ae,

PLATE I.

Bul. 50, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

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ae BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY—BULLETIN NO. 50,

OU B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

WILD RICE/

Meelis BIND PROPAGATION.

BY

EDGAR BROWN,
BorTranisr IN CHARGE OF SEED LABORATORY,
AND
CARL 8S. SCOFIELD,
Boranisr IN CHARGE OF GRAIN GRADE INVESTIGATIONS.

BOTANICAL INVESTIGATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS.

IssumED AuGust 28, 1903.

WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
LOS.

~ ’ ‘4 Le
~O. F. Coox, Botanist in Charge of Investigations in Tropical Agriculture.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.
B. T. Ganioway, Chief of Bureau.
\
BOTANICAL INVESTIGATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS. =
SCIENTIFIC STAFF.

FrepErRICcK VY. CoviLu4, Botanist.

Ropney H. Trun, Physiologist, Drug and Medicinal Plant Investigations. — ao
Lysrer H. Dewey, Botanist in Charge of Investigations of Fiber Plants. e
V. K. Cuesnvt, Assistant Botanist in Charge of Investigations of Poisonous Pla
EpcGar Brown, Botanist in Charge of Seed Laboratory. , a
Car S$. Scorretp, Botanist in Charge of Grain Grade Investigations. |
G. N. Cotirys, Assistant Botanist, Tropical Agriculture.

Wurm E. Sarrorp, Assistant Curator, Tropical Agriculture.

F. H. Hitiman, Assistant Botanist, Seed Herbarium.

JoserH W. T. Duvet, Assistant in Seed Laboratory.

W. R. Bearrig, Assistant, Testing Garden.

W. W. Tracy, Jr., Assistant, Variety Trials.

W. F. Wiaut, Assistant, Geographic Botany. siete
W. O. Ricurmann, Pharmacognostical Expert. Bega
Axice HENKEL, Aceruane Drug and Medicinal Plant Investigations.

W. W. Srocxsercer, Expert, Drug and Medicinal Plant Investigations.

6)

AS

LETIER: OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
Bureau or Puant INpustry,
OFFICE OF THE CHIEF,
Washington, D. C., July 9, 1903.

Str: I have the honor to transmit herewith, and to recommend for
publication as Bulletin No. 50 of the series of this Bureau, the accom-
panying paper entitled ‘‘ Wild Rice: Its Uses and Propagation.”

This paper was prepared by Mr. Edgar Brown, Botanist in Charge
of the Seed Laboratory, and Mr. Carl S. Scofield, Botanist in Charge
of Grain Grade Investigations, and has been submitted by the Botanist
with a view to publication.

The seven half-tone plates are essential for the purposes of this
bulletin.

Respectfully, B. T. GALLoway,
Chief of Bureau.
Hon. James WILson,
Secretary of Agriculture.

eM Jesu Iehe

Wild rice (Zizania aquatica) is still an important, if not the chief,
farinaceous food for probably 30,000 of the American aborigines,
notably the Ojibwas. It is the principal fattening agent too for
myriads of wild fowl in the eastern half of the United States. It is
now being placed on the market in a small way as a breakfast food.
On account of its great value as a food for game birds it has been
widely and justly recommended as a suitable plant for shallow lakes
and sluggish streams which are maintained as shooting preserves.
The seed has been extensively marketed, but in most cases with
results unsatisfactory to the buyer, for usually it fails to germinate.
So nearly universal was the difficulty that some seedsmen who did not
wish to disappoint their customers refused to handle the seed, or
sold it only in small quantities. For a time it was supposed that
the loss of vitality was due to the scorching to which the seed was
subjected when gathered for food by the Indians, but it was found
that seeds which had never been scorched failed also to germinate.
It was then determined to try a series of experiments based on the
observation that the grain of wild rice is still somewhat soft and moist
at maturity and falls into the water immediately without hardening.
These experiments, which are recorded in this report, show that the
way to preserve the vitality of the seed is to keep it from becoming
thoroughly dry, at the same time aerating it sufticiently to prevent
molding. ‘the practical course suggested to buyers is to place their
orders before the time of the wild rice harvest, have the seed shipped
immediately on maturity, and sow it at once.

The observations and experiments were delegated to two investi-
gators, Mr. Carl S. Scofield, who made an examination of the plant
in its natural situation in Minnesota, and Mr. Edgar Brown, who con-
ducted the storage and germination tests.

FREDERICK V. CovILLE,
Botanist.
OFFICE OF THE BoranisT,
Washington, D. C., July 3, 1903.

CONTENTS:

IaMTROYGNDKORMORI se Be eee Semen es ou es surg eee iS le
Disiilpubionmandehabitatrol the plamtie == 894-2 an ene
lites historycand uaturaly propagation]: --2. 5.2.25. 2235-5: - 5).
bouamica lidescripilonrs.ae55 255d ee Seeds osiaes oe eee
Generalemonplologven senna ene nm eae cir

AU IVES OYG) Bs er ate cea ere a Bike ae

Haine fille ay Sess eke ireysariy se cies Oh era ee eee

AUWONSs so eenan Clay Seen ct ee aiate men lee a an Wey tae NC Reena
\WEURISSS Ss SEs Ser epee enn ioe og sie ees ns eR a een ae re
DIS CACC ere re eet aes er ie gays 8G SEE MO ie ements
PSU DEME SUT RL NCHS CCL cae clues eat 1s. ese Gye See eas cig?
Preparation of the seed for food purposes ..............-.-.-
Minesioodavaluexor awald rice 2. 49220 Gee oe es
PAMCEUII CIN OKO PACA ON Grasso. aac Se ee ee ae ee
EKeviOusmatlumes ine planting. 2. cms oa ee et ae
lamibin ss email eyo 9 02 epee ete Gs ee aya es
LOIN P ACCC Cie, 5 - cesta iaerte Ss Noe senna cee en Rare fa oe MNNG INe
Suggestions for harvesting, storing, and planting .........--.

5)

WeScEipUONEOle plates sa. pe ee iene een nena ed

7

Plate 1.
iD

WIG.

JD

We

Vi.

AWE

OIE US TROAIEONGS,.

Page.
Field of wild rice just heading out, near Bemidji, Minn ...._-. Frontispiece.
Stems of wild rice, natural size. Fig. 1.—Young stems of wild rice,
showing pseudonodes. Fig. 2.—An old stem of wild rice, showing
the curvature of the base. - 22 eee oe at 24
Fig. 1.—A staminate flower of wild rice, enlarged seven times.
Fig. 2.—A pistillate flower of wild rice, with outer glume removed,
enlarged seven times - 32h ee cet -eeacen neces ee 24
Fig. 1.—A_ pistillate flower of wild rice, enlarged seven times.
Fig. 2.—Panicles of wild rice, showing ergot infection, natural size. 24
Panicles of wild rice. Fig. 1.—Type of the ‘panicle of Potomae wild
rice. Fig. 2.—Type of the panicle of Minnesota wild rice .......- 24
Fig. 1.—Indian woman parching wild rice. Fig. 2.—Freshly gath-
ered wild rice drying on\ a scatiold es 2sse a4 25- saee ake 24
Wild rice seed with the hull on, with the hull off, and parched,
natural sizee i f22 oye oe eye ee eng ole Sg 24

5

B. P. L.—68. B. I. E.—44.

WILD RICE: ITS USES AND PROPAGATION.

INTRODUCTION.

The importance of wild rice as a food for wild fowl and the interest
in its artificial propagation are indicated by the large number of
inquiries regarding it that have come to the Department of Agricul-
ture during recent years. These inquiries have emanated from many
different localities widely separated, thus showing that the interest in
this plant is not confined to any limited region. The general demand
has been to know where viable seed of this plant could be obtained
and how and where it should be sown to bring successful results.
Some interest has also been manifested in the possibilities of prepar-
ing from this seed a commercial cereal food.

The seed of wild rice has been used for food by the Indians, par-
ticularly those of the middle Northwest, since as long ago, at least, as
the first acquaintance of the white man with their customs. Notwith-
standing the abundance of other forms of cereal food, such as flour
and corn meal, since the advent of the white man, the Indian of the
upper Mississippi Valley has continued to use large quantities of wild
rice, and this too in spite of the fact that the harvesting and curing
of the seed require considerable arduous labor. Wild rice, as pre-
pared for food by the Indians, is highly esteemed by the white men
who have had the opportunity of testing it and the entire available
supply now sells at from two to three times the price of ordinary
white rice.

While by far the largest demand for information regarding this
plant has come from men or organizations wishing to secure viable
seed for planting near shooting grounds to attract wild fowl, the possi-
bility of preparing from the seed a large and regular supply of a nutri-
tious and highly flavored cereal food has received some attention.
The importance of maintaining good feeding grounds for wild fowl, of
which the propagation of wild rice is a very important element, needs
no discussion, and the desirability of propagating a plant which will
make the otherwise waste-water areas of the upper Mississippi Valley

yield a valuable and highly esteemed cereal is also evident.
9

10 WILD RICE: ITS USES AND PROPAGATION.

DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT OF THE PLANT.

The wild rice plant (Z7zania aquatica Li.) occurs naturally over a
wide area in the United States and southern Canada. The same species
is also reported from Japan, Formosa, and China. It finds its best
environment in the United States in fresh-water lakes and river
sloughs and along the seacoast where streams meet tidewater. It
requires that the water in which it grows be fresh, that is, not brackish,
and that it be neither quite stagnant nor too swiftly moving, and while
it thrives on a wide variety of soils under these waters it does best
where the bottoms are soft and muddy.

The change in water level where the plant grows is an important
item. For instance, it will frequently fail to do well or to grow at all
in some of the northern lakes through which the Mississippi flows,
especially if the annual change in water level in these lakes is more
than 2 or 3 feet. There is on this account in the minds of some obsery-
ers an opinion that wild rice normally grows only alternate years, or
at least that it does not grow every year in a given locality. This
idea is without foundation and its existence is probably due to the
fact that occasional years of high water prevent the development of
wild rice for that year, while a normal level the following year per-
mits the regular growth.

This calls attention to the peculiar vitality of the seed of this plant.
It is evident that if the growth of wild rice in a given locality is
wholly prevented for a year by high water and there is an abundant
growth the next year when the water level is normal, there must be a
large proportion of the seed which remains dormant and viable for at
least eighteen months after it reaches maturity.

In streams affected by tidewater, however, where the daily change
of water level sometimes amounts to 3 feet or more, wild rice may
grow vigorously. Itisabundant along the shores of the lower Potomac,
where it grows on mud flats that are nearly or quite exposed at low tide
and submerged by 2 to 3 feet of water at high tide. The plant has in
this case become adapted to this frequent change of water level, but if
for any reason high water were retained over these beds for any con-
siderable length of time during the early spring the plants would
hardly develop.

The following table shows the results of analyses of soils from various
wild-rice fields. These results are given to show the general nature
and physical condition of the soils of lake bottoms where wild rice
ordinarily grows and to show the limits of the adaptation of the plant
to the salty conditions found where fresh-water streams meet tide-
water. These analyses were made by the Bureau of Soils of this
Department.

DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT. ‘Tol

Analyses of soil samples taken from the wild-rice beds near Bemidji, Minn.

Per cent ae

ores Per cent | as uh Resistance
Sample number. Te organic Bee cont Bey oo of satu-
: plead matter. fee Sen. rated soil.a
sieve.

le cde SeSesac GRC eC DESEO OE SES Dm ae ee aera ee 85.3 | 0.63 0. 08 0. 04 2 4, 700
D. SER SE ND eS AH ORES SSS Nae een eae 95.7 9. 05 18. 00 | . 20 1, 208
Bo nc ccce Sousa ee epee eee ogy ane 98.9 | 10. 89 26.17 | 65 1,114

Analyses of soil samples from wild-rice beds on Potomac flats.

| Per cent :
| San Per cent 3 Resistance
Sample number. ae organic ene er cent | of satu-
eesiccen matter. Pp Sen. ' rated soil.a
A eee Reet 7 ones a | 87.7 6.00 0.20 0.14 805
Ea LSC te es RR Sg | 98.3 3.61 24 18 1,141

Analyses of soil samples from wild-rice beds at Chesapeake Beach, Md.

Per cent | ; | Ga
bier | Per cent Resistance
Sample number. ee | organic Hn Seon | Ee cone of satu-
: poe Sie lemmaitter: 2 il sen. | rated soil.a
sieve.
G5 25 eee eee a ne ee ee 95.7 | 1.56 0.16 | 0.07 333
TE ee see Rae on a Es ES 98.9 1.30 223 . 06 45
BURRIS pot Norn Vet eles fet, | 90.9 1.86 66 06 42
aThis heading refers to the electrical resistance of the saturated soil. In a general way, the elec-
trical resistance of a saturated soil varies inversely with the content of soluble salts. See Bulletin
No. 8, Division of Soils, U. S. Department of Agriculture, ‘‘An Electric Method of Determining the

Soluble Salt Content of Soils,’”’ by Milton Whitney and Thomas H. Means; also see ‘‘ Chemical Exam-
ination of Alkali Soils,’ by Atherton Seidell, page 65 et seq., in Bulletin No. 18, Division of Soils,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, ‘‘Solution Studies of Salts Occurring in Alkali Soils,” by PRD K,
Cameron, Lyman J. Briggs, and Atherton Seidell.

Water soluble constituents in soil samples from Chesapeake Beach, Md.

| | | | |
Sample number. | CO3. | HCOs. Cea eSOx. Ca. | Mg. Na. |
IRAP Gis | IRAP Gr, | JAAR ip | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Pers Ct. ePerect.

K. Total.

Cee cease Se as 0.034 | 0.048 | 0.042 | 0.016 | 0.018) 0.006! 0.044) 0.016) 0,224
Eee es fete ee sa Po ts | Trace. | SOS GEO SOUS I OC ONS) SLE GORO .812
| es1022) | ex 250) e032 926

Socceeet santa ebod spe eSeOene Bracers |= 2120 408 - 062 082 |

Sample No. 1 was taken from near Bemidji, Minn. The lake bot-
tom at this point bore practically no vegetation except the wild rice
plants. The soil was hard and sandy and covered with a thin layer of
pine bark and débris. While the plants were not numerous, they were
vigorous and apparently doing very well.

Sample No. 2 was also taken near Bemidji, Minn., from the midst
of a wild rice field where the water was 21 inches deep and the soil
was hard and sticky below a thin layer of soft mud. This layer of
soft mud, which the sample represents, was about 4 inches thick at

12 WILD RICE: ITS USES AND PROPAGATION.

this point. Here the wild rice was not vigorous and the plants were
branched very little, though they grew very thickly and stood 34 to 4
treet above the water.

Sample No. 8 was also taken near Bemidji, Minn., from a locality
where the wild rice was very thick and the plants were strong and
vigorous and reached 6 feet out of water. The water was 21 inches
deep and the bottom very soft for an additional 18 inches, and it was
not firm for some distance farther down.

Sample No. 4 was taken from a wild-rice bed on the Potomac Flats,
Washington, D. C. The water level here changes with the tide and
varies from 6 inches below the level of the mud flat to 24 feet above.
The mud layer is 6 inches deep, underlaid with sand and gravel. The
sample was taken from the 6-inch mud layer. The plants averaged
about 7 feet in height and were vigorous and healthy.

Sample No. 5 was taken from another wild-rice bed on the Potomac
Flats, Washington, D. C. The water level changes were as in No. 4,
but the mud bank was higher, so that the water was only 14 inches
deep at high tide. The mud layer had been made from dredging
deposits and was 2 feet or more in depth. The plants were about
7 feet high, but somewhat less vigorous than those from the locality
where sample No. + was obtained.

Samples Nos. 6, 7, and 8 were obtained from a wild-rice bed near
Chesapeake Beach, on Chesapeake Bay. These samples were taken to
determine the tidewater limits of wild rice or the amount of sea salt
the plant can endure.

Sample No. 6 was taken where wild rice was growing thickly. The
plants were vigorous, though rather small, not over 6 feet high and
entirely out of water, but the soil was very wet and kept so by fresh-

yater seepage from a stream above.

Sample No. 7 was taken from near the same place as No. 6, but just
outside the limits of the thick growth of wild rice, at a point where a
single plant was growing feebly. This probably marks the extreme
limit of adaptation of the plant to salty soils.

Sample No. 8 was obtained a few feet nearer the bay than Nos. 6
and 7 and where no wild rice was growing, but where the soil was
supporting other vegetation.

Thus while it appears that wild rice will grow on a wide variety of
soils, it needs for its best development approximately the following
conditions:

Soft alluvial soil, covered with from 12 inches to 4 feet of water.
The water level should not have an annual variation greater than 18
or 20 inches. The water should be constantly freshened by slight
movement and consequent aeration.

LIFE HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION. 13
LIFE HISTORY AND NATURAL PROPAGATION.

The wild-rice plant is an annual. It bears abundant crops of seeds
which fall directly into the water as soon as ripe and lie buried in the
mud below until the following spring when, if conditions are favor-
able, they germinate and produce new plants. In the northern lakes
the long ribbon-like leaves appear floating upon the surface of the
water late in May. By the latter part of June the stems have grown
sufficiently to raise the leaves above the water. In the South the
growth starts much earlier. On the mud flats of the lower Potomac
the plants may be 6 inches high by the Ist of May. Strange as it may
seem, the period of flowering and ripening of wild rice is almost the
same in northern Minnesota and along the Potomac River near Wash-
ington, though on account of the earlier start in the southern region
the period of growth is much longer.

The panicles appear during the latter part of July, and the flowers
open immediately. The glumes of the pistillate flowers separate at
the base to allow the stigmas to protrude and be pollinated and clos-
ing again soon after fertilization is accomplished leave the withered
stigmas outside. Immediately after fertilization the young seed
begins to elongate, and gradually fills the space within the floral
envelope. This development requires about two or three weeks, and
as soon as it is completed the connection with the stem is weakened
and the seed falls off. The time of maturing of the different seeds in
a single panicle extends over several days, the seeds on the tips of the
branches ripening first.

The seeds on falling usually strike the water with the point of
attachment below and sink immediately to the bottom. If by accident
the distal end strikes first, enough small particles of air are caught by
the barbs borne there to keep the seed on the surface of the water for
a time, but as these air bubbles escape the seed sinks.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION.

Zizania aquatica Li. is an aquatic, annual, moncecious grass. The
stems are tall, erect, and hoilow. The leaves are long and flat, with a
heavy midrib, usually slightly nearer one margin of the blade than the
other.

The flower cluster is a large panicle, bearing the staminate flowers
on spreading branches below and the pistillate flowers on erect and
more or less closely appressed branches above. The floral bracts are
two in number, the outer five and the inner three nerved. The stami-
nate flowers have six stamens. The pistillate flowers are borne with
the larger glume toward the axis of the plant. The styles are nearly
separate and stand at right angles to the floral axis, protruding on
either side of the outer glume during and after fertilization.

14 WILD RICE: ITS USES AND PROPAGATION.

The seed is nearly cylindrical in shape and long and slender, purplish ~
black in color when mature, with a shallow crease along one side and
a long, slender embryo.

GENERAL MORPHOLOGY.

For convenience in discussion we may consider the wild-rice plant
as consisting of four principal areas: The Root, the Stem, the Leaf,
and the Panicle.

The Root.—Unlike many grasses, wild rice produces upon germina-
tion but one root, arising from the embryo within the seed. The other
two, which would make up the three commonly appearing from the
seed of the grasses at germination, appear upon the first node of the
shoot above the seed, which usually becomes the base of the stem, and
from this and the nodes closely adjacent above arise the roots which
maintain the life of the plant. In some cases large roots start from
the first and even from the second node above the base of the stem
in case a branch develops at either of these places and conditions are
favorable, but for the most part the roots occur only at the base.

The base of the stem, shown in Plate II, fig. 2, is of peculiar curved
shape. The roots arise in rows or whorls. The lower ones are slen-
der and fibrous, while the upper ones, which are later and larger,
function chiefly as a means of support or anchorage. The root sys-
tem of the plant does not usually penetrate deep into the mud.

The Stem.—The stem of the wild-rice plant is essentially a hollow
cone divided by four or five transverse walls at the principal nodes.
which are the starting points of the leaves. Further divisions are
made by transverse diaphragms which are called the pseudonodes.
(Pl. Il, fig. 1.) These pseudonodes occur at short intervals in each
internode. It is probable that they function in making water-tight
compartments to keep the plant afloat in case of injury to any portion
of the stem, since the plant under normal conditions is held down
by its roots rather than supported by them, and when released from its
attachment to the soil readily floats to the surface of the water. These
pseudonodes are probably the phylogenetic remnant of the pith of
the stem, which has been preserved in this form as useful to the
plant.

Branching of the stem is not uncommon, particularly when the plant
is isolated or growing in shallow water. This branching usually
occuts from the basal node or from the first node above, though rarely,
if ever, does a branch which will mature arise from a node above the
water. Vigorous branches arising from a basal node frequently throw
out other branches, so that a cluster of several stems may arise from
a single seed. In deep water, however, or where plants grow thickly
there is little or no branching, even from the basal node.

GENERAL MORPHOLOGY. 15

The Leaves.—A leaf arises from each node of the stem and consists
of the sheath, the ligule, and the blade.

The sheath clasps the stem closely and its edges overlap, completety
covering the stem from the node from which it starts almost to the
node above. The midrib is prominent in the sheath, as is shown in
the sectional view in Plate II, fig. 1. The edges of the sheath are often
streaked with purple, which color may also extend into the ligule or
even into the blade of the leaf, being usually more pronounced near
the margins of the part in which it occurs.

The ligule of the leaf is the thin, membranaceous extension of the
sheath at the base of the blade, which clasps the stem above the sheath.
(Pigsrie sto. i.)

The blade of the leaf is peculiar chiefly in that its midrib is not in
the center, being a little nearer one margin than the other. Those
leaves which arise from the basal node or from the first node above
the base are the ones which appear upon the surface of the water
before the stem is developed. After the stem appears these floating
leaves cease to function and wither away. ‘The upper leaves, which
are supported by the stem, do all the elaborating work after the stem
appears and remain green and vigorous until after the seeds of the
plant are mature.

The Panicle.—The panicle may be considered as having two areas—-
the staminate, which occurs below, and the pistillate, which occurs
above. The staminate portion of the panicle consists of whorls of
spreading branches arising from the joints of the axis. These pri-
mary branches bear numerous secondary branches, which in turn bear
the flowers or spikelets.

The staminate spikelet consists of two unequal, soft, purple or pale
green glumes inclosing six bright yellow stamens. The larger glume
has five nerves and the other three. The larger glume bears a short,
soft beak, and its edges overlap those of the smaller glume in the
unopened spikelet. The stamens, after the spreading of the glumes,
break open along their entire length and shed their bright yellow
pollen out into the air, when it is carried by the wind to the stigmas
of adjacent plants.

Cross fertilization of wild rice is insured because the pistillate por-
tion of the panicle appears first from the leaf sheath and the stigmas
have appeared and been pollinated by other plants before the staminate
spikelets of the same plant have been released and opened.

The pistillate portion of the panicle is in the method of branching
similar to the staminate portion, except that the branches are usually
borne nearly or quite erect, in some cases being closely appressed to
the main axis. The amount of spreading of the branches of the pistil-
late portion of the panicle is one of the important distinguishing
marks between the varieties of wild rice. The spreading is due to the

16 WILD RICE: ITS USES AND PROPAGATION.

development of the prophyllum at the juncture of the branches with
the main axis. When this prophyllum is well developed the branch is
forced out and the panicle is spreading. When it is not developed the
branch remains erect and closely appressed to the main axis. For the
most part, the wild rice eo the northern Minnesota lakes is of the type
shown in Plate V, fig. 2, having the branches of the panicle closely
appressed, though ae are occasional panicles in which some of the
branches spread. On the other hand, the wild rice growing in the
vicinity of the District of Columbia has a very open or spreading
panicle. (PI. V, fig. 1.)

The pistillate flower has two glumes and a bifurcated, comer branched
stigma, and two lodecules which surround and almost conceal the com-
paratively small ovary. (PI. III, fig. 2.) The larger glume is five
ribbed and bears at its summit a stiff, usually somewhat twisted awn of
several times its own length, which bears numerous barbs or bristly
hairs. There are also short bristles borne along the edge of the glume
and a short distance down along each of its nerves. (PI. 1V, fig. 1.)
All these barbs and bristles point toward the tip of the glume and are
probably of assistance to the seed in burying itself in the mud. The
smaller glume (PI. III, fig. 2) is much more delicate than the larger one
and is almost entirely inclosed by it. It has three delicate nerves and
its tip is so surrounded by that of the larger glume that it is only with
difficulty that they can be separated. When the seed reaches maturity
and fills the glumes they are held so firmly together that they must
be broken to be removed.

The bifurcated style and two lodecules are shown in Plate ILI, fig. 2.
The styles are so bent as to stand at right angles to the axis of the
ovary. The behavior of the lodecules at the time of fertilization is
very interesting. By expanding, as the result of the absorption of
moisture, they force the glumes apart at the base (Pl. LV, fig. 1), and
at the same time the stigmas appear on either side of the smaller
glume, where they are in position to catch any pollen that may be
blown upon the plant. As soon as fertilization is accomplished the
stigmas wither and the lodecuies cease their pressure, the smaller glume
again returns within the margins of the larger one, and the ovary
begins to develop.

VARIETIES.

While distinct differences in size and form of panicle, the coloration
of the plant, and the size of the seed have been noticed in wild rice
from various regions, there is as yet insufficient evidence to justify
making a new species. It is impossible to say at the present time to
what extent these differences are due only to environment. The wild
rice of northern Minnesota and that growing along the lower Potomac
show the extreme variations in some respects. The Potomac plants

VARIETIES. ler

grow 8 to 10 feet high and 6 to 7 feet above the water and have a
very large panicle, often exceeding 2 feet from the lower joint to the
tip of the pistillate end. The pistillate portion of the panicle in the
Potomac plant is distinctly spreading and the branches often bear 17
to 27 seeds. The plant common to the northern Minnesota lakes is
smaller than that of the Potomac, usually reaching only 3 or 4 feet
above the water. The panicle is shorter, rarely if ever exceeding 20
inches in length, more often 16 inches or less. The pistillate portion
rarely exceeds 10 inches in length and usually has its branches closely
appressed. When spreading of the branches of the pistillate portion
of the panicle does oecur in the wild rice of the northern lakes it is
seldom that all the branches of a panicle are spreading—frequently
only 1 or 2 of them, rarely more than + or 5—and the branches of the
panicle of the Minnesota plant rarely carry more than 9 seeds, usually
from 3 to 7.

The following table of seed measurements is given to show the differ-
ence in size of wild rice seeds from different regions. These measure-
ments were made on the seed after the hull was removed and are given
in metric millimeters.

Length. | Diameter.
a Reremaa Number |
WAMG EICe See! axon — measured. | Vorage,| Maxi- | Mini- | Mveraeo | saxi |>Mini-
BAMCSED | Teaphael, |) anehuunMe || aS©-) mum. | mum.
| | |
Potomac River .......-2---2--0--222- 100 13.77 | 18.00 | 8.90 | 0d lentes 0, 80
Ports HOpe, OmbaniOr-n-aac se osc ee 50 | 19.29 | 23,30 | 14.20 | 1.67 2.00 1.40
VEIN SO bale eer eee iss oa ee 50 12.00 | 15.10 9.00 | 1.65 2.28 1.30

It will be observed from this table that the seeds from northern
varieties are larger, particularly much thicker, than those of the
Potomac variety.

There is also in the northern-grown wild rice a marked distinction
in coloration. Some of the plants are a rich purple color in the
panicle and have a large amount of purple coloring in the leaf sheath
and along the margin of the leaf blade, while others remain with
almost no suggestion of any color but green, except perhaps a pinkish
tinge in the glumes of the staminate flowers. The stamens in all cases
are uniformly of a rich bright yellow, and the mature seeds are always
black. Some seeds are green or greenish brown in color, but this is
due to their immaturity. It is difficult to understand this difference
in color in wild-rice plants. It has been shown that the plants are
uniformly cross-pollinated, and plants of both colors grow side by
side in the northern lakes, though in some localities plants of one
color or the other predominate; and while one may find a few cases of
colors intergrading between these two, the extremes of coloration are
the rule, and, except in rare cases, marked coloration, when it occurs,
extends throughout the plant. For instance, a dark purple pistillate

2487—No. 50—03 2

18 WILD RICE: ITS USES AND PROPAGATION.

panicle almost invariably accompanies dark purple staminate flowers
and a large amount of that color in the leaf sheath and blade. Color
variation is found in the Potomac wild rice, though to a much less
degree.

DISEASES.

So far as has been observed, but one fungous disease seriously
affects wild rice. This is a form of ergot (Claviceps, species undeter-
mined, Pl. IV, fig. 2). This disease has been found widely distributed
through the wild-rice fields of northern Minnesota, and though it is
seldom abundant, no field was found in which close observation did
not reveal its presence. If it occurs in large quantities in any place
it is, of course, a decided disadvantage, as the seed is not usually so
treated as to make the separation of the sclerotia at all easy, and serious
damage might result from the use for food of badly infected seed on
account of the poisonous properties of the fungus.

HARVESTING THE SEED.

Almost all the wild-rice seed now harvested is gathered by Indians
into birch-bark canoes. This is done usually by two persons working
together, one standing in the bow of the canoe and propelling it with
a forked stick and the other seated in the stern with two short sticks,
by means of which the plants on either side of the canoe are gently
pulled over it and the ripe seed beaten off. No attempt is made to
get all the seed off the plants at one time. It is customary rather to
take only the seed which falls readily and to visit the same plants
later as more seeds ripen. The period of ripening extends over nearly
two weeks for any field and over several days for any single plant,
so that were one to attempt to harvest all the rice on a given area it
would be necessary to go over that area at least four or five times at
intervals of from two to three days. Recently some attempts have
been made to construct machinery for harvesting wild rice seed from
boats driven by screw or drawn by cable. So far, however, such
endeavors have not been entirely successful.

It is customary in some sections for the Indians to prepare wild rice _
for harvesting by going through the field before any of the seed is
quite ripe to draw the heads of adjacent plants into bunches, which are
firmly tied together, so that the seed, as it ripens, will not fall. This
custom, howeyer, is not universal, and is only resorted to when the
supply of wild rice is not abundant and it is desirable to gather as
much as possible from certain fields. When a portion of a field is so
tied up it can be left until after all the untied seed has been harvested
or has fallen, and in this way the harvesting period isextended. This
preliminary tying is, of course, a tedious operation, and would he
expensive were the time of the operator a salable quantity. The

PREPARATION FOR FOOD. 19

harvesting of wild rice is not regarded by the Indians as a particularly
arduous task, though attempts by white men to do the same work have
not proved very successful.

PREPARATION OF THE SEED FOR FOOD PURPOSES.

After the wild-rice seed is harvested into the canoe, it is taken
ashore and put in piles or spread out fora preliminary drying. (PI.
VI, fig. 2.) If allowed to remain piled up for more than a few hours
when fresh, fermentation sets in, as the seed is very damp and soft
when gathered, so that almost immediately after it is harvested it is
either spread out thinly to dry, or is parched ready for hulling. The
parching is at present done by the Indians in a very primitive way, as
is shown in Plate VI, fig. 1. The seed is put into a kettle over a slow
fire and stirred with a stick until it is roasted so that the hull is brittle
enough to be easily broken. Not much more than a half bushel can
be parched at a time, and it requires from half an hour to an hour to
parch a single lot, and the seed demands constant attention throughout
the parching process to keep it from burning. Unless stirred evenly
the kernels pop open or become so brittle as to break up badly in the
subsequent hulling process. There is a most excellent opportunity
for the development of some simple device for the uniform parching
of wild-rice seed. The parching is what gives the seed its highly
esteemed flavor as a food, and if this operation and the subsequent
hulling can be done uniformly the percentage of burned and broken
seed will be much less than at present, and, furthermore, the cost of
production of the food will be very greatly reduced.

After the seed has been parched it is spread out to cool, and soon
after it is hulled. The hulling is at present the most tedious operation
in the whole process of preparation. The Indians ordinarily accom-
plish it by putting about a bushel of the seed into a hole in the
ground, lined with cedar staves or burnt clay, and then beating or
punching it with heavy sticks. Often three or four men work
together on one lot. After the seed has been beaten until the hulls
have all been cracked or broken, the grains and hulls are separated by
tossing the mixture up into the wind from light birch-bark baskets.
After the parching and hulling are finished the grain is sufficiently
dry to keep indefinitely. Plate VII shows some wild-rice seed with the
hull on, some with the hull removed, and some parched. seed, also
with the hull removed.

As a food material this parched wild rice is highly esteemed by
those who like the **gamy” flavor which it acquires by parching. It
is cooked with wild fowl and also used as a breakfast food. For
either purpose it should have several preliminary washings in cold
water to remove any disagreeable smoky taste. It is also used toa
limited extent for making rice cakes. For this purpose it is milled

20 WILD RICE; ITS USHS AND PROPAGATION.

and the darker outer coat is sifted out. When milled without being —
parched this outer coat is difficult to remove, as it breaks up into
small particles that do not readily separate from the flour, so that for
all use as food the seed should be first parched and hulled.

The results of chemical analyses given below show approximately
the comparative value of wild rice for food purposes. For the table
and the statement concerning it the writers are indebted to Dr. C. F.
Langworthy, of the Office of Experiment Stations of the Department
of Agriculture.

THE FOOD VALUE OF WILD RICE.

The table below shows the chemical composition of wild rice and a
number of common cereal grains. Wild rice is usually,cooked in a
whole or cracked form; therefore the articles selected for purposes of
comparison are the whole grains and breakfast foods rather than the
ground erains.

Comparison of wild rice and other grains.

Water. | Protein. Fat. pecanong Ash. aimee

les erent | pound.

Wild rice: Per cent. Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. | Calories.
Wiholeterainiss 22. 1. Se awe eee ecess 9.5 12.9 1 _ 1. 2 1.4 1,625
Grounds: 25-2 oe eee eee oe eee 13 10.9 .8 7 1533 1,740
Parched wholeierainisc cess. se a= 11,2 14.6 aff 72.3 1.2 | 1, 620
Parched and ground .......-..------ Peso eles | 8 76.9 1.3). 1800
Rice: polished ee-seeea ses ee ee ees 2.3 San pis} || 79 4 | 1, 630
iBarlexrspearleds s.2-¢ seca cee ease eee 11.5 | 8.5 ieal 77.8 Ia 1, 650
Wheat, cracked and crushed............ 10.1 iukal a7 75.5 1.6 1, 685
Oats rollediss: ska MS) ase ee Se eee ee | Lead 16.7 7.3 66. 2 AL 1, 850
Gomimes] Sun bolte disses ssa. oes eee 11.6 8.4 4.7 7 mA} | 1,730
Eominyseeenenee nes tae Ree Bee Se en as 8.3 563| 0 ego 3 1, 650
afin CORN ALS soo ee ra cen eee ae 16.8 6.6 3.8 70. 6 22} 1, 595
BUC ewh eat Oun== sae sae ee ee 13. ¢ 6.4 1.2 77.9 9 1, 620

As will be seen, wild tice resembles common cereal grains quite
closely in composition. As is the case svith wheat, rye, barley, and
other grains, the greater portion of the nutritive material consists of
carbohydrates, although the amount of protein is proportionately
large. Wild rice contains little fat, in this respect resembling rice,
barley, and wheat more closely than corn and oats. Judged by its
composition and fuel value, it compares very favorably with the com-
mon cereal grains. Too much importance should not be placed on the
variation in constituents as shown by figures like the aboye, since it
must be remembered that a given constituent in any of the grains may
vary to rather wide limits. For instance, the protein in common
white rice varies from about 6 to 11 per cent. So few analyses of wild
rice are available that but little can be said regarding the range in the

FOOD VALUE. Dik

proportional amount of the different constituents. Furthermore, little
is known of the comparative digestibility of wild rice and other grains.
From its extended use by the Indians and others it seems safe to assume
that this grain is wholesome, and as said above, analysis shows that it
is, like the more common cereals, a nutritious food. So far as can be
learned no extended study of the proteids, fats, and carbohydrates of
wild rice has been carried on. Some tests which were recently made
showed that starch is present in large amounts and in the form which
gives a blue color with iodin. No attempt was made to study other
members of the carbohydrate group, if such were present. Indications
were observed of an enzyme which caused fermentation of the grain
when moistened.

When wild rice is soaked in water a peculiar odor is noticeable,
recalling that of damp hay. When it is boiled it also possesses a
characteristic odor, something like that of boiled barley. The raw
grain has a starchy taste, while the cooked grain resembles barley
much more than white rice in taste. The flavor is characteristic and
is relished by many. When cooked, the wild-rice kernels expand to
about two or three times their original size, and except for the bits of
dark outer covering ordinarily present the cooked material is of a
grayish-white color. In Minnesota and adjacent States where wild
rice is best known it is usually eaten as a breakfast cereal, or cooked
in much the same manner as ordinary white rice.

ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION.

When wild-rice seed is to be used for propagating purposes it is now
customary to secure it from Indians as soon as possible after it is har-
vested, and to spread it out thinly over some sort of a floor in the
shade and stir it frequently untilitis dry. Since it has been extremely
difficult to germinate seed so treated, or to secure successful plantings
from seed obtained upon the market, there is good reason for believing
that it is the present methods of curing seed that are at fault. It was
largely for the purpose of determining where this fault lay and how
best to remedy it that investigations were instituted. It is true that
many of the unsuccessful plantings made during the past owe their
failure to the improper selection of the place for planting, due to
ignorance regarding the nature of the plant and its environmental
requirements; but it is certainly true that the plant may grow in many
localities where it is not now found, provided good seed is obtainable.

PREVIOUS FAILURES IN PLANTING.

Some instances are reported where successful plantings have been
made, but the greater number have proved entire failures. This is
no doubt due to the fact that the seed which is ordinarily obtained
from the Indians is treated in such a manner as to kill the germ.

2? WILD RICE: ITS USES AND PROPAGATION.

It is allowed to ferment during the curing process or to become too
dry, either of which conditions seriously injures its vitality. Prae-
tically all attempts to germinate thoroughly dried seed have proved
unsuccessful.

PLANTINGS MADE IN 1902.

-In order to determine the best methods to be used in curing, storing,
and planting the seed a series of plantings was made both in northern
Minnesota and at Washington, D. C. The seed was collected fresh
and planted in tubs of mud sunk into the muddy bottoms where wild
rice naturally grows. The tubs were covered with fine screens to
prevent other seeds getting in and to prevent the removal or destrue-
tion of the seed planted. These plantings were examined from time
to time. No signs of germination were noticed in the autumn imme-
diately following the planting, but at the time the naturally sown seed
around the tubs began to grow, in the spring of 1903, the seed in the
tubs was found to be germinating freely, thus showing that when the
seed is planted in a fresh condition and never allowed to heat or dry
it will grow well.

Plantings were also made by Mr. D. W. Hallam, of Dover, N. -H.,
in a number of ponds where wild rice had never grown. In some the
seed was planted in the fall of 1902, and in others in the spring of
1903. These ponds were visited the second week in June, 1903, and
the plants were found to be growing well in all cases.

STORING SEED.

Mr. Hallam has succeeded in keeping wild rice seed over winter
with its vitality uninjured. The following extract from a letter from
him under date of April 15, 1903, shows how this was done:

The wild rice was ordered with instructions to ship as soon as gathered without
drying. I received it on the 27th day of October, 1902. The barrel was placed on
end in the shade out-of-doors, the head taken out, with about a bushel of seed, and
a faucet was put in at the bottom to drain the water. The seed was weighted with a
cover, and cold water enough to fill the barrel put in each morning and drained
out daily. The barrel was kept full. On the 5th of December ice began to form on
the inside of the barrel. Care was taken in adding water so as not to burst the
barrel. By the 25th of December there was a frozen mass of ice and seed that filled
the barrel. No water was then added until the middle of March, and then only
enough to keep the barrel full, for as yet there was quite a mass of ice and seed.
Since April began it has been necessary to change the water daily. Our water here
is quite cold, 45° to 55° F. I have sent a sample bottle.

The seed received from Mr. Hallam with this letter had germinated
and had sprouts from one-half to 1 inch in length when it arrived.
Later, a larger quantity of seed, about 2 quarts, was received from
Mr. Hallam, of which 75 per cent had germinated.

It seems from the results of the experiments referred to that wild
rice can be successfully grown from seed either by sowing the fresh

SUGGESTIONS. 23

seed as soon as it is gathered or by keeping it in water over the
winter and sowing in the spring. In most instances it will no doubt
be found more satisfactory to sow in the fall, providing the place
sown can be protected from waterfowl and other animals likely to
destroy the seed, since such a practice will avoid the trouble of keep-
ing the seed wet during the winter. When the seed is kept in water,
either for storage or transportation, the water must be changed fre-
quently or aerated, as fermentation sets in if it is allowed to stand for
any length of time.

The seed can be shipped or stored for a short time by packing it in
dampened moss or excelsior, and this is a convenient way to prepare
it for shipment. It is necessary to separate the seed from the moss or
excelsior by layers of cloth, as it can not conveniently be sown when
mixed with either. The package, when made up thus for shipment,
must not be too thick or too tight to prevent some slight circulation
of air, or fermentation will at once set in.

SUGGESTIONS FOR HARVESTING, STORING, AND PLANTING.

(1) Orders should be placed before the harvesting season is com-
menced, so that the seed may be shipped immediately after it is
gathered.

(2) Care should be taken to gather only fully matured seed.

(3) Seed should not be allowed to dry when it is to be used for
propagation. For shipment or storage it must be kept wet, with
frequent changes of water. or packed in damp moss or excelsior in
ventilated packages.

(4) Wherever practicable, autumn planting is recommended.

(5) Care should be used in selecting the place for planting seed to
get the proper depth of water—from 1 to 3 feet, with a thick layer of
soft mud underneath—and the water should be neither quite stagnant
nor too swiftly moving. .

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Puate I. Frontispiece. Field of wild rice just heading out, near Bemidji, Minn.
This field is representative of a large area in northern Minnesota and Wisconsin,
where the shallow lakes are practically filled with wild-rice plants. This
photograph was taken August 28, 1902.

Puave Il. Stems of wild rice. Natural size. Fig. 1.—Portion of the stem of a
young plant illustrated in long section to show the pseudonodes and a portion of
the leaf-sheath, together with a portion of the stem surrounded by the leaf-
sheath, and showing also the ligule and a portion of the leaf-blade with promi-
nent midrib, Fig. 2.—An old stem of wild rice showing the curvature of the
base and the root scars in whorls.

Puate Ill. Fig. 1.—A staminate flower of wild rice shown in its natural position,
with the glumes spread apart and the six empty anthers still retained by the
filament. Enlarged seven times. Fig. 2.—Pistillate flower of wild rice, with
the outer glume remoyed to show the lodecules and the stigmas in their natural
position, projected on either side of the inner glume. Enlarged seven times.

Prats LY. Fig. 1.—Pistillate flower of wild rice, showing both the outer and inner
glumes below and only the outer glume, with its prominent awn and bristly
hairs, aboye. The illustration shows the flower at the time it is ready for fer-
tilization. The lodecules have expanded and forced the glumes apart below to
allow the stigmas to protrude to catch the pollen blown from other plants.
Enlarged seven times. Fig. 2.—Panicles of wild rice showing ergot infection.
The fungous disease ( Claviceps, species undetermined ) attacks the young ovaries
of the wild-rice plant and completely destroys them, producing in their stead
irregular, purplish black masses of compact hyphz which are called sclerotia.
Natural size.

Puate V. Panicles of wild rice. Fig. 1.—Type of the panicle of Potomac wild rice.
In this type the branches of the pistillate portion of the panicle are spreading
and bear from 17 to 27 spikelets or seeds. About one-fifth natural size. Fig.
2.,—Type of the panicle of Minnesota wild rice. In this type the branches of
the pistillate portion of the panicle are closely appressed to the main axis and
bear from 3 to 7 spikelets or seeds. About one-fourth natural size.

Puare VI. Fig. 1.—Indian woman parching wild rice. The wild rice is parched in
a large kettle over a slow fire and must be stirred continually during the cpera-
tion to prevent scorching and popping. The birch-bark basket shown in the
foreground is the one used for separating the wild-rice seed from the hulls after
it has been parched and sufficiently pounded. Fig. 2.—Freshly gathered wild
rice drying on a scaffold. The seéd in this condition is exceedingly moist and
will ferment unless constantly stirred and allowed to dry rapidly.

Piare VII. Wild-rice seed with the hull on(C), with the hull off (B), and parched
(A); the last also with the hull removed. The parched seed shown in the upper
portion of the picture is in condition to be used for food. Natural size.

24

O

Bul. 50, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II.

Fi@. 1.—YOUNG STEMS OF WILD RICE, Fic. 2.—AN OLD STEM OF WILD
SHOWING PSEUDONODES. (NATURAL RICE, SHOWING THE CURVATURE
SIZE.) OF THE BASE. (NATURAL SIZE.)

PLATE III.

Bul. 50, Bureau of Plant Industry, U, S. Dept. of Agriculture.

FAs =

A STAMINATE FLOWER OF WILD RICE.
TIMES. )

(ENLARGED SEVEN

Fia. 2.—A PISTILLATE FLOWER OF WILD RICE, WITH OUTER
GLUME REMOVED. (ENLARGED SEVEN TIMES.)

Bul. 50, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. cf Agriculture. PLATE IV.

Fic. 1.—A PISTILLATE FLOWER OF Fig. 2.—PANIGLES OF WILD RICE,
WILD RICE. (ENLARGED SEVEN SHOWING ERGOT INFECTION.
TIMES.) (NATURAL SIZE.)

Bui. 50, Bureau of Flant Incustry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V.

Fic. 1.—TYPE OF THE PANICLE OF Potomac Fig. 2.—TYPE OF THE PANICLE
WILD RICE. OF MINNESOTA WILD RICE.

Bul. 50, Bureau cf Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI.

Fic. 2.—FRESHLY GATHERED WILD RICE DRYING ON A SCAFFOLD.

Bul. 59, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII.

WILD RICE SEED WITH THE HULL ON (C), WITH THE HULL OFF (2B), AND PARCHED (4).
(NATURAL SIZE.)

2, eBid
Gay lbs —
PAMPHLET BINDER

Syracuse, N. Y.
Stockton, Calif.

Fttees

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