- den or aquarium plants, for recreational fishing, or for agricultural use. Others arrive accidentally as a by-product of commerce, for instance through ballast water discharge or as stowaways in ship- ping materials. Those choosing to import the pets or plants benefit financially. People engaged in international trade also benefit financially and risk allowing harmful pests to hitchhike from country to country. Unfortunately, the choice that those individuals make - to profit by importing biological organisms - may impact others far removed from them. Ranchers in the western states battle introduced weeds, forests needed for for- est products, recreational use, and wildlife habitat are decimated by pathogens and diseases, and near-shore environments are irrevocably altered by contaminated ballast discharge. One party benefits, while others suffer the consequences. How do we determine an acceptable “social arrangement?” One solution might be to ask those importing biologi- cal organisms or engaged in international shipping to voluntarily take responsibili- ty for the choices they make. This could include developing and implementing best management practices for their industry, and integrating them into daily routines. For instance, the International Chamber of Shipping developed its first voluntary environmental code, dealing primarily with marine and atmospheric pollution, in 1993. When it was later revised they cited improvements; for example, the amount of oil lost was halved after these voluntary policies were adopted, despite a 76% increase in oil transporting tonnage during that time (ICS 1999). They acknowledged that bet- ter regulatory control was a factor in this improvement, but claimed that increased environmental awareness among ship- pers and seafarers, in addition to the actual recommended practices, also con- tributed. This pinpoints one problem with such voluntary practices: their direct effects are difficult to quantify. Many invasive plants were originally introduced for horticultural use, using appropriate plant introduction methods of the time (Reichard and White 2001). It is clear, however, that those methods failed to recognize the consequences to the commons. In 2001, representatives from nurseries, botanic gardens, land- continued on page 8 Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment is the members' journal of the Ecological Society of America. International in scope and interdisciplinary in approach, Frontiers focuses on current ecological issues and environmental challenges. Frontiers is aimed at professional ecologists and scientists working in related disciplines. With content that is timely, interesting and accessible, even to those reading outside their area of expertise, it has a broad, interdisciplinary appeal and is relevant to all users of ecological science, including policy makers, resource managers, and educators. Frontiers covers all aspects of ecology, the environment, and related subjects. You'll read about global issues, broadly impacting research, cross-disciplinary or multi-country endeavors, new techniques and technologies, new approaches to old problems, and practical applications of ecological science. The journal is sent to all ESA members as part of their membership, and is also available by subscription to non-members and institutions. www.frontiersinecology.org WILDLAND WEEDS 7 scape architects, the gardening public, and local, state, and federal government met at the Missouri Botanical Garden to develop codes of conduct for their constituents. The resulting codes have been endorsed by the professional organizations of these disciplines and approximately 30 other organizations. Some of these groups have begun the often difficult process of imple- menting the codes, but whether industry support will be sufficient for change is unknown; it is still a “social arrangement experiment” in progress. If the environmental community wants industry to change their practices, we must be ready to assist them; we have the expertise industry needs. For instance, almost all of the codes of con- duct for plants call for interdisciplinary groups to determine which new species are likely to become invasive and which already problematic species should be removed from inventories and gardens. Many botanists have essential knowledge about plant life histories and disturbance ecology, and a greater access to peer- reviewed literature that could be invalu- able in affecting these changes. This can be our contribution to the social arrangement. But to what extent can we expect these voluntary efforts to work? Is it inevitable that they will be insufficient to produce a satisfactory level of change because irresponsible people within an industry will not follow them? How long will it take to learn whether these meas- ures will be successful and, more impor- tantly, how can we determine success? The best solution is to begin developing and implementing a more restrictive reg- ulatory framework along with the volun- tary efforts, conforming with the National Management Plan developed by the National Invasive Species Council (NISC 2001). This will include expand- ing our base of relevant science, deter- mining what agencies should be involved and whether the current agency responsibilities should be adjusted. It could increase funding for inspections, assessments, and early detection of, and rapid response to, new invasions. As these steps are taken, the voluntary efforts should be assessed and the regu- lations adjusted to provide an appropri- ate social arrangement between those introducing species and those battling them. We must take steps now to prevent the introduction of new pest species. Finding solutions that provide protec- tion for the environment, while respect- ing the needs of industry, will require open minds and committed individuals. References Hardin G. 1968. The tragedy of the commons. Science 162: 1243-48. International Chamber of Shipping (ICS). 1999. Shipping and the environment: a code of practice. London, UK: International Chamber of Shipping. Mack RN, Simberloff D, Lonsdale WM, el al. 2000. Biotic invasions: causes, epidemiology, global consequences, and control. EcolApp 10: 689-710. Missouri Botanical Garden. 2002. Linking ecology and horticulture to prevent plant invasions, www.centerfor- plantconservation.org/invasives/. Viewed 9 September 2004. National Invasive Species Council (NISC). 2001. Meeting the invasive species challenge: national invasive species management plan. Pimental D, Lach L, Zuniga R, Morrison D. 2000. Environmental and economic costs of non-indigenous species in the United States. BioScience 50: 53-65. Reichard SH and White P. 2001. Horticulture as a path- way of invasive plant introductions in the United States. BioScience 51: 103-13. Smith A. 1937. The wealth of nations. 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