WILTSHIRE STUDIES The Wiltshire Archaeologica and Natural History Magazine ~ Volume 97 2004 HISTORY MUSEUM -6 APR 2004 | __ PURCHASED i The Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine Volume 97 2004 Published by The Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society 41 Long Street, Devizes, Wilts. SN10 INS Telephone 01380 727369 Fax 01380 722150 email wanhs@wiltshireheritage.org.uk Founded 1853 Company No. 3885649 Registered with Charity Commission No. 1080096 VAT No. 140 2791 91 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE VOLUME 97 (2004) ISSN 0262 6608 © Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society and authors 2004 Hon. Editors: Andrew Reynolds, BA, PhD FSA, and John Chandler BA, PhD. Hon. Local History Editor: James Thomas, BA, PhD, FRHistsS. Hon. Natural History Editor: Michael Darby, PhD, FRES Hon. Reviews Editor: Michael Marshman, ALA. Editorial Assistant: Lorna Haycock, BA, PhD, Dip.ELH, Cert Ed. We acknowledge with thanks grants towards the cost of publishing specific papers in this volume from the following bodies: Wessex Archaeology, for ‘Investigation of the Whitesheet Down Environs 1989-90: Neolithic Causewayed Enclosure and Iron Age Settlement’, by Mick Rawlings; and for ‘An Archaeological and Environmental Study of the Neolithic and Later Prehistoric Landscape of the Avon Valley and Durrington Walls Environs’, by Rosamund M.J. Cleal; Cotswolds Aggregates, for ‘Prehistoric Settlement and Medieval to Post-Medieval Field Systems at Latton Lands, by Dan Stansbie and Granville Lewis; ASI Heritage Consultants, for ‘Recent work at Barton Grange Farm, Bradford-on-Avon, Wiltshire, 1998—2003, by Michael Heaton and William Moffatt; and the Bill Petch Bequest, for “The Wiltshire Wildlife Trust’s Vera Jeans Nature Reserve at Jones’s Mill, Pewsey, by Beverley Heath. The journals issued to volume 69 as parts of The Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine (Part A Natural History; Part B Archaeology and Local History) were from volumes 70 to 75 published under separate titles as The Wiltshire Natural History Magazine and The Wiltshire Archaeological Magazine. With volume 76 the magazine reverted to its combined form and title. The cover title ‘Wiltshire Heritage Studies’ (volume 93) and ‘Wiltshire Studies’ (volume 94 onwards) should not be used in citations. The title of the journal, The Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine, remains unchanged. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the Society and authors. Typeset in Plantin by John Chandler and produced for the Society by Salisbury Printing Co. Ltd, Greencroft Street, Salisbury SP1 1JF Printed in Great Britain Contents ‘In the Newest Manner’: Social Life in Late Georgian Devizes, by Lorna Haycock Trees of Marlborough College and Environs, by Fack Oliver Miss Etheldred Benett (1775-1845): A Preliminary Note on her Correspondence, by R.7. Cleevely Thomas Kytson and Wiltshire Clothmen, 1529 -1539, by Colin Brett Neolithic of the Wylye Valley 1: Millennium Re-investigation of the Corton Long Barrow, ST 9308 4034, by Michael F. Allen and Fulie Gardiner, with a contribution by Rob Scaife A Welsh Bard in Wiltshire: Iolo Morganwg, Silbury and the Sarsens, by fon Cannon and Mary- Ann Constantine An Early Anglo-Saxon Cross-roads Burial from Broad Town, North Wiltshire, by Bob Clarke Arable Weed Survey of a Farm in South Wiltshire, by Barbara Last Lodowick Muggleton — Native of Chippenham? by Kay S. Taylor Prehistoric Settlement and Medieval to Post-Medieval Field Systems at Latton Lands, by Dan Stansbie and Granville Lewis, with contributions by Alistair Barclay, Fulie Hamilton, Elizabeth Huckerby, Hugo Lamdin-Whymark, Ruth Shaffrey, Elizabeth Stafford, Maisie Taylor, Jane Timby and Annsofie Witkin Investigation of the Whitesheet Down Environs 1989-90: Neolithic Causewayed Enclosure and Iron Age Settlement, by Mick Rawlings, Michael 7 Allen and Frances Healy, with contributions by Rosamund M.7. Cleal, M. Corney, Rowena Gale, Pat Hinton, D. McOmish, 7.M. Maltby, Elaine L. Morris and Robert G. Scaife A. D. Passmore and the Stone Circles of North Wiltshire, by Aubrey Burl Recent work at Barton Grange Farm, Bradford-on-Avon, Wiltshire, 1998-2003, by Michael Heaton and William Moffatt An Archaeological and Environmental Study of the Neolithic and Later Prehistoric Landscape of the Avon Valley and Durrington Walls Environs, by Rosamund M.7. Cleal, Michael F. Allen and Caron Newman, with contributions from S. Hamilton-Dyer, Phil Harding, Lorraine Mepham, Elaine L. Morris, Robert G. Scaife and S.F. Wyles 15 25 35 63 78 89 95 99 106 144 197 211 218 Wiltshire and Other Things in Common: Sir Peter Scott CH CBE DFC FRS (1909-1989) and Bernard Venables MBE (1907-2001), by Brian Edwards The Wiltshire Wildlife Trust’s Vera Jeans Nature Reserve at Jones’s Mill, Pewsey, by Beverley Heath with contributions by other authors An Investigation into the Life of A.D. Passmore, ‘A Most Curious Specimen’, by Laura Phillips Notes and Shorter Contributions A Medieval Pilgrim Badge from West Knoyle, by Nick Griffiths The Arundell’s London Estate, by Barry Williamson The Minerva Plaque from Charlton Down, by Paul Robinson The Rugged Oil Beetle (Meloe rugosus Marsham) discovered in Wiltshire, by Michael Darby Excavation and Fieldwork in Wiltshire 2002 Index 249 255 273 293 293 294 296 298 300 309 The Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society The Society was founded in 1853. Its activities include the promotion of the study of archaeology (including industrial archaeology), history, natural history and architecture within the county; the issue of a Magazine, and other publications, and the maintenance of a Museum, Library, and Art Gallery. There is a programme of lectures and excursions to places of archaeological, historical and scientific interest. The Society’s Museum contains important collections relating to the history of man in Wiltshire from earliest times to the present day, as well as the geology and natural history of the county. It is particularly well known for its prehistoric collections. The Library houses a comprehensive collection of books, articles, pictures, prints, drawings and photographs relating to Wiltshire. The Society welcomes the gift of local objects, printed material, paintings and photographs to add to the collections. The Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine is the annual journal of the Society and is issued free to its members. For information about the availability of back numbers and other publications of the Society, enquiry should be made to the Curator. Publication by the Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society does not imply that the Society endorses the views expressed; the factual content and the opinions presented herein remain the responsibility of the authors. Notes for Contributors Contributions for the Magazine should be on subjects related to the archaeology, history or natural history of Wiltshire. While there is no fixed length, papers should ideally be under 7,000 words, though longer papers will be considered if of sufficient importance. Shorter, note length, contributions are also welcome. All contributions should be typed/ word processed, with text on one side of a page only, with good margins and double spacing. Language should be clear and comprehensible. Contributions of article length should be accompanied by a summary of about 100 words. Please submit two copies of the text (with computer disk if possible) and clear photocopies of any illustrations to the editors at the Museum, 41 Long Street, Devizes, Wiltshire, SN10 1NS. A further copy should be retained by the author. The editors will be pleased to advise and discuss with intending contributors at any stage during the preparation of their work. When submitting text or graphics on disk, Word or Rich Text Format files are preferred for text, jpeg or tiff format for graphics. Contributors are encouraged to seek funding from grant-making bodies towards the Society’s publication costs wherever possible. Referencing: The Harvard System of referencing (author, date and page, in parentheses within the text) is preferred: e.g. ‘... one sheep and one dog lay close together (Clay 1925, 69)’. References in footnotes should be avoided if at all possible. Only give references which are directly applicable, repeating as little as possible. All references cited in the paper should be listed in the bibliography using the following style, with the journal name spelled in full, and the place and publisher of books/ monographs given : For a paper: PITTS, M. W.and WHITTLE, A. 1992. The development and date of Avebury. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 58, 203-12 (Note that in citations Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine is abbreviated to WANHM) For a book or monograph: SMITH, LE, 1965, Windmill Hill and Avebury: Excavations by Alexander Keiller, 1925-39. Oxford: Clarendon Press For a paper in a book or monograph: FITZPATRICK, A., 1984, ‘The deposition of La Téne metalwork in watery contexts in Southern England’, in B. Cunliffe and D. Miles (eds), Aspects of the Iron Age in Central Southern Britain, 178-90. Oxford: University Committee for Archaeology Endnotes can be used for specific information that cannot otherwise be comfortably incorporated in the main body of the text. Illustrations need to be clear and easily reproducible, the format and proportions following that of the Magazine. If possible, all original artwork should not exceed A3 before reduction. If not supplied as computer graphic files, drawings should be produced on drafting film or high quality white paper using black ink. Detail and lettering should not be so small that it will become lost in reduction. Mechanical lettering (dry transfer or computer generated) is preferred over hand lettering. Photographs should be supplied as good quality black and white prints, and transparencies and colour prints avoided wherever possible. Original illustrations and photographs should only be sent once a contribution has been accepted. Offprints: Ten offprints of each article will be given free (to be shared between joint authors). Offprints are not given for notes and shorter contributions. WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY BOARD OF TRUSTEES (from AGM 22 November 2003) Chairman Lt. Col. C Chamberlain Deputy Chairmen J H Thomas BA, PhD, FRHistS D L Roseaman BSc(Eng), CEng, MIMechE Other Elected Trustees Miss A Arrowsmith BSc Ms C Conybeare MA, FMA B K Davison OBE, BA, FSA, MIFA Mrs W P Lansdown W A Perry MSc (Hon Treasurer) R M Rowland BSc JSS Stewart BSc, MB, ChB, FRCS MJH Stiff BA, DPhil Mrs J Triggs Nominated Trustees Mrs K J Walling (Member, Devizes Town Council) PR. Saunders, BA, FSA, FMA, FRSA (Director, Salisbury & South Wiltshire Museum) L H Grundy OBE (Member, Kennet District Council) D H Lay (Member, Wiltshire County Council) W AB Snow (Member, Wiltshire County Council) In attendance: T Craig BA, MA, AMA, DipMgmt (Wiltshire County Council Heritage Services Manager) OFFICERS Curator P H Robinson, PhD, FSA, AMA Assistant Curator and Keeper of Natural Sciences A S Tucker, BSc, AMA Sandell Librarian and Archivist Mrs L. Haycock, BA, PhD, Dip ELH, Cert.Ed. Outreach Officer Ms R Stalker HND, BA, MA Wiltshire Archaeological & Natural History Magazine, vol. 97 (2004), pp. 1-14 ‘In the Newest Manner’: Social Life in Late Georgian Devizes by Lorna Haycock This paper examines the social networks and cosmopolitan culture of late eighteenth-century Devizes, which reflected not only the sophistication of a mature and prosperous community, but also the re-awakening of provincial life in the Georgian period. Pleasures and business divide the life of man. The agreeableness of pleasures corrects the bitterness or refreshes and unbends us from the fatigue of business!. Alongside the well-known developments of the Georgian period — the industrial and agrarian changes, the transport developments and the wars and overseas trade which resulted in the acquisition of empire — other important social and economic trends can be traced. The eighteenth century saw the rise of a consumer society of social emulation and cosmopolitan fashion and the development of a distinctive Georgian ethos. The growing wealth of ‘the middling sort’? was channelled increasingly into leisure pursuits, voluntary associations and cultural activities, emulating the lifestyle of ‘the quality’ and creating a new wave of urban sociability, but also causing a polarisation between cosmopolitan and popular culture. A remarkable feature of late eighteenth-century Devizes was the advance of professional men such as doctors and lawyers in the town’s hierarchy. They played an important role in the development of a fashionable urban culture, which came to be regarded as a mark of social status, a badge of the charmed world of the gentry and bourgeoisie. The memorial tablet of John Garth M.P. (d. 1764) in St Mary’s church, states that: to the sedentary way of living which he fell into from an early and continued love for the pleasures of literature, the illness was chiefly owing that occasioned his Death Book collecting and reading for pleasure and instruction, long the preserve of the clergy and gentry, spread among professionals and traders in the late eighteenth century and became part of the background of polite life. Newspapers made the printed word more accessible and London books were now increasingly available in country bookshops. In the mid-eighteenth century, Dissenting minister Samuel Fancourt had established a circulating library in Salisbury, providing books within a sixty-mile radius; doubtless he had Devizes subscribers.’Publishers’ advertising and the growth of adult literacy helped to stimulate the demand for a wide variety of secular literature. James Lackington wrote in 1791 : ‘I cannot help observe that the sale of books has increased prodigiously within the last twenty years . .. All ranks and degrees now read’.’ Devizes doctors and surgeons were among the foremost owners of books, mostly volumes on science and physic. Thomas Gisborne advised that the physician Wiltshire Archaeological & Natural History Society, The Museum, 41 Long Street, Devizes SN10 1NS 2 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE should study surgery, chemistry, botany, natural philosophy, read medical tracts in French and German, but also peruse ‘works of general information and taste’. Of Dr Spalding’s 400 books, mostly medical, some were also on history.’ Attorneys William Salmon and Wadham Locke had large collections of law books which they insured against fire, and traders, too, were now stocking their bookshelves. Gisborne exhorted them to ‘peruse eminent authors and not to be absorbed in mere worldly concerns’. ° Banker Charles Tylee’s library of 700 volumes included plays by Ben Jonson and Beaumont and Fletcher.’Bookseller Thomas Smith ordered volumes I and II of Britton’s Beauties of Wiltshire ‘for my own private library’,’ while clothier Frederick Sandwell possessed the works of 600 ‘admired authors’, including 21 volumes of Buffon’s Natural History in French and 21 volumes of Hume’s History of England.’ John Anstie had a ‘select’ library of books, including the moral and heroic History of the Life of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden.'° While staying with his uncle John in Rowde in 1799, Benjamin Anstie wrote that he was reading Locke’s Essay concerning Human Under- standing.'! Prison Governor William Brutton could reach for The Memonrs of Sully, Byron’s Don Juan or Life in London.'? Further down the social scale, salesman William Neate had 60 books, including poems and volumes of Voltaire’s works, indicating an awareness of current political writing as well as the contemporary popularity of poetry, fostered by such publications as The Gentleman’s Magazine." Thomas Lawrence (sen.), landlord of The Bear, kept a bookcase in every room for the use of his guests and personal friends. During one of his frequent visits, David Garrick presented his host with a folio copy of The Spectator, the ultimate manual of politeness and sensibility. '* Elizabeth Blackburn noted in her journal that cabinet maker Richard Knight’s eldest son, John, had a ‘good solid understanding cultivated by reading’. Women, too, possessed books, Miss Carpenter’s library including works by Addison, Pope, Swift and Shakespeare. Theological works, bibles, almanacs and encyclopaedias featured in humbler homes and were prized legacies, but literacy was essentially associated with social and economic position and was seen as a way of being admitted to the town’s genteel society . The book became an expression of status and fashion. As The Book of Trades commented in 1818 ‘It is by books that men generally become distinguished for their intelligence, probity and worth’. '° Culture and literacy could be proclaimed in subscription lists, which not only cut local publishers’risks but also boosted sales through a dazzling roll call of eminent patrons.'’ Some residents, linked by professional or educational ties, subscribed to new books published in Devizes and Salisbury, ranging from topographical publications to works offering spiritual comfort and guidance (see Table 1 below). The Andrews and Dury map of Wiltshire of 1773 and Tunnicliff’s Topographical Survey of 1791 allowed the subscriber’s residence or coat of arms to appear as well as his name. !® Table 1.Devizes Subscribers to locally published books and maps Title Number of Subscribers A Treatise on Peace of Soul and Content of Mind (1765) 4 Overton, T C, Original Designs of Temples (1766) 16 Taylor, A, Treatise on the Ananas or Pineapple (1769) 3 Description of the Antiquities of Wilton House (1769) 1 Cooke, W, The Way to the Temple of True Honour and Fame(1773) 64 Andrews and Dury, Map of Wiltshire (1773) 1 Tunnicliff, W, A Topographical Survey of the Counties of Hants, Wilts, Dorset, Somerset, Devon and Cornwall(1791) 14 Book clubs and circulating libraries were eighteenth-century phenomena. By 1810 a Book Society existed in Devizes. Each of the thirty subscribers could propose books on_ literary subjects not exceeding £1 15s. in price and after circulation to members in order of their admission to the Society, books could be bought for half the cost price. Periodicals taken included the Edinburgh, Monthly, Quarterly and Annual Reviews, The Gentleman’s Magazine and Rivington’s Annual Register. Thus leading townsmen could keep abreast of the latest published works and contemporary opinion.” That there were serious book and antiquarian collectors in the town is illustrated by library sale catalogues. One of the largest sales ever staged in Devizes took place over nine days in 1818, when the collection of John Collins was auctioned. Descended from a seventeenth-century namesake mathematician, surgeon Collins was a man of wide- ranging taste, covering the arts, sciences, philosophy, history, botany, travel and the classics. His unique collection of 15,000 prints, engravings, oil paintings and miniatures included works by ‘IN THE NEWEST MANNER’: SOCIAL LIFE IN LATE GEORGIAN DEVIZES 3 Rembrandt, Michelangelo, Reynolds and Hogarth. Maps, books, coins, tortoiseshell cabinets, gold and diamond watches and Etruscan vases filled the sale rooms alongside the complete dress of a Highland chief and ‘the cloak of a Chief of Owhyee’.”” Devizes antiquary Dr James Davis’s collection of one hundred books sold at Covent Garden in 1771 included Caxton’s Chronicle, A History of Fossils and works on Druids, coins and medals. ”'Fifteen years later, the extensive library of Peleg Morrison was sold over three days, ranging from Virgil and Chaucer to Fournals of the House of Commons and Miller’s Garden Dictionary. The _ library’s composition is tabulated below: Table 2. The composition of Peleg Morrison’s library 1786 Greek, Latin, Hebrew, French 152 Divinity 192 History 74 Law 36 Novels, romances 90 Physic 19 Prose, verse 159 Total 722 Source: (W)iltshire (A)rchaeological and (N)atural (H)istory (S)ociety (L)ibrary: Sale Contents catalogue 1.1 Devizes M.P Joshua Smith’s library showed similar eclecticism. As magistrates, Church patrons and landowners, gentry would need books on law, the Church and local history, but Smith’s collection embraced all aspects of the arts, with works in French, perhaps stimulated by foreign travel. Table 3. Joshua Smith’s Library 1820 Subject Volumes Books in French 146 Classics,Drama, English Literature, Poetry 305 Dictionaries, Grammars, Reviews, Rhetoric 63 Divinity and Ecclesiastical History 164 English History, Politics and Topography 345 Biography and Heraldry 175 History and Travel 295 Law 17 Natural History and Botany 53 Prints and Architecture 85 Total 1,648 Source: W.A.N.H.S.L., S.C. 30. 42, A Catalogue of the Valuable and Extensive Library of Books, late the Property of Foshua Smith Esq. (1820). One book in Smith’s library subscribed to by three Devizes residents was A Treatise on the Ananas or Pineapple by the gardener at New Park, Adam Taylor. This was published in Devizes by Thomas Burrough in 1769, ten years before the standard work on the subject by William Speechly, head gardener to the Duke of Portland.’’Taylor gave practical instructions on the culture of pineapples and melons and claimed to be ‘the first who has brought it to an improved size and excellence without the assistance of Fire’. The gift of the exotic pineapple became a kind of status symbol. Baker George Sloper was delighted to receive one from Mrs Sutton in 1808,” and the fruit featured on the menu at Stephen Neate’s Mayoral feast in 1816.” Baker Sloper took his _ horticultural involvement further, belonging to the Devizes Gardening Club established in 1754. The medium loam soil round Devizes was ideal for cultivating a wide variety of plants, and Edward Dore’s map of 1759 shows extensive gardens behind Devizes houses. The town garden, an early eighteenth- century London innovation, spread to the provinces and gardening became an important leisure activity. A correspondent to The Gentleman’s Magazine recommended gardening as a hobby to achieve health and pleasure. * Devizes bookseller Thomas Burrough could provide the latest gardening manuals such as Everyman his own Gardener, Miller’s Garden Dictionary or A Complete Body of Gardening , printed in weekly numbers, * and doubtless could obtain Curtis’s Botanical Magazine listing plants, trees and shrubs for different situations and the work to be done every month in the kitchen, fruit and pleasure gardens. Local naturalist John Legge of Market Lavington wrote A Treatise on the Art of Grafting and Inoculation (1780) and contributed natural history articles to The Ladies’ Magazine.’ In the eighteenth century many new plants were introduced from the East, such as the camellia, rhododendron, begonia, phlox and aster, and the cultivation of tulips, auriculas, carnations and pinks became an absorbing interest. Resulting perhaps from their introduction by immigrants from the Low Countries and northern France in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, florists’ feasts had been held in towns and cities such as Bath, Gloucester, Newcastle and Norwich since the early eighteenth century. In Devizes, the Cucumber Feast at The White Bear and the Carnation Feast at The Elm Tree, with silver and monetary prizes, were highlights in the social calendar, accessible to all classes and thus providing + THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE a bond between social ranks. Josiah Eyles Heathcote nurtured plants in a greenhouse and in melon frames,** and banker Charles Tylee used a ‘garden engine’, perhaps afterwards browsing in his New Botanic Garden with its 133 rich plates.” Brewer James Gent possessed a greenhouse with stove and pipes, filled with choice plants, and his library contained 15 volumes of Langley’s Botany and Sowerby’s English Botany,” of special interest to his wife, who was a botanist and geologist. The Georgian period was a time of classification of the natural world and a great fact-finding stage in the development of biology. The growing number of natural history publications in the second half of the eighteenth century and the popularity of works such as Goldsmith’s History of the Earth and Animated Nature (1774) and Gilbert White’s Natural History of Selborne (1789) illustrate a widespread interest in the natural universe as a manifestation of God’s goodness. This prompted an enthusiasm for collecting specimens such as fossils, shells, flowers and seeds and Southey noted the ‘English passion for collecting rarities’.*! Furthermore, a large section of society could now afford to do this. Brewer James Gent’s wife corresponded with the famous naturalist and artist, James Sowerby (1757- 1822), sending him fossils ‘of my own finding’ from Fyfield near Marlborough and receiving nine specimens from his collection in return. *Sowerby even named a fossil shell after her, Helix genti.** Mrs Gent also asked him to send models of ‘your Crystallography’. She subscribed to the magazine British Mineralogy, which she obtained through the local bookseller. The correspondence of William Wroughton Salmon with Sowerby throws some light on his botanical interests. On 6 May 1800 he dispatched in a basket by one of the London coaches a vernal variety of Colchicum autumnale which he had not been able to identify ‘in any British Flora’. Along with a friend ‘who is in the habit of collecting indigenous plants’, he had seen this colchicum in a pasture field near Devizes and asked Sowerby if he would show it to geologist Dr William Smith.“ On 21 May 1810 he sent further variegated specimens of the plants, promising to forward some cockscomb oysters and fossils from the chalk pits, which Sowerby had requested.* Interest in palaeontology was perhaps stimulated by the discovery of spars and fossils during the canal excavations, while the proximity of pasture land and the chalk downlands provided a fertile field for botanical investigation and geological collection as well as for walking. Elizabeth Blackburn, on her visit to Devizes in 1810, recorded expeditions to Roundway and Hartmoor and rambling in nursery gardens by the side of the canal, where they observed the construction of bridges and locks.” ‘Airing’ was considered healthy in the eighteenth century, and in Devizes the countryside was conveniently close. During the later Georgian period, there was also widespread interest in agricultural improvement, reflected in the establishment of agricultural societies, of which there were 50 by 1800, and the proliferation of journals such as The Farmer’s Magazine (1776) and The Annals of Agriculture (1784). Agriculture was a predictable interest for the propertied classes in the rich farming area around Devizes. James Sutton discussed farming matters with Henry Addington: ‘I have much to say to you on the subject of farming when we meet and shall hope you will find yourself able to visit my new building and make the tour of my Fields’”’ Concern about the weather’s effects on the harvest is apparent in their letters: ‘:I have, great and small, 114 mouths grazing before my window and only two acres cut for winter provender; of course our anxiety rises or is depressed by the appearance of every cloud’.**Professionals and traders, too, had close involvement with agriculture. Lawyer Wadham Locke farmed at Melksham, Orcheston and Rowde and grocer Charles Simpkins had a farm at Avebury, nine miles distant. Brewer James Gent kept stock and grew crops in Rowde, two miles away, his horses, cows and pigs doubtless being fed during the winter on waste mash from the brewery.” Local interest in agricultural improvement is illustrated by several applications for premiums made from the Devizes area to the Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, founded in 1754. Farmer Thomas Twittey from nearby Bromham submitted a recipe for destroying turnip fly in 1759.*°Six years later Devizes wheelwright Robert Dowse’s description of his newly invented 4 h.p. plough for draining land was witnessed by twenty-two of the town’s leading inhabitants, including John Anstie, the Rev. Edward Innes, Wadham Locke, William Salmon and John Tylee. *! In 1768 brewer Charles Rose applied for a premium for cultivating the greatest quantity of the English madder plant upon an acre of land, detailing the planting process and the manufacture of different qualities for which he had found a ready local sale.*’Ten years later clothier John Anstie presented a machine for slicing turnips ‘IN THE NEWEST MANNER’: SOCIAL LIFE IN LATE GEORGIAN DEVIZES 5 to the Royal Society on behalf of a local farmer ‘a very deserving Man — I wish he may meet with encouragement. Anstie probably — echoed widespread local sentiment when he wished ‘success to the laudable endeavours of your Society for the promotion of useful knowledge’. In 1813 this zeal for improvement led to the formation in Devizes of the Wiltshire Society for the Encouragement of Agriculture, whose 50 or so members included lawyers Locke and Salmon, and brewers and bankers John and Charles Tylee. The Society awarded prizes for stock, crops and husbandry, and held ploughing matches and sheep shearings, with monetary prizes, as well as publishing essays on agricultural topics. This institution was a local replica of the prestigious Bath and West Society founded in 1777, to which 14 of the town’s élite belonged.” The Society’s aims were ‘the encouragement of industry and ingenuity. . .to excite a spirit of enquiry... and to bring speculation and theory to the test of accurate experiment’.** At monthly meetings, members could mingle with gentlemen, farmers and manufacturers from Somerset, Gloucestershire, Dorset and Bristol, proud to be associated with such famous figures as Joseph Priestley, Arthur Young, Coke of Norfolk and Thomas Davis, and at the Annual General Meeting could indulge in ‘much interesting debate’.*° They could also correspond with members in Russia and America, broadening their commercial and agricultural horizons, making useful contacts and learning of new techniques and inventions. One AGM was graced by the presence of a Mohawk Indian chief, visiting this country to learn about agriculture.”” The Society made its existence visible in Devizes by carrying out drilling experiments on Charles Fitchew’s farm at Roundway,** while John Gale of Stert near Devizes conducted trials for them in fattening oxen on potatoes dressed with steam.” Clothier John Anstie, a member of the Society’s Committee of Manufactures and Commerce and also a Vice-President, was much involved in the movement to improve British wool, regulariy evaluating different breeds of sheep and testing new inventions for the Society, such as a machine for drying cloth. In an age of growing intellectual curiosity, science, too, had its followers in the town, particularly among nonconformists. In 1770 Joseph Priestley (1733-1804), who had conducted his experiments at Bowood six miles away, published his work on electricity. Jan Ingen Housz (1730- 1799) also developed some of his scientific ideas at Lord Shelburne’s house.” | Newspapers, encyclopaedias, The London Magazine, The Annual Register and The Gentleman’s Magazine were full of scientific information and enquiry. ' As John Locke had said ‘a gentleman must look into (natural philosophy) to fit himself for conversation’. Interest in the subject, the collection of scientific and natural history books, instruments and specimens became part of a late- eighteenth century gentleman’s culture , separating ‘the middling sort’ from the lower orders. Thomas Gisborne recommended scientific experiments and botanical enquiries as suitable pursuits for an apothecary’s spare time.°* Prison Governor William Brutton had a day and night telescope, while John Anstie possessed a patent copying machine a ‘neat electrifying machine with apparatus, a reflecting telescope brass mounted and two 12-inch globes’.** In 1811, William Salmon ordered chemical apparatus from the catalogues of German-born scientist Friedrich Accum and Alexander Garden, experimental chemists in Soho.» Salmon’s interest had perhaps been stimulated by visiting scientific lecturers. Public lectures, made possible by improved transport, were the current craze in England among the fashionable bourgeoisie, who aspired to partake of upper class culture. Speakers concentrated on the gentry centres in southern England, their high charges — 2s. 6d. — being directed at the upper end of the market. Some members of the Anstie family attended lectures in Devizes on The Transparent Orrery, displaying the universe with its stars and planets.*° In 1784 Mr Waltire visited Devizes to give: His Courses of Natural Philosophy and Chemistry. . . Astronomy, Optics, Pneumatics, Hydrostatics, and Electricity. . .The including Mechanics, courses of Chemistry are applied to explain the principles of Mineralogy, Agriculture, the Various Arts, natural appearances, and particularly to impress such Manufactories as depend upon it. Both courses are very full of observations and Experiments and due care is taken to join the pleasing and the important.” It seems likely that Anstie and Salmon attended these lectures, along with other burgesses with enquiring minds. Some houses contained musical as well as scientific instruments and both sexes delighted in music, despite The Ladies’ Library advising caution in approaching music, which ‘enervates the soul 6 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE and exposes it to be conquer’d by the first Temptation which invades it. ** Musical instruments were mentioned in seventeenth- century inventories, Devizes surgeon Edward Anne leaving ‘three pairs of organs, two virginals and one chest of violls’, valued at £100 in 1687.°Eighteenth- century family group paintings often depict musical settings , with singers, harpsichord and instrumentalists. Although in the production of new music eighteenth-century Britain lagged behind Germany, Italy and France, the country was receptive to foreign influences. Many Continental craftsmen, fleeing from the Seven Years’ War, had begun producing reasonably priced musical instruments in England. Favourite instruments in Devizes were the fiddle, the piano and the flute. Newspapers advertised instruction books, such as The Complete Tutor to the Violin and the common flute was easy to learn. Benjamin Anstie wrote from Rowde in 1799 :‘There are four in the family who can play on the flute and one on the piano’.*' Amelia Anstie thanked her brother Samuel in London for procuring a piano for her : ‘It arrived last Saturday and it is indeed a very nice one. I like the tone and it is really very cheap at eighteen guineas’. ° Dr William Barwis possessed a harpsichord by Keene ©’ and builder’s wife Mrs Whichcord owned a violin and a piano. The prison governor played a flute”, and Josiah Eyles Heathcote operated a barrel organ.” Such activities were perhaps stimulated by musical meetings held in the town once a fortnight These were long established, magistrate William Hunt attending Devizes concerts regularly in the mid-eighteenth century, and paying his 1 guinea subscription to William Salmon in April 1741.° Singing was widely practised among all classes. The resurgence of music in England with the visits of Handel, Haydn and Mozart and the composition of ballads and operas by native and foreign musicians provided a repertory of old and new music. Provincial booksellers purveyed sheet music and collections of ballads, anthems, country airs, catches, glees and opera songs. Elizabeth Blackburn noted that Richard Knight’s son, John, ‘like all the family had a fine voice and a taste for music’® and George Sloper remarked that cooper Thomas Wheeler ‘was a very good and fine singer’.” At the celebrations on Roundway Hill for the birth of James Sutton’s heir in 1783, booths were erected for glee singers” and songs and glees were sung after the Bear Club annual dinner.’! Salisbury at this time enjoyed a reputation as a centre of musical excellence, with a music festival dating back to the seventeenth century and stimulated by the presence of Handel’s friend James Harris and of the composer John Marsh between 1776 and 1783. One of the most celebrated instrument makers in England, Benjamin Banks (1727-1795) made copies of Amati’s violins and Stradivari cellos.’”’ Concerts were held in the city once a fortnight in winter and once a month in summer, sometimes with foreign soloists. Lawyer William Wroughton Salmon and his wife attended the Music Festival there in August 1818” anda Mrs Salmon, perhaps a relative, performed regularly at concerts. Musical accomplishments were becoming popular for girls. An eighteenth-century writer claimed that music had ‘the power of filling up agreeably those intervals of time which too often hang heavily on the hands of women’.”? James Sutton employed a music teacher for his daughters,” and a music master, Nathaniel Phillips, was a member of the Devizes Mercers Company in 1760.” In local schools music was part of the curriculum, so music making was becoming a part of bourgeois domestic life. Music provided the background for the elaborate ‘Pantheon’ or Temple of Arts staged in Devizes by printer and stationer William Harrison in 1821 after many years’ preparation, which was later taken to Bath, Bristol and London. Displayed in an ‘elegant and commodious portable building’ the exhibition featured sculptures, paintings, lustres and ‘Mechanics’, with works by English, Dutch and German artists, illuminated with wax lights in chandeliers suspended from eagles. The background music, specially selected from ‘British and Foreign Masters’, including a ‘self-acting’ organ and a Musical Clock, was intended to ‘raise the mind. . . upon the soaring wings of ecstasy’. Claiming that there was nothing more interesting than the study of the several arts and sciences, which ‘promotes those alliances and connexions which exist among men of science and learning’, Harrison appealed for the patronage of ‘a liberal and enlightened public’, who doubtless flocked to such a dazzling collection of the arts under one roof, ‘a work differing in every respect from any which has ever been offered to the world’.’”° Extravagant as his claims were, Harrison must have counted on middle class support for a venture which cost him over £2,000 and gambled on the growing bourgeois love of spectacle and appetite for the arts. This general upsurge of interest in the arts was reflected in the establishment of theatres. Aping the London theatres, playhouses began to appear from ‘IN THE NEWEST MANNER’: SOCIAL LIFE IN LATE GEORGIAN DEVIZES 7 Fig. 1 The Town Hall, Devizes, built between 1806 and 1808, was designed by Thomas Baldwin of Bath. Its Assembly Room in the Adam style provided an elegant venue for social events. c. 1730 in Plymouth, Portsmouth, Reading, and Salisbury, with dramatic companies making a regular circuit of towns. Between 1760 and 1820 at least 100 provincial theatres were erected and every town of any pretence had one. In 1788 Mr Baker, ‘master of a company of comedians from Devizes’, applied for a licence to perform in Salisbury,’* while from that city came Shatford and Lee’s touring company, playing a Spring season in a small theatre in Monday Market Street, Devizes in 1790. Performance of The Rivals by Sheridan three times weekly ‘procured the patronage and respect of many of the first families in the town and neighbourhood’ .” Attendance was so encouraging that a new theatre, costing £300* and ‘on a scale equal to any County Theatre in the kingdom’,*' was built in record time in 1792 by local builders, Whichcord and Gamble, a circumstance ‘ doubtless very pleasing to the numerous genteel residents in that polite town and neighbourhood’. The first performance in May included Don Juan, The Road to Ruin, and various short farces. Subscriptions of 10 guineas entitled fifteen persons to free admission every night ‘to a place of liberal and rational amusement’ during the season for twelve years; no doubt there was some competition to acquire such distinction or to sponsor a performance. Attending the theatre provided an arena for social life and the diffusion of fashionable attitudes, as well as an opportunity for personal display, particularly for women. In a note to Mrs Stephen Hillman, Mrs Spalding esteemed it a pleasure ‘ to join Mrs Hillman’s party if she intends going to the Play tonight ... Dr and Mrs Spalding mean to shew themselves at the Theatre, if only for an hour’.** Perhaps the same desire to be part of the haut monde influenced guests at a_ glittering entertainment on 2 August 1819 when William Salmon staged an elegant féte champétre at Drew’s Pond near Devizes. One of the guests, Irish poet Tom Moore of Bromham, described the evening: ‘a beautiful place, and everything gay and rant. . .a boat on the little lake, musicians playing on the island in the middle of it, tents pitched ’. Such 8 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE extravagant diversions were exceptional, but all year round there were opportunities for fashionable entertainment and civic conviviality. When advocating the siting of the County Court in the town in 1660, Wiltshire J.Ps had described Devizes as ‘a town fitted for entertainment’.” Elections, the Assizes or the two-month militia training periods attracted gentry to the town, and became occasions for social events, where town and country élite could mingle. Perhaps influenced by the Bath social scene, seasonal evening subscription assemblies for cards, dancing and conversation provided an opportunity for display and a respectable outlet for women where the sexes could associate. In the Assembly Room of the newly-completed Town Hall, illuminated by ‘two magnificently beautiful Grecian cut-glass chandeliers’ presented by Mrs Sutton in 1808, a gathering of 315, including ‘fashionable society from Bath and Clifton’, danced from 10 p.m. until 6 a.m. with ‘a grand supper provided by a person of Bath’.*’ The following year, ‘a very grand Ball and supper’ were held — ‘where all the beauty and fashion of the town and neighbourhood met together — many ladies dressed with diamonds and every other brilliant ornament’.** In 1820, the Brabants, Hugheses, Lockes and Tylees whiled the night hours away with country dances until 1 a.m. and quadrilles until three.®’ Less frenetic were William Halcomb’s card assemblies at The Bear in his own Assembly Rooms;”’ Thomas Gisborne noted the popularity of evening card-playing in provincial towns.?! The Venison Feast given by the County M.Ps in August was another highlight of the social calendar. In 1790 M.Ps Henry Addington and Joshua Smith gave a grand entertainment to the principal inhabitants: to which the neighbouring gentlemen were also invited .. .Amongst other elegancies there were three turtles and 4 fat bucks. . .and the day was spent in the utmost harmony. Many loyal and constitutional toasts were given with repeated huzzas, amongst which ‘An Honourable accommodation or a glorious war’ were not forgotten. The Wiltshire band (one of the finest in England) played martial music during the greatest part of the day, and in the evening several hogsheads of strong beer were given to the populace.” Despite Edward Gibbon’s claim that ‘the little civility of the neighbouring gentry’ gave him little opportunity of dining,”*a great deal of entertaining coach wing of Roundway House as the building 1s now called. ‘IN THE NEWEST MANNER’: SOCIAL LIFE IN LATE GEORGIAN DEVIZES 9) went on among the higher ranks of town society. The Corporation were regularly entertained to dinner by the town’s two M.Ps at their country houses and dining with friends seems to have been a frequent occurrence. On 10 April 1819, Tom Moore ‘dined at Salmon’s in the company of the Phippses, Mr Pearce, Wyatt, Tylee etc. . . talked among other things of the Bank question and the Poor Laws’.** No doubt lawyer Wadham Locke served for his guests the fish and oysters supplied to him by John Mills of Cripplegate, London. ” Wiltshire M.Ps Charles Garth, Ambrose Goddard and Charles Penruddocke were frequent guests of their sons’ godfather James Sutton. In a letter of 1800 to Mrs Sutton, Jane Estcourt referred to ‘your charming circle at New Park’ and the following autumn Eleanor Sutton wrote to her daughter that she and her husband were ‘both impatient to begin the New Park Nights Entertainment’.” At a dinner party in 1773 guests, including the Gents, Gibbes and Tylees, were served with carp, venison, veal, partridge, crayfish and roast tongue.* Eleanor Sutton’s recipe book included directions for dressing fresh truffles, preserving pineapples and asparagus, making lobster soup and presenting a stag’s head.” The household accounts listed lavish expenditure on claret, brandy, mussels, oysters, hock and. champagne.'” At one intoxicating dinner ‘Brother Gibbes’ was ‘bereft of Speech’ and had to be taken away at about 10 p.m., though Sutton wrote- ‘I have not a symptom to tell me I had too much’.!”! Feasting was a frequent occurrence for the élite. Guests at the inauguration of Mayor William Waylen in 1774 consumed considerable amounts of food, as Table 4 indicates. The fare, supplied largely by local butchers, bakers and grocers, cost £60 16s. 11 Yrd.! Table 4. Fare at the Inaugural Mayoral Feast 1774 77 \bs of beef 2 venison pasties 2 quarters of lamb 7 pigeon pies 1 sturgeon 6 hams 5 turbots 4 geese 4 cods 36 fowls 4 sucking pigs 12 ducks 4 turkeys 20 tongues truffles anchovies tarts peaches, nectarines cheesecakes rich cake mince pies grapes, walnuts lemon puddings cider, madeira and wines orange puddings almond puddings Source: W.A.N.H.S.L., W.C., Vol.2, p.172. On 18 August 1784 baker George Sloper attended James Sutton’s Mayoral Feast and the Bear Club Feast two days later.'? Port, sherry, brandy, rum, beer and porter flowed freely at Bear Club dinners, and some glasses had to be replaced in 1813.! The anniversary of the Glorious Revolution was ‘kept as a great festival’, celebrated by a dinner presided over by Henry Addington , and processions, bonfires and fireworks, and later ‘a ball for the ladies’.!° Such a day of general festivity was never remembered in this town... although all ranks of people were most heartily united in celebrating this glorious . yet the utmost regularity and decorum prevailed throughout the whole course of the day.!°° event.. In 1789, George III’s recovery from illness was celebrated with a procession led by a band, dinner at The Bear, with loyal and constitutional toasts and fireworks with ‘several elegant transparencies emblematical of our beloved Sovereign’, followed by supper and the obligatory hogsheads to the populace,’ for whom such festivities offered light relief from the drudgery of everyday life. Throughout the war, victories such as the Battle of the Nile were marked by feasting, gun volleys, ox- roasting and fireworks. New Park and Southbroom House were illuminated for Duncan’s victory at Camperdown in October 1797, which occasioned great rejoicing: The Bells have scarce ceased ringing since Saturday morning. The flags continue to be displayed and everyone seems to be zealous in demonstration of joy. The principal part of the Town is to be illuminated this Evening and we are to meet at the Hall to drink the health of the brave Tars who have so eminently distinguished themselves.' The Peace of Amiens was celebrated with fireworks ‘by a person from London’ and in 1814, an effigy of Napoleon , after being paraded through the streets, was ceremonially hanged in the Market Place, followed by the roasting of an ox and five fat bucks, with ‘not a single instance of intemperance or disorder’.!!°As well as providing occasions for diversion, the practice of recording major events by public ceremony stressed their significance in the public mind and enhanced feelings of unity and patriotism. Convivial entertainment for some of the élite was provided by Lodge 341 of the Freemasons, inaugurated in 1788 and patronised by royalty. Four meetings a month were held at The Crown, The 10 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Elm Tree, The White Hart or The Black Swan, where mason and innkeeper Walter Flay depicted masonic emblems on his inn sign. Toasts, songs, glees and duets enlivened the evenings. The Rector, the Rev. Lediard, banker Charles Tylee and grocers John and Stephen Neate were among the twenty-four members in 1815. It seems likely that the Salmons were also members, since their office clerk was Secretary of the organisation.!!! The membership of army officers stationed in the area had increased the numbers by the following year!’ and in 1819 the Lodge was visited by masons from Frome and the East Indies.''* Freemasonry symbolised the divergence of élite and popular culture in the eighteenth century. Socially exclusive, it offered a form of religious association and ceremony without the dangers of religious enthusiasm or piety, and was one of many associations linking the upper class and ‘the middling sort’. In sport, another élite activity was shooting, reflecting the iate-eighteenth century revival of interest in countryside pursuits, while seventeenth- century wills had often referred to ‘my birding piece’. A dozen of the leading inhabitants owning land of over £100 a year held game certificates, including banker Charles Tylee, whose drawing room was adorned by two stuffed ducks in a case.'" The increasing popularity of shooting, protected by 33 new Game Laws between 1760 and 1816, led to the establishment of gunsmiths in Devizes. James Sutton rode to hounds, in 1790 writing to his brother-in-law ‘I was in full cry on Janice’.! Henry Addington spent part of the sporting season at New Park and both Sutton and Salmon employed gamekeepers on their estates.!'!° Hunting and shooting, associated with the upper ranks of society, became the target of middle class emulation and this trend was gently ridiculed in 1786 in a letter, purporting to come from a grocer: Hearing that every person that took out a licence to shoot was to be a gentleman,I ventured to attempt that character for one year, at a cost of £87 19s. 6d. 1” The élite, however, pursued a wide range of sports. Dr Robert Clare was described by Henry Hunt as ‘a sporting man’''’ and New Park had a bowling green.'!” Cricket matches were played by a tradesman’s eleven against the neighbouring towns of Calne, Marlborough and Westbury, the first recorded match on Wiltshire soil taking place in 1774, though in 1783 the Westbury team was censured for ‘conduct unworthy of true players’.'”° Cricket, which had begun as a plebeian sport, was taken up by the gentry after 1660, providing a convenient opportunity for gambling. Although sport was as yet largely local and devoid of institutional structure, it was becoming spectator- orientated and both publicans and gentry gave their patronage to attract custom or to ensure social harmony. Social distinctions were preserved , yet at the same time a sport such as cricket was a means of breaking down class barriers. Speaking of cricket, a foreign visitor commented: ‘everyone plays it. . the common people and also men of rank’.’”'The Rev. John Skinner, too, noted servants playing alongside clergy and gentry.'” Sport also enabled skilled workers and artisans to acquire respectability and distance themselves from the cruel and violent amusements of the rabble. Richard Warner spoke of ‘balls, plays and cards usurping the place of ... rude athletical sports or gross sensual amusements’ in Bath,'” but in the Devizes area ‘the populace’ continued to enjoy their traditional pastimes. Wrestling bouts, so popular in the West Country, took place at Tan Hill fair, and backsword contests, fought with heavy sticks, including a match between Wiltshire and All England in 1780, were staged on a dais opposite The Bear for a purse of 5 guineas, ‘ the blood to run an inch to entitle a man to a head, and the man that breaks 2 heads to be allowed a tyer’!** Pugilism and the cruder animal ‘sports’ were perhaps safety valves for the aggressive and bloodthirsty instincts of the masses. Bull baiting, legal until 1833, was still being performed at Furzehill on the town’s outskirts, where in April 1774 a fourteen-year old boy killed himself drinking rum.'? Increasingly after 1750, popular recreation for the masses became divorced from church festivals and clerical patronage; the commercial exploitation of leisure penetrated the lower class market, with entrepreneurs seeking profit from popular spectacles. Fairs on the Green provided lively entertainment, with rope dancers, conjurors, nine pins, wild animals, raffles and wheels of fortune.'”° Robert Southey asserted that ‘nothing is too absurd to be believed by the people in this country — anything in England will do for a show’.'”’ In 1790, the credulous could see ‘The Amazing Pig of Knowledge’ which could tell the day of the month and the month of the year, guess which cards were drawn and recognise the value of money.!** From the 1760s, travelling circuses were all the rage . Lions, tigers and a 9-foot tall elephant were the attractions at Alkins’ Royal Menagerie which visited the town in 1820.'” All these events ‘IN THE NEWEST MANNER’: SOCIAL LIFE IN LATE GEORGIAN DEVIZES 11 enlivened the monotony and strain of working class lives, as well as providing occasions for courtship, a loosening of social restraints and opportunities for crime. Reflecting the social mix and unequal income distribution of the community, earthy sports and boisterous pastimes flourished alongside the civic rituals and more sophisticated tastes of wealthy traders and _ professionals, accentuating the polarisation between cosmopolitan and popular culture. Public lighting aided socialising and towns became ‘social amphitheatres for the rural and urban élite’.!*? Withdrawing from participation in traditional culture, they turned to the expanding world of fashionable leisure and polite culture. Increasing literacy and access to printed books were widening men’s intellectual experience and fostering the cult of travel, fashion and popular science. The élite were redefining themselves in cultural terms, conforming to a new set of values- sociability, toleration and gentility — in contrast to the rustic and sensual interests of the lower orders. As John Trusler remarked in 1766 ‘Scarce a town of any magnitude but has its Theatre Royal, its concerts, its balls, its card parties’.!*! It might be thought that only cathedral cities and large towns had a way of life comparable to the urban experience, but the lifestyle of the bourgeoisie shows that Devizes, with a population of 4,747 in 1801, was by no means philistine or torpid in the late eighteenth century. Although no Literary and Scientific Institute was founded until 1833, interest in these subjects was already widespread. Merchants and shopkeepers, doctors, lawyers and clergy were buying books, collecting pyints, attending plays and concerts. Dr Brabant was a friend of poets Tom Moore and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, '” and goldsmith Bennet Swayne was the first husband of the mother of Poet Laureate Thomas Campbell. The range of book-buying, musical activity and membership of philanthropic and social clubs in Devizes indicate a receptiveness to the new Enlightenment and the cultural hegemony of the professional and élite classes. As Byng wrote, ‘the turnpike roads of the kingdom... have imported London manners’.'* Undoubtedly influenced by visits to London and Bath, and by newspaper descriptions of fashions and activities in those cities, the Devizes élite were involved in a range of active social and cultural pursuits, from science to gardening, from dancing to book-collecting and the expansion of wealth led to a greater demand for organised leisure activities. Nicolai Karamzin claimed that ‘newspapers and magazines were in everyone’s hands in England’ and this greatly assisted the dissemination of cultural ideas and the advertising of social events such as assemblies and _ balls, lectures and sporting contests. Georgian social and public life now revolved round the town, rather than the church. As a result of growing affluence, the late eighteenth century saw the rise of a leisure industry, organised on a commercial basis, catering for the wealthy bourgeoisie; culture and sport ceased to be the aristocracy’s preserve and became middle class in character, bridging the divide between aristocratic culture and bucolic peasant pursuits. The wide availability of printed matter, including woodcuts, engravings and music scores, brought the arts within the range of people for whom art and music had been unobtainable in the seventeenth century. Culture became a commodity to be bought and sold, and within the purchasing power of ‘the middling sort’, who wished to emulate the good taste and refinement of their social superiors. Bourgeois horizons were widening and a fashionable culture was developing, making Devizes a social focus in its regional hinterland and emphasising the difference between urban and rural society. J.J.Looney has claimed that gentry centres experienced the commercialisation of leisure before the industrial towns. Citing the examples of York and Leeds, he has shown how the large number of ‘clubbable’ men, such as attorneys and doctors, influenced the development of provincial culture.!*” Until the 1820s, when improved transport made London, spas and seaside resorts more viable and attractive social venues, the town was the centre of leisure life for the rural and urban gentry. In the acquisition of taste, there was a large element of social emulation, a desire to join the cultured set. The British Magazine remarked in 1763 that: the present rage of imitating the manners of high life hath spread itself so far among the gentlefolks of lower life that in a few years we shall probably have no common folk at all!*° Local antiquary Dr Davis satirised this social pretentiousness and the quest for fashionable elegance: You have turn’d the grating of your woolcombs into the scraping of Fiddles; the screeking loom into the tinckling Harpsichord; and the Thumping Fulling mills into the glittering and contentious Organ. 12 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Scents of perfumes are in your churches and the odours of train oil and fermenting Urine are no more smelt amongst you. Your houses are ornamented with Bath stone wrought into Pediments, entablatures and Pillastrades; your market house(a stranger to woolpacks,) is metamorphiz’d into a theatre for Balls, and Concertos and Oratorio’s (sic). 1*7 Although Hannah More attributed the contagion of dissipated manners to ‘a growing, regular, systematic series of amusements’,'* the permeation of society by polite manners and wider cultural interests acted as a civilising and integrating force, enhancing the urban image. There was, too, an element of moral earnestness, a belief that taste for the arts led to improvement and refinement. The provincials were anxious to absorb metropolitan culture and values and to ‘bring Enlightenment to their own doorsteps’.'” In a fluid society, manners and social habits mattered. Devizes provided an elegant display environment for the parading of wealth and refinement by social and cultural activities, and, like other provincial towns, became what one journal called ‘ the little London’ of the part of the kingdom in which it was situated.!"° Notes ' “On the Utility, Choice and Use of Pleasures’: Oliver Goldsmith and the Moonrakers (ed. ) G. Winchcombe (1972), letter LX XXVIII, appendix, p. 85 ° M. Little, ‘Samuel Fancourt 1678-1768; Dissenting minister and pioneer librarian’, The Hatcher Review, Vol. 2, no. 14 (Salisbury 1982), pp. 162-170 > Memotrs of the first Forty Five Years of the Life of Fames Lackington (1791), p. 387 *T. Gisborne, An Inquiry into the Duties of Men in the Higher Ranks and Middle Classes, (1794), pp. 6-7 > S(alisbury) F(ournal), 3871, 22 April 1811 ° T. Gisborne, op. cit. , p. 471 ’ Devizes) G(azette). , 390, 7 Aug. 1823 * Waltshire) A(rchaeological) and N(atural) H(istory) S(ociety) LUibrary), Box 327, MS. 2602 ° SF. , 5100 (sic), 3 Aug. 1801 10 SF , 3593, 22 April 1805; the work was written by a Marlborough author in 1767 '' Letter of 6 May 1799: Elizabeth Cunnington, ‘The Cunnington Family History’ (typescript study 1978), p. 114 DG. 321, 28 Feb. 1822 3 DG, 389, 31 July 1823 "T. B. Smith, ‘The Early Life of Thomas Lawrence’, WANHM , Vol. 9, (1865), p. 195 15 SF. , 3893, 23 Sept. 1811 '© The Book of Trades (3 vols. 1818; 1994 reprint, Devizes), Vol. III, p. 12 ” The earliest English subscription list dates from 1617; by the eighteenth century there were over 2,000 'S Four Devizes seats were marked on the Andrews and Dury Map of Wiltshire 1773, those of Edward Eyles, Charles Garth, William Salmon and Willy Sutton '° Wiltshire) and S(windon) R(ecord) O(ffice), 873/52, Rules of the Devizes Book Society 1810. By 1821 there were c. 900 Book Clubs in England: P. Clark and R. A. Houston, Cambridge Urban History (2000), Vol. II, p. 597 °° WANHSL, S. C. 28, 113 “1 WAHHSL, W. T. 206, A Catalogue of the curious collection of books chiefly relating to medals and antiquities of Dr. James Davis 1771 ”? This is the first known Devizes book publication 3 WANHSL, Box 328, MS. 2605, George Sloper’s diary 4 S(impsons) S(alisbury) G(azette), 40, 3 Oct. 1816 °> G(entleman’s. M(agazine) , Vol. LX XVII, (1807), part. 2, p. 811 *6 Miller was Head Gardener of the Chelsea Physic Garden 7 Rey. A. C. Smith, ‘Memoir of Mr John Legge of Market Lavington, Wilts’, WANHM, Vol. XXVIII (1895), pp. 5-13 8 SF. , 3893, 23 Sept. 1811 ”? DG. , 390, 7 Aug. 1823 * DG. , 731, 14 Jan. 1830 +R. Southey, Letters from England (1807), p. 115 *» Mrs Gent to James Sowerby, 17 Sept. 1810: WANHSL, Box 63A, MS. 736 3 J. Sowerby, The Mineral Conchology of Great Britain (7 vols. 1812), Vol. 2, p. 101 ++ A member of the Bath and West Society who lived near Bath; later to be known as ‘The Father of English Geology’ > William Wroughton Salmon to James Sowerby, 21 May 1810: WANHSL Box 63A, MS. 736 *© Elizabeth Blackburn’s Journal, 1810, in private possession, Southampton 7 James Sutton to Henry Addington, 11 March 1788: D(evon) R(ecord) O(ffice), Sidmouth Papers, 152M/ 1788/F12. Sutton’s brother-in-law, Henry Addington, M. P. for Devizes, was Speaker of the House of Commons, and later Home Secretary and Prime Minister. He was a frequent visitor to New Park * Sutton to Addington, 17 June 1791: DRO, Sidmouth Papers 152M/1791/F3 * DG, 740, 18 March 1830 © R(oyal) S(ociety) of A(rts) Guard Book, Vol. 4, no. 66 41 RSA Guard Book, Vol. 11, no. 21 *” RSA Guard Book, Vol. B, no. 37 *® RSA MS. Transactions 1779-1780, item 20 “ Bath City Record Office, Bath and West Archives I, IX, Secretary’s accounts 1796-1811. This was the first agricultural society outside London, with more than 500 members in 1805 ‘IN THE NEWEST MANNER’: SOCIAL LIFE IN LATE GEORGIAN DEVIZES 13 * Bath City Record Office, Bath and West Archives, Rules 1777, p. v 4© SF, 2793, 19 Dec. 1791 47 SF, 3582, 17 Dec. 1804 48 SF, 2742, 27 Dec. 1790 *” T. Davis, General View of the Agriculture of Wiltshire (1794), p. 53 °° For Ingen Hausz, see N. and E. Beale, ‘Looking for Dr. Ingen Hausz’, WANHM, Vol. 93 (2000), pp. 120-130 >! The Encyclopaedia Britannica was published in 1771 >» Quoted in M. L. Espinasse, “The Decline and Fall of Restoration Science’, Past and Present, no. XIV, (1958), p. 76 > T. Gisborne, An Enquiry into the Duties of Men, (1794), p. 416 + DG. , 321, 28 Feb. 1822; B(ath) H(erald), 150, 10 Jan. 1795; SF. , 2933, 25 Aug. 1794 > WANHSL, Box 223, MS. 2497 °° Amelia Anstie to Samuel Anstie, 28 Jan. 1799: Elizabeth Cunnington, “The Cunnington Family History’ (typescript study 1978), p. 117. The orrery or microcosm was a_ clockwork-driven model planetarium devised by George Graham FRS (1673- 1751) and named in honour of Charles Boyle, 4th Earl of Orrery (1676-1731) 7 SF. 2400, 7 June 1784 * The Ladies’ Library, (Sth edn. 1739), Vol. 1, p. 17 °°? W SRO, Cons. S. will 1687 ° For more information on late eighteenth century music in southern Enngland, see J. S$. Bromley, ‘Britain in Europe in the Eighteenth Century’, History, Vol. LXVI (1981), pp. 394-412; R. Dunhill, ‘Handel and the Harris Circle’, Hampshire Papers, no. 8 (1985); B. Robins, ‘Eighteenth Century Catch Clubs in Salisbury and Southern England’, Hatcher Review, Vol. V, no. 49, pp. 34-46 *! Benjamin Anstie to Samuel Anstie, 6 May 1799: Elizabeth Cunnington, ‘The Cunnington Family History’, p. 114 6 Amelia Anstie to Samuel Anstie, 29 Feb. 1804: ibid, p. 115 63 SF, 2793; 19 Dec. 1791 ° DG. , 278, 26 April 1821 ® DG. , 321, 28 Feb. 1822 6 SF. , 3893, 23 Sept. 1811 67 WSRO, 1553/68, William Hunt’s notebook 1726-1742 68 Elizabeth Blackburn’s journal ° WANHSL, Box 328, MS. 2605, George Sloper’s diary 7 J. Waylen, Chronicles of the Devizes (1839), p. 272 | The singing of catches and glees was given impetus in the eighteenth century by the establishment in London of the Nobleman and Gentleman’s Catch Club in 1761, inspired by the revival of interest in Elizabethan and Jacobean madrigals ”? A. Cooper, ‘Benjamin Banks, the Salisbury Violin Maker’, The Hatcher Review, Vol. 3, no. 29, (1990), pp. 449-458 3 SF. 4252, 24 Aug. 1818 H. Chapone, Letters on Improvement of the Mind , Addressed to a Young Lady (177331818 edn. ) , p. 193 > G(loucestershire) R(ecord) O(ffice), D1571, F641, James Sutton’s household accounts 1765-1791 7° WSRO, G20/6/1, Devizes Mercers Company records 7” WANHSL, c/4/7-8 78 SF. 2589, 21 Jan. 1788 ” SF, 2703, 29 March 1790 8° C. B. Hogan, ‘The ms. of Winston’s Theatric Tourist’, Theatre Notebook, Vol. 1, (1947), p. 89 81 $F, 2798, 23 Jan. 1792 a2 Sif, 2797/5 Loans 17.92 83 SF, 2814, 14 May 1792 WSRO, 1090/52/1-2, Stephen Hillman’s ledgers, Vol. 2, insert note > WANHSL, W. C. Vol. 6, p. 29 86 J. Waylen, “TheWilts County Court’, WANHM, Vol. XXVII (1893), p. 116 *” WANHSL, Box 328, MS. 2605, George Sloper’s diary 88 Anon, A Genealogical Account of the Mayo and Elton families of Wilts and Herefordshire (2nd edn. 1907), p. 164 8 DG. 223, 6 April 1820 ° WANHSL, W. C. , Vol. 13, p. 258 *\'T. Gisborne, An Enquiry into the Duties of the Female Sex (1797), p. 196 * WANHSL, c/3/100 * E. Gibbon, Autobiography and Correspondence, ed. A Murray (1865), p. 62 * J. Russell (ed. ), Thomas Moore, Memoirs, Fournal and Correspondence (1860), p. 197 ® Billhead in Goddard scrapbook, Salisbury Museum * Jane Estcourt to Eleanor Sutton, May 1800 : GRO, D1571, F207 ” Eleanor Sutton to daughter Eleanor, 17 Aug. 1800: GRO, D1571, F349 °8 GRO, D1571, F655, entertainment book 1773-1811 °° GRO, D1571, F652, Eleanor Sutton’s recipe book 100 GRO, D1571, F641, Sutton’s household accounts 1765- 1791 101 James Sutton to Henry Addington, n. d. : DRO, 152M/ 1792/F12 102 WANHSL, W. C. Vol 2, p. 172 03 WANHSL, Box 328, MS. 2605, George Sloper’s diary 104 W SRO, 1090/22, Bear Club dinner accounts 1809-1817 105 WAS, Box 328, MS. 2605, George Sloper’s diary 106 SF. 2631, 10 Nov. 1788 107 SF , 2649, 16 March 1789 108 William Salmon to Henry Addington, 17 Oct. 1797: DRO, Sidmouth Papers 152M/1797/OZ29 109 WANHSL, Box 328, MS. 2605, George Sloper’s diary 0 North Wilts Herald, 3981, 15 Oct. 1937 11 SSG, 72, 15 May 1817 12 $SG, 1, 4 Jan. 1816 13 RH. Goldney, The Hisiory of Freemasonry in Wiltshire (1880), pp. 155-156 4 DG. 390, 7 Aug. 1823. 115 James Sutton to Henry Addington, 7 Nov. 1790 : DRO 14 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Sidmouth Papers 152M/c1790/OZ15 'l6 WSRO, A1/306, list of gamekeepers 1731-1941 "7 The County Magazine 1786-1788 (Salisbury 1788), 1786, p. 31 "8 A. Hunt, Memoirs, (3 vols. 1820), Vol. 1, p. 399 "9 WANHSL, Box 328, MS. 2605,George Sloper’s diary '20 Victoria) C(ounty) History): Wiltshire, Vol. 4 (ed. E. Crittall, 1959), p. 377 "1 A Foreign View of England in the Reigns of George I and George II; the letters of M. Cesar de Saussure to his Family (ed. Mme. Van Muyden 1902), p. 295 "22H. Coombs and Rev. A. N. Bax(eds.), Fournal of a Somerset Rector (1990), p. 15 3 R.. Warner, History of Bath (Bath 1801), p. 349 124. SF, 2679, 12 Oct. 1789 '5 WANHSL, Box 328, MS. 2605, George Sloper’s diary 6 WANHSL, W. T. 192, ‘Diary of Henry Crabb Robinson’s Schooldays’, p. 5 7 R. Southey, op. cit. pp. 338-339 a SF. 273151 Oct, 1790 "9 DG. , 251, 19 Oct. 1820. Philip Astley established the equestrian circus in 1770 '30 P Clark, English Country Towns 1500-1800 (1981), p. 2 51]. Trusler, The Way to be Rich and Respectable (1787), p. 5 '2 He treated Coleridge for his opium addiction and Coleridge sent copies of his poems to Mrs Brabant '33C. B. Andrews (ed. ), 7 Byng, The Torrington Diaries, (4 vols. ,1934-1938), Vol. 1, p. 6 4 N. Karamzin, Letters of a Russian Traveller 1789-1790, trans. E Jonas (1957), Vol. III, p. 329 185 A. L. Beir, D. Cannadine and J. M. Rosenheim, The First Modern Society (Cambridge 1989), pp. 492-496 '86 The British Magazine, Vol. IV (1763), p. 417 '57 J. Davis, Origines Divisianae (1755), p. 39 38 The Works of Hannah More (4 vols. , Dublin 1803), Vol. 4, p. 271 R. Porter, ‘Science, Provincial Culture and Public Opinion in Enlightenment England’, British Journal for Eighteenth Century Studies, Vol. 3, (1980), p. 26 0 The Annual Register for 1761 (1762), p. 207. 139 Wiltshire Archaeological & Natural History Magazine, vol. 97 (2004), pp. 15-24 Trees of Marlborough College and Environs by FJack Oliver A complete list of the tree species, including hybrids and distinctive variants, recorded between 2001 and 2002 is provided with indications of frequency, situation and spread. Exotics, semi-naturalised, and native species are considered. In the last group, diseases (especially fungal) have changed the balance of dominant species. Girth records are given from some exceptional trees. It seems probable that Marlborough College and its immediate environs have 5 (or ?more) types of tree which have greater girths than any similar trees elsewhere in Wiltshire. There are 2 likely British Champions; and also a Railway Poplar which 1s the largest yet measured anywhere. INTRODUCTION Marlborough College was founded in 1843, and by 2003 the extent of its grounds covered 307 acres (124 hectares). These grounds extend to the north- west, west and south-west of Marlborough, but there are also College properties with extensive gardens along Hyde Lane, George Lane, and in the High Street in the centre of Marlborough. The concentrations of trees in this territory complement those studied in Savernake Forest (and Tottenham Park) to the SE of Marlborough (Oliver & Davies 2001; Oliver 2003). For instance, Willows, Poplars, Yews and Ashes are a more important component of the tree flora in this paper, than the Oaks and Sweet Chestnuts of the previous two aforementioned studies. To the south of the A4 road, the Marlborough College Nature Reserve was established in 1972. The Nature Trail covers many different habitats including Ash woodlands, Willow concentrations, trout ponds, the River Kennet, wetlands and water meadows, semi-ancient mixed woodland and chalk downland. To the north of the A4, most trees (such as Cherries, both wild and cultivated) fringe playing field areas on the chalk, or have been planted in staff or College House gardens. However there are also some small copses, both wild and planted. The prehistoric ‘Mound’ contemporary with Silbury Hill, is dominated by Yews, many of which started life as miniature hedges long before the school was founded. Exotic trees have been brought back by staff and college ‘old boys’ following travels and expeditions in the past, and introduced from commercial dealers as part of special planting schemes in more recent years. VERY COMMON AND SELF- PERPETUATING TREES Of the large species, Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) and Sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus) seed profusely and grow into saplings wherever permitted. The third commonest large tree, the only self-perpetuating conifer, is the Yew (Jaxus baccata). Yews are concentrated on “The Mound’ and around ‘The Duelling Lawns’, but are to be found as seedlings and saplings elsewhere within the grounds. Five smaller tree species, more often than not shrubby, seed ubiquitously where not controlled. These are Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna, Wiltshire’s commonest tree species); Hazel (Corylus avellana, High View, Rhyls Lane, Lockeridge, Marlborough SN8 4ED 16 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Salix alba (photograph by Joan Davis, 2002) old coppice stools also common south of the A4 road); Holly (Ulex aquifolium, also forming dense masses by layering); Elder (Sambucus nigra, which even forms epiphytic plants on larger trees by bird- sown seedlings); and Field Maple (Acer campestre, a common fringe and boundary tree). Most Willow species are confined to the wetlands south of the A4. White Willow (Salix alba) forms dense damp jungles, mainly by layering rather than seeding. Over the last fifty years, White Willows have been out-competing the other common wetland willow, the Crack Willow (Salix fragilis) because of disease in the latter (see later subheading). The eleven other wetland willow (Salix) species and hybrids listed are all less common; but one willow/sallow species is very common throughout the grounds, and spreads by seed rather than (mainly) by layering. This is the Goat Willow, also known as Grey Sallow, or (for male trees) the Pussy willow (Salix caprea). It is common in wooded areas, in wetlands, and seeds readily in flowerbeds, edges and waste places. Continuing the very common species, Wild Cherry (Gean, Mazzard, Prunus avium) seeds occasionally and also spreads by root suckers. The Wild Cherry is a conspicuous boundary feature around some of the northern fields, and is in some of the copses. The Silver Birch (Betula pendula) seeds profusely, forming saplings in central and peripheral areas of the College grounds. The last two very common tree types, conspicuous because of their great size, are Beech and Copper Beech (Fagus sylvatica and F. sylvatica ‘Purpurea’). Most were originally planted, but seedlings occasionally survive to saplings where permitted. FURTHER COMMON AND CONSPICUOUS LARGE TREES 1. Conifers Nos. 3 and 4, the ten types of Lawson’s Cypress (Chamaecyparis lawsonia) are characteristic trees near the central parts of the College grounds, and near buildings. There is also one peripheral group in a line south of the running track pavilion, (west of the Preshute White Horse), which line acts as a break to the prevailing winds. Many of the older Lawson’s Cypresses have begun to layer, including the yellow, blue and juvenile-foliaged cultivars. There is a scatter of European Larches (Larix decidua) throughout the grounds. The Larches at the far west end of the Nature Trail have either yellow or rich red-purple female ‘flowers’. Norway Spruces (Christmas trees, Picea abies) are also widely distributed, but with small concentrations in the Nature Trail Beechwood to the south, and by Field Cottage in Barton Dene to the north of the A4. Scots Pines (Pinus sylvestris, pink upper trunks) and the two subspecies of Black Pines (Pinus nigra, grey trunks) fringe some margins and occur in some copses, mainly to the north of the A4. No other conifer types are both common and conspicuous; and none (apart from Yew, see previous section) were seen to produce successful seedlings. 2. Oaks The only common mature Oak species is the English Oak (Quercus robur), which is scattered north and south of the A4, and mostly peripherally, including northern and southern boundaries and the Nature Trail to the south-west. Natural seedlings and saplings occurred, but some mature Q.robur trees were markedly afflicted by oak dieback disease (see Tree Diseases sub- heading). 3. Alders and Birches. Common Alder (Alnus glutinosa) is common, but confined to banks of the River Kennet and its tributaries south of the A4 where seedlings and saplings can be found. The only common, conspicuous and self-perpetuating Birch apart from Silver Birch (see previous section) is Downy Birch (Betula pubescens, widely scattered with a few big trees, and nearly as common as Silver Birch). TREES OF MARLBOROUGH COLLEGE AND ENVIRONS 17 4. Willows and Poplars The silky pubescence on the under-surface of the leaves in the dense concentrations of large White Willows along the River Kennet cause striking scenic effects on sunny, breezy days, as the colour switches from light green to silver, either in swathes or en masse. The Crack Willows by contrast are distinguishable from a distance by willow scab disease browning and curling leaves and stunting shoot ends. Some large Crack Willows still survive; but compared with fifty years ago they are giving way to White Willows in height and quantity (see ‘Diseases’ sub-heading). In some places, Osiers (Salix viminalis) predominate. Like the Goat Willows (see previous sub- heading), the College Poplars (Populus species and hybrids) are to be found scattered both north and south of the A4, on dry or wet ground. Unlike the Goat Willows, most or all were planted rather than naturally occurring. Of the eleven types listed (nos 64-74), six are hybrids and five of these are complex hybrids between N. American Black or Balsam Poplars and the European Black Poplar (Populus nigra). Many are large, but the greatest of all is just outside the College boundaries, in George Lane (see ‘Special Trees’ sub-heading). 5. Limes and Horse Chestnuts Three Limes (Linden) species and two hybrids are to be found in the College grounds, but only one is both large and common. This is the native Common (Hybrid) Lime (Tilia x europea), whose parents are the Small-leaved and Broad-leaved Limes (T. cordata and T. platyphyllos). Tilia x europea is the world’s tallest Lime, and Europe’s tallest broad- leaf tree. The larger specimens, at 40m or so high, would seem to make it the tallest type of the many difference species, hybrids, and varieties of tree within the college grounds. All the large specimens have densely sprouting bases and masses of trunk burrs and sprouts. Some also have suckers from underground stems. Although no masses of seedlings have been noted beneath the College Hybrid Limes (as can be found in Savernake Forest), these trees are vegetatively invasive in the vicinity of their massive bases and can be unpopular on account of the honeydew which can sometimes cause the lower leaves to become coated with black grimy mould in late summer. Also the honeydew can cause pitting of the shiny surfaces of parked cars. However this honeydew drips on to the soil to provide nutrition for nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria, which in turn create usable nitrogen compounds for the tree. There is in fact a complex four-way symbiosis, for the aphids that create the honeydew also have intracellular bacteria which help them use the Lime sap more effectively to create proteins. This complex symbiosis matches anything to be found in the Amazonian rainforests. Of the three types of Horse Chestnuts to be found in the grounds, only one is large, common and seen to produce occasional seedlings and saplings by natural spread. This is the Common Horse Chestnut or Conker tree (Aesculus hippocastanum), now semi-naturalized in Britain but originally from Greece and Albania. Large conspicuous Horse Chestnuts flank each side of the A4, but big specimens are also to be found elsewhere in the grounds. Red Horse Chestnuts are less common, and are discussed in the ‘Diseases’ section to follow. Sweet or Spanish Chestnuts (Castanea sativa) are unrelated to Horse Chestnuts. Most of the College grounds are either too chalky or too waterlogged for these to thrive, but two medium- large specimens grow on the Hyde Lane boundary. ROSACEAE At least 56 tree types, more than a quarter of the total, come from this one family alone, out of the 28 tree families represented. Most Rosaceae trees are small, but with clear single trunks to above Sft. The paradox is that some large multi-stemmed shrubs are far taller and more massive than the neat little single-trunk Japanese Flowering Cherry trees (Prunus nos 130 & 131). Examples of big shrubs include Cherry Laurel (Prunus laurocerasus) and Portugal Laurel (Prunus lusitanica) both of which can reach 12m high. These are common in many parts of the grounds as vigorously expanding layering shrubberies, but occasionally produce vertical trunks of about 1m in girth at 5ft above ground level, meriting inclusion as trees in the totals. Even Sloe (Blackthorn, Prunus spinosa), usually a 1.5-2m high thorny thicket (as in the far south-west of the Nature Trail), can sometimes form a proper trunk of a tree 4.5m high. However its hybrid with Plum (Prunus x fruticans) always forms a more substantial, taller, thorny tree. The Prunus genus alone supplies 25 tree types, with Wild Cherry (Gean, Prunus avium, discussed earlier) as the largest tree of the Rosaceae within the College grounds, as well as one of the commonest. 18 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE The three genera Crataegus (Hawthorns, Cockspurthorns), Malus (Apples), and Sorbus (Rowans and Whitebeams) each provide seven or eight tree types, and there are a further six Rosaceae tree genera to be seen near College buildings. This family is represented therefore by very common native trees and shrubs (eg Hawthorn, Sloe, Gean), by common semi-naturalized species (eg Cherry and Portugal Laurels) and lastly by individual old and new small-tree garden favourites (eg Japanese Cherries, Purple-foliaged Asiatic Apple hybrids, Quince (Cydonia), Medlar (Mespilus) etc). Of the last group, only the beautiful Double-flowered Pink Japanese Cherry (Prunus ‘Kanzan’) was common, conspicuous in spring because of the dense massed pink blossoms. DISEASES 1. Aesculus carnea (nos.149 ,150) These Red Horse Chestnuts are susceptible to a degenerative canker. Several College trees are affected with the huge trunk ulcers, with raised edges, up to 40cm in diameter. They are often irregular, and can coalesce with adjacent ulcers. Underneath the larger, older ulcers, the wood can be crumbly. Grafted trees only have the canker ulcers above the graft union. One such tree has been recently felled. The cultivar ‘Briottii’ (no. 150) is so far unaffected, and could be a resistant variety. 2. Quercus robur Over the last three years, a severer form than hitherto of Oak-Dieback Disease (ODBD) has afflicted numbers of English Oaks. It is an incompletely understood condition in which the organism Phytophthora, normally present and harmless in the soil becomes virulent and attacks the Oak roots. ODBD is thought to be a multi-factorial illness, with water levels and climatic conditions affecting the type and pathogenicity of the soil Phytophthora; however additional and unknown factors also operate. Several Oaks, all Q.robur, in the Nature Trail mixed-woodland have been affected and show the characteristic ‘Stagshorn’ effect of some dead branches in the crown. Occasionally part of a living branch has the small, yellowing leaves and weak shoots characteristic of a renewed attack of ODBD. One Q.robur in the Nature Trail woodland has been killed by ODBD, but most such Oaks of this species co-exist with mild or occasionally moderately severe relapses from the illness. The Durmast Oaks (Q.petraea, no. 43), Hybrid Native Oaks (Q. x rosacea, no. 45) and the other Oak species (see nos. 40-46) within the College grounds are not (or hardly) affected by ODBD. This is exactly the same pattern as occurs in Savernake Forest. 3. Ulmus species Dutch Elm Disease (DED) is caused by the synergistic (mutually enhancing) co-operation between the vectors, two species of bark beetle (Scolytus scolytus and S-.multistratus), and the pathogenic fungus, Ophiostoma (or Ceratocystis) novo-ulmi. In turn, the fungus itself can be killed by ‘d-factor’ strains. The d-factors are cytoplasmically transmitted ‘virus-like’ pathogens of fungi, mitochondrial double-stranded RNA elements. Unfortunately the d-factors have not been infective enough to eliminate the colonies of fungi spread between Elm branches and trees by the highly mobile beetles. As a consequence DED has spread remorselessly. No mature English Elms (Ulmus procera, no. 98) survive anywhere within the College grounds, but the residual root suckers are common and vigorous along some hedgerows, boundaries, waste places and wooded edges. Beetle galleries are to be seen under the bark of dead and dying young trunks. Mature but young Wych Elms (Ulmus glabra) often survive to fruition in the grounds, but succumb to DED before they reach their full size and girth. So far, two smaller Wych Elm cultivars (“(Camperdown’ and ‘Lutescens’) are unaffected by DED. Along the south-western boundary of the Cotton House southern garden, a Hornbeam-leaved Elm (Ulmus minor ssp carpinifolia, no. 97) survives as a largish tree, with numbers of additional hedgerow suckers. We thought it could be resistant to DED, but one small upper branchlet seemed to show the sinister yellowing of leaves in the summer of 2002. 4. Salix species, especially S. fragilis. Two fungal diseases are often found together on the same tree, and this is the case in some of the Marlborough College Willows. These are willow scab and black canker, caused by Pollacia saliciperda and Glomerella miyabeana (Rose 1989, 2003). Curled blackened shrivelled leaves in early or midsummer lead to die-back of shoots, often reducing in time potential Willow trees to scrubby ugly shrubs. Of the willows listed between nos. 75 and 88, in order of severity the following four types are attacked: Crack Willow, Corkscrew Willow, TREES OF MARLBOROUGH COLLEGE AND ENVIRONS 19 Golden Willow and Weeping Willow. In influencing the landscape, these two fungal species have caused most devastation to the abundant and once dominant riverside Crack Willows. Fifty years ago, in the wetlands of the Marlborough College Grounds south of the A4, searches were necessary to find White Willows amongst the Crack Willows. White Willows are now both abundant and dominant. The occasional interspersed scrubby or thin tree with many shrivelled leaves and attenuated branches and shoots will nearly always turn out to be Crack Willow. 5. Long Term Effects of the Diseases In affecting the landscape, DED is the most important disease. It may be many human generations before Elms regain their former importance as countryside mature trees — if ever. There are many Willow and Sallow species and hybrids. As susceptibility between these different taxa varies so greatly, new dominant species and types readily take over in the wetlands and riverside which resist Willow Scab and Black Canker. This is survival of the fittest, evolution in action. Over hundreds (or thousands) of years, ODBD would seem to favour Durmast Oaks (Q.petraea) and the Hybrid Native Oak (Q. x rosacea) over English Oak (Q.robur). LIST OF TREE SPECIES AND HYBRIDS Key Frequency (F column) C. Common, likely to be seen in many parts of the grounds. O. Occasional. R. Rare. Situation (S column) FE Fringes and/or staff gardens. H. Used as hedging. K. Near R. Kennet, ponds or wet areas. L. Limited occurences. Ginkgoaceae. Araucariaceae. Cupressaceae. 1.Ginkgo biloba Maidenhair Tree 2.Araucaria araucana Monkey Puzzle, Chile Pine 3.Chamaecyparis lawsoniana Lawsons Cypress 4. Chamaecyparis lawsoniana cvs. At least 9 distinctive cultivars of Lawson’s Cypress. 5. Chamaecyparis obtusa cvs. At least 2 distinctive (mostly dwarfed) cultivars of Hinoki Cypress. 6.Chamaecyparis pisifera Sawara Cypress N. New planting(s) of young tree(s). W. Widespread Natural Spread:- (NS column) S. Seedlings and/or natural saplings noted locally. SS. Seedlings and or natural saplings extensive, or frequently seen. V. Limited vegetative spread, suckering, layering etc. VV. Extensive vegetative spread. F 2) NS Pinaceae 7. X Cupressocyparis leylandu Leyland Cypress 8. X C_leylandii ‘Castlewellan’ Golden Leyland 9. Cupressus glabra ‘Pyramidalis’ Blue Arizona Cypress. 10. Cupressus macrocarpa Monterey Cypress 11.Funiperus chinensis Chinese Juniper 12.7,recurva Drooping Juniper 13.Thuja plicata Western Red-cedar 14.Thuja cvs. Two or more dwarf cultivars of Chinese and White Cedars. 15.Cedrus atlantica Atlantic (Atlas) Cedar 16.Cedrus deodara Deodar Cedar 17.Larix decidua European Larch 18.Picea abies Norway Spruce 19.Picea pungens Colorado Blue Spruce 20.Pinus nigra ssp laricio & ssp nigra Black Pine 21.Pinus radiata Monterey Pine 22.Pinus sylvestris Scots Pine 23.Pinus wallichiana Bhutan Pine AAR OKXROOOCOXH OARRFRF OCORO 1 ORR ptzs|ees| feof] foo Nenrn? The first female palaeontologist; & Picture Quiz reply.’ The Linnean, 14 (2):4-9; 25-6. Mantell, G.A., 1822, see p. 177 In Fossils of the South Downs, where he named the Cretaceous sponge Ventriculites benettiae after her. * Mantell, G.A., 1846, [From a Correspondent] Obituary. 5 Miss Etheldred Benett. London Geological Fournal, 1846:40. This quote of Cunnington’s was used by Miss Benett in the introduction to her catalogue (p.iii); James Sowerby published something very similar in his Mineral Conchology, Vol. 1, 1813:146, when referring to fossils from Chute Farm. Sarah Nash (1990) trying to locate the site, could only find a ‘Brims Down’ (p. 163) and reported (p.165)that a site known as ‘Picket’s Field’ exposed similar deposits. ‘William Smith’s stratigraphical principles’: stratigraphy is the term given to the study of the occurrence of the earth’s rock formations, the principles of which were first established by Smith in 1815 with the publication of his geological map (Winchester, Simon , ‘The Map that changed the World’, Penguin Books). However, these ideas nad been formulated in part by several other workers. Smith’s ‘Law of Super-position’ recognised that in normal circumstances the youngest deposits will rest on the older and that the succession of rock formations will follow bed upon bed in chronological order. Inevitably earth movements will disturb the original sequence and can cause complications such as inversions through folding and other earth movement, or dislocations through faulting, both of which can be confused further by erosion. Smith’s 7 second principle was that layers of sediment can be recognised by means of the fossils they contain. This enables geologists to correlate certain formations, although occurring in different places and even of different lithologies, on the basis of identical fossils. For other references to Smith see: Joan Eyles, Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 12, 1975: 486-92. John Baker (fl. 1814-50) lived at Warminster and supplied the local Upper Greensand fossils to many 19th century collectors including the Sowerby family. 8 Miss Beminster (fl, 1820s) lived at Christchurch and 9 10 1] Hordle, Hants.; she corresponded and collected for James Sowerby. Torrens, H.S., Benamy, E., Daeschler, E.B., Spamer, E.E. & Bogan, A.E., 2000, ‘Etheldred Benett of Wiltshire, England, the first lady geologist - Her fossil collection in the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, and the rediscovery of “lost” specimens of Jurassic ‘Trigoniidae (Mollusca :Bivalvia) with their soft anatomy preserved.’ Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Science of Philadelphia, 150:59-123. The species have been re-determined by Dr. Mike Kerney (pers. comm.) as: Helix palustris = Lymnaea palustris (Miller); Helix planorbis = Planorbis planorbis (L.); Helix spirorbis = Anisus leucostoma (Millet); Helix vortex = Anisus vortex (L.); Helix alba = Gyraulus albus (Miller); Helix contorta = Bathyomphalus contortus (L.); Helix hispida = Trichia hispida (L.); Bulla fontanalis = Physa fontinalis (L.); Helix stagnalis = Lymnaea stagnalis (L.); Helix annularis = ? Cepaea nemoralis (L.) This was very probably William Buckland’s Reliquiae Diluvianae; or Observations on the organic remains contained in the caves, fissures, and diluvial gravel, published in 1823, that related fossil remains, particularly those he had discovered in the Kirkdale 34 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE cavern, to the Flood. Several contemporary geologists (Farey, Fleming, Fitton, Smithson) immediately refuted this contention. '2 This seems to be confirmed by information on the Web associated item “Election Time: England 1820” on the ‘FREE postage mark’ used by MPs, which uses a letter from John Benett, dated 14 Feb. 1820, to the Highworth solicitor James Crowdy, concerning the election for the Parliament of 4 Aug. 1818 - 29 Feb. 1820. This states that John Benett had been elected at a by-election in 1819, following the retirement of Paul Mellen on the grounds of ill-health. Apparently in 1820, Benett stood with John Dugdale Astley of Everleigh House, Wilts, who became the candidate for the other county seat at this election. William Pole Tylney Long Wellesley, who had contested and was elected in the campaign of 1818, did not offer himself in 1820. ‘3 John Benett was subjected to another riot at Pythouse during the 1830 riots of agricultural labourers seeking an increase in wages and against the use of threshing machines — see the account Chapter 10, p. 156 in The Village Labourer 1760-1832 . . ., by Hammond, J.L. & B. (1920). see H.B. Woodward History of geology (1911,126). 'S Yucca filamentosa, the Silk Grass, named for the curly white threads which come from the leaf margin, and which produces a pyramid of creamy-white flowers. It was one of the many plants brought to England by John Tradescant the Younger (1608-1682) from N. America in 1675. This was a hardier species than Yucca . References BENETT, E. 1831a, A catalogue of Wiltshire fossils. In Sir R.C. Hoare, The Modern History of South Wiltshire, Vol. 2, Part 2 (The Hundred of Warminster, by H. Wansey & Sir R.C.Hoare). London: J. B. Nichols & J. G.Nichols, 117-126 BENETT, E. 1831b, A Catalogue of the Organic Remains of the County of Wiltshire. J.L. Warminster: Vardy, iv, 9 pp, 18 pls. CLEEVELY, R.J. 1998a. The first female palaeontologist. The Linnean, 14 (2), 4-9 CLEEVELY, R.J. 1998b. [Etheldred Benett] Picture Quiz reply. The Linnean, 14 (2), 25-6 CHARLESWORTH, E. 1840. Etheldred Benett. Collection London Geological Journal, 1 (2): inside cover JACKSON, Rev. Canon J.E. 1881. The Eminent Ladies of Wiltshire History. WANHM, 20, 26-45 MANTELL, G.A. 1846. Obituary of Etheldred Benett. London Geological Journal, 1 (1), 40 MURCHISON, R.I. 1832. Presidential Address to the Geological Society, 17 February 1832. Proceedings of the Geological Society, 1832 (25), 362-386 MURRAY, J. 1848. Memorial to Etheldred Benett. Mining Fournal, 18, 54 (29 January 1848) NASH, Sarah E. 1990. The Collections and life History of Etheldred Benett (1776-1845). WANHM, 83, 163-9 SPAMER, E.E., BOGAN, A.E. & TORRENS, H.S. 1989. Recovery of the Etheldred Benett collection of fossils ..Analysis of the taxonomic nomenclature. And Notes and Figures of Type specimens. Proceedings of the Acad- emy of natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 141, 115-189 TORRENS, H.S., BENAMY, E., DAESCHLER, E.B., SPAMER, E.E. & BOGAN, A.E. 2000. Etheldred Benett of Wiltshire, England, the first lady geologist — Her fossil collection in the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, and the rediscovery of ‘lost’ specimens of Jurassic ‘Trigoniidae (Mollusca: Bivalvia) with their soft anatomy preserved. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Science of Philadelphia, 150, 59-123 WATKIN, B. 1985. Norton Bavant. AS printed pamphlet: 4pp WOODWARD, H.B. 1911, History of Geology. London: Watts & Co., vit 154 pp Correspondence Archives Benett — Mantell letters [ 1813 — 1843] in Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, National Library of New Zealand. MS Papers 83 Folders 10a, 100. Benett — Sowerbys letters [ 1814 — 1840] in the Eyles Collection, Special Collections Library, Bristol University. Benett — Samuel Woodward [1829-38] in Norwich Castle Museum, Samuel Woodward Volumes, 1832-35. Wiltshire Archaeological & Natural History Magazine, vol. 97 (2004), pp. 35-62 Thomas Kytson and Wiltshire Clothmen, 1529 -—1539 by Colin Brett This article concerns the purchases of cloth, by the sixteenth-century London merchant Thomas Kytson, from Wiltshire clothers, or clothmen as he preferred to call them, and the export of those cloths to the four seasonal marts in Antwerp and Bergen-op-Zoom. A previous article covered Kytson’s dealings with Somerset clothmen.! Thomas Kytson, born in 1485, was the son of Robert Kytson of Warton in Lancashire. In his youth he travelled to London and was apprenticed to the mercer Richard Glasyer. On the completion of his apprenticeship he was admitted a freeman of the Mercers’ Company in 1507.2 He became a member of the Merchant Adventurers Company and dealt extensively in cloth exported to the cloth marts in Flanders and by so doing became an affluent London citizen. By 1521 he had amassed enough money to purchase Hengrave Hall near Bury St. Edmunds in Suffolk from the Duke of Buckingham for £2,340, the estates being valued at £115 yearly. Later in the decade he acquired manors in Devon, Dorset, Lancashire, Somerset and Suffolk as well as property in London. He obtained a licence from Henry VIII to build an embattled manor-house at Hengrave. This house, begun in 1525 and finished in 1538, was on a magnificent scale and reflected the great wealth of its owner. This wealth enabled him in 1521 to lend Henry VIII £2,340? and the next year, in an assessment of the goods and lands of the citizens of London, he was assessed in goods at 1,000 marks, later amended ~ to 4,000 marks, and in lands at 600 marks.’ He had extensive financial dealings with the Crown and in 1523 he was indebted to the Crown for £600.° In 1535 he was again assessed at 4,000 marks (the seventh highest out of 146 citizens).° He had a house, with a chapel, in Milk Street in the parish of St. Mary Magdalen’s, a garden in Coleman Street, and another house with a chapel in Stoke Newington, besides other houses in Suffolk and Devonshire. After serving as an alderman he also served as sheriff of London in 1533 and was knighted the same year.’ Kytson died on 11 September 1540 and was buried at Hengrave.’ In 1517 Kytson was recorded as one of ‘late Tresorers of the Merchauntes adventerers by yonde the see’,’ and in 1525 was elected as one of the four wardens of the Fellowship of Mercers.!° As such he sat on the frequent General Courts of the Fellowship of Mercers and presided over the Courts of Assistants of the Mercers. He traded extensively in cloths and other goods at the cloth fairs in Flanders and appears to have had a house and a staff of ‘servants’ in Antwerp. Included in this staff would have been his ‘factor’ who received the cloths when they were shipped over from London and carried out the transactions with the continental merchants. Kytson became, probably, one of the most affluent of the mercers in the 1530s. After his death an inventory of his goods revealed that his warehouses in London held imports of cloth of gold, satins, velvets, tapestries, fustians, furs, bags of pepper, madder, cloves etc. valued at £1,181 15s. 1d. The records of Tudor merchants are few in number, but among Kytson’s books remarkably preserved are two in which are recorded his shipments of cloth to the annual marts. To some 19 Belgrave Crescent, Bath BA] 5JU 36 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE extent the shipping entries in those two books are duplicated.'!! The second of the books, ‘Thomas Kytson’s Boke of Remembraunce’!’ also, more importantly, records the clothmen from whom he purchased the cloth and the prices he paid. Other entries include sales of various goods imported by Kytson from the continent, notes concerning goods being sent to Hengrave, purchases of land and property, and memoranda concerning recompense paid to the merchants in Antwerp or Barrow who had bought faulty cloth from Kytson. That book which was started in 1529 and was continued until shortly after Kytson’s death, contains some scrawled entries by Kytson himself, but the entries are mainly by his factors or apprentices George Collyns, Robert Mathe, Thomas Wasshington and Nicholas Lunne, with a few later entries in the impeccable hand of William Cockyshed. A third book was kept by Thomas Wasshington and is his account of his dealings as Kytson’s factor at the Sinxten mart held in 1536.'? Four annual cloth marts were held in Flanders, to which convoys of ships set out from London laden with cloth and other exports such as tin, lead and leather. The four marts were the Paasmarkt or Pask mart (the passion or Easter mart) which began on Maundy Thursday; the Pinxten or Sinxtenmarkt (the Pentecost Fair) which began on the second Sunday before Whitsuntide; the Bamis mart (St. Bavo’s Fair) which started on the second Sunday after the feast of the Assumption (15 August) and the Koudmarkt or Cold mart which commenced on the Thursday before All Hallows Eve (31 October). The Sinxten and Bamis marts were held at Antwerp, and the Pask and Cold marts at Bergen-op-Zoom (known to English merchants as ‘Barrow’). Antwerp, located near the conflux of the Rhine, Maas and Scheldt rivers, was on the trade routes used by German and Italian traders on their missions to Italy and the Danube basin. It was also conveniently sited for access to English and French ports, and placed on the sea routes used by the Hanseatic traders. Bergen-op-Zoom, only some thirty miles distant from Antwerp, was equally placed to enjoy the benefits of pan-European trade, but by the time that Thomas Kytson was using the marts its role was changing. Bergen-op-Zoom continued as a ‘fair town’ but mainly dealt with foreign traders only during the Pask and Cold marts. Antwerp, however, enlarged its foreign dealings from the peaks of the Sinxten and Bamis marts such that its business became more continuous, but this expansion was moderated by the Merchant Adventurers’ desire to maintain the periodicity of their trading at all four marts, especially the Sinxten mart. Antwerp drew merchants from across Europe to buy the famed English cloths and its Bourse provided the pre- eminent financial centre for the exchange of currency or the settlement of bills. In addition, Antwerp very nearly monopolized the European cloth-finishing industry. In 1537, there were 1,348 cloth finishers and journeymen employed in the conversion of the unfinished English cloths to the final fully-dressed and dyed cloth that the European middle classes craved for.'4 An extract from the ‘Boke of Remembraunce’ of the entries relating to Kytson’s dealings with Wiltshire for one year is given in Appendix 1. The shipping entries, notes and memoranda are written in English, but the records of purchases and sales are written in a mixture of abbreviated French, Latin and English, with the purchase prices being in code. This use of coded information was in accordance with the rules of the Mercers that ‘no parson [person] shall discover to any straunger oute of the felishipp .. . what his good cost hym at the first bying or any tyme after . . . [and] the previtie or Secrettes of the buying of the wares shall not be discoverd nor understoud, uppon payn of £20 sterling’.!° A typical simple entry of two purchases is Acchat de John Coope’ de Edynton in Wilshere le 25 io’ de May A° 1531 Item v whit, desC 's pd pe’ Item 1 fyn whit de f' C’p? iij' vj 8° Sm‘ Tolls xvj''xs pd le mayr’ io' Sm? xvj' xs which equates to Bought of John Cooper of Edington in Wiltshire the 25th day of May of the year 1531 Item 5 whites at 46s Sd the piece £13 3s 4d Item | fine white at £3 6s Sd £3 6s 8d Total sum £16 10s Paid the next day Sum £16 10s The first two lines record the initial bargain struck between Thomas Kytson and John Cooper for 5 white cloths at 46s. 8d. the piece, and the third line records that a further 1 cloth of finer quality was bargained for, with the total amount to be paid being given on the fourth line. The final line shows that Cooper was paid the next day. Throughout the book the coded price (here in THOMAS KYTSON AND WILTSHIRE CLOTHMEN, 1529 -1539 37 italics) appears to be the maximum price Kytson was prepared to pay, or in the cases of the entries of his sales the minimum at which he hoped to sell his wares. The majority of cloths purchased were in packs of 10, and the purchase price was given for the pack. When smaller quantities were purchased the price was either for the pack, the half-pack or for individual cloths. Sometimes not all the cloths that were bargained for were delivered at the time of bargaining. Such an entry in Kytson’s book is Acchat de Thomas Davy of Warmester le 8 io’ de ffebruary A° 1531 packe lvij! vjs viijd Sm? lvij"' vjs viijd Resaved xii) whit, of the said 20 reste to Rs vij whit, / whiche he haythe promysed to deliv’ on this syde palme Sonday next comyng And he to have after the said rayt as he hasse for thes afore resaved pd le eodem io’ xxviij" 13°44 Rs le 14 10° de M’che a° 1531 vij whit, Rs le 19 io’ de M’che a° 1531 v whit, which equates to Bought of Thomas Davy of Warminster the 8th day of February of the year 1531 Item 20 whites at £28 13s 4d at £28 13s 4d the pack £57 6s 8d Sum £57 6s 8d Received 13 whites of the said 20, [the] rest to receive 7 whites, which he hath promised to deliver on this side Palm Sunday next coming. And he to have after the said rate as he has for these afore received paid the same day £28 13s 4d Received the 14th day of March of the year 1531 7 whites Received the 19th day of March of the year 1531 5 whites Here the bargain was for 20 whites but only 13 were delivered by Thomas Davy, and he was paid for only 10 of them, perhaps as a security that the bargain would be honoured by Davy. Five weeks later the 7 cloths required by the bargain were delivered, and five days after that an additional 5 cloths were delivered. Kytson’s factors often, as in this case, did not record that the outstanding and additional cloths were paid for. Another entry of a similar kind is Bought of Rychard Batte the 21st day of May of the year 1534 Item 50 whittes at £32 16s 8d at £32 16s 8d the pack. Sum £164 3s 4d Memorandum. Resaved at the bargayn makyng 40 whittes, and he hathe promysed to delyver 10 whittes moo within 2 days hereafter Resaved the 23rd day of May of the year 1534 10 whittes at £32 16s 8d £32 16s 8d Richard Batte was as good as his word in delivering the 10 ‘whites’ within two days, which raises the question of how he managed it. Batte, of Westbury, had probably travelled to London with his fellow townsman William Adlam and John Brede, Robert Petter and John Norinton of Devizes who all made bargains with Kytson on 21 or 22 May. Batte could not have arranged for the 10 cloths to be transported from Westbury to London within the two days. Had he been touting the cloths around the London mercers or did he sell another clothman’s ‘whites’ to Kytson on 23 May? An alternative, but unlikely, suggestion is that Kytson might have travelled to Wiltshire to deal with his clothmen; but he would then have had the task of taking some 141 cloths of Batte and his fellow workers to London. The entries in the ‘Boke’ do not suggest that the prices paid to Kytson’s suppliers were offset by the costs incurred in taking the cloths to London, or that they were specifically charged for these costs. Kytson’s main interest was in the unfinished broadcloths or ‘whites’ although he did buy significant quantities of ‘penestones’!® from Cheshire and also some ‘Kentish russets’,!’ ‘friezes’,'® ‘cottons’,!’ ‘kersies’””’ and ‘Castlecombs’.”! The main centre of production of the ‘whites’ was in the valleys of the Avon and Frome rivers, and the area from Warminster to Devizes, so that Kytson’s suppliers came predominantly from Somerset and Wiltshire. The places where most of his suppliers lived may be determined from the entries in his ‘Boke of Remembraunce’. Although Professor Carus-Wilson, when writing about Kytson’s ‘Boke’, stated ‘the pre-eminence of west Wiltshire for the manufacture of white woollen broadcloth is immediately apparent from a perusal of Kitson’s book,” the present author has shown that this claim is incorrect.” Wiltshire came second to Somerset in supplying Thomas Kytson with the cloths which he exported to the Continent. From the entries in Kytson’s ‘Boke’ the overall statistics relating to his purchases and exports of ‘whites’ may be determined, and are shown in Table 1. The purchases are here collated in “Exchequer years’ so 38 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE that Kytson’s share of the English exports may be determined. The Exchequer year ran from Michaelmas to Michaelmas because the Crown, like other great landlords, made up its accounts at harvest time. The export figures for cloth and the customs derived from them were recorded by port officials and ultimately the summation of these figures was made up by Exchequer clerks in the Exchequer Enrolled Accounts.” The Wiltshire clothmen and the numbers of ‘whites’ they sold to Kytson in each ‘Exchequer year’ are shown in Table 2. The clothmen and their collated numbers of cloths are listed in chronological order, as they appear in the ‘Boke’. Unlike in Somerset where Thomas Kytson bought the greatest number of cloths from a single clothman (3340 cloths from John Clevelod of Beckington), Kytson had no preferred Wiltshire clothman to supply his needs. Over the 10 years covered by his Boke of Remembraunce the principal Wiltshire suppliers were Richard Batte, Roger Tanner and John Lawrens, all of Westbury, who each supplied more than 400 cloths. Richard Erlle of Melksham, Robert Adlam and John Table 1. Thomas Kytson’s purchases and exports of white broadcloths, 1529 - 1539. Exchequer Year, Michaelmas to Michaelmas 1529- | 1530- | 1531- | 1532- | 1533- | 1534- 1530 1531 1532 1533 1534 1535 Number of whites bought by Kytson other or 35 14 unknown* 1029 we) zs 980 538 500 30 33 33 20 556 822 1409 1479 | _1107 | _1531 Wiltshire share % 50.4 31:3 42.1 Number of whites exported by Kytson Wiltshire 655 30.4 659 | 939 | 123 |__ 894 | 548 284 1722 1480 1848 818 Wiltshire share % 8 Total number of cloths exported by denizens. ** Kytson / Wiltshire share of total exports % I — He. 5 eae a Ee 42,812 | 36,069 | 32,241 | 44, ae — 292 | 42, — — 143 | 47,458 | 49,288 Sources: 1, Cambridge University Library (CUL) Hengrave Hall MS.78/2. (Raw data). 2, E. M. Carus-Wilson and O. Coleman, England’s Export Trade 1275-1547. (Number of cloths exported by denizens). * The figures for cloths from Wiltshire and of other or unknown clothmen differ slightly from those originally given in Reference 1. This is partially accounted for by re-attribution e.g. Katherine Pyarde (whose domicile is not given) is now assumed to be the widow or daughter of Christopher Pyarde of Trowbridge. Additionally a few whites (‘cowrse whites of Herefordsher makyng’, ‘Walche whites’, ‘Castelcomes’ made in Gloucestershire and Oxfordshire, and ‘long whites’ of Weobley and Ludlow) are not included in the above figures. ** Woollen cloths were accounted for in terms of the standard ‘cloth of assize’, measuring approximately 24 yards long by 1% to 2 yards wide when fulled and finished. Cloths of other sizes were converted for customs purposes into cloths of assize. The Wiltshire broadcloth ‘whites’ conformed to cloths of assize. ‘Denizens’ are defined as merchants who were regarded for customs purposes as if they were native-born subjects of the King and who cannot be identified as aliens from the accounts. THOMAS KYTSON AND WILTSHIRE CLOTHMEN, 1529 -1539 Table 2. Sales of ‘whites’ by Wiltshire clothmen to Thomas Kytson. Exchequer Year, Michaelmas to Michaelmas Clothmen?s | 1529 | 1530 | 1531 | 1532 | 1533 | 1534 | 1535 | 1536 | 1537 |] 1538 So 1529 1530 | 1531 a ae 1534 | 1535 | 1536 | 1537 | 1538 | 1539 | 1539 George Adlam of Westbury 20 John Reynold of Steeple 15 Ashton Thomas Ashlocke of 12 40 Haytesbury Richard Erlle of Melksham 105 205 55 mea John Cooper of Edington (ae) | a ea Robert Adlam of Westbury Fi 3] 40 Edward Hannam of Westbury Roger Tanner of Westbury 40 | 176} 232 a Robert Bathe of Westbury | =| 40] 37] | | John Lawrens of Westbury 15 ef. fe] Sra a Thomas Davy of Westbury 10 ef. fe] John Baker of Devizes = John Vaugham of 190 34 Westbury John Usher of Westbury 10 a —_ William Eyer of 10 Warminster John Adlam of Westbury cae’ 30 ba 20 155 John Knyght of Devizes == aoe Hatt 26 John Knyght 53 81 | 65 nee ii9 Richard Batte (Bates) of ao =a] 105 289 ee 675 Westbury i 20 80 Richard Mydlecote of ae 30 Warminster ‘another man’ a 10 John Knyght of 10 30 Bishopstrowe Edward Longford 10 20 Lanckforth) of Trowbridge | John Blagdon of 60 Longbridge | ey [John Brede ofDevizes | | | 1 eae 20 60 William Adlam William Adlam the elder (oes (Ear eal |__40 | William Adlam the = 20 younger Robert Petter of Devizes F Sa ee Trowbridge ba Horningsham 101 Richard Bathe John Dyet of Trowbridge -— John Radmund of Wilton [| | | seal alm EN Mo Devizes Se ee ee Westbur cee er TO ane a 3 17 John Coke of Laycock Pane John Hedge of Malmesbury 20* | 39 40 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Malmesbury (Blacdon) John Rawlins of Warminster Edward Banwell of Westbury 59 wn arn 120 aD o NR So i) Co _ oO om So od o Aldhelm Lambe TS Thomas Longe Robert Bridges of Iford John Bennett of Warminster John Usher of Warminster ie — SO] Wi a _ William Holbroke of Salisbury John West of Trowbridge George Rawlins of Warminster Richard Cross of Erlestoke John Duffell of Westbury In ml _ p|_— oo Ww walN alin CJS} Ww] w o _ wn m1 ho olan — _ WAT DN _ So wll olo|o John Lyversidge of Kilmington Ww So Humphrey Yerbyrre 6 6 78 70 148 32 96 26 62 _ N oo the wife of Richard Bayth (Bathe) Katherine Pyarde 88 105 145 25 20 Roger Wynssloe of Keevil i é wa o John Alway of Keevil John Walesse of Trowbridge Robert Fraunces of Bromham ae ke ia Richard Adams of Laycock |_| ie | a) eed a = 10 10 45 45 1 1 Totals 393 | 659 | 5164 Source: CUL Hengrave Hall MS.78/2. * Those cloths are recorded both as ‘whites’ and ‘Castelcomes’. # 80 of these 120 whites were purchased by Kytson on 11 October 1539 (at the beginning of the 1539 to 1540 Exchequer year). Vaugham of Westbury and John Norinton of Devizes each delivered more than 200 cloths. Towards the end of Kytson’s life, the Alexander Langfords (senior) and (junior), of Trowbridge, William Allen of Calne and the widow of Richard Bathe became major Wiltshire suppliers to Kytson. As in Kytson’s dealings with his Somerset contacts it is not to be supposed that other clothmen from whom Kytson purchased cloths were necessarily small producers. Clothmen such as Thomas Ashlocke of Heytesbury, Robert Bathe and the William Adlams of Westbury, Robert Maye of Melksham, John Smethe of Devizes and William Blackden who supplied Kytson with cloths in packs of 10 must have been major producers who sold their cloths at other times to other merchants. Kytson bought ‘whites’ from about 70 Wiltshire clothmen over the ten-year period covered by his ‘Boke of Remembraunce’. He was only one of many merchants who purchased ‘whites’ for export to meet the insatiable demand of the Continent for English cloths. THOMAS KYTSON AND WILTSHIRE CLOTHMEN, 1529 -1539 41 @ Malmesbury Where Kytson’s Wiltshire Clothmen Lived O° 1 clothman @ 2 clothmen 4 6 — 8 clothmen A 15 clothmen Bromham Oo ® Melksham Trowbridge 4 Keevil 0 Steeple @ Ashton Devizes 4 Erlestoke Oo OFast Coulston O ; Edington A Westbury Saaees Bishopstrow O —_Heytesb Ce oy oO Longbridge ' O Horningsham Kilmingtom R. Nadder R. Wilye 0 : mules 15 km 42 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Table 3. Some prices paid for Wiltshire white cloths by Thomas Kytson. John Lawrens of Westbury Roger Wynssloe of Keevil Source: CUL Hengrave Hall MS.78/2. Price paid for a pack of 10 cloths | John Lawrens of Westbury _—|_ £28 13s. 4d., £30, £29, £30, £32, £31 10s, £30 2 £32 10s. and £4 10s the cloth Richard Batte of Westbury £33, £32, £32 10s, £32 10s., £32 10s., £32 10s. The prices that Kytson paid for cloths depended on the quality of the spinning and weaving. In 1529 George Adlam of Westbury and Richard Erlle of Melksham were paid £33 6s 8d for each pack of 10 cloths, whereas John Reynolds of Steeple Ashton received only £25 which was about the lowest price that Kytson ever paid for white broadcloths. Most of the clothmen were recorded as supplying cloth of only one quality. John Cooper of Edington, as shown in the example quoted above, supplied whites at £25 6s. 8d. the pack (£2 10s. 8d. each) and one ‘fyn whit’ at £3 6s. 8d.. Another example is: Bought of John Norinton the 29th day of May of the year 1536 Item 41 whites at £30 £30 the pack £123 Resaved 36 fyne & 5 cowrsse £14 Resaved the 2nd day of June 5 whites fine Total sum £137 Here John Norinton of Devizes made a bargain to supply 41 cloths at £30 the pack, but five of them were of a coarse quality for which he was to be paid at the rate of £14 the half pack. Four days later Norinton supplied 5 whites of a fine quality to honour the original bargain. The most that Kytson ever paid for a Wiltshire white broadcloth was £4 13s. 4d., but there were exceptional circumstances on this occasion. Thomas Wasshington recorded: Bought of Thomas Bayley thelder by the handes of hys servand William Wyllkyns the 4th day in March of the year 1535[6] Item one fyne whitte at £4 13s 4d at £4 13s 4d £4 13s 4d Memorandum that the sayd William Wyllkyns hathe promyssed the sayd clothe to be 29 yards at the watter paid the same day, Sum £4 13s 4d The normal length of a broadcloth was about 25 yards but on this occasion Thomas Bayley had sent a cloth which would have measured 29 yards ‘at the watter’ i.e. when wetted, as required by Statute. The prices that were paid by Kytson to some of his suppliers for packs of 10 cloths are shown in Table 3. Most clothmen supplied cloth of consistent quality as shown by the prices they received. Others, like Richard Erlle and Roger Wynssloe, provided Kytson at two separate prices indicating coarse and fine qualities. It is possible to determine the average prices which Kytson paid for the Wiltshire whites and these are given in Table 4 both for single cloths and the more usual pack of 10 cloths. It is also possible to determine what Kytson paid out for all the cloths that he purchased from the Wiltshire clothmen. His total expenditure for Table 4. Prices paid for Wiltshire white cloths by Thomas Kytson Price paid by Kytson 1536 — 1537 £3 3s 7d 1537 — 1538 £3 4s 7d £32 5s 1ld £31 18s 8d 1538 — 1539 £3 3s 10d Source: Calculated from details in CUL Hengrave Hall MS.78/2. Exchequer year THOMAS KYTSON AND WILTSHIRE CLOTHMEN, 1529 -1539 43 Wiltshire ‘whites’ over the ten-year period was £16,010 8s. 3d. at an average of £30 15s. 8d. for each pack of 10 cloths. Kytson was able to export virtually all the ‘whites’ that he bought. In 1514 an Act had forbidden the export of unfinished cloth valued at more than 5 marks (£3 6s. 8d.).”° In 1536 a further Act raised the price limit to £4 for whites and £3 for coloured cloths.”” With a few exceptions Kytson paid less than £4 for single ‘whites’ and exported these cloths within the law. However, he also exported the few dearer cloths that he bought. The single fine ‘white’ that Thomas Bayley sold for £4 13s. 4d. was exported to the Sinkson mart in 1536, and two ‘fyne whites’ of Roger Wynssloe of Keevil which cost Kytson £4 10s. each were exported to the Cold Mart in 1538. One ‘fyne whitte’ that Kytson bought for £4 6s. 8d. from Richard Batte of Westbury on 28 April 1537 was exported to the Sinkson mart at Whitsuntide in 1537 as ‘1 white no 41 of Richard Battes for store’. Later in the year Thomas Wasshington recorded: Delivered to my master the 15th day in December in the year 1537 Item 1 fyne whitt of Richard Battes at £4 6s 8d which was dyed black in Flannders. Here was an example of Thomas Kytson reserving a particularly good white broadcloth for his own use and identifying it as ‘for store’ so that it was not sold to the dealers in Antwerp. There the unfinished cloth was dyed and returned to London after the Cold Mart in 1537. With one exception all the Wiltshire cloths purchased by Kytson were described as ‘whites’. However in 1535 Kytson purchased 40 ‘Castellcomes’ and 19 whites from William Stumpe and 20 whites from John Hedge of Malmesbury. When Kytson exported these cloths they were all described as ‘Castelcomes’. No other Wiltshire clothmen supplied ‘Castlecombes’ to Kytson. He did however buy them from clothiers in Gloucestershire and Oxfordshire.” Unlike the several Somerset clothmen who supplied Kytson with other goods, like silver, kersies and other types of cloth, only one Wiltshire clothman sold anything other than cloth to him. Bought of John Duffell of Westbere under the planne the 17th day of Maye of the year 1537 Item 10 whyttes at £32 at £32 the packe £32 Sum £32 Later, on the same page, a memorandum was penned: Memorandum John Duffell owth as dothe a pere by a nowut made the 24th day in December in the year 1537 & also by a byll of Thomas Harfordes owne hand as dothe a pere & for rest thatt he owthe is with the 20" nobylles £25 14s ld Rebatte for 79 barell of 3 halpenny bere at 3s the barrell Sum £11 17s So rest £13 17s ld paid to the sayd John as this daye beyinge the 24 day of December in the year 1537 Item in redye monye to the Sum of £6 13s 4d Sum £20 9s 5d Memorandum that the sayd John Duffell hathe promysed my master of gyft 2 barrelles of 3 halpeny bere to be delyvered medyatlye after Cristmas in the year 1537 paid & quytt An entry in the margin of Kytson’s ‘Boke’ records that John Duffell was paid for his 10 ‘whites’. Duffell was then lent 20 nobles (£6 13s. 4d.) by Kytson but was also in debt in respect of a bill of Thomas Harford’s. Set against Duffell’s total debt of £25 14s. 1d. was a rebate of £11 17s. for 79 barrels of beer supplied by him. He was then paid a further £6 13s. 4d, making the total sum of £20 9s. 5d. owed to Kytson. Perhaps in recognition of the loans Duffell gave Kytson two further barrels of beer. Later Duffell must have paid the outstanding debt which is marked as ‘quit’. From earlier entries in the ‘Boke’ it is evident that as well as selling cloth John Duffell brewed beer: Sold to John Duffelde bere bruyar the 11th day of November 1533 Item 2 sackes of hoppys n°4 weight 5Cwt / n° [blank] weight SCwt 3qtr 14lb. Sum weight all m! [=10Cwt] 3qtr 14lb, at 7s [the Cwt] £3 16s Memorandum that John Duffeld hayth resaved of Thomas Harford £4 the 8th day of January [1533/4], to be payd in bere, and after that the said £4 be paid the said John Duffeld hayth grantted to delyver [word illegible] £4 of his old detts, and further as my master & he can agre. Sold to John Duffell macer the 18th day of January of the year 1533[4] Item 1 sacke of hoppys at 7s at 7s, weight 342Cwt 3lb. 44 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Sum 24s 9d Item on sacke hoppes the first day of Marche of the year 1533[4], weight 4Cwt 101b at 7s the Cwt. Sum 28s 7d halfpenny Sold to John Duffel bere bruar the 29th day of Aprill of the year 1534 Item 1 sacke of hoppys weight 2Cwt 2qtr 27]b at 7s the Cwt. Sum 19s 2d Sold to John Duffelde macer the 19th day of July of the year 1534 Item 1 sacke hoppys weigth 2Cwt 21]b at 7s the Cwt Item more | sacke weight 2Cwt 7]b at 7s the Cwt Item more the 24th day of July 7 sackes weight as follows. 1 weight 2Cwt 2qtr, 4Cwt 16lb, 3Cwt 3qtr 81b, 3Cwt [l]qtr 14lb, 3Cwt [l]qtr 6lb, 3Cwt 2qtr 18lb, 3Cwt 3qtr 2Ib, Sum weight all 28Cwt 3qtr 18lb at 7s the Cwt. Sum £10 2s 4d halfpenny To paye at plessure John Duffell, described both as a ‘bere bruyar’ and ‘macer’” was shown as not only buying sacks of hops but also borrowing £4 from Thomas Harford. Elsewhere in the ‘Boke’ it becomes evident that Thomas Harford was a fellow mercer of Thomas Kytson, and although there is no record that Kytson bought from Harford his cloths were sometimes included with Kytson’s purchases in the fardells of cloths exported to Flanders. The above memoran- dum perhaps indicates that in 1533-4 Kytson was a go-between for loans made by Harford to Duffell. Four years later Duffell still owed money to Harford, as well as being in debt to Kytson. Kytson certainly profited from Duffel’s beer. Assuming that Duffel’s barrels each contained 36 gallons and that the beer could be sold at three half pence (1'd.) a gallon, the 3s. purchase price per barrel could have turned into a sale price of 4s. 6d., or a 50% profit. The ‘Boke of Remembraunce’ records the exports made by Kytson, and the majority of these are of cloth, with some Cornish tin also included. For each mart there was a record made of the ships and the cloths assigned to each master for the passage to Flanders. The export of goods to the four annual fairs was governed by the rules of the Merchant Adventurers. No merchant was allowed to ship his goods independently but had to use and pay for the ships chartered for the collective use of all of the merchants. The Merchant Adventurers had three classes of officials to manage the convoy from London to Flanders. When a fleet was about to sail for a mart ‘appointers’ were chosen, to see to its equipment and protection, and those men were either elected in General Court or named by the different fellowships of the Adventurers.* In order to pay for the fleet ‘conduitors’ were chosen who assessed and levied the necessary rates to pay for the convoys (the ‘conduit money’), and kept the accounts.*! Those accounts were checked by the ‘auditors’.*’ The London Fellowship who chartered the ships also determined when the fleet sailed, where it went or even if it went at all, depending on the circumstances and the likelihood of attack by Scots or Scandinavian pirates.** The ‘appointers’ had ‘to se that the shippes have theire complement and also furnysshed with men, with vitaill, takkle & ablements of Warre, lyke & accordyng to the Charter partie’.* In 1522 Kytson had been elected as one of the eight ‘appointers’ of the Merchant Adventurers for the Pask mart,® and in the next year he became an elected ‘conduitor’ for the Sinxten mart fleet and sought naval protection by Henry VIII from ‘the Kyng of Denmarke [who] ys uppon the See with a grete Navye of Shippes and ys aryved in the Cost of Flaunders’.*° In order to mitigate the financial loss that might have occurred if a ship had been attacked or lost at sea Kytson arranged, for every sailing to the marts, for his cloths to be sent on several ships. The materials were made up into ‘fardells’ of about 40 cloths,*’ and occasionally there was also a ‘truss’ of a smaller number of cloths. No one fardell contained more than 32 of any clothman’s cloths, and even the small number of cloths of a minor producer was spread throughout the fleet. When Kytson shipped 39 fardells to the Cold mart in Barrow in 1536 they were distributed between 24 ships, and of these ships, 19 carried 30 fardells with Wiltshire cloths in them. The prime-quality whites were wrapped either in canvas or even in the inferior ‘coarse whites’ or the cheaper ‘cottons’ or ‘penestones’. Kytson’s clerks recorded . for heddes & sydes shyppyd to the Synckson mart 1536, 76 yerds. Thes 76 yerds mad 4 sydes, quantity in every syd 10 yerdes. 5 [sic = 4] heddes, quantity in every hede 9 yerds. Total sum 76 yerds. Item more spent for a syde 19 yerds. Sum 95 yerds, yelles 71. there was spent in canvass . . Often there is an entry in the make-up of a fardell, such as — ‘Item 1 whitt cowsse of [John] Norintons, wrappers’. Part of a typical entry in Kytson’s ‘Boke’ is THOMAS KYTSON AND WILTSHIRE CLOTHMEN, 1529 -1539 45 The shypping by the grace of God to the Colde mart anno domini 1535 A fardell** no f in the James of Bargyng master under God Thomas Wattes Item 32 whites no 2 de Richard Battes Item 8 penystones de J[ohn] G[ranthams] wrappers A fardell no C in the Mary Gabriell master under God John Clarke Item 32 whites no 4 de Gytfray Whi[t]ackers Item 7 penystones de J[ohn] G[ranthams] wrappers A fardell no p in the James of Barkyn master under God Thomas Wattes Item 6 whites no 2 de Richard Battes Item 6 whites no 4 de Gyffray Whi[t]ackers Item 10 whites no 1 de J[ohn] Clevelodes seconds Item 10 whites de Thomas Harefordes Item 7 penistones de John G[ranhams] A fardell no 7f in the Owsse of London master under God Robert Archar Item 32 Castell comes no 6 de William Stumpes Item 7 penytones of John Granthams A fardell no Zs in the Mary Thomas of London master Richard Rede Item 8 Castell comes no 7 de John Hidges Item 10 whites no 2 de Richard Battes Item 2 whites no 4 de Gyffray Wh[i]tackers Item 1 white no 1 de J[ohn] C[levelodes] thrids wrappers Item 1 penystones de John Granthams The number of the fardell was always given in code; the codes for numbers 3, 6, 8, 13 and 14 being illustrated.” Prior to making up the fardells each batch of clothman’s cloths was allocated a number, and here the numbers 1, 2, 4, 6 and 7 corresponded to the cloths of John Clevelod, Richard Batte, Geoffrey Whitacker, William Stumpe and John Hedges respectively.’ Professor Carus-Wilson has stated that Kytson’s ‘cloths were carefully graded and described by numbers ranging from 1 to 19”,*! but this is not the case. The numbers related to the clothman, and were allocated afresh for each shipping. If a clothman supplied different grades, as did John Clevelode, the grades were usually al! allocated the same number. Here the clerks noted that John Clevelod’s 10 seconds and 1 ‘thrid’ (third) were both given the same identification number ‘1’. Occasionally, as shown in Appendix 1 in the extracts from Kytson’s ‘Boke’ for the whites exported to the Synxten mart in 1537, a clothman’s whites might have two numbers allocated but these were for different grades, e.g. no 4 of John Smeths fine’ and ‘no 7 of John Smeth C[oarse], ‘no 19 of T[homas] Bayles’ and ‘no 23 of Baleys fine’ ‘no 1 of Richard Battes’ and ‘no 41 of Richard Battes for store. For the shipping to this Cold mart Kytson used 13 different ships to carry 23 fardells of cloth. Wiltshire cloths were included in 13 fardells carried in 11 of the ships. It is also recorded that 11 of the ships also carried 121 blocks of Cornish tin as shown in Table 5. Each block was allocated a separate number which was recorded by the clerk, Nicholas Lunne, who also noted “Total sum 121 blockes tynne Cornysshe to the Cold Marte A° 1535, freght fre’. Ship and home port Master’s name Cornish Table 5. Kytson’s ex- ports to the Cold Mart 1535 Fardell numbers Richard Holmes Trinite of London John Sowle 1,9 Phe) John Leche Catherine of Calais James of Barking Thomas Wattes Richard Rede John Baptist of Lee Cristopher of Maidstone Symond Barnes Source: CUL Hengrave Hall MS.78/2. 1 1 1 1 1 4 5 0 0 12, 14* 0 * indicates the fardells that contained Wiltshire 1 Wolsey of London Robert Gage cloth 46 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE The weight of each block of tin being Somerset clothmen and they all occurred early in approximately 3 hundredweight probably the decade covered by the ‘Boke’. accounted for them being carried ‘freight free’ as they would have been useful as stabilizing ballast. The numbers of white broadcloths exported by Thomas Kytson to the Flanders marts are shown in Tables 6 and 7. The exports are collated in ‘Exchequer years’. When the numbers of cloths exported by Kytson are compared with his purchases there are some differences in the annual totals, but those may be explained by the fact that cloths were being sent by the clothmen to London after the last sailing to the Sinxten or Bamis marts and before the end of each Exchequer Year. It also appears that not all of the cloths that Kytson purchased were exported. Sold to Thomas Taylour of Trowbridge in Wiltshire the 27th day in October of the year 1529 Item 36 whittes bowght of Alys Cope Widdowe as shall apere in Purchases folio 142 at 44s 5d 1 halfpenny sterling the clothe & solde to the said Taylor at 46s Sd sterling the clothe at all one with a nother £83 10s Total Sum £83 10s Paid the same day £83 10s Sold to Syr Edward Baynton knyghte of Wilsher the 27th day of May of the year 1530 Item 1 chyne [chain] of fyne gold, weight 29 % ounces at 54s 10d the ounce & 5d over in all : : £80 18s The total number of Wiltshire cloths exported by : : : Item in Redy mony to Master Edgar for hym £35 2s him over the ten-year period amounted to 5073 out Sum £116 of the 5201 that he purchased. Ae ava Galo audit nee The ‘Boke of Remembraunce’ records the sales ae : To pay at Ester next £58 made by Thomas Kytson in England, and of these only six were made to Wiltshire men. These were : 1d to Robert Adl fe ber of only a fraction of the sales made by Kytson to Sold te-RobermAdlame the Indes ous Diemuete the year 1530 Table 6. Thomas Kytson’s exports of white broadcloths to the Flanders marts. Mart lee gre Oo el Cold | Cold | Exchequer Year, 1529 - 1530 Wiltshire eee Total 197 428 eS OS 1530 — 1531 Wiltshire [| 86 [| 70 Oi 39 Total 311 157 216 | 990 | 15311532 | Wiltshipes 186 | 19k eo ee ea ae 1S as ae ee ee 1532 — 1533 Wilshire {389 f 138 foe Total ie) ae eee ee ae Seat Witishire ff pee Pe otal 2 S76 983 15341535. Ne. 2 ee Wilishipe ess es Se PSEreraiee aegis at ee cee 1535 — 1536 Wiltshire 377 caer eee eS a a ee a REE Sa ee en Tce ES ed a a eS) Beare ee an ee eee ee ae P1537 1538. 5 ee Wiltshire ee es ee ee es ae ee ae ees es 15382153900 1 aes it Waltsbize: 7 A832. 1 te 330 a a siege i PO Ht i 1539 - 1540 Wiltshire 0 Total 14 Source: Calculated from details in CUL Hengrave Hall MS.78/2. THOMAS KYTSON AND WILTSHIRE CLOTHMEN, 1529 -1539 47 Table 7A. Thomas Kytson’s exports of Wiltshire white broadcloths, 1529 — 1534. Exchequer Year, Michaelmas to Michaelmas 1529-1530 | 1530 -------- 1531 1531 - - - - 1532 1532 - - - - 1533 | 1533 -- - - 1534 Mart Clothman Nic. Affarnwell George Adlam Thos. Ashlocke Richard Erlle John Reynolds John Cooper Richard Adlam Roger Tanner Edm Hannam Robert Baythe John Lawrens Thomas Davy of Warminster ohn Ussher ohn Vaugham ohn Baker William Ayre John Adlam John Knyght of Devizes John Norinton Robert Maye Richard Batte Rich Mydlecote Robert Adlam John Knyght of Bishopstrowe William Adlam Robert Petter John Blagdon Total sf | ait Oo ia Sinxten TUT ET tele Pf fee CELE SED ss EE Se _ i) So oO} as NS) : Cue _ — oO Ss aS eee eo — — wm oS i=) i=) 135 Source: Calculated from details in CUL Hengrave Hall MS.78/2. The clothmen and their collated numbers of cloths are listed in chronological order, as they appear in the ‘Boke’. Item 1 pece holland quantity 42% Aunes” 251 elles Resaved the same £6 15s 9d at 10d 21s 3d Item 1 pece holland quantity 41% Aunes 24 elles 4 Sold to John Rennoldes of Stepulaston in Wilshar quarters? at 12d 24s 10d Clotheman the 22nd day of May of the year 1531 Item ] pece holland quantity 41 Aunes 24 elles 3 Item one Balle of Ulmus fustyan at £27 10s [Flemish] quarters at 13d 26s 8d halfpenny price £17 16s 8d Item 2 half balles of wode 3C [1]qtr 26lb at 18s the C To pay the 24 day of August next £3 2s 7d Memorandum that my master hasse in gayge for the Total Sum £6 15s 5d payment of the said £17 16s 8d one baylle of drye Item plus a elle of barras canvas at 4d Total Sum £6 15s 9d pepper weight 2C [l]qtr 20 lb of the said John Raynoldes to be delyvered to the said John at the THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Table 7B. Thomas Kytson’s exports of Wiltshire white broadcloths, 1534 -— 1539. 48 n x g — ro) a a a ° — 8 : — oO 3 a a enh 3 o > a) 3 joy o a 3) al Q homas Ashlocke William Blackdon William Stumpe John Norinton William Holbro John Weste John Ussher John Bennett John Rawlins Edward Banwell John Knyght of Bishopstowe Aldhelm Lambe of fi Richard Adams Richard Crosse Horningsham John Hedges Geof. Whitacker John Smyght of Wm. Adlam sen Wm. Adlam jnr Wm. Adlam Robert Heryot Richard Bathe Thomas Davy of Thomas John Knyght Richard Batte John Coke Clothman Radmund Richard Midelcote 4 THOMAS KYTSON AND WILTSHIRE CLOTHMEN, 1529 -1539 49 William Allen Katherine Pyet jun sen Mistress Baythe (Bathe) John Walles Robert Fraunces Total Source: Calculated from details in CUL Hengrave Hall MS.78/2. The clothmen and their collated numbers of cloths are listed in chronological order, as they appear in the “Boke’. payment a fore rehersed of £17 16s 8d delyvered to John Raynoldes the 26th day of August of the year 1531 Item 1 baylle of drye pepper weight 2C [1] qtr 20 lb. And quites. Sold to John Norinton of the Vyes Clotheman the 25th day of May of the year 1531 Item 2 ballettes of woode weight 3 % C 4 lb at 17s the hundreth. Sum £3 1d halfpenny farthing Sum £3 1d halfpenny farthing Sold to Roger Tanner the 22nd day of August of the year 1532 Item one tonne of Syvell oyle at £15 at £14. Sum £14 Perhaps in the sale to Thomas Taylour of the 36 whites that he had bought from the widow Cope, can be discerned a desire to sell quickly these poor quality cloths at a minimal profit rather than risk their failure to sell in the Flanders marts. The sale of the fine gold chain to Sir Edward Baynton illustrates two points. Firstly, that Kytson sometimes rounded up the sale price to his advantage, here the actual price of £80 17s. 7d was increased to a round £80 18s. Secondly, Kytson charged Sir Edward £35 2s. which the latter must have owed to ‘master Edgar’, and was given until -‘Haloutyd’ (All Hallows, 1 November) and the following Easter to pay the total debt in two instalments. The two sales of woad indicate that Robert Adlam and John Norinton probably fulled and dyed some of their cloths for local sale. The ‘Seville oil’ sold to Roger Tanner would have been olive oil used in the spinning of the wool and distributed or sold by him to his spinners. Oil was used at the rate of about 8 to 10 pounds per the 60 or 70 pounds of wool in each cloth® so a tun of oil would have been sufficient for approximately 300 cloths. The ‘holland’ (a linen fabric made in the province of Holland in the Low Countries), the ‘barras’ canvas (a coarse cloth made of hemp or flax, in this case of unknown provenance)** and the ‘Ulmus’ fustian (a coarse cloth made in Ulm from cotton and flax)” illustrate the kind of fabrics that Thomas Kytson’s factors bought in the marts and then had shipped home to London. These purchases are not recorded in the ‘Boke’, but the dispersal of the imported materials are sometimes commented on: Delyvered to my master the 24th day of December of the year 1530 1 fyne pece of Holonde, quantity 24 Flemish elles, the which pece holonde clothe my master dyd geve to Master Recorder of London Delyvered to my master the 7th day of July of the year 1531 one turks carpett, which carpett my master gaffe to master Recorder of London It is noteworthy perhaps that Kytson made these two gifts of a length of holland and a Turkish carpet to the ‘master Recorder of London’, one John Baker who served in this elected office from 1526 to 1535.4° As the vast majority of the entries in Kytson’s ‘Boke’ (except for the shipping lists and memoranda of deliveries to his wife at Hengrave) are concerned with the recording of amounts of money involved in the purchase or sale of goods, the question is raised whether the gifts to John Baker were bribes; was Kytson guilty of some misdemeanour or did he seek Baker’s help in some 50 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE advancement? Within a year or so Thomas Kytson was elected to the shrievalty of London. The sale of one bale of Ulmus fustian to John Rennolds was coupled with a sale of nearly two and a half hundredweights of pepper. Thomas Wasshington noted in his memorandum that his master had ‘in gayge’ (engaged = bound by contract) for the sale of one bale of dry pepper to Rennolds. The pepper was to be delivered to Rennolds in three months time when the payment of £17 16s. 8d. for the fustian was made. Presumably John Rennolds subsequently sold most of the pepper to his Wiltshire neighbours. Other entries in the ‘Boke’ are of interest to Wiltshire, such as the memoranda penned by the clerks: Memorandum that I Thomas Wasshington hathe payd unto Henrye van Acland of Andwerpe for stoppes, holes & other fawtes in John Vaugham clothes sold to hym in the Sinkson Martte 1533, Sum 40s Flemish Memorandum that I Thomas Wasshington hathe payd unto Lenard Depetter factor for Nycholas Wollffe for stoppes, holes & other fawtes in John Adlam clothes sold to hym in the Bamis martt 1533. Sum 40s Flemish Here Thomas Wassyhgton was recording that recompense had been paid to Henry van Acland and Nicholas Wollfe for faulty cloths of John Vaughan and John Adlam sold at the Sinxten and Bamis marts in 1533. The two Flemish merchants had each been paid 40 Flemish schellingen (shillings). Altogether there are records of 13 instances where recompense was paid for faulty cloths made by Wiltshire clothmen. It is not clear exactly how many cloths were faulty but on the basis that recompense was paid at some 10s. or 15s. per cloth, it appears that about 28 cloths or 0.5% of Kytson’s exports of Wiltshire ‘whites’ had escaped detection by the aulnagers’ inspections before they were exported. Another entry of this type is: Memorandum that I Nicholas Lonne [Lunne] hath resaved agayn of the Pymmels 10 whites of Roger [Richard] Battes whiche I sold to them in the Passe marte 1534, which was sold to them for £51 [0]g, which I toke a gayne as yt was agreatt by 2 indeferent men whiche clothes was fulle of holles & stoppes, and was sold agayne to Ayrt van Wellick as yt appereth by my enteryng [2] for £45 [0]g [Flemish]. Wherin ther was lost £6 [0]g to be resaved of Richard Batte. Item mor paid by me Nicholas Lonne to Anthony Bumbargym for fawttes in Robert Mayes clothes sold to hym in the Cold mart 1533 for holles & stoppes. 6s 8g [Flemish] Resaved of Robert May the 28th day in September 5s sterling This entry records that two independent arbitrators had been appointed to settle the complaint of the Pymmels against Kytson. The Pymmells probably were agents, because there are instances where faulty cloths were recorded as being ‘resaved from the Pymmels, sold to Garard van Rotyngham’. Nicholas Lunne had taken back 10 whites of Richard Batte, repaid the Pymmels their 51 Flemish pond groot and resold the defective cloths to Ayrt van Wellick for 45 pond groot. Lunne then recorded that the resulting loss of 6 pond groot was to be received from Richard Batte in the future. In the second item there is a glimpse of the exchange rate at the Cold mart in 1533. The payment of 6 schellingen 8 groten is equated with the 5 shillings sterling which the clothman, Robert May subsequently paid. The exchange rate was 26 schellingen 8 groten to 20 shillings sterling. From these records can be learnt the names of some of Thomas Kytson’s dissatisfied customers in Antwerp and Barrow. Besides Henry van Acland, Nicholas Wollffe, the Pymmels, Ayrt van Wellick and Anthony Bumbargym there were Philip Lenycke, John van Clett, George Kester and Jacob Stott. Thomas Kytson’s financial arrangements with his clothmen show that he always paid his established suppliers in cash on receipt of the cloths. When he made a bargain with a new supplier it appears that, not surprisingly, he wanted to see all the cloths that he had bargained for before paying any money. An entry in Kytson’s ‘Boke’ reads Bought of George Adlame of Westbere under playne the 18th day of March of the year 1529 Item 20 whites £33 6s Sd at £33 6s 8d the pack. Sum £33 6s 8d Resaved the same day 10 whites paid the same day £33 6s 8d Item that I George Adlame promyse my master to delyver by twene this & Witsontyde & herveste. 10 whites. I have sette my hand & he to have for them £33 6s 8d, so that they be as good of leynthe, wole, spynnyng & makyng &c by me [signed] George Adlam Resaved the 18th day of May of the year 1530 10 whites THOMAS KYTSON AND WILTSHIRE CLOTHMEN, 1529 -1539 S1 The bargain made in March 1529/30 was for 20 whites at £33 6s. 8d. the pack, but only 10 whites were received and paid for on the same day. George Adlam put his signature to his promise to deliver the remaining 10 whites between Whitsuntide and harvest. The cloths were received by Kytson on 18 May. A similar entry in the ‘Boke’ is Bought of Richard Batte the 8th day of September of the year 1535 Item 100 whites at £32 the pack Sum £320 of the which 100 whites ys resaved at this day 40 whites. So that there resteth 60 whites which he haith promised to delyver be twyxt this and Alhalloutide next comyng. And that thay shall be of as good spynnynge, lenth and maykyng as thes a fore resaved, and yff he make more the said 60 whites to delyver them at the said prisse which ys £32 for every packe. To in hand as the clothes ys resavid £220 To pay the fyrst day in May next. Sum £100 Resaved the 7th day of October of the year 1535 40 whites Resaved no moo whites of Richard Batte to the Cold Mart 1535 but 80 whites for the which he was paid after £32 Here Richard Batte bargained with Kytson to supply 100 whites of which only 40 were delivered. Batte then promised to deliver the remaining 60 before All Hallows (1 November), but only managed to deliver a further 40. This entry illustrates a further point. All Hallows was the last day allowed by the Merchant Adventurers for shipping to the Cold mart.” By not receiving the last 20 cloths by this date Kytson missed the opportunity to sell them at the Cold mart. Although Richard Batte missed the All Hallows deadline he delivered a further 190 whites to Kytson by the following June. Before 1535 clothiers had usually marked their cloths with a distinctive mark, but by a Statute enacted in that year it had been made imperative: ‘every Clothier within this Realm shall weave, or cause to be woven, his or their several Token or Mark in all and every Cloth, Kersey and other Cloths, whatsoever they be, made and wrought to be uttered and sold.’ The ‘Boke’ contains drawings of the marks of 24 Wiltshire makers, all entered between 1535 and 1538. The marks are illustrated in Appendix 2, together with a note of the colour of each mark. In the autumn of 1538 Nicholas Lunne penned the following entry Bought of the wyffe of Richard Bayth by the handes of Aldam Lame the 6th day in September 1538. Item 80 whites at £32 at £32 the pack. Sum £256.0.0d [a clothier’s mark appears in the margin] Resaved the same day 40 whites, and he hayth promysed that the other 40 to be delyvered on this syd Alhalowtid and that they shall be of as good woll, lenthes, spynnyng & maykyng as thes ayr afor resaved, and to pay as thay ayr resaved the 2 partes in hand and the rest at Candelmas next; and yff Aldam Lam have ned off £20 or £30 14 days after Alhalowtide he to have ytt in party payment off his bill payable at Candelmas; & he hayth further promysed that lyk as thay be marked in the ledes thay shall hold the sayme lenthes when thay come owt of the watter. and later he added Resaved the 31st day in October 1538 25 whittes Resaved more the same day 5 whites Resaved the 19th day in November 1538 7 whites Resaved the same day in November off this mark 5 whites {enother clothier’s mark appears in the margin] £224 Resaved the 22nd day in November 1538 3 whites These entries show that on 6 September 1538 Aldam Lame [Aldhelm Lambe] made a bargain on behalf of Richard Bathe’s widow for the sale of 80 whites of which half were delivered that day with the promise that the remaining 40 would be delivered before 1 November. Richard Bathe alias Wheatacre [Whitaker] of Edington had last sold cloths to Thomas Kytson in June 1536 and had died afew months before.*! Aldhelm Lambe, probably of the adjacent parish of East Coulston, was thus acting for the recently bereaved widow Bathe.*’ The 40 whites delivered on 6 September were paid for on that day, with the promise, by Nicholas Lunne, that the remaining 40 would be paid for on Candlemas Day (2 February). If however, Lambe wanted £20 or £30 before the middle of November it would be given to him but deducted from the amount due to him at Candlemas. Aldhelm Lambe returned to London on 31 October with 30 whites from widow Bathe, thus failing to deliver all of the 40 promised whites by the All Hallows deadline. Another entry shows that Lambe delivered 10 of his own whites on that same day, and another two on 2 November. He was in London again on 19 November when 12 more of the widow’s cloths were delivered and also a further two of his own. Three 52 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE days later Nicholas Lunne received a further three of the widow’s whites. Here are further instances of a clothman making deliveries of cloth on near- adjacent days without being able to return home to Edington and back to London, just as did Richard Batte in1534 (see above). Why did Lambe deliver 25 and 5 whites separately on 31 October? Had he been unsuccessfully touting the cloths to other merchants? Also why were the 7 and 5 cloths recorded as separate deliveries on 19 November? This second question is easier to answer. When Nicholas Lunne penned his original entry on 6 September he added a clothier’s mark in the margin of the ‘Boke’. This mark must have been that of the recently deceased Richard Bathe. Of the 12 whites delivered on 19 November seven of them were probably marked with Bathe’s mark but the other five are recorded as being marked with another mark that incorporates the initials IB. Richard Bathe’s wife’s name was Joan? who had thus changed from using her late husband’s mark to a new mark of her own. This mark was obviously not recognised by Nicholas Lunne who therefore recorded the ‘IB’ mark in the margin of the ‘Boke’. Although the Merchant Adventurers’ rules were that no cloths were to be shipped to the Cold mart after All Hallows, Lunne was accepting cloths up to 22 November, the day that he received the last 3 whites of Joan Bathe. He had recorded the make-up of the 24 fardells and three trusses that were shipped to the Cold mart in 1538: The shipping by the grace of God to the Cold Marte holden in Barrow a° 1538 a fardell no 7 in the Mary Gabriell of Birkylsay master under God John Hurlock Item 32 whites n° 1 of mastres Baythes a fardell no f in the Mary Fortune of Lee Item 8 whites n° 1 of mastres Baythes a fardell no Jn in the Catherine of Calles Item 3 whites n° 1 of mastres Baythes a truss no mC in the Peter of London Item 7 whites n° 1 of mastres Baythes a truss no mB in the Trinite of London Item 3 whites n° 1 of mastres Baythes and after he had finished he added: Memorandum that there remanet unpacked 5 whites here at home of this marke which was resaved of mastres Baythe and Aldam Lamme by the handes of Geffray Whitacker in the sted of thers the 19th day in November a° 1538 He then drew the IB clothier’s mark, and added ‘the strypes yallow and the letters rede’. The inference is that ‘mistress’ Joan Bathe and Aldhelm Lambe were seen by Nicholas Lunne to be a form of partnership that had used Geoffrey Whitaker to take the five whites marked with Joan’s IB mark to London. Two Geoffrey Whitakers are known, one of Westbury who sold whites to Kytson in 1534 and 1535, and the other of Tinhead in the parish of Edington who objected to his cloths being subjected to searching by London aulnagers in the second half of the century and whose will was proved in 1601.» Richard Bathe (Whitaker) did not have a son called Geoffrey so it would seem likely therefore that the Geoffrey who delivered Joan Bathe’s 5 whites was the Geoffrey of Westbury, perhaps a brother or near-relative of Richard Bathe.” Altogether 85 whites of Joan Bathe had been delivered, all but five with the recognised mark of Richard Bathe which were sent to Barrow and five with the new mark which were not. The next March Thomas Wasshington added: Memorandum that thes 5 whittes were delivered to [?]Cerle the 23rd day in March A° [1538/39] Thomas Kytson passed on these five whites instead of exporting them. When the record was made of the whites exported to the next mart — the Sinxten mart at Antwerp — only those whites of Joan Bathe and Lambe that had been received in London after 22 May 1539 were included. Lambe made the usual promises, as several times recorded by Kytson’s clerks, that the remaining 40 cloths would be up to the standard of the cloths already delivered, but in addition he ‘further promised that like as are marked in the leads they shall hold the same lengths when they come out of the water’. Lambe was making this promise, on behalf of Joan Bathe, in accordance with the 1535 Statute which stipulated that When any such Cloth shall be ready made and dressed to be put to sale, every . . . clothier shall set his Seal of Lead unto every... Cloth and Kerseys, in which Seal of Lead shall be contained the true and just Length of every... Cloth and Kersey, as it shall duly be found by every Buyer of the same, upon due Proof thereof to be tried by the Water. And in case THOMAS KYTSON AND WILTSHIRE CLOTHMEN, 1529 -1539 53 upon any such Proof to be made by any Buyer of them at the Water, there shall be found less .. . Length than is contained and specified in every of their said Seals, then every... Clothier .. . shall lose the double Value of so much Cloth as shall want... in Length.*” and forfeit unto every such Buyer... Lambe was therefore confident that Joan’s whites would comply with the recent Statute. It appears that each clothman normally took his own whites to London in order to make his bargain with Thomas Kytson, but in addition to the above case of Aldhelm Lambe helping the widow Bathe in autumn 1538 there are a few entries where the clothmen used other men to carry their cloths. 4 March 1536 Thomas Bayley the elder by the hands of his servant William Wylkyns 13 Oct 1536 John Bennett of Warminster by the hands of Robert Stokes 27 April 1537. John Smeth of Devizes by the hand of T Clevelode 24 May 1538 William Allen by the hands of William Ysse 6 June 1538 William Adlam by the hands of Robert Adlam the younger 24 Oct 1538 Richard Adams of Laycock by the carrier William Lerde 15 Nov 1538 Alexander Longford the elder by the hands of John Nashe carrier 22 May 1539 the wife of Richard Bathe by the hands of Aldhelm Lambe 10 June 1539 ~—s the wife of Richard Bathe by her carrier 2 June 1539 Aldhelm Lambe by John Barle 6 June 1539 Aldhelm Lambe by Ryse Peyett 6 June 1539 Aldhelm Lambe by Thomas Grove In the early years of the ‘Boke’ a record was kept of the costs of shipping the wares to and from the fairs. These records are all lightly crossed out, not because they were wrong, but probably as though they were re-entered in another book, now lost.* The following record illustrates the varied costs involved in getting the fardells of cloth on to the ships, and other ancillary costs: Costes of clothes shipped to the Cold Mart holden in Barrowe A° 1531 pd for byndyng of 11 fardells at 9d the fardell 8s 3d pd for carying to the watter syde of 7 fardells at 6d the fardell. Sum 3s 6d pd for carying to the wattersyde of 4 fardells and to the cartars for watching for them, at9d the fardell 3s 3d pd for cokkettes 16d pd and geven to the maryners of Birkilsay for taykyng in of a fardell when yt was lyckly to rayne 2d pd and Geven to the Sarchers 4s pd for portrage, cranage and lyghtrage of 11 fardells and a trusse lls pd and geven to the lyghtermen for rowyng a gaynst the streme at nyght with a fardell and for taykyng uppe of yt at the key 6d pd for caying of a empty pype to the Ayle brewars 1d pd for my boott hire for this shipping 7d pd for my boot hire for shipping 3 hogges heddes of bere in Richard Harwood 2d pd for carying to the watter syde of a pipe with ayle 4d pd for carying to the watter syde of a chist, 2 ferckynges with brawne and a hampper 4d pd for portrage and cranage of the pipe with ayle and the chist 4d pd for my boott for shipping of the ayle Yd pd for my boyett for shippynge of the hampper with venyson in Perys Smeth of Flusshing 2d pd for a lydd for the sand boxe ld Total sum of all the costes 34s 242d pd & quite Not only are there payments for the expected costs of binding up the fardells, the porterage, cranage and lighterage charges, and the ‘cokkett’ or sealed export permit obtained from the Customs House, but also incidental expenses paid to the porters for watching over four fardells while they were at the waterside, and a gratuity given to the mariners for saving a fardell from getting wet when it was likely to rain. The fardells were taken to the quay at Barrow by lighter, and rowed against the stream. The incidental costs of carrying a chest, two ferkins of brawn, a hamper of venison, three hogsheads of beer and a pipe of ale were also included in the costs. The references to Richard Harwood and Perys Smeth refer to the ships of these two masters. From elsewhere in the ‘Boke’ it becomes evident that Harwood’s ship was the John Baptist of London, and that Smeth’s unnamed vessel was not used for carrying the fardells of cloth to any of the marts even though it was used on this occasion for carrying provisions. Other costs sustained by Kytson included making sure that cloths were in good condition before they were shipped to the fairs. For this he employed the services of two London shearmen, Harry James and Matthew Sharpe. One entry reads, ‘delyvered to Herry James shereman to wasshe & drye a whitte of 54 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Wyllyam Adlam the younger the 14th day in February 1534. Resaved the 3rd day in Marche 1534, 1 whitte as is above rehersed’, and a similar entry was made in December 1536 for Harry James to dry, fold and tack &c 2 whites of Richard Batte’s. From Thomas Wasshington’s account for the Sinxten mart of 1536 can be learned the gross profit that Kytson reaped from his sales. Wasshington recorded the sale of 859 cloths for £4,300 13s. Flemish. At the exchange rate of 25 schellingen 6 groten for each pound sterling (the rate at which Wasshington had had to borrow money in Antwerp) the price of those 859 cloths, that had cost Thomas Kytson £2,588 5s. 6d. sterling, was equivalent to £3,235 6s. Sg. Flemish. The gross profit that Wasshington gained for his master was therefore £1,065 6s. 7g. Flemish or 32.9% Typical of Wasshington’s entries that relate to Wiltshire clothmen (names underlined) are: Sold to Ullryght factor for the Pymmels &c Item 152 whittes of John Clyyflodes fynest makyng of £32 sterlyng the packe Item 2 whittes of John Clyfflodes second makyng of £3 14s the pece Item 40 whittes of Wylliam Blackedonnes of £34 10s sterlyng the packe Item 10 whittes of Geffrey Whitacher of £34 the packe. Total sum 204 whittes at £52 10s g the packe £1071 Os 0g To pay in redy monney £534 2s lg To pay in the Colde Martt next commyng 1536 Sum £536 17s llg Sold to Wylliam van Inmersell of Andwerppe &c Item one fyne whitte of Thomas Bayles of £4 13s 4d the pece at£7 Sum £7 0s 0g Resaved be me Thomas Wasshyngton in silver & quit Sold to Frans Gyles and George Kesselor of Andwerppe &c Item 90 whittes of John Lawrens of £30 sterlyng the packe Item 8 whittes of Thomas Joes of £3 10d sterlyng the pece Item one whitte of John Clyfflodes second makyng of £3 16s sterlyng Item one whitte of John Norrynton best makyng of £3 the pece Total sum 100 whittes at one with another £47 g the pack Sum £470 Os Og To pay in the Bawius Martt next commyng Sum £235 0s 0g To pay in the Colde Martt next commyng Sum £235 0s Og Each entry gave the sterling purchase price in code (here in italics) and the sale price in Flemish currency. — ponds groot, schellingen and groten. Usually the buyers were not expected to pay for their purchases until the next Bamis mart or the Cold mart, some four or six months after the Sinxten mart. However in the second example the single fine white cloth of Thomas Bayley was paid for when Wasshington sold it to van Inmersell. The purchase price of this single cloth had been £4 13s. 4d. sterling, equivalent to £5 19s. Og. Flemish. In this case the sale price of £7 Os. 0g. gave a profit of £1 ls. Og. or 17.6%. In the first example the purchase price of all 204 whites was £665 16s. 0d. sterling, or £848 17s. 11g. Flemish, which gave a profit of £222 2s. lg. or 26.2%. In the third example a gross purchase price of £301 2s. 8d. sterling equivalent to £383 18s. 11g. Flemish gave a profit of £86 ls. 1g. or 22.4%. These figures pose the question, why did these cloths not reap the average profit obtained from all the cloths at the Sinxten mart in 1536? Thomas Kytson’s ‘Boke of Remembraunce’ records his dealings with his clothmen and others for the decade before his death, and the export of the cloths to the four seasonal markets in Flanders. In totality Wiltshire clothmen came second to their Somerset neighbours in supplying Kytson with the broadcloths or ‘whites’ that contributed to England’s main export in the Tudor period. Nearly seventy Wiltshire ‘clothmen’ appear in Thomas Kytson’s ‘Boke’ as producers of cloth. These men and women, together with some of the carriers, Kytson’s apprentices and factors, the London shearmen, the masters of the little ships and the purchasers in the annual marts are the named people in the chain of commerce taking Wiltshire cloths to the Continent. The names of the sheep farmers, spinners and weavers, upon whose labour all the cloth trade was based, remain unknown. References and Notes ' Brett C.J., Proceedings of the Somerset Archaeological and Natural History (PSANH). Vol. 143, pp29-56. Some of the details of Thomas Kytson’s trading are common to both Wiltshire and Somerset and are repeated in this article. ? Dictionary of National Biography. * Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, of the Reign of Henry VII, Vol. 3 Part 1, p.503. THOMAS KYTSON AND WILTSHIRE CLOTHMEN, 1529 -1539 55 + Ibid. Vol. 3 Part 2, p.1052. > Ibid. Vol. 3 Part 2, p.1530. ® [bid. Vol. 8, p.184. ” Ibid. Vol. 6, p.279. § For some other details of Thomas Kitson see Brett C. J. loc. cit.. ° Acts of Court of the Mercers’ Company, p.453. 0 Ibid, p.698. "' Cambridge University Library, Hengrave Hall MS.78/1 (Goods shipped to the markets in the Low Countries 1512 -39) and MS.78/2 (The Boke of Remembraunce 1529). " The first page is enscribed ‘The boke of Remembraunce belongyng unto me Thomas Kytson of London Mercer made the xx" daye in Septe[m]ber An° 1529”. ' Cambridge University Library, Hengrave Hall MS.78/4 (The Account of ye Synkeson martt, holden at Andwerppe for my Master Syr T. Kytson, Knight & Alderman of London by me Thomas Wasshyngton, 1536). 4 Baumann W-R. The Merchants Adventurers and the Continental Cloth Trade, (Berlin, 1990), p.38. 'S Acts of Court of the Mercers’ Company, p.278. ‘6 “Penestone’ is the obsolete form of ‘penistone’, a kind of coarse woollen cloth similar to a ‘kersey’. ” ‘Russet’ was a coarse woollen cloth of a reddish-brown, grey or neutral colour. '8 “Frieze” was a coarse woollen cloth with a nap, usually on one side only. '9 Cotton’ was a woollen cloth similar to a frieze. 20 ‘Kersey’ was a narrow woollen cloth which did not have the completely felted surface of a broadcloth or ‘white’. 21 “Castlecomb’ was a woollen broadcloth of a red or white colour made in or near Castle Combe. 2 VC. H. Wilts. Vol. 4, p.139. 2 Brett C.J. loc sit. pp.29-56. *4 Carus-Wilson E. M. and Coleman O., England’s Export Trade 1275-1547, (1963). *> The various spellings of the clothmens’ names and their places of residence, as given in the ‘Boke’, are here rationalized. 26 Statutes at Large, 5 Henry VIII, c.3. 7 Ibid, 27 Henry VIII, c.13. 78 The other suppliers of ‘Castlecombes’ were Harry Summers of Sodbury, William Bennet of Stroudwater, Thomas May and Thomas Wulworth of Wotton-under-Edge, Robert Payne of Burford, Nicholas Touker and Nicholas Tayler of Kingswood, Walter Osborne of Essington and John Woodward and John Eskyns of Dursley. ”» The author suggests that ‘macer’, (from Latin macere to make wet, to soak, to steep,) equates to ‘masher’ = one who mashes malt in the beer-producing process. *0 Acts of Court of the Mercers’ Company, pp.207, 226. 3! Ibid, pp.194, 200-2, 214, 223 etc.. » Tbid, p.194. * Tbid, p.394. The danger from pirates had been reported to the General Court of the Fellowship of Mercers in 1511, ‘there be dyvers shippes of warre of Skottes uppon the See, whiche have taken certen Shippes of Englonde laden with divers merchaundises, and cast the Englismen over borde into the See’. 4 Ibid, p.195. * Ibid, p.537. *6 Ibid, p.568. *7 When, as in the majority of cases, most of the cloths were the long broadcloths, each fardell would have weighed about 1 ton, corresponding to the contemporary tonnage unit of a ‘tun’ or ‘tontight’. When the fardells included many of the lighter and shorter ‘cottons’, ‘penestones’ and ‘kersies’ the total number of cloths in each fardell rose to over 50. *’ The sign ff was used as an abbreviation for ‘fardell’. The same sign was also used for ‘Flemish’. * Kytson’s code was; 7 = 1,m = 2,f=3,S =4,norN = 5,C =6,B =7;p = 8,A = 9, ando = 0. “© John Grantham’s penestones and Thomas Harforde’s whites were never allocated identification numbers. “VC. H. Wilts. Vol. 4, p.140. *” The holland was purchased in units of the old Aune. From these examples it is evident that | Aune = 1% English elles or 2 yards 3 inches. See next note. ‘8 An English elle was 1% yards, or 5 quarters. Fractions of an elle were quoted in quarters of a yard. “4 “Master Edgar’ or “Thomas Edgar gentleman’ was an occasional purchaser of goods from Thomas Kytson. Edgar features in the London Court of Husting Roll where he is described in 1537 as being ‘of “Baynors Castle”, in the parish of St Andrew Castle Bayn[ar]d’: Corporation of London Record Office, Court of Husting: Calendar of Deeds & Wills: Vol. 6, ff. 121v and i22r. Thomas Kytson, when he became an Alderman in July 1534, was described as also being of Castle Baynard: Beaven A.B., The Aldermen of the City of London, Vol. 2, p.28. Kytson and Edgar were thus neighbours. The author is grateful to James R. Sewell, City Archivist, for providing these two references. *® Mann J. de L., The Cloth Industry in the West of England 1640 to 1880, (1987), pp.319, 321. Although the figures quoted by Mann relate to a period later than the Tudor era, they may be justified in being used in making the approximate calculations of Roger Tanner’s usage of olive oil. 46 Other types of canvas dealt with by Kytson were ‘Normandy’ and ‘vettery’. The canvas was destined to be used for various domestic uses such as table cloths, linings for doublets and kirtles, sheets and mattress covers, aprons for ‘the sculyons & ye mayde’ and saddle cloths, besides being used for packing goods for shipment. 47 Other types of fustian were ‘Osbornes’, ‘beverne’ and ‘Puryynges’. 48 John Baker’s name occurs in A List of the Recorders of the City of London from 1298-1850 extracted from the 56 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE records of the Corporation of the City of London and printed by direction of the Court of Aldermen in 1850. The author is grateful to James R. Sewell, City Archivist, for this information. ” Acts of Court of the Mercers’ Company, p702. © Statutes at Large, 17 Henry VIII, cap.12. The Act for the true making of Cloth. *! Public Record Office (PRO) PROB 11/27, the will of ‘Richard Bathe alias Richard Wheteacre’ was made on 20 May 1538 and probate was granted on 24 July 1538. * [bid. Richard Bathe made ‘my brother Aldem Lambe’ one of two overseers of his will. An Aldelm Lambe of East Coulston is mentioned in VC.H. Wilts. Vol.8, pp.235-7. 3 Ibid. * Ramsay G. D., Wiltshire Woollen Industry. p.54-7. > Wiltshire Notes & Queries. Vol. 8, p.541. °° Richard’s sons were John, Robert, Aldelm, Henry and Richard: PRO PROB 11/27. ” Statutes at Large, 17 Henry VIII, cap.12. °’ Where other entries in the ‘Boke’ are crossed out, and intended not to be part of the record, they are marked ‘vacat’ in the margin (i. e. null and void). Appendix 1 Extracts from Kytson’s ‘Boke of Remembraunce’ Extracts from the ‘Boke of Remembraunce’ relating to Wiltshire, for the Exchequer Year 1536 to 1537 (Michaelmas to Michaelmas). Original Latin and French words have been translated. Abbreviated text has been expanded to the clerks’ usual spelling. Arabic numerals originally in code are here decoded and placed in italics, and names relating to Wiltshire are in bold text. Some punctuation has been added. Bought of Edward Lanckforthe [7 October 1536] Item 10 whites at £37 at £31 the pack. Sum £31 Bought of John Smethe of Viase 7 October 1536 Item 20 whites at £30 at £30 the pack Sum £60 Resaved 26 October 1536 4 whites Memorandum that there ys to resave of this 20 whites 4 whites he hayth promised to deliver be twyxt this and Alhallowtide next and that thay shall be of as good spynnyng, lenth and maykyng as thes 16 a fore resaved To pay in redy mony £30 To pay at Candelmas next Sum £20 Bought of Thomas Longe Item 3 fynne whites at £3 J/s. Sum £10 13s 0d Bought of Robert a bridge of Yford in Wilshire Item 10 whites at £32 13s 4d at £32 13s 4d £32 13s 4d Bought of John Bennett of Warmister by the handes of Robert Stokes 13 October 1536 Item 40 whites at £30 at £30 the packe save 20s over in all. Sum [blank] Memorandum that there ys to resave of thes 40 whites 5 whites he haith promysed and all that he maikes be twyxt this & Alhallowtide next and that thay shalbe of as good woolle, lenthe, spynnyng and maykyng as this 35 afore resavid. Resaved 10 November 1536 5 whites To pay in redy mony £54 To pay at Cristimas next. Sum £25 To pay at Ester next in 1537. Sum £25 Bought of Thomas Davy of Harnyngsham in Wilsher [October 1536] Item 15 whites at £27 at £27 the packe. Sum £40 10s 0d Item mor 2 whites at 54s the pece £5 8s 0d Item more the first day December 3 whites £8 2s Total sum £54 Bought of John Ussher of Warmister in Wilshire 20 October 1536 Item 10 whites at £37 at £31 the packe. Sum Resaved 30 October 1536 5 whites £31 Os 0d Bought of William Holbroke of Salisbery 21 October 1536 Item 5 whites at £10 5s at £10 5s the half pack. Sum £10 5s Bought of Richard Addams of Laycocke in Wilshere 28 October 1536 Item 8 whites at £3 6s the clothe. Sum £26 8s 0d Item 2 whites at £2 19s 4d. Sum £5 18s 8d Sum £32 6s 8d paid Memorandum that he haith promysed my Master that he shall have 2 clothes mo be twyxt this and Alhallowtide next & that thay shall be of as good wolle, spynnyng & mayking as the best of thes 8 a for resaved Resaved 2 December 1536 2 whites Bought of John Weste of Turbrig in Wilshere 11 Novemebr 1536 Item 5 whites at £/6 at £16 half pack. Sum £16 paid The shipping by the grace of God to the Cold Marte in AD 1536 A fardell no J in the John Baptist of Lee master John Goodlad Item 32 whites no | of Richard Battes Item 8 penystones of Granthams A fardell no 2 in the Savior of London master under God Richard Rede Item 32 whites no 2 of John Bennetes Item 8 penystones of Granthams THOMAS KYTSON AND WILTSHIRE CLOTHMEN, 1529 -1539 ay A fardell no 3 in the Antonye of Sandwiche master under God John Leche Item 12 whites no 3 of John Smethes Item 20 whites no 4 of John Rawlins Item 6 penystones of Granthams A fardell no 4 in the Margett of Hulle master under God Almon Binckes Item 27 whites no 1 of Richard Battes Item 3 fyne whites of T[homas] Long Item 2 whites no 3 of John Smethes Item 6 penystones of Granthams A fardell no 6 in the Peter of London master under God Christofer Rawlins Item 10 whites no 6 of Edward Lanckeford Item 10 whites no 7 of Robert Bridges Item 10 whites no 8 of William Bians Item 2 whites no 2 of John Bennettes Item 6 penystones of Granthams A fardell no 7 in the Mary Fortune of Ypswytche master under God Simond Jacobs Item 12 castelcomes no 9 of Robert Paynes Item 10 whites no 10 of John Knyghtes Item 10 whites no 11 of Aldem Lambe Item 6 penystones of Granthams A fardell no 8 in the Christofer of Meltenshore master Richard Rede Item 20 whites no 12 of William Blacdons Item 3 whites no 11 of Aldem Lambe Item 10 whites no 0 of Thomas Harefordes Item 5 penystones of Granthams A fardell no 9 in the Margett of Hulle master under God Almon Binckes Item 20 whites no 13 of Mistress Gastrodes Item 10 whites no 14 of Edward Banwells Item 2 castelcomes no 9 of Robert Paynes Item 6 penystones of Granthams A fardell no 13 in the Mary Fortune of Ipswytche master under Simond Jacobe Item 20 whites no 16 of Richard Cooke Item 10 whites no 17 of John Usshers Item 2 whites no 3 of John Smethes Item 1 white of William Holbroke wrapper Item 4 penystones of Granthams A fardell no 14 in the My/cJhell of London master under ‘God Thomas Gygges Item 15 whites no 18 of William Baxter coursse Item 15 whites no 19 of Thomas Davy Item 2 whites no 15 of Clevelodes seconds Item | white of William Holbroke wrapper Item 4 penystones of Granthams A fardell no 16 in the My/cJhell of Wamothe master under God Harry Browne Item 10 whites no 21 of Harry Davison Item 20 whites no 22 of J[ohn] Lawrens Item 2 whites no 15 of Clevelodes seconds Item 1 white of William Holbroke wrapper Item 4 penystones of Granthams A fardell no 19 in the George of London master under God Robert Gansse Item 26 whites no 15 of Clevelodes fine Item 5 whites no 24 of John West Item 1 white no 23 of mastress Blacdons Item 1 white of John Clevelodes wrapper Item 4 penystones of Granth[am]s A fardell no 20 in the Peter of London master Christofer Rawlins Item 7 whites no 11 of Aldam Lambes Item 5 whites no 17 of John Ussher Item 10 whites no 25 of Thomas Foster Item 5 whites no 21 of Harry Davison Item 4 whites no 3 of John Smethes Item 1 white no 23 of mastress Blacdons Item 1 white of John Clevelodes secondes wrapper Item 4 penystones of Granth[am]s A fardell no 2/ in the Peter of London master under God Richard Holmes Item 25 whites no 22 of J[ohn] Law[re]nes Item 6 whites no 2 of John Bennettes Item | white no 26 of Richard Addams Item | white of John Clevelodes wrapper Item 4 penystones of Granth[am]s A fardell no 22 in the Tiinite of London master under God Robert White Item 32 whites no | of Richard Battes Item 1 white of J[ohn] Clevelodes second Item 4 penystones of Granth[am]s A fardell no 23 in the John Baptist of Lee master under God Richard Polter Item 29 whites no 1 of Richard Battes Item 3 whites no 26 Richard Addams Item 6 penystones of J[ohn] Gr[antham] wrappers A fardell no 26 in the James of London master under God William Smallis Item 32 whites no 4 of John Rawlins Item 6 penystones of Granthams A fardell no 27 in the Peter of London master under God Richard Holmes Item 20 castelcomes no 27 of N[icholas] Taylers Item 8 whites no 4 of John Rawlins Item 4 whites no 0 of Thomas Harefedes Item 6 penystones of J[ohn] Granthams 58 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE A fardell no 28 in the Tiinite of Lee master under God Robert Ryngland Item 8 whites no 20 of T[homas] Pawmer fine Item 9 whites no 12 of William Blacdons Item 5 whites no 14 of Edward Banwell Item 5 whites no 10 of John Knyghtes Item 2 whites no 26 of Richard Addams Item 3 whites of Thomas Harefordes Item 6 penystones of Granthams A fardell no 29 in the John Evangelist of Tastocke master under God John Powell Item 32 whites no 28 of John Norintons Item 1 white of Thomas Harefordes wrapper Item 4 penystones of Granthams A fardell no 30 in the John Evangelist of Tastocke master under God John Powell Item 15 whites no 28 of John Norintons Item 8 whites no 18 of [William] Baxters Item 4 whites no 26 of Richard Addams Item 1 white no 15 of Clevelodes second Item 4 whites no 0 Thomas Har[efor]|des Item 5 penystones of Granthams A fardell no 3/7 in the Christofer of Alborowe master under God Bennett Bartram Item 13 whites no 28 of John Norintons Item 13 castelcomes no 29 of Walter Osbornes Item 6 castelcomes no 30 of William Coldwell Item 1 castelcome no 30 of Coldwell fine Item 1 white cowsse of Norintons wrapper Item 5 penystones of Granthams A fardell no 32 in the My/cJhell of London master under God Thomas Gygges Item 32 whites no 31 of Thomas Aslockes Item 1 white Norintons cowrse Item 4 penystones of Granthams A fardell no 33 in the George of London master under God Robert Gansse Item 28 whites no | of Richard Battes Item 3 whites no 5 of Leonard Andles Item | castelcome no 30 of Coldwell Item 1 white of Mastress Blacdons course Item 4 penystones of Granth[am]s A fardell no 35 in the Peter of London master Christofer Rawlins Item 20 whites no 4 of John Rawlins Item 10 whites no 22 of John Lawrens Item 2 whites no 20 of Palmers fine Item | white of Mastress Blacdons corse wrapper Item 4 penystones of Granthams A fardell no 36 in the Mi[cJhell of Wamothe master under god Harry Browne Item 14 whites no 23 of Mastress Blacdons Item 3 whites no 21 of Harry Davison Item 5 whites no 20 of T[homas] Palmer 7 Item 5 whites no 14 of [Edward] Banwell Item 5 whites no 10 of J[ohn] Knyghtes Item 2 whites of Mastress Blacdons co[r]se wrapper Item 1 penystone of Granthams A fardell no 37 in the Mary Anne of Berkelsay master under God John Ayre Item 9 whites no 12 of William Blacdons Item 5 whites no 19 of Thomas Davis Item 10 whites no 11 of Aldam Lambes Item 8 whites no 3lof T[homas] Ashlocke Item 2 whites of J[ohn] Norintons wrapper Item | penystone of Granthams A fardell no 39 in the Thomas Sonday of Birkylsay master under God John Fresell Item 2 whites no 26 of Richard Addams Item 7 whites no 18 of William Baxters Item 1 white no 32 of Robert Chapman f[ine] Item 2 whites no | of Richard Battes Item | white no 34 of Robert Stylle fine Item 2 whites no 35 of Richard Chapman f[ine] Item | white no 9 of Robert Paynes Item 3 whites no 36 of Richard Powell Item 2 whites no 15 of J[ohn] Clevelod Item | white no 28 of J[ohn] Norinton Item 7 penystones of Thomas Fille A Item in the [blank] Item 2 losse whites no 12 of William Blacdons Memorandum that ther ys spent in Canvas this shippyng to the Cold Marte into 1535 [sic] Item 247 elles of canvas ffor 13 hedis and sydes delyvered in this Cold Marte 1536 Bought of John Norinton of the Viesse 23 November 1536 Item 60 whites at £28 at £28 the pack. Sum _—£168 Os 0d Item 5 whites at £10 the halfe pack. Sum £10 Os Od Total sum £178 paid in redy mony £70 Os 0d to pay in redy mony £78 Os 0d to pay at Cristemas next Sum £30 Os 0d Bought of Thomas Aslocke of [Haytesbury] 28 November 1536 Item 40 whites at £29 15s the pack. Sum £119 0s 0d To pay in redy mony £40 0s Od To pay at myd Lent £40 0s 0d To pay at mydsomer next 1537 £30 0s 0d Memorandum that there ys to resave of the said 40 whites one white whiche he haith promised to be delyvered within this 3 days THOMAS KYTSON AND WILTSHIRE CLOTHMEN, 1529 -1539 59 Resaved the first day of December 1536 1 white Delyvered to Harry James shereman the first day of December 1536 Item 2 whites of Richard Battes to dry, fold and tack &c Resaved 3 December 1536 Bought of Richard Batte 26 January 1536[7] Item 40 whites at £37 15s at £31 15s of the which 40 ther was 1 fawty clothe which was delyvered unto Roger Patyens 18 Aprel 1537 Rest net 39 Resaved 27 Aprill 1537 1 white Resaved the same day 40 whites at £31 the pack. Sum £124 Resaved 28 Aprell 1537 Item 1 fyne whitte at £4 6s 8d Resaved 17 Maye 1537 10 whites at £31 Total sum £282 Bought of William Blacden in Wyltshere 13 February 1536[7] Item 12 whittes at £33 6s Sd Resaved 8 March 1536[7] 4 whites Resaved 12 Aprill 1537 14 whites Resaved 12 Maye 1537 7 whites Resaved 18 Maye 1537 3 whites Sum 40 whyttes at £33 13s 4d the pack Sum £133 6s 8d To paye in hande £66 13s 4d To paye the 14 dayes after Haloutyd 1537 £66 13s 4d Bought of George Rawlyns of Warminster 3 March 1536[7] Item 10 whites at £28 13s 4d £28 13s 4d Item Resaved 17 March 1537 [sic] 5 whyttes at £14 6s 8d the halff packe. £14 6s 8d Bought of Richard Crosse of Eyrlestocke in Wilsher 23 March 1536[7] Item 10 whites at £30 at £30 the packe. Sum £30 Bought of Rychard Mydelcott of the paryshe of Busshopstow in Wylsher 24 March 1536[7] Item 10 whittes at £29 13s 4d. £29 13s 4d Bought of John Smeth of the Viase 27 Aprill 1537 Item 30 whites at £30 the packe and 7s 6d over in all. Sum £90 7s 6d Resaved by the handes of T[homas] Clevelode for John Smythe 17 May 1537 3 whites at £3. Sum £9 23 whites at £31. Sum £71 6s 10 whites at £28 1s 6d Sum £99 7s 6d Bought of Jhon Lawrans of Warmister 11 May 1537 Item 25 whites at £29 the packe. Sum £72 10s Sum £72 10s Memorandum thatt John Lawrens hathe promyssed to deliver all the Clothes thatt he shall macke between thys and shyppyng next Bought of Thomas Baylyffe in Wylsher 12 Maye 1537 Item 20 whittes at £36 13s 4d Item 10 whites at £33 6s 8d £106 13s 4d Sum £106 13s 4d paid Resaved 18 Maye 1537 20 whites fine payable at Mydsomer & at My[c]helmas next Bought of John Duffel of Westbere under the planne 17 Maye 1537 Item 10 whyttes at £32 at £32 the packe. £32 Sum £32 Bought of John Adlam of Wylsher 17 Maye 1537 Item 20 whyttes at £32 at £32 the packe. £64 Os Od Sum £64 Bought of Robart Adlam in Wylsher 17 Maye 1537 Item 40 whyttes at £32 the packe. £128 The shipping by the grace of God to the Synxson Marte holden in [Antwerp] AD 1537 A fardell no / in the George of London master under god Richard Walgrave Item 32 whites no 1 of Richard Battes Item 7 penystones of John Granth[am]s A fardell no 7 in the Mary My/cJhell of Birkilsay master under God Richard Dalton Item 19 whites no 2 of John Clev[el]odes Item 13 whites no 3 of William Blacdons Item 6 penystons of John Granth[am]s A fardell no 8 in the Anne Fortune of Calles master under God Robert Johnson Item 12 whites no 3 of William Blacdons Item 20 whites no 4 of John Smeths Item 6 penystons of John Granth[am]s A fardell no 10 in the Tiinite Kydman master under God William Rogers Item 32 whites no 1| of Richard Battes Item 6 penystons of John Granth[am]s A fardell no 73 in the Peter of London master under God William Goodwyn Item 10 whites no 7 of John Smeths C[oarse] Item 10 whites no 8 of George Rawlins Item 10 whites no 9 of Richard Crosses Item 2 whites no 10 of John Gastreds fine Item 9 penystons of Granth[am]s wrappers A fardell no 14 in the Mary MifcJhell of Birkylsay master Richard Dalton Item 10 whites no 11 of John Chapmans 60 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Item 10 whites no 12 of William Byams Item 10 whites no 13 of Richard Middelcotts Item | white no 14 of Robert Stills Item | white no 3 of William Blacdons Item 9 penystons of Granth[am]s A fardell no 15 in the Peter of London master under God William Goodwyn Item 15 whites no 1 of Richard Battes Item 9 whites no 6 of Mores Flewell[an]s Item 4 whites no 3 of William Blacdons Item 4 castlecoms no 5 of Nicholas Taylors Item 9 penystons of Granth[am]s A fardell no 18 in the Peter of London master under God William Goodwyn Item 20 whites no 18 of Harry Davisons Item 10 whites no 19 of T[homas] Bayles Item 2 whites no 3 of William Blacdons Item 10 penystons of John Granth[am]s A fardell no 20 in the Mary of London master under God Thomas Dayll Item 20 whites no 23 of [Thomas] Baleys fine Item 3 whyttes no 24 of Rychard Dyers fyne Item 4 castlecomes no 25 of John Easkyngs Item 5 whyttes no 3 of William Blackdons Item 10 penystons of Granthans wrappers A fardell no 22 in the Barbor of Chechester master under God Richard Banwell Item 12 whites no 6 of Mores Fluellen Item 10 whites no 1 of Rychard Battes Item 10 whites no 29 of Jhone Duffells Item 10 penystons of Jnone Granthams A fardell no 24 in the Mary of London master under God John Banwyn Item 32 whittes no 30 of Robert Adlams Item 1 corsse whit of Jaone Chapman wraper Item 4 penystons of Jnone Granthams A fardell no 25 in the Trinite of London master under God Richard Holmes Item 20 whites no 31 of Wittiam Robart Adlames Item 8 whites no 30 of Rebart John Adlames Item 3 whites no 6 of Morres Fluellen Item 1 whit no 18 of Harry Davysones Item 1 whitt of Juaone Chapman wraper Item 4 penystons of Jnone Granthams A fardell no 28 in the Mawdelyn of London master under God Richard Rede Item 2 whites no 18 of Hary Davisons Item 10 whites no 35 of T Pawm[er]s fine Item 10 whites no 36 of T Pawmers seco[n]ds Item 5 whites no 37 of John Grastreds Item 5 whites no 8 of George Rawlins Item 7 penystons of Granth[am]s wrappers Item | white of John Chapmans wrappers A fardell no 29 in the Leonerd of Walderswyk master under God Thomas Crakeman Item 20 whites no 23 of T[homas] Bayley Item 9 whites no 6 of [Mores] Flewellens Item 3 whites no 4 of [John] Smeths fine Item 12 penystons of Granth[am]s wrappers A fardell no 30 in the Trinite of London master under God Richard Holmes Item 10 whites no 11 of John Chapmans Item 3 whites no 14 of Robert Stylle fine Item | white no 38 of William Biams fine Item | white no 18 of Harry Davisons Item | white no | of Richard Battes Item 5 whites of Thomas Harefordes Item 3 whites no 39 of Awen Shankey Item 3 whites no 3 of William Blacdons Item 3 whites no 40 of John Clevelodes Item 1 white no 22 of John Peremans Item 1 white no 41 of Richard Battes for store Item 8 penystones of Granth[am]s wrappers Appendix 2 Makers’ Marks of Wiltshire Clothmen 21 October 1535 William Stumpe of Malmesbury blew 29 October 1535 William Stumpe of Malmesbury blew 1 September 1536 John Lawrence of Warminster murray 22 September 1536 William Blackdon rede Bs 6+ Hc THOMAS KYTSON AND WILTSHIRE CLOTHMEN, 1529 -1539 22 September 1536 John Knyght of Bishopstrowe 22 September 1536 Aldhelm Lambe of East Coulston 13 October 1536 John Bennett of Warminster 20 October 1536 John Usher of Warminster 28 October 1536 John Norrington of Devizes 28 October 1536 unknown 28 October 1536 Richard Adams of Lacock 2 November 1536 Edward Banwell of Westbury 11 November 1536 John West of Trowbridge i k x sg a i Ww ~ ." murray blewe murray murray rede rede blewe murrey rede 28 November 1536 Thomas Ashelocke of Heytesbury 9 March 1537/8 John Lyversidge of Kilmington 27 April 1537 John Smethe of Devizes 27 June 1538 Alexander Langford the younger of Trowbridge 23 August 1538 Richard Adams of Laycock 23 August 1538 Roger Winslow of Keevil 29 August 1538 William Allen of Calne 6 September 1538 Richard Bathe of Edington 18 September 1538 William Adlam the elder of Westbury 61 rede | | rede : L murray ¢ | | blewe = om m[ono]g[ram] rede & the rest rede & blewe : blewe (e rede 62 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE | 10 October 1538 Aldhelm Lambe of East Coulston 18 October 1538 Alexander Langford the elder of Trowbridge 19 November 1538 the wife of Richard Bathe of Edington [ 6 the strypes yallow & the letters rede murray [murrey] = the colour of the mulberry, purple- red Appendix 3 Weights, Measures and Currency Glossary of some words used in Kytson’s ‘Boke of Remembraunce’. The abbreviations or spellings used by Kytson and his clerks are in parentheses. BASIC UNITS OF LENGTH Yard (yd) 3 feet = 36 inches Quarter (q or qtr) 9 inches BASIC UNITS OF WEIGHT Ton 20 hundredweights (C, hundreth) Hundredweight 4 quarters (qt’) Quarter 28 Avoirdupois pounds (Ib) ALE, BEER, OIL and WINE Barrel 36 gallons Hogshead 54 gallons Pipe 126 gallons Tun (tonne) 252 gallons CLOTH English ell 45 inches = 1% yards (yds) = 5 quarters (q or qt’) Flemish ell 27 inches French ell 54 inches Aune (An,) 1? English ells = 2 yards 3 inches CURRENCY English Pound sterling (li) 20 shillings sterling (s) Shilling 12 pence sterling (d) Noble 6s 8d Flemish Pond groot 20 schellingen Flemish (s ff,) Schellingen Flemish 12 groten Flemish (g ff, ) (The exchange rate in the mid-1530s fluctuated about 26 schellingen Flemish to 20 shillings sterling) HOPS Sack indeterminate, but usually about 3 hundredweight PEPPER Bale about 2 hundredweight TIN Block about 3 hundredweight WOAD Bale 2 Balletts Ballett about 7 quarters (qt’) = about 196 pounds (Ib) Wiltshire Archaeological & Natural History Magazine, vol. 97 (2004), pp. 63-77 Neolithic of the Wylye Valley 1: Millennium Re- investigation of the Corton Long Barrow, ST 9308 4034 by Michael 7. Allen and Fulie Gardiner with a contribution by Rob Scaife Millennium events in the parish of Boyton included an archaeology day, led by the writers, during which a visit was made to the Corton (Boyton 1) Long Barrow. This visit prompted a limited piece of research on this monument which had not been investigated since 1804. Augering through the edge of the barrow and beyond its obvious extent encountered a buried soil beneath the mound and provided the first recorded evidence for one of the flanking ditches. Limited description and analysis were undertaken and a magnetic susceptibility profile constructed. Preserved land snails and pollen from the buried Neolithic land surface indicated clearance of ancient woodland prior to construction, but not for this monument. Documentary evidence revealed an interesting history of antiquarian research and an unexpected error in the recording or transcription of Mr Cunnington’s survey measurements. In 1801 Mr (Aylmer Bourke) Lambert of Boyton House, Boyton, in the Wylye Valley issued an invitation to Mr William Cunnington of Heytesbury to ‘open every barrow upon his property’ (Cunnington 1975, 16). One of the first barrows Cunnington opened in that same year was the Corton Long Barrow (Boyton 1, NMR No ST 94 SW 37) situated in Tenant Field, Barrow Hill above the village of Corton. No records of that opening have been found but, on revisiting the barrow in 1804 (11-12 September), Cunnington concluded that his earlier excavation must have recovered a secondary burial, as the presence of a large sarsen boulder and ‘eight skeletons lying promiscuously in various directions’ on the old ground surface (Hoare 1812, 102) in the later (1804) excavation indicated that the monument was a Neolithic long barrow (Thurnam 1869, 180). The barrow (SM12341) overlooks the Wylye from its position on the chalk slopes of the southern side of the valley at a height of about 140 m OD (Figure 1). It is false-crested, more than 12 km from the summit of a convex, inverted bowl-shaped Middle Chalk slope. This slope descends below the barrow and then drops suddenly via a steep ancient river cliff (‘Landfall’) into the Wylye Valley (Figure lc). Topographically, therefore, the barrow is carefully and specifically sited. From it, splendid views are afforded of the valley floor and of chalk spurs from Battlesbury to the west, down through Heytesbury, Knook, and Codford with Salisbury Plain behind. The barrow itself is not well viewed from the upslope, southern side of Corton or from Boyton Down. Only limited views of it are possible along the valley side and, because of the steep convex slope on which it is sited, it becomes invisible from only metres downslope to the north. It is clearly sited to look over, and to be seen on the skyline from, the Wylye Valley itself. It is less spectacularly displayed towards, but is nevertheless clearly visible from, the northern valley sides of the Wylye (from Upton Lovell and Codford Downs). The valley floor itself, unusually, supports at least one long barrow at Sherrington (Sherrington 1). Redroof, Green Road, Codford St Peter, Warminster BA12 ONW 64 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Warminster ) Heytesbury Swindon @ Marlborough @ @ Devizes © Trowbridge © Warminster INSET @ Salisbury 7) ry, @ Codford e @ Long barrow Land over 125m |. Built up area Corton Hill Corton Long Barrow Landfall Fig. 1 Location plan and the Wylye valley profile SURVEY When Wm Cunnington visited the barrow in 1804 he recorded it as being aligned exactly east-west but noted that it seemed to comprise two conical mounds which he initially thought to be two adjacent round barrows. His investigations in 1801 had found a ‘rude urn, containing burnt human bones, on the west end marked A’ (Figure 2a; Lambert 1806, plate xvi, fig. 4) which tended to confirm these suspicions. Cunnington surveyed the barrow and, in a letter to Lambert (14 September 1804), who communicated it to the Society of Antiquaries on 7 February 1805 (Lambert 1806, 338-446), he records a long barrow 216 feet (c. 65.8 m) long and 25 ft (c. 7.6 m) wide at its east end, its highest elevation being 9 ft (c. 2.7 m) above the adjoining ground level. These measurements and, in fact, much of the content of Cunnington’s letter to Lambert are repeated by Colt Hoare in Ancient Wiltshire (Hoare 1812, 102). NEOLITHIC OF THE WYLYE VALLEY 1: CORTON LONG BARROW 65 a Profile June 2000 F . January 2001 Fig. 2 a) Crocker’s sketch of the barrow in 1804 for Colt Hoare from Archaeologia XV, plate xvi, fig. 4, b) barrow profile as surveyed 2000, and c) photograph of the barrow looking north across the Wylye Valley. See text for explanation. Even at that early date Colt Hoare stated that ‘the plough has diminished its size on both sides, -and at the east end’. Cunnington’s record of its dimensions, reiterated by Colt Hoare, is now established in the archaeological literature (Ashbee 1970, 167; Kinnes 1992, 10; VCH 1957, 138; Wilts County SMR). However, in 1914, Maud Cunning- ton records the barrow as being only 120 ft (c. 36.6 m) long and attributes the loss of 100 ft in as many years to ploughing (Cunnington 1914). It seems hard to reconcile an average loss of 1 ft (0.3 m) per year for 100 years as a result of non-mechanised, or even mechanised, ploughing, especially since the general shape of the barrow remains largely unchanged from Wm Cunnington’s original sketch of 1804 to the present day (compare Figures 2a, b & c). Another change noted by Maud Cunnington was that, ‘There are beech trees of considerable age 66 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE growing on the barrow’ (1914, 386-7) whereas, the 1804 sketch (Figure 2a, Lambert 1806, 15, plate xvi, fig. 4) shows it treeless. A re-survey of the barrow in June 2000 provides a plan and profile that matches William Cunnington’s description and sketch but more accurately reflects the measurements taken by Maud Cunnington and published in 1913. Our survey (Figure 3) indicates that the barrow cannot have exceeded much more than 35 m in 1804, that is, about one hundred and sixteen feet. Recording a comparable width at the eastern end is more difficult as it is uncertain where the earlier measurements were likely to have been taken, and our survey records a width nearer 15 m (50 ft). The height of 9 ft (c. 2.7 m) recorded in 1804 is not far different from the 2.26 m (7% feet) we measured in June 2000, 188 years later. From this we can only conclude that there was an error in the citation of William Cunnington’s original work. Rather than suggesting an umncharacteristically inaccurate measurement on his part, it seems likely that either a transposition of the first two numbers (126 to 216 ft), or an incorrect reading of the field note as 216 rather than 116 ft occurred and went unnoticed. The plan (Figure 3a; Eagles and Field forthcoming, fig. 4) shows an eroded ovoid barrow, probably formerly wedge-shaped (Eagles and Field forthcoming). Although field survey did not record flanking ditches, augering (see below) proved the existence of these previously unrecorded features. The ditches were however recorded by the RCHME/Engish Heritage survey, and these have been added to our plan (after Eagles and Field forthcoming, fig 4). Our survey also demonstrates that the barrow is situated at the crest of the break in slope of a north- facing valley side (Figures 1 & 3b). Its location clearly faces the monument into the view of the Wylye Valley. On the southern side the natural chalk is exposed showing that the upslope side of the mound has, in antiquity, been eroded creating a bench, leaving the old land surface on this raised bench nearly 0.2 m above the present ground surface. W. Cunnington M.Cunnington Allen&Gardner 1804 1914 2000 width 25ft 7.6m): = - SO ft 15.2m length 216ft 65.8m 120ft 366m 116ft 35.5m height 9 ft 24m" 3 - 72 ft 2.26m THE BARROW The results of Cunnington’s excavation in 1804 made him re-evaluate the monument, whereupon he concluded that it was a regular long barrow, its double-barrow form created by a division in the centre probably due to ‘the removal of earth from that spot by farmers’ (Hoare 1812, 102; Lambert 1806, 339). His excavation at the extreme eastern end of Corton Long Barrow revealed seven adults and one child lying on the ‘floor of the barrow, between two excavations in the native soil, of an oval form’ (Hoare 1812, 102). The oval pits were cut through the buried soil on which the skeletons lay and into the chalk. They were about 4 ft long (c.1.2 m) and 2% ft deep (c. 0.76 m). Both the oval gullies or pits and the burials were sealed beneath a cairn (‘pyramid’) of flints and stone 20 ft by 10 ft (6.1 m x 3 m) in extent which seems to have been capped by a large stone. The capping stone, presumably a sarsen, was so large it required three men to lift it out. There is no record of its whereabouts and it was presumably backfilled into the mound, or removed to Cunnington’s residence in Heytesbury. Ashbee (1970, 52) considers this description to fit that of a, probably partially collapsed, mortuary enclosure. THE MILLENNIUM VISIT In March 2000 the present authors were invited by the parishioners of Boyton to lead an archaeology day as part of the parish’s millennium celebrations. The day began with introductory talks on the archaeology of the Wylye Valley and the secrets and splendours of environmental archaeology and was followed by a visit to the Corton Long Barrow, today the most obvious prehistoric site in the neighbourhood. There we undertook some very limited fieldwork in order to demonstrate to the thirty or so good souls who had joined us the effectiveness of minimally intrusive augering in recovering and recording ‘hidden’ archaeological information and to emphasise the significance and fragility of one of the archaeological sites on their doorstep. Our primary archaeological aim was to record the presence and nature of the buried soil beneath the mound and to sample it for land snails and pollen. We hoped to be able to define something of the environmental history and also to gain some NEOLITHIC OF THE WYLYE VALLEY 1: CORTON LONG BARROW 67 auger hole 4 0 50 x10 SVKg N depthem 9g ~ i] ! ; ee rae | if ! / sad i: aoa t - ‘ 9e 5 x Z/priidl i en oe 100 ‘. ; as TON @ AY es ee SEBIN 7p TAR SE ul ee ay : ssa . ee a gee le) Calla ly opine ccnarventtioe spac yi wiheneres / a a 10 20m 2 a 2 1 s 0 WEES diten Fig. 3 a) Plan of the barrow showing auger locations and inset with the soil profile and magnetic susceptibility signature, note ditches added later from RCHME survey (Eagles and Field forthcoming, fig 4), and b) North-South profile of the mound 68 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE indication of the current state of preservation of the monument. Augering Very limited archaeological intervention (limited and pinpointed hand augering and excavation) into barrows in Cranborne Chase, by Dr French and ourselves (French et al. 2000), has proven to be of great value. Augering can determine the presence, depth, nature and extent of buried soils under such monuments and the presence of other features within and around the mounds. This information is of use in the interpretation of the construction sequences of monuments, in outlining their palaeo- environmental potential, and in _ providing information about the survival and integrity of various elements of the monuments to inform English Heritage and relevant curatorial bodies. On this basis, a small augering programme was conducted with a 25 mm diameter screw auger and a 40 mm diameter dutch soil auger. Five small auger holes and one natural exposure (Appendix 1) were examined (Figure 3). Augering through the low, western end of the barrow revealed a well preserved chalk mound comprised of loose blocky chalk, obviously hewn from chalk quarry pits or ditches. There is no mention by William Cunnington, Colt Hoare, or other archaeologists later, of flanking ditches associated with this monument; indeed, Maud Cunnington (1914) specifically states that there was no trace of ditches and this is reiterated by Kinnes (1992, 10, 24). Two auger holes were positioned close to a slight fall in the ground surface that appeared to mark the edge of the eroded mound. Surprisingly auger hole 2a (Figure 3) revealed deposits up to 0.75 m deep and a similar sequence, up to 1.45m deep, was recorded in auger hole 2b. These undoubtedly record the inner edge of the previously unrecorded flanking ditch of the long barrow. As the project aim was to examine the buried soil, rather than provide a profile of the ditch, no further augering was conducted at this point. Like Maud Cunnington in 1913, we could not see any real impression of flanking ditches around the monument. Recent survey by RCHME/English Heritage has, however, recorded flanking ditches and Eagles and Field say that ‘side ditches are in part just visible and appear to curve slightly, though presumably have been curtailed at either end’ (forthcoming). Our augering shows that they must indeed curve and extend beyond the shallow surface features observable at present. Attempts to locate the edge of the mound and the buried soil around its western edge (auger holes 1 and 5) failed. Examination of a small erosion hollow (see point 3, Figure 3) showed clean natural chalk at an altitude of nearly 0.5 m above the surrounding field surface. This indicated severe lowering of the surrounding chalk and that the buried soil was to be found on a perched and preserved chalk plateau. Consequently an attempt was made to auger though the chalk mound and penetrate the buried soil near the western extremity at a considerably higher level than we had originally anticipated. Augering was difficult though 0.8m of chalk rubble but this proved to lie directly on a rich, stonefree silty clay buried soil nearly 0.4m thick. The buried soil The buried soil was encountered 0.86 m below the surface of the mound (auger hole 4; Figure 3 inset and Figure 4). The lower 0.06 m of the chalk mound rubble contained patches of dark brown silty clay soil material, presumably portions of the buried soil which had been worm-worked into the mound (cf. Macphail 1995). The main buried soil was a very rich, dark brown plastic silty clay with no stones. It was not possible to determine from the augering the presence of a turf horizon, nor even of any horizonation. The lowest 30mm of the profile was soil and weathered chalk. Soil magnetic susceptibility measured with a Bartington MS2B meter coupled to a MS1B sensor coil calibrated for 10g of soil, showed a significant enhancement towards the surface of the silty clay typical of an upper, more humic, soil profile. The enhancement however, was not distinct enough to suggest conclusively that this represented the turf. We can consider this as a humic rendzina or possibly a brown earth soil. 80-86cm _—_ Blocky loose chalk rubble with patches of dark brown (10YR 4/3/3), stonefree silty clay. Post- depositional worm worked soil into base of chalk mound 86-22cm Dark brown (10YR 4/3) plastic silty clay with some chalk pieces (Ah) giving way to stonefree, plastic silty clay soil (A/B). No structure or differentiation noticed in augered soil. Buried old land surface 122-125cm Brown (10YR 5/3) plastic silty clay with some small and ?medium chalk pieces. Base of soil NEOLITHIC OF THE WYLYE VALLEY 1: CORTON LONG BARROW 69 ( e é oe sO x? © e SE One eo ee OS LS = a we es oe & Fe av f oe \y Pe? 3 Rs aes RG 2 SF Se @ € 2 vo < £ x Si are 3 WF Po DS \N \> ae) a E aS Ss Pil on eS &, o & irs No » & 3° g 24 o fore) Q GCENOD AGA, NO NOG ar ° - 0 10203040 50 ( fis Ps 7S Lc pe : ll Cases + a (6, ea Ris eee | 4@) grassland if / ° + L Ca Ce LO Ct TAMU be ee bee ese ee La ea LL clearance open ® ancient wood @ pollen sample + 4 0 50 100% Fig. 4 Land snail histogram and top of weathered chalk 125+cm Chalk This buried soil is considerably thicker (at 38 cm) than those recorded under a number of other long barrows in Wessex: West Kennet (25cm); South Street (27cm); Horslip (22cm); Waylands Smithy II (12cm) and this is a matter we return to later. With some difficulty five small samples of the soil were retrieved from the auger for analysis of land snails and pollen. No artefacts were recovered. PALAEO-ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS The main profile through the barrow (auger 4) which cored the mound and old land surface was sampled for palaeo-environmental data. This enabled the recording and recovery of a series of small samples from the buried soil. Eight very small samples (20g) were taken from the topsoil and mound material for magnetic susceptibility, but efforts were concentrated on obtaining five larger samples from the buried soil for land snails which were subsampled for magnetic susceptibility and pollen analysis. Five small samples (average 275g) were extracted using a dutch auger from the base of the mound and through the old land surface. As “much soil was removed as possible. Magnetic Susceptibility Samples were taken for magnetic susceptibility at 100mm intervals through the profile and at closer intervals, where possible through the old land surface, to enable the creation of a magnetic susceptibility signature (Figure 3 inset, appendix 2 and Table 1). Samples were air dried and 10g <2mm was measured using a Bartington MS2B meter and recorded as SI units 10° SI\Kg. The results show modern thin humic and calcareous topsoil under open ‘woodland’ (the barrow is covered with middle-aged beech trees and a variety of shrubs amongst a dense growth of 2 m high nettles) with a reading of only 16, below which the root-penetrated chalk mound gave very low results between 4 and 9 (ave 6.8). The base of the chalk mound, immediately above the buried soil showed a rise to 12, below which significantly enhanced readings of up to 58 were recorded in the buried soil. The buried soil showed typical enhancements in its upper profile, and the entire soil (except the soil and chalk at 80-85cm, and the weathered chalk below 122cm) averaged 38 SI 10-8 SI\Kg. This magnetic susceptibility profile tends to confirm the presence of a complete soil profile although not recognised as such from the auger records. The high levels in the upper surface (58 SI 10°8 SI\Kg) may be indicative of some burning on this surface. Land Snails The five small samples produced some shells from which a broad indication of the pre-monument landscape history could be gained. In general, relatively few shells were recovered, but when calculated as numbers per kilogram this was both acceptable and consistent with other buried soils. Although shell numbers are very low (due to the small quantity of soil obtained), they show striking and significant changes. In contrast to assemblages from buried soils under a number of other long 70 Table 1. Land snail and magnetic susceptibility data from the buried soil (note: ¢ examined for pollen) Cw 122-125 72 Context Depth (cm) Wt (g) MOLLUSCA Pomatias elegans (Miller) 1 Carychium tridentatum (Risso) 1 Cochlicopa spp. . Vertigo pusilla Miller - Vertigo pygmaea (Draparnaud) - Vertigo spp. - Pupilla muscorum (Linnaeus) - Vallonia costata (Miller) 1 Vallonia excentrica Sterki - Vallonia spp. - Acanthinula aculeata (Miller) - Ena montana (Draparnaud) - Discus rotundatus (Miller) Vitrea contracta (Westerlund) - Aegopinella nitidula (Draparnaud) - Oxychilus cellarius (Miller) - Limacidae - Euconulus fulvus (Miller) - Clausilia bidentata (Strom) 1 Helicella itala (Linnaeus) - Trichia hispida (Linnaeus) - Cepaea/Arianta spp. - Taxa 3 TOTAL per kg 55 TOTAL Magnetic susceptibility (SI 10° SI/Kg) 14 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE sample A/B A/B Ah mound 110-122 93-110 86-93 80- 85 317 401 248 327 + 2 + 2 3 is Z 1 3 l : hs 2 - 1 3 1 3 - 2 - 1 2 6 pp 4 2 3 - = - 4 3 1 - 4 - 2 - - Z, 1 1 - - ~ 2 + - 3 - 1 - 6 2 4 - 3 - 3 - 1 - 1 l - s 3 + - IF - 3 6 5 3 1 3 1 . : + + 14 9 11 7 120 37 173 49 38 15 43 16 24 32 58 47 barrows in Wiltshire (Horslip, West Kennet and South Street, see Evans 1972, 261-4) the main horizon of the buried soil at Corton showed a marked change from assemblages dominated by shade-loving species (Table 1), including some relict ancient woodland species, to open country species (nearly 70%). This is, however, similar to that represented by the snail fauna (Rouse and Evans in Whittle et al. 1993, 211-217) in the shallow (8cm) humic rendzina (Macphail in Whittle et al. 1993, 218-219) at Easton Down, Wilts. The high percentages of shade-loving species (50-61%) in the lower part of the soil at Corton, and the presence of V pusilla and Ena montana indicate a former ancient, albeit open, woodland (Figure 4). Like many _ other assemblages of this type (cf. Evans 1972, 248-74), most of the shells in this portion of the soil were more heavily weathered and pitted indicating that they had been in the soil much longer than those in the assemblages above 93cm. In the upper mull humus and possible turfline (93-80cm) the assemblages are markedly different; although some shade-loving species persist, the assemblage has a NEOLITHIC OF THE WYLYE VALLEY 1: CORTON LONG BARROW 71 more open character with the Vallonia species, Pupilla muscorum and AHelicella itala being important. This sequence suggests that an open and ancient woodland existed and, following clearance, open dry grassland developed. This relatively long sequence and sharp break may indicate a well developed soil profile with some internal stratigraphy (see Carter 1990), but may also indicate the presence of a subsoil (?tree hollow) feature. The difficulty of extracting soil through 80cm of bank material and the nature of the augering made it difficult to discern any definite differences in the sampled context. An occurrence of a deeper feature cannot be confirmed from the limited augering conducted. Soil Pollen, by Rob Scaife Four subsamples taken from the snail samples were prepared for pollen analysis (see Table 1). These included samples from the soil worked into the mound (@83cm), the bAh horizon (@90cm) and the bB horizon (@100cm and 115cm). Standard techniques were used for the extraction of the sub-fossil pollen and spores (Moore and Webb 1978; Moore et al. 1991) with the addition of micromesh sieving (10). The soil was highly calcareous and as such represents a highly unsatisfactory context for pollen preservation. Consequently, a rigorous pollen extraction procedure was undertaken at the Department of Geography, University of Southampton, on relatively large samples of 6ml. Samples were decalcified with 10% HCL and deflocculated with 8% KOH. Coarse debris was removed through sieving at 150u and clay by micro-mesh (10w). Remaining silica was digested with 40% hydrofluoric acid. Erdtman’s acetolysis was carried out for removal of cellulose and expanding the size of pollen after extended HF treatment. Very little pollen and few spores were present in any of the samples, but surprisingly, the pollen samples contain a fair amount of humic material which remained on the microscope slide. There are a few spores of Dryopteris type (typical ferns), Pteridium aquilinum (bracken), and a single Polypodium vulgare (common polypody). These were far from abundant. In terms of pollen the very sporadic presence of Corylus avellana (hazel), a single Alnus (alder), a single Lactuceae (dandelion type) and a Poaceae (grass) were too few to record pollen counts. Pollen preservation in chalk soils is very variable. For instance good preservation was found in the Mesolithic pits at Stonehenge (Scaife 1995), while richly humic ancient land surfaces and turves from Bronze Age round barrows on King Barrow Ridge contained none (Scaife in Cleal and Allen 1994). The poor preservation here may have been enhanced by biologically active woodland soils causing oxidation. Spores of ferns (esp. Polypodium) are often indicative of woodland but, of course, these represent the last vestiges of any pollen/spore preservation, and may be residual elements remaining in the soil for long periods. Although this is a sparse assemblage, the lack of Tilia (lime), a robust pollen grain, is noteworthy in view of its widespread dominance over many areas during prehistory. Interestingly other sites such as the buried soil under the Easton Down Neolithic barrow also lacked Tilia (Cruse in Whittle er al. 1993, 219-221). The possible implications of this aspect will be discussed in a later paper (Allen, Gardiner and Scaife in prep.). DISCUSSION The Environment We can tentatively suggest from albeit limited research that ancient woodland had been cleared from immediately around the barrow not long before construction. Nevertheless, the establish- ment of a mixed open country mollusc fauna indicates that clearance was probably not for this construction, and that woodland was not far away. The position of the barrow, with its clear views to and from the valley floor, would only have been meaningful with largely unwooded valley sides. If the augered profile represents a buried soil rather than a subsoil feature (and buried soil), then clearance may have occurred only a relatively short period (possibly decades/a century) before barrow construction. Details from John Evans’s work on buried soils from other long barrows and in Wessex (West Kennet, Horslip, South Street, Beckhampton Road and Wayland’s Smithy II) indicate the removal of woodland and of well-established open grassland or even arable (South Street) conditions locally prior to barrow construction. Only Easton Down indicates clearance of woodland locally, possibly for the barrow or immediate pre-barrow events (Whittle et al. 1993). The more localised and less intensively modified pre-barrow environment Fe THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE - Table 2. Viewsheds of Neolithic long barrows in the Corton environs and Wylye Valley Fig. 5 Barrow South of River Wylye (1) Sherrington 1 (ST 968 391) K (1) Boyton 1 (ST 930 403) I (1) Sherrington 4 (ST 951 384) J (1) Sutton Veny (ST 911 415) H (3) Stockton Barrow (ST 965 376) L North of River Wylye (1) King Barrow G (ST 897 444) (3) Norton Bavant 13 (ST 925 459) C (3) Norton Bavant 14 (ST 918 459) B (3) Heytesbury 4 (ST 924 441) E (3) Knook Barrow (ST 956 446) F (2) Warminster 6 (ST 903 471) A (2) Bowl’s Barrow (ST 942 468) D (2) Knook 5 (ST 967 462) Location and Viewshed In the Wylye Valley, next to the river On low ridge looking into the Wylye Valley and on skyline from the valley On the first ridge looking into the Wylye Valley and on skyline from the valley On low greensand/lower chalk bench looking into the Wylye Valley On the higher ridge looking into dry valleys from which it is on the skyline On low greensand/lower chalk bench looking into Wylye Valley On Salisbury Plain false crested from the Wylye Valley and looking into Oxendean Bottom On Salisbury Plain false crested from the Wylye Valley and looking into Oxendean Bottom On Salisbury Plain false crested from Heytesbury stream and looking into Oxendean Bottom On Salisbury Plain false crested from Heytesbury stream and looking into Oxendean Bottom High Salisbury Plain, overlooking Wylye but not clearly or obviously visible from it High Salisbury Plain, overlooking Wylye but not clearly or obviously visible from it High Salisbury Plain, away from Wylye and not visible from it (1) barrows which look into, or are sited in, the Wylye Valley; (2) barrows on the higher Salisbury Plain that look over the Wylye in the distance, and (3) barrows which look into other dry valleys i.e. the Oxendean-Heytesbury valley through which an unnamed bourne runs and may look over, rather than into, the Wylye. at Corton may be explained by the lack of the great Neolithic monument complexes such as at Avebury where other analyses have been conducted. We have to consider, however, that the lower section of the augered and sampled profile may represent a feature such as a treehollow, rather than a deep soil stratigraphy. Such possibilities cannot be resolved with the limited augering programme conducted. The Barrow A chalk and earthen mound at least 35m by 15m, quarried from two now completely infilled, and previously unrecorded, ditches was thrown over the eight human burials. The mound, running parallel to the axis of the slope, overlooked the Wylye Valley where the long barrow of Sherrington can readily be seen, and thus we can assume that much of this area was clear of woodland. The nature of the Wylye Valley is not known at this time but research by John Evans at Stockton (Williams and Evans 2000, 43) indicates that the floodplain was not being alluviated at this time (Evans pers comm). Further archaeological investigation at the Sherrington long barrow, by the authors, similar to that conducted at Corton, is envisaged to test this, and will be the subject of another paper. Siting of Neolithic Long Barrows in the Wylye Valley The relationship of long barrows to river valleys on the Salisbury Plain is explored by McOmish et al. (2002), and in the Wylye Valley by Eagles and Field (forthcoming). It is a subject that will be more explicitly addressed in a later paper (Allen, Gardiner and Scaife in prep.). A relatively large number of long barrows exist along the Wylye Valley, while thirteen are recorded east of Warminster (Kinnes 1992, 10, fig. 14.9). Many are sited in lowland and valley bench locations reflecting the significance of NEOLITHIC OF THE WYLYE VALLEY 1: CORTON LONG BARROW 73 (3880603890 390000 3910003920007 393000 394000 395000 «396000 +~—«397000 +~«-398000~«399000 | 148000 | Faces | 147000 | 146000 Warminster G © F ee | ° E | \ { 144000 | 143000 | LE — 142000 | 141000 | 140000 | 139000 | e J | ¥ 438000 | L 00 | | 7 co) | — 175m contour a | ~ 125m contour if | | @ Long barrow with view shed |. 137000 | 1 0 1 2km se | { { { Fig. 5 Long barrow viewsheds in the Wylye Valley as determined by site visits and mapped contours at 1:25000. Long barrows are: A) Warminster 6, B) Norton Bavant 14, C) Norton Bavant 13, D) Bowl’s (Bole’s) Barrow, E) Heytesbury 4, F) Knook, G) King Barrow, H) Sutton Veny, I) Corton (Boyton 1), 7) Sherrington 4, K) Sherrington 1, L) Stockton (see also Table 2) the valley, presumably as a communication route and the Wylye from a distance, and thus indicating its partially open nature. By (3) those which look into other dry valleys (i.e. the examining the siting and viewsheds of these barrows Oxendean-Heytesbury valley through which (Figure 5) three groups can be defined; runs an unnamed bourne) and may look over, rather than into, the Wylye. (1) those which look into, or are sited in, the Wylye Valley Thus, the viewsheds we define are not defined by (2) those on the higher Salisbury Plain that look over intervisibility between the barrows (cf. Wheatley 74 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE 1995), but by major topographical features to which views of the barrows are clearly oriented. Three barrows are specially sited to the south of the river to look into the valley; one is located in the valley (Sherrington 1); and only one (Stockton) on the higher chalk down has no significant view shed into the Wylye. Indeed its views are into two dry valleys. Those which look into the Wylye (Boyton 1, Sherrington 4 and Sutton Veny) are all false-crested from it. Similarly, to the north of the river we can see one barrow which looks into the Wylye (King Barrow), while a number, including Bowl’s Barrow, are on the High Plain and most overlook the Valley, four are clearly sited to overlook the Oxendean valley from which they are false-crested. Thus over 75% of the large density of long barrows in this area reflect the significance of the Wylye Valley (Figure 5), of which over a third are specifically sited in it, or to view it (Table 2). Other Activity of the Wylye Valley Environs As is typical with the earlier Neolithic, there is little else to accompany these mortuary monuments. Isolated casual finds are recorded and both early Neolithic pottery and flints have been recovered from excavations such as beneath Bronze Age barrows on Lamb Down (Vatcher 1963, 431 and 418) and part of a Group | stone axe was found not far away (SMR ST93NE106). There are no causewayed enclosures confidently listed although the internal earthworks within Scatchbury to the west (Corney pers. com.) may be an unconfirmed example. The presence of relatively large numbers of long barrows in the environs of Corton, and particularly in the Wylye Valley (cf. Kinnes 1992) is a clear indication of well-established early Neolithic communities, and this paper shows the Wylye Valley as a focus of some of that activity/ attention. CONCLUSIONS From limited and minimally intrusive archaeo- logical investigation we offer the following conclusions: 1. The survey has shown the traditionally recorded length of the Corton long barrow (216 ft, 65.8 m; Lambert 1806; Hoare 1812, 102; Ashbee 1970, 167; Kinnes 1992, 10; VCH 1957, 138; Wilts County SMR) to be in error, and we now record a length of 35m (c. 115 ft), in keeping with that published by Maud Cunnington (1914, 386-7). 2. Despite the growth of trees over the barrow after 1804 (Figure 2a) which had become established by 1913 (Cunnington 1914, 386-7; Figure 2c) an ancient land surface was well preserved beneath the mound. The trees presently on the fringes of the barrow (Figure 3) provide shelter for cattle which are creating some surface damage to the edges of the mound. However, as this survey and augering has demonstrated, this ‘damage’ is largely superficial. 3. Augering has demonstrated, not surprisingly, the presence of flanking ditches, previously unrecorded. 4. Precision augering and = sampling has demonstrated the presence of a well-preserved buried land surface of greater thickness than in many other recorded long barrows, from which the acquisition of environmental information (soils, snails and pollen) provides an indication of local clearance of the woodland around the barrow enabling views of the Wylye Valley. 5. These data were obtained from very limited study, rapid survey and minimally intrusive auger examination of the extant scheduled monument. Acknowledgements This research was conducted as part of the Corton and Boyton millennium archaeology day which received Millennium Fund grant aid through the Heritage for All scheme. We would like to thank the village millennium committee; especially Richard Witt, Robert and Maria Mayall, and Barbara Saunt for the invitation and _ their assistance. We would like to thank the landowners Thomas and Caroline Wheatley-Hubbard for allowing us, and the villagers of Corton and Boyton, to visit the site and undertake this investigation, and the folk of the two villages who joined us in our investigations. Amanda Chadburn, English Heritage, was wholly supportive, providing guidance and permission to undertake the augering. During post- excavation, Duncan Coe of Wiltshire County Council provided detailed SMR information, and NEOLITHIC OF THE WYLYE VALLEY 1: CORTON LONG BARROW 75 Lorna Haycock and Bernard Nurse, librarians of Wiltshire Archaeological & Natural History Society and Society of Antiquaries respectively, sought out references for us and_ provided photocopies, as did Paul Robinson, curator, Wiltshire Heritage Museum, Devizes. John Evans provided information about his own research in the Wylye Valley. We thank David Field and Bruce Eagles for discussing their work with us, and allowing us to quote from their unpublished work, and for permitting us to use the survey of the Corton long barrow, carried out by the RCHME in 1991 as part of their South Wiltshire earthworks project. Our thanks also Karen Nichols for producing figures 1 and 5 from our scrappy originals and to Rob Scaife who analysed the pollen samples. Archive Copies of this report together with the paper archive are deposited in Salisbury and South Wiltshire Museum, and Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society Museum in Devizes. Copies of this manuscript have also been presented to the Corton and Boyton Millennium Committee. Bibliography ASHBEE, P, 1970. The Earthen Long Barrow in Britain. London:, Dent CARTER, S.P, 1990. The stratification and taphonomy of shells in calcareous soils: implications for land snail analysis in archaeology, Journal of Archaeological Science 17, 495-507. CLEAL, R.M.J. and ALLEN, M.J., 1994. Investigation of Tree-Damaged Barrows on King Barrow Ridge and Luxenborough Planation, Amesbury, WANHM. 87, 54-8 CUNNINGTON, M.E., 1914. List of long barrows in Wiltshire, Wilts Archaeol. Mag 38, 379-414 CUNNINGTON, R.H., 1975. From Antiquarian to Archaeologist. Aylesbury: Shire Publications Ltd EAGLES, B. and FIELD, D., forthcoming. William Cunnington and the long barrows of the River Wylye, in Cleal, R.M.J. and Pollard, J. (eds). Monuments and Material culture. Papers on the Neolithic and Bronze Age of Britain EVANS, J.G., 1972. Land Snails in Archaeology. London: Seminar Press FRENCH, C.A.I, LEWIS, H., ALLEN, M.J., and SCAIFE, R., 2000. Palaeo-environmental and archaeological investigations on Wyke Down and in the upper Allen Valley, Cranborne Chase, Proc. Dorset, Natr. Hist & Archaeol. Soc. 122, 53-71 HOARE, R. Colt, 1812. The Ancient History of Wiltshire, vol 1. London:, William Miller GUIDO, M. and SMITH, I.F, 1982. Figsbury Rings: a reconsideration of the inner enclosure, WANHM. 76, 21-25 KINNES, I., 1992. Non-megalithic long barrows and allied structures in the British Neolithic. London: British Museum Occasional Paper 52 LAMBERT, A.B., 1806. Further account of tumuli opened in Wiltshire in a letter from Mr. William Cunnington FAS to Alymer Bourke Lambert, Esq, FRS, FAS and FLS, Heytesbury, Sept 14 1804, Archaeologia 15, 338-46 MACPHAIL, R.I., 1995. Soils, in Wainwright G. and Davies, S., Balksbury Camp, Hampshire, Excavations 1973 and 198i. English Heritage Archaeol. Rep. 4, 101-104 McOMISH, D., FIELD, D. and BROWN, G., 2002. The field archaeology of Salisbury Plain Training Area. Swindon: English Heritage MOORE, PD. and WEBB, J.A., 1978. An illustrated guide to pollen analysis. London: Hodder and Stoughton MOORE, PD., WEBB, J.A., and COLLINSON, M.E., 1991. Pollen analysis Second edition. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific SCAIFE, R.G., 1995. Boreal and Sub-boreal chalk landscape: pollen evidence, in Cleal R.M.J., Walker K.E., and Montague R., Stonehenge in its landscape: Twentieth-century Excavations. English Heritage Archaeol. Rep. 10, 51-55 THURNAM, J., 1869. On Ancient British Barrows: part 1, long barrows, Archaeologia 42, 161-244 VATCHER, F de M., 1963. The excavation of the barrows on Lamb Down, Codford St. Mary, WANHM. 58, 417-441 VCH, 1957. Victoria County Histories, a history of Wiltshire, Page, R.B. and Crittall, E. (eds), vol 1, part 1, 138 WHEATLEY, D., 1995 Cumulative viewshed analysis: a GIS-based method for investigating intervisibility, and its archaeological application, in Lock, G. and Stancic, Z., (eds), Archaeology and GIS: a European perspective. London: Taylor and Francis, 171-185 WHITTLE, A., ROUSE, A.J. and EVANS, J.G., 1993. A Neolithic downland monument in its environment: excavations at Easton Down long barrow, Bishops Cannings, north Wiltshire, Proc. Prehist. Soc. 59, 197- 239 WILLIAMS, D. and EVANS, J.G., 2000. Past environ- ments in river valley bottoms around Danebury, in Cunliffe, B., The Danebury Environs Programme; the prehistory of a Wessex landscape, vol. 1. Oxford Uni- versity Committee for Archaeology Monograph 48, 43 76 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE APPENDIX 1: auger logs Auger 1; plough removed mound 0-10cm Loose very dry humic and highly calcareous silty loam with some chalk pieces over chalk shallow Ap Shallow former ploughsoil Auger 2a; ditch 0-20cm Compact grey, dry calcareous silt loam with common chalk pieces. Ap 20-40cm Pale brown (10YR 6/3) calcareous silty loam, common chalk pieces, with larger and more frequent chalk pieces towards 40cm. Ploughwash (tertiary fill), probably medieval and post medieval 40-55cm Dark greyish brown (10YR 4/2) (reddish hue) moist silty clay, with common small chalk pieces. Secondary fill c.55-60cm Lens of chalk rubble with many very small chalk pieces with matrix as above, giving way to a lens of medium chalk rubble containing visible charcoal pieces on auger. Chalk wash primary fill 60-70cm Medium and small chalk pieces in a soil matrix 75cm + Chalk rubble - hole terminated. Primary fill Auger 2b; ditch 0-25cm Light brown silty ploughsoil with many small and some medium chalk pieces. Ap 25-35cm —as above but chalkier, possibly towards base of ploughzone 35-45cem Light buff silty calcareous fill with varying chalk content (?chalk lenses). ploughwash / tertiary fill 45-98cm Slightly darker silty clay with fewer small chalk pieces, but occasional medium chalk pieces and charcoal fragment at 87cm. secondary fill 98-145cm Becoming increasingly chalkier with depth possibly primary fill or eroded ditch sides 145cm Solid chalk Exposure 3; eastern mound 0-2cm Thin brown humus and roots over 2-16cm Exposed weathered natural chalk Auger 4; West end mound; sampled profile 0-8cm Loose dry silty calcareous humus, clear boundary Weakly formed humic horizon on chalk rubble. A 8-80cm Very blocky chalk -medium and large fresh chalk pieces- in a loose chalky fill. Exceptionally difficult to penetrate with the auger. Chalk mound 80-86cm Blocky chalk as above, but with patches of dark brown (10YR 4/3), stonefree silty clay [sample]. Post-depositional worm worked soil into base of chalk mound 86-122cm Dark brown (10YR 4/3) plastic silty clay with some chalk pieces giving way to stonefree, plastic silty clay soil. No structure or differentiation noticed in augered soil. Buried old land surface 122-5cm Brown (10YR 5/3) plastic silty clay with some small and ?medium chalk pieces. Base of soil and top of weathered chalk 125+cm Chalk Auger 5 0-10cm Loose very dry humic and calcareous silty loam with some chalk pieces Shallow humic rendzina, shallow A 10-30cm Large and medium chalk rubble with some soil. Weathered and root disturbed natural chalk Cw NEOLITHIC OF THE WYLYE VALLEY 1: CORTON LONG BARROW 77 APPENDIX 2: Magnetic susceptibility results of the full profile Samples: auger 4 - magnetic susceptibility (SI units 10-8 SI\Kg) @ Scm 16 topsoil @15cm 9 ) @25cm 8 ) @45cm 4 ) @55cm 7 ) chalk mound @65cm 4 ) @75cm 9 ) @80cm 12 ) 80-85cm = @83cm 47 ) 86-93cm = @90cm 58 Ah 93-110cm = @100cm 32 ) 110-122cm = @115cm 24 ) buried soil 122-125cm = @123cm 14 ) chalk/natural 78 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE | Watercolour by Wiliam Owen Pughe (1759-1835), whose verse and watercolours, evoking Druidic themes, drew inspiration from Tolo’s ideas. Reproduced by kind permission of the National Library of Wales Wiltshire Archaeological & Natural History Magazine, vol. 97 (2004), pp. 78-88 A Welsh Bard in Wiltshire: Iolo Morganwg, Silbury and the Sarsens by Fon Cannon! and Mary-Ann Constantine? A letter written by the Welsh antiquary and Druidic enthusiast, Iolo Morganwg, about his visit to the Avebury region in 1777 1s published and discussed. Mis views on Silbury Hill (excavated the year before) and on the nature and origin of sarsens and sarsen settings are placed in the context of antiquarian thought, and discussed alongside other Wiltshire references in his letters and published works. In January 1777 a thirty-year-old Welsh stonecutter wrote to a compatriot in London with a vivid account of his recent journey through Wiltshire. He was Edward Williams, better known as Iolo Morganwg, the man whose vision of Britain’s Druidic past would have an enormous impact on Welsh life and letters, and whose obsessive revision of its medieval literature would both inspire and frustrate Welsh scholarship for well over a century.' Iolo’s vision of a Bardic Institution and the patriarchal religion of the Druids owes much to antiquarian predecessors like William Stukeley and Henry Rowlands; it owes much too, to subsequent revolutionary politics, to Thomas Paine’s Rights of Man, and to his own Unitarian convictions. And it owes something, no doubt, to the laudanum that he took from his mid-twenties ‘for a troublesome cough’, and to which he remained addicted through- out a long and busy life. But at the heart of the vision is a sense of place, of history rooted in physical remains, in buildings and in stones. In a letter from the archive of the National Library of Wales (NLW MS 1808Eii no. 1519) presented below, we have Iolo’s response to two key sites in what can best be described as his ‘historical mythology’ of the early British past: and, thanks to a couple of crucial details, his observations have a particular interest for archaeologists of those sites today, as well as throwing new light on seventeenth and eighteenth-century attitudes to ancient landscapes. 12 January 1777 My Dear Friend, I should have wrote sooner to you, but for the uneertain uncertainty I was in whether I should stay here for two Days together during the late frost, which puta stop to our trade. On my way hither I was so lucky as to be two days sick on the road. I suppose you would not be sorry to have as good an account as I can give you of the opening of the Mountaineous Tumulus at ABURY. I passed by it, and had the good fortune to meet with an inteligent shepherd, who saw it open (for it is now shut up) the Gentleman who had it opened had the area of its base measured and found that it stood upon no less than eight acres of ground (which is but little less than that on which the largest Egyptian Pyramid stands.) it is high in proportion and is never taken by the uninformed traveller but for a large natural mountain, there were four coal miners from Kingswood Coalmines near Bristol, employed for some Months to make a hole down to the bottom, they found it to consist of chalk and gravel thrown together by the hands of men and no natural hill as some doubted it to be, there were many | Hillside, Ogbourne St George, Marlborough SN8 1SU_ ? Iolo Morganwg Project, University of Wales Centre for Advanced Welsh and Celtic Studies, Aberystwyth SY23 3HH 80 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE cavities in it but for what purpose is unknown as nothing was found in them. — there are many hundreds of Druidical monuments within two Miles around Abury (on Marlborough Downs) and most of them very stupenduous, I have seen the Grey withers on these Downs, whence a late author asserts the stones of stonehenge were got, but with equal propriety he might have say’d that the grey withers were brought from stone henge for within 50 miles of this place there are no quaries of stone of any kind exept those in the neighbourhood of Bath 30 miles off and that not in the least like those stones that are in such prodigious numbers all over these Downs and Salisbury plain ... the Grey Withers is a Carnedd so Stupenduous as to have been taken hitherto for a natural mountain of dry Stones. but is evidently thrown together by the hands of Men as they all lie on the face of the ground in a confused manner like all carneddau, whereas roeks Rocks are always found in regular beds. besides upon digging into the ground there are no stones of any kind whatever to be found. nor any thing but marl or chalk. about 1000 acres of land on the Downs next Marlborough are covered with these kind of stones mostly either in streight or in circular rows. and there must have been formerly much more of them for all the houses walls &c & even the large Town of Marlborough are built with these stones broken to pieces. whence such amazing numbers of such enormous stones were got, or how brought hither, 1s astonishing to think. there is nothing more evident to me than that this was the grand seat of the Druids before the Roman invasion, if you consider the situation of the Country you will find it the most convenient of any in Britain, both for the resorting of the British provinces, as not being secluded by any [?] great rivers, ranges of Mountains arms of the sea &c and for the convenience of the Galic Students who it is well known came over to Britain to be fully instructed in the misteries of Druidism, that the Druids might retire to Anglesea on the Roman invasion I can readily allow. and might make that Island the seat of their learning for some short time. this is all I can ever grant. my I heard when at Anglesea that M'. Rowlands had never been farther than Aberconwy out of Anglesea. this I believe to be pretty true, otherwise he would never have laid such stress on the exceeding pitiful monuments of that Island as proofs of its being the chief seat of Druidism. M’. Rowlands was certainly prejudiced in favour of Anglesea, if it was really the chief place of the Druids, what? in the name of reason was the use of these Stupenduous works of theirs on Salisbury plains & Marlborough Downs, a single one of them being many hundreds of times larger than all their remains in Anglesea put together, consider farther that in Anglesea the materials were found on the spot, but here were brought from the prodiguous distance of probably a hundred Miles if not farther for with all my enquiries I cannot find any quaries of such stones within that distance, but your patience is probably tired, and so no more of Druidism. — If you will be kind enough to send my Box and tools, directed to me at M', Marsh Carver N°. 23, Orchard street Bristol, I shall be highly oblidged to you. I left the extract from the Six Months Tour thro’ England and Wales in your house and and with it a little sheet Catalogue of Books, Mostly Architecture, of Taylor’s Holborn: I should be glad if you could send them with the Box perhaps you could lift the cover up a little to put them under, or perhaps fasten them under the cord, or put them on the cover and tack a sheet of stiff paper over them. I shall soon take a trip to Wales and shall then have something to send you which, perhaps, you will be glad to have. Iam my Dear friend your very humble Servant and sincire well wisher Edward Williams Bristol} Jan’. 12} 1777} PS. my Sincire respects to Mess". Ceiriog Du, Alwen, &c, &c, &c, &c, &c, and likewise to M'. Fenton. direct your letter to me at M’. Watkins in Baker’s yard Back street Bristol. SILBURY Tolo’s ‘intelligent shepherd’ was indeed a useful informant. The ‘Mountaineous Tumulus’ was Silbury Hill, and the excavation mentioned was that funded by the Duke of Northumberland, a prominent antiquary with local connections, who employed a number of miners to excavate the Hill at the end of October 1776. ‘The Antiquarians promise to themselves wonders from the bowels of this mountain!’ exclaimed the Bristol Journal; the hole itself was said to be eight feet square (2nd November 1776; cited in Field, Brown and Thomason 2002, 103). In fact, this first known antiquarian intervention at Silbury Hill produced nothing but ‘a thin slip of oak’ (Field, Brown and Thomason A WELSH BARD IN WILTSHIRE: IOLO MORGANWG, SILBURY AND THE SARSENS 81 2002).’ The main significance of the excavation lies in the long-term side-effects attributed to poor or non-existent backfilling. This has until recently been assumed to be the cause of the structural problems which culminated in the major collapse at the Hill in May 2000.? It is this collapse that lends relevance to any new information about the excavation, and thanks to Iolo and his shepherd there is now more that can be said. There was, for example, no known date for the end of the dig, which could conceivably have been extended over two seasons. The letter gives us a new terminus ad quem of 12 January 1777; Iolo’s actual visit to the site could well have been a week or weeks before he wrote the letter — he implies, for example, that he has been delayed by frost — so the excavation must have taken place over November and December 1776. ‘Some months’ is not an unreasonable description of the time period involved. We also have the suggestion that there were four, rather than the previously reported three, miners, which would make sense: David Field (pers. comm. 2002) has suggested that two were digging and two removing spoil. And, in ‘Kingswood Coalmines’ we have a new and persuasive point of origin to add to earlier claims Watercolour by William Owen Pughe (1759-1835). Reproduced by kind permission of the National Library of Wales that they came from ‘Cornwall’ or ‘the Mendips’ (Field, Brown and Thomason, 2002, 16)* In other areas Iolo provides new information about the activities that took place, which included measuring the base of the hill and examining how it was built: ‘it was found to consist of chalk and gravel thrown together by the hands of men’ — a reasonably accurate description, even if it does not do full justice to the complexity of the hill’s internal engineering as it is now understood. But perhaps the most intriguing aspect of Iolo’s report is the statement that ‘there were many cavities in it but for what purpose is unknown as nothing was found in them’. The suggestion that there might be ancient cavities in the hill raises old questions: from the earliest times, observers have wondered if the hill conceals a burial or other structure. Yet no evidence for anything of this nature has been found in the three hundred years of archaeological investigation at Silbury Hill; and all known cavities appear to be the result of poorly-consolidated excavation. Even the role of the 1776 excavation is currently open to question: all the cavities revealed in Cementation Skanska’s seismic and geo-technical surveys in 2001, 2002 and 2003 seem either to be anomalies in 82 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE data or the result of poorly consolidated tunnelling by Atkinson, in 1968 (MacAvoy, pers. comm., 2002). Nevertheless, Iolo’s observations are certainly worth taking into account in any future assessment of the issue. Altogether, considering his notoriety in Welsh literary history as a forger of pasts and manipulator of truths, there is very little in this early letter that is demonstrably unreliable or romanticized: Iolo can be a good witness, as his observations of local customs in his native Glamorgan, or his later reports for the Board of Agriculture demonstrate (Williams 1956, 35-72, Jones 2001). The date and context of the letter are also encouraging for the historian. At this point in his career, though already keenly interested in the subjects that would come to form the keystones of his elaborate bardic vision, Iolo’s antiquarianism is relatively receptive and fluid. Here, as for the majority of his contem- poraries and intellectual predecessors, the stones and mounds of the Avebury—Stonehenge area are the acknowledged heartland of ‘druidic’ activity (he even takes a swipe at the Anglesey antiquary Henry Rowlands for his small-minded parochialism). Only later, as Iolo’s centre of gravity shifted more and more to his own beloved Glamorgan, would the importance of the great Wiltshire complex gradually fade. At this point too, we can be fairly confident about his intentions in writing to the London farrier Owen Jones (also known as Owain Myfyr). As a literary-minded young Welshman in England (he had been working as a mason in London and Kent over the last three or four years), Iolo was attracted to the thriving London Welsh societies, whose activities in terms of the publication and promotion of Welsh literature were in fact considerably livelier than anything happening in Wales itself. Amongst the London Welsh, Owain Myfyr was a genial and generous supporter, not only of contemporary poetry (Iolo had sent him a draft poem for comment about a year earlier) but above all of attempts to copy, preserve and publish the neglected treasures of Wales’s literary past. So the young stonecutter heading back to Wales in 1777 was also establishing literary contacts which would bear fruit for decades to come. As a poet, historian, antiquary, and, before long, the self- appointed preserver of Welsh (or rather Ancient British) tradition, Iolo had every reason to take an The byway on the line of the Great Bath Road still goes through the heart of Fyfield Down; the Scheduled hollow ways where it climbs Overton Hill are visible in the background. © Fon Cannon 2003 A WELSH BARD IN WILTSHIRE: IOLO MORGANWG, SILBURY AND THE SARSENS 83 interest in the stones and monuments he passed on his way home. THE SARSENS As the second half of the letter shows, Iolo had also visited the sarsen spreads centred on Fyfield Down, presumably (though not necessarily) at the same time as he passed Silbury Hill. Silbury was on the main coach road from London to Bristol and Bath (today’s A4), roughly following the valley of the River Kennet. Fyfield Down could have been accessed from this road by going up one of the six side-roads shown on Ogilby’s map of 1675, by walking up a sarsen-filled valley such as Piggledene, or by leaving the turnpike at Marl- borough (which was set up in 1742-3: Crittall, 1959, 266-71). Whichever way he came up, Iolo would have joined the Old Bath Road, a route over the Downs from Marlborough which was for many years the major connection between London and Bristol (indeed, the hollow ways cut by the weight of traffic along it can still be seen on the side of Overton Hill).. This higher road, which is still a bridleway, bisects Fyfield Down, and while coaches avoided it after the turnpiking of the valley road because of the many stones it remained popular with pedestrians (Watts, 1993; Chandler, 2001, 250; and Phillips, 1983); in fact, although turnpiking was the decisive moment for the valley road, both roads were probably used, depending on circumstances, for many years (Fowler, 2000, 22). Iolo is likely to have used both routes at different times: as turnpikes were free to those on foot, there was no reason for him to avoid the valley road past Silbury Hill, while the road across the Downs and through the sarsens remained formally open to all traffic until 1815. The higher road had thus been travelled by many of the ‘great and good’ of society, and from the seventeenth century on, the sarsen stones appear in various letters and publications. Indeed they became something of an attraction: Camden mentions them in 1607, describing the Kennet as running ‘through fields, all over which great stones like rocks rise out’ (p. 93); John Ogilby’s Britannia (1675), a gazetteer and guide to key routes, points out that en route from Marlborough to Bath, one can view the ‘Multitude of Stones disperst’ (p. 21). Over a century after Camden, Stukeley confirms that it was ‘the topic of amusement for travellers, to observe the gray weathers on Marlborough downs’, (Stukeley 1776, p.14) while a 1792 guide to the Bath Road devotes several pages to the ‘exceedingly hard’ stones which ‘lie scattered irregularly, along the sides of a valley on the right of the road’, noting that some of these clusters are ‘placed in semicircular forms’ (Robertson 1792, 28 and 38-39). Iolo’s description is not dissimilar. Indeed, he gives the same paradoxical impression of both chaos and regularity, noting that the stones ‘all lie on the face of the ground in a confused manner’, and that ‘about 1000 acres of land on the Downs next Marlborough are covered with these kind of stones mostly either in streight or in circular rows.’ Anyone who knows Fyfield Down will recognise the aptness of this: the scattered sarsens do indeed sometimes form rows and arcs, partly because, as we now know, they were cleared to the edges of newly- made fields as early as the Bronze Age (Fowler 2000). It is this curious ambiguity of patterning, the blurring of the boundaries between the natural and artificial, which lies at the heart of the debate about the stones from the beginning of antiquarian interest in them. In this letter, Iolo is firmly persuaded that the Greyweathers were ‘evidently thrown together by the hands of Men’, vividly describing them as ‘a Carnedd so stupenduous as to have been taken hitherto for a natural mountain of dry stones’. The ‘confused manner’ of their arrangement, far from indicating the random disposition of nature, is proof of their human design (his opinion that natural ‘Rocks are always found in regular beds’ is very much the observation of a stonemason, as is the knowledge he shows of the location of quarries in the area). Here, he is restating an idea that, in various forms, had been in existence for some time. Other observers held these strange, foreign-looking stones (they are said to be named after ‘Saracens’) to be artificial not only in their lay-out but in their very composition. As early as 1607, Camden says ‘some [...] think these stones not natural or hewn from a quarry, but made of fine sand and some unctuos cement’ (Camden 1607, 93).° Robert Gay, in 1725, took issue with Inigo Jones’s theory that they were the source or quarry for Stonehenge, declaring ‘I am confident that they are saxa factitia, great artifical stons, made of many small naturall Stones’ (cited in Legg 1986, 43). Childrey, in 1661, on the other hand, was ‘clearly of the opinion that they are naturail stones’, and a testimony to the wisdom of Nature, who would apparently consider it proper to ensure large amounts of stone were gathered together in any area which otherwise 84 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE The sarsens on Fyfield Down, many of which have been moved in the creation of prehistoric fields, have a curious ambiguity of patterning, blurring the boundaries between the natural and the artificial. © Fon Cannon 2003 lacked them (pp. 44 and 49). And if they were natural, opinion differed as to whether they were connected to the bedrock or lay loose on the surface. Sir Christopher Wren, discussing them with John Aubrey, suggested that ‘they were cast up by a volcano’ (Aubrey 1685, 44); for William Stukeley, writing in 1740, they were ‘loose, detach’d from any rock, and doubtless lay there ever since the creation, being solid parts thrown out to the surface of the fluid globe, when its rotation was first impress’d’ (Stukeley 1740, 16). Samuel Pepys, however, found it ‘prodigious’: to see how full the Downes are of great stones; and all along the vallies, stones of considerable bigness, most of them growing certainly out of the ground so thick as to cover the ground (Pepys 1668). In 1754 the geologist Edward Owen, reserving his own judgement on the origins of the stones, noted: When I spoke with the People of the place concerning the singularity of such large masses of stone lying in so particular a manner, they gave it me as their opinion that they took their rise in the different places where I saw them lie, and the tops of numbers of them, just shooting as it were healthy and strong out of the earth, as if they belonged to large masses growing up within it, seemed to confirm them in that opinion; but be that as it will, the oldest and most sensible part of the people assured me, it was their stedfast belief, that they had grown very considerably in their time (Owen 1754, 241). But it was John Aubrey, writing between 1665 and 1697, and William Stukeley, published from 1740, who made the first systematic investigations of the landscape, establishing that the sarsens were natural and the source material for Avebury and Stonehenge, and for the first time proving the difference between these man-made monuments and the natural phenomenon of the sarsen spreads. It is worth remembering that the contrast between the different parts of the landcape was not nearly as great in their time as it is today. Most of the stones at Avebury were buried or recumbent, and the size and shape of the henge greatly obscured by orchards and field boundaries. There were also larger numbers of uncleared natural sarsens in the area than there are now (Field, forthcoming); and on Fyfield Down, along the Kennet Avenue and in A WELSH BARD IN WILTSHIRE: IOLO MORGANWG, SILBURY AND THE SARSENS 85 Avebury itself sarsens generally could be discerned lying in rings and rows. The achievements of Stukeley and Aubrey can be seen in their original context as acts of classification and analysis as much as of outright discovery, distinguishing the artificial from the natural in a landscape filled with stones set in apparent patterns. Though these ideas had gained wide acceptance by the latter half of the eighteenth century, Iolo’s perception of human design across the entire landscape is far from inexplicable or perverse, and he was certainly not alone in interpreting the sarsens of the Marlborough Downs as one vast ancient monument. Indeed, modern archaeology would not disagree with him: the known extent of the grid of fields laid out on the Downs in the Bronze Age, and the scale and variety of the monuments still being identified in the Avebury landscape, all tend to confirm his point of view. Given his belief that all the stones came from elsewhere (‘whence such amazing numbers of stones were got, or how brought thither, is astonishing to think’), it becomes clearer why this letter, rather surprisingly, pays scant attention to Avebury itself. If the entire area is perceived as a major ‘Druidical monument’ or complex of monuments, then Avebury would appear correspondingly diminished. It may also be that its central importance is taken for granted, or, more simply, that Iolo did not have the time or opportunity for a proper visit. Iolo’s belief that the sarsens originate outside the area naturally leads him to reject the ‘late author’ who ‘asserts the stones of stonehenge were got’ from the Marlborough Downs. This idea was fairly widespread, appearing in the writings of Inigo Jones, Aubrey and Pepys, but it was most influentially put forward by William Stukeley (who died in 1765), and he is the likely target here. Elsewhere in Iolo’s manuscripts the rejection of Stukeley is made explicit, though in a manner which seems curiously wilful, not to say unfair, since Iolo himself appears to have changed his mind about the origins of the sarsens, and is here much more in line with Stukeley’s thinking: These masses of Granite are to be found in abundance on Marlborough downs, where they are called the Greyweathers, in many places on the surface of Salisbury plains, and almost every where there at no great depth in the ground amongst that prodigious heap of volcanic or deluvian rubbish of which all that part of this Island for fifty miles at least around, consists [...] Dr Stukely in his attempt to discover the quarry whence the materials of Stone- henge came had the misfortune to jabber a profusion of pedantic nonsense (NLW MS 13089, 172). In another note he adds ‘stones like those of Stonehenge are found in great numbers on the surface of the ground of various magnitudes perhaps since the Creation, especially about Abury, the Grey weathers etc’? (NLW MS 13097B, 331). Since Stukeley explicitly claimed that ‘All our Druid temples are built, where these sort of stones from the surface can be had at reasonable distances; for they are never taken from quarries’ (Stukeley 1740, 5), it is hard to see what Iolo’s quarrel with him is here. It may be that we lack some key piece of contextual information that would help us understand the nature of his disagreement. FROM WILTSHIRE TO GLAMORGAN Though Iolo walked the route from London to Bristol many times throughout his life, his manuscripts and correspondence reveal disappointingly little else on the Wiltshire sites: this early letter seems to be the fullest account of them to survive. Yet there is no doubting that the prehistoric monuments helped give shape to the various rituals of Iolo’s bardic tradition, many of which crystallized during another period in London in the early 1790s. Iolo’s bardism saturates the introduction to William Owen Pughe’s Heroic Elegies of Llyware Hen (1792), and inspired him to produce several watercolours on druidic themes; in the same year Iolo held the first Gorsedd or bardic ceremony on Primrose Hill. And when his own Poems, Lyric and Pastoral came out in 1794, its footnotes and essays were full of information about bards past and present, including this nicely scaled- down and portable version of the stone circle: The Welsh Bards always meet in the open air whilst the Sun is above the horizon, where they form a circle of stones, according to the ancient custom; this circle they call Cylch Cyngrair, the Circle of Concord, or of Confederation. In these days, however, it is formed only of a few very small stones, or pebbles, such as may be carried to the spot in one man’s pocket; but this would not have been deemed sufficient by those who formed the stupendous Bardic Circle of Stone- Henge (Williams 1794, IT, 39). 86 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE A series of letters from 1800-1801 reveals some tantalising glimpses of further interest in the subject. In January 1800 Iolo tells Owen Jones that he intends to: come by way of Stone henge, not above 5 or 6 miles out of my way, to London; I want to notice the stone, I have often seen the place but not since I became a little acquainted Scientifically with the modern System of Mineralogy, which is necessary for a new acct. of Stone Henge. As for the places whence the stones were dug I have beyond the possibility of a doubt long ago discovered them (British Library Additional MSS 15024, f. 308-09). This confidence is echoed in a letter to William Owen Pughe some months letter: ‘I will come by stone henge, not much out of my way, and take a proper account of it. I have lost what I once wrote on it, or have mislaid it, I am certain that I can give a better account of it than has yet appeared’ (NLW MS 13221E, 77). But that ‘proper account’, like so many other schemes of Iolo’s, either has not survived or was never written. In 1801, William Owen Pughe, busily mapping the place-names of early Welsh poetry onto a druidic landscape, asked Iolo: If, in your way up, you should come the Marlborough Road, try to stop to examine Avebury more minutely than I had time to do — I think, that there is no doubt of its being our grand national place of Meeting — It was (I say) the Gorsez Bryn Gwyzon — Bryn Gwyzon (Silbury hill) formed its meridional Index; for I think, you will find it to be exactly south from the centre of Avebury, or from some particular point in the circle — Cludair Cyvrangon, or the Mound of the Conventions was only another name for Bryn Gwyzon? (NLW MS 21282E, item 350). Iolo in response promises ‘to bestow one whole day on Avebury and Silbury’, adding: I have long wished to do so, and I now want to do so, and, were it possible, another day to examine Stone henge more minutely than I have hitherto done, of each of these curious objects I have never yet been able to do any thing more than to glance at them, or to take but very transient views of them, tho’ I have several times passed by each of them. You think Avebury to be Gorsedd Bryn Gwyddon: I should not be very loath to swear it when I consider every circumstance (NLW MS 13221E, 116). Those ‘transient views’ rather undermine earlier claims to have ‘studied’ the places at length, and it is hard not to feel that Iolo never got round to giving the sites his full attention. This may partly be the effect of an increasing preoccupation with his native Glamorgan, neatly exemplified by the location of ‘Bryn Gwyddor’ (or, in William Owen Pughe’s idiosyncratic orthography, ‘Gwyzon’). This ‘hill of knowledge’ is referred to in a (probably spurious) Welsh triad (a medieval three-line verse- form that Iolo excelled at imitating) as the site of a bardic meeting or gorsedd, and though Iolo seems here to accept William Owen Pughe’s identification with Silbury in 1801, he would ultimately locate Bryn Gwyddon at Ystradowen, near Cowbridge, where he spent much of his life (Williams 1956, xxxv; cf. NLW MS 13087E, 113). It is not without irony that the man who in 1777 accused Henry Rowlands of a local partiality to the ‘exceeding pitiful monuments’ of Anglesey should in turn Two watercolours by William Owen Pughe (1759-1835). Reproduced by kind permission of the National Library of Wales A WELSH BARD IN WILTSHIRE: IOLO MORGANWG, SILBURY AND THE SARSENS 87 come to perceive his own county as the cradle of all the civilizing qualities of the bardic tradition. One can only regret that more of Iolo’s ideas on the composition and origins of Avebury and Stonehenge, if they were ever committed to paper in the first place, have not survived. Though visionary interpretations of those famous sites are not, it is true, in short supply, the thoughts of this highly original stonemason-scholar would have been well worth reading. What we have here is valuable nonetheless: on the one hand, a clarity of observation which provides reliable information on a key early intervention at Silbury Hill; and on the other, a response to the landscape which reminds us of the context of the work of Aubrey and Stukeley. It is something of a shock to realise that, in famously defining the major monuments around Avebury, these pioneers of archaeology actually diminished what, to observers from Camden to Iolo, was their ‘true’, much vaster, scale. Notes ' The most detailed (though unfinished) biography of Iolo is in Welsh (Williams, 1956); for good short accounts in English see Morgan 1975 and Jenkins 1997. A major research project is underway at the University of Wales Centre for Advanced Welsh and Celtic Studies in Aberystwyth: we are especially grateful to Ffion Jones and David Ceri Jones, who are editing Iolo’s correspondence, for making their work available. All citations from letters and manuscripts carry National Library of Wales numbers (hereafter NLW MS), and preserve original spellings. ’ The citation is from the Rev James Douglas, Nenia Brittanica (1793); Gough’s notes to his edition of Camden’s Britannia, however, gives the finds as ‘a rotten post and rusty knife’ (Camden and Gough, 1789 p. 110). > Collapses around this spot also occurred in 1925 and 1933. The spoil heap left by the miners may have still been visible in 1849, and indeed some of it may still be present today (Field, Brown and Thomason, op cit p 57.] ‘ There is also another Kingswood in Gloucestershire, but it is not on a coalfield. The Kingswood Colliery, just east of Bristol and on the London-Bristol road, has a strong claim over all these. > For the name see Fowler 2000, 22: Fowler also cites the alternative names ‘Old London Way’ (1815, p.65) and “Green Street’ (early twentieth century, p. 115). The hollow ways are a Scheduled Ancient Monument and are listed in the Wiltshire SMR (no SU13327091); and by the NMR as no. SU17SW95, UID 221801. Many possible turnings and footpaths off the turnpike are shown on Andrews and Dury (1773). ° Gibson’s notes in his translation of Camden (Camden and Gibson, 1695) go into further detail, suggesting (p. 94) that such ‘cement’ was used in ancient Rome (as indeed it was throughout the Roman world). Bibliography ANDREWS, J., and DURY, A., 1773, A Map of Wiltshire (taken from an actual survey). [reduced facsimile, WANHS Records Branch, vol. 8, 1952] ANON November 1776 to February 1777, Felix Farley’s Bristol Fournal. Bristol: Felix Farley AUBREY, J., 1685, Memoires of Naturall Remarques in the County of Wilts: to which are annexed, observables of the same kind in the county of Surrey, and Flintshire, in Britton, J., (ed) 1847, The Natural History of Wiltshire. London: Wiltshire Topographical Society AUBREY, J., 1980, Monumenta Brittanica, Fowles, J. (ed). Sherborne: Dorset Publishing Company CAMDEN, W., 1607, and GOUGH, R., 1789, Monumenta Britannia, or a_ chorographical description of the flourishing kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland, and the islands adjacent; from the earliest antiquity (expanded English edition). London: T. Payne CAMDEN, W., and GIBSON, E., 1695 Camden’s Britannia, newly translated into English: with large additions and improvements. Edmund Gibson, Oxford: Queen’s College CHADBURN, A. FIELD, D., and McAVOY, F, 2002 and 2003: e-mails to Jon Cannon. Bristol, Swindon and Portsmouth: English Heritage CHANDLER, J., 2001, Wiltshire: a History of its Landscape and People. Vol I - Marlborough and Eastern Wiltshire. Salisbury: Hobnob Press CHILDREY, J., 1661, Britannia Baconica: or, the Natural Rarities of England, Scotland and Wales etc. London: printed for the author CRITTALL, E., (ed), 1959, The Victoria History of the Counties of England: A History of Wiltshire vol 4. London: University of London Institute of Historical Research FIELD, D., with BROWN, G., and THOMASON, B., 2002, An investigation and analytical survey of Silbury Hill. Swindon: English Heritage Archaeological Investigation Report Series FIELD, D., forthcoming. ‘Some Observations on Perception, Consolidation and Change in a Land of Stones’ in Brown, G., Field, D., and McOmish, D., The Avebury Landscape: field archaeology on _ the Marlborough Downs, Oxford: Oxbow books FOWLER, P, 2000, Landscape Plotted and Pieced: landscape history and local archaeology in Fyfield and Overton, Wiltshire. London: Society of Antiquaries LEGG, R., (ed), 1986 Stonehenge Antiquaries, Sherborne: Dorset Publishing Company JENKINS, G.H., 1997. Fact, Fantasy and Fiction: The 88 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Historical Vision of Iolo Morganwg. Aberystwyth: Centre for Advanced Welsh and Celtic Studies, 1997 JONES, D. C., ‘The Board of Agriculture, Walter Davies (‘Gwallter Mechain’) and Cardiganshire c. 1794- 1815’, Ceredigion XIV no 1 (2001) 79-100 MORGAN, P, 1975. folo Morganwg. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1975 OGILBY, J., 1675, Britannia, volume the first: or, an Illustration of the Kingdom of England and Dominion of Wales by a Geographical and Historical Description of the Principal Roads. London: J. Ogilby [reprinted Reading: Osprey, 1971] OWEN, E., 1754. Observations on the Earths, Rocks, Stones and Minerals for some miles about Bristol and on the Nature of the Hot-well and the virtues of its Water. London: W. Johnston PEPYS, S., June and July 1668 entries, in Wheatley, H. B., (ed), 1818 The Diary of Samuel Pepys M.A., FER.S. World Wide Web: Project Gutenberg at http:// www.ibiblio.org PHILLIPS, D., 1983, The Great Road to Bath. Newbury: Countryside Books ROBERTSON, A., 1792, A Topographical Survey of the Great Road from London to Bath and Bristol. With historical and descriptive account etc, Vol Il. London: A. Robertson and R. Faulder STUKELEY, W., 1740, Stonehenge: a Temple Restor’d to the British Druids. London: Innys & Manby STUKELEY, W., 1743, Abury: a Temple of the British Druids, with Some Others, Described Vol II. London: printed for the author STUKELEY, W., 1776, Itinerari'um Curiosum. London: Baker & Lee WATTS, K., 1993, The Marlborough Downs. Bradford on Avon: Ex Libris WILLIAMS, E., 1794. Poems, Lyric and Pastoral, 2 vols, London: J. Nichols WILLIAMS, G.J. 1956 Iolo Morganwg: y Gyfrol Gyntaf. Cardiff: Cardiff University Press Wiltshire Archaeological & Natural History Magazine, vol. 97 (2004), pp. 89-94 An Early Anglo-Saxon Cross-roads Burial from Broad Town, North Wiltshire by Bob Clarke A single unaccompanied burial located at a cross-roads at Broad Town, North Wiltshire, has recently been radiocarbon dated to the 6th-7th Century AD. Its excavation forms part of the ongoing investigation, by the University of Bath in Swindon, into settlement patterns in Kingsbridge Hundred, North Wiltshire. The results open up the possibilities of an earlier date than hitherto supposed both for the practice of cross-roads burial and for the burial of criminals near boundaries. The landscape context of the burial is further discussed, considering the potentially early date for what later became a hundred boundary marked by the Broad Town escarpment. INTRODUCTION Project Background On Thursday 12 October 2000 Tony and Leigh Lucas discovered the partial remains of a human skeleton protruding from a bank overlooking the village of Broad Town, North Wiltshire. Broad Town Archaeological Project (BTAP) was informed by the County Archaeologist of the discovery and the site was visited by two members of BTAP who reported their findings to him. The County Archaeologist gave full support to excavation, which took place on 11-12 November 2000. The burial site is located on the north-west facing chalk escarpment of the lower Marlborough Downs, overlooking the village of Broad Town, North Wiltshire (Figure 1), on the 175 m. contour line at NGR SU 0955 7765. THE BURIAL: RESULTS Prior to excavation, a record was made of the initially visible remains and other finds that had eroded out of the bank. That record forms the first part of this report. Visible Remains in Section The left side of the individual was exposed to the north due to a number of factors, primarily natural erosion and cattle interference. No grave cut was visible in the section, but there was a slight soil change immediately around the bones. The visible remains were exposed for a length of 72 cm. in the section. Depth from surface at the final visible thoracic vertebrae was 20cm., at the femoral head 25 cm. Protruding from the naturally formed section were a number of bones, including seven articulated thoracic vertebrae and the left pelvic bone and femur, both articulated. Overlying the top of the femur were three bones from the left hand, probably metacarpals. From the disposition of the bones in the section it was possible to suggest that the head of the burial would have lain to the south-west and that the burial was not made in a coffin. The Excavation The grave cut was extremely difficult to locate as it was not visible in the eroded section and only a Bob Clarke, c/o Qinetiq, Boscombe Down, Amesbury, Salisbury SP4 7RE 90 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE 4 | Wroughton Broad Town Marlborough N Wootton Bacseth Cuff's Corner % é i y/, Roads “Earlier Tracks Burial Location /f Modern ie & Footpaths Fig 1. Burial location, with local routes and destinations slight difference of soil matrix was noted in the deposit above the grave. That said, the grave was presumably rectangular in shape when first dug owing to the position of the remains. The grave was very shallow being on average 25 cm deep. The Burial The alignment of the grave was north-east to south- west with the head to the south-west. The body lay Fig 2. Burial viewed from the north-east supine, with the legs straight, and the arms flexed with the hands placed on the pelvis (Figure 2). The left arm (upper and lower), clavicle and ribcage were all missing, as were the cranium and mandible, all seven cervical vertebrae and the first four thoracic vertebrae (Figure 3). The individual has been estimated by Jacqueline McKinley of Wessex Archaeology as between 35-45 years old, 1.705 metres (5 ft. 7% in.) tall, and male. Pathology The spinal column shows the beginnings of osteoarthritis with slight lipping evident on the lumbar vertebrae and first three thoracic vertebrae. Slight bone nodules on the rear of the iliac crest and a pronounced linea aspersa on both left and right femurs suggest the individual may have spent a significant amount of time riding. Muscular damage to single bones in the left hand and the left foot also suggest horse-related injuries, perhaps from a fall (McKinley pers com). CERAMIC FINDS Six ceramic sherds were recovered during the excavation, three from the burial itself, the remainder from the subsoil; all were inspected by Rachael Seager-Smith of Wessex Archaeology. The sherds spanned the Mid/Late Iron Age up to the 4th Century AD, and their well rounded condition suggest that they were residual. DATING In response to the lack of reliable dating the University of Bath in Swindon funded a radiocarbon determination at the Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art, Oxford. A date of 1430+-45 BP (OxA 11173) was obtained from the right femur, which calibrates to possible calendar date ranges of 595-665 cal AD at 68% probability or 540-680 cal AD at 95.4% probability. DISCUSSION The position of the Broad Town burial is important for a number of reasons. The site is visually prominent over a wide area. It is situated just a few AN EARLY ANGLO-SAXON CROSS-ROADS BURIAL FROM BROAD TOWN 91 Fig 3. Detail of the burial showing the extent of erosion. Fig 4. Burial location in relation to cross-roads. hundred metres north of the boundary between Kingsbridge and Selkley Hundreds, while the spur of land on which the burial lay is described by two hollow ways crossing at the point where the remains were found (Figure 4). These factors suggest deliberate burial at a place both elevated and inter-visible between a number of routes, coupled with interment in unconsecrated ground (although the burial could well be pre-conversion) at the geographical limits of local territories. While no evidence of trauma was found on the skeletal remains, the incompleteness of the remains ensures that execution cannot be ruled out. Andrew Reynolds has demonstrated that at least one of the cross-roads tracks is of mid to late Anglo-Saxon date (Pollard and Reynolds, 2002, 225). This track originates in Marlborough and traverses the Downs, past Mans Head, a possible Hundred meeting place (Reynolds pers com.) then down Hackpen Hill. From there it cuts across the lower chalk terrace, in a north-westerly direction, crossing the Kingsbridge-Selkley hundred boundary, then down the lower escarpment, past the burial site and on to Wootton Bassett. As the 92 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE track cuts the escarpment it is met by another holloway from the shrunken settlement of Little Town, forming the cross-roads element of the site. The possibility of this track also having a mid- Saxon date cannot be ruled out. If this is so and the burial is purposely situated on the cross-roads it makes, by later analogy, the possibility of execution all the more likely. Beyond Broad Town The Broad Town burial mirrors traits found at other Wessex sites, most notably that at Stonehenge. There an executed male in his early 30s was found, probably supine, in a shallow grave with no finds (Pitts et al. 2002, 134). This burial also benefits from a radiocarbon determination of 1359+-38 BP (OxA-9361) & 1490+-60 BP (OxA- 9921), a weighted mean calibrates to a possible calendar date range of 600-690 cal AD (Bayliss, in Pitts et al. 2002,134). The grave is again situated at a prominent place, close to the hundred boundaries of Amesbury and Underditch (Reynolds and Semple, in Pitts et al. 2002,142). Another pertinent site is known at Tan Hill, overlooking the Vale of Pewsey, where a single unaccompanied burial was discovered in a pre- historic ditch. It was suggested at the time of discovery that the hands were tied behind the back, but again no dating evidence was present (Anon, 1951, 228). This site is on a parish boundary, again in a very prominent position, and may well be Anglo- Saxon in date (Pollard and Reynolds, 2002, 175). The discovery of a single unaccompanied burial at Gomeldon also potentially fits into this picture. Discovered in 1936, the individual was buried in a shallow grave, having the appearance of being thrown in and was suggested by J.ES. Stone to be a possible hanging victim (Stone 1942,108). Again a prominent location appears important, with the individual interred close to the edge of the escarpment which overlooks the river Bourne. The burial is also just to the North-west of the original Winterbourne to Porton road and just under 200 m north of the parish boundary. Beyond Wiltshire Counties other than Wiltshire are beginning to present similar evidence. Reynolds has demon- strated that all known execution sites in Hampshire lie on hundred boundaries (1999, 108-9), while Martin Carver’s work at Sutton Hoo has shown that prominent sites of an earlier age became the focus of execution, during the formative phase of ‘Christian Kingship’ (1998, 142). The comparable dates of two of the burials described above suggest a trend in 7th-century Wessex. This would appear to underpin the evidence from Sutton Hoo where execution sites also seem to have started in the seventh century (Carver 1998, 142). The Burial in its Landscape Context A picture of continuity in the landscape is arguable if consideration is given to archaeological finds and sites in the immediate area of the Broad Town Burial (fig 5). Evidence suggests that the escarp- ment has been the focus of human activity since the N i ¢) ee sy ee Kingsbridge Clyffe Pypard WE () | Sie eG) Seem eelidey Fig 5. Findspots in relation to the Hundred boundary between Kingsbridge and Selkley % Saxon Burial ~ Roman/Saxon ? Burial Q Roman Pottery + Saxon Pottery later prehistoric period. Ceramic finds include a carinated sherd similar to forms from All Cannings Cross (Goddard, 1919,353) of probable 5th century BC date. In addition, the Broad Town burial’s grave fill (above) and excavations at Cuff’s Corner (Clarke 2000) have produced sherds of Late Iron Age date. Substantial Romano-British sites are evidenced by ceramic scatters (Goddard, 1919,353, Clarke 2000), structures (Walters 2001,128,) and burials (Foster 2001,171). Romano-British burials are known from two locations, three in Broad Town Field (Goddard, 1919,353), and nine ‘scattered’ near Cuff’s Corner (Goddard, 1913,227); all lay under substantial sarsen stones. While the three reported in Broad Town Field may well be Roman in date it is not unusual to find material from that period in graves up to the 6/7th Century AD (White,1988,160). This AN EARLY ANGLO-SAXON CROSS-ROADS BURIAL FROM BROAD TOWN 93 situation has also been recently addressed from an Anglo-Saxon perspective by Helen Geake (2002, 145). The SMR (SU07NE302) suggests a single site for all three interments, while the letter published by Goddard gives a regular spacing and orientation (1919,353). What is clear is that three individuals were buried underneath presumably visible sarsens, spaced about 200 yards apart in an east- west line, broadly following the later hundred boundary. Whatever their date they would seem to be a component of the boundary at this point. It seems likely that a linear cemetery stretches from at least Cuff’s Corner to within 200 metres of the Broad Town to Broad Hinton road, possibly indicating the early foundation of what was to become the Hundred boundary at this point. This argument can be underpinned further by the evidence of Saxon intervention. Chaff-tempered pottery was located at Cuffs Corner (Anon. 1975-6, 136). A secondary burial containing glassware, an iron spear and an amber and a glass bead was located in a prehistoric barrow at Thornhill lane (SMR SU07NE400), while in the 6th/7th century the Broad Town individual was buried on the cross- roads at the edge of the escarpment. Based on the work of others, Ken Dark has suggested that hundreds in Cornwall, first recorded in the ninth century, may well have their origins in Romano-British territorial divisions (Dark, 2000, 151). That possibility has to be considered here. This is not to say that Selkley and Kingsbridge Hundreds have their origins in the Romano-British period, but that the archaeological components coupled with the topography of the locale may well indicate an early origin for the boundary at this point. CONCLUSION It seems likely that burials such as that from Broad Town performed a number of functions. Those at Broad Town (Figure 6) and Tan Hill are visible from c. 10 km. while Stonehenge is a striking landscape feature. The position of the Gomeldon burial adds a potential ford or river crossing to the equation. All four places lay on tracks; clearly this is an important component of such burials. Exclusion from settlement would also appear to have been a major aspect as was the role played by emerging Christianity. The chronological closeness of the two dated burials suggests a trend in seventh- century Wessex that can be recognised elsewhere. Fig 6. View from the grave looking north-west illustrating the prominence of the site within the landscape. It is also clear that elements of the Broad Town landscape exhibit a multi-period chronology. This realisation is not new in landscape studies; research, however, tends to rely on the monumental rather than discreet evidence. This small piece of Wiltshire landscape may go some way to help us understand that chronology. Ultimately the creation of boundaries that feature so heavily in our understanding of the development of the landscape may have been set out far earlier than generally thought (but cf. Bonney 1966), as appears to be the case at Broad Town. Clearly there is much more work to do. Acknowledgements This project would not have reached a conclusion without the guidance and input of Dr Andrew Reynolds. A very big thank you to him. Thanks also go to: Roy Canham, Wiltshire County Archaeo- logist; Rachael Seager-Smith and Jacqueline McKinley of Wessex Archaeology; Malcolm Holland and Tracey Stickler of Broad Town Archaeology; my colleagues Colin Kirby, Mark Brace, Mac McLellan, Brian Clarke, Barry Huntingford and John Bastin for their support; University of Bath in Swindon for funding the dating; Dr Bruce Eagles and Professor Martin Carver for their comments; Debie Edmonds of English Heritage for documentary work. Mr R. Horton gave permission to excavate while Leigh and Tony Lucas are to be thanked for reporting the initial discovery. Any errors are naturally my own. 94 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE References ANON, 1951. A Skeleton on Tan Hill. WANHM, 54, 228 ANON, 1975-6. Wiltshire Archaeological Register for 1974-5. WANHM, 70/71, 132-8 BONNEY, D.J., 1966. Pagan Saxon burials and boundaries in Wiltshire. WANHM, 61, 25-30 CARVER, M., 1998, Sutton Hoo: Burial Ground of Kings?. London: British Museum Press CLARKE, B., 2000, Fieldwalking Results Centred on SU08077643 Cuff’s Corner, Clyffe Pypard and Watching Brief at 13 Broadacres. Broad Town Archaeological Project, BTAP 5 & 6 DARK, K., 2000, Britain and the End of the Roman Empire. Stroud: Tempus FOSTER, A., 2001. ‘Romano-British Burials in Wiltshire’, in P. Ellis (ed), Roman Wiltshire and After: Papers in Honour of Ken Annable, 165-77. Devizes: WANHS GEAKE, H., 2002, ‘Persistent Problems in the Study of Conversion-Period Burials in England’, in S. Lucy and A. Reynolds (eds), Burial in Early Medieval England and Wales, 145-55. London: Society for Medieval Archaeology Monograph 17 GODDARD, E.H., 1913. A List of Prehistoric, Roman and Pagan Saxon Antiquities in the County of Wiltshire. VANHM, 38, 153-378 GODDARD, E.H., 1919. Romano-British Interments at Broad Town. WANHM, 40, 353-4 PITTS, M., et al. 2002. An Anglo-Saxon Decapitation and Burial at Stonehenge. WANHM, 95, 131-46 POLLARD, J., and REYNOLDS, A. 2002, Avebury: The Biography of a Landscape, Stroud: Tempus REYNOLDS, A., 1999, Late Anglo-Saxon England, Stroud: Tempus REYNOLDS, A., 2002, ‘Burials, Boundaries and Charters in Anglo-Saxon England: a Reassessment’, in S. Lucy and A. Reynolds (eds), Burial in Early Medieval England and Wales, 171-195. London: Society for Medieval Archaeology Monograph 17 STONE, J.ES., 1942. A Skeleton at Gomeldon, Idmiston, South Wiltshire. WANHM, 50, 107-8 WALTERS, B. 2001, ‘A Perspective on the Social Order of Roman Villas’, in P Ellis (ed), Roman Wiltshire and After: Papers in Honour of Ken Annable, 127-46. Devizes: WANHS WHITE, R.H. 1988, Roman and Celtic Objects from Anglo- Saxon Graves: A Catalogue and Interpretation of their use. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, British series 191 Wiltshire Archaeological & Natural History Magazine, vol. 97 (2004), pp. 95-8 Arable Weed Survey of a Farm in South Wiltshire by Barbara Last An arable weed survey of field margins cultivated for greater biodiversity under the Countryside Stewardship Scheme has revealed the presence of rare plants, the seed of which had lain dormant in the ground for many years. In Spring 2003 a farm in South Wiltshire applied for and was awarded a grant under the Countryside Stewardship Scheme to manage cultivated field margins to improve biodiversity. The specific objective was to enable any arable plants present to germinate and grow outside the cropped area without the threat of damage by herbicides or competition from more aggressive species encouraged by the application of fertilisers. The margin width was set at six metres and cultivation took place to a depth of 15 centimetres To monitor the results a survey was made in July 2003 of selected 100 yard sections in each margin. It was agreed that if any margins revealed a particularly rich diversity of flora they would be left to re-seed themselves whereas others with poorer diversity would be grassed over. The soil on the farm, which may have been under cultivation for as long as 5000 years, is predominantly a light thin chalk, found especially on the north west fields and those at a slightly higher elevation. This is free draining and warm, with a high pH. (areas including margins C.D,E,EG,H,I, J and N on the attached map) unlike those on the remaining fields lying adjacent to the river Till in the south east (margins A,B,K and L) which are of an alluvial nature. An earlier botanical survey of the parish (made in 1999 and 2000), which included the farm, recorded remarkably few arable weed species. This was expected given the landowner’s policy of cultivating and spraying the fields to the margins producing a clean crop, occasionally interspersed with a grass ley. However, one notable plant found was Venus’s Looking-glass (Legousia hybrida) six plants of which turned up on the north east corner of Well Down 1&2 (SU 052400). It was anticipated in 2003 that if wild plants did survive in the field margins they would be likely to be relics of an ephemeral group evolved to germinate in disturbed soils arising from clearances in the wild wood resulting from fires and tree fall, or later from clearance by man, or from flash floods. Such circumstances give rise to short optimum periods with little competition from _ other vegetation and good light. Consequently, wild plants are enabled to survive by production of seed that has a long viability, good dispersal mechanisms, and which is produced in large quantities. Many self-pollinate, or are self- compatible and have a short germination to maturity time giving them a rapid life span in favourable conditions. Such plants are thus readily adapted to colonise clearances from the ploughing to which arable fields are typically subject annually or in rotation with grass leys. The Stables, Berwick St James, Salisbury SP3 4TN 96 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Species (Notable Species marked *) A’ (B ¢@.3D EE GEG GH IP 2K eee Ne O Aethusa cynapium Fool’s Parsley tse oe 1 ope. ar + + + + + + Agrostis stolonifera Creeping Bent + Anagallis arvensis Scarlet Pimpernel + + + ote + Arenaria serpyllifolia Thyme-leaved sandwort + Anisantha sterilis Sterile Brome + + + Artemisia vulgaris Mugwort + Carduus nutans Musk Thistle Sear ae Se + Capsella bursa-pastoris Shepherd’s Purse + + 4+ + + + + + + + + + «4+~«4 *Chaenorrhinum minus Small Toadfloax ar ap Chenopodium album Fat Hen +t tot + + Hot 4 + + + Chenopodium rubrum Red Goosefoot + Elymus repens Couch grass + - + + + *Erysimum cheiranthoides ‘Treacle Mustard + Epilobium parviflorum Hoary Willowherb + tf Euphorbia helioscopia Sun Spurge + + + + + Fallopia convolvulus Black Bindweed + + + + + + + + + + ~ + ++ + Fumaria officinalis Fumitory +t t+ ++ + + + + + + Galium aparine Cleevers + + 4+ 4+ 4+ + + + + $+ + 4+ + + *O+ Geranium dissectum Cut-leaved Crane’s bill ote + Geranium molle Dove’s-foot Crane’s bill + 1 on tit *Kickxia spuria Round-leaved fluellen + *Lamium amplexicaule Henbit + + Ste + af Lapsana communis Nipplewort a ar ae or + + + *Legousia hybrida Venus’s Looking-glass ae ae ae Linaria vulgaris Common Toadflax ee Lolium pratense Rye grass + + ar Matricaria matricarioides Pineapple weed + + + + + + + + Spear. ap Sue) Se Medicago lupulina Black Medick + Myosotis arvensis Field Forget-me-not + ott + + + + *Papaver argemone Prickly Poppy + Papaver dubium Long-headed Poppy ar *Papaver hybridum Rough headed Poppy + ae Ar + ar Papaver rhoeas Field Poppy ++ 4+ + + + + + $F + + + + + + Pastinaca sativa Wild Parsnip 4° 4 + + + Phleum pratense Timothy + + Poa annua Annual Meadow grass + ar + Tea or Poa trivialis Rough Meadow grass + + + Polygonum aviculare Knotweed +.+ she ae + Polygonum lapathifolium Pale persicaria + Polygonum persicaria Redshank + + Je) ap Se Reseda lutea Mignonette + + + + + + + + Senecio jacobea Ragwort + +. Senecio vulgaris Groundsel aE or Stee te ate west + +3 + Silene alba White Campion + + + + +. 4+ + Sinapts arvensis Charlock + + + ap Sisymbrium officinale Hedge mustard a ate + + + + Solanum nigrum Black nightshade + SS Sonchus arvensis Perennial Sow-thistle + {hear + + =P) Sar Sonchus asper Prickly Sow Thistle Toa Seer Pope oe ae ae or ste te cts Sonchus oleraceus Smooth Sow thistle tee eats ar Stellaria media Chickweed “+ eet te Torilis japonica Upright Hedge-parsley + Tripleurospermum inodorum Scentless Mayweed ap Near + + + + + + + seit Veronica persica Field Speedwell + + Ste at ist + ae Ar Viola arvensis Field Pansy oe ae oe Se ae Oe ne oe eae ear oe oe + TOTAL 55 19), 17, 20 12! 27 27 32 28: 718" 24° 18-10. 18228323 ARABLE WEED SURVEY OF A FARM IN SOUTH WILTSHIRE 97 Key A- SU0639 Yardfield SE. D- $U0539 Rag Bake. N. G-SU0540 Bakes SW J- SU0540 Bakes NW M-SU0638 Night Pasture S. B- $U0638 Big Pasture. NE. E- SU0539. Well Down 3 SE H-SU0439 Well Down 1-2 NE K- $U0638 Langford Hill NE N-SU0539 Well House NW C- SU0539. Well House SE. F- SU0539. Well Down NE I- SU0540 Lamb Down NE L- $U0638 Langford Hill N. O- $U0539 Langford Down E Comments on the survey findings The most ubiquitous weeds (occurring in most of the 15 margins sampled) were Cleavers, (Galium aparine), Common Poppy (Papaver rhoeas), Field Pansy (Viola arvensis), Shepherd’s purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris), Prickly Sow-thistle (Sonchus asper), Black Bindweed (Fallopia convolvulus), Fool’s Parsley (Aethusa cynapium), Fat-hen (Chenopodium album) and Common Fumitory (Fumaria officinalis). All are abundant and successful having the attributes of the ephemeral group mentioned above, as well as resistance to herbicides. Most species of this situation are annuals, but Wild Parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) and Perennial Sow- thistle (Sonchus arvensis) are perennial, propagating by means of small fragments of root regenerating when given the opportunity. Among the more unusual species was one plant of Treacle Mustard (Erysimum cheiranthoides) of which there have been only four recent previous records in VC8, the nearest being from Winterboume Stoke, 1986 (BG). The seeds of this species have only a low viability although a good plant may produce 15,000 seeds typically dispersed by cattle. (Salisbury 1963) There was an abundance of Round-leaved Fluellen (Kickxia spuria) on one headland only on the north side of Well Down3. This occurs scattered on chalk fields in VC8 but is rapidly declining. It is self-fertile and self pollinates, but although it has the potential to produce 2,000 seeds per plant (Salisbury 1963), germination is poor and it is susceptible to herbicides. Venus’s Looking-glass (Legousia hybrida) occurs scattered on bare chalk and has notably declined. In 98 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE the Arable Weed Survey of South Wiltshire 1999, it was established that prior to 1999, there were 8 sites. After this 7 were re-surveyed and plants found on only 2, but 5 new sites had been noted. The seeds have a very long viability and the capsules produce about 80 seeds each resembling minute shiny mirrors. The Small Toadflax (Chaenorrhinum minus) also occurs in small numbers scattered on chalky fields and is again in decline. There were two unusual poppies, Rough- headed poppy and Prickly poppy (Papaver hybridum and P argemone). Rough-headed poppy has a similar distribution to that recorded by Grose 1957, and the 1999 survey gave 8 sites, of which 6 were re- surveyed and plants found on only 2, but 4 new sites were noted. The prickly poppy is scarcer. In the 1999 survey, 6 sites were recorded, of which 4 were found not to contain the plant when re-surveyed in 1999, but 3 new sites were noted. What was most surprising was to find them growing together. The survey revealed the presence of several aliens resistant to herbicides such as Pineapple weed (Matricaria matncarioides) which was only introduced into Wiltshire in 1925 and is now abundant. On the farm it was present in 13 of the 15 sites. This plant owes its success to vegetative propagation as the tiny particles carried on tractor wheels and boots can all germinate. Two other introductions found during the survey were Field Speedwell (Veronica persica), first recorded in 1859 and now abundant in Wiltshire, and the much more recently arrived Prickly Lettuce (Lactuca serriola) found on the edge of Well Down 3, which is spreading rapidly. In regard to fauna it is worth noting that many insects attracted to the plants have also been given an opportunity to proliferate. In particular, there were innumerable hoverflies, Episyrphus balteatus, probably the result of an influx of migrants from Europe, although they do also breed here, nectaring on the Scentless Mayweed and the Sow-Thistle which have open flowers with easily accessible nectar. Three other species of hoverfly Scaeva pyrastri, another migrant, Sphaerophoria scripta and Leucozona laternaria were also recorded. It was encouraging to see such large numbers of these aphid-consuming insects which would not have been attracted to the cereal crops in the adjacent fields. Two areas were also sown with a wildlife seed mix including Quinoa, a Chenopodium that originated in Peru and is related to Fat-hen. This produces copious seed in autumn and will be left until March 15 to provide a food source for many farmland birds that are also in decline. Another area was cleared and left open to encourage Stone Curlew although none bred on the farm in 2003. Conclusion The success of the Countryside Stewardship Scheme, when applied to the creation of field margins to promote greater biodiversity, is proved on this farm. A remarkable number of rare and threatened arable plants, presumably propagated from long buried seed, were observed, some of which have not been recorded in Wiltshire for many years. Similarly, several plants that have been declining in recent years were also recorded, as were a variety of insects and birds. It is worth noting that many other habitat enhancements have also been recommended by DEFRA though not all were suitable for this farm. References BANKS, J. 2002, Rare arable weeds in Wiltshire, Journal of the Wiltshire Botanical Society, no 5 GILLAM, B., GREEN, D., and HUTCHISON, A. 1993, The Flora of Wiltshire. Newbury: Pisces GROSE, D. 1957 The Flora of Wiltshire. Devizes: WANHS LAST, B. 2000, The Flora of Berwick St. James, Journal of the Wiltshire Botanical Society, no 3 LAST, B. 2001, Habitats of Berwick St. James, Journal of the Wiltshire Botanical Society, no 4 SALISBURY, E. 1961, Weeds and Aliens. London: Collins. STACE, C. 1991, New Flora of the British Isles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Wiltshire Archaeological & Natural History Magazine, vol. 97 (2004), pp. 99-105 Lodowick Muggleton — Native of Chippenham? by Kay S. Taylor Nineteenth-century Wiltshire antiquarians Canon Jackson and Rev. Daniell both perpetuated a popular local myth that the religious radical Lodowick Muggleton was born in Chippenham. Baptismal evidence from London, however, is readily available to dismiss the local version as fantasy. This paper takes another look at the life of Muggleton and his relationship to co-religionist John Reeve, and considers how the myth might have originated. In the best traditions of the nineteenth century, antiquarians in North Wiltshire were eager to provide biographical details of important or notorious figures with links to local towns and villages. One such renowned native who was claimed for Chippenham was the seventeenth-century religious radical, Lodowick Muggleton. Canon J.E. Jackson confidently asserted that this individual was a Wiltshire man, born ‘of poor though honest parents in the town of Chippenham’.' He apparently based his statement on a 1676 chronicle about Muggleton, which was reprinted in the Harleian Miscellany in 1744,’ entitled ‘A Modest Account of the Wicked Life of That Grand Impostor Lodowicke Muggleton’. This work purported to prove his professed commission from God to curse or bless individuals ‘to be but counterfeit and himself a cheat’. Members of the early Wiltshire Archaeological & Natural History Society avidly acquired information about Muggleton, and the Society’s collection includes a later copy of the forty-six page treatise by John Reeve and Lodowick Muggleton entitled, A Transcendental Spiritual Treatise upon Several Heavenly Doctrines.2 The Library’s bound volumes of ‘Wiltshire Tracts’ contain ‘An Account of the Prophet Muggleton’s Sufferings in the year 1676 as related by our Friend, Mr POWELL, Who was an Eye-witness to the whole’. This twenty-four page account was printed in Southwark in 1808 under the cover title of ‘A True Account of the Trial and Sufferings of Lodowick Muggleton One of the two last prophets and Witnesses of the Spirit, left by our Friend Powell’.* In addition, a box in the library contains two ‘notes on distinguished Chippenham natives’ being compiled for a nineteenth-century article in WANHM, by unnamed authors.’ The first appears to be by Canon Jackson, and both sets of notes are unsympathetic to their subject, so it is unlikely that they would want to claim him as a ‘distinguished Chippenham native’ unless they felt sure of their facts. Unfortunately the sources used for their information are not recorded with these ‘notes’. Nearly forty years after Jackson’s assertion the myth was given another airing by the Rev. J.J. Daniell, the rector of Langley Burrell, who stated categorically in his 1894 History of Chippenham that, ‘Ludowic Muggleton, born in Chippenham in 1609 of poor though honest parents, was by trade a tailor’.° Rev. Daniell admitted to using the collections of the late Canon Jackson to supplement his own researches. Only a few years later a correspondent to Wiltshire Notes and Queries challenged this claim by pointing out that Lodowick Muggleton appeared in the parish register of St Botolph’s Bishopsgate, London, where he was baptised as the third child of John Muggleton. The register recorded the births of John’s children as Margaret 5 Lee Crescent, Sutton Benger, Wilts, SN15 4SE, and University of the West of England 100 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE on 23 June 1605, Ruth on 1 November 1607, and finally John on 30 July 1609.’ However, in his own version of his early life Muggleton stated that: He [1. e. John Muggleton] had three Children by my Mother, two Sons and one Daughter, I was the youngest and my Mother lov’d me. So it would appear that his autobiographical information should be treated with some caution. The Dictionary of National Biography (D.N.B.) entry for Muggleton reiterated the information that he was born in Bishopsgate in 1609. However, the compiler was wary of the accuracy of some of the contemporary records he used for his research, warning particularly against placing any reliance on the so-called biography contained in the Harleian Miscellany.” So who was Lodowick Muggleton? What did he do to earn the title of Grand Impostor? And why was he thought to hail from Chippenham? Lodowick Muggleton gave his name to one of the most enduring but peculiar religious sects to be formed in England in the middle of the seventeenth century, which he founded with fellow tailor, John Reeve. The Muggletonians had no preachers and did not follow any of the usual forms of public worship, so their meetings were not included in the lists of the registrar general. The members called themselves ‘believers in the third commission’ in recognition of their two founders’ ‘commission from God’ which they claimed to have received in 1652. The sect was still active in 1829 when they published the ‘Divine Songs of the Muggletonians, > which the Rev. Daniell described as a curious collection of words to ‘accompany the howlings of these wretched fanatics’.'° George Williamson talked of the Muggletonians and the Quakers as being the only small sects from the seventeenth century to survive into the twentieth century.'! Daniell estimated that ‘this extraordinary set of religionists’ only had one place of worship in London and not three more in the whole of England at the end of the nineteenth century.’ The last known member of the sect, a Philip Noakes of Matfield in Kent, died in 1979, although there may yet be other survivors.” At its height in the later seventeenth century the sect claimed followers in many counties (Figure 1),'4 although apparently none in Wiltshire, which makes the interest of Jackson and Daniell et al all the more intriguing. Doctrinally Muggletonians held that God was one and eternal, with a material body; that the soul was mortal, rising with the body at the Resurrection; and that the world contained only YORKSAIRE 2 YORK eS URE DERBYSHIRE 7= MANSFIELD NOTTINGHAMSHIRE @NOVIINGKAM Sy as JAM STAFFORDSHIRE gg UUOKETER ¢ at ABBOTS BROMILY © oycnDAMBRIDGESHIRE © CAMBRIDGE ° Gis © BRAINTREE HERTFORDSHIRE ESSEX GLOUCESTERSHIRE LONDON MIDDLESEX el ihn BRENTFORD®. BRISTOL ing : o MAIDSTONE MUNG KENT — your o FLMSHURAT © ASHOND e ANDOVER HAMPSHIRE SOUTHAMPTON ES SOMERSET © TAUNTON Fig. 1. Distribution of known Muggletonians, c. 1652 — 1700'° two races — the cursed and the blessed. The sect had no formal pattern of worship: not only did they have no preachers but they did not pray or read either. Members were only required to believe in Lodowick Muggleton. His detractors labelled him the ‘Grand Impostor’ for claiming such god-like powers. Outwardly the sect bore some similarities to the Quakers, calling their adherents Friends, and being opposed to war and the persecution of individuals for conscience sake. However Muggleton and his supporters scorned the Quaker doctrine of the inner light in all people and, in return, the Quakers distanced themselves from association with them. William Penn wrote of Muggleton as a ‘false Prophet and Impostor, guilty of ungodly and_ blasphemous _practices.’!® Muggleton retaliated by referring to Penn as, an ignorant spatter-brained Quaker, who knows no more what the true GOD is, nor His secret decrees, than one of his coach-horses doth. His condemnation of the Quakers was expressed in a number of published tracts,!’ such as ‘The Neck of the Quakers Broken’, in 1663, and ‘The Looking Glass for George Fox and other Quakers, wherein they may see themselves to be Right Devils’, in 1668. His last published work was ‘The Answer to William Penn’, in 1673, in reply to Penn’s The New Witnesses Proved Old Heretics of 1672. LODOWICK MUGGLETON - NATIVE OF CHIPPENHAM? 101 In 1676 Muggleton was charged with writing ‘a blasphemous, heretical and seditious book’.'* The case was heard at the Old Bailey on 17 January 1677, the main plank of his defence being that, as he had written nothing since 1673, the book in question was covered by the 1674 Act of Indemnity.’ Despite this the jury reluctantly obeyed the direction of the Lord Chief Justice, who described Muggleton as a ‘villain who is a murderer of souls’ and found him guilty.”” He was sentenced to the pillory for three days, to have the hangman burn his books before his face, and to pay a £500 fine with surety for good behaviour for the rest of his life. He was incarcerated in Newgate Prison for non-payment of the fine. Thanks to the intervention of his ardent supporter Nathaniel Powell he was subsequently acquitted and discharged from Newgate on payment of £100 bail and surety for his future good behaviour. The arrest and _ trial encouraged both Muggleton’s detractors and supporters into print, producing the hostile pamphlet ‘A Modest Account of the Wicked Life of That Grand Impostor Lodowicke Muggleton’, as well as Mr Powell’s sympathetic account of his sufferings. Both accounts should be treated with caution because of their biased approaches to their subject. A revival of interest in the Muggletonians in the mid-eighteenth century prompted a reprint of the hostile article in the Harleian Miscellany of 1744, and of the “Transcendental Spiritual Treatise upon Several Heavenly Doctrines’ in 1756. Canon Jackson provided a simplistic biography of the accredited founder of the sect, recounting that Muggleton, ‘began his religious career as a Church of England man; exchanged for Indepen- dent; slipped off to Anabaptist; tasted Quakerism; and finally, as might be expected, subsided into no religion at all’.2! This derogatory attitude towards his life has frequently been repeated by later com- mentators, which led William Lamont to complain that Muggleton had been subjected to a bad press over the years.” He has been variously described as ‘a known mad-man’; ‘verging on insanity’; ‘a product of the religious culture of the London slums’; ‘a mad tailor’; and even as ‘an unstable and deeply troubled neurotic who sought release from his anxieties by acting the wild-eyed prophet’. The D.N.B., although now somewhat dated,” has provided a more rounded version of his life and family connections, and also contains an account of his co-religionist John Reeve. The compiler of both entries was Alexander Gordon, a nineteenth- century specialist on the Muggletonians, who had written papers about the sect for the Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society.** Most of the entry on Muggleton was concerned with his adult life, information for which he found mainly in the man’s own written works and letters, together with a paper, “The Prophet of Walnut Tree Yard’, published by the Rev. Augustus Jessopp in 1884. He dismissed works on Muggleton and his sect by his [i.e. Gordon’s] contemporaries, Scott and Macaulay, as misleading. Gordon included in his account the information that Muggleton and Reeve were cousins, providing a family connection for their association. It is probable that the source of this claim was Muggleton’s own account, in The Acts of the Witnesses,”> of the satisfaction that John Reeve’s ‘Revelation’ gave him: For, said he unto me at that time, Cousin Lodowick, now I am satisfied in my Mind, and know what Revelation is ...”° Such familial references as ‘cousin’ or ‘brother’ were commonplace in the seventeenth century to denote a close religious, political or social colleague,” and do not necessarily imply any actual blood relationship. Thus, in this case, the term could well have been used to indicate that the two were closely connected by their common religious experience. However, despite the fact that he did not cite any documentary proof in support of a family relationship, Gordon seems to have taken the term literally and recorded a closer affiliation than the evidence merits. Reeve was a year older than Muggleton and they appear to have been adults in London when they first met, as Muggleton noted of John Reeve: He was out of his Apprenticeship before I came acquainted with him, he was of an Honest, Just Nature, and Harmless.” Had they been related by blood they would probably have met, or at least been aware of each other, from an early age. In chapter III of The Acts of the Witnesses Muggleton provided some information ‘of the Birth, Parentage, and Trade, of the two Witnesses’, listing his own parents and siblings (although, as noted above, this should be treated with caution), as well Reeve’s parentage. However, he made no mention of a family connection between them. As he had been employed by John’s brother William, and in light of the other family details provided, it seems unlikely that he would have omitted such an important piece of information — had it existed. 102 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Muggleton was only three years old when his mother Mary died in June 1612, and his father remarried. Gordon did not discover any more about his formative years, than Muggleton himself provided in The Acts of the Witnesses, in which he merely noted that after his mother died: I being but young, my Father took another Wife, so I being young was Expos’d to live with Strangers in the Country, at a distance from all my Kindred... But it came to pass when I was grown to 15 or 16 Years of age, I was put Apprentice to one John Quick, a Taylor. . .”’ Thus he returned, as an apprentice, to the Bishopsgate area of London as a young man, and by 1631 he was working as a journeyman to William Reeve. He would doubtless have got to know John at this time, but the two do not seem to have formed a close bond for about another twenty years. According to Muggleton’s account the Reeve family came from Wiltshire, and the father, Walter Reeve, was described as a gentleman and ‘clerk toa deputy of Ireland’, of a good family that had fallen into decay. In the D.N.B. Gordon repeated the information that both William and John (1608- 1658) were born in Wiltshire, again probably taking The Acts of the Witnesses as his source.*’ A search of the North Wiltshire baptismal records of the period has located numerous members of a Reeve’s family in the parishes of Chippenham and Calne, including a John Henry Reeve who was baptised in St Andrew’s Church, Chippenham in January 1607/ 8.*! This is tantalisingly close to the presumed facts of John Reeve’s birth, but unfortunately this John’s father was Henry not Walter, so either he was not Muggleton’s associate or Muggleton is mistaken about the identity of John’s father. As Muggleton’s information on his siblings is questionable it begs the question, if John came from the Chippenham area and Walter was not his father, perhaps he or John embellished the Reeve parentage to impress their followers? Like Lodowick, John had arrived from the country to be apprenticed to the tailoring trade, with his elder brother, in Bishopsgate, London, where Muggleton’s father and siblings also lived. The brothers were said to be Puritans originally but ‘fell away’ to the Ranters around 1645. This was alleged to be the ruin of William, who apparently neglected his business, took to drink, and subsisted on charity. John came under the influence of the so- called Ranter’s God John Robins, and became a universalist.*” Spiritually Muggleton became a zealous Puritan, and remained so until the conditions of church life began to be remodelled. He refused to accept the new discipline of Presbyterianism, which Thomas Hobbes, Thomas Godwin and others were denouncing as engendering religious despondency.** In Hobbes’s view Presbyterian ministers: brought young men into despair and to think themselves damned because they could not (which no man can, and is contrary to the constitution of nature) behold a beautiful object without delight.** Neither could Muggleton accept the close fellowship of the Independents and in 1647 he withdrew from all worship to live ‘an honest and natural life’ as an agnostic. Many of his acquaintances were also coming to the conclusion that ‘there is no God but nature only’.* By 1650 he had read translations of Jacob Boehme’s works and been attracted by the teachings of the Ranter prophet John Robins and the fanatical Thomas Tany. For the next year or so he experienced scriptural revelations and, according to Gordon ‘infected’ John Reeve with his views (although Reeve had been exploring alternative religious notions since coming under the influence of Robins in 1645). In February 1651/2 Reeve announced that he too had received a personal communication from God, appointing him as the messenger of a new dispensation with Muggleton as his ‘mouth’. The two identified themselves as the witnesses, foretold in the Book of Revelation, of a new system of faith with the authority to pronounce on the eternal fate of individuals, and their sect was born. They developed their beliefs along different lines from Robins and Tany to the extent that they passed a sentence of eternal damnation on Robins, in 1652, while he was imprisoned in the Bridewell at Clerkenwell. Although they came to be known as the Muggletonians, there is still debate regarding the inspiration for the sect, and if it might have developed differently but for Reeve’s early death in 1658. The pair did not entirely agree on their movement’s place within the religious milieu, as Reeve sympathised with many of the tenets of Quakerism, a stance that Muggleton did not share. Some of his adherents kept aloof from Muggleton and were known as Reevites or Reevonians. Gordon’s interpretation, in the D.N.B., that it was Muggleton who had the earliest revelations and subsequently ‘infected’ Reeve, was based largely on LODOWICK MUGGLETON - NATIVE OF CHIPPENHAM? 103 Muggleton’s own accounts, written after Reeve’s death. The possibility should not be discounted that Muggleton’s version of events was skewed, taking for himself the pivotal role that led to the sect’s foundation. William Braithwaite described Reeve as the Moses of the sect with Muggleton as his Aaron,*® and Christopher Hill also disagreed with Gordon’s view as, in his opinion, every significant doctrine of the Muggletonians was to be found in Reeve’s writings. In his lifetime the books Reeve published were attributed only to him, and Muggleton’s association with them only came later.” It was Reeve who formulated the six foundations of what was to become Muggletonian theory. According to Hill Muggleton’s own original contributions to theology were ‘puerile or non- existent’.** While agreeing with the need to respect Reeve’s prime role as a co-founder of the sect William Lamont has taken issue with Hill’s assessment of Muggleton’s abilities. He emphasised the continuity of the doctrine after Reeve’s death together with Muggleton’s practical extensions of Reeve’s ‘six principles’, as well as detailing Muggleton’s written contributions to the religious debate.” Whatever the true origins of the sect’s founding Reeve’s death deprived Muggleton of his influence and left him to carry on their work alone. Thereafter, Muggleton believed that God had given him a special commission ‘to curse or bless all to eternity, ’ and that once he had dispensed his curse or blessing there could be no remedy, no matter what. He continued to meet with his adherents and to publish his opinions for many years after Reeve’s death. After his trial and imprisonment in 1677 Muggleton seems to have opted for a quieter life, perhaps in accordance with the terms of the sureties he gave on his release from Newgate. He died in London ‘on 14 March 1697/8, at the age of 88 years 7 months and 14 days’. Having identified who Lodowick Muggleton was, and why he was considered to be the ‘Great Imposter, the last and most puzzling question remains. Why was he thought to hail from Chippenham? The baptismal evidence immediately debunks the myth that he was born in the town, yet local tradition continues to link him with it. The early members of WANHS certainly took a proprietorial interest in his activities, even though the Muggletonian sect did not take root in the county. Raphael Samuel has pointed out that historians ignore oral traditions at their peril, as they can help to expose the silences and deficiency of the written record.*! There seems to be no surviving documentary evidence to identify where young Lodowick passed his formative years apart from his own statement that he was sent to live with ‘strangers in the country’. I have been at pains to question any actual family relationship with John Reeve, although I would not entirely dismiss the possibility. It is an admittedly tenuous link, but if Reeve did come from Wiltshire, and was the son of Walter, he might well have been related to the Reeve families found in the Chippenham and Calne area, and so perhaps he is the key to the local legend. Jackson’s and Daniell’s claims for a Chippenham connection for Muggleton, based on sources they failed to identify, would seem more plausible if a blood relationship existed with a Wiltshire born John Reeve. Despite the lack of corroborative evidence most twentieth-century historians seem to have accepted unquestioningly the ‘fact’ given in the D.N.B. that the co-founders of the Muggletonians were members of the same extended family.’? Alexander Gordon seems to have preferred to take the term ‘cousin’ at its face value rather than to ascertain its meaning in context in The Acts of the Fig. 2 Lodowick Muggleton” 104 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Witnesses, an interpretation that has persisted to the present day. Jackson and Daniell would, doubtless, have believed in the family connection, which could be the origin of the presumed link with Chippenham. If John Reeve was related to Muggleton it would be tempting to cast a Chippenham branch of the Reeve family in the role of the ‘strangers in the country’ to whom the infant Lodowick was sent. The lack of documentary evidence means we can never be sure about where young Muggleton spent his early life, but can only speculate on possibilities tentatively based on local traditions. What is clear is that he did live somewhere ‘in the country’, and perhaps that somewhere was Chippenham. Notes | Jackson, Canon J. E. ‘On the History of Chippenham’ WANHM vol. iii, 1856-1857, p.46. ‘A Modest Account of the Wicked Life of That Grand Impostor Lodowicke Muggleton, 1676’ in the Harleian Miscellany, reprinted 1744 and 1810, vol. viii, p. 83. + This 1756 copy of A Transcendental Spiritual Treatise upon Several Heavenly Doctrines, by John Reeve and Lodowick Muggleton does not include the original date of publication, but includes an account, in sixteen chapters, of the commission they claim to have received from Jesus in February 1651/2. + Wiltshire Archaeological & Natural History Society (W.A.N.H.S.) Library, Devizes: Wiltshire Tracts, 48, A True Account of the Trial and Sufferings of Lodowick Muggleton One of the two last prophets and Witnesses of the Spirit, left by our Friend Powell.’ [Nathaniel Powell] (Printed for T. Fever 1808 by Morris and Reeves, 53 Red-Cross Street, Southwark.) > W.A.N.H.S. Library, MS Box 225, folder v. ® Daniell, Rev. J. J. The History of Chippenham, (Houlston & Sons, London, 1894). ’ Wiltshire Notes & Queries, vol. ii, (Devizes, 1899), p. 585. ® Underwood T.L (ed), The Acts of the Witnesses: the Autobiography of Lodowick Muggleton and Other Early Muggletonian Writings, (Oxford University Press, 1999), the first part, chapter III, p. 31. ’ — Dictionary of National Biography (D.N.B.), vol. xiii, (OUB 1921, reprinted 1968), p.1164. '0 Daniell, History of Chippenham, p. 212. '! Braithwaite, William C. The Second Period of Quaker- ism, (1919, reprinted 1979, Sessions, York), p.671. Daniell, History of Chippenham, p. 212. 8 Hill, Christopher, Reay Barry, & Lamont William The World of the Muggletonians, (Temple Smith, 36 London, 1983), frontispiece dedication, and Underwood, The Acts of the Witnesses, pp. 11-12. Braithwaite, The Second Period of Quakerism, noted Muggleton had followers in Derbyshire, and the sect continued to meet into the early twentieth century, holding their Yearly Meeting at the Drury Lowe Arms in Derby. Hill, et al, The World of the Muggletonians, map 1. Penn, William The New Witnesses Proved Old Heretics, (London, 1672). Smith, Joseph, Bibliotheca Anti-Quakeriana, (London, 1873, [revised by Alexander Gordon pre-1894]) contains a bibliography of Muggleton’s works. Wiltshire Tracts, 48, ‘A True Account of the Trial and Sufferings of Lodowick Muggleton’ p. 3. D.N.B. vol. xiii, p.1163, and Wiltshire Tracts, 48, p. 4. Wiltshire Tracts, 48, p.6. Jackson, ‘On the History of Chippenham’, p.46. Lamont, William ‘Lodowick Muggleton and “Immediate Notice”, in Hill et al The World of the Muggletonians, p. 116. The Dictionary of National Biography, from the Earliest Times to 1900, was founded in 1882 and the introduction to the Oxford University reprint in 1967-1968 states that “it seemed best to leave the text unaltered.” Thus the entries by Alexander Gordon relating to Lodowick Muggleton in vol. xiii, and to John Reeve in vol. xvi, are as they were originally published in 1894. Gordon, Alexander, ‘The Origin of the Muggletonians,’ Transactions of the Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society, 1869, and ‘Ancient and Modern Muggletonians,’ Transactions of the Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society, 1870. Muggleton, Lodowick, The Acts of the Witnesses of the Spirit, an autobiographical account to 1677, was published posthumously in 1699. Underwood, T.L. (ed), The Acts of the Witnesses, the first part, chapter xv, p. 51, my italics. Chambers Dictionary (Chambers Harrap, Edinburgh, 1993) p. 392 defined ‘cousin’ as “a person belonging to a group related by common ancestry, interests etc; something kindred or related to another.” Underwood, The Acts of the Witnesses, the first part, chapter III, p. 31. Ibid, p. 31. D.N.B. vol. xvi, (OUP, 1921, reprinted 1968), p. 851. W.S.R.O. 811/6: Chippenham St Andrew parish register 1578-1644; and Calne St Mary index of baptisms 1538-1637, marriages 1538-1837, and burials 1637-1725. D.N.B. vol. xvi, p. 851 Hill, Christopher, The World Turned Upside Down, (Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1975), p. 173. Hobbes, Thomas, English Works, VI, pp. 195-196, cited in Hill, The World Turned Upside Down, p. 173. Hill, The World Turned Upside Down, p. 173. Braithwaite, The Second Period of Quakerism, p.244. LODOWICK MUGGLETON - NATIVE OF CHIPPENHAM? 105 37 It is possible that A Transcendental Spiritual Treatise upon Several Heavenly Doctrines falls into this category, as it seems to imply (p. 40) support for all persecuted dissenters, including Quakers, which is unlikely to have been written by Muggleton. Hill, Christopher ‘John Reeve and the Origins of the Muggletonians,’ in Hill et al The World of the Muggletonians, p.91. Hill, Christopher and Lamont, William, “The Muggletonians: Debate and Rejoinder, Past and 40 Present, no. 104, 1984, p.160. D.N.B. vol. xiii, p.1164, and Boodle, R.W., Wiltshire Scrapbook, vol. 2, A-D (1901-2) held at WANHS Library, Devizes, p. 130. Samuel, Raphael, ‘Local History and Oral History,’ History Workshop, no.1, Spring 1976. For example Underwood repeats it in his editorial introduction to his transcription of Muggleton’s autobiographical The Acts of the Witnesses, p. 7. Boodle, R .W. Wiltshire Scrapbook, p. 130. 106 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE BIRMINGHAM @Q Poulton Hilt Fm : . \ ao) | woe MS Sir: K Site location | USisters * Fm \ mss 83,75 Co Down ee és = : Px \ \ Bol WC \ yaa istfield ay CE a S ‘NX * | \ ¥ i Gravel \, fj Pit Ne Cleveland ie) Em eal ~ , Gravel 7 _Hailstone Hill Scale 1:50,000 Reproduced from the Landranger 1:50,000 scale by permission of the Ordnance Survey on behalf of The Controller of Her Majesty's Stationery Office © Crown Copyright 1996. All rights reserved. Licence No. AL 100005569 Fig. 1 Site Location Wiltshire Archaeological & Natural History Magazine, vol. 97 (2004), pp. 106-43 Prehistoric Settlement and Medieval to Post- Medieval Field Systems at Latton Lands by Dan Stansbie and Granville Laws with contributions by Alistair Barclay, Fulie Hamilton, Elizabeth Huckerby, Hugo Lamdin-Whymark, Ruth Shaffrey, Elizabeth Stafford, Maisie Taylor, Jane Timby and Annsofie Witkin Work in advance of gravel extraction by Oxford Archaeology allowed the excavation of Prehistoric and medieval remains. A ring ditch of probable early Bronze Age date was identified but not excavated. Two linear ditches lying at right-angles to one another, with a waterhole between, defined an area of middle Bronze Age settlement, including several post-built roundhouses and pits. A wooden bowi came from the basal fills of the waterhole and sherds of Deverel-Rimbury urns came from the fills of the ditch termini. An adult female burial of later Bronze Age date lay just to the north of the settlement and several pits, also of later Bronze Age date, were discovered during a watching brief to the south of the middle Bronze Age activity. One pit contained some disarticulated human remains. Several pits of Iron Age date were also revealed during the course of the excavation. Ridge and furrow and ditches of medieval and Post- medieval date overlay the Prehistoric activity. LOCATION AND GEOLOGY Oxford Archaeology undertook excavations north- west of the village of Latton, which lies on the A419 to the north-west of Cricklade (Figure 1). The study area comprised a parcel of land approximately 750 m x 450 m centred on NGR SP 07559695, lying to the south-east of the B4696 and to the north-west of the former Latton Creamery; it was bisected by the route of the new A419. Lying close to the course of the River Churn, the underlying geology is First Terrace river gravels forming a very flat topography, descending from about 84 m OD to 80 m OD. ARCHAEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND Archaeological evidence from the environs of Latton indicates occupation and activity from the Neolithic period to the present day. Although there is no certain evidence of activity prior to the Neolithic, a few, possibly Mesolithic, flints were found in the Creamery Field, north-east of Cerney Wick and Beggars Field, east of Cerney Wick (CAT 1991a, 69). Neolithic monuments and evidence for settlement in the form of flint scatters are concentrated in the uplands of the Cotswold region and are rare in the valley bottoms until the late Neolithic (Darvill 1987, 46). However, an oval enclosure south-west of Westfield Farm is provisionally dated to the late Neolithic/early Bronze Age (CAT 1991b, 44-5). A similar enclosure lay to the south-east of Latton within Scheduled Ancient Monument 900 and a Neolithic pit was found in the same field (Mudd et al. 1999, 7). There is no evidence for Bronze Age activity in the immediate environs of Latton apart from that revealed by the recent phase of work carried out by Oxford Archaeology. However, at Cotswold Oxford Archaeology, Janus House, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES 108 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Community to the west were a ring-ditch, three Beaker burials and a number of round houses, all dating to the Bronze Age (Dennis and Laws forthcoming). Iron Age settlement within the Latton environs is relatively common and includes a sub-rectangular enclosure (Wilts. SMR SU09NE201) and pottery from evaluation trenches in the area (CAT 1991b, 74-5). Late Iron Age settlement was found at Neigh Bridge to the west and there is Iron Age settlement in the area of Ashton Keynes, also to the west of Latton. There is an extensive Roman settlement to the west of Latton (Scheduled Ancient Monument 899), as well as a settlement at Field Barn within Latton and a settlement at Neigh Bridge. Further afield, Roman material was recovered from Weavers Bridge near Cricklade, although the status of this site is uncertain. To the north, there is settlement at Witpit Copse, Preston and Worms Farm, Siddington. The former line of the A419, that bounded the study area to the north-east, followed the route of Ermin Street, which linked the local settlements to Cirencester (Mudd et al. 1999, 7-9). There is little evidence of early medieval activity in the area, although a few sherds of Saxon pottery were found north-west of Latton (Mudd et al. 1999, 9) and at Ashton Keynes (Coe et al. 1991). The later medieval settlement pattern was similar to that of today, although a possible deserted settlement lies between Preston and Witpit Copse to the north of Latton. At Latton itself there is cartographic evidence for houses lying to the west of Ermin Street with plots running back as far as the River Churn (Mudd et al. 1999, 9). Additionaily pottery of 12th- to 15th-century date has been recovered from the area. Part of the infilled Thames and Severn canal bounded the study area to the south-west, but there are no other post-medieval features of great significance. EXCAVATION METHODOLOGY The whole area was stripped of soil cover using a mechanical excavator and the exposed gravel was then hand cleaned. All visible features were planned and recorded and a sample of features excavated (Figure 2). Gravel extraction to the south and north of the main area of middle Bronze Age activity was monitored by watching brief and all features were planned where they were visible. In some cases features were not planned, as they were only visible in section. At the time of publication, plans relating to the watching brief phase of the work are missing and consequently several features containing finds, which are discussed in the following reports, do not appear in the stratigraphic narrative. LOCATION OF THE ARCHIVE The archive will be deposited with Swindon Museum and Art Gallery, accession no. B1997/4. ARCHAEOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION Middle Bronze Age Features Enclosure 785 (Figures 2 and 3) Two ditches (783 & 784) lying at an approximate right-angle to one another formed two sides of a possible enclosure measuring approximately 70 m by 70 m, with an internal area of about 4900 m2. The ends of the ditches lay 20 m apart leaving a substantial north-east facing entrance which was partially blocked by a waterhole and several pits. Ditch 783 Ditch 783 was linear, 69.2 m in length and orientated east-west. It curved around to the south at its eastern end. It was 1.2 m wide and averaged 0.7 m in depth. In profile the ditch was generally U- shaped, although in places the base narrowed forming a V-shape. The ditch terminals at both ends were squared off. There were at least four recuts. The fills were predominately of silty clay, although there were some sandy silts. Middle Bronze Age pottery was found in the fills, concentrating particularly in the terminals (Figures 16.1-16.5). Two environmental samples (sample nos. 6 and 15) were taken from the lower fills of the eastern terminal (Figure 4 and Table 3) and three fragments of burnt bone came from fills 373 and 381. A large fragment of cylindrical fired clay loomweight (sf 121, Figure 19) came from fill 373, a small piece of amorphous fired clay came from fill 585 and a small amount of burnt stone came from fill 573. Ditch 784 Ditch 784 was linear, 53 m in length and orientated north-south. It curved round to the west at its PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT AT LATTON LANDS 109 Figure 14 \_ Ring Ditch MS Fig. 2 Area of Excavation and Watching Brief southern end. It was 1.2 m wide and averaged 0.9 m in depth. In profile it was generally U-shaped, although the base narrowed to form a V-shape in places. There were at least four recuts. The ditch terminals were rounded. The fills were predominantly silty clays or clay silts with some silty sands. Middle Bronze Age pottery was recovered (Figures 16.6-16.7), with concentrations in the terminals, along with fragments of burnt limestone rubble. Five environmental samples (sample nos. 5, 17, 18, 19 and 20) were taken from the fills (Figure 4 and Table 3). Animal bone, (including cattle bone and the mandible of a dog from the northern ditch terminal), was recovered from the fills. Waterhole 421 (Figures 3 and 5) Waterhole 421 was oval in plan and asymmetric in profile, having a steeply sloping eastern side and a more gradual western side. It was orientated north-south and measured 9.5 m in length by 7 m in width and 1.26 m in depth. The waterhole was filled predominantly with silty clays interspersed with lenses of sand and sandy clay. The basal fill (420) was a sterile sandy gravel with lenses of clay. Overlying this were layers of silty clay (481 and 480) containing much_ organic’ material, interspersed with a layer of sand (504). The upper half of the waterhole was filled with layers of sandy clay (419, 418) overlain by a deposit of silty clay (417), all containing burnt limestone rubble. All the fills contained sherds of middle Bronze Age pottery (see Figures 17.9-17.13 for an illustrated selection). Fragments of a distinctive round-based wooden bowl (Figure 19) as well as some unworked wood (yielding radio-carbon dates of 1440-1210 BC and 1440-1130 BC at two sigma) came from layer 481, which overlay the basal gravel. A pollen sample (sample 9) was taken from the lower fills (Figures 5 and 20). Animal bone, including cattle, horse, pig, sheep/goat, red-deer and dog, was spread throughout the fills. Three fragments of worked red deer antler came from fills 418 and 480. 110 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE. Waterhole / 421 Sample no.s Gs Posthole group 154+6 787 o ? 351 6 ———... Sample no.s 7 348_¢ © |'7,8, 910, 14, 12, 13444 A 345 oe ___—— Sample no.s 5, 17, 18, 19 + 20 Structure 538 Posthole group 788 © , 484 482 Structure ae Middle Bronze Age Activity Fig. 3 The Middle Bronze Age Settlement PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT AT LATTON LANDS 111 Ditch 784 E SS 367), e * : e368 ‘ ® ; a \ 368 I / \ aan % N (18> 397 / . INS 268/ a alr / ee ae eN — if / hie A ie a a aah 366 Ditch 783 W 93.23 m N = aie © 4 , “497 NG 548, NG a8 7 486 Ditch 784 NNE S N 83.19'm 83.05 m aes a as a ars 1 i SiN ej \ 1 456 \ 454 | 453 ietths See! \ » od ‘ \ | | ZS, Environmental \id5 7 ee \/ sample : = al Sand/grave} Clay 4 | Burnt stone im Charcoal Fig. 4 Middle Bronze Age Ditch Sections Circular Structures/Roundhouses Two circular structures, interpreted as roundhouses, were identified: structure 538, 8 m to the south of ditch 783 and about 10 m from its western terminal and structure 297, 90 m to the south of ditch 783. No associated occupation levels or deposits were preserved. Structure 538 comprised a ring of nine postholes (515, 517, 537, 523, 525, 535, 446, 444, 442) forming a circle 7.2 m in diameter (Figure 6). The postholes, some of which were oval and some of which were circular, averaged 0.54 m in length, 0.5 m in width and 0.11 m in depth. A 2.6 m wide gap in the south-east of the post-ring is interpreted as an entrance. Three postholes (519, 521, 528), forming a triangle, lay immediately to the south-west of the structure and may have been associated with it. They averaged 0.48 m in length, 0.43 m in width and 0.12 m in depth. No pottery was recovered from the posthole fills which were mostly clay silts with little stone or gravel. Structure 297 comprised a ring of nine postholes (287-95 inclusive) forming a circle 6.5 m in diameter (Figure 7). The postholes averaged 0.25 m in diameter and 0.07 m in depth. There was a 4 m gap in the south of the post-ring, but this seems too large for an entrance gap and indicates that some postholes did not survive. There were no other obvious gaps to indicate an entrance. The postholes were filled with a brown silty clay loam containing occasional charcoal flecks and occasional gravel; none contained artefacts. Posthole groups Posthole group 787 (Figure 3) was a randomly spaced group of six postholes, situated immediately to the north of ditch 783, about 26 m from its western terminal. The postholes were generally circular in plan and U-shaped in profile. They averaged 0.33 m in diameter by 0.13 m in depth and were filled with a grey-brown silty clay with some sand. No artefacts were recovered. Posthole group 788 (Figure 3) was a curvilinear arc of four postholes approximately 16 m in length, orientated north-south. Of the four postholes only two (482 and 484) were excavated. One of the excavated postholes was oval in plan, the other was circular; both were U-shaped in profile. The two unexcavated postholes were circular in plan. The excavated postholes averaged 0.36 m in diameter and 0.16 m in depth, and were filled with a mid grey-brown silty clay containing 112 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Fig. 5 Section Through the Middle Bronze Age Waterhole some gravel and charcoal. No artefacts were recovered. Pits There were eight large pits, seven of which clustered on either side of the gap between the ditches to the south of waterhole 421; the eighth lay 0.6 m to the west of ditch 784 and 32 m from its northern terminal (Figures 3 and 9). The pits were broadly similar but differed in details of dimension and profile. Recuts were fairly common, but more often than not these took the form of shallow scoops rather than full scale clean outs. Although infill deposits differed, a relatively simple sequence of fills indicates infilling by natural erosion and weathering rather than through deliberate backfilling. Only pit 369 contained middle Bronze Age pottery, although all lay within the area of the middle Bronze Age enclosure and respected the enclosure ditches and the waterhole, suggesting broad contemporaniety. Pit 345 (Figure 9) was circular in plan and bowl- shaped in profile, having a flat base and steep slightly convex sides. It measured 0.75 m in diameter and 0.2 m in depth. The pit was filled by a mid brown silty clay (345) containing occasional 515 s.209 S. 188 L/ |i 442 308 ior) © 5.214 Structure 538 (ys. 190 528 8,218 525 le )-' ate ae, 523 Fig. 6 Structure 538 pieces of gravel and moderate amounts of sand. A bowl-shaped recut 0.57 m in diameter by 0.1 m in depth cut the fill, and was filled by a light grey silty clay (343) containing occasional pieces of rounded gravel. Neither fill contained artefacts. Pit 348 was circular in plan and bowl-shaped in profile, having a flat base and steeply sloping slightly convex sides (Figure 9). It measured 0.75 m in diameter by 0.2 m in depth. The pit was filled by a mid brown silty clay (347) containing moderate amounts of gravel and a little sand. A bowl-shaped recut 0.45 m in diameter by 0.1m in depth cut the fill, and was filled by a light grey silty clay (346) containing occasional pieces of rounded gravel and burnt limestone rubble. oy 295 Structure 297 Fig. 7 Structure 297 Pit 351 was circular in plan and bowl-shaped in profile, with a flat base and steeply sloping sides (Figure 9). It measured 0.55 m in diameter by 0.16 m in depth. The pit was filled by a mid brown silty clay containing moderate amounts of gravel (350). A bowl-shaped recut 0.42 m in diameter and 0.12 m in depth cut the fill; it was filled by a light grey silty-clay containing occasional rounded gravel (349). Neither fill contained artefacts. Pit 356 was oval in plan and saucer-shaped in profile, having a flat base and shallow steeply sloping sides (Figure 9). It measured 0.7 m in length by 0.55 m in width and 0.05 m in depth. It was filled by a grey-brown silt (355) containing some gravel and sand. No artefacts were recovered from the fill. Pit 365 was circular in plan and U-shaped in profile, having a flat base and near vertical sides PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT AT LATTON LANDS Fig. 8 The Middle Bronze Age Pit Group s. 203 113 114 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE = Ss 83.15m Ee 83.20 m an \. 346 es 347 =~ 344 348 “345 & Ww E Ww 2 83.20 m 83.21 m ) ' root disturbance 350 351 SW NE 83.16 m 355 356 Ss N 83.04 m 83.26 m AS 7 “369 83.23 m Sand/gravel Charcoal Fig. 9 Sections Through the Middle Bronze Age Pits PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT AT LATTON LANDS 115 (Figure 9). It measured 0.95 m in diameter by 0.55 m in depth. With the exception of a single layer of clay (357) at the top, the pit was filled by numerous layers of silty clay. Within these deposits there were five distinct discontinuities indicating hiatuses within the infilling process, including two recuts. The primary fill (364) occupied the bottom western corner and displayed a steep inclination down from the western edge of the pit. Above this were two layers of light brown silty clay with sand and gravel (363 and 362) lying horizontally. A bowl-shaped recut measuring 0.95 m in diameter by 0.36 m in depth cut the upper of these two fills. It was filled by three layers (359 — 361 inclusive) of grey-brown silty clay containing flecks of charcoal, sand and gravel. A second bowl-shaped recut measuring 0.84 m in diameter by 0.16 m in depth cut the upper of these three fills. Two layers (358 and 357), the lower of which was a silty clay containing occasional gravel 0.14 m in depth, filled it. Overlying this was a grey blue clay (357) 0.08 m in depth and containing burnt limestone rubble. Pit fill 363 contained large animal long-bones of indeterminate species. Pit 369 was circular in plan and U-shaped in profile, having a rounded base and near vertical sides (Figure 9). It was 0.75 m in diameter and 0.58 m in depth. With the exception of a single layer of sandy clay at the base, the pit was filled with layers of silty clay. The primary fill (396) occupied the lower 0.08 m of the pit and comprised a grey-yellow sandy clay. Overlying this was 0.29 m of dark yellow-grey silty clay (395) with charcoal flecks and some sand. The upper 0.21 m of the pit was occupied by dark grey-brown silty clay containing some charcoal and burnt clay (370). All three layers contained middle Bronze Age pottery. Pit 472 was oval in plan and bowl-shaped in _ profile, having a rounded base and steeply sloping | | \ sides (Figure 9). It was 1.6 m in length by 1 m in width and 0.56 m in depth. The lower 0.43 m of the pit was filled with a dark brown silty clay loam (473), containing occasional flecks of charcoal and pieces of gravel, but no finds. Overlying this was a very dark greyish-brown silty clay (474) 0.06 m thick, with occasional charcoal flecks and pieces of gravel. Much burnt stone was recovered from this _ upper fill. Pit 477 was oval in plan and U-shaped in profile, having a rounded base and steeply sloping sides (Figure 9). It measured 1.3 m in length by 1 m in width and 0.65 m in depth. The pit was filled | with layers of silty clay with a single recut. The lower 0.46 m of the pit was filled with a dark brown Modem ground level Stripped ground level Sand/gravel | Peaty clay oo Fig. 10 Section Through the Late Bronze Age Pits silty clay (478) containing charcoal flecks, pieces of gravel and limestone fragments. An irregular recut 0.94 m in width by 0.18 m deep cut this fill. The recut was filled with a dark greyish-brown silty clay (479) containing charcoal flecks, gravel and burnt stone. Pits 1750 & 1754 (Figure 10) To the south of the middle Bronze Age enclosure two more pits were observed in section during the watching brief but not in plan due to the similarity of their fills to the surrounding natural. Neither of these pits contained dating evidence, although one (1750) contained some disarticulated human remains of possible middle or late Bronze Age date. Pit 1750 measured 0.68 m in width by 0.68 m in depth, and was U-shaped in profile with a narrow central sump approximately 0.20 m in width by 0.12 m in depth. The lower 0.22 m of the pit was filled by a mid brown-grey sandy clay (1751). Overlying this was 0.28 m of dark brown slightly peaty clay (1752). The upper 0.18 m was filled by a mid-blackish grey silty clay (1753). All fills contained organic material. A human cranium and femur came from fill 1751 (Table 15), along with a polishing stone. Pit 1754 measured 0.46 m in width by 0.41 min depth, and was flat based with steep sides, one slightly concave the other slightly convex. The pit was filled by a light-grey sandy clay (1755) containing some gravel and charcoal. Burials (Figure 11) Burial 651 could not be located on the overall site plan as it was recorded under salvage conditions 116 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE N Vea A —__—— 640 a mae Ba : ~ 4 ! ae = I~ lan r la H i » Bim A ve a) / : = 640 Sand/gravel 0 tim ce Dee AA Staining from body Fig. 11 Section Through the Late Bronze Age Inhumation during the watching brief; no dating evidence was recovered from the fills. The burial comprised a crouched inhumation of a female aged 25 — 35, lying on the right side in an oval pit (640) with a U-shaped profile, measuring1.44 m in length by 1 m in width and 0.78 m in depth. The lower 0.04 m of the pit was filled by a light brown sandy gravel (653), overlain by 0.26 m of dark reddish-brown silty clay (652) containing gravel and burnt limestone fragments. Overlying this was a thin (0.03 m) layer of dirty sandy gravel with lenses of dark grey silt (654). The upper 0.45 m of the pit was filled by a greyish brown silty clay loam (641) containing charcoal flecks, gravel and fragments of burnt limestone. No pottery was recovered from the fills. Other Features A number of amorphous pits, scoops and postholes clustered along the edges of the ditches and in the area defined by them. Although unexcavated and therefore undated, their relationship to the ditches and other middle Bronze Age features suggests that they were contemporary. Iron Age Features A number of features including pits and ditches lay to the north and east of the middle Bronze Age enclosure, and many of them may be Iron Age in date. These included pit 428 to the north-east of ditch 783 (Figure 12). Pits Pit 428 was sub-circular in plan and U-shaped in profile, having a rounded base and steeply sloping sides (Figures 12 and 13). It was 1.2 m in length by 0.9 m in width and 0.6 m in depth. With the exception of a layer of silty gravel at the base, the pit was filled by layers of silty clay. The primary fill (429) was a mid grey-brown silty gravel 0.43 m thick, displaying a steep inclination down from the western edge of the pit. Overlying this was a 0.30 m thick mid greyish brown silty clay (430) containing some gravel, displaying a steep inclination down from the eastern edge of the pit. Overlying this was a mid brownish-grey silty clay (431) 0.44 m thick, from which 26 sherds of Iron Age pottery were recovered. Undated Features Ring Ditch (Figure 14) Part of a ring ditch was found in a small trench on the western side of the footprint for the new A419, about 160 m from the middle Bronze Age enclosure. This feature was associated with a dense scatter of amorphous pits. It was decided to preserve these features im situ and they were therefore left unexcavated. Pits (Figure 12) Miscellaneous pits, some quite irregular, were found in all areas of the site. Some may have been tree-throw holes. A substantial pit (406) was cut by ditch 784 making it earlier than the middle Bronze Age settlement enclosure, although it contained middle Bronze Age pottery and is therefore described in detail below. Pit 406 (Figures 12 and 13) was sub-circular in plan and U-shaped in profile, having a rounded base and steep slightly convex sides. It was 2.55 m in length by 1.1 m wide and 1.1 m in depth. With the exception of a single layer of silty sand at the base, the pit was filled by layers of silty clay, with two recuts. The primary fill (407) was of light brown PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT AT LATTON LANDS Fig. 12 Iron Age Activity and Undated Features lron Age Activity Undated feature 117 118 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE 82.96 m Ditch 784 Sand/gravel Ring ditch Dark-brown silty clay loam Brown gravel/sandy silt s Furrow \ Light-brown silty clay loam 40940 { 1060 \ if ( Pit group \ 4 Nain} ALN \ 7 ‘ 1 ' 1 ! 1 i i U / ) { es ! M i 1 1 \ i) { \ \ \ \ Si Furrow + ~ 7 ie} nae 10m Fig. 14. The Ring Ditch Fig. 13 Sections Through the Iron Age Pits silty sand with frequent inclusions of gravel 0.07- 0.1 m thick. A U-shaped recut measuring 1m in width by 1 m in depth truncated this fill. Three layers (408-410) of dark greyish-brown silty clay with inclusions of charcoal flecks and small amounts of gravel and sand filled this recut. Layer 409 contained two sherds of middle Bronze Age pottery (which may have been intrusive from ditch 784) and two fragments of cattle bone. A second recut, this time bowl-shaped and measuring 0.7 m in width by 0.34 m in depth, cut the upper of the three fills. This was filled by a single layer (411) of dark-brown silty clay containing patches of gravel and charcoal, and a quantity of burnt limestone rubble. Miscellaneous Features A number of features including pits and ditches lay to the north east and south of the middle Bronze Age enclosure. These were observed during the watching brief phase of the work. PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT AT LATTON LANDS 119 Fig. 15: Medieval Field Systems and Post medieval Features Medieval Activity (Figure 15) Ridge and furrow was found over the entire site, running both north-east/south-west and north- west/south-east. Two irregular ditches approxi- mately 60 m apart lay to the south of the middle Bronze Age enclosure. These both ran NE-SW and the space which they enclosed may have formed some kind of stock enclosure. These may be related to further linear ditches, possibly defining enclosures to the west of the ridge and furrow. Post-Medieval Activity (Figure 15) A rectangular enclosure measuring approximately 120 m by 60 m overlay the more irregular medieval field boundaries. To the west of this feature, defining the western limit of the ridge and furrow, was a series of north-west/south-east orientated ditches, that in places appeared to define a trackway running along the edge of the medieval field system. Despite this, its fills produced more Post- medieval than medieval pottery. A substantial stone lined drainage culvert orientated north-west/south- east lay to the west of these ditches. THE FINDS The Pottery by Fane Timby Introduction An assemblage of some 1158 sherds of pottery weighing 10.1 kg was recovered. Whilst the bulk of the assemblage, some 963 sherds, 83% by count, dates to the middle Bronze Age, sherds of Iron Age, medieval and Post-medieval date are also present. The pottery is of variable condition; substantial parts of vessels were present alongside isolated sherds but the nature of the fabrics has led to considerable fragmentation. Certain contexts produced just small crumbs. Methodology The assemblage was sorted into fabrics on the basis of macroscopically visible inclusions present in the 120 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE A . ° ; o Perforation— 0 250 mm = Err Fig. 16 Deverel-Rimbury Pottery (Sherds 1-8) PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT AT LATTON LANDS 121 clay following the recommended guidelines for analysing prehistoric pottery (PCRG 1992). Further subdivision was made on the size and frequency of the aplastic inclusions. The sherds were quantified by sherd count and weight for each excavated context. The resulting data was entered onto an Excel spreadsheet, a copy of which is deposited with the site archive. Fabrics were assigned to periods mainly on the basis of the occurrence of diagnostic sherds or by the association of fabrics where such sherds were absent or inconclusive. Middle Bronze Age A total of 963 sherds can be assigned to the middle Bronze Age Deverel-Rimbury tradition. The greatest concentration of sherds came from the northern enclosure ditch (783), 522 sherds (6615 g), although over 75% of these came from just two urns. The eastern enclosure ditch (784) produced 78 sherds (394 g), whilst the waterhole (421) yielded 154 sherds (1572 g). Description of fabrics and associated forms SHELLI1: Dense fossil shell-tempered ware. A generally reddish-orange to brown exterior with a dark grey black interior and core. The paste contains a common frequency of fossil shell mainly aligned to the vessel walls and up to 5 mm in size. The shell has a clean, fresh appearance, quite white in colour. At x20 magnification a rare frequency of limestone ooliths and other fossiliferous detritus (coral, foraminifera) is visible. This is the commonest of the middle Bronze Age fabrics with at least 322 sherds (1338 g). Amongst the sherds are both thick-walled urn-like material (10 mm), medium walled sherds (7-10 mm) and thinner-walled sherds (6 mm and less). Featured sherds include those from bucket-shaped urns with expanded rims, either plain (Fig. 16.5) or externally slashed (Fig. 17.14), a smaller jar or urn | with a finger groove below a flat-topped expanded rim (Fig. 16.3) and an everted rim jar with internal finger tipping (Fig. 17.15). A bodysherd from _ waterhole 421 has diagonal slashed decoration (Fig. 17.11). A simple jar rim from waterhole 421 has | finger-tipped decoration on the exterior, whilst a carinated bodysherd from the same context has finger-tip depressions below the carination. One rimsherd from (367) appears to belong to a vessel | with splayed walls (Fig 16.7). This ware was distributed across a_ large number of features with the main concentrations coming from the waterhole, 421, which produced 48 sherds, the terminal of the eastern enclosure ditch, 321, with 26 sherds, the northern enclosure ditch, sections 383 and 412, yielded 68 sherds, pit 369 contained 61 thin-walled sherds and pit 688 produced 21 sherds. It is associated with fabrics GRSH, SHELL2-3, and FLINT. SHELL2: Shell and limestone-tempered ware. A black fabric with a sandy texture, but very friable. The paste contains a common frequency of fossil shell mixed with discrete ooliths and other fossiliferous matter. These are more frequent in occurrence compared to SHELL1. Occasional shell fragments up to 8 mm in size but mainly finer. Vessels include a plain-watied jar with a slightly internally bevelled rim (Fig. 17.10) and a large curved wall jar with a line of finger-tipped impression below the rim (16.6). Not a common fabric with only 26 sherds recorded from just three contexts, two from the eastern enclosure ditch (366 and 450) and waterhole 421. It is associated with fabrics SHELL1, GROG, GRSH and SHELL 3. SHELL3: Fossil-shell tempered ware. A moderately thick-walled ware with an orange exterior and outer core and black interior and inner core. The paste contains a sparse to moderate frequency of fine fossil shell up to 1 mm in size mixed in with occasional bryozoa and occasional discrete limestone ooliths. A moderately rare fabric represented by just nine unfeatured sherds from the eastern enclosure ditch (784). SHELL6: shelly ware. An orange-brown ware with a dark grey core. Moderately hard fabric with occasional voids and a sparse frequency of coarse fossil shell up to 8mm across. The ware has a laminar, hackley fracture. A total of 24 unfeatured sherds were recovered from the northern enclosure ditch (783) suggesting this is a middle Bronze Age fabric. GROG: Grog-tempered ware. A moderately hard, orange-brown ware with a black interior surface and inner core. The slightly sandy textured paste contains a common frequency of sub-angular grog, up to 7 mm in size. At x20 magnification the matrix contains very fine sand and fine mica. Vessels include at least two bucket-shaped urns with expanded rims from the northern enclosure ditch, 783, and waterhole 421. The urn from 421, represented by at least 85 sherds, has finger-pressed decoration on the outer rim edge and a finger- pressed cordon around the body. In addition, the waterhole produced two decorated bodysherds, one with a vertical applied rib, the other with two THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE dark grey-black core. The paste contains a common frequency of angular, white, calcined flint of variable size, the larger fragments up to 5 mm across. The ware, although hard, has a friable, hackley fracture. At x20 magnification very fine Fig. 17 Deverel-Rimbury Pottery (Sherds 9-16) opposed diagonal ribs below a step in the profile (Fig. 16.8). A similar fabric was used for a small vessel with a plain undifferentiated rim from ditch terminal 383 (Fig. 16.2). GRSH: Grog and fossil shell-tempered ware. An orange-brown ware containing a_ sparse frequency of fossil-shell up to 2 mm in size. At x20 magnification the paste shows a light scatter of rounded quartz and red iron along with a sparse frequency of clay pellets or grog. The latter is sub- rounded in shape with pieces up to 3 mm in size. A total of eight sherds were recovered in this fabric of which only one was featured, a thin-walled vessel with a plain, — slightly flattened undifferentiated rim from 783. Other sherds were recovered from both the enclosure ditches, sections 366, 383 and 512 and pit 609. FLINT1: Coarse flint-tempered ware. A patchy black, mid brown to orange-brown surface with a sparse white mica flecks, sparse fine rounded quartz sand and rare red iron grains are visible. Diagnostic forms include the substantial part of a cordoned bucket urn with a slash decorated rim and a finger- pressed cordon (Fig. 16.1) from ditch 783. The vessel has fragmented into some 398 sherds (5928 g) distributed across contexts (371-3). Approximately 67% of the rim is present. This shows a slightly expanded form particularly on the internal face. The vessel has been perforated before firing at least three times, one hole being above the cordon, one below but in a different area of the pot and one uncertain. Further single flint-tempered sherds of similar character came from ditches 397, 412 and 427. These sherds were of medium thickness, that is around 8mm, thus falling slightly below that exhibited by the urn sherds. FLINT2: Fine flint-tempered ware. A moderately hard dark brown to black ware. The paste contains a moderate frequency of fine calcined, angular flint, up to | mm in size but mainly finer. The surfaces are relatively smooth and show finer inclusions, suggesting the vessel walls have been wet smoothed. Represented by a single thin-walled sherd with faint traces of lightly tooled decoration (Fig 16.4) from ditch 783. The association of this sherd with a sizeable collection of middle Bronze Age shelly and coarse flint-tempered ware suggests that it should be seen as contemporary, perhaps from a Decorated Globular urn. Discussion At least six fabrics have been distinguished with definite middle Bronze Age associations, four shelly wares ( SHELL1-3, 6), one grog-tempered ware (GROG) and one _ flint-tempered ware (FLINT). To these can probably be added the grog and shell-tempered ware GRSH, although the chronology of this is less clear, and the single fine flint-tempered sherd (FLINT2). In total these PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT AT LATTON LANDS 123 account for some 963 sherds (8987 g). Many of the sherds appear to derive from single vessels, in particular with 348 sherds from one flint-tempered urn and 85 sherds from a grog-tempered urn, both deposited in the northern enclosure ditch (783). The wall thicknesses suggest a range of vessel types are present ranging from bucket-shaped cordoned urn to smaller jars while several vessels show evidence of decoration. The jars mainly have simple undifferentiated rims although one is everted (Fig .17.15). At least one of the thinner walled vessels is carinated. Although no complete profiles have been drawn there is probably at least one reconstructable urn from the eastern terminal of the northern enclosure ditch (783). Several typological parallels exist for the urn material with its distinctively expanded rim form. Bucket-shaped vessels occur in the classic Deverel- Rimbury assemblages of central Wessex, such as Thorny Down, Wiltshire (Stone 1941) and the Dorset area (Calkin 1964), Cranborne Chase (Barrett 1991) as well as in the Thames Valley (Barrett 1974). At least one of the urns from Bevan’s Quarry, Gloucestershire round barrow assemblage had a similarly expanded rim form to the Latton examples (O’Neil 1967, fig 3.5). The presence of pre-firing perforations is also a recurrent feature seen elsewhere, for example at Bray (Cleal 1995, fig. 18. p8-9, p17), Sunbury (Barrett 1974, figs 2.19, 22, 26) and Acton (op. cit. fig 4). _ The use of finger-tip decoration on non-urn material is well documented elsewhere, for example, pottery from the Cranborne Chase middle Bronze Age settlement enclosures (Barrett 1991). A parallel for the splayed wall vessel from (367) (Fig. 16.7) can be found amongst the middle Bronze Age material published from Bray near Maidenhead (Cleal 1995, P13). The Bray group also contained bucket-shaped urn and a small number of carinated sherds. Although a possible late Bronze Age date for the latter was considered, it was concluded that the carinated sherds, although not typical, were contemporary with the middle Bronze Age assemblage (ibid 29). Globular Urn is also present in the assemblage represented by the decorated fine flint-tempered sherd and possibly some of the thinner-walled carinated sherds. Comparable material with lightly tooled decoration is recorded from the Bournemouth area (Calkin 1964, fig 10) and Kimpton, Hampshire (Ellison 1981). Traditionally such material has a distinctive Wessex association, but the presence of Globular Urn is now documented from the Thames Valley, for example at Bray, Maidenhead (Cleal 1995), Newbury (Timby pers comm), Yarnton (Barclay pers comm), Horcott (Lamdin-Whymark forthcoming) and Abingdon (Avery 1982, 26-32). The juxtaposition of three fabric types at Latton perhaps reflects the location of the site in the Thames Valley between the Cotswolds to the north-west and the Marlborough Downs to the south-east. The shelly wares suggest a Jurassic source in the Cotswold region and a similar fabric was used to form the cordoned urns recovered from Bevan’s Quarry round barrow, Temple Guiting (O’Neil 1967, fig. 3). The flint-tempered tradition is perhaps more typical of the south and this is the main component of the middle Bronze Age vessels recovered from the Thorny Down settlement, Wiltshire (Stone 1941) and the Cranborne Chase sites (Barrett et al. 1978). Components of the assemblage were thus apparently being imported and few, if any, of the vessels support a source from the immediate locality. Few other settlement assemblages from the immediate area compare with the Latton assemblage although the juxtaposition of large urn and smaller plain and decorated vessels is seen at other domestic sites such as South Lodge, Dorset (Barrett 1991) and Thorny Down. Analysis of pottery from middle Bronze Age sites on Cranborne Chase highlighted Martin Down as having a different ceramic pattern to some of _ its contemporary sites. It showed a wider range of sources and has other elements such as size and the presence of metal-working which sets it apart. Like Martin Down (Barrett et al 1978), Latton appears to lie at the meeting point of different ceramic zones. Iron Age A small collection of material appears to be more typical of the Iron Age in the area. Difficulty was encountered in discriminating between certain of the shelly based wares that could be of Bronze Age or Iron Age date. Description of fabrics SHELL 4: Shelly ware. A thinner-walled ware with a dark orange to orange-brown exterior and a brown core and interior surface. Inclusions are commonly leached out leaving a vesicular fabric. The paste contains a moderate frequency of fossil shell up to 5-6mm in size with a sparse scatter of coarser shell, occasional discrete ooliths and other fossiliferous matter including bryozoa. In total 153 sherds of this ware was noted, the only 124 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE featured sherd being a small rimsherd of indeterminate overall form. Most of the sherds, (42) came from pit 613 with further examples from pits 609, 428, 655 and 751. The association of the material with a carinated bowl (see SHELL 5 below) in pit 613 would suggest that this is an early Iron Age fabric. SHELLS: Shelly ware. An orange-brown ware with a brown core, similar to SHELL4 but with a sparser distribution of inclusions. The paste contains an ill-sorted sparse to common frequency of shell, some fragments up to 8 mm with occasional rounded red iron. A small group of 12 sherds was found, of which six derive from a flared wall, carinated bowl (Fig. 17.14). All the sherds came from pit 613. Typologically the bowl would fit into the early Iron Age period. SALI1: Sandy with limestone. A black sandy ware of fine to medium texture with a sparkling appearance. At x20 magnification the paste shows a moderately well-sorted, common frequency of rounded to sub-angular quartz and a_ sparse frequency of ill-sorted limestone. The latter comprises small fragments of oolitic conglomerate up to 5mm in size, discrete ooliths, fine grained limestone rock and occasional fossiliferous matter. Represented by a single small rimsherd from pit 613 and thus associated with the carinated bowl noted above. SALI2: Sandy with limestone. A_ black, moderately hard ware with a sandy texture. At x20 magnification the paste shows a sparse scatter of rounded quartz (less than 0.5 mm) rare flint and occasional fine limestone and shell or voids, generally less than 2 mm in size. Represented by just two bodysherds with an external burnish from posthole 718. Medieval and Later A small collection of nine medieval and eleven Post-medieval sherds was recovered. The medieval sherds, all Minety ware, were unstratified or from the plough furrows. The Post-medieval-Modern sherds came from the ditches bounding the plough and furrow to the west and from contexts (601) and (315). Catalogue of illustrated sherds From the ditched enclosure (northern ditch) 1. Bucket-shaped, cordoned urn. The cordon has finger-depressed decoration whilst the external rim is marked with diagonal slashes. The vessel wall has been perforated at least three times, with one hole. above the cordon, one below and one uncertain. Fabric: FLINT1. Ditch segment 383 (372/373). 2. Small vessel with plain walls and a simple undifferentiated rim. Mid brown in colour with a dark grey interior/core. Fabric: GROG. Ditch 383 (373). 3. Bucket-shaped urn with expanded, flat-topped rim. Fabric: SHELL 1. Ditch segment 387 (393) 4, Small thin-walled bodysherd with faint traces of tooled decoration. Probably from a Globular Urn. Fabric: FLINT2. Ditch segment 387 (389). 5. Small urn or jar with an expanded rim defined with a thumbed groove at the junction of the rim and wall. Diameter uncertain. Black in colour with a brown core/interior. Fabric: SHELL1. Ditch segment 387 (393). From the ditched enclosure (eastern ditch) 6. Thinner walled vessel with curving walls, black in colour throughout. The exterior rim surface has been finger smoothed and the upper wall is decorated with spaced finger depressions. Fabric: SHELL2. Ditch segment 366 (368). 7. Vessel with a slightly splayed wall and squared off rim. Angle slightly uncertain. Orange-brown in colour with a dark grey core. Fabric SHELLI. Ditch segment 366 (367). From Waterhole 421 8. Bodysherd from an urn decorated with diagonally applied strips. Fabric: GROG. (481). 9. Bucket-shaped cordoned urn with finger-pressed decoration on the cordon and external rim edge. The rim is internally expanded. The vessel is brownish-black to orange-brown in colour. Fabric: GROG. (419). 10. Small jar with a simple undifferentiated rim, slightly bevelled. Brown in colour with a dark grey interior and core. Fabric: SHELL2. (419). 11, Thick-walled bodysherd with diagonal slashed decoration with a possible hint of finger-tipped decoration below. Dark brown black in colour, fabric SHELLI. (418). 12. Vertically walled vessel with a_ simple undifferentiated rim. Decorated with a single horizontal line of finger depressions below the rim. Black in colour. Fabric: SHELLI. (418). 13. Bodysherd with a slight carination decorated with finger depressions? above the carination (orientation uncertain). Dark grey-black in colour. Fabric: SHELLI. (418). PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT AT LATTON LANDS 125 Other 14. Thick-walled urn with an internally expanded rim decorated with slashes on the exterior face. Black in colour throughout. Fabric: SHELLI. Pit 688 (691). 15. Everted rim jar with finger tipped decoration on the interior of the rim. Fabric: SHELLI. (353). Early Iron Age 16. Flared wall carinated bowl, patchy red-brown to grey in colour with a dark grey core. Fabric SHELLS. Pit 613 (616). The Flint by Hugo Lamdin-Whymark A total of 18 flints and a single piece of burnt unworked flint was recovered from the excavation (Table 1). The flintwork is in reasonable condition, but a few pieces exhibit post-depositional edge damage. The majority of flints exhibit a heavy white cortication and one piece is iron-stained orange; a side scraper exhibits different levels of white cortication on the flake surface and retouch scars, suggesting reworking. A few flints exhibit thick, unabraded, white cortex, indicating that the raw material is chalk flint. The flint flakes and cores recovered all exhibit platform edge abrasion and appear to have been relatively carefully removed. The lack of diagnostic artefacts hinders dating, but the technological traits suggest a Neolithic or early _ Bronze Age date for the majority of pieces; one _ fine snapped blade may date from the Mesolithic. The majority of flints were recovered from middle Bronze Age features, indicating that the flintwork was probably residual. The Stone by Ruth Shaffrey The worked stone is unremarkable, consisting of only a probable weight and a polished pebble. The weight is limestone (681) pierced by a hole measuring 10 mm in diameter. The quartzite pebble was found in a Bronze Age pit (1750) along with a human cranium and femur and has been used as a polishing stone resulting in one very smoothed and curved surface. A large quantity of burnt, unworked limestone rubble was also retained (Table 2) and is fully listed by context and weight in the archive report. This material was friable suggesting that it had not been used for cooking and the majority of it came from miscellaneous undated pits lying to the north and east of the middle Bronze age enclosure, although some material was found in the fills of the enclosure ditches and the waterhole. Table 2. Burnt unworked limestone rubble from Middle Bronze Age contexts Context Lithology Descrip Burnt rubble Burnt rubble Burnt rubble Limestone Limestone Limestone Burnt rubble Burnt rubble Burnt rubble Limestone Burnt rubble Limestone Limestone Limestone Table 1. The flint assemblage by context CATEGORY 370 395 396 397 426 448 487 503 534 2 eon ia Oe 1 2 1 sh eee Multiplatform 1 oases Rp | NOIRE SG chet mtgdneteersn Percloutar!) akc eetinrencin eel) sonst el RE ct ey ee eI ee piceleccapecaiMial UNO dealer ML avo ao ee Spurred piece Grand Total 126 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE The Fired Clay by Alistair Barclay The excavations produced a large fragment of a cylindrical weight (sf 121) and two small pieces of amorphous fired clay (contexts 585 and 621). The weight provides probable evidence of textile manufacture on the site. Similar weights have been found on a number of later Bronze Age sites in the Upper Thames valley (e.g. Wallingford, Yarnton and Eynsham: Barclay 2001, 139). A similar weight was found at a late Bronze Age site at Shorncote some 5 km to the west (Morris 1994, 43-4 and fig 13:2). Fig. 18 The Loomweight Catalogue (Fig. 18) Sf 121, context 372. Clay loomweight (453 g). Approx. 50% complete, dia. 100 mm, ht. 67 mm. Manufactured from unmodified silty clay. The Wooden Bowl by Maisie Taylor The wooden bowl recovered from waterhole 421 was quite fragmentary but it was possible to reconstruct virtually the complete profile (Figure 19). The bowl is carved from a single piece of fine grained, diffuse porous wood, probably a log of alder. The vessel appears to be round-based, although the base is thickened for strength and stability. The sides and rim are well carved and so well finished that there is very little evidence for how the vessel was worked. No precise parallels of similar date have been found for the bowl from Latton Lands, but then Prehistoric wooden vessels are very rare in England. This is possibly because the ideal 0 250 mm ———— ___—__ 1:4 Fig. 19 The Middle Bronze Age Bowl conditions for preservation are equally rare, but may also be due to the difficulties of recognising this kind of material in situ. One of the Neolithic bowls from Etton, Cam- bridgeshire is very similar in profile (Taylor 1998, fig 168), but the one from Latton Lands is much finer, with thinner walls. When discussing the Neolithic wooden bowls from Etton, it was apparent that there were similarities with contemporary pottery forms. This is not the case at Latton, however, and may strengthen the argument that the shapes of wooden bowls were determined by the character and grain of the wood, rather than borrowing predetermined shapes derived from pottery. The Molluscs by Elizabeth Stafford Introduction Six samples were submitted for analysis of molluscan remains from the lower fills of the two middle Bronze Age ditch termini, 366 and 383 (Figures 3 and 4). PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT AT LATTON LANDS 127 Methodology and results One kilogram of sediment was floated in water on to 0.5 mm mesh and the flots dried. Residues were also sieved to 0.5 mm and dried. Flots were scanned under a binocular microscope at magnifications of x10 and x20. Residues were also checked for shells, although the flotation was generally found to have given adequate shell recovery. The abundance of taxa was recorded on a scale of + (present, 1-2 individuals), + + (some, 3-10 individuals) and +++ (many, 11+ individuals). An estimate was also made of the total number of individuals in each flot excluding Cecilioides acicula. This species was excluded because it burrows deeply and provides no useful information on conditions as a sediment or soil formed. C. acicula can be extremely numerous and its inclusion in the total tends to obscure the results from the other species. The results are presented in Table 3. Nomenclature follows (Kerney and Cameron 1979). Overall the preservation and species diversity was moderate to poor. Identification to species level proved difficult with Lymnaea sp and Vallonia sp. due to the fragmentary nature of the shells (See Figure 3 for the location of the samples). Interpretation Ditch terminus 366: The two lowermost samples <17> and <18>, of the tertiary fill (397) were dominated by freshwater species Anisus leucostoma and to a lesser extent Lymnaea sp. The identification of Lymnaea was difficult since the shells were fragile with only a few examples of the tips of the apices surviving. Terrestrial molluscs were present, albeit in very low numbers. A.Leucostoma is considered to be a slum species, tolerant of poor water conditions, inhabiting ponds and ditches subject to drying or stagnation. Of the terrestrial molluscs, Cochlicopa sp., Cepaea sp. and Trichia hispida fall into the intermediate group, none of which are particularly diagnostic of either shaded or open habitats. The presence, however, of Vallonia sp. may suggest open ground/grassland nearby. In addition, although Carychium tridentatum is classed as a shade-loving species, it also commonly inhabits the base of the leaves of grasses in ungrazed grassland. Assemblages from the upper tertiary (397)/ <19>, and secondary fill (368)/<20>, show a decrease in the number of freshwater molluscs suggesting silting and drying of the ditch. The addition of Oxychilis cellarius and Aegopinella nitidula may suggest a slightly more shaded environment, although this may be local to the vegetation around the ditch. Molluscan preservation was very low in ditch terminus 383. The assemblage from fill (381)/<6> contained a few freshwater molluscs; cf. Lymnaea sp. suggesting wet conditions. There was, however, a Table 3. Molluscs 128 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE. marked absence of A. leucostoma. This may be related to the shallower profile of ditch terminus 388 compared with ditch terminus 366. The terrestrial assemblage was similar to ditch terminus 366. The molluscs within fill (373)/<15> consisted entirely of intermediate species. The Animal Bone by Fulie Hamilton Introduction A total of 1776 (c. 28 kg) fragments of bone was recovered by hand from 30 middle Bronze Age contexts. Surface condition varied from feature to feature and was generally poorest in ditches, best in the waterhole. The overall average score was around 3 (extensive surface damage, 35-65% of surface obscure). Poor preservation significantly affected identification and other information obtainable, and it was not possible to draw strong conclusions on species proportions, management regimes, or taphonomy. About 30% by number (80% by weight) of fragments were identified. Most of the 535 (20256g) identified fragments were from cattle, with sheep/goat (no positive goat), pig, dog, horse and red deer also present. Three fragments of burnt bone were unidentifiable and may have been human or animal. The animal bone seems representative of a mixed farming economy involving the common domestic animals, probably with an emphasis on cattle. There is little evidence for extensive use of wild resources. The cattle were shorthorned, 110-115 cm withers height. There was evidence for processing of all parts of the carcase and disposal on site. This was also probable for sheep and pig. Pig were apparently slaughtered young to provide meat. Red deer was represented by both antler and limb fragments. Methodology All the hand-retrieved animal bone was examined, identified as far as possible and recorded. Analysis focuses on species present and species proportions, with some consideration of population and taphonomic data as available. Bones and teeth were identified using a comparative collection and standard references such as Schmid (1972) and Hillson (1992). The assemblage was recorded on an Excel spreadsheet allowing details of context, species, element, side, completeness (Dobney and Rielly 1988), age/sex data, pathology, measurements, alteration and condition to be recorded for each fragment; numbers of unidentified fragments and weights per context were also recorded. Total fragment numbers and, where useful, minimum numbers of individuals (based on the commonest element, with side taken into account and fusion state for long bones), were calculated from these records. Ageing of domestic animals followed Silver (1969), Payne (1973; 1987), Grant (1982) and Levine (1982), sheep and goat bones were distinguished according to Boessneck (1969) and cattle horn cores classified following Armitage and Clutton-Brock (1976), and Armitage (1982). Where no goat was positively identified, sheep/goat is referred to as sheep. Measurements followed Von Den Driesch (1976). Withers heights were estimated according to Von Den Driesch and Boessneck (1974). Condition was scored using a scale of 1 (bone surface totally removed/obscured) to 5 (bone surface in pristine condition), as surface condition will affect identifiability and the quality of taphonomic information. Condition, identifiability, and variation by context type Altogether 1766 fragments (c.28 kg) of bone were analysed. Of these 75% came from the waterhole (421), with 16% from pits and 9% from ditches (783 and 784, Table 4). The condition of bone affects its identifiability and the amount of additional information which can be obtained from the assemblage. Differences in preservation between context types may also affect comparisons between them, because smaller fragments and hence those from smaller and/or younger animals, will tend to be disproportionately lost. Various indicators of condition showed the same general pattern. Mean fragment size was similar for ditches and pits (11g), but larger for the waterhole (17g). Surface condition score was generally worst in ditches at around 2, better in pits and best in the waterhole at around 3 (Table 5). The overall average score was around 3 (extensive surface damage, 35-65% of surface obscured). The 535 fragments (c. 21 kg) identified to species, only account for about 30% of the bone assemblage (number of identified fragments, NIF; Table 6), reflecting medium to poor preservation. The percentage of fragments identified in different context types varied in line with fragment size, from 23% for pits to 32% for the waterhole. By weight, nearly 80% of fragments were identified - PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT AT LATTON LANDS 129 (similar for all context types): thus, the unidentified fragments were generally the smaller ones, often the result of post-depositional breakage. The overall condition of the collection is not good, with low identification rates and mediocre surface preservation. Evidence of breakage, butchery, gnawing, and other surface alteration has thus been lost. Most bones were fragmentary, so very few measurements were possible. It is also likely that more fragile elements and smaller/ younger animals are under-represented, so species proportions, skeletal representation and age data will be affected. Species present and species proportions Species present were domestic cattle, sheep (no positive goat was found), pig, horse, dog and (wild) Table 5. Fragment condition by context type NIF in Condition* Average context type condition 7 Fragment numbers Context type Total NIF red deer. Cattle were overwhelmingly dominant in all context types, although the proportion was noticeably lower in ditches (Table 7). However, there were only 38 identified bones from ditches, which is insufficient to make firm conclusions. Nevertheless, poorer preservation in ditches, as demonstrated above, would tend to reduce the ratio of sheep to cattle, ie. operate in the opposite Table 4. Percentage of identified fragments by context type Fragment numbers _| Fragment weights Total % Total % No. of contexts 2342 17658 Table 8. Species proportions by NIF (number of identified fragments), WIF (weight of identified fragments) and MNI (minimum number of individuals) 130 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE’ direction, so it would be unwise to assume that the overall proportion of sheep was really as low as it appears - if most sheep bones were discarded in ditches they may have mostly been lost from the record. Less than 10% of fragments came from pits and species percentages were similar in ditches and the waterhole, so it seems reasonable to combine data from all features for further analysis (Table 5). Other methods of quantification, weight and minimum number of individuals (MNI) confirm the dominance of cattle, though the MNI method probably reduces some of the preservational bias against smaller species and so may give more realistic proportions of sheep and pig. There are too few fragments, however, to take this aspect further. The animal bone seems representative of a mixed farming economy involving the common domestic animals, probably with an emphasis on cattle. There is little evidence for extensive use of wild resources. The red deer bone included five antler fragments which could have come from shed antler, but also four metatarsal fragments, suggesting that red deer were present in the area. Species descriptions Cattle Horncores were of the short-horned type. There were few measurable elements, but withers heights were estimated from a radius (114 cm) and a metacarpal (110 cm) (Table 9). Nine mandibles with teeth could be used to estimate an age-at-death profile: these indicated that no more than a third of the cattle had died by stage 35 (about 3. years, Table 10). According to epiphysial fusion data (combined for all elements, Table 11), about 15% of cattle had died by the age of 3-4 years. Both of these methods are likely to underestimate mortality of younger animals because poorer preservation of juvenile elements is likely to be significant at this site. There were in fact several unerupted teeth among the loose teeth and one neonatal metacarpal. Among the measurable horncores one was classified as male, one male/castrate and one unknown (all age class 3, young adult), while six of eight classifiable innominates were classed as female (these could not be aged). This would make sense if surplus males were killed young for meat but females killed older, after breeding: the ‘female’ characteristics of innominates become more marked with age and are thus more likely to be recognised. In all likelihood the cattle remains represent a breeding herd, but data are too few to draw conclusions about cattle management. Table 10. Cattle age data (mandibles, method after definite attributed n n 1 Grant 1982) One innominate fragment (of 13) showed exostosis of the ischium near the acetabulum. One metatarsal fragment (of 31) showed exostosis and remodelling of the proximal joint surface. Such pathology may be linked to the use of cattle as draught animals. One lower third molar (of 13) lacked the 3rd cusp. Table 12 shows the numbers of fragments of different elements (skeletal representation) and the distribution of butchery marks over the skeleton. The MNIas calculated for each element is included to allow for the effects of fragmentation - for instance, 21 fragments of scapula can be accounted for by 4 animals, but 21 fragments of metacarpal must represent at least 9 - scapula is thus more fragmented. Clearly, all parts of the skeleton are represented, with the more robust and earlier fusing parts surviving best. There may also be an effect of recognisability - many longbone fragments Table 9. Measurements of cattle bones Metacarpal GL (cm) 367 17.5 Radius GL(cm) | Bp BFp | SD Bd 26.6 7 66 35 65 51 BFd PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT AT LATTON LANDS 131 Table 11. Cattle age data (epiphysial fusion) lack definitive features and were classified as ‘large longbone’ (included with unidentified). Butchery marks are common on horncores, due to removal of the horn sheath and sometimes chopping of the core from the skull, and on mandibles where cheek meat and/or tongue have been removed. They also occur on axial elements (scapula and inominate) and are commoner towards the limb extremities (radius, tibia and metapodials). Both chops and cuts were noted, generally around joints where meat had been stripped off: one scapula had been chopped through the spine. Overall butchery marks were seen on 5% of cattle fragments (excluding teeth), and this is certainly an underestimate because of the poor surface condition of many fragments. Less easy to quantify are bones fractured for marrow, which relies on analysis of breakage patterns and is particularly difficult where there is considerable post-depositional breakage, as here. Fracture patterns and bone splinters were noted that could have resulted from such deliberate breakage, but these were not rigorously quantified. The cattle bones can be interpreted as food remains, with killing, butchery and other processing, and waste discard taking place on site. Table 12,MNI, NIF and butchery marks on different cattle elements Element n % NIF MNI NIF | +butchery | +butchery 3 14 3 : horncore 21.4 skull fragment mandible Cattle probably accounted for a major proportion of meat eaten, though it is not possible to estimate the overall proportion of meat in the diet. Evidence for other uses of cattle - manuring, traction, milk, carcase products other than horn such as fat and hides - and their place in the agricultural and social system is more elusive, though the occurrence of hip/hindlimb pathologies may indicate their use for traction. Sheep Only 27 fragments (200 g) are identified as sheep/ goat (no positive goat), so conclusions are limited. There were no measurable bones or recordable mandibles - of the 2 lower 3rd molars, one was unworn and one was in wear stage g (Grant 1982). The commonest element was tibia, which is both robust and recognisable, followed by loose teeth (Table 13). Butchery was noted on one femur, as a series of short cuts where meat had been stripped. We can only assume that sheep played their usual role in the economy, providing manure, meat and other carcase products, wool and possibly milk. Ina mixed farming economy sheep would thrive on 132 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE different pastures from cattle, enabling wider resource use. Table 13.MNI and NIF per element for sheep and pig Sheep/ goat ea 3 5 1 metatarsal metapodial loose teeth Pigs Only 16 fragments (202 g) are identified as pig with no evidence for wild boar. There were no measurable bones or recordable mandibles, but from the limited evidence available there was a high proportion of young animals, evidenced by three unfused distal epiphyses (two metapodials and a tibia) out of only seven limb bone fragments and one unerupted lower third molar (of one). One canine was from a male. The commonest element was the robust mandible. No butchery or pathology was seen. This conforms with the usual pattern where pigs are managed primarily for meat and carcass products and are generally slaughtered young. They were probably ‘extensively’ managed, exploiting woodland environments for example, where they could be fattened on mast in the autumn, so broadening the resource base. Other domestic animals One tibia fragment and one first phalanx of horse were found, demonstrating the presence of this species at the site. Dog was represented by one mandible fragment with heavily worn teeth from context 368 (an upper fill of middle Bronze Age ditch terminal 366), another mandible fragment from context 417 and a scapula fragment from context 481, both fills of middle Bronze Age waterhole 421. Again, this does little more than demonstrate the presence of dog during the middle Bronze Age, suggesting a canine origin for most or all gnawing noted on bones (see Taphonomy below). Red deer Red deer was represented by five antler fragments, three of which had been sawn and four metatarsal fragments (one complete). The antler fragments, mainly tine tips, were probably waste from antler working. One also had traces of chewing, possibly by deer, suggesting that it was collected as shed antler. The presence of limb bone (metatarsal) suggests that deer were present locally. It is possible that some of the unidentified long bone is also from red deer, since it can be difficult to distinguish fragmentary red deer from cattle bone (Bourdillon and Coy 1980). Red deer prefer woodland environments. While they probably contributed little to the overall meat diet, antler was an important raw material and hunting may have been a prestige activity (possibly also involving dogs and horses). Taphonomy Poor surface preservation (Table 5) has already been discussed. Other traces of alteration (butchery, burning, gnawing) will be obscured as a result. For instance, 90% of fragments with butchery marks (26/29) and 82% (14/17) of gnawed fragments were from the waterhole, though only 75% of fragments overall were from this feature. This is as likely to reflect better surface preservation as differential distribution of gnawed or butchered bone. There was a variable amount of dark staining on the bone fragments and the more of this there was, the better the surface condition per context (correlation coefficient r=0.711, n=25). Staining could reflect preservation of bone in waterlogged conditions, such as in the waterhole (421). Indeed, most fragments recorded as stained ‘dark brown’ were from the waterhole and both surface condition score and proportion of ‘dark brown’ fragments were higher in lower contexts (r=0.894, n=6). Burning was seen on one cattle fragment and four unidentified fragments. Surface discoloration might well have obscured traces of burning on bone from the waterhole. Gnawing (by dogs) was seen on 16/478 cattle fragments and 1/1043 unidentified fragments. The PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT AT LATTON LANDS 133 amount of gnawing recorded varied from feature to feature, but this could just as well be accounted for by variation in surface preservation. Comparative material There is a paucity of published bone material from sites of this period. What there is suggests that a relatively high proportion of cattle is usual (Tinsley and Grigson 1981, 210-49), though Jones notes a high proportion of sheep at Roughground Farm, Lechlade (Jones 1993, 34). Conclusions Post-depositional damage and destruction of the bone assemblage has affected interpretation in terms of both animal numbers/proportions and taphonomy. The general picture is one of mixed animal husbandry able to exploit a range of environments from wet to dry grassland, scrub to woodland. There is little evidence for exploitation of wild resources, so it is likely that food supply was based on the established farming system. Cattle appear to have been the major source of meat, but it is not possible to establish details of their exploitation, or the proportions of the other major domestic species. The site could have been self- sufficient in animal resources, with breeding, management, slaughter, processing and disposal all based there, though this would not rule out exchanges and connections with other sites. The Human Skeletal Remains by Annsofie Witkin Introduction The human skeletal remains consist of an articulated skeleton (651) and two disarticulated fragments of femur shaft and cranial vault. The articulated skeleton lay in an oval pit (640, Figure 11) in a crouched position orientated west-east. The disarticulated bones were located in the secondary fill (1752) of pit 1750 (Figure 10) containing waterlogged material. The human remains are of uncertain date, but may belong to the middle or late Bronze Age. Quantification Pit (1750) was 0.68 m deep and 0.68 m wide, and the layer in which the disarticulated bones lay was waterlogged and contained animal bones and a polishing stone. Another organically rich layer (1753) overlay that containing the human remains. The pit was sealed with redeposited clean natural gravel, making the pit invisible in plan view. Skeleton (651) was buried in a pit 640, resting upon three fills (653, 652 and 654) and overlain by a fourth (641). Three fragments of unidentifiable burnt bone from the western terminal of a middle Bronze Age curvilinear enclosure ditch (783, Figure 3) were also examined. Methodology Completeness of skeletal remains was scored using four categories: poor (0 - 25%), fair (26-50%), good (51-75%), excellent (76-100%). The inventory of each skeleton was recorded by shading in the present skeletal elements on a pictorial representation. In addition, the skeletal components of each individual were recorded in tabular form as present or absent. Dental inventory was recorded following the Zsigmondy system (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994). Dental notation was recorded using universally accepted recording standards and terminology (after Brothwell 1981). Eight cranial features were used for sexing, chosen from Standards (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994) and Workshop (1980). Each observable feature on the cranium was scored on a five point scale (probable female, female, probable male, male and unknown). The overall score from the observed features provided the basis for the assigned sex. Due to the fragmentary nature of the remains, the only methods which could be applied for the assessment of age were the pattern of suture closure (Meindl and Lovejoy 1985) and dental attrition (Miles 1962). The remains were examined for abnormalities of shape and surface texture. When observed, pathological conditions were fully described and_ recorded following accepted standards. Articulated Skeleton 651 Preservation and completeness: the bones present were well preserved with no degradation of outer cortical surfaces of the bones. Multiple post- mortem breaks on the long bones and cranium were, however, present. The lower arms, left tibia and parts of the other surviving long bones were also badly fragmented. The cranium had ancient post-mortem breaks caused by soil pressure. The completeness of the skeleton was poor. All smaller bones apart from six metacarpals and five phalanges were completely degraded and only fragments from the pelves and scapulae were present. Of the long bones, only the shafts were present. None of the joint surfaces or spinal 134 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE ' Table 14. Dental inventory Key: The numbers represent the teeth present elements had survived. Most teeth were present but all were loose. It was not possible to ascertain if missing teeth had been lost ante or post mortem. Age and Sex This individual was possibly female aged between 25 and 35 years. Five sites on the cranium assessed for the determination of sex provided an even mix of male and female scores and one indeterminate. Morphology of the long bones, however, suggested a female, since they are quite small and slender, with weak muscle attachment sites. Pathology No skeletal or dental pathological lesions were observed. The disarticulated human remains Preservation of these bones was very good, due to the waterlogged nature of the fill in which they lay. Neither bone was complete and the breaks had occurred before deposition. After processing the femur shaft developed longitudinal fractures likely to have been caused by shrinkage as the bone dried out. Analysis of the bones is summarised in Table 15. The burnt bones Three small fragments of unidentifiable burnt bone, between 8 and 2 mm with a combined weight of 1 g, came from two fills (373 and 381) of the western terminal of ditch 783. Discussion Between the middle and late Bronze Age, a shift in funerary practices took place. Cremation burials became less common and from the late Bronze Age into the Iron Age, the dead are, to a large extent, archeologically invisible. Within specific contexts associated with settlements, however, human remains are frequently uncovered, commonly disarticulated cranial fragments and long bones. Articulated limbs and complete skeletons have also been found though these are not as common (Briick 1995). The majority of sites yielding such bones are concentrated in central southern Britain. Sites in the Middle and Upper Thames Valley with similar features and deposits include Green Park (Brossler et al. 2003), Watkins Farm (Allen 1990) and Shorncote Quarry (Brossler et al. 2002). The deposition of disarticulated bones in pits is likely to be associated with exposure of the dead and secondary manipulation, which is thought to be the main burial ritual in southern Britain during the early and middle Iron Age (Carr and Knitsel 1997) and possibly the middle and later Bronze Age. This practice involved excarnation through exposure away from the settlement, with the subsequent retrieval of selected bones (commonly long bones and crania) or articulating limbs after an intermediate period of time when the body decayed. Bones would then have been ritually incorporated into deposits such as pits. This process accounts for the absence of small bones and flesh-bearing bones lost during exposure and animal scavenging during the excarnation process. The deposition of human bones, articulated skeletons or isolated bones during the late Bronze Age seems to have occurred when waterholes or pits no longer served their original function and may have been used as rubbish pits. The majority of waterholes and pits are situated at the edge of Table 15. The disarticulated remains Context number 1752 Cranial vault - 25-35 ft eo Female No pathology present. Size and shape of the bone suggests a female individual. Multiple lambdoid ossicles. No pathology present. PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT AT LATTON LANDS 135 settlements (Brossler and Boyle 2001). These deposits may be seen as purely functional but are likely to have had a symbolic and/or a ritual meaning. Wet places may have been seen as liminal zones in a ritual, religious or political sense: possibly even as a meeting point between this world and the other. On the other hand, ancestral bones may have been used to legitimise a claim or mark out a settlement or region as belonging to a specific group of people (Briick 1995, 260). The Pollen by Elizabeth Huckerby Introduction Pollen analysis of fill (481) of the Bronze Age waterhole 421 provided an insight into the environment of the settlement when the fills of the waterhole were accumulating. Methods A monolith (0.50 m) was taken through part of fill 419 and the entire depths of fills (480) and (481) from waterhole 421. The top of the monolith was 0.66 m below the present surface (see Figure 5). Sediments were recorded in the laboratory and are described below. Initially six individual subsamples were taken for the assessment from the following depths, 0.66-0.665 m, 0.855-0.86m, 0.955- 0.96 m and 1.055-1.06 m below the present surface. An additional seven subsamples were taken from between 0.96 and 1.16 m. Subsamples were prepared chemically for pollen analysis using standard techniques of hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide, followed by sieving, hydrofluoric acid and acetolysis (Faegri et al. 1989). Samples were then mounted in silicone oil and examined with an Olympus BH-2 microscope using x400 magnification routinely and x1000 for critical grains. Counting continued until a sum of at least 300-500 grains of land pollen had been reached on two or more slides. This was done to reduce the possible effects of differential dispersal under the coverslips (Brooks and Thomas 1967). Pollen identification was carried out using the standard keys of Faegri et al. (1989) and Moore et al. (1991) and a limited reference collection. Cereal-type grains were defined using the criteria of Andersen (1979); indeterminate grains were recorded using | groups based on those of Birks (1973). Charcoal particles greater than 5 wm were also recorded following the procedures of Peglar (1993). Plant nomenclature follows Stace (1991). Analysis and storage of the data were accomplished using the tillia/tilliagraph software (Grimm 1991) to categorise data and aid its interpretation. The results are presented as a percentage pollen diagram of selected taxa. The pollen sum, on which the percentages are calculated, includes all land pollen and bracken spores. There are no obvious differences in the pollen assemblages and therefore the diagram has not been divided into local pollen assemblage zones. Results All depths quoted are given from below the present ground surface. Stratigraphy The sediment was predominately a silty clay with bone fragments above 0.96 m, pebbles between 0.82-1.02 m, and wood fragments below 1.13 m. Sediments below 1.135 m were very crumbly and as a consequence lost when the monolith was unwrapped. All samples were calcareous and needed initial treatment of heating with 10% hydrochloric acid. Charcoal fragments, plant remains including wood fragments, bryophytes, sedge nutlets (Carex) and undifferentiated plant material, and insect remains increased in fill (481). Pollen (Figure 20) The pollen assemblages show little variation at the different depths except at 1.0575 m when grass (Poaceae) pollen falls sharply and dandelion-type (Liguliflorae), and Chenopodiaceae pollen, and bracken spores increase. However, at this depth the value of indeterminate grains rises and the concentration of identifiable pollen declines, resulting in a smaller pollen sum. Bracken spores and dandelion-type grains are more resistant to deterioration than other taxa, and may therefore indicate a skewed data set at this depth rather than a change in the local environment. The earlier assessment (LUAU 2001) highlighted that there was a high percentage of corroded or crumpled grains at 0.66 m to 0.65 m. Pollen from herbaceous taxa dominated the pollen assemblage throughout the profile, with a maximum of 90% of total land pollen. Tree and shrub pollen was less than 25% of total land pollen and bracken spores. The major components of the tree and shrub pollen are alder (Alnus glutinosa) and apoysaingl ay2 fo Sppy ay] WO DXDT, pairajag fo woisvig] Uap]O] asvuanay OZ ‘Fy THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE 136 008 009 OOF O02 OF 02 08 09 oF oz oz oz ’ oz oz, oz 0b 02 , oz t — ‘et a TT a a + =H > aol et +H Dc a et w 5 al + os t ar i o i | 2 in| ees | TTT] ST ST —_ — ———— 7 = | . a rh ( 4 oo 1 oe = — . = = A | | ——= ef | a. | . ‘ z om : onl mime fe rm —= oi ed eo cI q- 18p —= oo! =a . 5 . = aq wl} . ae | om at ‘ a - = = = a alos —a Cs | ae : . . ‘| q . aa - . a “| == . a ‘ oo ee tee ee fe eel | ' | : daw to dy ! 1 a feslpeeete | salt Ae 4 1] — 2 oe ¢ 7 Jog fe 1 = | PI 4 ‘ | —« — = | -_ . = - . | « . se q . oes] = -| ..| | et . 4 a | Se eee EL ER : | ati ale) Pi eaelelety T 1 7 1 1 T | } | | } | | | | | | | | | | | | | | } | — Oe eee = 4 a |} om a lg a — z « Os | | | } 1] | | | | | | | ial | | | | | = — om — “ a = ‘ aoa q = = . 4 4 | | 6lP | a Sas os 2, VSO Prd oh LILPPM AMS PHD ORDO ROOD Saas a seater oe READ Oy A GOO DES &% RSH BBW 382g Por PROS Zehr LR x RAAS PSs PWN 2S gers Rotor ot RS ~ 29 Rw 2 SY ss Os 2rd as SK PP DM SFL MS HELE PL WH FSI OOE SNP FPIEME & Se SPS S xy es Kes SS 2 Cer) < iS FLNH PHP BW VP Hoel PEK TMA IH Ta SMM TP yw > vss FO PH PME se s y 3 Pree PI Mor Ver wp Sr “I SX cy eo XS Set Ss fo, ae ee c > RSS oe > oe & Se Ss qe FES © A s 2 . 3 5 Fo" vs é x sons / ~ aS J / / 3 soyenby~ “swe ~ “si ~ squaH sqnuygs pue saasp soepyns punos6 juaseid mojaq wo uv! yideg PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT AT LATTON LANDS 137 hazel-type (Corylus avellana-type) with some oak (Quercus), and ash (Fraxinus), and_ sporadic occurrences of other taxa including birch (Betula), pine (Pinus), and lime (Tilia). The assemblage of herbaceous pollen suggests that several plant communities are represented. Cereal-type pollen was recorded at low levels through most of the pollen profile with arable weeds including corn spurrey-type, (Spergula-type), Chenopodiaceae, knotgrass (Polygonum aviculare) and redshank (Persicaria maculosa) recorded (Behre 1981). The majority of the herbaceous taxa, for example grasses, ribwort plantain (Plantago lanceolata), buttercup-type and Ranunculus-type, suggest that the settlement and immediate environs supported a grassland or ruderal-type community. Occasional grains of hemp/hop-type (Cannabis/ Humulus-type) pollen were recorded at 0.995 m, 1.0725 m and 1.1325 m. Hemp and hop pollen are extremely difficult to distinguish from one another and no firm identification was made. Hops, although now cultivated, are a native plant growing in hedgerows, scrub and fen-carr, whereas hemp is thought to have been introduced and cultivated for fibres. The frequency of aquatic taxa, in particular common reed (Phragmites australis), increases above 0.98 m at the transition between contexts 481 and 480 and suggest that the waterhole was starting to silt up and possibly fall into disuse. Discussion The origin of the pollen is of direct relevance in the interpretation of pollen diagrams and in general the smaller the size of the basin the more local the pollen recorded in the sediments (Jacobson and Bradshaw 1981). Conversely, the larger the catchment basin the more regional the picture of vegetational change it gives. The diameter of the waterhole at Latton Lands is relatively small and _ therefore likely to provide a more local record of the vegetation than a larger natural waterbody or mire. _ The pollen data at any site are composed of two _ components, | one originating from _ regional vegetation, the other more locally; the proportions of these components vary with the size of the basin. _ It is usually assumed that tree and shrub pollen is _ derived from more regional vegetation, whilst | herbaceous plants represent local plant communities, although there are exceptions to both. The direction of prevailing winds would influence the source of the regional component of the pollen rain. In addition to problems associated with the interpretation of the pollen source of a natural catchment basin there are additional ones that relate to an archaeological feature such as the waterhole at Latton Lands. Pollen identified from such deposits can include material that has been thrown into the feature and also pollen from imported plants or parts of plants that are therefore not representative of the local vegetation (Faegri et al. 1989). The results of palynological analysis of the fills of the waterhole (421) confirm that the landscape had been cleared of trees (LUAU 2001). Before the palynological assessment it was thought that the settlement enclosure was possibly delimited by trees on the two sides, where no ditches were identified, but the analysis suggests that this is unlikely. The low values of tree pollen indicate that few if any trees were growing close to the site. The only significant values of tree pollen are of alder and hazel-type pollen with low values of oak and sporadic occurrences of other taxa, for example lime and elm. Hazel-type, alder, oak and birch are all prolific pollen producers (Andersen 1970). By contrast, at the nearby site of Latton ‘Roman Pond’ pollen analysis of organic sediments suggested that woodland was still relatively important in the late Bronze Age (Scaife 1999, 510- 12). Pollen analysis by Scaife (ibid.) of an organic deposit in a shallow depression in the basal Devensian gravels demonstrated the presence of oak, lime and hazel woodland on the drier soils with some evidence of carr-woodland on the wetter areas some way from the site. The short pollen profile (0.20m) from Latton ‘Roman Pond’ demonstrated evidence of the Tila decline in the late Bronze Age, a date of 1258-1020 cal BC (2943+63BR NZA-8579, R24151/9) from waterlogged seeds at the base of these deposits dating it to the Late Bronze Age (Robinson 1999, 499 and Scaife 1999, 512). Further woodland clearance is noted towards the top of the Latton ‘Roman Pond’ sequence. Analysis of the silty clay fills of the Latton Lands waterhole (421), however, suggests that woodland had already been cleared from the environs of the settlement in the Bronze Age. Robinson (1999, 499) considers that fen peat began to develop at Latton ‘Roman Pond’ in tree throw holes after clearance as the water table rose. Pollen analysis from the lower fills of waterhole (421) suggests that the landscape was probably being used for both pastoral and arable farming. Low but consistent values of cereal pollen suggest cereal crops close to the waterhole. Cereal-type 138 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE ATM20.14c OxCal v2.18 cub r:4 sd:12 prob[chron) waterhole WK-12942 3076+50BP WK-12941 3085+42BP 1800cal BC 1600cal BC 1400cal BC 1200cal BC 1000cal BC Calibrated date Fig. 21 Radiocarbon Determinations pollen, however, is known to be under-represented in palynological records and investigations in north Germany have suggested that cereal pollen may not be recorded in deposits at distances greater than one kilometre from a site and even by 500 m little is recorded (Behre and Kucan 1986). Aquatic plants The absence of substantial evidence for aquatic plants or organisms in the pollen profile suggests that when the sediments were forming the waterhole was kept clean of vegetation, or utilised in such away as to prevent the water becoming stagnant and plants such as_ waterlilies or pondweeds colonising. The later use of the waterhole A high percentage of pollen grains in the sample from 0.66-0.665 m are crumpled or badly corroded precluding identification. A high percentage of dandelion-type pollen, which is resistant to corrosion and easily identified, however poor the pollen preservation, indicates that some of the pollen may be derived from secondary deposition. The likelihood of material either washed or thrown into the waterhole, supports the possibility that the fill 419 results from the disposal of rubbish. Conclusions In conclusion, this analysis has indicated that the settlement at Latton Lands was not delimited on two of its four sides by trees, and that woodland was less important to the local environment in comparison with Latton ‘Roman Pond’. RADIOCARBON DATING Two samples, both of waterlogged wood, were submitted to the Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory at the University of Waikato, New Zealand. The results are summarised in Table 16 below. Sample no.8 was recovered from layer 481 (an organic rich deposit associated with further waterlogged wood including part of a wooden bowl) within waterhole 42] (Figure. 5) and was also associated with Deverel- Rimbury style pottery . The aim of the dating programme was to establish the date of the waterhole in relation to the middle Bronze Age (1500-1150 cal BC) sequence, and to provide an associated date for the wooden bowl (SF109) and for the lower part of the pollen sequence (Sample 9). Figure 21 and Table 16 demonstrate that the two radiocarbon results obtained are virtually indistinguishable at the two sigma range and confirm the date of the waterhole Table 16: Radiocarbon results Laboratory | Sample Material Radiocarbon °13C number reference age (BP) (%o) WK-12941 Wood (maloideae) WK-12942 Wood (silicaceae) 3085 +42 1410-1260 BC One sigma Two sigma 1440-1210 BC 1410-1260 BC 1440-1130 BC PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT AT LATTON LANDS 139 as falling between 1440-1130 cal BC, approximating to the middle Bronze Age period (Needham 1996, 133-4 and fig. 1). DISCUSSION The Middle Bronze Age Settlement Structure The archaeology suggests a domestic settlement situated on the river valley floor and probably overlooking a fertile agricultural landscape. The most prominent features would have been the two substantial linear ditches, 53 m and 69.2 m in length respectively that defined a settlement space open to the south-west with a north-east facing entrance. The area has clearly been subject to ploughing both in the medieval and Post-medieval period and the archaeology was somewhat truncated. It is therefore likely that the ditches were originally flanked by substantial internal banks and that they were deeper than the 0.5 m that survived at the time of excavation. Situated at a mid-way point between the north-eastern ditch terminals was a large waterhole, indicating that stock was kept either within the enclosure or nearby. Storage pits clustered to the south-west of the waterhole in and around the north-east facing entrance. Groups of postholes, both within the enclosure and immediately to the north of the northern ditch, may be the remains of internal fences, or an external palisade predating the ditches. None of these postholes formed coherent patterns and it must be assumed that some have been lost to ploughing. Only one of the two roundhouses found lay within the enclosure area; the other lay to the south-east. This rather low density of buildings may be a function of truncation. British middle Bronze Age settlements with discontinuous ditches are fairly common and some adopt an L-shaped pattern similar to the Latton example. At Thorny Down in south Wiltshire an L- shaped bank defined a settlement to the south and west, while a ditch delimited the north-western extent of activity (Stone 1941, 115). At Down Farm in Dorset a middle Bronze Age settlement was flanked to the south-east by a bank and ditch that curved round to the north-west at both ends, but did not encircle the settlement (Barrett et al. 1991, 183-214). Similarly at Shearplace Hill, Dorset (Rahtz 1962) and Cock Hill in Sussex (Barrett et al. 1991, 209), middle Bronze Age settlhements were partially enclosed by banks and ditches. The Angle Ditch in Dorset was an L-shaped ditch defining a settlement to its south-east (Barrett et al. 1991, 206; Rahtz 1962, 190). Many of these sites also contained roundhouses, ponds and waterholes similar to the ones uncovered at Latton. It is also notable that many of these sites lay close to early Bronze Age round barrows, which subsequently became the focus for middle Bronze Age cemeteries. The ring ditch at Down Farm was the focus for eight cremations and five inhumations of middle Bronze Age date (Barrett et al. 1991, 183 - 214). The ring ditch and series of pits uncovered to the south-west of the Latton enclosure may have seen similar activity in the middle Bronze Age, although this remains no more than an intriguing possibility. All of these sites were upland settlements, which accounts for the frequent preservation of their banks. The Latton Settlement remains unusual in the context of the Churn valley and the upper Thames region. Settlement Character and Chronology Environmental, artefactual and structural evidence points to a farmstead possibly practising a mixed farming regime and dating to the middle Bronze Age, as confirmed by the two radiocarbon determinations. The animal bone assemblage from the ditches and the waterhole is dominated by cattle, probably the main source of meat, with little evidence for consumption of wild animals. Small amounts of horse and dog bone demonstrate their presence, but with no indication of how they were exploited. Molluscan evidence from the terminal of ditch 784 points to open grassland nearby indicating that animals were grazed in the area. Environmental samples from the lower fills of the waterhole contained cereal pollen which, along with the presence of storage pits, indicates that arable crops were being produced and consumed. A loomweight from one of the ditch fills may be taken to suggest that the site was engaged in textile production. The possible presence of hemp pollen from the waterhole may be seen to back up this contention. Concentrations of burnt limestone from the fills of the pits, ditches and the waterhole present interpretative difficulties, as their function is not immediately obvious, either from their form, or their context. Such concentrations are relatively common on late Bronze Age sites in the Upper Thames valley, such as Shorncote (Brossler et al. 140 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE © 2002; Hearne and Heaton 1994; Hearne and Adam 1999) and Eight Acre Field (Mudd 1995) where they are interpreted variously as pot boilers (Brossler et al. 2002) and as debris from metalworking (Hearne and Heaton 1994; Hearne and Adam 1999). At Eight Acre Field the burnt stone formed a metalled surface and was interpreted as a cooking area (Mudd 1995, 57). Whilst the assemblage of burnt stone from Latton is smaller than the assemblages from these sites, it does exhibit similarities, especially in distribution. The pottery assemblage from the _ ditches, particularly the north-eastern ditch terminals, and from the waterhole, includes imported material and has few components from a source in the immediate vicinity of the site. This may suggest that the site was of high status although a lack of metalwork and metalworking debris does not support this view. Similar sites, such as Thorny Down (Stone 1941), often produce fine metalwork. Concentrations of pottery sherds, wooden artefacts, burnt stone and animal bone in the fills of the ditch terminals and the waterhole, including at least two Deverel- Rimbury bucket-shaped urns, a wooden bowl, a dog mandible and three fragments of worked antler is suggestive of structured deposition. There may have been some textile production and the inhabitants may have engaged in feasting activity that involved deposition of pottery, burnt stone and animal bone in the ditch fills. Environmental and artefactual evidence from Latton tallies with evidence from many of the sites discussed above, where similar assemblages of pottery were found, although several of these sites revealed metalwork including a double looped spearhead from Thorny Down (Hawkes 1941), while others had better evidence of textile production. The overall impression is that the settlement at Latton was broadly equivalent to sites such as Down Farm, Thorny Down and South Lodge. Settlement Context Given the evidence, it is difficult to say whether the enclosure existed in a densely settled landscape or was relatively isolated. The nearest known Bronze Age activity is at Cotswold Community to the west (Granville Laws pers. comm.). A ring ditch to the south-west of the enclosure suggests early Bronze Age settlement in the area, while the gravel terraces and flood plain of the Churn valley would have made _ prime agricultural land. It would not be surprising therefore if future excavation revealed further evidence of middle Bronze Age settlement. The position of this distinctive kind of middle Bronze Age enclosure on the gravel terrace of a tributary of the Thames may be seen as unusual, given that the distribution of such sites is generally restricted to the uplands of Wessex, although this pattern may be due to differential preservation. Its situation may also be seen as interesting, since Bradley has argued for distinctive differences between the settlement patterns of the river gravels and those of the uplands (Bradley 1984). Ultimately, the middle Bronze Age was a time of agricultural and settlement intensification and in this sense the Latton Lands enclosure is not out of place. The Later Prehistoric Activity An unaccompanied crouched inhumation and two pits one of which contained human remains were tentatively assigned to this phase. The pits could belong to the middle or late Bronze Age, although neither contained datable artefacts. One of the pits contained a femur shaft and a cranial vault, both from an adult female. In the absence of clear dating evidence the inhumation can be seen as later prehistoric, but is not more closely dated. The Iron Age Scatters of pits and ditches lying predominantly to the north and north-west of the middle Bronze Age enclosure may have been of Iron Age date, which indicates the continuation of settlement and/or agricultural activity on the gravel terrace. The Medieval Period Field boundaries, possibly representing a series of paddocks, lay to the south of the middle Bronze Age enclosure, while ridge and furrow was present over the whole of the excavated area. Clearly the area was subject to intensive agricultural use during the medieval period. It seems likely that this activity is related to the medieval settlement of Latton. The Post-Medieval Period A rectangular ditched enclosure overlay the medieval field system and to the west of this a PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT AT LATTON LANDS ditched trackway seemed to define the edge of the medieval ridge and furrow. To the west of the trackway was a stone lined culvert. These features seem to represent continuation of agricultural activity in the area related to the settlement at Latton. The fact that the trackway seemed to define the limit of the ridge and furrow may indicate that it followed the line of an earlier route present during medieval times. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Oxford Archaeology is grateful to Cotswold Aggregates, who funded the archaeological investigations, analysis and publication and facilitated access, and to John Wheeler and Andrew Liddle for their co-operation and help on site. Elizabeth Huckerby would like to thank the Department of Biology, University of Lancaster for the use of laboratory facilities. Thanks are also due to the OA staff for their hard work during the excavations including Jim Mumford who supervised the watching brief phase of the work. The authors are grateful to all their colleagues at OA, particularly Gill Hey who managed the excavations and Jane Timby who oversaw the post- excavation phase of the work. Alistair Barclay read and commented on the final draft of the text, Matt Bradley helped out with the digital plans, Dana Challinor oversaw the environmental processing and Claire Sampson processed the environmental samples. The authors would particularly like to thank Amy Tucker and Lucy Martin for preparing the illustrations and Sarah Lucas for drawing the wooden bowl. Bibliography ALLEN, T. G., 1990, An Iron Age and Romano-British Enclosed Settlement at Watkins Farm Northmoor, Oxon. 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Journal of Human Evolution 9, 517-49 144 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE: Swindon @ WILTS Rodmead : 4 Farm | - ®@ Trowbridge Whitesheet Hill @ Salisbury ® Enclosure E aD \v 4 se iS ¢ oy i = AS Whitesheet Hill |. e ae wi P< cross-ridge earthworks i Whitesheet Quarry ® Barrow 500m Al coatours im metres OD Fig. 1 Whitesheet Hill: Location of the sites excavated | Wiltshire Archaeological & Natural History Magazine, vol. 97 (2004), pp. 144-196 Investigation of the Whitesheet Down Environs 1989-90: Neolithic Causewayed Enclosure and Iron Age Settlement by Mick Rawlings,' Michael 7. Allen' and Frances Healy’ with contributions by Rosamund M.f. Cleal, M. Corney, Rowena Gale, Pat Hinton, D. McOmish, 7.M. Maitby, Elaine L. Morris and Robert G. Scaife The construction of a water pipeline across part of Wiltshire and Somerset enabled the investigation of a transect through the causewayed enclosure at Whitesheet Hill, sectioning the enclosure ditch and revealing several internal features. Other sites on and around Whitesheet Hill were also investigated including a Beaker period pit, two cross- ridge earthworks and an enclosed settlement of the Middle Iron Age. The earlier Neolithic date of the enclosure ditch was confirmed and a number of internal features were recorded. These included solution and tree hollows but also probable contemporary archaeological features. The ceramic assemblage indicated that the causewayed enclosure at Whitesheet Hill had a greater affinity with areas to the south and west (Hembury) than to the north and east (Windmill Hill) and an important molluscan sequence was recovered from the ditch which provides some comparisons with similar sites on Hambledon Hill and Maiden Castle. In the winter of 1989-90 Wessex Water plc constructed a 700mm underground pipeline from Codford, Wiltshire (ST 954400) to Ilchester, Somerset (ST 523223), a total distance of 61.5km. A continuous archaeological watching brief was maintained during construction and several sites were identified and recorded (Rawlings 1992; 1995). Whitesheet Down is a small Middle Chalk downland block lying on the western scarp of Salisbury Plain (Figure 1). The Down is sited immediately north of the Vale of Wardour and the scarp slope overlooks the lower land of the Lias and Purbeck Beds/Oxford Clays to the west. At the local scale it is separated from the Salisbury Plain to the east by a deep, bifurcated dry valley. The Iron Age hillfort below the summit of Whitesheet Hill has views to the west over the clay vale. In contrast the Neolithic causewayed enclosure on the edge of the escarpment has views over the clay vale but it is sited at the head of a dry valley with views to the east down its axis. Colt Hoare noted that the causewayed enclosure, unlike the hillfort, is conspicuous from either west or east (Colt Hoare 1812, 41). The hillfort on Whitesheet Hill forms part of a largely uninvestigated complex of monuments situated on a plateau of Middle Chalk (Figures 1 and 2; see Corney and McOmish below). In crossing Whitesheet Hill the pipeline cut through three Scheduled Monuments: the earlier Neolithic causewayed enclosure on the western spur of Whitesheet Hill, and two linear cross-ridge earthworks, the Whitesheet Hill Linear and the Mere Down Linear (Figure 2). A Beaker pit was discovered to the east of the Mere Down Linear during this work, and an Iron Age site in Whitesheet Quarry (Figure 1). ' Wessex Archaeology, Portway House, Old Sarum Park, Salisbury SP46EB * 20 The Green, Charlbury OX7 3QA 146 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE | PART 1: THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE WHITESHEET DOWN HILLTOP SURVEY by M. Corney and D. McOmish The earthworks on Whitesheet Hill occupy the extreme south-west tip of the chalk massif which covers much of southern Wiltshire. Extensive views of the Blackmoor Vale are afforded to the south, whilst to the north and north-east much of the high chalk downland of west Wiltshire is visible, including the concentration of Neolithic, Bronze Age and later monuments on Cold Kitchen Hill. Much of the study area is now downland pasture, although there are clear traces of prehistoric and later cultivation. The Whitesheet Hill complex (Figure 2) comprises three large enclosures, two univallate and one multivallate. Divisions of the landscape are represented by three substantial cross-ridge earthworks and funereal activity marked by at least eleven round barrows. This note is confined to the description of the two univallate enclosures (Figures 3 and 4) and related features. Both sites were surveyed at a scale of 1:1000 using a Wild TC2000 ‘Total Station survey package with additional measurements made by taped offsets. Enclosure 1 (Neolithic causewayed enclosure) _ Enclosure 1 (Figure 3) is an ovoid medium-sized circuit (Oswald et al. 2001, 75), defined by at least 23 ditch segments, with an internal bank enclosing an area of 2.3ha (5.7 acres). First noted by Colt Hoare (1812, 42), the true nature of the site was only recognised in 1950 by Grinsell, with confirmation of the date provided by Piggott and Stone in 1951 (Piggott 1952; VCH 1957). The enclosure is best defined to the north-east of the modern track which cuts across the site. Here the ditch is visible as a series of elongated hollows up to 0.5m deep. The bank is correspondingly well-preserved and survives to a height of 0.7m above present ground level. It is generally continuous although there are also locally raised sections which, in part, relate to the deeper portions of the ditch. Some offsetting of the alignments between ditch and bank causeways is evident. Later mutilation has occurred on the north-eastern arc where hollow-ways associated with the former Stourhead to Salisbury coach road cross the line of the enclosure. To the south-west of the modern track the enclosure is less substantial with the bank formed by a series of dumps, 10—-15m in length and up to 0.4m high. These dumps tend to occur opposite ditch segments which, in this area, are more irregular and slighter than on the north-east. Recent chalk quarrying has destroyed 60m of the ditch on the north-western arc. One potential entrance was noted 35m west of the large bowl barrow (Wilts SMR ST83NW 649) which impinges upon the ditch circuit. The putative entrance consists of a slightly offset 10m wide gap in the circuit approached by a double lynchet terrace. A noticeable misalignment of approximately one-third of the circuit of the enclosure occurs 70m north of barrow 648 with a further offset some 170m to the north-east (Figure 3). This may indicate a longer period of development of the site than previously assumed. It is possible that, initially, the north-west side, on the edge of the steep escarpment, was not defined by a bank and ditch but only further excavation could resolve the matter. Three bowl barrows were recorded beyond the south-western arc of the enclosure (Wilts SMR ST83NW 646, 647, and 648). No. 646 is now eroding into an abandoned quarry. A slight rectangular, embanked feature was recorded between barrows 646 and 647; it is of unknown date or function. The narrow chalk plateau is cut 130m south-east of the causewayed enclosure, by a cross- ridge earthwork formed by a single ditch up to 1.0m deep with a bank on each side. Severe mutilation and damage has occurred where hollow-ways associated with the former coach road cross the earthwork. Enclosure 2 (undated univallate enclosure) An oval enclosure (Figure 4) of c. 3ha (7.4 acres), 300m north-east of the causewayed enclosure, was first noted by the Ordnance Survey in 1953. Defined. by ascarp up to 0.4m high with an external ditch, the circuit has been much reduced by ploughing. There are traces of possible ditch interruptions on the south-eastern arc and a probable entrance, 14m INVESTIGATION OF THE WHITESHEET DOWN ENVIRONS 1989-90 147 — BANK -——a, DITCH ® BARROW 0 500 metres a ee] 80 Fig. 2. Whitesheet Hill: Location of major monuments | wide, on the east. Within the enclosure are very _ slight circular depressions which may indicate the positions of former structures. To the north and west of the enclosure are the mutilated remains of a field system of probable prehistoric or Romano- British date. 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Few land snails were recovered from the sample column, especially when compared to the potential aeolian deposits from other sites mentioned above. Snails were predominantly open country species (Table 10) and those catholic species that occurred (Trichia hispida) are common in open grassland and arable environments. The deposit probably accumulated during a prolonged phase of arable al ieheet 1 } tee) te soll ie us al ; eben a inate yey tdi a ut ost" in Vlg ii Bot ara ti Sat 233.59m0.D Ww n activity resulting in deflation of local soils and deposition of wind-blown silts in the ditches. This assemblage seems to be more typical of Bronze Age rather than Neolithic hilltop environments. Mere Down Linear Ditch A second linear ditch (SAM 417) lies to the east of the hillfort, towards the Beaker pit (Figures 1 and 2). As with the Whitesheet Hill Linear, there are 1500 KEY Y Vf) Concrete Aeolian silts 0 3 — aaa PE m Fig. 15 Whitesheet Hill Linear and Mere Down Linear INVESTIGATION OF THE WHITESHEET DOWN ENVIRONS 1989-90 183 ~ $ 2 Ng S 2 o o ¢ < > 2 eer, e SaSienee 8 € S s ® ¢ NS e & ¢ oS e e é ¢ ° s e ay yy - si 2 2 @ < y ow R > ¢ x = YS & Sow Lys Y WL D Ye g ¢ S S x s ° 3 Ss $ a é é y & $ & Se es y ve ¥ AY € ee 2 G oe FF Ses ao SILL LS ® ~ 2 3 &s é s g RY < ose és RS é RN é N 8 Ss é 5 = we @& Ly RS) R “ Ss Bp Ss LS LEIS See CCI ees & v¥ £ CLK L L {b, L L L L L L L L L L L cL L L L ty L L Ik, [L 70 Pe Paces F 75 L peesentoe + YAo7 + + LA e e Sar e + ro a oo o 0 e Snails present Lee aL fe + 40 0 200 20 0 fe re tou 1 t ° + 010 0 1 L L Fig. 16 Mollusc histogram from the Mere Down linear banks on both sides. It is aligned north-south and can be traced for over 600m across Mere Down. The pipeline route crossed the monument immediately adjacent to the current access track, at a point where the banks were no longer extant and the ditch was only just visible prior to excavation. Upon excavation (Figure 15) the ditch proved to be 1.05m deep and 3.1m wide at the surface. It had moderately sloping sides and a flat base, with a ledge on the lower part of either side indicating the possibility of a recut. A basal fill (1280) comprised angular chalk rubble with a few unworked flint nodules. Above this deposit were secondary fills of loamy soils (1279, 1283), again with occasional flint nodules, sealed by a thin layer of very fine flint gravel, almost certainly water-lain. This deposit was quite level and may represent the base of a ditch recut for drainage purposes. Above it a stone-free layer of soil (1282) was cut by a small concrete-lined drainage ditch (1273). Eighty-one probably residual, abraded worked flints were recovered. Two sherds of grog-tempered pottery, possibly from the same vessel, from the lower ditch fills and a single iron nail or stud from the thin gravel deposit 1277 are probably Roman, a few fragments of animal bone were also recorded. A column of samples through the ditch fill sequence was analysed for molluscs and four distinct mollusc assemblages can be detected - (Figure 16). The basal fill (1280) produced an assemblage dominated by shade-loving species and characterised by a high proportion of Vitrea crystallina and V. contracta with Trichia hispida and Carychium tridentatum. Although most of this assemblage can be classed as woodland, the Vitreas and Carychium have affinities with the catholic group (e.g. Kuiper 1964) and are common in chalk grassland succession communities (Cameron and Morgan-Huws 1975). More significant is that the long ungrazed grassland on the steeper slopes of Whitesheet Hill today supports a fauna dominated by Vitrea crystallina, Carychium, accompanied by Nesovitrea hammonis, Trichia hispida and the Introduced Helicellids (Allen pers. obs.). We can be reasonably certain that the local landscape in which the ditch was cut was one of tall ungrazed herbaceous grassland and some shrubs (perhaps blackberry and hawthorn). Fill 1279 produced high shell numbers and a change in species composition. Although shade- loving species still predominate, Carychium and Trichia are now the main components and a number of more open country and even xerophilous species are present. This assemblage is indicative of grassland in which light grazing has occurred. The secondary fill 1283 produced a_ significant reduction in the shade-loving group and is dominated by Trichia and Limacidae. Open country species are present in low, but increasing, numbers and comprise mainly Pupilla muscorum and Vertigo pygmaea. These restricted assemblages with low species diversity indicate harsher open dry conditions and possibly arable contexts; Pupilla and Vertigo both inhabit bare ground environs and Hellicella itala is common in ancient tilled areas (Evans 1972, 181), but equally may indicate environs of short-turfed grazed grassland. The tertiary fill (1282) produced assemblages almost largely comprised of open country species Pupilla, Trichia, Vertigo, and Helicella. These are assemblages typical of short open dry grassland, and the reduction in Helicella can be seen in part as 184 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE a result of competition for the Introduced Helicellids, but also possibly increased grazing intensity. This episode can be attributed to the medieval period or later by the occurrence of Introduced Helicellids (Kerney 1977). Molluscan evidence indicates that the ditch was dug when long, probably ungrazed, grassland existed. It is thus evident that Bronze Age tillage had ceased and grassland had become established. It is likely that within this tall herbaceous vegetation other shrubs and bushes were dotted around the hilltop, possibly more prominent on the steeper slopes. Soon after the ditch was dug there is evidence for light grazing of the grassland. The ditch may therefore relate to pastoral farming management. It is generally thought that until the medieval or post-medieval periods grazing was fairly light. More intensive grazing producing short turfed dry grassland or even limited tillage can be seen in this last period. DISCUSSION by Michael F. Allen and Mick Rawlings Discussion of the nature of Neolithic activity at Whitesheet Hill is restricted by the limited area examined within the pipeline corridor. Information about the date and nature of the earthworks, and activities in the interior have been elucidated, however, along with an environmental sequence and assemblages of various artefact types. This data can address some of the fundamental questions about the causewayed enclosure, the landscape in which it sits, and the landscape that it served. The presence of a large undated circular enclosure on another spur of the hill, defined by an uninterrupted ditch, serves to highlight the number and range of monuments at Whitesheet Hill. Date of Construction and Activity Radiocarbon dates for the primary fill of the causewayed ditch indicate construction about 3730- 3370 cal BC, which is directly comparable to dates for the enclosure ditches at Windmill Hill (Ambers and Housley 1999), Maiden Castle (Ambers et al. 1991), and Hambledon Hill (Bayliss et al. in prep.). More significant, however, is the date range of the features from the interior. These clearly fall into a range of c. 3720-3330 cal BC, proving that both the interior pits and the enclosure are contemporary events within the earlier Neolithic. These contribute to an increasingly coherent group of dates for causewayed enclosures in Wessex. Nature of the Monument The form of the Whitesheet enclosure is described above and summarised elsewhere by Oswald et al. (2001, fig. 8.4, 157); it is typical of many such enclosure monuments. Excavation, however, revealed the scale of the ditch to be far from the 1.35m depth recorded by Piggott (1952, fig. 2). The size and shape of the ditch was unprecedented for a causewayed enclosure, being 2.8m deep, with a narrow 1m wide and 1m deep almost vertical sided ‘slot’ in the base making it almost defensive in form and quite unlike the typical broad, flat-bottomed, U shaped profiles of other enclosures (see Oswald et al. 2001, fig 3.8). site typical typical ~— form width depth Maiden Castle 3-—4m _ 1.2-1.6m_ broad flat bottomed U-shaped very broad flat bottomed U-shaped broad flat bottomed U-shaped Windmill Hill 2.5-4m_ 0.8-2.3 Hambledon Hill c 1.8 ileal This begs two questions: Did Piggott reach the bottom of the ditch in his cutting I (Piggott 1952, fig 2); and is the function of this causewayed enclosure significantly different from others? Outlook and Landscape From the enclosure circuit there is a clear series of views over the local landscape. From the eastern side the monument looks down the local deep-sided dry valley, and on the opposite side, the chalk escarpment falls away to the south and north-west giving panoramic views of the Blackmore Vale. The enclosure is conspicuous from all the landscapes it views. However, these views are not as clear, nor as striking in all directions from the interior of the enclosure. None of the artefact assemblages suggests any defensive or offensive events as seen at Carn Brae (Mercer 1974; 1999) that might have provided some light on the nature of the excavated ditch profile. The ditch at the location excavated was, however, across the most vulnerable location facing a spur towards the hillfort rather than steep scarp slope. Piggott’s ditch faced on to the opposite spur towards the undated enclosure (Figure 2). This might suggest that Piggott had only reached INVESTIGATION OF THE WHITESHEET DOWN ENVIRONS 1989-90 185 compacted primary fill rather than the true base of the ditch. In many respects, Hambledon Hill provides the most obvious comparison for the range of monuments and activities now documented on Whitesheet Down. The similar physical location of the two sites has been noted before (Thomas 1991, 36): both occupy the very edge of the chalk uplands, at the junction with the low clay vales to the west. Both have more than one enclosure and although the uninterrupted ditched enclosure at Whitesheet Hill has yet to be investigated, similar enclosures have been found which are of earlier Neolithic date, e.g. Bury Hill, Sussex (Bedwin 1981). Like those at Hambledon Hill, the monuments on Whitesheet Down occupy an extensive area of upland plateau, separated from the rest of the surrounding chalk massif by a number of linear ditches or cross-ridge earthworks. Excavation undertaken as part of the pipeline work indicates that at least one of these earthworks was constructed in the Romano-British period. Elsewhere within Wessex a range of dates has been suggested for this monument type, ranging from the Neolithic through to Romano-British. Although the excavated examples at Hambledon Hill are clearly contemporary with the causewayed enclosure (Mercer 1980, 40), this is a rare occurrence. More typical dates are from the 2nd and Ist millennia BC (Fowler 1964; 1965; Rahtz 1990; Cunliffe 1991, 36-9). Activity and Function As with many Neolithic monuments there is evidence for earlier, non-monumental activity. At Whitesheet this comprises a dated and weathered residual pig bone in the base of the recut of the enclosure ditch that dates to the Early Neolithic (4250-3350 cal BC). Evidence of activities within the enclosure is provided by the pits. Although severely truncated along the trackway and old coach road, they nevertheless provided artefactual assemblages of pottery, flint, bone and charred remains. Certain of the pits also contained sarsen but more often large flint nodules, including some reused ground stone implements. Earlier Neolithic pottery of South- Western Style (Whittle 1977) and considerable quantities of flint debitage, much of it burnt, were also recovered. The flint was not calcined, but a very high proportion showed signs of burning (Healy pers. comm.). All of the pits contained solution features or pipes. This may reflect the high concentration of solution features on the hilltop, or there may be a more formal link. Excavation of pits through clay may have been easier than through chalk, or the clay may have been a valued resource. The coincidence of Neolithic pits and natural features such as tree hollows and solution features is also noted by Healy at Hambledon Hill (Healy in Mercer and Healy in prep.). The faunal assemblage from the pits was dominated by pig, with cattle, some red deer antlers and a few sheep/goats present. Again much of this material was burnt, and the pit fills contained considerable quantities of charcoal and charred hazelnuts. The features themselves showed no signs of internal burning suggesting that the material had been introduced, presumably from fairly close by, probably within the enclosure. Overall much of the debris seems to indicate food waste. There are no ‘placed’ items, just discarded material. No other obvious activities are immediately evident in the record. This aspect may find parallels in the midden layers in the outer enclosure of Maiden Castle (Sharples 1991, 253-4), also seen as the products of activities taking place within the enclosure. Whether or not these activities could be described as the disposal of domestic refuse or a more structured mode of deposition is a question intrinsically linked to the discussion of the function of causewayed enclosures (cf. Smith 1971, 100; Gardiner 1988, 306-15; Thomas 1991, 34; Oswald et al. 2001). At Hambledon Hill, Dorset (Mercer 1980, 23), most of the gabbroic pottery, at least two volcanic rock axes and all of the groundstone rubbers were found in pits within the interior of the main causewayed enclosure. The flintwork tended to be biased towards particular artefact types and red deer antlers, a rarity in the ditch fills, occurred in the pit bases (see also Gardiner 1988, 312-3). Some of the pits at Hambledon Hill are described as having held posts which were rammed into the pit fills, and were suggested to represent markers or possibly structural elements; but Mercer concluded that ‘it would be a fair interpretation to infer that no feature on the interior suggests a purely domestic function and that, where the evidence is at all positive, irrational considerations would appear to be paramount in their digging, furnishing and filling’ (2bid, 25). No spatial patterning of the interior features can be observed at Whitesheet Hill, largely because of the linear nature of the excavated area. It is clear 186 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE that the pits are located within the central area, away from the ditch and internal bank, and have no direct physical relationship with them. An almost total absence of burnt material from the ditch fill sequence was recorded by these excavations and those by Piggott (1952), and indicate that activities resulting in the deposition of such material were confined to the more central part of the enclosure and did not extend as far as the ditch. A second, undated, phase of activity is indicated by redefinition of the enclosure ditch. The upper part of the ditch sequence was clearly recut with one rim sherd of Mortlake-style Peterborough Ware in its fill. The radiocarbon date from animal bone retrieved from the base of the recut indicates that the bone is residual. Peterborough Ware, however, is not infrequently found in secondary contexts at earlier Neolithic monuments, including causewayed enclosures such as White- hawk Camp, Sussex (Curwen 1936) and Maiden Castle (Sharples 1991). Sharples suggests that recutting existing ditch circuits and the addition of extra ditch circuits in other causewayed enclosures may relate to changes in, and redefinition of, the function of the site (Sharples 1991, 255). Food and Feasting The dominance of pig is unusual for causewayed enclosures where cattle usually dominate. At Hambledon Hill, Dorset, the contemporary enclosure of a much larger area by the use of outworks and natural steep slopes has been seen as a means of controlling herds of cattle for short periods of time (Mercer 1980, 60). It has also been argued (Edmonds 1993, 113) that the presence of cattle at causewayed enclosures is linked to the status of the animal, i.e., high status is granted/ confirmed by the deposition or consumption at a prestigious site. At Whitesheet Hill, although cattle are represented in the faunal assemblage, there is no indication of any differentiation in the mode of deposition of this animal. The high occurrence of pig may relate to the observation that most of the animal remains are food debris, and there is little other activity represented. Burning is. clearly evident from the preponderance of burnt flints and charred remains from the pits. The site of this burning was not identified, but at other sites such as Etton, for instance, areas of intense and/or repeated burning were identified on the buried soil (Challands in Pryor 1998, 73-7). The lack of identification at Whitesheet Hill may relate to the limited area examined, but also to the possibility that no buried soil existed or that burning on a former chalkland ground surface within the enclosure may have left no obvious physical trace. Neolithic Hilltop Environment and Land-use The nature of the landscape context around causewayed enclosures, evidence for woodland clearance and the scale of any clearance (Thomas 1977; Evans and Rouse 1991; Bell et a/. in prep.), are considered important factors in understanding how these monuments operated (Oswald et al. 2001; Darvill and Thomas 2001, 16). Even the ubiquitous presence of woodland in the Neolithic is now questioned (Allen 1997, 278; 2002b). We must admit that the evidence for the pre-monument environment at Whitesheet is slim. The poor molluscan assemblages from the primary fills of the ditch indicate the presence of shade, possibly open woodland or shady grassland and shrubs. We cannot be sure of the nature of those shady habitats, there is no possibility of indicating the presence, or clearance, of woodland around this monument, let alone the scale of clearance and proximity of woodland (cf. Bell et a/. in prep.). More significant are the coeval assemblages from the pits that suggest the present of woodland and leaf-litter. We may tentatively propose that the ditch circuit at least was cleared of woodland, but the monument as a whole was probably located within a more extensively cleared area. There are insufficient data to hint at woodland regeneration, as seen at a number of other sites such as Maiden Castle (Evans and Rouse 1991) and the Sussex causewayed enclosures (Thomas 1982). By the time of recutting of the enclosure ditch in the later Neolithic, tall herbaceous vegetation existed, possibly as lightly grazed pasture. If woodland surrounded the enclosure, it would have provided suitable pannage for the pigs that formed the major element of the faunal remains recovered. Archaeological Development of Whitesheet Down Evidence for Neolithic activity is restricted to the enclosure itself and its interior, but may also include the undated enclosure to the north (Figures INVESTIGATION OF THE WHITESHEET DOWN ENVIRONS 1989-90 187 1 and 2). Using land snail evidence the cross-ridge earthwork adjacent to the main enclosure is not Neolithic (contra Oswald et al. 2001, 65 and 136). The barrow overlying the earthwork is thus later again (cf. Oswald et al. 2001, 136). Until the construction of the Iron Age hillfort there is no subsequent intensive activity on the Down. Activities isolated by both time and location occurred throughout the Bronze Age, and these include the isolated Beaker pit on Mere Down which contained a collared Beaker and may indicate domestic and settlement activity rather than a funerary deposit. Presumably Bronze Age barrows scattered across the hilltop, many of them false-crested , may allude to settlement in the dry valley to the west or the clay vale to the east. The cross-ridge earthworks on Whitesheet Down and Mere Down are more enigmatic. While the former indicates land division probably in the Bronze Age, the latter seems to suggest similar activity in the Romano-British period. The most coherent record, however, is that of the prehistoric land-use on the Down derived largely from land snail evidence from the Beaker pit, and cross-ridge earthworks. The Bronze Age environment and land-use was strikingly different from the Neolithic. Tillage and soil deflation (wind blown soil erosion) is indicated by aeolian deposits in the Whitesheet cross-ridge earthwork and its accompanying restricted and xerophile mollusc faunas loosely attributed to the Bronze Age. Thick humic, calcareous soils (brown earths) in the enclosure recut, were degraded to silty calcareous brown earths or rendzinas by the time the Whitesheet cross-ridge earthwork was infilling. We cannot be sure whether the environmental sequence from the Whitesheet linear covers the Iron Age, but when the Romano-British cross-ridge earthwork (Mere Down Linear) was dug, intensive Bronze Age agriculture and grazing had ceased. This ditch was dug through a long, probably ungrazed, grassland in which small shrubs and bushes very likely existed with the tall grassland of a typical chalk downland. Soon after construction of the ditch, there is evidence to suggest that the downland was lightly grazed. More intensive grazing producing a short grass sward occurred only in the medieval or post-medieval periods. The Mere Down cross-ridge earthwork, at least, may therefore be a part of pastoral land management and division. Evidence so far recovered from Whitesheet Hill indicates that activities classed as non-domestic or, using Mercer’s (1980) terminology, ‘irrational’ took place in the earlier Neolithic and later. These activities included the construction of major monuments and smaller-scale activities such as the deposition of a Beaker with associated pig bone ina shallow pit described above. PART 2: WHITESHEET QUARRY Mick Rawlings The pipe trench descended from the south-west of Whitesheet Hill down the scarp slope of a small spur. At the base of the slope, immediately below the disused quarry (Figure 1), a dark brown buried soil was sealed beneath a light, highly calcareous, silty hillwash, and beyond which two ditch sections and two pits were identified. These features and hillwash sequence were only recorded in the pipe- trench section. A number of artefacts were recovered manually and samples taken for snails and charred remains. The buried calcareous brown earth (1225) lay directly on the chalk bedrock nearest the quarry and was sealed by a pale brown, highly calcareous, silty hillwash up to 0.4m thick, the result of downslope wash-out of chalk mud from the quarry. The dark, grey-brown, humic silty loam was recorded in section over a total distance of 76m and was c. 0.30m thick. Within it was a band of burnt sandstone fragments, probably dumped material rather than structural. Calcareous hillwash extended further down slope than the buried soil and overlay the natural geology. The feature nearest Whitesheet Hill was a U- shaped ditch (1237), 1.8m wide at the surface and 1.6m deep, which was the only feature sealed by the buried soil. It was filled with an homogeneous brown soil, while the buried soil that sealed it filled the upper part of the ditch. This ditch was located towards the downslope (western) end of the buried soil. A second U-shaped ditch (1234) was recorded nearly 75m to the west and was I.3m wide at the surface and 1.4m deep, but only sealed by hillwash. Two pits were recorded between the two ditches. The first (pit 1211), about 50m downslope from the first ditch was U-shaped 1.5m wide, 1.6m deep and sealed by hillwash. A series of fills contained small fragments of chalk and much charcoal. A second pit (pit 1215) was recorded 10m to the west of the first and 11m upslope of the second ditch. This pit was 188 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE 1.3m wide and 1.4m deep and its fill sealed by a 0.25m thick layer of stone blocks, mainly sandstone, but with some greensand. This layer represented an attempt to cap the pit, maybe in anticipation of subsidence. This deposit in turn was sealed by hillwash, but here was only 0.15m thick. The site appears to be a small, possibly enclosed, settlement. The two U-shaped ditches were similar in profile and may represent a single enclosure c. 75m across. The only two features within the putative enclosure were pits. This hillwash sealed all of the other features. FINDS by Elaine L. Morris Small quantities of a wide range of artefacts were recovered from excavated contexts including three worked flints; four pieces of fired clay, possibly from a loomweight or daub; burnt flint; a fragment of slag, possibly from a hearth base, and stone including fragments of sarsen saddle quern. In addition, 46 fragments of animal bone (397g) included 10 cattle, 8 ovicaprid and 5 pig (id. M. Maltby) were recovered. Pottery A total of 71 sherds (1559g) of pottery (Figure 16, 1- 11) was recovered from excavated contexts and 25 sherds (17g) from sieved samples. This collection is mainly Early Iron Age in date, with some earlier Middle Iron Age material and one rim sherd (45g) of wheelthrown, Romano-British greyware. Overall, the condition of the pottery is sharp with many large sherds and very little evidence of post- depositional abrasion. Despite the small number of sherds recovered, fourteen different fabrics from six principal fabric groups were identified (Table 11). The sequence of fabric type numbers follows on from those used for the pottery from the causewayed enclosure (Cleal, above). The most common groups are calcareous fabrics that represent over 75% of the pottery. The oolitic and shelly limestone-tempered group (C4— C6) contain varying amounts (20-50%) of crushed limestone containing shells and ooliths in clay matrices, C6 also containing 5-10% of iron oxides. The shell-tempered group (Group S3-S7) contain crushed shell in various amounts (20-50%) and degrees of sorting in clay or slightly sandy clay matrices. The remaining fabrics consist of a fine micaceous fabric (M1), a flint-tempered fabric (F3), a grog-tempered fabric (G1) and four sandy or silty fabrics (Q4-7), of which one (Q6) also includes rare flint and limestone fragments. The area around Whitesheet Quarry contains a variety of calcareous deposits of the Jurassic period, including the Corallian and Oolitic series, which could have been utilised to produce the calcareous fabrics. These deposits are not located immediately adjacent to the site but liec. 6-8km to the south and west respectively. In addition, the flintbearing fabrics (F3 and Q6) might be local products since the site lies on chalk, and the sandy fabrics, particularly Q7, may have been produced from the Upper Greensand and Gault deposits nearby which include glauconite-bearing sandy clays. Table 11. Whitesheet Quarry: Quantification of pottery by fabric type. Context/feature 1271 Fabric no/wt C4 6/173 C5 3/212 C6 - F3 - Gl 1/3 S6 - 1225 1211 1215 no/wt no/wt no/wt 9/366 12/177 9/4* 1/210 1/18 - 5/24 - - - 2/8 - /2* 1/9 = 2/N7: - - 4/16 3/5, 1/2* 1/7 - ZILX 1/8 - - - - PH eas 6/182 - - 1/19 - - 10/57 - 5/35 4/4* - - Weight in grammes: *denotes sherds retrieved from sieved samples INVESTIGATION OF THE WHITESHEET DOWN ENVIRONS 1989-90 189 Such variety of fabric groups is not unusual. A similar range was recognised in the Danebury (Cunliffe 1984, 308) and Old Down Farm (Davies 1981, 88-93) assemblages, Hampshire, as well as in the Early Iron Age pottery from All Cannings Cross (Cunnington 1923, 29-31), the Late Bronze-Early Iron Age sequence recovered from Potterne (Morris 1991; 2001) and the Late Bronze Age pottery from Norton Bavant Borrow Pit, Warminster (Mepham and Morris 1992), Wiltshire, which lie in similar geological zones to Whitesheet Hill. The two sherds of fabric Q7, for example, are extremely similar to material from Potterne and Norton Bavant. This small collection includes seven different diagnostic vessel forms. Six jar types (R21-5) are represented including a large, slightly shouldered jar in fabric C4 (R21; Figure 17, 1), a barrel-shaped or ovoid form (fabric $3) with a bevel-edged rim (R22; Figure 17, 2) and a small ‘proto-saucepan pot’ in fabric $4 (R26; Figure 17, 4). One rim (R24) in fabric Q5 has finger-tip impressions on the exterior rim edge but the remainder are undecorated. The forms are all of Early to Middle Iron Age date with close parallels at sites such as All Cannings Cross (Cunnington 1923), Boscombe Down West (Richardson 1951) and Swallowcliffe Down (Clay 1925). A slack-profile, necked bowl with curled over and rounded rim in fabric C4 (R30; Figure 17, 3) is irregularly fired and pitted on the interior surface below the rim. The type is well-known at, for instance, Danebury (Cunliffe 1984, type BC1.1, cp. 4-7, fig. 6.61), Little Somborne (Neal 1980, fig. 13,4), Little Woodbury (Brailsford 1948, fig. 4,1pp; fig. 5,10u) and Swallowcliffe Down (Clay 1925, pl. 5,4) in Middle Iron Age contexts of the 5th-lst centuries BC. In addition, there is an undiagnostic rim (R99), an undecorated, sharply angled or carinated shoulder from a bowl in fabric Q6 (A20; Figure 17, 6; cf. Danebury (Cunliffe 1984, type BA2, cp.3-4, fig. 6.55) and two decorated sherds: one with incised lines (Figure 17, 11) in fabric Q6 and one fragment of a furrowed bowl in Q4. Fragments of two flat bases, one with a flaring edge (Figure 17, 8 and 10) were _also identified in fabrics C4 and Gl respectively. A few sherds (c. 15%) displayed evidence of surface treatment: an applied red slip to the exterior surface of the sharply angled bowl sherd (Figure 17, 6), on both surfaces of the furrowed bowl sherd and possibly on another sandy fabric example, and ten examples of burnishing on the bowls (Figure 17, 3 and 6) and on several sherds from unoxidised, straight-walled vessels. The latter indicates that these particular sherds belong to the Middle Iron Age tradition of surface treatment, while the red- slip technique is usually an Early Iron Age tradition (Cunliffe 1984, 248). Pitting, which occurs when an acidic liquid is in contact with a calcareous fabric, was observed on the interior of nine calcareous fabric sherds, including one jar and one burnished bowl (Figure 17, 1 and 3), as well as a large vessel of indeter- minate form and three other burnished sherds. Single examples of carbonised food and sooting were noted on unburnished sherds in fabric SS. Illustrated sherds (Figure 17) 1: (C4, slack-shouldered jar R21, buried soil layer. 2: §3, ovoid jar with bevel edged rim R22, buried soil layer. 3 C4, slack-profile necked bow! R30, buried soil layer. 4 $4, proto-saucepan pot jar R26, buried soil layer. 5: Q5, vertical rim jar R24, buried soil layer. 6: Q6, carinated bowl A20, buried soil layer. 7: C4, small slack-profiled jar R23, pit 1211. 8 C4, splayed base B1, pit 1211. 9: Q4, everted rim R25, pit 1211. 10: G1, base B2, pit 1211. 11: Q6, decorated sherd D1, clearance 1271. Discussion The variety of jar and bowl forms identified amongst this small collection of handmade pottery is typical of the Early Iron Age tradition and the beginning of the Middle Iron Age ceramic phases. The finger-tip decorated rim, the furrowed bowl sherd and the carinated bowl sherd, both of which are red-slipped, and possibly the incised sherd, are all typical of the decorated Early Iron Age period (Cunliffe 1978, 1984). Red-slip surface treatment, formerly known as ‘haematite-coating’ (Middleton 1987), disappeared in Wiltshire and Hampshire by the end of the 5th century BC (Cunliffe 1978). Slightly shouldered, ovoid and slack-shouldered jars were common in the 5th century BC and later (Cunliffe 1984, 248), as at Boscombe Down West, Danebury and Little Woodbury. A pit at All Cannings Cross contained a slightly shouldered jar and an _ ovoid jar (Cunnington 1923, pl. 29,9 and pl. 46,1). The proto- saucepan pot form is best dated to the 4th century BC and later (Cunliffe 1984, 248, figs 6.18-19). The undecorated bowl was current in the Sth to 4th centuries BC. 190 WA THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE 0 100 200 SEJ Fig. 17 Pottery from Whitesheet Quarry INVESTIGATION OF THE WHITESHEET DOWN ENVIRONS 1989-90 191 «J 2 % vos & > SY 5 SIF Fo go o SSeS o 2 © @ s oa. Os ° 2 o OSS SEL Oo SD 0 & = SP VES we .%& O se o PSS SEES ESE LS : % 2 S20 9 .& : o \ S NODVOETOTK TF LL [oo fl WE ae ie ee [ee ls E (s 33 ee 23 | 20 | + 42 x ++ | 14 + |: + + 27 + + cement 197 z ve 58 | [ 11 + 18 000000 00 010 0 o Eee eet Vee Er. ei J re a er re Absolute numbers 90 0 7o Oo ce) oO 50 eo 100 % Fig. 18 Mollusc histogram from the Iron Age soil and colluvium at Whitesheet Quarry Although there are only 94 sherds in the collection, it is interesting to note that there are no Middle Iron Age saucepan pots, which date from the 3rd century BC to the pre-Conquest period. Therefore, the range of material represented spans the All Cannings Cross phase of the Early Iron Age through to the earlier part of the Middle Iron Age. ENVIRONMENTAL DATA A column of samples for snails was taken through the hillwash and buried soil to provide some environmental context, while bulk samples from pit 1215 were analysed for charred remains. Land snails from the buried soil by Michael Ff. Allen The buried soil (1225) displayed a dark humic silty Joam, an almost apedal bB horizon, and a silty light _ grey stone-free bA horizon with very little obvious evidence of any biotic activity. The overlying slopewash deposit was an amorphous, heterogeneous silty loam, suggesting rapid deposition of subsoil material. The molluscan assemblage (Figure 18) from the bB horizon was impoverished and almost exclusively contained slug plates of Limacidae/ Deroceras (Table 10). The bA horizon, however, produced a larger assemblage in which the dominant species were Pupilla muscorum and Vallonia excentrica, the latter being super-abundant. This type of assemblage is exemplified by Evans and Williams (1991, 122) Group 4: heavily grazed grassland with no scrub. Despite the highly calcareous nature of the deposit, and lack of large clasts, the hillwash contained surprisingly few shells. Nevertheless, two broad groups can be detected within the assemblage (Figure 18). The lower portion of the deposit was again dominated by Pupilla muscorum and Vallonia excentrica, but now accompanied by Trichia hispida and a range of other shade-loving species. This assemblage, although still typical of grassy swards, is more likely to result from slightly longer herbaceous vegetation or arable ploughwash contexts (Bell 1983). The upper part of the hillwash deposit produced a slightly different mollusc assemblage characterised by greater species diversity, an increase in shade-loving species and a major reduction in Pupilla numbers. A more shaded environment is indicated here, probably comprising taller herbaceous communities (ungrazed) and shrubs, that may represent the 192 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Table 12. Whitesheet Quarry: Charred plant remains. Feature buried soil Pit 1215 Context M225; 1216 1218 Sample 1600 1603 1604 Total volume (litres) 10 9 10 Triticum cf dicoccum Schubl. Spikelet base - 1 - Glume bases 1 1 - Triticum cf spelta L. - - 2. Triticum dicoccum/spelta L. - i - Triticum sp. - 3 1 Triticum sp./Secale cereale L. - 1 Hordeum vulgare L. - 2 - Cerealia indet. 3+20f 3+25f 2+10f Chenopodium album L. 1 Rumex sp. - - Corylus avellana L. (shell fragments) Z Galium cf aperine L. 1 Bromus secalinus L. 2 2 Unidentified seed: cf Compositae 1 Cenococcum geophilum Fr. 9 establishment of grassland succession communities on the immediate slope along with the retention of open grassland at the base. Plant remains by Pat Hinton In addition to small quantities of oak and ash charcoal from the buried soil and hazel, oak, and Pomoideae charcoal from pit 1215 (id. R. Gale), charred plant remains were recovered. Cereal grains were as poorly preserved as those from the causewayed enclosure. The wheat grains (Table 12) cannot be easily differentiated and the spikelet and glume bases which might be identifiable are also damaged. However, two with more rounded outlines and indications of veins on what remains of the body of the glumes are very likely to be Triticum Spelta (spelt), a grain resembling Secale cereale (rye) was found in pit 1215, and two grains of Hordeum vulgare (hulled barley) were identified, also from pit 1215. Nine sclerotia of Cenococcum geophilum (a fungus) found in the buried soil (1225) seemed to be charred and therefore contemporary with the deposit. Modern small, black sclerotia occur frequently amongst roots in more superficial soil samples but can be distinguished from ancient, charred sclerotia which are brittle and fracture in a characteristic fashion. With the exception of two fragments of hazel nut shell and an unidentified Compositiae seed, possibly of Matricaria sp., the remains included only cereals and arable weed seeds. A possible rye grain may have been present as a weed but, like the rye-brome (Bromus secalinus) which is often found with spelt, may well have been an accepted part of the harvest. The grains and weeds recovered from the site were probably bi-products of the treatment of crops but these were not necessarily grown in the immediate vicinity. A very minor component of hazelnuts only indicates that light woodland or scrub was available for exploitation at no great distance. DISCUSSION The pipeline appears to have intersected a small enclosed domestic settlement of Early-Middle Iron Age date located at the foot of Whitesheet Hill, while the presence of a single piece of ironworking slag suggests a potential industrial component. Sites of a similar date are known within this area, although most were excavated in the earlier part of the last century (eg. Clay 1924; 1925) or have not yet been fully published, for example Cow Down, Longbridge Deverill (Hawkes 1994). A site dating to the Middle Iron Age was found recently at Encie Farm, near Penselwood, only 10km_ from Whitesheet Hill (Newman and Morris 2001). INVESTIGATION OF THE WHITESHEET DOWN ENVIRONS 1989-90 193 The Whitesheet Quarry setthement was apparently enclosed by a well-defined ditch and although there was no evidence of an associated palisade, other sites in the area have shown that this is a common feature (Cunliffe 1991). Enclosed settlements of this period are often of a similar size to Whitesheet Quarry and are interpreted as individual farmsteads. The relationship between this site and the hillfort remains unclear. Acknowledgements The excavations were carried out in advance of laying the Codford—IIlchester water pipeline. Our thanks to Wessex Water plc and their team of staff, and to the excavation team. The project was managed in the field by Julian Richards and directed by Mick Rawlings. It was managed in post- excavation by Richard Newman and, latterly, by Julie Gardiner. 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WANHM 54, 123-68 RYMER, L., 1976. The history and ethnobotany of bracken. Botanical Fournal of the Linnean Society 73, 152-76 SAVILLE, A., 1981. The flint and chert artefacts. In Mercer, R.J., Excavation at Carn Brea, Illogan, Cornwall, 1970-73. Cornish Archaeology 20, 101-52 SCAIFE, R.G., 1980. Late Devensian and Flandrian palaeoecological studies in the Isle of Wight. University of London unpublished PhD thesis SCAIFE, R.G., 1984. Bronze Age soil pollen data from Gallibury Down (formerly Newbarn Down), Isle of Wight. Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 4240 SCAIFE, R.G., 1990. Pollen analysis. In Saville, A., Hazleton North, Gloucestershire, 1979-82: The excavation of a Neolithic long cairn of the Cotswold- Severn group. London: English Heritage Archaeo- logical Report 13, 18-9 SCAIFE, R.G., 1992. Plant macrofossils. In Healy, F, Heaton, M.J. and Lobb, S.J., Excavations of a Mesolithic site at Thatcham, Berkshire, 66-70. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 58, 64-6 SCAIFE, R.G., 1995. Boreal and Sub-boreal chalk landscape: pollen evidence. In Cleal, R.M.J., Walker, K.E. and Montague, R., Stonehenge in its Landscape; twentieth century excavations. English Heritage Archaeological Report 10, 51-4 SHARPLES, N.M., 1991 Maiden Castle: Excavations and Field Survey 1985-6, London: English Heritage Archaeological Report 19 SHEPARD, A.O., 1954. Ceramics for the Archaeologist. Washington: Carnegie Institute SILVER, I.A., 1969. The ageing of domestic animals. In Brothwell, D. and Higgs, E.S. (eds), Science in Archaeology. London: Thames and Hudson, 283-302 196 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE SMITH, I.F, 1965. Windmill Hill and Avebury: excavations by A. Keiller 1925-39. Oxford: Clarendon Press SMITH, I.F, 1971. Causewayed enclosures. In Simpson, D.D.A. (ed), Economy and Settlement in Neolithic and Early Bronze Age Britain and Europe. Leicester: University Press, 89-112 SMITH, I.F, 1974. The Neolithic. In Renfrew, C. (ed.), British Prehistory: A New Outline. London: Duckworth, 100-36 SMITH, I.F, 1981. The Neolithic pottery. In Mercer, R., Excavations at Carn Brea, Illogan, Cornwall, 1970-73. Cornish Archaeological Fournal 20, 161-85 STUIVER, M. and REIMER, PJ., 1986. A computer programme for radiocarbon age calibration. Radiocarbon 28, 1022-30 THOMAS, J., 1991. Rethinking the Neolithic. Cambridge: University Press THOMAS, K.D., 1977. The land Mollusca from an Iron Age pit at Winklebury. In Smith, K., The excavation of Winklebury Camp, Basingstoke, Hampshire. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 43, 70-4 THOMAS, K.D., 1982. Neolithic enclosures and woodland habitats on the South Downs in Sussex, England. In Bell, M. and Limbrey, S. (eds), Archaeological Aspects of Woodland Ecology. Oxford: British Archaeological Report $146, 147-70 TURNER, J., 1962. The Tila decline: an anthropogenic interpretation, New Phytologist 61, 328-41 VCH. 1957. Victoria County History of Wiltshire, Volume 1, Part i WAINWRIGHT, GJ. 1972. The excavation of a Neolithic settlement on Broome Heath, Ditchingham, Norfolk. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 38, 1-97 WAINWRIGHT, G.J., 1979. Mount Pleasant, Dorset: Excavations 1770-1971. London: Report of the Research Committee of the Society of Antiquaries of London 37 WARD, G.K. and WILSON, S.R., 1978. Procedures for comparing and combining radiocarbon age determinations: a critique. Archaeometry 20, 19-31 WESSEX ARCHAEOLOGY, 1986. Whitesheet Hill Archaeological Evaluation. Unpublished Client Report, Project 31202 WHITTLE, A.W.R., 1977. The Earlier Neolithic of Southern England and its Continental Background. Oxford: British Archaeological Report S35. WHITTLE, A.W.R., 1990. A model for the Mesolithic- Neolithic transition in the upper Kennet Valley, North Wiltshire. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 56, 101-10 WHITTLE, A., POLLARD, J. and GRIGSON, C., 1999. The Harmony of Symbols; the Windmill Hill causewayed enclosure. Oxford, Oxbow Books Wiltshire Archaeological & Natural History Magazine, vol. 97 (2004), pp. 197-210 A. D. Passmore and the Stone Circles of North Wiltshire by Aubrey Burl Prehistoric stone circles continue to surprise. And multiply. In WANHM 27 of 1893 A. D. Passmore informed the Society ‘of a hitherto unnoticed circle of stones’ at Coate near Swindon, and the following year he described it and the remains of a second ring nearby. In two Notebooks, unpublished until this year, he provided more details about them and of a possible four more in the same area. Even though he was mistaken with his ‘hitherto unnoticed’, his fieldwork transformed previous beliefs about the number of megalithic rings in Wiltshire. It is seldom appreciated how rich northern Wiltshire had been in the distribution, size and architectural complexity of its prehistoric stone circles. Although those near Avebury are well- known others near Swindon are almost forgotten. Hardly realised today because of savage destruction in the last five centuries, the countryside north of Winterbourne Bassett once had as many as seven megalithic rings, several within a few miles of each other, a tight group of stone circles just south of Swindon. Only the vestiges of one remain. (Fig. 1) Until the end of the 19th century just two or three of those rings were known. As well as the questionable ring on Avebury Down there were examples at Winterbourne Bassett and Broome, both now destroyed. It was not until 1894 that A. D. Passmore recorded several more in his brief report.' That report has now been supplemented, at considerable cost, by the Society’s purchase of Passmore’s two Notebooks in which those circles are described more fully. They add details to rings whose existence modifies our understanding of the - so-called Avebury complex. In both Notebooks the writing, mostly in pencil, sometimes in red ink, is confined to the left- hand side of the page. Volume I is a soft-backed, lined exercise book, the second a rather smaller, hard-covered book, also lined. Each has about sixty pages, some left blank. Being a man of catholic interests, Passmore made notes on a miscellany of topics: the hill-forts of Wiltshire; the value of coins he owned; a boar’s tusk; round barrows; Dartmoor monuments; Roman jewellery; and a murder in Swindon. Here, in this report, only his records of stone circles are included. In the transcription the spelling, changes of mind, and contradictions have been left as they appear in the Notebooks. Before considering Passmore’s ‘new’ sites, the two that were already known must be considered. The more problematical, Winterbourne Bassett just a few miles north of Avebury, has gone. William Stukeley was the first to mention it. In his Abury of 1743, he wrote. ‘At Winterburn-basset, a little north of Abury, in a field north-west of the church, upon elevated ground, is a double circle of stones concentric, 60 cubits diameter’, referring to his imaginary ‘Druid’s Cubit’ of 20.8 inches, sixty being the equivalent of 31.7m. ‘The two circles are near one another, so that one may walk between. Many of the stones have of late been carry’d away. West of it is a single, broad, flat and high stone, standing by itself. And about as far northward from the circle, in a plough’d field, is a barrow set round with, or rather compos’d of large stones. I take this double circle to have been a family-chapel, as we 2 Woodland Road, Northfield, Birmingham B31 2HS 198 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Key rons C Swindon Old Church Coate Reservoir Broome Day House Farm NE and SW ) Hodson Fir Clump, Burderop Wood Winterbourne Bassett 1 Avebury Falkner's Circle 10 Broadstones. Clatford 11 The Sanctuary 12 Langdean Bottom A Swindon (0) B Wanborough C Chiseldon D Marlborough OMmANADMNEWNH On, ©) D 1 ND OR Kennet ae Fig. 1 Map. The North Wiltshire stone circles may call it, to an archdruid dwelling near thereabouts, whilst Abury was his cathedral’. Almost a hundred years later Sir Richard Colt Hoare believed he had re-discovered it. ‘I was enabled to find the remains of this ring, which is situated in a pasture ground at the angle of a road leading to Broad Hinton and consists at present only of a few inconsiderable stones’. His map showed the scattered stones in the corner of a crossroads at SU 094 755, north of the lane between Winterbourne Bassett and ‘Cleeve Pipard’ (Clyffe Pypard) and east of another to Broad Hinton . Having read Hoare, the Rev. Edward Duke in 1846 offered an early version ofa ley line laid out by ‘our ingenious ancestors’. He imagined a gigantic planetarium composed of seven landscaped concentric rings, the outermost 32 miles in diameter. At their heads, lying exactly north-south, were the prehistoric ‘planets’. At the centre was the sun of Silbury Hill. At the south was Saturn, Stonehenge. Failing to find any suitable heavenly bodies at the north of rings 5, 6 and 7 Duke chose Winterbourne Bassett on ring 4, ‘a fair temple of stone’, as Venus. That unvisited and long-vanished shrine of the goddess of love rouses no enthusiasm in ley-liners today. Hoare had mistaken the site but his confident description misled all his successors. In 1881 the Rev A. C. Smith probed the field for missing stones ‘by means of the crowbar and spade’ and in the following year a plan was made by the Rev. W. C. Lukis showing the remains of a concentric circle whose diameters were 73.2m and 50.3m. Seventy years later Alexander and Archie Thom surveyed the same stones. Their plan showed an off-centre stone, and a plain ring 47.6m across. (Fig. 2) * Everyone had accepted Hoare’s irrelevant stones but a geophysical survey of the field in 1998 rejected them. ‘No convincing evidence was found’. In the Bodleian Library, Oxford the same investigators examined Stukeley’s sketch of Winterbourne Bassett. It was entitled ‘a double circle of Stones 100 f. diam at Winterburn basset 20 May 1724 and consisted of an outer ring about 30.5m across, the largest stone on its south-west arc, and an interrupted inner circle. Drawn from the ring’s northern side it showed Silbury Hill and Avebury’s church in the distance with Tan Hill beyond them, places that cannot be seen from the traditional site because of rising ground. A more likely situation for the destroyed 10 ° 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 FT =i fea] Om t A:- Buried sfone 375 ft A277 hs 0°73 6=4+78 a B:- Buried stone 427 Fc AL=776 he $=+1%0 C’- Buried stone 544 ft A2=89 Ha BHF Dia isoFTt \p wees g & | T | Z | OC \ 2508 h=%t 6=-10°% Su OFarss WINTERBOURNE BASSETT SU 287 sig 35/5 Fig. 2 Plan of the supposed Winterbourne Bassett stone circle. Thom, Thom & Burl, 1980, 132, S5/5. A. D. PASSMORE AND THE STONE CIRCLES OF NORTH WILTSHIRE 199 ring is probably a little south of the lane around SU 093 753 with the barrow about a third of a mile away in Hoare’s field. The second known ring was at Broome, SU 167 825, 6% miles NW of Winterbourne Bassett. In the late 17th century John Aubrey wrote: at Brome near Swindon in Wiltshire in the middle of a pasture ground called Long-stone is a great stone 10 foot high (or better) standing upright, which I take to be the Remainder of these kind of Temples. In the ground below are many thus 00000000000000 in a right line. The ground is ye Inheritance of the right Honable Lord Seymour. Seymour was Aubrey’s friend of long-standing, with whom he often stayed at Marlborough. Sixty years later Stukeley copied Aubrey’s description without acknowledgement. ‘Long Stone, at Broome, near Swindon, Wilts, is a great high stone, and a little way off many lesser in a line’. At some time the sarsen was dragged away but in 1894 Passmore himself noted that its hole was still visible in Longstone Field between Coate Road and Broome Lane.° The other boulders were destroyed in the mid- 19th century when the executors of a benefactor’s will ‘purchased the remains of the Druidical temple at Broome, and after having them broken up they were conveyed to Cricklade’ eight miles to the north-west ‘and they now formed parts of the roads and footways of the town’. Nineteenth century indifference to ancient relics in the neighbourhood was no different in France. An antiquarian there came upon a magnificently capstoned portal-dolmen and made enthusiastic arrangements for members of his Society to inspect it. To his consternation, when they arrived, there was nothing to be seen. In disbelief he asked the proprietor whether they were at the wrong place. ‘Oh, you mean those big stones? Oh, when you said there was a large company coming, and I thought you would have more room to circulate, so I had them broken up and hauled away to mend the road.’ Incredible or not the report is ‘absolument vraie quoique invraisemblable!’. - Courrier de ’Europe, Septembre 27, 1884.° And not only in England and France. In August, 1987, during intensive fieldwork in south- west Ireland, the writer was advised to go the attractively-ditched recumbent stone circle of Glantane NE near Millstreet. Behind the drab house was a green wilderness, garden overgrown, long grass, weeds, a shadow of trees green with moss: Annihilating all that’s made To a green thought in a green shade. Andrew Marvell, Thoughts in a Garden, stanza 6 Like that green thought the stone circle had also been annihilated, its ditch filled, its pudgy recumbent, two tall portals, eight chunky circle- stones, a pair of outliers all dragged from the ground and carted away to add no more than a square metre or two to the cultivated fields.’ The fate of Broome was not unique. Even today destruction continues, often through ignorance, sometimes through necessity, occasionally because of deliberate vandalism, and it is fortunate that fieldworkers like Arthur Passmore recorded monuments that otherwise would have vanished leaving no word of their existence. He was a man of considerable prejudices, finding fools insufferable. The writer owns his copy of Alfred Watkins’ Early British Trackways, Moats, Camps, and Sites of 1922. Passmore thought little of it. On the title-page he pencilled ‘ROT’ and stuck in a typed comment, ‘How any man at any time can have made such a collection of damned nonsense I cannot imagine’. Inside the front cover is a further scornful criticism, ‘Useful for illustrations only’ Early British Trackways, Moats, Mounds, Camps, and Sites. A Lecture given to the Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club, at Hereford, September, 1921, by ALFRED WATKINS, Fellow and Progress Medallist (for 1910), of the Royal Photographic Soc jety; Past President (1919) of the Woolhope Club, With lillustrations by the Author, and much added matter. have made such a I cannot dow sng man at anytime coilection of ipagine - demned nonset 1922: Herrrorp: THE WATKINS METER Co. Lonpon : SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, HAMILTON, KENT & Co., Lrp Fig. 3 Title-page of Passmore’s copy of Alfred Watkins’ Early British Trackways... 200 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE and, conclusively, opposite, ‘Pure idiocy’(Fig. 3) Yet the same intolerant man discovered a forgotten stone circle. The writer also possesses Passmore’s copy of the first editions of Stukeley’s Stonehenge, 1740, and Abury, 1743, bound together. In that dual volume Passmore’s bookplate displays a mini-gallery of urns, a Southern beaker, china, porcelain plates, and a hand-axe. The majority of the pieces were presented to the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford (see paper by Phillips in this volume). From 1883 onwards Passmore contributed to this magazine on a pot-pourri of topics. As early as 1898, WANHM 30, 91, 303, he was proudly displaying his treasured objects to members: local antiquities, stone implements, Samian_ ware, painted Roman plaster, Saxon urns and a spearhead, a blue glass necklace, amber beads, pack-horse bells, a man-trap and a Belgic urn. In WANHM 42 he wrote about Wansdyke and the controversial ‘stone circle’ — which it is not — at Langdean Bottom. In WANHM 51, 432, he discussed a pterodactyl bone; in WANHM S53 long barrows, round barrows and Roman buildings. There were idiosyncrasies. In WANHM 44, 1927, 76 the editor noted that in the Wilts Gazette of October 7, 1926 Passmore argued that at Stonehenge the Aubrey Holes, the stone circle and trilithons ‘were really intended to contain wooden posts to support a roof’. The contributions continued: WANHM 46 about Luckington, Roman coins, and a Saxon mint. WANHM 47, 493 reported that he took a plaster model to Wayland’s Smithy for Society members to see at a visit in August, 1936. In WANHM 50, 1944, 292, he wrote about a human skull filled with lead in Stratton St. Margaret church dug up ‘years ago’. In WANAM S51, 1947, 118, the topic was the slitting of cows’ ears; WANHM 52, 394, a Roman discus; and, finally in WANHM 53, 1950, 259, the spurious relics of witches found in Wiltshire. It was his final contribution. In WANHM 54, 1952, 464 there was a rather terse announcement that he had resigned from the Society. The chairman ‘wanted to mention the severing of Mr. Passmore’s long association with the Society. How much Wiltshire archaeology owed to his labours only those could appreciate who turned to the volumes of the Magazine and read his communications over nearly fifty years’. Six years later he died.* By a megalithic coincidence, of all these notes and articles his very first contribution had been the note in WANHM 27, 1893, about the ‘hitherto undescribed stone circle’ at Coate. In the short paper that followed in WANHM 27, 1894, 171-4, he reported the discovery of the tumbled ring at Day House Farm NE and included a plan of eight half- buried stones forming two-thirds of a circle that had been disturbed and damaged by the erection of a rick- and cow-yards to its west. Some quarter of a mile to the south-west near Coate Reservoir were three more large tumbled sarsens, the southern arc of a second ring, Day House Farm SW. Alongside the road passing Day House Farm was a line of five widely separated stones that Passmore suggested could have been an ‘avenue’ approaching the first circle. He ended by mentioning the erstwhile circle at Broome and a possible megalithic ring at Hodson just over a mile SSW of Day House Farm. It also had a ‘stone row’ near it. It was a scanty report but until today that was almost all that was known about these forgotten sites. It is a considerable benefit to prehistoric studies not only in Wiltshire but to stone circle research generally that the purchase of Passmore’s Notebooks allows those data to be considerably augmented. NOTE. In the quoted passages from those Notebooks that follow numbers in square brackets [ ] either refer to his pages, e.g. [p.14] or Passmore’s own insertions in the books. Any remark in round brackets ( ) is an explanatory interpolation by the writer. To make the descriptions of the various sites easier to follow they have been arranged in alphabetical order: Coate Reservoir; Day House Farm NE; Day House Farm SW; Fir Clump; Hodson; and Swindon Old Church. STONE CIRCLE EXTRACTS FROM THE NOTEBOOKS OF A. D. PASSMORE Coate Reservoir SU 17. 82. Passmore, Notebook 1, [p.29b]. At the end of Coate Reservoir there are [what to] a lot of sarsens of large size and from their positions I think they are the remains of a double circle, one within the other like the one at Winterbourne [They seem to] There is also a double line leading up to them about 400 yards long. All these stones are in the [p.30] bed of the reservoir under high water mark and when the Reservoir [was dug] they were [rolled from their proper] [positions but] probably moved a bit out of their original position. A. D. PASSMORE AND THE STONE CIRCLES OF NORTH WILTSHIRE 201 (Note. This is followed by descriptions of the Day House circles in Coate hamlet between the escarpment of the downs and the isolated Swindon hill. The village lies by a little stream 2.5 miles south-east of Swindon town centre. The wreckage of Day House Lane NE ring can still be seen. It was first noticed by Richard Jefferies who was born at Coate Farm in 1848. A quarter of a century after Jefferies, Passmore described the circle and its partner in considerable detail). Day House Farm NW and SE. [p.20] ‘Discovery of stone circles at Coate’, by A. D. Passmore. These circles which are situated at Day House Farm about 4 of a mile from the village of Coate are of sarsen stone and not one [is] now standing all having tumbled down and [scarcely noticeable to any but] gradually worked their way underground until only the tops are visible. at first they appear very small but on closer investigation I found them to range in size from 6 ft to 12 ft (1.8m, 3.7m) long and about the same width. I first noticed these stones in last January (1893) and since then I have made many fresh discoveries namely another circle to the S.W. of the Day House circle [see Day House SW][and also] the [p.2la] remains of a [a not] double circle and/at the end of the reservoir about 2 a mile [distant] west [see Coate Reservoir] re ¥ Bieeccesoce wee erece RO oor eccreeces eco ee I Se . Sy Seer ore Seale. Fec® {06 see Fig. 4 Plan. Day House Lane circle NE. Passmore, WANHM 27, 1894, 171. and a line of three stones [pointing straight] almost Y4 mile of 2nd circle. These stone(s) point straight at Hodson about 1 % away and on going to [?] place where I expected them to my surprise and gratification I found the remains of another circle and on going to the other side of it I [found] saw a line of stones going away from it and this time pointing straight to Coate. Owing to want of time I must leave Hodson circle till the next number of the magazine [where I hope to have] (see Hodson circle). Notebook 1 [p.8] About 6 months ago whilst walking home from Chiseldon to Swindon through Day House Farm I was struck by the remarkable position of certain [stones] sarsen stones which were lying in the field in front of the farm. [I continued my walk ] [mentally resolving to again visit] [this circle]. [About two months after made] [I thoroughly examined it and] of which I give a scale plan 32 feet to the sq inch the stones [a] in the circle are 9 in number and in [the] line leading up it there are [p.9] 5 stones. (Sixty years later Alexander Thom planned the stones more accurately but when redrawing his field-notes misplaced north at the east. Figs. 4,5). The circle or rather oval appears to have originally consisted of 30 stones which was the number of days in the lunar month and a favourite cycle with the Druids; the diameters are 220 ft from to and 170 ft (67m, 51.8m) from to . The stones are themselves are of small size ranging from 5 ft long to 10 ft long (1.5m, 3.1m). None of them now remain upright. One part of the oval is unfortunately encroached upon by a rick yd and cow sheds and I hope to find another stone when Ss/d N DAYHOUSE LANE sm Swoon Su 182824 , tjmee eee se i} 0 1 \ ‘ | \ / h \ fs \ i O a a ox Fig. 5 Plan. Day House Lane circle NE. Thom, Thom & Burl, 1980, 134, S5/6. 202 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE the ricks are removed, in the walls of the shed [there] and scattered about the field there are large pieces of sarsen which would account for the few stones that [p.10] [the stones were] some of the stones were broken up. I have proved by digging into the hollow between stones marked 8 and 9 and there discovering a[nd] quantity of ashes probably straw and some chips of burnt sarsen. The line of stones which leads up to the circle consists of 5 stones none now standing upright. They are about the same size as the others 1.e. about 5 or 7 feet long (1.8m, 2.1m). I cannot find traces of any stones within 400 ft (122m) of the circle but the wall of the cowsheds covers most of this distance and would probably account [for them] their absense at the above distance [there] from the circle there is a stone and at the distance of 6? 5? ft. (65 feet, 20m) there is another and at a like distance 1 more. [p.11] [at a dis[tance] 191ft (S8m) from this there is a stone which would [be] leave room for two stones in between and about the same distances that is 65 ft (20m) [which] and [280] ft (20m, 85m) from this [last] stone there is one more This being the last stone that I can trace, it will be noticed in the plan that the road makes a bend between these two end stones of which I shall say more farther on. Some archaeologists (repeated on pages 24, 25) whom I have taken over the ground deny that the line of stones has any connection with the circle and that they were drawn out of the way when the road was made but I ask why should the stones be equal distances from each other and why should they cross the road [between] the last stones where it curves [an] on its way to Coate while the stones [continue] [p12a] are in a straight line. I think also that these stones are two (sic) large to have been moved for the purpose by modern workmen most of the[m] stones weighing between 3-4 and 5 tons. This would have taken [almost] at least 20 men to lift [which] and all this labour would not have taken place in recent times. These stones also could not have been [put? like] natural because in a district where stones are comparatively scarce it is a rare thing to find more than one and in a straight line. The circle appears to have originally consisted of 30 stones [p.22] the same number as the inner circles at Avebury. This number [of] was the number of years counted by the Druids for a generation and was a favourite cycle of theirs. The lunar month also anciently consisted of 30 days. It is not quite a circle [be] there being a considerable difference between the diameters from E to W and N to S. The oval [in] on the W side is unfortunately encroached upon by [a] cowshed and a rick yard and in this large space there is only one stone left that being mutilated. The others were probably buried or smashed up to build the walls around. Scattered about the sheds are a [good] few pieces of sarsen which [p.23] would account for [so] such a small number remaining. That some of the stones were broken up I have proved by digging into the hollow between the 9th and 10th stone and I there found some black ashes and a piece of burnt sarsen. By the side of the road which passes through the circle there are five stones which from their present position I think may have formed part of an avenue leading up to the circle from the north none of these now remain upright. They are about the same size as those in the circle i.e. about 5 to seven feet (1.5m, 2.1m) long. On turning round the road to Day House Farm in the left hand side [there] between the third and fourth [stone] there is a stone [no. 4] 5 ft long [at] a distance of 400 feet (122m) there is another 6 ft (1.8m) long in the side of a ditch. 191 ft (58m) from this is a stone and 65 ft (20m) further on there is one and at a like distance there is another. This one [number 5 on plan] is the last I can [trace] find near the circle*. It will be observed from the plan that the line if continued would pass over stone 14 or just to the E of stone 1 in the second circle. The [stone] first stone of the circle number [6] is within 3 yards of the shed wall and has fortunately not been noticed by the builders. of the [sto] walls [acro] The next three stones 7, 8 and 9 are not broken [p.26a] [and] the distance between stones 8 and 9 I take to have been the original distance apart, between stones 9 and 10 there is a hollow from which I obtained a piece of burnt sarsen and ashes probably show between stones 11 and 12 there is a wide gap which after hours of search with a bar I have failed to fill up. Stone 14 is the only one I can find in this rick yard but in the ditch outside it There are some large pieces which have been broken up and thrown in. We now pass on to the second circle. (see Day House Lane SW). [15] (repeated in different words on p.28) I think it rather remarkable that these circles have never been mentioned before. Stukeley and Britton mention the stones at Broome Manor 2 miles distant but not Coate [Sir R. C. Hoare must have passed] [along the road also] Hoare doesnt mention it, neither does Richard Jefferies who must have passed [seen] it every day. [30b] [Near the] [It is] Richard Jefferies also seems to have overlooked the circles [as] he lived [within] very close and A. D. PASSMORE AND THE STONE CIRCLES OF NORTH WILTSHIRE 203 was married from Day House Farm before which the circle stands. Passmore was unaware that Jefferies had already described the circle in one of a series of articles for the Wiltshire Herald in 1867-8. Jefferies wrote: The road from Coate makes a wide semi-circle round to Chisledon. Day-house Lane cuts off the angle, and was formerly much used, until the road was widened and macadamised. There may be seen on the left side of Day-house Lane, exactly opposite the entrance to a pen on Day-house Farm, five Sarsden stones, much sunk in the ground, but forming a semi-circle of which the lane is the base- line or tangent. There was a sixth upon the edge of the lane, but it was blown up and removed, in order to make the road more serviceable, a few years ago. Whether this was or was not one of those circles known as Druidical, cannot now be determined, but it wears that appearance. It would seem that the modern lane had cut right through the circle, destroying all vestige of one half of it. In the next field, known as the Plain, lies, near the footpath across the fields to Chisledon, another Sarsden of enormous size, with two smaller satellites of the same stone close by. If the semi-circle just spoken of was a work of the Druids, or of the description known as Druidical, which some think a very different thing, it may be just possible that these detached stones in the Plain had some connection with it’.’ In the Notebook he continued his account. [p.15] In conclusion (repeated on page 13) I wish to express my best thanks to Mr. Handy [the] upon whose farm the stones are and for the kind manner in which he gave me permission to go over his land and do what excavation I thought necessary. If any one who reads may have any doubt of the accuracy of the above statements [I] and think I may have drawn from my [p.16] Imagination I shall be pleased to take them over the ground and convince them of the truth of what I have said. Near this circle on the bank of the Reservoir I have picked up flint implements of a shape very _ often found in the Swiss lacustine dwellings there [are also] nearly 2 ft (60cm) under surface [unseen] among fossils which would assign them to a very early palaeolithic age and also other implements of a later period near the same spot. [p.17b] The 2 stones behind the shed [Coate] have evidently been moved to their present position [level with the shed wali lately] when the shed was built and this shed being exactly between the two circles I think that they are the remains of an avenue between (pages 18, 19, blank) {p.22] Near this circle I found a piece of red pottery of very rude make [being] , the clay mixed with small flints and I [should] is [put it] early British. I have also found implements near here one being [the same] of a type very often found in the Swiss Lakes. The word Coate is a Celtic Word derived from [the] a form of old Welsh coed, wood, or the Cornish ‘Coit’. October Ist A. Passmore The line of stones leading from the Coate circle if continued would lead to water this is the case at Avebury in the Beckhampton which I firmly believe in. At Stanton Drew two of the circles have short avenues which go from them towards the river which flows close by. At Mount Murray in the I. of Man there is a small circle [which] with a small [p.33] curved avenue. (There is no stone circle at Mount Murray. The site at SC 325 766 3.5 miles west of Douglas is the Glendarragh ‘circle’ at Braaid, Kirk Marown, a mixture of a round ‘Celtic’ house and, just to the north, the ‘avenue’, the remains of a Norse ‘boat-shaped house of about 1000 AD’. A.B.) Mr. A. L. Lewis in reading a paper before the Anthropological Institute says that all [sto] nearly all stone circles have a reference to the NE either a hill top, [or] a large outlying stone or another circle.'” Out of 21 circles visited by him he says 18 had a special reference to the N.E. the next most distinguished marker is the S. E. [nine cases] the circle at Coate [Coate at Co] adds another as it has a circle at the S. E. In a Saxon Charter the ten stones are mentioned as a boundary of the parish of Chiseldon. (page 34 blank). [p.35] In the N. W. sky of the evening there are the following stars which by a singular coincidence are nearly in the same positions as the stones at Coate [plan] and to the S. E. of these there are three more which are exactly like the 3 stones in the [scn] circle at Coate the only difference being that [the apex of] star number | is the wrong side of the other two. Passmore, Notebook 2, [p.30]. July 29, 1895. The dry weather [of] in June of this year scorched up the grass in several places around the stone circle at Coate leaving brown patches thinking that stones might be underneath I examined the ground with a bar and was rewarded by finding 5 new stones 204 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE [some of larger] one of larger size than any I had previously examined the first stone no X belongs to the avenue or line of stones is 170 ft (52m) distant from stone no 2 and 20 ft (6.1m) from the road. No 11 which is 8 ft long is 110 ft (2.4m, 33.5m) from the [circle] stone no 2 and 60 ft from stone 10 [it will be noticed from the plan that the probable original distance between the stones in the line was 65 ft] (19.8m). Day House Lane SE c.SU 182 823. [p.26a] In the next field about a quarter of a mile from the above I found the remains of another. (Fig. 6) [p.14a] The line of stones which leads up to the first circle (Day House NE) which seems to be lost [and] stone number 1 may have curved here and gone towards Swindon and I have traced it [at] with great trouble [to the] some stones being 100 yards (90m) from others tll it gets as far as the second park field. this is only a suggestion very probably correct to E of Swindon where it seems to end is a row of 16 large sarsens about 2 feet (60cm) apart and a 4 of a mile to the N of this [line] row of stones [I ha] behind Swindon church (new) discovered the remains of another circle or two of stones of which I give a plan (see: Swindon Old Church). iv w i &@D @ ULit tf f 9 py Scale. Feet. 100, Fig. 6 Plan. Day House Lane part-circle SW. Passmore, WANHM 27, 1894, 172. Notebook 1. [p.12b]. A smaller one (Day House Farm SW) with only three stones remaining (of which I give a plan) the stone marked 1 is of greater size and I think I am right in stating that its the largest [within 3 miles] in the district. The stone marked 2 is of small size [have been] bearing marks of having been mutilated. The stone number | (no. 3?) has also been knocked about. They are equal distances [p.13] apart [i. e.] 59 feet (18m). Between the two circles (Day House Lane NE and SW) [there is] in a straight line there is a stable and by the side of this there are 3 large stones which have evidently been placed against the wall [at some] within the century [?] and the inside of the stable is paved mostly with sarsen I think that these circles may once have been connected by a line of stones. To the west of the second circle (SW) there are 3 stones in a straight line pointing straight for Burderop 1% miles distant where on top of ladder hill there are to (sic but?) stones of large size standing upright about 20 yards (18m) apart and in a straight line with the stones at Coate. [p.26b] between the two circles there [are] is a place 12 feet square (3.7m) paved with sarsens. This may have been part of the [sheds] cow sheds which are within 6 feet At the back [p.27] of this shed there are 2 stones which have evidently been moved to their present position lately and were drawn from out of this shed when it was built and placed against the wall, as this building is in a straight line between the two circles. I think that these are the remains of a connecting line. The first stone in the second circle is of very large size. The other two have been mutilated and that they were of very large size is proved by the large hole which remains. There are equal distances apart 59 ft (18m) and this circle must have been [and... have been] [much smaller circle] than the first, to the west of this second circle there are three stones pointing straight from Hodson of which I have already spoken. It is rather a remarkable fact that these circles have escaped observation on the part of Archaeologists. Neither Stukeley, Aubrey Hoare or Britton mention it although the [1st] former and Sir R. Hoare must have passed very close to it. Stukeley mentions the stones which were at Broome, now unfortunately in Cricklade streets and in a note book of his there is the following entry “TLongstones* at Broome, near Swindon, Wilts is a great high stone, and a little way of many lesser ones in a row [* The field in which they stood still retains the name Longstones Meadow. ] [p.29a] These stones [being] may have been connected with [a line of] [stones] a circle which was [smashed] broken up before Stukeley’s time and being so close to Coate I think this confirms my opinion about the line at [Coate] Day House Farm being connected with the circle. Fir Clump, Burderop Wood SU 161 814. Notebook. [p.17a]. Local tradition says that there [is] [a] was a stone circle of large size near the railway bridge outside Swindon Old Town station and the old Marlboro road leading to A. D. PASSMORE AND THE STONE CIRCLES OF NORTH WILTSHIRE 205 Ladder Hill (SU 161 804) but of the size and number of stones I cannot gain any information as they were broken up about 30 years ago. There are a lot of small pieces of sarsen on the spot where it is said to have been. (Passmore failed to find the actual location of the ring where there was to be a megalithic tragedy. In 1965, a mile south of Broome, Richard Reiss noticed a much disturbed concentric ring of coarse sarsens, the inner, flattened at the north, 86.5 x 73.7m, the fragmentary but enormous outer about 107m across. About 125m to the west was a single line of stones, 102m long, lying NNW-SSE. In 1969 the stones were casually removed during the construction of the M4 motorway.!!). Hodson c.SU 17. 80. [p.21b] This circle must wait till the next number of the / Magazine [when I hope to have] [p.38] This circle is situated in the village of Hodson about 3 miles from Swindon and 1 mile from Chiseldon station. It is like the Coate circles encroached upon by barns and other buildings, the road also passes through it. the stones are about the same size as those at Coate none are now standing. 8 stones are in position and inside these there are traces of a second circle of which I can only find 3 stones and these being out of position I think they [are the remains of] came there by accident or probably for some agricultural purpose leading up to this circle there are 4 distinct lines of stones which [go in] leave the circles in the [p.39] direction of Coate and I think that this line if stones was continued on to Coate and joined the line of stones there [the three by second circle]. This circle is about the same size as the one at Coate being 250 ft (76m) in diameter but is unfortunately right in the midst of sheds hedges road and lanes which make it very difficult to find. Swindon Old Church SU 15. 84.[p.14b] behind Swindon Church [new] I have discovered the remains of another circle of two of stones of which I give a plan (Fig. 7) [p.54]. (The Old Church, Holy Rood, Swindon, was a ruin by 1852, the chancel being refurbished as a chapel in 1964. The new church, Christ Church, Cricklade Street, was designed by Sir George Gilbert Scott in 1851).” [p.55] Notes on Swindon Circle. In the big field behind the Church there are a lot of sarsen stones which form a half circle [I am going over the Big field ° ° e ° 52 paces ° e < - ° ° aan fi 62 paces yr af Eo] re é ° pond _ 6 paces ° i Se Ry a ole ee, Es ol A oon ee Sn Mi i wire fence @ So i ll inal See: in ie Ee is Se Fi wire fence wire fence i i A i in SO IR I Sa SOR ac OO SOO TT Road large stone out in this field Fig. 7 Plan. Swindon stone circle and row. Passmore, Notebook 1, 54. ground with a bar] on Jan 18 mr Leslie went out in the field below the big field and discovered several more stones extending in all about % a mile [nearly] they are sarsen stones, some big about 5 to 6 feet (1.5m, 1.8m) average size, some nearly buried [this stone lin] this stone line may have been a sacred road leading to some worship place. (In the Notebook all the following six lines have been crossed out). probably the circle in big field the northern end of this [circle] line points in the direction of Stratton where near [Hodn] Notts boundary in a field on right hand side of road there are [p.56] large stones. Keeping the same N+S direction, this line also points straight for Avebury. Mr Haliday says that these stones were broken up to form part of the wall and that they were in the form of a circle 18 years ago. (Pages 57 — 70 blank). The Purpose of Stone Circles {p.36] The question will probably be asked what where these stone circles & their uses? An answer to this question is very difficult to give as the archaeologists are divided in their opinions respecting them but the most widely accept theory is that they were connected with the worship of the Sun & Moon [is] this is almost certain as most circles have an [reference?] outlying stone or some other distinguishing object on the Eastern side the 206 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE famous “Friar’s Heel” at Stonehenge may be taken as an example. There are several other theories which have at different times been accepted as correct namely the Water Worship [p.37] Theory and Stukeley’s Snake Worship The former’s opinion is upheld by the following facts. That in some circles a line of stones is found leading from the circle to the nearest river, at Stanton Drew this is the case in 2 instances and at Coate the line by the road would if continued run to water in at [?] direction. Whether this had any connection with the worship carried on in he main temple is doubtful. In conclusion there is one fact to be mentioned against the temple theory & that is if all the inhabitants of the districts where these circles are why should they not be all together instead of being scattered about in circles very close to one another. Letter to C. H. Goddard Esq 1/1/14. [p.40] (In 1914 the Rev. E. H. Goddard was the Editor of the Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine. He lived at Clyffe Vicarage, Swindon). Dear Sir, I write to tell you of aremarkable coincidence in connection with the stone circle at Coate. You will remember that the stones | to 6 in the [large] first circle are of large size and the other three are very small and one could almost [be] say that they were not really a part of the circle, if these six stones are left and the three small ones struck out, and these being put on paper together with the 3 stones of the second circle and also the three stones which are in a line to the west of the second circle. Having placed these in their proper positions on the first clear night go out and look in the Northern sky and just under the north star [p.41] you will observe half a circle of 6 stones exactly like those on your plan to the right of these [that is to the west] there are three stones exactly like the second circle the only difference being [in] that they are on a rather large scale and that the middle star is on the wrong side of the other two. On the right of these again judging the distance by your plan you will see three stars in a line exactly like the three in the line mentioned above after you have seen these stars you will be [struck by the] surprised at the coincidence. I don’t wish to say that this is anything more than a very remarkable coincidence but if as some authorities on stone circles say that they are connected with the Worship of the Sun, Moon, & [p.42] Stars one would be justified in saying that this is something more than a mere accident{[al]. If you cannot find out these stars please write to me and I will point them to you myself if possible. (Pages 43 to 55 blank) This marked the end of Passmore’s notes on stone circles. The stone circles described by Passmore create more questions than answers. Six of them form a clumsy rhomboid about a mile wide and a mile and a half northwards from Fir Clump up the south- eastern outskirts of Swindon. Had they been contemporaries each would have had a little territory of no more than 160 acres (65ha). This is so limited that a chronological sequence is more likely. Why they were erected in such a limited area is predictable. As always, prehistoric people used whatever local material there was and around Coate sarsens littered the ground. ‘Broome Manor must have boasted many 1000s... At Coate there are many. Here a Bronze Age circle is found of them... Ladder Hill... can show many examples’. These were the ancient Lower Greensand sarsens unlike the later Bagshot blocks around Avebury.'’* That stone circles should be put up in such a megalithic abundance is understandable. And that there should be concentric rings amongst them is not unexpected. Two were already known at Winterbourne Bassett and the Sanctuary. Both of them were far above average size for stone circles in Britain. The surprise is that Fir Clump, a mere three miles north of Winterbourne Bassett, was enormous, over seven times the area of the Sanctuary and nearly twelve times as big as Winterbourne Bassett. It was almost as big as the southern circle inside Avebury and must have been an important meeting-place like a ‘tribal’ lodge for an extensive region. It is a criticism of our times that this irreplaceable relic of antiquity, perhaps the ritual centre of prehistoric generations, could be destroyed with the indifference of ignorance to make room for that modern passage of convenience, a motorway from London to Bristol. Its associated concentrics may also have been large. The dimensions of Coate Reservoir are unknown but the Hodson ring was spacious if Passmore’s recorded diameter of 76m is correct. Capable of accommodating a congregation of hundreds, Fir Clump even more, surely these monsters could only have been contemporaries if used for ceremonies at seasonal times of the year as A. D. PASSMORE AND THE STONE CIRCLES OF NORTH WILTSHIRE 207 the cromlechs at Carnac in Brittany were.'* Despite this modern concentration in north Wiltshire concentric circles were uncommon in Britain and Ireland, only about thirty previously being known, widely spread from Cnoc Fillibhir on Lewis in the Outer Hebrides down to the outer sarsen ring and inner bluestone circle at Stonehenge five hundred miles to the south. There are two distinct regions, a concentration around the coasts of the Irish Sea and a scatter in Wessex. Around the North Channel the ovals are unimpressive, their outer ring enclosing a much smaller containing a central cairn, a feature which may reveal their sepulchral nature. The Wessex concentrics are different. Their paired rings are closely-set and arguably they were open-air facsimiles of a roofed, wooden prototype. In such an interpretation the concentrics represented the outer wall-posts and inner uprights of a covered building that had been a place of assembly or maybe a mortuary house as the Sanctuary may have been." That Passmore was able to claim several concentrics in northern Wiltshire is helpful but not perplexing. They were part of an established tradition. So was his long double line at Coate Reservoir. Such avenues in Wessex have been known for centuries: at Stonehenge; at Stanton Drew in Somerset; at Avebury and the Sanctuary. Probably added to an existing ring they are comfortably explained as processional approaches to the circle. To the contrary, in Wiltshire single lines were almost unknown. Because John Aubrey’s Monumenta Britannica remained unpublished until 1980 there was no early record of such solitary rows. Yet in south-west England they were abundant, some in Cornwall and on Exmoor, plentiful on Dartmoor, non-existent in Wessex.!° According to Passmore they did _ exist, sometimes leading in the direction of another ring: at Day House Farm NE ‘from the circle there is a stone... and at 65 ft. there is another and a like distance more...; at Day House Farm SW, ‘a line of three stones...’; at Fir Clump, ‘to the west was a single line of stones’; at Hodson, ‘ 4 distinct lines of ~ stones’; and at Swindon Old Church ‘several more stones extending in all about 2 a mile’. There was another at Broome as John Aubrey wrote. ‘In the ground below (the Longstone’ are many thus 00000000000000 in a right line’.!” Such a sudden emergence of single lines makes it possible that these were the result of influences, even immigrations, from the south-west perhaps quite late in the history of stone circles, rows of standing stones added to existing rings just as avenues had been. There is possible confirmation in the misinterpreted setting at Langdean Bottom three miles south of Avebury. It is a confusion of sarsen. Passmore described it: ‘An unrecorded stone circle’ and ‘a curious collection of stones quite unlike anything in the county... an irregular north and south line of stones, the first three of which [to the north] are upright and in their original position’. ‘A short distance east of this line stands a stone circle’ with two big stones forming an entrance slightly north of west. The ring ‘stands on slightly raised ground’.!® Despite his interpretation of the site as a stone circle there has been a conflict of opinions including the negative one that Langdean, like Coate and others, was unrewarding to visit because ‘few traces of these remain’. Happily, those ‘remains’ do survive. Other suggestions were more positive but contradictory. Langdean was either a stone circle or a round barrow or a dwelling. Nikolaus Pevsner, uninhibited by any understanding of prehistory, wrote of. ‘a small circle of undressed sarsen 33 ft (10m) in diameter’. To Stuart Piggott the site ‘appears to be the retaining sarsen kerb of a round barrow 30 ft. across’. Terence Meaden thought that the stones might be ‘a foundation ring for supporting the floor of a hut’. Neil Mortimer who re-examined the area inclined to the view that Langdean Bottom might be an unusual type of stone circle. The conclusions were inconclusive. The surveyors of the National Monuments Record shrugged. To them the site ‘hardly conforms to a prehistoric hut or a stone circle, but proof one way or another is unfortunately lacking’.”” They were over-pessimistic and seemingly did not consider that a nearby feature provided a possible solution to the mystery. Pevsner mentioned it: ‘E of the circle is a short avenue of standing stones’. So did that doyen of fieldwork studies, Leslie Grinsell. Very close to the ‘stone circle’ he recorded ‘2 parallel rows of upright sarsens 10-13 yds. apart (9-12m) and 45 yds. long (41m), running roughly W-E., with indications of about 3 transverse rows’. Of the ‘stone circle’ he thought that ‘the valley situation perhaps favours the view that it might be a circular house site’.” It supports the idea of Langdean Bottom as a form of Dartmoor hut-circle because the suggestion is strengthened by its adjacent double row so 208 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE typical of Dartmoor. Many such rows lie isolated on the moor except for nearby hut-circles. On Dartmoor and Exmoor, hardly a hundred miles from the Marlborough Downs, there are over fifty of these independent settings.”! There is a paradox. People on the sarsen- covered Marlborough Downs did not use stone for the foundation-walls of their dwellings and there are no recorded hut-circles which may be because they are deeply buried under today’s towns and villages. On the uninhabited uplands of Dartmoor there are many more than a thousand. Langdean Bottom, far too small to be a stone circle and quite unlike any stone-surrounded round barrow in Wessex, may be such a hut-circle with tall, wide slabs for its walls, a conspicuous entrance and, tellingly for a Dartmoor connection, a double row typical of that region close to it. Both the style of house and the lines of stones are untypical of Wiltshire but almost identical to the settings and hut-circles on Dartmoor. It is revealing. Like the un-Wessex-like single rows in the neighbourhood of Swindon the sarsen settings at Langdean Bottom may be one more instance of intrusive fashions reaching Wessex, perhaps in the Middle Bronze Age when a deteriorating climate was already causing people to abandon the inhospitable uplands.” It must be conjectural but the alternatives are unconvincing. The ‘stone circle’ is not only claustrophobic but it is on a low mound unlike any other Wiltshire ring. The setting differs entirely from other round barrows in the county. Of necessity, queries remain. Grinsell wavered about the rows of sarsens, ‘Query whether the site (was) a row of 2 or 3 prehistoric houses’. Mortimer was less doubtful. “The enclosure is definitely a rectangle with an additional row of sarsens running parallel to its northern side’.”* Such assessments take no account of later interference such as the medieval labour-saving expedient of integrating rows of standing stones into the walls of cattle- or sheep-pens. Such vandalism was commonplace. The Rollright Stones circle in Oxfordshire became a Roman _ cock- fighting arena. Castilly henge in Cornwall was transformed into a play-house in the Middle Ages. The high banks of the Maumbury Rings henge at Dorchester were adapted for a Civil War gun- battery. So was the Castilly erstwhile theatre.” There are many similar sacrileges. At Langdean Bottom the individual similarities of a sarsen ring and stone rows to monuments on Dartmoor could be coincidental. What makes the distant origin a likelihood is the closeness of the ring and the rows, oddities a few steps from each other in a countryside of established local forms. That, in turn, offers the probability that the double and single rows a few miles to the north also were related to Dartmoor customs. If ideas, even human immigration, from that bleak upland to the more sheltered countryside of northern Wiltshire did occur then it is from the detailed notes of A. D. Passmore that the first clues have emerged, providing a glimmer of light on prehistory like the flickering of a birthday cake candle in the darkness of the past. Acknowledgements I am grateful to Anne Foster and Val Knowles for their respective hand-written and _ typed transcriptions of the notebooks; to Lorna Haycock, Sandell Librarian of the Wiltshire Archaeological & Natural History Society, for information about Richard Jefferies and the Day House Farm circle; to R. H. Reiss and the National Monuments Record, Swindon, for information about Fir Clump; and to the National Monuments Record for additional information about the Day House Farm stone circles; Hilary Schrafft for searching for Passmore’s obituary in the Wiltshire Gazette & Herald of 1958; and to Neil Mortimer who led me to the controversial sites at Langdean Bottom. Notes ' Passmore, A. D. 1893-4, WANHM 27, 104, 171-4. ? Stukeley, 1743, 45. > Hoare, 1819, 94-5; Duke, 1846, 6, 80-2; Lukis, Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of London, (III), 1883, 347; Smith, A. C., 1885, 76-8; Thom, Thom & Burl, 1980, S5/5, 132-3. + Andrew David et al, 202. Stukeley sketch of Winterbourne Bassett: Bodleian Library, Oxford, Gough Maps 231, fol. 216. Broome circle: Aubrey, 1980, 106-107. Passmore and the Long Stone: WANHM 44, 1929, 84-5. ® Destruction of the Broome circle and Cricklade: WANHM 23, 1887, 115-16. French portal-dolmen: ibid, 156-7. Glantane recumbent stone circle: O’Nuallain, 1984, 12, no. 3, plan, 52; Burl, 1995, 220. 8 Passmore’s death: There were obituaries in WANHM 57, 1959, 255-6, and, reputedly, in the Wiltshire Gazette € Herald of March 13, 1958, although there is no report in that or adjacent issues. ° Richard Jefferies and Coate: North Wiltshire Herald A. D. PASSMORE AND THE STONE CIRCLES OF NORTH WILTSHIRE 209 articles, October, 1867 to June, 1868; G. Toplis, (ed) Fefferies’ Land. A History of Swindon and its Environs, Simpkin, Marshall, London, 1896, 134-5. 10 A.L. Lewis, 1912. | Fir Clump stone circle: R. H. Reiss, in litt., 23 January 1996; National Monuments Record, Swindon, in litt., 13 February, 1996; WANHM 96, 2003, 222. Swindon old and new churches: Pevsner, 323. 3 J. B. Jones, ‘Wiltshire’s oldest sarsens ‘, WANHM 53, 1950, 131-3. ‘Seasonal gatherings in Brittany: T. Cato Worsfold, The French Stonehenge, Bemrose, London, 1898, 7, 20, 21-2; Burl, 2000, 341. Concentric stone circles in Britain and Ireland: Burl, 2000, 316. '© Long single rows of stones in south-west England: Burl, 1993, 91-116; Dartmoor, 236-7, Cornwall, 236, Exmoor, 237. 7 Single row at Broome: Aubrey, 1980, 107. '8Langdean Bottom: Passmore, ‘Langdean stone circle’, WANHM 42, 1924, 364-6. Plan. Interpretations of Langdean Bottom: almost destroyed: A. Service & J. Bradbury, The Standing Stones of Europe, J. M. Dent, 1993, 224; stone circle: Pevsner, 231; round barrow: Piggott, 1973, 332; stone circle?: Mortimer, 1997, 24-6; National Monuments Record, Mortimer, ibid, 26. 20 Double row of stones: Pevsner, 231; L. Grinsell, 1957, 67. Hut-circle: Burl, Prehistoric Avebury, Yale U.P, 2002, 268. 21 Dartmoor double rows: R. H. Worth, Worth’s Dartmoor, eds. G. M. Spooner & FE. M. Russell, David & Charles, Newton Abbot, 1967, 99-132; Burl, 1993, 75,78-88, 233-5. Langdean Bottom and an exodus from Dartmoor: Burl, 2000, 125; Burl, Prehistoric Avebury, Yale U. P, 2002, 268. 3 Row of houses: Grinsell, 1957, 67. A definite rectangle: Mortimer, 25-6. 4 Rollright Stones: G. Lambrick, The Rollright Stones, Oxford, 1983, 46-7; Castilly henge: Charles Thomas, Cornish Archaeology 3, 1964, 10-12; Maumbury Rings, H. St. George Gray, ‘Fourth interim report on the excavations at Maumbury Rings, Dorchester, 1912’, Proc. Dorset Nat. Hist & Ant. Field Club 34, 15-16; ‘Fifth interim report’, [bid 35, 1914, 4, 13, Plate 2. Bibliography -AUBREY, J. 1980, Monumenta Britannica, I. Milborne Port: Dorset Publishing Co. BURL, A. 1993, From Carnac to Callanish. The Prehistoric Stone Rows and Avenues of Britain, Ireland and Brittany. New Haven & London: Yale University Press BURL, A. 1995, A Guide to the Stone Circles of Britain, Treland and Brittany. New Haven & London: Yale University Press BURL, A. 2000, The Stone Circles of Britain, Ireland and Brittany. New Haven & London: Yale University Press DAVID, A., FIELD, D., FASSBINDER, J., LINFORD, N., PAYNE, A., 2003. ‘A Family Chapel...to an Archdruid’s Dwelling’: an investigation into the stone circle at Winterbourne Bassett, Wiltshire. WAHNM 96, 195-205 DUKE, Rev. E. 1846, The Druidical Temples of the County of Wilts.... London: Russell Smith GRINSELL. L. V. 1957, ‘Archaeological Gazetteer’ in. ed. R. B. Pugh, A History of Wiltshire. The Victoria History of the Counties of England, I, 1, London: Oxford University Press, 21-279 HOARE, R. C. 1819, The Ancient History of Wiltshire, II, London: Lackington, Hughes, Harding, Mavor & Jones LEWIS, A. L. 1912. On the relation of stone circles to outlying stones, or tumuli, or neighbouring hills, with some information therefrom. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 12, 176-91 LUKIS, Rev. W. C. 1883. Report on the prehistoric monuments of Wilts, Somerset and South Wales. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of London 9, 344-55, ‘Winterborne-Bassett’, 347 MEADEN, T. 1999, The Secrets of the Avebury Stones, London: Souvenir Press MORTIMER, N. 1997, ‘On Longan dene’, 3rd Stone 26, 1997, 24-6 MURRAY, L. J. 1999, A Zest for life: the Story of Alexander Keiller. Wootton Bassett: Morven Books O’NUALLAIN, S. 1984. A survey of stone circles in Cork and Kerry. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 84, 1, Dublin: Royal Irish Academy. PASSMORE, A. D. 1893. Stone circle near Swindon. WANHM 27, 104 PASSMORE, A. D. 1894. Notes on an undescribed stone circle at Coate, near Swindon. WANHM 27, 171-4 PASSMORE, A. D. 1923. Langdean stone circle. WANHM 42, 364-6 PEVSNER, N. 1975, The Buildings of England. Wiltshire, revised by B. Cherry, London: Penguin PIGGOTT, S. 1973, ‘The first agricultural communities: Neolithic period, c.3000-1500 BC, in. ed. E. Crittall, A History of Wiltshire. The Victoria History of the Counties of England, I, 2. London: Oxford University Press, 284-332 SMITH, Rev. A. C. 1885, British and Roman Antiquities of the North Wiltshire Downs, Devizes: Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society STUKELEY, W. 1743, Abury, a Temple of the British Druids... London: Innys, Manby, Dod & Brindley THOM, A., A. S. & BURL, A. 1980, Megalithic Rings: Plans and Data for 229 Monuments in Britain. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports 81 TOPLIS, G. (ed). 1896, Fefferies’ Land. A History of Swindon and its Environs. London: Simpkin, Marshall TREHERNE, J. 1985, The Trap. New York: Beaufort Books 210 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Appendix: Corpus of Stone Circles in the Notebooks of A.D. Passmore Broome. SU 167 825. Aubrey, I, 106, 107; Long Stone, Broome., WANHM 11, 1869, 341 (Stukeley); WANHM 23, 1887, 115-16, 156, 157; Passmore, WANHM 27, 1894, 174; Passmore, Notebook 1, 28. Victoria County History, Wiltshire, I (1), 1957, 111-12, 332. Coate Reservoir. SU 17. 82. Passmore, Notebook 1, 29. Day House Lane, NE. SU 181 824. Richard Jefferies, North Wiltshire Herald, October, 1867 to June, 1868; G. Toplis, 134-5; Passmore, WANHM 27, 1894, 171-4, plan 172; Passmore, Notebook 1, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17b, 205: 21, 22; 23, 24, 25, 26, 31,.32;,.33;, 35a;-40; Victoria County History -Wiltshire, I, (1), 1957, 111-12; Thom, 1967, 140, S5/6, Circle, stone, ‘part only’; Thom, Thom & Burl, 1980, 134-5, plan, diameter c. 207’ [63m]. Today only five stones of the circle survive. The ‘row’ has been removed: National Monuments Record, in litt., 15. 8. 03. Day House Lane SW, SU 181 819. Passmore, Notebook 1, 21a, 27, 35b; WANHM 27, 1894, 171-4. Since Passmore’s Note the stones have been blown up: National Monuments Record, in litt., 15. 8. 2003. Fir Clump, Burderop Wood. SU 161 814. Passmore, Notebook 1, 17a; WANHM 27, 1894,174; R. H. Reiss, in litt., 23. 1. 96; National Monuments Record, Swindon, zn /itt., 13. 2. 96. Hodson, c.SU 172 809. Passmore, WANHM 27, 1894, 174; Notebook 1, 21b, 22, 23, 38, 39. Swindon Old Church. SU 15. 84. Passmore, Notebook 1, 55, 56. Winterbourne Bassett: c.SU 093 753. Stukeley, 1743, 45; Hoare, 1821, 94-5; Duke, 80-2; Lukis, 1883, 347; Smith, A. C., 76-8; Thom, 1967, 140, $5/5, ‘Circle, stone, all fallen’; Thom, Thom & Burl, 132-3, plan, 156 ft (47.6m); A. David et al, 195-205. Wiltshire Archaeological & Natural History Magazine, vol. 97 (2004), pp. 211-217 Recent work at Barton Grange Farm, Bradford-on- Avon, Wiltshire, 1998-2003 by Michael Heaton' and William Moffatt’ Excavations in advance of the rebuilding of the West Barn at Barton Grange, Bradford-on-Avon (damaged by fire in 1982), revealed a sequence of archaeolgical layers earlier than the barn’s construction date of 1769, and probably extending back to a period contemporary with or earlier than the building of the adjacent medieval tithe barn. INTRODUCTION The Site Bradford-on-Avon is situated on a bend of the (Bristol) River Avon, within the Corallian ridge of Jurassic limestones at the south-west periphery of the Cotswold Hills, 6km south-east of Bath, in West Wiltshire. Barton Grange Farm lies on the south- west edge of the town, on the Avon floodplain, at NGR ST 8230 6047, and comprises buildings grouped around a large open courtyard, with the Great Tithe Barn defining the southern edge of the yard, and the House, the north. The works comprised the rebuilding of the West Barn; stabilisation of the walls at the north- east corner of the Stack Yard; excavation of four new service trenches (A-D) across the ‘Stack yard’ and along the access road; and excavation of footings for a new boundary wall north of the Granary. Detailed descriptions of the ‘standing? components of the site have been included within reports submitted to English Heritage and the -County SMR. The following concerns only the ‘below ground’ deposits pertinent to the archaeology of the West Barn. The extent of archaeological observations and structures affected by the works is indicated on Figure 1, and detailed plans and cross-sections of the West Barn are presented on Figures 2 and 3. Archaeological Background The archaeological background has _ been summarised by Haslam (1976; 1984). Academic interest in the farm complex has _ historically focused on the Great Tithe Barn, with the adjacent buildings within the group being afforded ‘Listed Building’ status by virtue of their ‘group value’. Despite the existence of a 1769 date stone in its east elevation, the 1974 ‘Listing Schedule’ for the West Barn describes it as: Probably Cl4th, or possibly later. Considerably altered. Single storey. Coursed rubble. Ashlar quoins. Modern pantile roof. Stone gable-ends with cappings and saddle-stones. Square-headed opening in east gable wall with timber lintel. Assortment of windows on north side. Plain queen-post roof, probably C19th. Included for group value. The West Barn attracted academic interest, ironically, after a fire in 1982 which destroyed the roof. Base crucks in the long side walls, observed archaeologically for the first time, indicated that part of the building was of a potentially earlier date. Subsequent excavations (Haslam, 1984) identified masonry outside and inside the West Barn that the excavator concluded were the footprint — possibly a cart porch — of an earlier and larger building. Despite Haslam’s appeals, the building was allowed to deteriorate. By 1989 Jeremy Lake, in his study of ' ASI, Furlong House, 61 East Street, Warminster, BA12 9BZ ?25 The Hollow, Lower Woodford, Salisbury SP4 6NJ 212 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Wall (1043) SUES yx , Drain (1058) NEN 4, ee: a eo “Trench C West Barn. See Figure 2 a ~-JrenchA oy / Paw ae Wall (1054) and the ‘Dairy’ area. / ; Details not reported here Wall (1054) Ser } ~ oo Trench D \. i: Drains Trench B Fig. 1 Extent of Works historic buildings (1989) was able to describe the West Barn only as ‘the ruins of another medieval farm building, probably a byre’. RESULTS Stratigraphic Data Excluding wholly modern concrete surfaces and associated disturbances, seven stratigraphically dis- tinct phases of deposit were revealed in the main excavations and service trenches, with contiguous deposits extending between them. The stratigraphic relationships are illustrated on Figure 4. Phase 1 Brickearth subsoil (1038) was revealed at the base of most excavations and, in Trench C, was sealed by a localised remnant of a grey silty loam ‘A’ horizon topsoil (1037). Phase 2. The stratigraphically lowest structural deposits comprised wall (1043) and wall (0005/1018), though no direct stratigraphic relationship between them was revealed. Wall (1043) was exposed only in Trench D. It comprised one course of a bipartite wall of Oolitic limestone slabs retaining a rubble and clay core, its orientation corresponding approximately to that of the West Barn. The stratigraphic relationship between wall (1043) and limestone rubble layer (1036) to the east of it had been severed by a narrow modern disturbance [1047] that had cut down on to the top of the masonry skin of (1043) but without — apparently — disturbing it. The inclination of surviving upper surfaces of (1036) further to the east suggests that (1036) must have lain against the eastern face of (1043) and possibly over it. It did not extend west nor beneath (1043). Wall (0005/1018) forms the extant south-west corner of the West Barn and the north end of the adjoining enclosure wall. It is L- shaped in plan and has a fully bonded corner upon which rested the cruck blade recorded by Haslam (1984). Though fully integrated in the plan of the West Barn, it is structurally separate from the ostensibly adjoining walls (1027, 1007, 0004) with clear abutting joints visible in the west elevation and the inner face of the south elevation. Figures 3 RECENT WORK AT BARTON GRANGE FARM, BRADFORD-ON-AVON, 1998-2003 Possible section of wall 7 : 7 eroding out of grass . y alongside footpath. oa Fon ne jes ot Our lee a (1057) pe Z ard, J 4 (1014) (1014) seme I (1058) I J (1055) (1017) I | j J G G (1008) : (1014) ( AY) 0 1 5m (1011) ————— a Fig. 2 West Barn. Plan of excavated area North South (1018) Ground Level as at July '01 AS i ~ (1035) (1014) (1002) (1000) (1007) Apparent original floor level r, 1 0 A ae Concrete (1008) (1024) : natural : (1036) (1003 (1023) 1024} Fig. 3 West Barn. Section N—S through excavations 213 c ee “coer ane 214 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Main exoavations and service trenches | 1047 1046] [1031 | 1015 | [1032 | [1057] [1014] [1033 = a) 1002] [1017] [202 1044] foo2 | "{i058] [1030] [ioae [1003] [1009 T ] [1034] 1059 [1035] 1004 1022 1036] 1005 101 205 | [1008] { 1052] [1014 ‘Dairy’ area 1039 | Phase 7 ils Modern Phase 6 19th century Phase 5 19th century Phase 4 16th Century 10 060 1 oe | 1041 | ] oe | Phase 3 Medieval 1061] | 1062 | 051 | Phase 2 Medieval Phase 1 Natural deposits Fig. 4. Stratigraphic sequence diagram and 4 illustrates its stratigraphic separation from the rest of the buildings: its footing trench [1020] and foundation (1019) are sealed by layer (1016) which form the base of a ‘make-up’ sequence through which walls (1000) and (1027) etc are cut. Phase 3. Traces of the lower of two limestone pavements were encountered in the main excavation and in Trenches B, C and D, stratigraphically above Phase 2 deposits and partially truncated by the main walls of the West Barn (Phase 4). The pavement comprised a well-defined, cambered, 200mm deep course of limestone ‘pitchstones’ (1003, 1008, 1010, and 1055) bedded on two layers of compacted limestone rubble (1004/1022 and _ 1005/1016) together approximately 200mm thick. Three areas of paving were revealed: an E-W pavement (1055) at the west end of the barn, approximately 4.5m wide; a N-S pavement (1010, 1008, 205) 2.5m wide and bounded on both sides by well-formed stone gutters (1011 and 1009) in the excavations on the south side of the barn; and fragments of a N-S pavement (1003) against the east end of the north side of the barn. The latter two were bounded by spreads of flat-laid limestone rubble paving (1014), the spatial extent of which lay outside the excavations. The northern extent of (1003) had been truncated by later disturbances (see below), but the compacted limestone rubble base extended as a continuous and well-defined layer (1036) from the north face of the barn foundation along the entire length of Trenches C and D and the western part of B. Stratigraphically level with the lower pavement was a series of stone conduits (1030, 1042, 1058) revealed in Trenches C and in the French drain at the west end of the West Barn. These conduits were formed of two skins of undressed limestone slabs approximately 300mm apart capped by a single course of similarly undressed limestone slabs, set into the compacted limestone rubble base (1036) of the lower pavement. Though visible only in short lengths, two are discernible: running N-S (1030/1042) through Trenches C and B, and running E-W (1058) from the west end of the West Barn. The eastern extent of (1058) was not identified: it did not exist within the reduced interior of the West Barn, and the French drain excavations along the east and north foundations were not deep enough to encounter it. Phase 4. Main walls The limestone pavements were cut by the footings of the south (1007), west (0004), north ( 1000) and east (1006) walls of the West Barn, and in places the lower course of the wall proper (above the foundation) lay directly on pavement setts. The RECENT WORK AT BARTON GRANGE FARM, BRADFORD-ON-AVON, 1998-2003 215 relationship is most clearly demonstrated by the cross-sectional drawing Figure 3. On the north side, the footing [1024] of wall (1000) and its foundation (1023) clearly defines the southern extent of pavement (1003) — a contemporaneous or later pavement would butt against the wall face — while on the south side the lower course of the wall (1007) rests directly on the pavement (1008). Phase 5. Blocking wall (1028) The south elevation immediately prior to dismantling comprised three fabrics distinguish- able by bond and slight variations in thickness, and demarcated by clear and fully ‘closed’ vertical joints. The stratigraphically highest was ‘blocking’ wall (1028), infilling a 6.80m wide gap in the south elevation. Though directly related stratigraphically only to pavements (1008) and (1014), though which its footing [1027] had cut, the east and west ends of wall (1028) were ill-formed and lay against the fully quoined reveals of walls (1007) and (1018), suggesting they were built against existing structures. In the north-east corner of the Stack yard, stratigraphically level with the later modifications to the West Barn but physically unconnected with it, were extensively disturbed paved surfaces, hearths and wall foundations revealed during site clearance. Materially unaffected by the works, and now protected beneath a geotextile and sand membrane, these were rapidly recorded but not investigated in detail. Referred to here generically as (1041), the westernmost components were abutted by the upper limestone pavement (Phase 6, see below) indicating that these deposits pre-date it. No stratigraphic relationship with wall 1054, however, was established. Phase 6. Upper pavement Traces of an upper and more massive paved surface were revealed in all areas, including the north end of Trench A. The upper pavement comprised massive blocks of Carboniferous limestone ( 1017, 1002, 201, 202, 140) resting directly on the lower pavement (1003 etc) or on localised spreads of _compacted limestone rubble (1034) that sealed a localised grey silt clay (1035) revealed only in the southern end of trench C. The latter — which sealed Phase 2 layer (1036) — contained fragments of metamorphic roofing slate and hand-made stock brick, suggesting (here) an 18th C date for its deposition, or later. Stratigraphically level, but physically distant, were the edges of two limestone pavements (1044, 1045) revealed at the west end of Trench D, and a slab pavement (1057) within the outshot walls against the north elevation of the West Barn. The former were revealed beyond wall (1043), hard against — and abutting -— the foundations of the existing building. The southernmost, (1044) was curved in plan and appeared centred on a blocked door opening in the eastern elevation; to the north and 100mm lower than it, (1045) was aligned almost normal to the existing building. Both were formed of rectangular setts —c. 300mm x 100mm x 200mm — rather than pitchstones. Pavement (1057) was revealed during localised re-laying of the rough slab surface between the outshot walls (0002) and, as a result, neither its lateral extent nor stratigraphic relationship with (0002) were identified. It comprised sawn slabs of Oolitic limestone, 180mm — 200mm wide x 500mm long, laid parallel to the axis of the building and, apparently, hard against the wall face, with an upper surface 250mm below site datum. Packed tightly together, but with no evidence of a bonding agent, the visible slabs formed a rectangular platform approximately 860mm x 500mm, the interior of which had been gauged out to create well-defined 40mm wide lip around the edge. The reduced interior was intentional and, on the basis of chisel marks, executed in situ. The coincidence of the lip with the position of the easternmost lean-to wall suggests that these are contemporaneous. Phase 7. Modern disturbances Where absent, the upper pavement (1017 etc.) was replaced by a thick deposit of coal clinker/cinders (1032, 1033, 1014) that extended in thickness of up to 600mm across the entire site. Where juxtaposed — for instance at the south end of Trench C — the cinders lay against the setts (1017 etc.) within a shallow cut into the bedding layers, suggesting that the cinders were infilling a void created by removal of the setts. The cinders lay against all four foundations of the West Barn and extended across the entire site area, and formed the lowest layer encountered in the French drain excavations around the east and north foundations of the West Barn and across most of the length of Trenches A and B. The cinder deposit was sealed by concrete surfaces and cut into by a number of drains, service pipes and excavated disturbances. These are not further described here. 216 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Artefactual Data No datable artefacts were recovered during the operations, other than post-18th-century material such as roofing slate and bricks. These have been discarded, and are described in the stratigraphic descriptions above. Palaeoenvironmental Data No deposits suitable for palaeoenvironmental analysis were revealed; and no coarse materials, such as animal bone, were recovered. CONCLUSIONS Wall (1043) appears to be the feature identified by Haslam (1984) — feature (1047) being his backfilled trench — and there is no reason to dispute his interpretation that it represents one side of a rectangular building with orientation correspon- ding to the Tithe Barn that predates construction of the West Barn. Similarly, his interpretation of wall (1018) as a remnant of an earlier building is also supported by the stratigraphic data recovered here, but there is no direct stratigraphic link between the two and, indeed, they differ significantly in the form of foundation. They are both earlier than the West Barn, but in all other respects cannot be related. The ashlar quoining (0005) at the west end of (1018) may be a later dressing of an exposure, as the work differs from all other fabric on the site. Culvert (1058) coincides exactly with the position and orientation of the north wall of Haslam’s ‘porch’, and is a substantial sub-surface structure that also coincides exactly with the functionally ambiguous breaks in the fabric of the west elevation of the West Barn. Unfortunately, floor reductions within the West Barn subsequent to Haslam’s excavations have removed all trace of the eastward continuations of (1058); and the French drains excavated for the present work were not deep enough to encounter its continuation beyond that, so it is not possible to test Haslam’s interpretation. However, the culvert and _ its associated feature (1030) to the east are strati- graphically level with the lower limestone pavement (1008 etc.), an extensive deposit that is strati- graphically later than walls (1018) and (1043). If (1058) is the western extension of the feature Haslam described as a wall foundation, it is a drain, and it cannot be associated with walls (1043) or (1018). The lower limestone pavement (1008 etc.) is an unambiguous structure, and appears to be one component of an extensive network of paths and surfaces extending away from the West barn in all directions. It remains undated here, and, as a utilitarian structure executed in vernacular material, is inherently undatable. It is, however, identical in form to the limestone pavements adjacent to the Tithe Barn and so might be broadly contemporaneous. If this is the case, Haslam is correct in ascribing a pre-Tithe Barn date to walls (1043) and (1018) We conclude that the West Barn was built in a single principal episode in 1769, utilising wall (1018) which had by that time been dressed with ashlars (0005) at its west end. The matching pier (0003) to the north of it suggests the possibility of an earlier structure related to (1018), but no trace exists within or beneath the West Barn. Furthermore, the poor closing of the rubble masonry against its north edge suggests that (0003) was added to an existing wall. The east, north, west and most of the southern walls were constructed in shallow footings excavated through the limestone pavement (1008 etc) and the shallow soils (1012 and 1013) that had developed over it. The building in its original form had a very broad opening in its south side, to link with the pre-existing open-sided cattle shed/ cart shed that had been built against wall (1018), but the west gable was fully closed. The rubble masonry forming the west gable was stitched into the pre-existent ashlar quoins (0005) of (1018) above first-floor level. The ashlar work may have been a modification of (1018), perhaps a later dressing of exposed core material at a break. The visually matching pier of ashlars (0003) on the north side of the gable, which is founded on culvert (1058), is also a veneer — the vertical joints evident in the west face are not present in the internal east face — suggesting a repair or perhaps a cosmetic treatment, in the absence of a more plausible explanation. The gambrel-roofed shed existed until 1923, at least, though the date of blocking (1027) that probably followed its demolition cannot be more accurately estimated. The upper pavement — (1017) etc. — extended across the entire site and utilised carboniferous limestone. Not local to this site, this type of stone would have been prohibitively expensive to transport prior to the canal or railway eras. Layers immediately beneath it contained metamorphic roofing slate and brick fragments which suggest a post-18th-century date. It is likely, therefore, that RECENT WORK AT BARTON GRANGE FARM, BRADFORD-ON-AVON, 1998-2003 217 the upper pavement was a 19th-century addition to Barton Grange Farm. It was subsequently remove and replaced by cinders, at an unknown date prior to the 1982 excavations. Bibliography ASI, 1998, ‘West Barn....Bradford on Avon: Historic Building Record’. (Non publication assessment report Ref. ASI 3078 submitted to English Heritage and Wiltshire County Council) ASI, 2000, ‘West Barn.....Bradford on Avon: archaeological works to accompany....: project design’. (non publication project design ref. ASI 3167/1 submitted to English Heritage with SMC application) HARVEY, R.B., and HARVEY, B.K., 1993, Bradford-on- Avon in the 14th Century, WANHM, 86, 118-129 HASLAM, J., 1976, Wiltshire Towns: The archaeological potential. Devizes: WANHS. HASLAM, J., 1984, Excavations at Barton Farm, Bradford-on-Avon, 1983: Interim Report, WANHM, 78, 120-121 LAKE, J., 1989, Historic Farm Buildings 218 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE | Durrington Amesbury PACKWAY g ENCLOSURE SALISBURY DURRINGTON WALLS | WOODHENGE Ba WOODLANDS 43 PITS Boscombe Down West Route of @ Long barrow pipeline 40 tf, Wy Built-up area ® Extant round barrow ot Principal o Site of * cropmarks round barrow WA/SEJ 15 Fig. 1 The pipeline location with known archaeological features Wiltshire Archaeological & Natural History Magazine, vol. 97 (2004), pp. 218-248 An Archaeological and Environmental Study of the Neolithic and Later Prehistoric Landscape of the Avon Valley and Durrington Walls Environs by Rosamund M.7. Cleal,'! Michael F. Allen’? and Caron Newman?’ with contributions from S. Hamilton-Dyer, Phil Harding, Lorraine Mepham, Elaine L. Morris, Robert G. Scaife and S.F. Wyles Small-scale excavations and a watching brief along the route of a water mains between two reservoirs at Durrington Walls and Earl’s Farm Down recorded Neolithic pits and other later prehistoric features to the north of Durrington Walls and later prehistoric features on Earl’s Farm Down, including a section excavated through the Earl’s Farm Down linear ditch. Other features included a probable Roman burial near Durrington Walls and a ploughed out disc barrow. The Avon valley floodplain profile was recorded by an auger transect along the pipeline route where 1t crossed the Avon valley. Peat and organic sediments were recorded from which a key pollen sequence for southern England was obtained, dating from the Upper Palaeolithic and very Early Mesolithic through to the Roman and medieval periods. Wessex Archaeology was commissioned by Wessex Water Construction Ltd. to undertake excavations and a watching brief during the laying of a water mains to the north of Amesbury (SU 1487 4400 to SU 1878 4135). The first stage of the project was undertaken in the spring and summer of 1991, followed by observation of the River Avon crossing in autumn 1991. The final section of the pipeline was constructed between mid-November and mid- December 1991, when a watching brief was maintained at the western reservoir site where a new water treatment works was constructed. TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY The pipeline route (Figure 1) crosses the rolling Upper Chalk downland of the Salisbury Plain north of Amesbury. Numerous dendritic dry valleys dissect the chalk upland, some of which are mapped as containing valley gravel (including Folly Bottom), and localised valley bottom colluvium. The downland here is bisected by the meandering course of the River Avon which is mapped as containing valley gravel and alluvium. The pipeline route crossed the floodplain alluvium ona large meander bend to the east of Durrington Walls. The soils are mainly brown rendzinas over the Upper Chalk, with typical calcareous brown earths mapped within the valley of the River Avon, over alluvial and flinty subsoils (Jarvis et al. 1984). ARCHAEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND The pipeline passes through an area of obvious archaeological importance (Figure 1). The western end of the route passed just 120m to the north of the henge monument of Durrington Walls with the Packway Iron Age enclosure 50m to the south ' Alexander Keiller Museum, Avebury, Marlborough SN8 1RF ? Wessex Archaeology, Portway House, Old Sarum Park, Salisbury SP46EB ? Egerton Lea Consultancy, Room 9, Victoria Hall, Grange over Sands LAI] 6DP 220 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE (Wainwright and Longworth 1971). The latter was partially excavated in 1968 and has been more recently subject to work in advance of a gas pipeline (Graham and Newman 1993, 52-5). The dating of the enclosure within the Iron Age remains uncertain and, on the basis of the recent work, it appears to have few internal features. The area to the east of the River Avon also contains numerous linear cropmarks and barrows. North of the A303 the pipeline passes close to Longbarrow Clump (SU 1640 4304) and to the south of a dispersed round barrow cemetery (SU 1725 4289). The length of pipeline south of the A303 runs through an area characterised by intensive linear cropmarks, the Earl’s Farm Down field system (centred SU 1840 4120), and round barrow groups (centred SU 1790 4230, SU 1780 4180, SU 1800 4148 and SU 1880 4100). The Earl’s Farm Down field system has been studied as part of the Wessex Linear Ditch Project, a programme of survey and excavation undertaken by _ the University of Reading (Bradley et al. 1994). This project revealed that much of the field system on Earl’s Farm Down, once thought to be associated with a major Bronze Age linear ditch, dates to the Roman period. METHODS A series of small excavations was undertaken where the pipeline crossed known features. Following these excavations, the topsoil was stripped from the remainder of the pipeline route and most of the Durrington reservoir, all of which was examined for archaeological features and artefacts. Pipe trenching was observed in plots where subsoil might mask features. The main concentrations of features have been assigned site numbers, and these are shown in Figures 2 and 8. Where the pipeline crossed the valley of the River Avon, the alluvial profile was recorded and sampled in a transect of auger holes at 10 m intervals (Figure 2). Samples were taken from the most significant sequence and provided a key vegetational history of the adjacent chalk downland. ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT Although the entire length of the pipeline was observed, archaeological discoveries were largely confined to two main areas: i) the high ground to the north-west of the river, in the vicinity of Durrington Walls henge monument; and ii) Earl’s Farm Down. Minor archaeological features were identified in the Avon valley, including three water meadow ditches and a probable field boundary (Figure 2, Sites 5 and 6 respectively), as well as small quantities of prehistoric and Roman pottery and a scatter of worked flint in the area between Sites 5 and 6. These are not reported here in detail, but are listed in archive. Finds in the Durrington Walls area were mainly of Neolithic date, and those from Earl’s Farm Down of Bronze Age or later date. In addition, environmental data obtained from the Avon valley, and from a shallow colluvial sequence at Folly Bottom allow the landscape context of both areas to be put into a broader landscape and environmental context. Thus the report is divided into four sections: Durrington Walls environs, the Avon valley, Folly Bottom and Earl’s Farm Down. PART 1: DURRINGTON WALLS ENVIRONS - SITES 1-4 NEOLITHIC FEATURES Prehistoric features, almost certainly dating to the later Neolithic, occurred along the pipeline from the area of the reservoir to the west, to the area north of the river meander in the east (Figure 2, A and B). Within the area of the reservoir and its access road at Durrington Walls (Site 1, Figure 2), the earliest datable feature was a small pit, 155, situated some 28m to the west of a second pit, 157 (Figure 3). The feature was circular in plan and measured 1.35m in diameter and 0.51m deep. Although the pit had been cut into crumbling weathered chalk, there was very little chalk in the dark yellowish-brown silty clay fill. It contained a total of 18 Neolithic flint artefacts including a broken ground flint axe, a single piece of burnt flint, 26 fragments of bone, mainly cattle, and some traces of charcoal. The absence of chalk rubble and the uniform nature of the deposit indicate that the pit was backfilled in a single episode soon after it was dug. Pit 157 was a shallow scoop cut into the chalk (Figures 2 and 3), 1.2m in diameter and 0.19m deep. NEOLITHIC AND LATER PREHISTORIC LANDSCAPE OF THE AVON VALLEY 221 KEY \ Route of pipeline * = Site (numbered) 227 i) Archaeological z features Sey Compound WY Built-up area 5 ae Site 1 = Reservoir OUD ‘157 Fig. 2. The pipeline between Durrington reservoir and the radio station, showing site locations It was filled with a dark yellowish-brown silty clay and contained a very large amount of burnt flint (195 pieces weighing 4.38kg), but no evidence of flint working or other kinds of waste material. The average size of the burnt flint was far larger than in any other feature excavated along the pipeline. The earliest feature recorded was pit 165, a shallow cut into the chalk (Figure 3) directly north of the Neolithic henge monument (Figure 2, Site 2). It contained worked flint, animal bone and 20 sherds of Grooved Ware pottery. The large quantity of struck flint from the pit included seven scrapers, 227 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE (All plans) 8822 6| Chalk rubble 2 Flint nodules 2 QOS poe Burnt flint Fig. 3 Sections through features from Sites 1-4, Durrington Walls environs a knife and two retouched flakes. The animal bone, although small in quantity, included pig and cattle bones, as well as a fragment of jaw and tooth from a beaver. Three widely spaced features were identified to the east of the roundabout (Figure 2, Site 3). The first was pit 184, a substantial, bell-shaped feature 0.57m deep with a diameter of 0.85m. It contained 146 pieces of Neolithic struck flint (see Harding below), two sherds of pottery, and animal bone fragments including the remains of an antler pick. The pottery has no distinguishing characteristics, but is likely to be Neolithic, because of its association with so much worked flint of that date. Twenty metres to the east was a very shallow circular pit, 182, 0.65m in diameter, and filled with a silty clay (Figure 3). The feature was so ephemeral that interpretation is difficult, however, two flint NEOLITHIC AND LATER PREHISTORIC LANDSCAPE OF THE AVON VALLEY 223 flakes and a core were recovered from the fill, and it is probably prehistoric. Site 4 lay to the east of Site 3 and included a number of features spread over about 500m. The most westerly was 174, a small irregular depression. This was roughly oval in plan, with a flat base and it produced a large amount of burnt flint (1.79kg), 11 fragments of animal bone and three flint flakes. The fill was homogeneous in character, indicating that the feature had been backfilled in a single episode. LATER FEATURES At the reservoir, an inhumation of Romano-British or later date was found lying within a ditched enclosure (188) (Figure 2, Site 1). The human remains were those of an immature individual (Jenkins, pers. comm.), about 12 years of age, within a grave. A water pipe trench had previously destroyed around 75% of the grave. The remainder was excavated, revealing both legs and feet below the knees. A quantity of disarticulated bone was also recovered, and only the arms and a tibia remain missing. The grave was aligned west-east, and was filled with very loose vacuous chalk rubble. The in situ legs and feet were surrounded by square-shank nails, which appear to have been part of a coffin. No datable material was recovered from the grave, but the west-east style of burial and the presence of a coffin suggests a Roman or later date. A ditch (186), situated to the east of the roundabout and running north-south, was possibly of later prehistoric date (Figure 2, Site 3). Post- medieval field boundaries and wheel-ruts were also encountered (Figure 2, features 159, 161, 167, 170 and 172). UNDATED FEATURE Ditch 146 was situated at the junction between the access road and the A3028 (Figure 2, Site 1). There was no time available for this feature to be excavated because of its position on the access road. It was, however, sealed, and thus preserved, below a layer of ‘terrain’ and hard-core. The ‘feature was 1.7m wide, and ran across the line of the access road on a west-south-west to east-north- east axis. The ditch was filled with a light yellowish-brown fine silty clay, a much finer deposit than the fills of other features observed in this area, and appears to have been washed into the ditch by successive periods of rain. No finds were recovered from the top of this fill. POTTERY by Elaine L. Morris and Rosamund M.f. Cleal Twenty sherds from a single Grooved Ware vessel were recovered from pit 165 (Site 2; Figures 2 and 4). The form is not reconstructable, but the three conjoining sherds appear to belong to the base and lower part of the vessel. The fabric is soft and contains sparse quartz sand (0.5mm), rare iron oxides (small reddish grains responding to a magnet), rare calcareous fragments (shell or chalk; the fragments are too small to identify), and some grog. The grog is difficult to distinguish from the matrix. The colour is pale brown (exterior), dark grey-brown (interior) and the core black. The decoration consists of incised lines and jabbed impressions, with at least one wavy applied cordon. It is not possible to reconstruct the arrangement of the decoration, but areas of jabbed impressions do occur on vessels with zones of incision, although the impressed decoration tends to be confined to the upper body, as for instance on P77 and P229 at Durrington Walls (Longworth 1971, figs 38 and 49). The wavy cordon is also paralleled at Durrington Walls, where there is one sherd with a smooth wavy cordon (fig. 36, P58) and several with wavy rusticated cordons (fig. 44, P162-167). The example from pit 165 seems more similar to the latter Fig. 4 Grooved Ware from Site 2, pit 165 224 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE than the former. The presence of a such a cordon, which is almost certainly vertical, enables the vessel to be assigned to the Durrington Walls sub-style of the Grooved Ware tradition (op cit. 240-242). Two additional sherds, recovered from pit 184 (Site 3), are also likely to be Neolithic in date but these have no diagnostic characteristics. One is ina fine, micaceous clay containing infrequent fragments of flint, whilst the other has rounded quartz grains and rare pieces of flint and a limestone similar to chalk. On the grounds of their fabric and general appearance they are almost certainly not later Neolithic, but could be earlier Neolithic. As the flake analysis of the flint indicates a later Neolithic date for the associated flint assemblage (Harding below), it is possible that this material is residual. WORKED FLINT by Phil Harding The flint contents of the excavated features are shown in Table 1. Features 174 and 182 contained insufficient material to be informative. Raw material and condition The flakes and tools were removed from cores made of large pieces of good quality flint. It is nodular in form with incipient thermal fractures and a thick chalky cortex. No fresh exposures of Chalk were seen during the installation of the pipe so it was not possible to compare the cores with the local flint. Wainwright and Longworth (1971, 162) recorded seams of flint nodules that were exposed in the Durrington Walls ditch. The flint mines located 70m north of the pipeline (Booth and Stone 1952) produced only poor quality flint and are therefore unlikely to have provided the raw material. Three flakes from feature 184 (Site 3), two of which refit, were removed from a nodule of gravel flint that was probably obtained from the Avon valley. The material is in mint condition and patinated white with some pieces heavily coated with calcium carbonate concretion. Technology The material from pit 184 provided the only sample of sufficient quantity to be suitable for analysis. This was carried out using the system adopted for the Stonehenge Environs Project (Harding 1990). The analysis shows that flakes were apparently removed using soft hammers, probably cortical parts of a flint nodule. Butts are generally less than 5mm across and percussion angles between 70° and 80°. Most of the flakes are large, only 13% measuring less than 30mm long and 7% less than 20mm wide. Most flakes are squat in shape with 74% less than 5.5:5 (breadth:length), although blades, represented by flakes with length equal to twice width, comprise only 12% of the sample. The largest flake from the pit exhibited characteristics similar to those of Levallois technology (Figure 5, 1). The results of the flake analysis are comparable with the Grooved Ware assemblages at Durrington Walls (Wainwright and Longworth 1971) and King Barrow Ridge (Harding 1990). The similarities are particularly apparent in the overall flake shape (breadth:length). All three sites contain similar proportions of blades (11% Durrington Walls; 15% King Barrow Ridge) and flake maximums with breadth:length ratios of 4.5:5 (28% Durrington Walls; 34% King Barrow Ridge). The most marked divergence occurs in overall size, particularly flake length, where only 13% of the flakes from the Durrington pipeline pits measure less than 30mm. None of the assemblages of industrial waste from the Stonehenge Environs Project approached this proportion. The residue from flint knapping usually includes higher proportions of small material once the tool blanks have been removed. Although the contents of the pit were not sieved, it is unlikely that flakes of less than 30 mm would be lost during the excavation. It must be assumed, Table 1. Worked flint from features in the Durrington Walls environs Feature Core Flake Broken Burnt flake flake flake Pits55 l 6 - 1 6 Pit 165 3 13 10 3 7) Pit 174 - 3 . - - Scoop 182 1 - 2 - - Pit 184 5 74 44 8 2 Ditch 186 2 1 - - - Total 12 Cy) 56 12 10 RetouchedScraper Scraper/ Knife/ Chisel Axe Other Total knife _ fabricator arrowhead 1 . - 1 - 18 : 1 - . - 39 = : 3 - - 3 - - 1 - 12 146 NEOLITHIC AND LATER PREHISTORIC LANDSCAPE OF THE AVON VALLEY 225 WA 0 50 100 mm SEJ Fig. 5 Flint artefacts from Sites 1-4 therefore, that small material was never present. None of the flakes showed signs of use. The cores that accompanied the flakes comprise two single platform cores, two others with a second flaking surface forming a ‘bifacial’ core, and a biconical/discoidal core. This suggests that no consistent form of core was produced, however the technique of flaking these cores produced flakes with squat proportions. Striking platforms were generally prepared although it is unclear how much deliberate faceting occurred during flake production. Scrapers The nine flake scrapers from pits 155 and 165 are welj made and comprise seven end scrapers (Figure 5, 2), a discoidal scraper (Figure 5, 3) and one double end scraper (Figure 5, 4). Retouch is direct, 226 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE continuous and usually only on the distal end, producing a convex scraping edge. The eight unbroken blanks average 56 mm long, 50 mm wide and 14 mm thick. Although the scrapers comprise only a small collection they compare well with implements from late Neolithic contexts at the West Kennet Avenue (Smith 1965, 95), Durrington Walls (Wainwright and Longworth 1971, 168) and King Barrow Ridge (Harding 1990, 222). Scraper blanks at these sites were consistently thinner than at other prehistoric periods. The mean thickness of the Durrington Pipeline scrapers is 14mm. The largest individual group, however, lies within the bracket 9-13 mm, which is in accord with the other groups. Knives, microdenticulates and edge retouched flakes Seven retouched flakes were found with marginal edge retouch (Figure 5, 5), of which one was classified as a microdenticulate. Five of these pieces were from pit 155 and the remainder from pit 165. They range from 46mm to 76mm in length and were selected for their straight or slightly convex edges. The edge was usually modified by marginal direct retouch but unretouched edges, smoothed by use, are also present. Chisel arrowhead A chisel arrowhead of Clark’s type C (Clark 1934) was found in pit 184 (Figure 5, 6). It has been made on a lightly ridged flake with truncations which converge on the left edge. It shares similar dimensions with a small group of chisel arrowheads from King Barrow Ridge (Harding 1990, table 121). Ground flint axe The blade of a ground flint axe (Figure 5, 7), snapped at the hafting, was found in pit 155. Both sides were ground completely smooth although residual flake scars remain near the edges. The blade is heavily damaged and chipped through use. Miscellaneous tools An implement classified as a scraper/knife was found in pit 155. This piece, made on a naturally backed flake, was blunted with irregular direct retouch. The opposite edge was modified by marginal, direct flaking. A knife/fabricator, which may have been snapped in manufacture, was found in pit 165 (Figure 5, 8). It has a rounded tip and both edges are shaped by direct, continuous, irregular retouch. Discussion The excavated pits found north of Durrington Walls undoubtedly form part of a single complex; however they showed considerable variations in both the quantity and type of their flint contents. Pits 155 and 165 were dominated largely by implements from domestic or ritual functions, while pit 184 contained what appeared to be industrial waste. It has been noted however that this assemblage contains unusual features of size. In their reassessment of the Rinyo-Clacton ‘culture’, Wainwright and Longworth (1971) listed the frequency with which individual tool types occurred in Grooved Ware contexts. Flint artefacts were recorded from 88% of the listed sites, of which scrapers, transverse arrowheads, knives, saws, ground axe fragments and fabricators occurred in at least 27%. The tools from the Durrington Pipeline appear typical, and although Grooved Ware pottery was only found in one feature, an association can be inferred for the remaining features. The study of the scrapers showed a marked similarity to groups where larger assemblages were examined. The use of pits for the deposition of domestic refuse, including discarded flint tools, is also in keeping, both with the local occurrences at King Barrow Ridge and with findings from national distributions (Wainwright and Longworth 1971, 250). At King Barrow Ridge, it was also apparent that no large-scale industrial activity was represented but that knapping was confined to small-scale domestic production. It was also considered that flint, exemplified at King Barrow Ridge by a large flake with Levallois characteristics (Harding 1990, 217), may have been imported from the south of the Stonehenge Environs, where large scale industrial knapping appears to be associated with more plentiful raw material. The presence of a similar flake measuring 118 mm in length from pit 184 may also be associated with this source. ANIMAL BONE by Sheila Hamilton-Dyer The four later Neolithic pits (155, 165, 174 and 183) produced 80 fragments of animal bone. The species distribution for these four features is given in Table 2. The largest group, of 50 fragments, was recovered from pit 184. Forty-six of these were pig, from at least three individuals indicating a minimum of two males and one female. The animals were not mature, tooth eruption indicates NEOLITHIC AND LATER PREHISTORIC LANDSCAPE OF THE AVON VALLEY 227 Table 2. Animal bone from features in the Durington Walls Environs Feature Context Cattle Red deer Pig Pit 155 156 11 - Z Pit 165 166 2 - 2 Pit 174 175 - 1 - Pit 184 185 1 2 42 Total 14 3 46 % 17.4% 3.7% 57.4% Ditch 186 187 (scanned)- - = Horse Unidentified Beaver Total mammal - 9 - 20 5 1 8 - 1 - 2 - 5 - 50 0 16 1 80 0 20% 1.3% 100 1 . - 1 one animal of approximately six months and two between 12 and 18 months (Bull and Payne 1982). Of the tibia fragments, two (not a pair) had unfused distal epiphyses, also indicating animals under two years at time of slaughter. The fragments are biased towards head and hind legs. This is slightly offset by the fragmentation of the jaws and maxillae and the presence of some of the foot bones (11 fragments are probably from the same leg). There are, however, no fragments of scapula or foreleg perhaps indicating a deliberate deposition of mostly head and lower leg joints. Although not the prime meat joints, the head and feet of the pig are not necessarily regarded as waste, as they often are for sheep and cattle. The female jaw had been axially chopped, a common butchery practice. Other pig fragments were one acetabulum and two vertebrae. Four rib fragments of a medium sized mammal and a small fragment of skull are probably also of pig. The smaller bones are underrepresented, only three phalanges compared with nine metapodi and three calcanae were present. If three feet are represented, 12 metapodi and 36 phalanges would be expected. This loss may be due to both recovery methods and preservation. Only one cattle bone was identified, a portion of chopped rib. Two fragments of red deer were present, one of which was a poorly preserved metatarsal shaft. The other was part of a shed antler, probably a discarded pick. The preservation is not good enough to show presence or absence of wear in use. The main beam is broken below the crown, just above the trez tine. Only one brow tine arises from “the base of the beam, whereas two are a characteristic of the species. The single tine variant is sometimes present in British red deer stocks today (Staines 1991). This occurrence implies the ancient origins of this presumably genetic variation. The presence of the burr at the base of the beam indicates this antler was collected after the stag had shed its antlers. Many antler picks, often shed ones, were found in the excavations at Durrington Walls, as at many other Neolithic monuments, where they were used to dig the pits and ditches (Harcourt 1971) and were frequently deliberately deposited (cf. Wainwright and Longworth 1971; Sargeantson and Gardiner 1995). Pit 174 contained a proximal portion of a red deer metatarsus and a small fragment of mammal rib. The other three pits, 155, 165, and 184, all contained pig and cattle bones. No sheep or goat bones were identified. Pit 155 contained at least four cattle individuals. These varied from calf to probably fully grown. The assemblage did not represent the disposal of just feet, as fragments of femur, ulna, scapula, vertebra and a tooth were also present. Two pig scapulae, probably a pair, were also present and perhaps represent a_ deliberate deposition rather than disposal of waste. Only eight bones were recovered from small shallow pit 165 (Figure 3). These were fragments of a pig maxilla and a deciduous lower incisor, a cattle radius and frontal and two unidentified fragments of cattle size. The remaining fragment was the lower right incisor and fragment of jaw of a beaver, Castor fiber. This species has been recorded from several local Neolithic sites, including Durrington Walls (Harcourt 1971) and the Coneybury Anomaly (Maltby 1990), and their significance has been outlined by Coles (1992). This might suggest a significant population of beaver in the Avon valley during the Neolithic. Discussion Although the fragment numbers are extremely small, pit 184 contains mostly pig bones. Late Neolithic deposits, especially those associated with Grooved Ware, often have a high proportion of pig in the animal remains when compared with cattle and sheep (Harcourt 1971; Legge 1991). Many of these deposits appear to have a ritual element and are selective so do not accurately reflect the 228 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE composition of the livestock. Pigs, with their high reproduction rate and limited usefulness as adults, are an ideal feasting animal. They also prefer woodlands and are excellent at clearing regenerating woodland. The problems of interpretation have frequently been discussed (Grigson 1982; Richards and Thomas 1984; Maltby 1990), and the degree to which their prevalence reflects selection for feasting or the amount of local woodland is unresolved (see Bradley 1984, chapter 3). The presence of beaver remains may also indicate that the nearby Avon valley was more wooded than today. Although the sample is very small, the high number of pig bones, the selection of joints, and lack of sheep bones all fit well with material from Durrington Walls where the midden in particular contained a mass of pig bones (Wainwright and Longworth 1971). The association with Grooved Ware and flint artefacts is significant; it is highly probable that the material from this group of pits reflects the ritual activity at Durrington Walls, and indeed in the wider Stonehenge environs. PART 2: AVON VALLEY FLOODPLAIN SEDIMENTS: THE PRE-ROMAN VEGETATIONAL HISTORY by Robert G. Scaife The northern floodplain of the River Avon, approximately 300m east of Durrington Walls, was surveyed and augered to provide a detailed cross- profile of the valley alluvium (Figures 2 and 6). Samples for pollen analysis were obtained from the deepest sequence of peat and organic sediments. The location was of special interest because of the possibility of pollen preservation in alluvial sediments and peats in proximity to Durrington Walls (Wainwright 1971). This might enable correlation with Dimbleby’s ‘on-site’ pollen analysis of the henge (in Wainwright and Longworth 1971, 332-4) and Evans’s environmental changes as shown by molluscan analyses (Evans 1971, 329-37). The full report is available in archive. STRATIGRAPHY by Michael F. Allen and Robert G. Scaife Ten boreholes were examined on the northern side of the River Avon floodplain. The surface of the floodplain, which is now largely under pasture, supports a gleyed soil caused by a fluctuating ground water table. In places, this also comprises highly oxidised peat. The lithostratigraphy ranges from grey alluvial silts with varying thicknesses and degrees of organic content to humified fen peat with only small quantities of inorganics. A maximum depth of 1.68m of monocot peat and organic silt was recorded in borehole 6 (Figure 6) from which detailed pollen analysis was obtained. The character of these sediments is given below. These rest on sands, which appeared in the field to be glauconitic and derived from the Upper Greensand, and in places on_ gravel of undetermined age (e.g. borehole 1). 0 -0.30m Oxidised chocolate brown, humified peat with silt. Monocotyledonous remains were evident. Occasional chips of flint present. 0.30—0.35m Wetter, darker brown peat and grey silts containing monocotyledonous remains and occasional flint chips. 0.35 -—1.47m Chocolate brown peat. Well humified but with identifiable monocotyledonous remains. Charcoal present at 1.12m and Roman pottery at 1.15 m. Sharp, well defined junction with he underlying very dark brown to black highly humifed peat (DURR: 4 DURR: 3 DURR: 2). 1.47—1.60m Very dark brown to black humified peat with little visible structure (DURR: 1). 1.60-—1.74m Grey-green glauconoitic fine to medium sand. Weathered or transported Upper Greensand. The gravel is likely to be river terrace gravel or gravel sheets laid down during the late Devensian or early Flandrian (c. 10,000 BP). Calcareous marls and silts form a thin deposit over the gravel and glauconotic sand, and varying depths of floodplain and local channel peat form most of the floodplain profile (Figure 6). A horizon of fine charcoal fragments was recorded at 1.12 m in borehole 6. In this same sequence, a single sherd of undiagnostic Roman pottery was recovered from a depth of 1.14 m indicating that most of the floodplain sequence is probably of post Romano-British date. There was a noticeable change between the lower dark brown/black peats and overlying lighter peat and alluvial silts noted in a number of the profiles. This is one of a number of possible hiatuses in the alluvial stratigraphy which have been detected in the pollen/biostratigraphy. Immediately adjacent NEOLITHIC AND LATER PREHISTORIC LANDSCAPE OF THE AVON VALLEY 229 to the river is a distinct levee (Figure 6, borehole 10) built up from dredging and dumping along the banks. This comprised up to 1m of silts with derived ash, and modern (glazed) pottery was recovered in the silts beneath the make-up. SAMPLING AND POLLEN ANALYSIS (core 6) Coring was undertaken using a 30mm diameter gouge corer with a lm chamber because of the relative dryness and stiffness of the sediments. Sampling was carried out at 20mm intervals in the field. Samples of 1ml were prepared using standard pollen extraction techniques (Moore et al. 1991). A minimum of 300 pollen grains plus spores was counted at each level, and where pollen was more abundant a greater sum was obtained. Full details are given in archive. The results are presented in standard form as a summary diagram only (Figure 7) with pollen represented as a percentage of total dry land taxa and spores as a percentage of total pollen plus spores. Pollen of marsh and aquatic taxa are calculated as a percentage of total dry land pollen plus determinable wetland taxa. Nomenclature 2) o io s o = follows that of Stace (1991) for plants and Moore et al. (1991). Forty-one levels were analysed at 20mm intervals from the base at 1.60m to 0.92m and at 40mm intervals from 0.92m to 0.68m. A number of significant changes can be seen in the pollen stratigraphy which have enabled four principal pollen assemblage zones to be assigned (Durrington: 1-4, Figure 7). The most significant pollen assemblages (Durrington: 1) relate to late Devensian and early Flandrian conditions and there is little evidence of human interference in this natural sequence, or evidence of relevant archaeological activity, so this data is only summarised here. VEGETATION HISTORY The depositional environment of river floodplains present problems not usually encountered in the peat forming environments of larger fens and bogs. Taphonomic questions of sediment/pollen sources and river erosive and depositional processes must be considered in addition to interpretations about the local/autochthonous and region/pollen sources (cf. Burrin and Scaife 1984; Scaife and Burrin 1992; Hunt 1987; Moore et al. 1991). KEY my Topsoil = Alluvial/grey silt YA Peat Gravel Calcareous marl Greensand EE Buff marl % Roman pottery 8640+ 200BP 1 100 metres Fig. 6 Schematic profile through the auger transect across the Avon valley 230 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE D = Led Oo Ww oS} S XE: 8 Ea an E os = = Qo SS = nv 3 Q ™ s So 3 a = 2 aS & 2 fp ae Humified Peat Es b Fen Peat Pot wa yydaq NEOLITHIC AND LATER PREHISTORIC LANDSCAPE OF THE AVON VALLEY 231 At Durrington (Figure 7) the peat represents ‘on-site’ organic accumulation on the floodplain communities of fen, wet pasture and carr woodland, and the inorganic sediments are derived from fluvially transported sediments and by colluvial processes from the valley sides. Thus, pollen input into this location may come from a variety of sources but, nevertheless, illustrates the vegetation history of the local region. The pollen spectra illustrated in Figure 7 provides interpretation of the development of the floodplain vegetation and of the dry-land plant communities. It will be evident that changes on the interfluves may also have had an effect on the character of the floodplain. Changes within the drainage basin may be responsible for variations in sedimentation, organic deposition and erosion of sediments which resulted in hiatuses in deposition. Durrington: 1 (1.60-1.47m) The dominance of Betula (birch) and Pinus (pine) in this basal zone and the increasing importance of Quercus (oak), Ulmus (elm) and Corylus (hazel) suggests a late Devensian to early Holocene age for this zone. A radiocarbon date from humic acids from a bulk sample (1.60—1.45m) of this basal peat of 8640+200 BP (GU-3239), calibrates to 8050- 7260 cal BC using data from Kromer and Becker (1993) with Calib 3, and indicates an early Holocene date for peat inception. Fluctuations in these taxa appear to follow a pattern typical of changes in arboreal and shrub pollen known from other sites in southern England. The relatively high values of Betula and Pinus, the latter being dominant, are typical of the Allerod/Windermere interstadial with the lesser values of other arboreal taxa (Ulmus, Quercus, and Corylus) considered as being transported long distance. The vegetation at the very base of this zone comprises largely open herbaceous communities dominated by Cyperaceae (sedges) and Gramineae (grasses) growing in the damper valley bottom. This may be attributable to colder conditions in the late Devensian (c. 10,800—10,000 BP). Whether this was a true river floodplain or a low marshy area with perhaps periodic/seasonal outwash, which is ~ more likely, is speculative. Sharp increases in the percentage of Betula followed by Pinus, Corylus and Quercus are typical of the early Flandrian succession of woody vegetation from 10,000 BP brought about by climatic amelioration at the end of the last cold stage. Subsequently, Pinus and then Quercus and Ulmus with Corylus are represented as these taxa migrated into the region. These deposits appear to be compacted and thus sampling intervals less than 20mm might illustrate this succession more clearly. Durrington: 2 (1.47-1.17m) At 1.47m, there is a marked change in the sediments and contained pollen spectra, indicating a zone of erosion and marked hiatus embracing mid Boreal to Atlantic climatic zones (Godwin’s (1975) pollen zones V—VIIa) i.e. Mesolithic. The deposits are peaty silts and silts which contain markedly fewer tree and shrub pollen. Betula is only sporadically present and Pinus although continuously represented is regarded as ‘normal’ background pollen rain from extra regional sources. Tilia (lime) is recorded for the first time. In contrast, herb pollen becomes dominant (toc. 250% AP or 95% total pollen). This comprises the autochthonous, local floodplain community and from the drier interfluves. The floodplain was dominated by grasses and sedges with other fen type plants which include Thalictrum, Caltha type (probably including Caltha palustris/ marsh mari- gold), Filipendula (meadowsweet), Valeriana officinalis (valerian), and Typha/Sparganium type (reedmace and bur-reed). Alnus (alder) is present but in view of the very high pollen production of this tree (Janssen 1959; Andersen 1973), it is not considered to have been important on or near the sample site. Non-wetland taxa include a diverse range of herbs which are typical of Neolithic or post-Neolithic land use subsequent to woodland clearance. It is clear that there is substantial evidence for anthropogenic activity in the local area and specifically for arable activity. Pollen of segetals (weeds associated with arable habitats) such as Fallopia convolvulus’ (black bindweed) and Polygonum aviculare (knotted bindweed), Centaurea cyanus (blue cornflower) and cereal type pollen are typical. Of particular interest are the high percentages of Cruciferae (Sinapis type/charlocks) which is frequently associated with arable agriculture. Here, however, the high percentages are likely to be from ‘on site’ growth. A range of herbs typical of waste or cleared ground and pastoral habitats were also present. Typically these include increased occurrences of Chenopodiaceae (goosefoots and atriplexes), Papilionaceae (clovers etc.), Rumex (docks) Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain) and Plantago media/major type (hoary plantain and greater plantain) and a range of Compositae taxa. 232, THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE It is suggested that the sediments of this zone started to accumulate after major forest clearance in the area (see below). The presence of arable pollen and weeds indicates a date post c. 4000 cal BC, i.e. Neolithic. Pollen data spanning this period in southern England are sparse and, where present, usually relate to areas away from the chalk where pollen preservation in more acid environments is better suited to more detailed palynological investigation. Nevertheless on the Chalk in Sussex (Thorley 1981), Dorset (Haskins 1978; Waton 1980; 1982), Hampshire (Waton 1980; 1982) and the Isle of Wight (Scaife 1980; 1987) partial woodland clearance took place during the Neolithic. More extensive clearance took place subsequently in the Bronze Age with large areas of woodland cleared on the lighter soils of the Chalk and Greensand. This presents two possible interpretations for the Durrington pollen spectra in Durrington: 2. First, the relative absence of trees locally here, suggests a Bronze Age (or later) date. Second, the absence of pollen data from on or near the chalklands here presents the possibility that a large area was cleared of woodland at sometime during the Neolithic. Given the archaeological, pollen and molluscan evidence from Durrington Walls (Evans 1971) and mollusc evidence from Woodhenge (Evans and Jones 1979), it seems likely that zone Durrington: 2 represents continuous and _ possibly intense Neolithic land use in this region. Furthermore, this poses the interesting possibility that such clearance and land use was responsible for the re-initiation of sedimentation in the Avon valley after a hiatus of possibly thousands of years. The removal of trees on the interfluves makes soil available for erosion and will have raised groundwater tables and increased surface sediment run-off (colluviation) into the valley bottom. This cause and effect has now been widely demonstrated from a number of British alluvial sites (Burrin and Scaife 1984; Scaife and Burrin 1983; 1985; 1992) and dry chalk valleys (Bell 1981; 1982; 1983; Allen 1988; 1992). Durrington: 3 (1.17-0.90m) A sherd of undiagnostic Roman pottery was recovered at 1.15m at the base of Durrington:3, clearly dates this zone to the Roman or post-Roman period. Since the pottery was a small, broken fragment, it could even have been incorporated at a later date. If the interpretation of zone Durrington: 2 as Neolithic or Bronze Age is correct, there appears to be a substantial hiatus between these zones (perhaps spanning the later Bronze Age and Iron Age). In zone Durrington: 3, tree and shrub pollen become dominant in these fen carr peats. High values of Alnus and Corylus in more organic sediment and peat represent the growth of local alder dominated carr woodland on the floodplain here and is attested by the of ‘clusters’ of pollen found. This appears to represent a phase of stability in the catchment with lower water tables allowing the growth of a drier (fen carr) woodland and an absence of constant flooding. This phase is mirrored by a reduction in wetland herbs (largely Cyperaceae). There is some evidence of other woodland growth with Ulmus and a single record of Fraxinus (ash). Tilia continues to be represented with a mixture of degraded and non-degraded pollen grains. This indicates that some lime woodland remained on the drier areas of the river catchment. Since Tilia produces relatively small numbers of pollen and is insect pollinated, it is likely that it is under-represented in the pollen spectra (Anderson 1973; Tauber 1965). The growth of more closed carr woodland on the Avon floodplain probably had a significant effect in reducing pollen input from the surrounding region on to the mire. Although reduced in numbers, many taxa remain and Plantago lanceolata and other typical anthropogenic pollen types are present. Cereal pollen and associated taxa present in the previous zone are largely absent. This may be interpreted as a real decrease in arable cultivation or, more likely, that the generally poorly dispersed pollen taxa have been ‘filtered out’ by the now substantial woodland growing on the river floodplain, but a presence of pasture is substantiated The substantial hiatus between zone Durrington: 2 and Durrington: 3 is not uncommon in alluvial sediments (e.g. Burrin and Scaife 1984; Scaife and Burrin 1992). The top of Durrington: 2 may have been a land surface with perhaps seasonally waterlogged pasture on which the Roman pottery (at 1.15m) and charcoal (at 1.12m) was deposited. There is no visible effect of a fire on the vegetation/pollen spectra, nor was any evidence of pedogenesis noted in the sediments. Pedogenesis would be arrested if the floodplain remained wet or waterlogged. Durrington: 4 (0.90-0.68m) There was a return to an open floodplain environment with the demise of alder carr. Small numbers of Sphagnum spores may indicate localised NEOLITHIC AND LATER PREHISTORIC LANDSCAPE OF THE AVON VALLEY 233 growth although taxa represented are likely to be those from the less acid end of the range (eg. S. plumulosum) and flushed habitats. It can be noted that such a community of meadowsweet and sedges is present today in localised areas of the River Avon floodplain. There is also a corresponding increase in dry land herbs and a marked increase in taxa indicative of arable cultivation (cereal type, Polygonaceae etc.) and ruderals (especially Plantago spp.). Pteridium aquilinum (bracken) reaches its highest values in this pollen profile and as such, the whole zone is indicative of an open landscape showing the effects of intense and widespread land use (arable, pasture and possibly wet meadow pasture on the floodplain) in the local area. It seems likely that this zone is medieval, reflecting a period of intense land use. RELATIONSHIP OF THE ARCHAEOLOGY TO THE SEDIMENTS The floodplain stratigraphy and biostratigraphical record will reflect important human activity in the area and especially that of the nearby monuments of Durrington Walls (Wainwright 1971) and Woodhenge (Evans and Wainwright 1979). Human activity can have a profound impact on the fluvial hydrology of river catchments (Evans 1992) and in many cases is responsible for varying degrees of alluviation. The sediment architecture of river valleys show that increased erosion and sedimentation occur in response to prehistoric human activities such as increased agricultural pressure (Burrin and Scaife 1988). In contrast, during periods of interfluve soil stability caused by woodland growth, sediment input to river systems is absent or markedly diminished. Thus major periods with littke human intervention in the landscape, such as the Mesolithic, may not be represented in the sequence. Consequently, lithostratigraphical units, or parcels of sediments (sensu Needham 1991) may be separated by hiatuses spanning considerable time. On this part of the “Avon floodplain the lower energy levels of overbank deposition is confirmed by the semi- organic character of the sediments, indicating im situ deposition of organic matter on a herb rich floodplain or wet meadow. It is clear that a number of natural and anthropogenic factors are responsible for the variations noted. It is unlikely that there is a direct causal relationship between the Durrington: 1 deposits and the impact of the essentially hunting and gathering communities of the Upper Palaeolithic and very early Mesolithic periods. It is, however, clear from other studies throughout Britain and Europe that the initiation of organic and inorganic sedimentation can occur at this time. Evidence for similar late Devensian/early Flandrian conditions has been provided by Evans (1971) at Durrington Walls, and been noted at a number of southern English sites (cf. Scaife 1980; 1982; 1987; Scaife and Burrin 1992). Thus, we can see the pollen fluctuations of Durrington: | as reflecting natural environmental changes. The cessation of sedimentation at the top of Durrington: 1 can be viewed as a response to either increasing soil stability caused by the dominance of deciduous woodland on the interfluves, or through the drier, continental-type climate of the Boreal period (c. 8500-6000 BC). It is, however, clear that during the hiatus between Durrington: 1 and Durrington: 2, essentially representing the Mesolithic period, that there was major environmental change. The herb dominated Durrington: 2 suggests a Neolithic or post-Neolithic date since it is generally accepted that cereal cultivation arrived with the Neolithic at c. 4000 cal BC. Unfortunately we have no absolute dates for this zone, and as such we must compare and contrast this data set with studies of pollen and mollusca at Durrington Walls (Evans 1971) and Woodhenge (Evans and Jones 1979) that provide data on the local Neolithic. The molluscan data from the pre-henge environment at Durrington Walls shows a phase of prehistoric woodland clearance and cultivation of possible middie Neolithic date (Evans 1971, 335). Pollen data (Dimbleby in Evans 1971, 334) is superficially discordant with the molluscan evidence in showing open vegetation dominated not by grasses but by ferns and bracken attributed to non-contemporaneous pollen and _ spore assemblages. In view of the extremely low pollen sum analysed, and the poor pollen-preserving conditions of chalk soil, it is perhaps more relevant to consider the molluscan evidence rather than the impoverished pollen data from Durrington Walls. The pollen record reveals some evidence of hazel woodland prior to clearance and anthropogenic activity. The open landscape postulated by Evans compares favourably with the evidence of Durrington: 2 noted above. This complete open- ness of the landscape during the Neolithic can now be regarded as unusual for this period (Allen 1997) 234 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE since many analyses (pollen and mollusca) show that the outer fringes of chalkands remained to some extent wooded until the Bronze Age, and there is widespread evidence for a phase of later Neolithic woodland regeneration (Scaife 1988; Evans 1992). It is concluded that Durrington: 2 could easily be correlated with this extensive evidence of Neolithic activity in the area. If so, the pollen evidence clearly indicates the prevalence of grassland which may be attributed to pasture, and also cereal cropping both of which held scrub colonisation at bay. It is likely that extensive woodland clearance resulted in locally high water tables, reduced evapotranspiration and increased surface run-off, all of which contributed to the re- initiation of sedimentation in the Avon valley. The temporal span of zone Durrington: 2 is unknown. It possibly spans only middle and late Neolithic activity, although it seems more plausible that continued land use into the Bronze Age was maintaining conditions in which peat accumulated on the floodplain. The major change in floodplain vegetation from open, wet sedge fen communities to drier alder carr is interesting since this apparently occurred during the Roman (or post Roman) period, representing a period of drier floodplain conditions which allowed the succession of carr woodland. This would indicate that the floodplain had standing water for only two or three months of the winter. This reverted to sedge fen but with meadow and fen herbs dominated by Filipendula ulmaria (Meadowsweet). This change may have been through natural causes or by clearance of the valley carr wood. FOLLY BOTTOM by Michael F. Allen The pipeline trench traversed the large dry valley of Folly Bottom, incised into the Middle Chalk of Salisbury Plain to the north-west of Amesbury. Only a shallow colluvial profile was revealed and comprised a gravel fan in a weakly calcareous dark silty clay matrix which overlay late Pleistocene/ Devensian Chalk meltwater deposits and sealed a relict tree hollow containing a reddish-brown silty clay loam. Stratigraphy An irregular pocket of dark, reddish-brown, mottled silty clay loam with occasional flint nodules was recorded beneath the colluvium, 134 (Site 8, Figure &). It contained charcoal flecks throughout and was possibly a tree-throw hollow which contained evidence of a relict mature palaeo- argillic soil. It was sealed by a gravel fan comprised of medium to large flint nodules in a dark silty loam matrix (133) situated on the edge of the valley floor (Allen 1992, fig. 4.3 and cf Allen 1988, fig. 6.5) and which originated from valley side erosion. A thin silty, stonefree calcareous layer (174) sealed the gravel fan, but terminated downslope. This probably represents the erosion of fine-grained material, possibly as a slurry. The section was carefully cleaned but no artefacts were recovered. A series of samples was, however, taken for molluscan analysis, but produced very few shells; all species were typically open country. Discussion The basal tree-throw hollow indicates the presence of former argillic brown earths/brown earths and the presence of charcoal may indicate deliberate felling perhaps associated with the Neolithic barrow of Longbarrow Clump on Bulford Down. The overlying flint gravel horizon indicates high energy erosion. Augering showed that this deposit extended for almost 80m along the axis of the valley, as well as down the valley side. This may, therefore, represent the coarse channel deposit of a temporary winterbourne, or high energy erosion down the valley axis (Bell and Boardman 1992) This erosion was probably responsible for truncating and stripping out any previous, possibly prehistoric, colluvial deposits which may have been transported further down the valley axis. By analogy with other colluvial deposits in Wessex (Allen 1992) it is plausible that this belongs to the later prehistoric period. The lack of colluvium does not therefore necessarily represent a general lack of erosion and long term land-use. PART 3: EARLS FARM DOWN (SITES 9-19) ARCHAEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND The palimpsest of archaeological features on Earl’s Farm Down (Figure 8) forms part of a wider pattern of linear ditches and trackways of Bronze Age, Iron Age, and Romano-British date which extends over NEOLITHIC AND LATER PREHISTORIC LANDSCAPE OF THE AVON VALLEY 235 f__/ The Pennings KEY ~ Route of pipeline Wf Edge oj spoil j_--—, y PEs 7 oR Mo ip 75 ia oma 4 E = Ring ditch Edge of easement «=~ * Site (numbered) Archaeological features Cart ruts (Scale for A B & C) 100 Ss sm Site 18 Fig. 8 Location of sites of Earl’s Farm Down much of the eastern part of Salisbury Plain and into western Hampshire. Features known from aerial photography include ‘Wessex linears’, defined as lengths of ditches running long distances across country, sometimes in pairs, often approximately 1km apart; and ‘local’ linears, which do not seem to form part of major systems and often extend from, and sometimes link Iron Age enclosures (Palmer 1984, 10). ‘Wessex linears’ appear to be a largely Bronze Age phenomenon, representing large-scale organization of the landscape. Figure 1 shows a much-simplified version of 236 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE 124.95m.0.D. East facing 124.92m.0.D. West facing Mollusc sample US West facing Mollusc sample 124.94m.0.D. 125.13m.0.D. Key: ee Clay loam | | Silty loam Chalky loam features known from aerial survey and as earthworks. The long linear ditch running for part of its length parallel to the A303 is the Earl’s Farm Down linear (Wiltshire SMR no. SU14SE745), a Wessex linear which appears to run parallel to one to the south (SMR no. SU14SE746). An extensive and Silty clay loam Chalky silt . IP.) . I Ashy silt oS es Worked flint Fig. 9 Sections across ditches on Earl’s Farm Down #4 Chalk rubble Flint nodules complicated field system in this area is not shown. Earl’s Farm Down lies just outside the survey area of the Danebury environs project (Palmer 1984, map), but the Earl’s Farm Down linear runs into the study area for that research, where its most easterly recorded point is just to the south of NEOLITHIC AND LATER PREHISTORIC LANDSCAPE OF THE AVON VALLEY 237 Beacon Hill (Palmer 1984, map, SU 212 422). Earl’s Farm Down itself lies within the study area of the Wessex Linear Ditch Project (Bradley et al. 1994), which used a combination of excavation, augering and geophysical survey to investigate cropmarks in this area. The results of this work appear to have isolated a number of trackways, which, it is suggested, relate to the Iron Age and Romano- British settlement, leaving a pattern of linear ditches which can be compared with other patterns in the area (Bradley et al. 1994). LATER PREHISTORIC AND ROMANO-BRITISH FEATURES The pipeline revealed a number of features already known from cropmarks and recorded on the Sites and Monuments Record to the south of the A303 and parallel to the Allington track. The cropmark (SMR no. 5U145E742) crosses the line of the route, but no feature was observed to correspond with it. The most westerly feature observed was the edge of a ring-ditch, Site 13 (Figure 8), belonging to a known, ploughed-out disc barrow (SMR no. 5U145E675), lying to the south-east of a surviving barrow (SMR no. 5U145E674). The ring- ditch lay outside the line of the pipe trench, but was revealed by the topsoil strip. It was therefore recorded and its exact location noted, but it was not excavated. The remainder of the cropmarks were exposed along the section of pipeline running parallel to the Allington track. A number of previously unknown features were also identified in addition to the cropmarks which, in some places, were obscured by later features (Figure 8). The principal feature was the Earl’s Farm Down linear ditch (SMR no. 5U145E745) which was sectioned (Site 15). The cropmark evidence clearly shows a ditch bordered by two banks, although no evidence of the banks was seen in the excavated section (Figure 9; ditch 3). Small quantities of animal bone and Romano- British pottery were recovered from the upper fills and two flint flakes were recovered from the primary fill, but there was not enough evidence to suggest at what date the ditch originated, although it is assumed to be of Bronze Age date on analogy with similar features throughout Wessex. Parallel to this major boundary ditch were two linear features, 1 on the south side and 14 on the north. Both were undated, shallow slots (Figure 9), their function and relationship to the Earl’s Farm Down ditch unknown. Leading south from the Earl’s Farm Down linear ditch was a substantial feature, ditch 7 (Figures 8 and 9), which contained one sherd of possible later Bronze Age pottery. Although partially obscured by later features, including numerous cart ruts, it was possible to discern its alignment, which corresponds to a linear cropmark (SMR no. 778). The fills contained small amounts of animal bone and flint, and a sherd of probably Late Bronze Age pottery. Two large features, ditches or scoops, 50 and 72, are undated, but appear to post-date ditch 7; they were both 1.5m in depth The other major excavated feature was a V- shaped ditch, 40 (Site i9, Figures 8 and 9), identified as cropmark SMR no. SU14SE746. It is 600m to the south of SMR no. 5U14SE745, and runs parallel with it. Two sherds of possibly later Bronze Age pottery were recovered from the primary fill with a Roman coin and sherds of Iron Age and Roman pottery in the upper fill. A lynchet, 42, running southwards from ditch 40, appears to coincide with cropmark SMR no. SU14SE777. The excavated section produced two sherds of third to fourth century Roman pottery. OTHER FEATURES The remainder of the archaeological features on Earl’s Farm Down included minor ditches (Sites 8 and 18, Figure 8), the alignment of which could not always be ascertained before trenching, as they were usually obscured by large deposits of silty loams. Thus they were mainly seen in section. Dating of these features is uncertain, but is likely to include Romano-British as well as possibly later prehistoric features. Other sites observed on Earl’s Farm Down comprised tracks and cart ruts, containing post- medieval and modern finds, details of which are contained in archive. FINDS by Lorraine Mepham Just 11 sherds (73g) of pottery were recovered from the ditches on Earl’s Farm Down. A small fragment of a flat-topped or bevelled rim sherd in a fabric containing abundant amounts of flint temper was recovered frem ditch 7 (Site 16). The vessel may date to the Late Bronze Age though the sherd is too small to be confident of a more precise date. The primary fill of ditch 40 (Site 19) produced two sherds in different sandy fabrics, one fine and one 238 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE coarse, of first millennium BC date. These are very small and have no diagnostic attributes and so could date from the Late Bronze Age through to the latest pre-Roman Iron Age. The upper fill of this ditch contained rim sherds from a carinated bowl, dated elsewhere to the fifth century BC (Cunliffe 1984, fig. 6.54-6.55). The upper fill of ditch 40 also produced two undated sandy fabric coarseware sherds and a tiny fragment of first-second century samian, along with avery worn, illegible Roman coin. Ditch 3 (Site 15), the Earl’s Farm Down linear, produced two sherds in a coarse sandy ware, similar to a fabric from ditch 40, from its upper fill and lynchet 42 (Site 19) produced a sherd of fine, white New Forest colour- coated ware and one of fine, micaceous Oxfordshire ware, both of third to fourth century date. One body sherd of Black Burnished ware was recovered from a layer on Site 18. Other finds consist of 230 generally undiagnostic struck flints, amongst which are 19 cores and core fragments, 4 scrapers and 9 edge retouched flakes, and a very small amount (37g) of burnt flint. ANIMAL BONE by Sheila Hamilton-Dyer Very littlke bone was recovered and only 19 fragments were scanned from three probably Late Bronze Age ditches (ditches 3, 7 and 40). These comprise 2 horse, 3 sheep/goat, | pig bone together with 13 unidentified fragments from hoofed animals. Ditch 40 (context 39) contained part of the jaw of a small female horse. The sieved samples contained mostly amphibian and small mammal remains; the bones and teeth of a shrew, mouse and voles were present. Samples from the lower fill of ditch 3 (context 19/20) and the upper fill of ditch 40 (context 38) contained common eel (Anguilla anguilla) vertebrae, the only fish recovered from the assemblage. LAND MOLLUSCA by Michael 7. Allen and S.F. Wyles The two large linear ditches excavated on Earl’s Down Farm (ditches 3 and 40; figure 9) were sampled for Mollusca by the excavator. Although there was no dating evidence from the lower fills, it is thought that both ditches date from the later Bronze Age. The aims of the analysis were to determine the environment and land use of the area into which the ditches were cut and existed, and to attempt to determine their function. A further aim was to see if the environment and land use determined by mollusc analysis was compatible with the assumed late Bronze Age date of the ditches. Standard methods of molluscan analysis were employed as outlined by Evans (1972, 44-5). Mollusc nomenclature follows Walden (1976). The results are given in Tables 3 and 4, and for ditch 3 as a histogram of relative abundance with Pupilla muscorum being calculated over and above the remaining assemblage (see below). Results The assemblages from both ditches typically comprised open country species dominated by Pupilla muscorum, which is consistently high (over 80% of one sample). Pupilla often occurs in large numbers and is known to have been abundant in the area in the Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age at Durrington Walls (Evans 1971; 1972, 148), Earl’s Farm Down (Kerney 1967), and the barrows on King Barrow Ridge (Allen and Wyles 1994). PR muscorum favours areas bare of vegetation such as patches of broken ground induced by sheep grazing on grassy chalk slopes but also the ditch micro- environments themselves where patchy vegetation and small actively eroding areas of bare chalky soil may occur. The super-abundance of this one species creates problems in interpretation as it distorts and masks the relative and absolute trends within the remaining assemblage (Thomas 1985, 134). In order to lessen the obscuring effect of a super- abundant species histograms can be plotted in absolute numbers but in this case the numbers of shells were both too high and too variable. For these reasons Pupilla was calculated as_ relative percentages over and above the remaining assemblage and thus the relative trends of other species could be observed. The diagram produced in this way for ditch 3 (Table 3) typifies the sequence and is published in (Figure 10), while that for ditch 40 (Table 4) is available in archive. Both ditches have similar assemblages so are discussed together. The assemblages, excluding Pupilla, are typical of very open environments and are dominated by Vallonia costata (up to 80%). The predominance of V costata over its cogener Vv excentrica is indicative of short-turfed grazed downland. Trichia hispida and Helicella itala have a constant but low presence throughout the NEOLITHIC AND LATER PREHISTORIC LANDSCAPE OF THE AVON VALLEY 239 Table 3. Molluscs from Earl’s Farm Down ditch 3 Feature Ditch 3 Gontextey win cin enn ae 20------------ 19/20 19 18 --------------- 5/6 --------------- 4 Sample 16 1S 14 13 12 11 Os 8) 8 7 6 Si 4 3 2 1 Depth (cm) 150-160 140-150 130-140 120-130 110-120 100-110 87-100 78-87 70-78 60-70 ~—-50-60 ~—s 40-50 30-40 ~—S 20-30 -~—«*'10-20 0-10 Wt (g) 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 ©1000 815 LAND Pomatias elegans (Miller) ] 2 - - 1 ] - 4 2 2 2 3 3 4 Cochlicopa lubrica (Miller) - - - - - 1 1 2 1 - - 3 Cochlicopa spp. 1 - 1 il 3 4 4 5 3 3 2 3 1 - Vertigo pygmaea (Draparnaud) - - - 1 2 3 1 1 2 1 2 Vertigo moulinsiana (Dupuy). - - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - Pupilla muscorum (Linnaeus) 68 99 125 73 44-98 192 570 794 741 558 259 141 114 79 60 Vallonia costata (Miller) 34 337) 162 24 13 43 98 64 79 70 76 28 28 22 14 1 Vallonia excentrica Sterki 7 14 11 2 14 52 20 46 36 24 9 9 25 20 8 Vallonia spp. - - - - - 8 7 8 6 7 6 4 - - Punctum pygmaeum (Draparnaud) - - - - - 1 6 | 4 1 1 — Vitrina pellucida (Miller) - - - Nesovitrea hammonis (Strom) 2 2 Limacidae 2 2 2 - - Ceciltoides acicula (Miller) - 1 - 2 1 2 28 Cochlodina laminata (Montagu) - 1 1 - - Clausilia bidentata (Strom) 2 - 1 - Candidula intersecta (Poiret) - 6 1 - Cernuella virgata (Da Costa) - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 Helicella wala (Linnaeus) 10 5 12 1 3 ll 17) » 40 24 22 20 16 10 19 9 4 Tnrchia hispida (Linnaeus) 11 16 23 2 4 14 52 14 24 24 14 17 1 2 - Ananta arbustorum (Linnaeus) - - - - - - - - - Helicigona lapicida (Linnaeus) - - Cepaea/Ananta spp. - - - - - - - 2 - - Taxa 7 6 6 6 6 6 9 11 10 12 11 8 9 8 9 TOTAL 132 169 234 103 69 181 432 729 989 919 709 341 205 190 131 81 assemblage. These are species also found in short- turfed grassland. The absence of the shade-loving catholic species often found in longer grassland, such as Carychium tridentatum, indicates a well- established short-turfed (trampled or grazed) grassland, and the homogeneity of the local open landscape. It may also suggests the absence of long vegetation colonising the ditch itself (see Evans 1972, 322-4). The virtual absence of shade-loving species indicates that the ditches were cut into a pre- existing well established open _ short-turfed grassland. The assemblages are both specialised and mature ones. The relatively high numbers of shells retrieved, together with the absence of evidence for long vegetation within the ditches, indicate a lack of stabilisation and a constant slow process of infilling within the ditches. The assemblages therefore seem broadly to represent the same general land-use throughout the history of the - ditches although there are slight fluctuations within the mollusc assemblages (Tables 3 and 4; Figure 10). Minor fluctuations within the assemblages have been attributed to sub-zones within each ditch (see Figure 10). These subzones, although based on the molluscan assemblages also correspond to the tripartite ditch fills (cf. Evans 1972, 322-8; Limbrey 1975, 290-300; see Figure 10). The subzones seem to reflect localised changes in the intensity of land use, particular to grazing. The ditches were dug into, and existed in, a short- turfed grass downland (sub-zone 1) indicating long established open (grazed) downland prior to their construction. During the natural sedimentation of the ditches, increased, or more intensive grazing (possibly even over grazing) and the creation of bare patches of soil (Pupilla and Pomatias) is evident (sub-zone 2). Finally, grazing pressure is reduced and a slightly longer grassland sward established, but with hints of localised and _ possibly intermittent arable activity (sub-zone 3). This occurs from at least the medieval period and later and may be compatible with the establishment and use of the Romano-British field systems visible on aerial photographs. Conclusion The land-use of the surrounding areas seems to be one of open pasture throughout the history of the ditches with a little arable activity coming in late on. The paucity of shade-loving species from these sequences indicates that not only had clearance occurred some considerable time prior to ditch infilling, but also that the grazed downland was long established. This would therefore not be THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE 240 € YINp Wolf UDISDIP ISN]OW!W OT ‘sve peoOjd you esnaj2e sapsosjjoagD 1 ae Sel le on aol a ae oe! al ol % OO oo 00z oor 0% 0 0 02 0 0€ 008 ov 0 0 0 0 puejssei5 I pojin}-110YS eS + Alisuaqul Sulzeib vA +e poseaiou] | + + abel E | jUa}IWI9}UI pue € + Bulzeip SAISUAJUI SSaT / a] 7 “al al al “el ma! ai al ab a ds sv oh iN iy wy 29 8.9 56 of Se ° ® »* ae ee ea ey’ o < ¢€ . 9 2 * 2° e ot or ne We ON OO. ge youg ° } @ 2 eg c) 9° Ly » > 7 @ 3° 9 sd Oe C) » » % vy 2 oy 9 °° ® SS ¢ e .d x) as .y C) ° ° saijow ul yydeg NEOLITHIC AND LATER PREHISTORIC LANDSCAPE OF THE AVON VALLEY Table 4. Molluscs from Earl’s Farm Down Ditch 40 Feature (Contexts Sl ne iat 39 Sample 30 29 28 27 Depth (cm) 120-130 110-120 100-110 90-100 Wt (g) 1000 1000 1000 1000 LAND Pomatias elegans (Miller) + + 3 + Cochlicopa lubrica (Miiller) - - 2 - Cochlicopa spp. - - 9 8 Vertigo pygmaea (Draparnaud) 1 - - - Vertigo moulinsiana (Dupuy). - - - - Pupilla muscorum (Linnaeus) 11 20 2S 195, Vallonia costata (Miller) 1 6 190 369 Vallonia excentrica Sterki 4 Z 17 29 Vallonia spp. - - 12 14 Punctum pygmaeum (Draparnaud) - - - - Vitrina pellucida (Miller) - - - 6 Nesovitrea hammonis (Strém) - - - - Limacidae - - 3 - Cecilioides acicula (Miller) - - - - Cochlodina laminata (Montagu) — - - - - Clausilia bidentata (Strom) - - - 1 Candidula intersecta (Poiret) - - - - Cernuella virgata (Da Costa) - - - - Helicella itala (Linnaeus) 4 4 38 44 Trichia hispida (Linnaeus) - 1 13 12 Arianta arbustorum (Linnaeus) - - - - Helicigona lapicida (Linnaeus) - + - - Cepaea/Arianta spp. - + - - Taxa 5 5 8 8 TOTAL 21 33 399 678 241 Ditch 40 So Ra Soy Re eS ees Oe tet tee BR ea ane eee ee ney 26: 325) 240 93), 22-2 20, 19 18 80-90 70-80 65-70 60-65 50-60 40-50 30-40 20-30 10-20 1000 1000 822 880 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 Ac. BRS Ae ME! gehen BIG aS je ce 3 = ’ BREACH sh Site a She ane Le MONer SPT Sie 6B I” mere é Av insis: Ghar 3y~, Ae) 2 289 188 110 373 597 379 389 288 313 191. 67 63 233 230 47 41° 25 19 52 19: 14 53, 57 3, 38S 28,20 ames : 15-9 ; z : : : Ie egg, es : : < = sf 1 2 4 s 2 = ee : : Dig SLAW SARS ey 4 : : : : . l Sim noe one8 : 1 pe : in ge Bahan SNe. 05 1S 28) 625) oe Sees De, eet De een NOT ee 3h DA : 2 : E geet. ieee A eee | O:: TAS One Tomas * oir pio Aion rae 631 303 205 760 999 523 524 410 394 incompatible with the suggested later Bronze Age date for these features. Certainly other landscape studies in the area have pointed to an open landscape with a mixture of pasture and arable land-use at this time (Allen and Wyles 1993; 1994; Evans 1971; Evans and Jones 1979; Entwistle 1994). In view of some of the recent research on the chalk downlands of southern England (Allen 1994; 1997) it is relatively unusual to record such a long history of uninterrupted pasture and lack of tllage. It does however, confirm suggestions made for the _ Stonehenge area (Allen 1997). If, however, these large linear ditches had banks on both sides then the assemblages may represent, for instance, the grazed grassy bank rather than an arable landscape, through which the ditch system passed. Indeed, recent observations (Entwistle pers. comm.) indicate that this feature may exist as a double- banked ditch further to the south. It is, nevertheless, more likely that the short-turfed grassland was much more widespread than in the immediate vicinity. The consistent use of the area as pasture may indicate that this was a well established and managed downland farm and that the ditches were more than simple field boundaries to retain stock. The ditches may comprise a part of Bradley’s ‘ranch boundaries’ of the Wessex Downland (Bradley 1978, 47; Bowen 1978; Bowen and Fowler 1978; Bradley et al. 1994). Bradley suggests that the instigation of these boundaries in the later Bronze Age reflects either a change in the economy from a revival of cereal farming to a greater emphasis on livestock, or an attempt to secure a_ better integration of arable and pasture, or a desire to demarcate territories possibly in connection with increased competition and even raiding (Bradley 1978, 117). These are not mutually exclusive hypotheses. If agro-pastoral integration was one of the objectives then it is likely that arable areas were not adjacent to both the ditches. 242 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE PART 4: DISCUSSION by Michael 7. Allen and Rosamund M.F. Cleal The investigations conducted along the pipeline are individually not necessarily of great importance, excepting the pollen sequence from the Avon Valley. Nevertheless, the intervention provides a ‘sample slice’ of chalk landscape (cf. Allen and Powell 1996) essentially avoiding all major archaeological sites and features that might normally be investigated within a_ research programme. This rather arbitrary selection of sites provides an opportunity to review the non- monumental nature of, especially, the Neolithic to Bronze Age periods north of Amesbury. ENVIRONMENT AND ECONOMY by Michael Ff. Allen The pollen analysis of the Avon Valley deposits has undoubtedly produced a major prehistoric sequence, the full interpretation of which is limited by the lack of a series of radiocarbon dates. Nevertheless, the data provided by this analysis combined with molluscan evidence from a number of sites in the region make a_ significant contribution to our understanding of the activities of past populations on the Amesbury downland. Mesolithic The undated pollen spectrum from the Avon Valley at Durrington produced a major early Holocene sequence. Apart from depicting a typical but short late glacial sequence it provides the basis for understanding the development of the river valley floodplain and, therefore, the potential for human activity within and adjacent to the floodplain. Without dating for the pollen sequence, however, no detailed archaeological commentary is possible to augment this information — palynological investigation of the Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods is therefore in archive. Needless to say, the valley was an important topographic feature of the environment in all periods, acting as a communication route (either on water or within the valley), providing access to water, and to local riverbank and floodplain vegetation, including resources for food, shelter, fire-making and the like. The pollen sequence spanning the Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods does not seem to show any direct anthropogenic intrusion into the natural vegetation sequence, but there are defined vegetation fluctuations within this zone. The lack of such activity is confirmed, to some extent, by both the presence of assumed Mesolithic woodland, as evidenced by the mollusca at Durrington Walls (Evans 1971) and Woodhenge (Evans and Jones 1979), and also by the lack of Mesolithic elements in the large flint assemblages from Durrington Walls (Wainwright and Longworth 1971) and from the Stonehenge Environs Project as a whole (Richards 1990; Cleal et al. 1995). Contrary to this, there are indications at Stonehenge that localised clearance occurred in the Mesolithic (Scaife 1995; Allen 1995). A pit and postholes from the Stonehenge car park all produced pine charcoal with Mesolithic radiocarbon dates (Vatcher and Vatcher 1973; Allen 1994; 1995), and gave rise to indications of more formal activity in the Mesolithic period (Allen and Gardiner 2002). Further clearance is also recorded about 16km north-west at Strawberry Hill, West Lavington (Hedges et al. 1992; Allen 1994). Similar evidence has not yet been forthcoming from the Downs around Amesbury, though it has been observed elsewhere in southern England (Allen and Gardiner 2002; Allen 2002). Neolithic The pollen sequence from the valley indicates a major hiatus and Scaife suggests that the later Mesolithic and earlier Neolithic sedimentary elements were lost through erosion. Although the pollen sequence remains undated, Scaife argues that the inception of a cleared and tilled landscape could be of Neolithic to Bronze Age date. We might, however, envisage this as mid to later Neolithic activity, in view of the significant molluscan evidence from nearby monuments and the general reconstructions of the landscape suggested by Allen (1997). Molluscan evidence for widespread clearance in the earlier-middle Neolithic includes that from the pre-bank occupation at Durrington Walls (associated with earlier Neolithic Windmill Hill pottery with radiocarbon dates from charcoal mainly between 3500 and 3000 cal BC (Allen 1997, fig. 2)), and the buried soil at Stonehenge (Allen 1997). These examples indicate that open established grassland conditions and arable land existed in the middle Neolithic. Similar evidence includes the later Neolithic molluscan faunas from NEOLITHIC AND LATER PREHISTORIC LANDSCAPE OF THE AVON VALLEY 243 the buried soils and ditches of barrows on the King Barrow Ridge (Allen and Wyles 1994), colluvium and a pit at Figheldean (Allen and Wyles 1993), the ditch at Woodhenge (Evans and Jones 1979) and the results of the Stonehenge Environs Project (Allen et al. 1990). These data show that fairly large tracts of land were cleared in the Early Neolithic, and that by the later Neolithic the area was a largely cleared landscape (cf Allen er al. 1990, fig. 154; Allen 1997, plates 3 and 4). This process probably followed initial localised clearance on the downland, but evidently not in the Avon valley. Bronze Age During the Bronze Age the Stonehenge environs existed as a large area of pasture and fields with large-scale woodland clearance. Molluscan evidence from the Figheldean ring-ditch supports this view and indicates highly xerophilous (i.e. open dry) conditions exemplified by the record of Truncatellina cylindrica, a species now extinct in Wiltshire (Evans 1972, 140), from the Bronze Age ditch fills. This rare species has been recorded particularly in the Durrington locality in the third and early second millennia BC. It occurred in the middle to Late Neolithic pre-bank soil at Durrington Walls (Evans 1971) and Woodhenge (Evans and Jones 1971), Neolithic fills of the Stonehenge Cursus (Allen 1997), the later Neolithic buried soil beneath the King Barrows (Allen and Wyles 1994) and buried soil beneath the Bronze Age barrows on Earl’s Farm Down (Kerney 1964; 1967) and Boscombe Down (Kennard and Woodward 1931). Occurrence of the species is seen to be both spatially and temporally controlled. It was not recorded within the Stonehenge Environs Project (Allen et al. 1990), Stonehenge ditch (Evans 1984) or Wilsford Shaft (Bell 1991) and may indicate long term, well established clearance. The existence of a large area of established open downland covering King Barrow Ridge - Figheldean — Boscombe Down, in at least the early second millennium suggests initial clearance and -establishment of open downland prior to this (i.e. earlier-middle Neolithic). Perhaps this open landscape is recorded in the Avon Valley pollen diagram (Durrington: 2). This long established open landscape may also provide the opportunity for large-scale erosion from open downland, resulting in the truncation of early deposits in the local valleys and the deposition of coarse gravel fans (e.g. at Folly Bottom). Truncation of the original soils from these locations may have occurred as early as the middle Neolithic, when, it is argued, the inception of larger-scale clearance ocurred (Allen 1997). By the later Bronze Age this open, well- established, landscape was extensively farmed, sub- divided and defined by the linear ditch systems (Earls Farm Down; Bradley et al. 1994). These boundaries may also have separated different land- uses as well as demarcating ownership or territorial rights. Romano-British Localised alder carr in the Avon valley floodplain suggests that it was drier than previously, thus enabling woody vegetation to develop. Exploitation of the area seems to have been focused on the surrounding downland. It is only in the medieval period that the use of the floodplain itself for grazing or agriculture became established, being dry at this period. CONCLUSIONS by Rosamund M.7. Cleal There is little archaeological evidence for activity in the vicinity of Durrington Walls before the Neolithic. In the earlier Neolithic there was unenclosed occupation on the high ground to the west of the river in the area later occupied by Durrington Walls and Woodhenge, and a long barrow at Longbarrow Clump, to the east of the river (Figure 1). The extent and nature of this early settlement is largely unknown, as the evidence survives only beneath the extant banks of the two later Neolithic henge monuments and as redeposited material within the later Neolithic assemblages. The pre-bank occupation at Durrington Walls has been dated by three radiocarbon determinations, calibrated to the second half of the fourth millennium BC (3500- 3000 cal BC; Richards 1990, fig. 156). The material from Woodhenge does not have any associated radiocarbon determination, but is likely to be of similar date. Whether the earlier Neolithic pottery from these contexts represents long term use of the area, or episodic use over half a millennium or more, it is this earlier Neolithic occupation which has been tentatively associated with woodland clearance, indicated by the molluscan evidence from beneath the northern sector of the bank at Durrington Walls (Evans 1971). A long period of open conditions in the area is also attested by the molluscs from 244 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Woodhenge, where there is evidence for open country before the construction of the bank and throughout the secondary fill of the ditch. The large, well-known henge monument of Durrington Walls appears to have been in use in the period c. 2800-2100 cal BC, while that of the neighbouring Woodhenge probably falls within the second half of the third millennium (2500-2000 cal BC; Burleigh et al. 1972; Evans and Wainwright, 1979; Richards 1990, table 137 and fig. 156). Other activity within the area is indicated by the following: e Four pits and a probably later Neolithic ditch at Larkhill Married Quarters (Wainwright 1971), immediately south-west of Durrington Walls, containing Grooved Ware, struck flint, bone artefacts, animal bone and a single limpet shell. e Structure A: 19 pits or postholes covering an area approximately 18m by 11m, 64m to the south of the henge bank excavated during the main campaign of excavations Durrington Walls in 1966-7 (Wainwright and Longworth 1971, 44—7). e Structure B: a shallow ditch terminal, which cut an artificial hollow, produced plain body sherds and fragments probably of later Neolithic date from its upper fill. It was interpreted as possibly part of a ring- ditch similar to those excavated by Mrs Cunnington to the south (Wainwright and Longworth 1971, 47). e Four pits in the garden of Woodlands, 274m to the south-east of the centre of Woodhenge, which contained Grooved Ware, struck flint, part of a Graig Lwyd axe (Group VII), bone artefacts and animal bone, antler, and marine shells (Wainwright and Longworth 1971, 48). e Three small Grooved Ware sherds found with a cremation in a pit within the ring-ditch Circle 2, south of Woodhenge. The ring-ditch, which is interpreted as one of four ploughed-out barrows, appeared to cut a rectilinear setting of stakeholes (Cunnington 1929; Wainwright and Longworth 1971, 3). Grooved Ware was also recovered from the ditches of Circles 3 and 4 (Cunnington 1929). e A series of small flint mines was discovered to the north-east of Durrington Walls during trenching operations through the gardens of the houses to the north of Larkhill Road. Three shallow pits and three pit-shafts were recorded. The flint was of poor quality and extraction was abandoned, presumably fairly quickly. A chisel arrowhead of Clarke’s type D (Clarke 1934) lay on the base of pit-shaft 5, indicating a later Neolithic date for the pits (Booth and Stone 1952). ¢ Grooved Ware was found redeposited in Ditch A, a ditch almost certainly of Middle Bronze Age date immediately to the east of the Packway enclosure (Wainwright and Longworth 1971, 310). e Four plain sherds of Grooved Ware recovered at Totterdown from spoil thrown out from a pit that contained a crouched skeleton (Wainwright and Longworth 1971, 293). Further afield, approximately 1.6km to the south-east of Woodhenge, Grooved Ware was recovered from Ratfyn, Amesbury. Excavation revealed four pits, three of which were considered to be contemporaneous. Only one pit contained pottery, and also a total of 519 flints, a scallop shell, and the bones of red deer, roebuck, cattle and pig. It is also notable for a single brown bear scapula (Stone 1935). A recent radiocarbon date indicates that deposition of the material was probably contemporary with the latest use of Woodhenge, rather than with the main use of Durrington Walls, as its calibrated range lies around the turn of the third millennium cal BC (see Allen 1997). The Amesbury area is well-known for its Neolithic monuments and, to some extent, also for smaller sites such as the pits at Woodlands, the type site for the Woodlands sub-style of Grooved Ware (Wainwright and Longworth 1971) and at Ratfyn. The known sites have been, on the one hand, obvious and large (Durrington Walls, Woodhenge), or small and unrecognised until found fortuitously (the pits at Larkhill Married Quarters, Woodlands, Ratfyn) and because of this it has been difficult to gauge the density of smaller sites. To some extent the construction of the pipeline has helped to establish the density of Neolithic sites within the area, in that it provided a swathe of stripped surface over 5km long which was subject to professional archaeological observation. The results have added considerably to the known pattern in that they suggest a more widespread use of the area to the north and north- west of Durrington Walls than was previously attested, while the lack of sites in the river valley suggests that the lower ground may not have been occupied on the same scale. There was little alluvium exposed within the pipeline easement, but elsewhere in the valley it is possible that alluvium masks Neolithic material. That the lack of sites can be attributed to wet conditions during the Neolithic is also unlikely to be correct, as peat formation was very limited within the pipeline trench, and it seems likely that much of the valley NEOLITHIC AND LATER PREHISTORIC LANDSCAPE OF THE AVON VALLEY 245 floor would have been available for use during at least spring to autunm for each year. On the higher ground to the east of the river the lack of recorded Neolithic sites is presumably due in part to intensive later activity and the limited size of the sample. The absence of any isolated pits, which unlike surface sites are likely to have escaped complete destruction, is likely to represent a lesser density of sites in the Neolithic than in the area around Durrington Walls. It is perhaps of particular interest that no Neolithic features were noted where the pipeline passed close to the long barrow at Longbarrow Clump. It is clear, therefore, that the evidence from the pipeline fits well into the known pattern, but also fills out the picture in some areas. The occurrence of occupation north of Durrington Walls, suggested by the residual material found during Wainwright’s excavations in Ditch A, is confirmed, and the use of the area to the north of the river meander and south of the abortive flint mines is attested for the first time. The flint artefacts from this area, however, do not include any material obviously from the flint mines. Indeed the single piece of gravel flint (pit 184, Harding, above) indicates that raw material from the river valley was being utilised. The nature of activity represented by the features excavated along the route of the pipeline is more difficult to identify, but they seem to be part of a local concentration of sites focused on the river valley rather than simply on the henge monuments. The occurrence of beaver in pit 165, and the similar occurrence at Durrington Walls (minimum of one individual, Harcourt 1971, 338) suggest, as might reasonably be expected, that the river valley was exploited, and this is also borne out by the occurrence of chub, a freshwater fish, at Ratfyn (Jackson 1935, 301). Without a firm date for the intensive agricultural activity suggested by pollen zone Durrington:2 it is difficult to be confident about the nature of the contemporary landscape. The molluscan evidence from Durrington Walls and Woodhenge indicates strongly that there was well-established open grassland in the immediate vicinity of the monuments, but the wider picture is still unclear. Some woodiand or scrub is likely to have survived, perhaps along the slopes of the river valley, as hazel, hawthorn, ash and oak charcoal were identified at Ratfyn and Durrington Walls. Beech was also present at Durrington Walls, and the majority of structural timbers appear to have been oak, requiring a very large quantity of that timber to construct the Northern and Southern Circles. The excavators suggest that this might have been obtained from the Vale of Pewsey to the north, with the felled trees transported along the river (Wainwright and Longworth 1971, 222-3). Although the results of the pipeline observations and excavations have been on a small- scale in terms of the Neolithic finds, observation of the pipeline provided a valuable opportunity to assess the likely spread of Neolithic activity within the environs of the two major later Neolithic monuments. The environmental evidence is of particular importance and the necessity of dating the intensive agricultural activity of Durrington: 2 is clearly a priority. If this should prove to be of later Neolithic or earlier date, as suggested here, it would radically alter the prevailing view of the area at that period, and indeed of the type of occupation generally associated with the users of Grooved Ware, for which there is little evidence of cereal cultivation. If, on the other hand, it should prove to be of Bronze Age date, it would fit the known settlement of the area attested by the ‘egg-shaped’ Middle Bronze Age enclosure excavated by Cunnington (1929), which appears to lie within an area of more extensive activity (Richards 1990, 279; Stone et al. 1954, 164-6). The palimpsest of features along the eastern length of the pipeline is difficult to interpret. The section cut through the main Earl’s Farm Down linear (ditch 3) has neither proved nor disproved the presumed later Bronze Age dating of this feature, as only two flint flakes were recovered from the primary fill. But the small sherd of later Bronze Age pottery found in the primary fill of the ditch running south from the Earl’s Farm Down linear (ditch 7), and the lack of Romano-British pottery in the lower fill, seems to indicate that this ditch at least may date to the early first millennium BC. This is in contrast to the results of the Wessex Linear Ditches Project, which classify this cropmark as a ‘trackway (confirmed) (Bradley et al. 1994). Environmental data from the linear ditches, however, has provided a useful picture of the likely landscape during the life of ditches 3 and 40. The long history of pasture and lack of arable suggested by this forms a useful contribution to our knowledge of the area in later prehistory. Acknowledgements Wessex Archaeology would like to thank Wessex Water Engineering Services Ltd for their assistance 246 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE and financial support, in particular Jim Stables and Ted Olney. The co-operation of the landowners, of Amey Construction, Avron Construction and Raymond Brown Ltd was also much appreciated during both the excavations and the watching brief. The authors would also like to thank Helena Cave- Penney of the Archaeology Section of Wiltshire County Council’s Library and Museum Service, for providing archaeological background information. Fieldwork was carried out by Neil Adams, Phil Harding and Julie Lancley. Augering was carried out by Mike Allen and Rob Scaife, assisted by Sarah Wyles. The project was managed by Caron Newman and, latterly, by Julie Gardiner. Illustrations are by S.E. James and Linda Coleman. The archive has been deposited with the Salisbury and South Wiltshire Museum, Salisbury. Note A draft of this paper was completed in 1994. It was revised for publication in 2003. Bibliography ALLEN, M.J., 1988. Archaeological and environmental aspects of colluviation in south-east England. In Robinson M. and Groenman-Van Waateringe, W. 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Oxford: British Archaeological Report 133 RICHARDS, J.C., 1990. The Stonehenge Environs. London: English Heritage Monograph 16 SERJEANTSON, D. and GARDINER, J., 1995. Antler implements and ox scapulae shovels. In Cleal et al. 1995, 414-30 SCAIFE, R.G., 1980 Late-Devensian and Flandrian Palaeoecological Studies in the Isle of Wight. Ph.D Thesis, King’s College, University of London. SCAIFE, R.G, 1982. lLate-Devensian and_ early Flandrian vegetation changes in southern England. In Bell, M. and Limbrey, S. (eds), Archaeological Aspects of Woodland Ecology. Oxford: British Archaeological Report S146, 57-74 SCAIFE, R.G., 1987. Late-Devensian and Flandrian vegetation of the Isle of Wight. In Barber, K.E. (ed.), Wessex and the Isle of Wight. Quaternary Research Association Field Guide. Cambridge: Quaternary Research Association, 156-80 SCAIFE, R.G., 1988. The Elm Decline in the pollen record of South East England and its relationship to early agriculture. In Jones, M. (ed.), Archaeology and the Flora of the British Isles. Oxford: University Committe for Archaeology Monograph 14, 21-33 SCAIFE, R.G., 1995. Boreal and sub-boreal chalk landscape: pollen evidence. In Cleal et al. 1995, 51-5 SCAIFE, R.G. and BURRIN, PJ., 1983. Floodplain development in, and the vegetational history of the Sussex High Weald and some archaeological implications. Sussex Archaeological Collections 121, 1- 10 SCAIFE, R.G. and BURRIN, PJ., 1985. The environmental impact of prehistoric man as recorded in the Upper Cuckmere valley at Stream Farm, Chiddingly, Sussex Archaeological Collections 123, 27-34 SCAIFE, R.G. and BURRIN, PJ., 1992. Archaeological inferences from alluvial sediments: some findings from southern England. In Needham, S. and Macklin, A. (eds), Archaeology under Alluvium. London, 75-91 SMITH, I.F, 1965. Windmill Hill and Avebury. Excavations by Alexander Keiller. Oxford: Clarendon Press STACE, C., 1991. New flora of the British Isles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press STAINES, B.W., 1991. Red deer. In Corbet, G.B. and Harris, S., The Handbook of British Mammals (3rd edn), Oxford, 492-504 STONE, J.ES., 1935. Some discoveries at Ratfyn, Amesbury, and their bearing on the date of Woodhenge. WANHM 47, 55-67 STONE, J.ES., PIGGOTT, S. and BOOTH, A. St.J., 1954. Durrington Walls, Wiltshire: recent excavations at a ceremonial site of the early second millennium, B.C. Antiquaries Journal 34, 155-77 TAUBER, H., 1965. Differential pollen dispersion and the interpretation of pollen diagrams. Danm. geol. Unders II 89, 1-69 THOMAS, K.D., 1985. Land snail analysis in archaeology: theory and practice. In Fieller, N.R.J., Gilbertson D.D. and Ralph N.GA. (eds), Palaeobiological Investigations: Research Design, Methods and Data Analysis. Oxford: British Archaeological Report S266, 131-75 THORLEY, A., 1981. Pollen analytical evidence relating to the vegetation history of the chalk. Journal of Biogeography 8, 93-106 VATCHER, F. de M. and VATCHER, H.L., 1973. The excavation of three postholes in Stonehenge car park. WANHM 68, 57-63 WAINWRIGHT, G.J. 1971. The excavation of prehistoric and Romano-British settlements near Durrington Walls, Wiltshire, 1970. WANHM 66, 76-128 WAINWRIGHT, G.J. and LONGWORTH, I.H., 1971. Durrington Walls: Excavations 1966-1968 London: Report of the Research Committee of the Society of Antiquaries of London 29 WALDEN, H.G., 1976. A nomenclatural list of the land Mollusca of the British Isles. Journal of Conchology 29, 21-5 WATON, PV., 1980. Rimsmoor, Dorset: pollen record from late boreal to present in eighteen metres of peat. Quaternary Newsletter 30, 25 WATON, PV., 1982. Man’s impact on the chalidands: some new pollen evidence. In Bell, M.G. and Limbrey, S. (eds), Archaeological Aspects of Woodland Ecology. Oxford: British Archaeological Report $146 75-91 Wiltshire Archaeological & Natural History Magazine, vol. 97 (2004), pp. 249-254 Wiltshire and Other Things in Common: Sir Peter Scott CH CBE DSC FRS (1909-1989) and Bernard Venables MBE (1907-2001) by Brian Edwards The Wiltshire associations of two well known twentieth-century artists and environmentalists are explored and illustrated. Wiltshire is not a place that springs to mind alongside the names of Peter Scott and Bernard Venables. Both were outstanding individuals, widely respected for many things beyond their foremost international reputations as artists. As well known conservationists and writers, they influenced generations of countryside enthusiasts and lovers of natural history; but they each had ‘ many achievements besides. Renowned for founding the Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust and instrumental in founding the World Wide Fund for Nature, Scott was of course famously the son of the ill-fated polar explorer Captain Scott. He also won the DSC as a wartime gunboat commander, gained an Olympic Bronze medal for single-handed dinghy sailing, was skipper of an America’s Cup yacht, and became a British Open Gliding Champion and a competition ice skater. Scott’s writings, radio broadcasts and television programmes made him a household name that was inevitably linked with Slimbridge where he established the Wildfowl and Wetlands ‘Trust in 1946. Venables, like Scott, was an avid schoolboy angler who had also gratuitously graduated from the time-honoured traditional self-taught school of stick, string, and pin. Primarily recalled as author-illustrator of the most widely influential best selling angling book of all time, Mr Crabtree Goes Fishing, Bernard Venables has been described without exaggeration as an adventurer and with genuine diastrophic esteem as the ‘Venerable Venables’. It seems quite incredible to reflect upon Venables continuing to either fish, paint or sculpt — and some times enjoying all three activities — each day of the week at the age of 93. But it is even more extraordinary to learn that at an age when most had accepted state retirement and sought the fireside and slippers, his enthusiasm for David Livingstone’s explorations saw Venables undertake, partly on foot, a hazardous 1,200 mile trek down the Zambezi from its Congo source to Mozambique. A leading conservationist in the movement backed by the Anglers’ Co-operative Association to clean up Britain’s polluted waterways, Venables could also look back on being the record holder of the largest rod-caught shark, hooked in 1959, and experiencing two seasons in small open boats whaling with the hand-held harpoons of the Fayal Islanders in the Azores. If this doesn’t appear a comfortable apposition alongside the idea of conservation, it might also be recalled that Peter Scott was a ferreter and wildfowler in younger days and, while punting with Dick and Tim Maurice (of the ‘Marlborough Doctors’) at Manton, perfected the capture of Graylings by striking them harpoon- style with the pole. Venables and Scott were not’ only contemporaries of similar age, but they were also Mount Pleasant, The Cartway, Wedhampton, Devizes SN10 3QD 250 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE ALL RIGHT, PETER, WE'LL BE ALL— THE — YEAR ~ ROUND FISHERMEN /— WELL START RIGHT NOW IN JANUARY AND SEE IF WE CAN'T GET a AS GOOD FISHING IN WINTER AS SUMMER | | Pruars IT, PETER, | SINK THE NET | WELL. FLL DRAW | THE FISH OVER IT || | THEN LIFT HIM QUIETLY OUT. 4 Yi | FROM ‘A DACE. IN THE DACE \ THE EDGE 1S CONCAVE 7 | WITH HIS HEAD UP | | STREAM. ALWAYS HAVE WET HANDS TO HANOLE A LIVE FISH—!IT HELPS | YOU NOT TO DISLODGE THEIR SCALES OR The opening strip of Mr Crabtree Goes Fishing 1949 (top left) and self portrait by Bernard Venables c 1990s (top right). ‘The Crabtree’s First Chub’ (bottom) is typical of the countryside care, conservation, and natural history intertwined with the technical ~ children when their fathers died and were influenced subsequently by artistic near relatives. Venables’ grandfather was an accomplished artist and Scott’s mother a professional sculptor. As if it were not enough for Scott to have been born of one detail in the strip. Isadora Duncan, famous parent, let alone a nationally acclaimed hero, his mother Kathleen was descended from Robert the Bruce, and was friends with such as T.E.Lawrence, and George Bernard Shaw in addition to a host of politicians WILTSHIRE AND OTHER THINGS IN COMMON 211 vas® Bardow Timon Z TE ee ants f re cheep, \ i ZO ee have h Bia here heree, BOLLS. “3 sates reve Tay mh multremey BH bere pertecdges, Price4i/6 net. igh |. Trigenomirtrical Station aon fee's ea neers ‘The Natural World of Man’ (top), an unusual but succinct work by Scott showing threatened wildlife on the one hand and pollutive industrialization on the other. Self portrait with Lady Philippa and friends (bottom left). Map by the young Peter Scott showing the natural history of the area sur- rounding his stepfather’s cottage, the Lacket (bottom right). 252 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE prior to her marriage, when Peter was 13, to Edward Hilton Young who was to become a cabinet minister and later Lord Kennet. It was at his stepfather’s Wiltshire cottage, The Lacket, in the Kennet Valley village of Lockeridge, described by Scott as the ‘one of the most perfect thatched cottages I have ever seen’, that the teenaged Peter’ recalled painting flowers [meticulously] in watercolours as his stepfather, a patient bird watcher, read aloud to him each evening. It nestles amid ancient yews; and across from the cottage there is a gentle slope of fields to the West Woods. These woods were our particular delight, and we had our own names for all the places in them, which we marked on our own special six-inch-to-the- mile map — Archer’s Dene, Brock Dene, Peached valley, Mole Joke. Often we used to walk far over the Downs and into Savernake Forest. Always on these walks I would collect wild flowers and bring them home... Finally I had quite a complete collection of small drawings of the common wild flowers that grew around The Lacket. I always found being read aloud to an excellent stimulus to my drawing. Scott had his first drawing published, a privet hawk moth, aged just 13. But while Wiltshire influenced the young Peter Scott, Venables did not move to the Wiltshire-Berkshire borders, and finally Upavon in Wiltshire, until later life, despite being drawn since 1940 by a fascination for the River Kennet. During the war Venables’ skill as an artist saw him deployed by several government ministries, drawing tanks and aircraft for propaganda purposes. In 1946 he joined the Daily Miurror in which his famous cartoon strip character ‘Mr Crabtree’ first appeared, as a gardener, in 1947 — not long before Venables inevitably suggested when winter prevented work in the garden Mr Crabtree should go fishing. The daily strips in which Mr Crabtree taught his son Peter to fish in all conditions were compiled into a book in 1949 that was an instant best seller. Informed by some of the most glorious watercolours of British freshwater fish ever published, post-war generations were ‘Rudd’ by Bernard Venables watercolour 15 x 12 inches — one of a series of 31 started in 1946 in a return to the colours and posture of Victorian natural history prints. WILTSHIRE AND OTHER THINGS IN COMMON 253 ‘Upavon’ by Bernard Venables 1994 watercolour 25.5 x 19 inches. taught not just angling but waterlife and bankside etiquette by the Crabtrees and another couple Mr Cherry and Fim. In 1953 Venables co-founded the Angling Times and ten years later founded a sophisticated country magazine titled Creel. Scott’s angling stories include catching and despatching to London Zoo’s aquarium some exceptionally large Perch, weighing 2 lb. 10 oz. and 3 Ib. 2 oz. respectively, and making detailed drawings of Roach-Rudd and Rudd-Bream hybrids that he sent to Dr Tate Regan at the Natural History Museum. Egg collecting and moth catching also feature; as does, of all things, catching a baby badger in an umbrella so that he could examine it. Scott revealed this to be the only badger he had seen in a radio broadcast in 1939, until he returned to Wiltshire to night-watch with a friend in woods near Hungerford and Marlborough. The same year Bernard Venables was first mesmerized by the trout swimming in the sparkling waters of the Kennet at Hungerford. Compared side by side, pencil portraits by Scott and Venables show a remarkable similarity in easy, light, effective use of the pencil; while the ink- drawn map key to creatures and plants encountered within walking distance of The Lacket produced by the young Scott shows the same explicit projection of form that Venables’ superb illustrations of active fish brought to the tales of Mr Crabtree and Mr Cherry. Their watercolours of country scenes also show similarities in use of colour bringing backgrounds to life, involving the onlooker in the natural scene before them. Rare examples of their late artwork can also be found to be similar, strikingly symbolic scenes conveying meaning beyond the dimensions of their more familiar work. Above all other things in common, both Scott and Venables can be seen as inspiring multitudes in enjoying and respecting the natural world through mediums that appeal beyond the academy. Despite ascending that plane these intuitive natural historians instinctively encouraged others, and in doing so spread knowledge and wisdom along with their enthusiasm. Were one word required to epitomise a common thread in the legacy of Scott and Venables’ work in natural history, it would 254 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE ‘Common Eel’ by Bernard Venables perhaps be ‘look’. Whether it was Scott capturing the time of day through the flight of birds or Venables portraying a season through a river scene, these great artists brought us to the spot; to see what happened beneath and above the surface of rather more than just the water. Peter Scott, of course, aptly called his BBC television series Look, but he and Venables encouraged the many to also see and do. Source material The author’s interviews, conversations and corres- pondence with Bernard Venables 1999-2000. COURTNEY, Julia, 1989, Peter Scott. Watford: Exley SCOTT, Peter, 1966, The Eye of the Wind: an Auto- biography. London: Hodder and Stoughton SCOTT, Peter, 1967, Happy the Man: Episodes in an exciting life. (Nigel Sitwell ed.) London: Sphere VENABLES, Bernard, 1993, The Illustrated Memoirs of a Fisherman. Ludlow: Merlin Unwin VENABLES, Bernard, 1949, Mr Crabtree Goes Fishing . London: Daily Mirror VENABLES, Bernard, 1968, Baleia! the Whalers of the Azores. London: Bodley Head and Knopf Picture credits Mr Crabtree Goes Fishing by kind permission of the Mirror. Paintings by Peter Scott by kind permission of Lady Philippa Scott. Paintings and a self portrait by Bernard Venables by kind permission of Eileen Venables, who wishes it to be known that she is the sole copyright holder of all works by Bernard Venables other than Mr Crabtree which is owned by the Mirror. Original artwork and prints by Bernard Venables are available through the shop at the Wiltshire Heritage Museum. Map by Scott, Wiltshire Heritage Museum and Library. Wiltshire Archaeological & Natural History Magazine, vol. 97 (2004), pp. 255-272 The Wiltshire Wildlife Trust’s Vera Jeans Nature Reserve at Jones’s Mill, Pewsey by Beverley Heath! with contributions by other authors There was a mill until the fourteenth century. Eighteenth-century floated water meadows were abandoned in the nineteenth. The vale is greensand over clay. Low-lying land, watered by springs rising from nearby chalk through greensand and peat, has scarce fen and carr communities with a mosaic of calcicoles and calcifuges. They are maintained by summer grazing. Wet flushes are also valuable habitats. Much less interesting formerly improved fields on the northern slopes are recovering under sympathetic management. Grass-heath restoration is planned for the southern slopes. Various groups of fauna are described. HISTORY Very probably our Jones’s Mill was one of the seven at Pewsey held by the church and paying £4 5s at the time of the Domesday survey (Thorn and Thorn, 1979, 10:67c). They would have stood on the Salisbury Avon, which flows through the heart of the reserve. Details of the site’s history are set out in a paper commissioned by the Trust (Chandler, 1999). The earliest known reference to the mill by name is in 1359, when an inquisition post mortem lists a water mill named ‘Jonesmulle’ among the possessions of one Anastasia de Harden. This is almost certainly the one described in her father’s inquisition in 1330: a water mill in Pewsey worth ten shillings a year held from the Abbot of Hyde. The mill was abandoned probably sometime in the fourteenth century, but the name Jones persisted, attached to various meadows and woods on the site. An estate map of c.1811 names the meadow just north-east of the main bridge over the Avon as Jones’s Mill Mead (see map), a name also mentioned in a 1756 property list. In one field in the north of the reserve, ridge and furrow is still discernible — evidence of a medieval open field system (Wiltshire County Council Archaeclogy Service, undated). When the mill was abandoned it is likely that the land along the river reverted to marsh. By the mid-eighteenth century these marshes were converted to ‘floated’ water meadows. Kerridge (1953) describes the Wiltshire water meadows in detail. The usual procedure was to build a sluice upstream of the meadow to feed water into leats constructed parallel to the river but which ran higher up the valley slope. Between these and the river, and perpendicular to them, successive ridges were constructed about ten metres apart with their tops at the same height as the leat. Along these ran ducts, ‘carriages’, fed by the leats, and in the hollows between them were drainage channels, ‘drawns’ (sic), running down to the river. The elaborate structure of the meadows was expensive to create and maintain, but the rewards made it worthwhile. Controlled flooding both enriched the soil and kept it warmer at night and thus promoted vigorous early grass. This in turn allowed more sheep to be kept. Sheep were of crucial importance to the rural economy: for meat and wool, of course, but above all for their dung that was used to fertilise the arable fields. At Jones’s Mill the water for the leats was augmented — possibly even entirely supplied — by '9 West Manton, Marlborough SN8 4HN byw.heath (dial. pipex.com 256 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Vera Jeans Reserve, Jones's Mill N Pole 50m \, Old watercress” beds 42 Q{Kepnal Drove os i > Fen & CarrRs S.S.S.1. Railway “+ Botanically very rich fen Fen ¥¥* Tussock Sedge Fen 2, =| ., Carr a) Ni \\\W Wet Flush in poor grassland a? Woodland Stream, leat or ditch with direction of flow SSSI bound Letters show aa pouneary management <_ Entrance to Reserve compartments. Pasture Grassland on old arable Recently planted hazel __and gorse THE WILTSHIRE WILDLIFE TRUST’S VERA JEANS NATURE RESERVE 257 springs and tributary streams rather than the more usual dams on the river. The temperature of spring water is very constant so in cold weather it did not just blanket the soil but actively warmed it. Another unusual feature of the meadows is that in Jones’s Mill Mead the carriages and drawns run parallel to the river. The Jones’s Mill water meadows as such fell into disuse probably sometime in the nineteenth century, though there is a local memory of controlled flooding up to the First World War (Wall, 1999). Even so, the land was still used for occasional grazing of cattle. The ridges are still up to 20 centimetres above the troughs and stand out well in the patterns of vegetation. Hidden just below ground level is a hard-core track across the fen along the eastern edge of Jones Mill Mead. This may be part of an ancient track, Kepnal Drove, which ran from Kepnal along what is now Dursden Lane, down the existing green lane and across the site and possibly on to Sunnyhill Lane and up to Martinsell. It was blocked in 1808 when this part of the Kennet and Avon Canal was built. There are no rights of way on the reserve, but there are permissive paths. An estate map of 1811 shows a ‘Strip by Pond’ but not the pond itself. It looks as if the pond could have been where the Avon runs through the present carr (woodland on water-logged soil). The same map marks another part of the carr as ‘Alder Bed’. At the north-east end of the reserve [1 on the inset Fen & Carr map], watercress beds, fed by springs, were in use serving the London market until just after the Second World War (Wall, 1999). All that remains of these old beds is a mire with a stream flowing through it and a line of diverse, exotic trees along its western edge, probably planted to protect the beds from frost. A dam, reconstructed in 1990, diverts part of this stream into the leat that supplies water to the north-eastern third of the water meadows. At times, probably in the 1940s and 1950s, the old water meadows were deliberately burnt off to promote fresh growth — ‘It would be green again in about a week’ (Wall, 1999). ~ In 1975 the Jeans family, who owned the land from 1905, leased the old water meadows that form the core of the reserve to the Wiltshire Trust for Nature Conservation (now the Wiltshire Wildlife Trust). Miss Vera Jeans loved the old water meadows and to ensure their long-term protection she gave them to the Trust in 1980, on condition that they be kept as marshy areas. Their current plant community is in a transient stage in a succession which, without active management, would ultimately become woodland. To preserve this rare and valuable habitat, water levels have to be maintained and the taller, ranker vegetation kept under control either by annual cutting or, better, by summer grazing with cattle. In order to be able to control the water levels, some of the leats were restored by the Wiltshire Wildlife Trust in 1987. When the meadows were in working order, the runnels leading out from the leats on to the ridges were blocked by removable boards, now long-since gone. A fine sandy silt had accumulated where they had been and, when the banks of the leats were restored, these silt patches remained in place. The effect was that alongside the tops of the old ridges there are now porous spots through which water continuously seeps, thus, probably as much by good fortune as design, keeping the water table on the fen at the optimum level. With the aid of local donations and two substantial grants from the Heritage Lottery Fund towards both purchase and maintenance, the Trust bought many of the surrounding fields during the 1990s, to protect the water meadows, and to enable the small herd of Belted Galloway cattle that graze them during the summer to be kept on the reserve throughout the year. The southern part of this was a large arable field, now under grass. This has become known as Big Forty — nothing to do with its size (10-6 hectares) but rather the Director’s birthday! The 1922 Ordnance Survey map appears to show two ponds in the other spur of woodland that runs almost due north in the centre of the reserve [Compartment G on the main map]. These dried up and were subsequently used as ‘earth’ watercress beds until the 1960s (Wall, 1999). In 1975 these were dry except for a stream running through them, but the remains of an earth dam could still be seen where the lower pond had been. This pond was restored by the Wiltshire Wildlife Trust in 1982 and 1983, the work paid for with a gift in memory of Miss Ida Gandy. A further dam was installed in 1997 to restore the upper pond. LOCATION, GEOLOGY AND HABITATS The Vale of Pewsey was formed when the chalk anticline arching from the Pewsey Downs to Salisbury Plain was eroded to reveal the underlying greensand (Barron, 1976, 87 et sequ.). The reserve covers 33 hectares in the Vale just north-east of 258 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE c Ida Gandy Pond Pewsey itself. There are four entrances, but only one has direct access to a public road, Dursden Lane, at SU 169 610. This gate gives on to Big Forty, at present a wide expanse of sown grasses and adventitious White Clover. Straight ahead, looking north-west across the valley, are the chalk downlands: Martinsell to the right and, in the distance on the left, Knap Hill and Walker’s Hill. They stand above the fields of the Vale: loamy brown-earth soil over the fertile upper greensand (Soil Survey, 1983). The Kennet & Avon canal, the northern boundary of the reserve, runs south-west to north-east. It is hard to see except where it is crossed by Pains Bridge carrying an ancient green lane from Pewsey and Knowle up to the downs. This green lane forms the reserve’s south west boundary. Along the valley bottom, largely hidden by trees, the Avon flows through marshy meadows. These meadows are kept wet by numerous powerful springs rising through the greensand from the chalk. The very name ‘Pewsey’ or the Norman form ‘Pevesei’, as in the quotation from the Domes- day Book given above, or, even earlier — 880 AD — ‘Pefesigge’ means ‘Pefe’s well-watered place’, but who Pefe was we have no idea (Gover et al, 1939, 350). On the reserve, twenty-four categories of habitat have been identified (Mobsby, 2001). These include fen and carr; river, streams, ponds, ditches and wet flushes; woodland, including old trees with nest holes; large standing and fallen deadwood; parkland trees and grassland (semi-improved or improved). The central core of the reserve, the old water meadows and woods, has been classified as a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) since 1975 and is proposed as a Special Area of Conservation (SAC). This key part is now surrounded entirely by grazing land or fen, but is still vulnerable to possible pollution either from upstream or via the groundwater. The River Avon The eastern headwater of the Salisbury Avon flows through the reserve. Three streams on the north of the Vale join to form it: one rises just south of Clench, another near Wootton Rivers and the third, Deane Water, comes from just west of Burbage. The river turns south at Pewsey to cut through the Salisbury Plain scarp at Upavon, demonstrating that the river pre-dates the Vale. THE WILTSHIRE WILDLIFE TRUST’S VERA JEANS NATURE RESERVE 259 At Jones’s Mill, while still in the Vale, it is a considerable stream. This September, after one of the driest and hottest summers for many years, measured just above the bridge where the old Kepnal Drove crosses the river, it was 32 metres wide, about 40 centimetres deep and flowing, at the surface, at about half a metre per second. The aquifers feeding it are in the chalk, but at the bridge the water, with a pH of 7.5, is only weakly alkaline. Bullhead Cottus gobio, River Lamprey Lampetra fluviatilis, Brown Trout Salmo trutta have all been recorded, as has Rainbow Trout S. gairdneri but this last, fortunately, seems to have died out. There are records of the native White-clawed Crayfish Austropotamobius pallipes, but now there is a large population of American Signal Crayfish Pacifastacus leniusculus, which might have come from a known escape of farmed crayfish just downstream of the reserve in the late 70s or early 80s (Wall 1999). Riverside Meadows and Carr Although, except in extreme conditions, the meadows are never flooded, the soil is moist even at the height of summer. The area is now a mire and River Avon in North-East Fen the plant communities which have developed are classified as fen and carr (Rodwell, 1998a, 30 et sequ.; Rodwell, 1998b, 24 et sequ. and Rodwell, 2000, 109 et sequ.). The nutrient status of the old meadows ranges from mesotrophic to eutrophic. The ground water is calcareous, but deposition of leaf litter over the years has created a peaty, slightly acid soil. Soil samples taken at both the east and west ends of the meadows gave a surface pH value of 6°5 and this remained constant down through the soil until an abrupt change to 7-5 at the greensand layer. The water in the leats had a pH of 7°5. The leaf litter leads to somewhat drier conditions with tall herbs and, ultimately, shrubs and trees. The earlier stages of succession support a much more diverse and interesting ecosystem. To preserve these, the meadows are now managed by maintaining the leats and by grazing by Belted Galloway cattle — a tough but gentle breed that are happy to be out of doors all the year round and, in summer, do well grazing the fen. As can be seen on the map, there are two main areas of fen, one in the north-east of the reserve [2 & 3] and the other in the south-west [5 & 6]. These are separated by an area of carr [4] which also spreads beyond the probable extent of the old meadows into some of the wet flushes at the foot of the north slope of the valley. The two outer sections are lightly grazed during the summer. This has had important effects. Selective eating of the dominant competitive and tall plants has both reduced the accumulation of leaf litter and allowed the under-storey to flourish. The treading of the cattle has opened up pockets of bare soil, so allowing germination. These factors combine to make a complex mosaic of vegetation which is by no means unusual for such sites: the plant communities found here, while not matching exactly, are very similar to typical fen and carr communities elsewhere in southern England. They are dominated by sedges Carex sp. of which there are no fewer than fourteen species on the reserve. Lowland mires are now rare: most have either, through neglect, proceeded to woodland or, probably more often, have been deliberately drained. The SSSI citation describes Jones’s Mill as ‘the best known example of a calcareous valley mire in Wiltshire’. The North-East Fen [2 & 3] The Triple-spotted Pug Eupithecia trisignaria is a nationally rare moth. Its food plants Wild Angelica Angelica sylvestris and Hogweed Heracleum sphondylium grow in many parts of the reserve but 260 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Leat in north-East Fen are particularly protected here by excluding the cattle from about half of a hectare [2]. This small part has a litter layer some five centimetres thick and no pockets of bare soil. It is a tall-herb fen with only a dozen or so plant species, dominated by Reed Sweet-grass Glyceria maxima, Meadowsweet Filipendula ulmaria and Cleavers Galium aparine. There are also fair numbers of Lesser Pond Sedge Carex acutiformis, Marsh Horsetail Eguisetum palustre, Stinging Nettle Urtica dioica, Common Hemp-nettle Galeopsis tetrahit, Wild Angelica and Common Comfrey Symphytum officinale. Stinging Nettles are often indicators of enrichment by human activity but here they are in their natural habitat — remains of nettles have been found along with those of typical fen and carr communities in peat some 13,000 or 14,000 years old (Godwin, 1975, 432). Many of the Stinging Nettles on the reserve have few or no stings. This is not uncommon where nettles grow in the shade but some, as here, are in the open. It is thought that stinglessness is an inherited property sometimes found where there is little grazing (Pollard and Briggs, 1982, 1984a and 1984b). The familiar stinging form is a tetraploid, possibly derived from a stingless diploid (Mabberley, 2002, 739). A plant in this spot the reserve could well do without is an introduction from the Himalayas: Indian Balsam Impatiens glandulifera which first appeared on the reserve ten years ago. It is weeded out every year, but is constantly replaced from a large patch just upstream of the reserve. Apart from this small fenced-off area, the fen as far as and including Jones’s Mill Mead [3] (about 2:5 hectares in all) was grazed for 6 to 8 weeks during September and October in 1984 and 1985. During the next two years it was hand cut and raked. Since then every year until 2002 it has been grazed by two or three Belted Galloways between April and the end of October. This year (2003) unfortunately it was not grazed until very late in the year, but there is every intention of continuing the previous grazing regime next year. Even just beyond the fence the picture here is very different from where the fen is ungrazed. The leaf litter is barely 1 centimetre thick and there are numerous hoof-sized pockets with vigorous germination. In 2002 I recorded twenty-nine species of vascular plants from a15 x 15 metres plot near the fence, of which the dominants were Lesser Pond-sedge C. acutiformis and Soft Rush Juncus effusus. Meadowsweet F ulmaria was still found but only about a third as often, while Reed Sweet-grass G. maxima — much liked and sought out by the Belties — occurred even less. Both are grazed down before they can flower. After the dominants, the next commonest species in the quadrat was Greater Bird’s-foot-trefoil Lotus pedunculatus whose yellow flowers are a conspicuous feature of the reserve in July. Every plant in the quadrat is found throughout the grazed fen. In spring Marsh- 4 Trises in Fones’s Mill Mead THE WILTSHIRE WILDLIFE TRUST’S VERA JEANS NATURE RESERVE 261 marigold Caltha palustris and Cuckooflower, or Lady’s Smock Cardamine pratensis stand out as does, a little later, Ragged Robin Lychnis flos-cuculi, although this last is not present in such numbers as the others. Other frequent plants include Marsh Horsetail FE. palustre, Water Forget-me-not Myosotis scorpioides, Meadow Vetchling Lathyrus pratensis, Water Mint Mentha aquatica, Fen Bedstraw Galium uliginosum and Common _ Valerian Valeriana officinalis. il d ! Ba ie Na Yellow Iris with Hybrid Common Spotted-orchids Moving westwards, out of the quadrat but still within the north-east section [3], there is a small but detectable increase in wetness and along with it (although there is no evidence that it is the cause) there is increasing diversity of vegetation. The most _obvious addition is the Yellow Iris Iris pseudacorus which is locally dominant, and which certainly adds greatly to the attractiveness of the reserve. There are other less conspicuous but botanically interesting delights. Marsh Valerian Valeriana dioica is widespread and there are isolated patches of Bogbean Menyanthes trifoliata, Common Cotton- grass Eriophorum angustifolium, and Bottle Sedge Carex rostrata. The last three are all indicative of acid soils, particularly the Cotton-grass. All four are Wiltshire rarities: during the 1980s the Flora Mapping Project found them in only 87 (2%), 20 (<1%), 11 and 4 kilometre squares respectively (this and all subsequent references to plant status in Wiltshire are taken from Gillam, 1993). Also of note are a few specimens of Bulrush or Greater Reedmace Typha latifolia and of Common Spotted-orchid Dactylorhiza fuchsu. Some of this latter species grow very tall, and are probably hybrids with Southern Marsh-orchid Dactylorhiza praetermissa. Along the north edge of Jones’s Mill Mead are several pollarded Crack Willows Salix fragilis. Beside the hard track across the fen, the probable continuation of Kepnal Drove mentioned above, are a few shrubs (Alder Alnus glutinosa, Hawthorn Crataegus monogyna and Holly Ilex aquifolium) and some brambles Rubus fruticosus. These seemingly fairly insignificant features serve as important shelter for several species of fauna, as we shall see below. The Central Carr [4] On crossing the next fence, out of the grazed area into the central section of the SSSI, there is an even pe ei wa Southern Marsh-orchid 262 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE 2 a Tussock Sedge in winter (© WWT — Steve Day) more dramatic change to a late stage of fenland succession: willow and alder carr surrounding an earlier stage of as yet ungrazed Tussock Sedge fen. Part of this section has been fenced with the intention of grazing it in the near future. As mentioned above, the carr extends north- westwards into the wet flushes and around the two ponds, making a total area of five hectares in all. The area around the ponds [G] and bordering the Avon [D] have been woodland for many years, but aerial photographs show that the carr between them [B and C] is comparatively recent in origin. Here in 1946 there were no trees or bushes except in the hedgelines; by 1958 a scatter of trees had appeared and by 1972 these were larger but still scattered, with none of the closed canopy that we have today. The open fen is dominated by Great Horsetail Equisetum telmateia, Reed Sweet-grass G. maxima and Meadowsweet Fi ulmaria. Along one of the streams are several Greater Reedmace T° latifolia, and in another is Lesser Water-parsnip Berula erecta, which is rare in Wiltshire, particularly in the southern vice-county. Other typical fen plants found here are Common Valerian V. officinalis, Marsh Valerian V. dioica and Square-stalked St. John’s-wort Hypericum tetrapterum. There are impressively large Greater Tussock-sedge Carex paniculata, especially along the edges of the streams, which together with the primeval Horsetails give the area a very special character. Tussock Sedge is now very rare in Wiltshire, being found in only 1% of the kilometre squares but was once ‘locally plentiful particularly in the Vale of Pewsey’ (Grose 1957, 589). The central fen is also the best part of the reserve for the extremely rare Desmoulin’s Whorl-snail Vertigo moulinsiana, a Red Data Book species that is common on the reserve. The principal trees in the carr are Alder A. glutinosa, Grey Willow Salix cinerea and Crack Willow S. fragilis. In the drier places there are a few Pedunculate Oak Quercus robur and Ash Fraxinus excelsior. The shrubs include Hawthorn C. monogyna and Elder Sambucus nigra with a few Guelder-rose Viburnum opulus in open areas. The herb layer within the carr is principally Lesser Pond-sedge C. acutiformis, Yellow Iris I. pseudacorus — which Great Horsetail A tall exotic conifer was to have been felled as an unwanted alien, until it was realised that it was a favourite nest site for Sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus. There are several tall dead trees both standing and fallen, some with big root plates. Along the edge of the northern spur of the carr several willows have been pollarded and the resulting large logs left in piles. All this provides excellent habitats, particularly for bees and beetles. Important plants on the northern edges of the carr, both along a path and where it merges into open fen, include Hemp-agrimony Eupatorium cannabinum, Wild Angelica A. sylvestris and Common Comfrey S. officinale. On the edge of the path itself can be found Southern Marsh-orchid D. THE WILTSHIRE WILDLIFE TRUST’S VERA JEANS NATURE RESERVE 263 River Avon in South-west Fen praetermissa and Water Avens Geum rivale, both strong indicators of mesotrophic conditions. Where the carr borders the River Avon there are extensive patches of Opposite-leaved Golden- saxifrage Chrysosplenium oppositifolium. South of the river there are just a few metres of level ground and then another few of steep scarp up to the gentler slope of Big Forty and its dry grassland. There is considerable seepage of water at various levels on the scarp, so there is a gradation from carr at the bottom to ordinary woodland or hedgerow conditions at the top. (This seepage was heavily laced with fertilizer from the arable — one of the main reasons for its purchase by the Trust.) In the carr are Brooklime Veronica beccabunga and Blue Water-speedwell Vv anagallis-aquatica. One specimen of the latter, “growing this year on the bank where the river enters the carr, was quite remarkable for being 1:5 metres tall — three times its usual maximum height. It is thought to be probably a hybrid with Pink Water- speedwell V. anagallis-aquatica * catenata = V. X lackschewitzii which is often more robust (Stace 1992, 722). In the drier parts are Moschatel or Town- hall Clock Adoxa moschatellina, an ancient woodland indicator, Primroses Primula vulgaris, Bluebells Ayacinthoides non-scripta and Bracken Pteridium aquilinum. Stone Parsley Sison amomum grows right beside the path, but has only just been noticed — it is probably a recent introduction. The Flora Mapping Project found it only in the north-west and south- east of Wiltshire, but describe it as a plant of ‘poorly tended footpaths’. The South-west Fen [5 & 6] The south-west section covers about three hectares in all. (As this is the most sensitive part of the reserve, access is restricted: visitors wishing to be admitted to it should apply to the Trust or directly to me.) Mostly it is tall-herb fen through which flows the Avon lined by mature Alders A. glutinosa. Since 1994 the fen [5] has been grazed during the summer, currently by seven Belted Galloways. Of the dominant plants, Great Horsetail E. telmateia, Meadowsweet F ulmaria, Yellow Iris I. pseudacorus and Reed Sweet-grass G. maxima, which 1s locally dominant appears to depend on the wetness of the soil but this has not yet been tested properly. The plants of the north-east fen occur here as well with some additions such as Branched Bur-reed Sparganium erectum, Southern Marsh-orchid 264 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE D. praetermissa (and its hybrids with D. fuchsi) and Small Nettle Urtica urens. Greater Pond-sedge C. riparia 1s rather more common here. The Water Dock Rumex hydrolapathum is a prominent feature along the streams. There is a very small colony — in some years only one spike — of Green-flowered Helleborine Epipactis phyllanthes, which is rare not only in Wiltshire — found in only eight 1 x 1 kilometre squares — but also nationally. Green-flowered Helleborine Within this tall fen there is about a quarter of a hectare where the peat is floating. Part of it has a short turf and, unusually for the reserve, a lot of moss. This kind of mire is typical of spongy peat moistened by calcareous, base-rich waters. Here are large numbers of Bogbean, M. trifoliata and of Marsh Arrow-grass Triglochin palustre. This latter species was found in only nineteen kilometre squares by the Wiltshire Flora Mapping Project. At one time it was struggling on the reserve under competition from grasses and sedges. Grazing at this colony, and close cutting and light trampling during the winter (inadvertent but, as it turned out, beneficial) in the compartment mentioned next, have restored its fortunes and now, in 2003, there are hundreds of spikes. Bogbean Adjacent to the grazed fen, but fenced off from it, is another Carex-dominated mire covering about three quarters of a hectare [6]. It would be difficult to manage cattle on it, so it is not grazed but cut and raked every winter. (The raked heaps form excellent breeding grounds for the Grass Snakes Natrix natrix which are a feature of the reserve.) Not only does this small enclosure have the richest flora of the reserve with several Wiltshire rarities, but there are within it fascinating juxtapositions of plants characteristic of acid and of alkaline soils. As an indication of its richness, of the 81 species of vascular plants listed for the south-west fen, 31 are found only here. It also has many species of moss, including a small patch of Sphagnum palustre. Bogbean sward in South-west Fen THE WILTSHIRE WILDLIFE TRUST’S VERA JEANS NATURE RESERVE 265 Of the Wiltshire rarities, as well as Common Cotton-grass EF. angustifolium which also grows in Jones Mill Mead, there are five others found in only 2% or fewer of the kilometre squares in Wiltshire. The beautiful littke Bog Pimpernel Anagallis tenella forms two patches, each about a metre across, that are bright pink when the flowers come in late June. This plant was found in only thirteen of the kilometre squares, which is less than 1% of them. Even rarer in Wiltshire is the Flea Sedge Carex pulicaris. Stace (1992, 978) describes its habitat as ‘bogs, fens and flushes, usually base rich’ so the plants growing here at Jones’s Mill are behaving normally. In Wiltshire it is catholic in its tastes, growing in mesotrophic to eutrophic Water Avens conditions and in mires or on dry chalky grassland, but even so in only seven kilometre squares. Purple Moor-grass Molinia caerulea has been found in only twenty-nine kilometre squares — fewer than 1% — and almost all of these are concentrated on the New Forest heaths in the south-east corner of the county. The remaining two species rare in Wiltshire but found in this enclosure are Heath Wood-rush Luzula multiflora and Brown Sedge C. disticha. The soil is acidic peat and the tussocky nature of the terrain has some of it bathed in alkaline ground-water while other parts stand proud. The calcifuges Common Cotton-grass, Bog Pimpernel, Heath Wood-rush and Purple Moor-grass, all mentioned above, as well as Tormentil Potentilla erecta, Carnation Sedge C. panicea and Common Sedge C. nigra grow side-by-side with the calcicoles Common Spotted-orchid D. fuchsi and Quaking Grass Briza media. Two other plants from this small, botanically rich patch are worthy of note: Water Avens G. rivale, seen already in the carr but more abundant here, and Devil’s-bit Scabious Succisa pratensis, the food plant of the caterpillars of the Marsh Fritillary, Eurodryas aurinia, referred to below. Fields on the Valley Slopes The Northern Fields These meadows [J, K and L] were bougnt by the Trust in 1995 as a buffer zone and to provide winter grazing for the Belted Galloways. They are also grazed during the summer with his own cattle by the contract farmer who looks after the Belties. The western fields are improved grassland of little botanical interest, but the eastern one [L] —- the one which has medieval ridge and furrow — is only semi-improved and has much more diversity. There are several plants of Pignut Conopodium majus in the drier part at the top of the field and lower down many of the fenland plants, including several Common Spotted-orchids D. fuchsi and Bottle Sedge C. rostrata, which has only just colonised this part. Since the Trust has owned them none of the fields have been treated with fertilizer or pesticide and nor, of course, will they be in the future. There are isolated oaks Q. robur — one of them developing a ‘stag’s head’ of dead branches — and some fine standard oaks in the hedgerows. Cuttings of the native Black-poplar Populus nigra have been planted. These were taken from one of several male trees a few miles downstream. The wet flushes in all these fields have not yet been studied properly, but may well be of great interest for the many invertebrates that rely on seepages. Although small in area, as they are geological features they are likely to have existed a very long time, possibly thousands of years. It is this continuity which could make them of great ecological significance. Soldier flies often breed in 266 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE such places including three that have been recorded on the reserve: Oplodontha viridula, Oxycera nigricornis and O. trilineata. The large logs produced by pollarding have been piled at the edges of these fields near the willows from which they came. Being out in the open in sunny places, they are warm and relatively dry — it is unusual for logs in such a situation to be left in place, so they form a comparatively rare habitat. The nationally notable longhorn beetle Leptura quadrifasciata was recorded on them in 1997 and again last year, when four were seen, two of them mating. Leaf-cutter bees and solitary wasps have been seen using the beetle exit holes, but they have not been identified to species level. The Southern Fields: Big Forty The single large arable field to the south of the then reserve was bought by the Trust in October 1997 to protect the main part of the reserve. During the first year a maize crop was planted (without fertilizer or other dressing) and cut to reduce the fertility of the land. The field was then put down to grass. This is cut twice a year for silage, again in order to reduce fertility. Eighty-six species of native flowering plants and several mosses have been found here ina recent survey. Unfortunately, an agricultural strain of White Clover Titfolium repens has established itself, which is busily putting the nitrogen back. The one large field has been divided into three by a broad belt and triangle containing 3820 hedging plants, including 860 hazel, 1120 hawthorn, several blocks of gorse (which used to grow on this slope before it was converted to arable) and a few other species. This planting will, in due course, provide a valuable habitat for a wide range of wildlife including, it is hoped, dormice Muscardinus avellanarius which have been found in the woodland at the far end of the field. The main long-term aim for the fields is to create species-rich grass-heath. An additional proposal is to designate half a hectare or so for ploughing each year, to allow a weed crop to develop (Mobsby, 2001). This would be excellent for birds and would follow the recommendations of the Wiltshire Biodiversity Action Plan (2002, 7: 12 action 41). FAUNA The groups considered below are some of those for which there are reasonably extensive records. Spiders by Martin Askins Fifty or so spiders have been recorded from the Reserve, none of which is particularly rare, although two are uncommon. These are Araneus marmoreus, a member of the orb-weaving family (in the same genus as the common, garden cross spider, A. diadematus), and Xysticus ulmi, a crab spider. Nationally A. marmoreus has a _ widespread distribution but is local, its habitats including damp woodland where it makes its web in trees, shrubs or even tall, rank vegetation. It has been recorded from only eight other sites in Wiltshire. X. ulmi is found in the field layer of damp habitats such as fens or marshes, and has been recorded from seven other sites in the county. Demoiselles, Damselflies and Dragonflies Eleven species have been recorded. The Banded Demoiselle Calopteryx splendens is not uncommon on the canal and has been recorded flying over the northern fields. One damselfly, the Emerald Damselfly Lestes sponsa, has been recorded only once, in 2001, but four others are common, usually seen around the Ida Gandy Pond or over the eastern fen: White-legged Damselfly Platycnemis pennipes, the Azure Damselfly Coenagrion puella, the Common Blue Damselfly Enallagma cyathigerum, and the Blue-tailed Damselfly Jschnura elegans. Three Hawkers can be seen in most parts of the reserve: the Migrant Aeshna mixta, the Southern A. cyanea and the Brown A. grandis. The Four-spotted Chaser Libellula quadrimaculata is not usually found at base-rich sites, but has been recorded twice, once in 1987 and again in 2001. Finally, the Common Darter Sympetrum striolatum should be at home in many parts of the reserve, but has been recorded only by the pond. Butterflies The butterflies have not been monitored systematically, but nevertheless 24 species have been recorded in more than one year, most of them regularly. The first to be seen in large numbers almost every year are Orange-tip Anthocharis cardamines and Green-veined White Pieris napi: in good years, THE WILTSHIRE WILDLIFE TRUST’S VERA JEANS NATURE RESERVE 267 SRN NU) ied 2. it River Avon in South-west Fen 268 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Orange-tip these two flutter everywhere you look on the open fens. Both feed on crucifers which grow here in plenty, particularly their favourite Cuckooflower C. pratensis. These two closely related butterflies do not compete with each other despite having the same food as, like Jack Sprat and his wife, they share the plant between them: the Orange-tip caterpillars eat the flower buds, flowers and, above all, the seed pods, while the Green-veined White feeds on the leaves. Orange-tip butterflies spend little time taking nectar, but the Green-veined White is an avid feeder and the males can often be seen ‘puddling’, that is supplementing their diet with sodium and other salts by feeding from muddy soil. The grass-feeders do well on the fen: Meadow Browns Maniola jurtina and Ringlets Aphantopus hyperantus are the commonest while Large Skippers Ochlodes venata are also frequently seen. The abundant Greater Bird’s-foot-trefoil L. pedunculatus attracts a good few Common Blues Polyommatus icarus in most years, particularly this one when parts of the fen seemed alive with them. Docks Rumex sp. are the chosen food of the widespread but now thinly distributed butterfly, the Small Copper Lycaena phlaeas which can usually be found on the reserve during August and September. With nettles so common on the reserve it is no surprise that the Nymphalinae are abundant. Red Admirals Vanessa atalanta and Peacocks Inachis io feeding on Hemp-agrimony E. cannabinum make one of the memorable sights of a visit to the reserve. The Purple Hairstreak Quercusia quercus although said to be quite common in southern Britain (Emmet and Heath, 1990, 128) is rarely seen, as it spends most of its time at the tops of oaks and ashes feeding on aphid honeydew. I have only once seen it at ground level, early one morning drinking dew. As its scientific name suggests, its caterpillars feed Green-veined Whites puddling on oak Quercus sp. Both the butterfly and its eggs have been recorded on the reserve. From time to time, including this year, the nationally scarce Marsh Fritillary Eurodryas aurinia has been seen on its sole food plant, the Devil’s-bit Scabious S. pratensis. In 1991 some captive-bred larvae were introduced. Breeding has occurred but a lasting population has never established itself. There are known colonies not very far away on the Pewsey Downs and on Salisbury Plain. Moths by Humphrey Kay Light trapping for moths has had a limited program (ten occasions) between May 1998 and September 2000. A total of 120 species of macromoths were identified, mostly common but with a few of local interest. They include Dingy Shears Parastichtes ypsillon, a wetland species and Triple-spotted Pug Eupithecia trisignaria whose larvae feed on the seed-heads of Wild Angelica. Uncommon day-flying moths include the Blackneck Lygephila pastinum and the Scarlet Tiger Callimorpha dominula, with larvae feeding conspicuously on Comfrey and Nettle. In the past Jones’s Mill was an isolated enclave for this moth but in the last fifteen years it has spread a mile or more upstream and downstream — part ofa national resurgence. One of the Five-spot Burnet-moths is seen regularly in June and July, possibly Zygaena trifolu decreta, rather than the Narrow-bordered Five-spot Z. lonicerae, but the distinction is . notoriously difficult. Tunnels in sawn trunks of Sallow have shown the presence of Lunar Hornet moth Sesza bembeciformis, while the abundance of the Drinker Moth Euthrix potatoria has at times been most evident from their hairy caterpillars. These feed on Glyceria and are highly attractive in THE WILTSHIRE WILDLIFE TRUST’S VERA JEANS NATURE RESERVE 269 April and May to the many Cuckoos which used to visit the reserve in the eighties and early nineties. Beetles by Michael Darby More than 200 species of beetle have been found at Jones’s Mill. They include representatives of most of the main families as one would expect given the wide range of habitats. This number, however, is based on a handful of observations only in 2001 and 2002, and will certainly increase in future. One Red Data Book (RDB3) and ten nationally notable (Nb) species have been recorded. The RDB species is the small water beetle Eubria palustris which lives in flushes and wet hollows and was found in the South West Fen together with the Notable leaf beetle Plateumaris affinis, usually associated with sedges, and Stenus niveus, a Notable rove beetle living on reeds and other vegetation at the fen edge. Another unusual water beetle found here is Paracymus scutellaris, more commonly a denizen of moorland. The wide spread but local Notable species Scaphisoma boleti, Eledona agricola, Orchesia minor and Gyrophaena angustata, were all found in their preferred habitat in fungi on dead trees in one of the more heavily wooded parts of the middle of the Reserve. Here, too, the rare ‘soldier and sailor’ _ beetle Rhagonycha translucida also occurs. Perhaps the most spectacular of all the beetles found at Jones’s Mill is the black and yellow Longhorn beetle Strangalia quadrifasciata, which has been observed on several occasions running about on a log pile in which the larvae were undoubtedly living. This is a rare beetle nationally which has been expanding its range recently and it is now not uncommon in Wiltshire. Care must be taken however not to confuse it with the similar S aurentula, the female of which is larger and redder, another species which is also rare but expanding. The handsome weevil Grypus equiseti, the only Notable weevil found on the Reserve to date, was _ discovered after an intensive search, in a patch of its preferred food plants Horsetails, Equisetum species, close to the river in the east. Because Jones’s Mill supports a large number of old and decaying trees, and management has allowed for the retention of fallen and dead wood on site, it is certain that further sampling will increase the number of saproxylic beetle species recorded. To the important species living in this habitat already mentioned may be added the cardinal beetles Pyrochroa coccinea and P serraticornis, and the wood borer Prilinus pectinicornis. Birds The birds have been recorded for as long as Jones’s Mill has been a reserve. In particular the SSSI has been studied using the methods of the British Trust for Ornithology Common Bird Census during 1984 — 1994, 1999, 2000 and 2002 — present. Including winter visitors, 66 species have been recorded, of which 43 are known to have bred. Six of these 66 have not been detected in the last ten years. One, the Lapwing Vanellus vanellus, is said to have been often seen on the reserve but there is no record of breeding; the other five, however, did. These were: Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis, Nightingale Luscinia megarhynchos, Grasshopper Warbler Locustella naevia, Willow Tit Parus montanus, and Yellowhammer Emberiza citrinella. Although regrettable, most of these losses are only in line with the national picture and there have been no further losses since 1988 (but a few gains, for example Buzzard Buteo buteo). Several of the nationally endangered birds (British Trust for Ornithology, 2003) are found regularly: 13 on the Amber List (9 breeding) and 6 on the Red List (3 breeding). There used to be ‘any amount’ of drumming Snipe Gallinago gallinago up to the late 1940s (Wall, 1999) but they last bred in 1982. However they still come regularly as winter visitors. There was a wisp of ten last winter, of which two birds stayed until early May. This might suggest that there is a chance they will breed again on the reserve, but the vast majority of snipe wintering in England are migrants from northern and eastern Europe (Wernham et al., 2002, 316). Water Rail Rallus aquaticus and Woodcock Scolopax rusticola visit in the winter. The former may be resident — they are notoriously difficult to observe in the breeding season — or in any case local birds. Breeding Woodcock, on the other hand, are so easy to detect from their roding flight that we can be confident that they do not breed on the reserve. As English birds are sedentary these are probably Scandinavian migrants (Wernham et al., 2002, 319). Kingfishers Alcedo atthis sometimes nest on the reserve in rootplates and regularly fish in the ponds, river and leats throughout the year. Last year on several days they could be seen repeatedly flying across the fen to their favourite stream, and then returning with beakfuls of fish to a nest just 270 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE outside the reserve. The Belties help these birds by keeping the streams clear of vegetation. Throughout the year, the reserve is a favourite fishing site for Grey Heron Ardea cinerea, which probably also take frogs in the meadows. Just a few years ago Cuckoos Cuculus canorus came in large numbers, but now there are only one or two each year. Barn Owls Tyto alba hunt over Big Forty and the fen, but are not Known to have bred while Tawny Owls Strix aluco do, with two pairs in some years. Reed Buntings Emberiza schoeniclus have bred successfully in most years, at least one pair every year since 2000. This year there were two females and one male (the bird is sometimes polygamous). At Jones’s Mill recently they have nested in the isolated shrubs in and around the fens where they hunt their food, but their usual position is at ground level or on sedge tussocks (Snow & Perrins 1998, 1675). During the summer they are exclusively insectivorous. They have been recorded on the reserve only during the breeding season. The bird’s usual behaviour after breeding is to congregate in flocks and feed largely on small seeds of arable weeds. Their decline, like that of many farmland birds, is thought to be caused by poorer survival rates of fledglings during the winter now that weeds are scarce (Wingfield Gibbons et al., 1993, 436). The carr and northern woodland have breeding Sparrowhawk A. nisus, Green Woodpecker Picus viridis, Great Spotted Woodpecker Dendrocopos major, Nuthatch Sitta europaea and Treecreeper Certhia familiaris. In recent years there have been three pairs each of Song Thrush Turdus philomelos, Goldcrest Regulus regulus and Long-tailed Tits Aegithales canolatus. In the winter, flocks of up to twenty or so Long-tailed Tits roam through the woods, sometimes accompanied by Blue, Marsh and Coal Tits Parus caeruleus, P palustris and P. ater and by Goldcrests R. regulus. There are very few Dunnocks Prunella modularis on the reserve (just two pairs in 2003). They are found where there are brambles — often a preferred feeding ground included in their territory (Bishton, 2001). Mammals There have been a few small-scale investigations, but our knowledge of the mammals depends mostly on casual observations. The only British Insectivore that has never been recorded is the Hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus. Great Spotted Woodpecker All three shrews have been found, the Water Shrew Neomys fodiens, just once in the very early days of the reserve. Moles Jalpa europea are widespread. There are at least two bats, probably many more. Rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus are common, but no hares Lepus capensis have ever been seen. The Grey Squirrel Scirus carolinensis is common. Surprisingly, the Bank Vole Clethrionomys glareolus has been seen only once and the Field Vole Microtus agrestis was not recorded until very recently, although both are almost certainly present in good numbers. In the 1940s there were ‘masses’ of Water Vole Arvicola terrestris (Wall, 1999) and they were still common in the 1980s but then the numbers slumped. Mink Mustela vison, that I saw with young in the river, were the probable cause. The vole numbers recovered to some extent but there are still very few. Recently found remains of predated Crayfish probably mean that Mink have returned. The records include Woodmouse Apodemus sylvaticus and Yellow-necked Mouse A. flavicollis and also Harvest Mice Micromys minutus. Dormice Muscardinus avellanarius have been found THE WILTSHIRE WILDLIFE TRUST’S VERA JEANS NATURE RESERVE 271 within a few metres of the reserve boundary. There are suitable habitats on the reserve adjoining this spot, So it is quite possible that they are present, but if so they have eluded detection. Foxes Vulpes vulpes, and their cubs, are seen regularly at all times of the day. Stoats Mustela erminea are seen far less often, but are still fairly common. Badgers Meles meles regularly use a tree trunk which has fallen across the river as a convenient bridge. There are several sets on the reserve and dung pits and dug-out wasp nests are found quite often. After the second world war the local keepers were busily shooting Otters Lutra lutra and nailing their legs to barn doors (Wall, 1999) but, as in most of southern England, they disappeared years ago. However, in the hope of their return, an artificial holt has been constructed next to the river. There have been no signs of them on the reserve so far, unless they, rather than Mink, have been taking the Crayfish, but it is encouraging that there has been a reliable sighting this year within 5 kilometres of the reserve. During the last ten years or so, Roe Deer Capreolus capreolus have been seen regularly and there are now at least six, including a fine mature buck. From dusk to dawn they roam all over the reserve, but during the day are usually in the carr or more remote areas of tall fen. Other Notable Species by Michael Darby Of the remaining insects recorded from the Reserve to date the most important are undoubtedly two sawflies and a hoverfly, all Red Data Book species. Dolerus megapterus, one of the ‘black’ Dolerus group of sawflies some of which are found in good numbers in grassland in Spring, is very rare in Britain with only 25 records mostly from Scotland. It uses sedges rather than grasses as a larval food plant. D. bimaculatus, one of the red-bodied members of the genus which lives on Equisetum, was also mainly known from Scotland with a similar number of - records until after 1980 when it was recorded from several English sites. Jones’s Mill represents the most southern record for both species. Interestingly, the hoverfly Cheilosia pubera, the third RDB species, is another whose main stronghold is in the north of Britain. Unlike many hoverflies C. pubera, which is believed to breed in Marsh-marigolds, is black but appears heavily dusted because of thick pubescence. A second specimen has recently turned up on the River Test in Hampshire. Two other scarce, dark-coloured hoverflies also found on the Reserve are the Notable Pipizella virens, Which is associated on the continent with aphids at the roots of Umbelliferae, and the larger Ferdinandea cuprea. The last is widespread in old woodlands but easily overlooked because of its habit of sitting on old tree trunks or dead leaves in dappled light. Other flies of interest found at Jones’s Mill are the local horse-fly Haematopota crassicornis, one of the group sometimes known as ‘Cleg’ flies, and the soldier-flies Oxycera nigricornis and Stratiomys potamida. The Notable S. potamida, known as the Banded General because of its large size and black and yellow markings, has become more common since the 1970s and 1s nearly always found close to wet places. Finally, the hornet Vespa crabro has been recorded commonly on the Reserve, where it breeds in old trees, dozens being observed as recently as October 2003. SURVEYS AND MONITORING There has been on-going recording from the late 1980s to the present, most importantly of the flora by Audrey Summers and also of the birds by, successively, Beatrice Gillam, Humphrey Kay and Beverley Heath and of the water levels by Humphrey Kay. Before 1990 various surveys of habitats and vegetation types were made by staff from the then Nature Conservancy Council. There were also surveys of lichen by D.J. Hill and B. Fox, fungi by M.W. Storey and leafhoppers by Keith Payne. Since then, there have been occasional surveys of several features and taxa: vegetation type and distribution by Wanda Fojt of English Nature and by Paul Darby and Piers Mobsby for the Wiltshire Wildlife Trust, hedgerows by Pat Froud, bryophytes by Rod Stern, invertebrates by Andy Foster, Vertigo moulinsiana by Ian Killeen, spiders by Martin Askins, moths by Dominic Counsell and Humphrey Kay, beetles by Michael Darby. Many valuable individual records have also been submitted by numerous visitors to the reserve. Surveys of small mammals using a grid of Longworth traps started late in 2003, and it is hoped that butterflies will be monitored regularly from 2004. There is a programme of recording for all Trust Reserves, but resources are stretched and there is plenty of scope for volunteers. In particular it would be good to know more about the invertebrates of the wet flushes, the bees and wasps, 272 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE the moths and life in the ponds, streams ditches and rivers. Acknowledgements I am very grateful to David Turner, Head of Reserves Management at the Wiltshire Wildlife Trust, for permission to use papers and records held by the Trust, and to Humphrey Kay, Piers Mobsby, Audrey and Leslie Summers and Janet Tanner who read this paper in draft and made very helpful comments and suggestions. References ANON, 2002 Wiltshire Biodiversity Action Plan. Devizes: English Nature & Wiltshire Wildlife Trust BARRON, R.S., 1976, The Geology of Wiltshire. Bradford- on-Avon: Moonraker Press BISHTON, G., 2001, Social structure, habitat use and breeding biology of hedgerow Dunnocks Prunella modularis. Bird Study 48, 188 — 193 BRITISH TRUST FOR ORNITHOLOGY, 2003, www.bto.org/psob CHANDLER, J., 1999, Historic Land Use Assessment of Trust Reserves, The Vera Jeans Reserve Wiltshire Wildlife Trust (unpublished) EMMET, A.M. and HEATH, J. (eds.), 1990, The Moths and Butterflies of Great Britain and Ireland Vol. 7 (1) The Butterflies. Colchester: Harley Books GILLAM, B. (ed.), 1993, The Wiltshire Flora. Newbury: Pisces Publications GODWIN, H., 1975, History of the British Flora. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press GOVER, J.E.B., MAWER, A. and STENTON, EM., 1939, The Place-names of Wiltshire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press GROSE, D., 1957, The Flora of Wiltshire. Devizes: WANHS Natural History Section KERRIDGE, E., 1953, The Floating of the Wiltshire Water meadows, WANHM 55, 105 —- 118 MABBERLEY, D.J., 2002, The Plant Book. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press MOBSBY, P, 2001, Reserve Management Plan, Fones’s Mill — Draft. Wiltshire Wildlife Trust (unpublished) POLLARD, A.J. and BRIGGS, D., 1982, Genecological Studies of Urtica dioica L. I The nature of variation in U. dioica, New Phytologist 92, 453 — 470 POLLARD, AJ and BRIGGS, D., 1984a, Genecological Studies of Urtica dioica L. II Patterns of variation at Wicken Fen, Cambridgeshire, England, New Phytologist 96, 483 — 499 POLLARD, AJ and BRIGGS, D., 1984b, Genecological Studies of Urtica dioica L. III Stinging hairs and plant herbivore interactions, New Phytologist 97, 507 —522 RODWELL, J.S. (ed). 1998a, British Plant Communities: volume I Woodlands and scrub. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press RODWELL, J.S. (ed), 1998b, British Plant Communities: volume 2 Mires and heaths. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press RODWELL, J.S. (ed), 2000, British Plant Communities: volume 4 Aquatic communities, swamps and tall-herb fens. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press SNOW, D.W and PERRINS, C.M. (eds.), 1998, The Birds of the Western Palearctic (Concise Edition). Oxford: Oxford University Press SOIL SURVEY OF ENGLAND AND WALES, 1983, Sheet 6 — Soils of South East England, 1:250 000 map and legend. Harpenden: Rothamsted Experimental Station STACE, C., 1992, New Flora of the British Isles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press THORN, C and THORN, FE, 1979, Domesday Book, Wiltshire (History from the Sources). Chichester: Phillimore WALL, J., 1999, Transcripts of interviews with local people who have known Jones’s Mill for most of their lives. Wiltshire Wildlife Trust (unpublished) WERNHAM, C.V. TOMS, M.P, MARCHANT, J-H., CLARK, J.A., SIRIWARDENA & BAILLIE, S.R. (eds.), 2002, The Migration Atlas: movements of the birds of Britain and Ireland. London: T & AD Poyser WILTSHIRE COUNTY COUNCIL ARCHAEOLOGY SERVICE, (undated), Archaeological Assessment of Trust Reserves, Fones’s Mill, The Vera Feans Reserve. WCC and WWT (unpublished) WINGFIELD GIBBONS, D., REID, J. & CHAPMAN, R., 1993 ,The New Atlas of Breeding Birds in Britain and Treland: 1988 — 199]. London: T & AD Poyser Wiltshire Archaeological & Natural History Magazine, vol. 97 (2004), pp. 273-92 An Investigation into the Life of A.D. Passmore, ‘A Most Curious Specimen’ by Laura Phillips A biographical account of the Wiltshire archaeologist Arthur Dennis Passmore (1877 — 1958) is presented, together with an assessment of his fieldwork, and a discussion of his collecting activities. Far from being a rogue antiques dealer, as he is remembered, he should be regarded as a man with a passionate interest in recording the history of North Wiltshire, who contributed significantly to the archaeological study of the county. Lists of his published output and the present whereabouts of his collection are appended. While looking round and collecting objects of interest in this neighbourhood, I have often noticed little things, which, while not important enough at the time to report in any paper or magazine may in the light of future discoveries be of great value. Therefore I am filling this volume with little notes which when completed may find a resting place in some museum where the archaeologists of a future time may peruse it with advantage.' (ADP unpublished 1903, i) INTRODUCTION During summer 2002, as an intern in the Department of Antiquities at the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford, one of my duties was to engage in research for a public enquiry into their collections from Stonehenge. The majority of - Stonehenge material at the Ashmolean is noted in the Accession Register as being from the collection of Mr. A.D. Passmore. The objects held ranged from worked flints from Wiltshire to Acheulian hand-axes from Egypt. Letters relating to his collection do not supply information about the collector. Humphrey Case, former Keeper of the Department, discussed with me the circumstances surrounding the collection being donated to the Ashmolean, and encouraged me to continue the investigation described here. In the Epilogue to his Encyclopaedia of Archaeology: The Great Archaeologists, Tim Murray emphasises that there are many ‘hidden histories of archaeology (Murray 1999a, 877). One of his examples is the contribution of 20th-century amateur archaeologists before the ‘professional- isation’ of archaeology (Murray 1999a). Amateur archaeology in Wiltshire is no exception to this (see for example the recent biographical studies of Alexander Keiller (Murray 1999c) and Maud Cunnington (Roberts 2002)). This paper focuses on the life and achievements of a contemporary of the Cunningtons and Keiller, Arthur Dennis Passmore (21877 — 1958). Despite being an active member of the Wiltshire archaeological community from the early 1880s until the mid 1950s, a period of almost 80 years, there has been no major study or indeed even proper local recognition of his life, nor of his extensive collection of local archaeological material. Passmore was a member of many scholarly societies, including the Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society; The British Numismatic Society; The Royal Anthropological Pitt Rivers Museum, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PP 274 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Society; The Berkshire Archaeological Society; The Royal Archaeological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland;? The Prehistoric Society; and the Newbury and District Field Club. His interests were not restricted to archaeology; his letters reveal a knowledge of palaeontology, geology, ornithology, photography, aerial photography, antiques of all periods, anthropology, place-names, numismatics, experimental archaeology, restoration of furniture and archaeological objects and local dialect and folklore. Passmore was a character about whom there are many rumours, including that he was a diamond smuggler, as suggested by a character based on him in the novel The Trap* (Treherne 1985), and that he was the last Englishman out of King Tut’s tomb (Elliot? 1985, 11). Passmore was indeed an interesting character, and I have attempted to piece together his biography from his field notebook and the letters that he wrote to a variety of museum curators over the course of his life. From these it is possible to glean a sense of his personality. THE LIFE OF A.D. PASSMORE (1877 — 1958) Arthur Dennis Passmore (Figure 1) was the second son of Richard Keylock and Jane Passmore. The family owned a business at 29 and 30 Wood Street, Old Town, Swindon involved in antique dealing, paper hanging and cabinetmaking. His older brother, Hercules, was listed as working for the family business as a cabinetmaker in the 1891 Census, while Arthur, then aged about 14, was listed as a ‘scholar’. Probably through the influence of his father, Arthur showed a keen interest in local history and archaeology from an early age. This is evident in his recollection of events such as his boyhood visit to the excavation by Henry Meux at Avebury in 1894 (Passmore 1935). The antique- dealing side of the Passmore family business introduced Passmore to the acquisition of objects, to local networks of dealers and collectors, and provided a suitable platform for the development of his interest in archaeology and local history. In 1937, Passmore wrote to Dr E. Curwen,° at the Lewes Museum, of going to a sale in London with his mother: ‘About forty years ago my late Mother bought these flints for me in Russell Square, I well remember going with her to some hotel where a man from Sussex had spread out his collection for sale and as a boy I picked out what Fig. 1 A.D. Passmore, photograph, from his field notebook (WANHS Library, Devizes] you now have’ (Passmore LM, 23 July 1937). Passmore did not go to university, but he was clearly intelligent, and filled with a natural curiosity about the world. His self-education through books and professional contacts were driven by his passion for archaeology and antiquities, and he became a respected member of the Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society. His first articles, about a stone circle near Coate (see Burl, this volume) and barrows on Liddington Warren Farm, were published in the Society’s magazine in 1893 (Passmore 1893a, 1893b). The young Passmore was a keen photographer, a necessary skill in the antiques trade learned from his father (Passmore BM, April 30 1953). He was an avid walker, and weekly covered miles by foot on various routes around North Wiltshire, particularly to Avebury (Passmore ASH, Oct 24, 1955). Passmore started collecting archaeological and palaeontological specimens from the Swindon area in earnest around 1894. From the earliest days his collection consisted of objects he collected while on his walks, his excavating activities and his network of archaeological ‘informants’, including farm labourers, quarry diggers and others. Passmore wrote in his field notebook of men digging at a long AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE LIFE OF A.D. PASSMORE 275 barrow North of Sugar Hill around 1896 and finding skeletons: ‘. . . unfortunately I arrived too late to get the skull but brought away some of the bones’ (ADP unpublished, 6). His collecting efforts after only four years were impressive enough to be displayed during the forty-fifth general meeting of the Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society, held at Swindon on 5-7 July, 1898: .. . Mr. Passmore’s collections of local antiquities, chiefly gathered within the last four years, show what can be done in a single locality by anyone who possesses the requisite amount of knowledge, patience, and perseverance, in saving and bringing together objects which would otherwise be lost or destroyed. The number of stone implements is large, and includes one or two small specimens of apparently Palaeolithic flints from the gravels near Swindon — a couple of ground axes of a hard green stone, a very rough long flint chisel in its buck’s-horn handle — and a ground celt perforated at the butt end for suspension — as well as a curious rough axe-head of sarsen — and an object like a gigantic bead some 6 or 7 inches in diameter formed from a dark volcanic stone full of holes — all of which were found in the neighbourhood of Swindon. There were two or three cases filled with the Samian and other pottery, the painted wall plaster, and other remains from the Roman house at Weslecote, and others with the earlier fragments of pottery, &c., from the British settlement within the ramparts of Lyddington Castle. A nice series of Saxon remains, urns, spear-head, knives, necklaces of blue glass, and amber beads, are part of a large find of Saxon objects at Shefford, near Lambourne, Berks, the remainder of which are now in the British Museum. The pot discovered lately at Latton, whether it is of late Celtic or Romano-British date, is certainly of a very unusual and remarkable type. Mr. Passmore also exhibited good specimens of circular pack-horse bells, marked R.W. (probably R. Wells, of Aldbourne), and apparently of seventeenth century date, a man-trap, watchman’s rattle, and an interesting sword, found in a barn at Stratton, of Civil War date, with ‘Andrea Ferrara’ on the blade. The collection included a considerable number of Saurian remains from the Kimmeridge Clay of Swindon: vertebrae, jaws, and limb bones of Ichthyosaurus Pleiosaurus, Plesiosaurus, and Teleosaurus-the most notable specimen amongst them being a very large bone, as to which authorities have not as yet been able to decide, either the species of the beast or the position in its body, to which it belonged. Altogether the collection is a remarkable one and shows what may be done by anyone who takes the trouble to keep his eyes open (Anon 1898, 91-2). Passmore’s first encounter with the military was in 1899, during the South African War. He enlisted in the No.l Company of the Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry [RWY] and was stationed in Trowbridge for training. In March 1900 the RWY arrived in Cape Town, and participated in various battles with the Boers until being sent back to England in July 1901 (Graham 1908). Passmore was awarded the prestigious Distinguished Conduct Medal (Anon 1960). After his war experience, Passmore returned to Swindon and resumed his acquisition of archaeological specimens. His field notebook for 1902 records that he found a flint axe and scrapers in a ploughed field South of Fargo Plantation, Amesbury (ADP unpublished 1902, 55), and bought a pot full of burnt bones and an incense cup found at Wilton, North Wiltshire (ADP unpublished 1902, 74-5). In Swindon, Passmore’s activities included buying and selling objects around Wiltshire for the family business, which meant frequent trips to auctions in the area and in London. His archaeological projects primarily consisted of opening barrows and searching gravel quarries for fossils and stone tools. He systematically recorded his finds in his field notebook, along with observations on natural history, and discoveries made during farm or construction work. Passmore was a dedicated letter writer, and corresponded frequently with Hercules Read and Reginald Smith in the Department of British and Medieval Antiquities at the British Museum,’ and often sent them objects for their opinion so that he could describe them in the Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine. From 1909 to 1912, Passmore spent time in Sudan, apparently on an archaeological excavation (Cunnington 1912, 532), and Egypt, particularly in Thebes, Luxor and Cairo. He collected a large number of Acheulian hand axes from the desert west of Thebes, that are now in the Ashmolean Museum. He worked in Luxor, where he collected objects later sold in London and was a student for a short period in Cairo. He also travelled into Abyssinia. Passmore returned to Wiltshire in 1912, and resumed his usual activities, including his local archaeological endeavours: he excavated a mound at Chandler’s Farm, Aldbourne; a mound and a 276 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Roman well at North Farm, Aldbourne; a barrow at Smeeth’s Ridge, Ogbourne; collected surface finds from rabbit holes from Barrow 40, Fargo Plantation, the Okus Quarry in Swindon and the Winterbourne Stoke Group of Barrows. He acquired a 14th-century carved oak ‘bench end’, which he placed on loan in the Department of Woodwork at the Victoria and Albert Museum. In November 1913 he was nominated as a fellow to the Royal Anthropological Institute. Despite being almost 40, Passmore served in Worid War I, with the 4th Wiltshire Regiment in India, before being transferred to the Mechanical Transport Corps. In August 1916 Passmore wrote to Hercules Read from Peshawar on the North West Frontier: While talking to a man from Tibet, he told me of a necklace of stone beads that he had procured there. He gave me two and I was interested to notice that they were exactly like some from our Wilts Barrows only smaller ‘Pulley Beads’. The holes at the base meet inside (drawing). I think I could get two for the B.Museum if you think them of sufficient interest for comparison with the English ones. Carpenters out here use a peculiar iron axe-hammer, which seems to be a descendant of a stone axe in its holder; it is in two pieces thus (drawing). If there is anything I can do as regards archaeology on this Frontier would be delighted to do it, in the way of obtaining required specimens or information of tribal customs. (Passmore BM, 1 August 1916) He later mentioned having been to Afghanistan, and around the Himalayan foothills. In 1917, Passmore returned to England, having achieved the rank of Quarter Master Sergeant, and was stationed at I.W. & D.R.E. Henbury, Bristol. He began to correspond with Herbert Bolton at Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery about objects in their collections. In one of his letters to Bolton, Passmore mentioned that during a recent visit to the museum he had noticed that there were no local flint specimens on display. He offered one that he had found in Henbury Camp, which was accepted into the museum’s collections’ (Passmore BR, 27 November 1917). He returned to Swindon in 1918. His brother had been killed in the war, which left him to run the family business with the help of his elderly parents. Passmore joined the Prehistoric Society in 1919, and was a member until the year before his death. He continued to be an active member of the Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society. Field trips included a ten-day tour of Wales as well as an excursion to France to examine mounds for comparison with Silbury Hill (Passmore 1920a). He also excavated the south side of a standing stone in a hedge east of Stanton Fitzwarren [Wiltshire SMR no. SU19SE552], the plan of which is included in his field notebook. He read a paper on hammerstones to the Prehistoric Society at their Norwich meeting on 18 October 1920, and used his own observations from Africa to elucidate their use in prehistoric England (Passmore 1920b). Even in his late 40s, he continued to excavate. From 1926 to 1928 his excavations included Barrow 12 (Goddard) at Ogbourne St. Andrew; Barrow 1 (Goddard) at Ogbourne St. George; and Chiseldon 2 (Goddard), all reported in the Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine (Passmore 1928). Figure 2: Callas House, Wanborough, in 1960 (SU213 832), the home of A.D. Passmore from 1928 — 1958. (© Crown copyright. NMR. Ref: AA71/323) In 1927 Passmore’s parents died and he retired from the antiques business and travelled to Greece. The following year he moved to Callas House, Wanborough (Figure 2), in the company of Miss Smith, his housekeeper. Callas House was a large 17th-century farmhouse with a small amount of land and outbuildings. He had a photography studio in the stables, and was kept busy by the demands of maintaining the property, which included an apple orchard. By many accounts, Callas House became a private museum, with most of his collection on display. Passmore continued to correspond with the Keepers at the British Museum about a variety of topics. In a letter to Reginald Smith, he commented on the model of the ‘Wiltshire type’ of barrow that the British Museum had on display (Figure 3). Fieldwork throughout the 1930s included excavating the Giants Long’ Barrow at AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE LIFE OF A.D. PASSMORE 277 Fig. 3 Letter to Reginald Smith, 5 September 1932 Luckington; barrows at Ashbury (Oxon); and Nythe Farm, Wanborough. In the summer of 1934, Passmore went on a camping trip to Colchester, Burgh Castle, Norwich, Grimes Graves, Newmarket Dykes, Bartlow Hills and Whipsnade and visited Maiden Castle, Dorset. He also lectured during the winter months on various topics of an archaeological nature, for which he used visual aids drawn from his large collection of lantern slides. During World War II, Callas House was made into the head- quarters of the North East .- Wiltshire Home Guard (Passmore y ASH, May 4 1955), while Passmore’s ~ monitoring of archaeology in Wiltshire was somewhat limited due to petrol restrictions (Figure 4). Towards the end of the 1940s, Passmore suffered health prob- lems, including trouble with his eyes. At times, his health deteriorated to the point that he required hospitalisation. In a letter to J.W. Brailsford, Passmore wrote of his ‘terror of blindness’ | (Passmore BM, Feb 19, 1949). Despite ill health, he privately published his account of the Roman Mees Road from Silchester to Caerleon, in which he proved the name of the Roman town of Wanborough to have been Durocornovium? (Passmore 1948). On 6 March 1948, he wrote in his field notebook of a small stone with an inscription that had been found recently at Theobalds Cottage, near Coate. This entry was written in large, shaky handwriting, ending with ‘Written when nearly blind’ and underneath he later added ‘Can now see a bit A.D.P. 1957’ (ADP unpublished 1948, 151). Passmore continued to go to London even when suffering from angina. He seemed to have faced his health problems and impending old age with impatience mixed with humour and_ self- deprecation. In 1953 he wrote to R.J. Charleston at the Victoria and Albert Museum: Am sorry to have missed you at the Museum but as you know my one eye is none too good and I got mixed up in a maze of passages also was not in very good temper because I have to start from here at eight A.M. and in the darkness and hurry put on odd boots one brown and the other black, as I cannot see the ground it passed without notice tll I dropped my stick and saw the trouble and so departed much amused (Passmore V&A, January 9, 1953) To someone as independent and self-reliant as Passmore, it seems that having to be chaperoned on every outing was one of the more difficult adjustments that accompanied the impediments of old age. In 1954, Passmore wrote to Donald Harden at the Ashmolean Museum: Fig. 4 Letter to J.W. Brailsford, 18 May 1953 278 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE ... It would be a delightful experience to visit you and take advantage of your offer of hospitality but unfortunately after a very long and somewhat adventurous life am bound by the fact that an escort has to be found to take me around in which case am not a free man and have to conform to the movements of my _ escort... (Passmore ASH, November 6, 1954). Having never married, Passmore had contemplated the future of his collection since about 1930. Most of his archaeological objects were eventually donated to the Antiquities Department at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford in 1955 (the circumstances of which are discussed further below). Passmore offered his house and land to Oxford University, to use as a hostel or accommodation for students. The University declined this offer, apparently because Callas House had fallen into a state of disrepair and required almost complete renovation. Passmore’s eyesight continued to deteriorate in 1956, and at this time he seems to have become fairly bad-tempered and forgetful, exhibiting signs of mild senility. In January 1958 he visited the Ashmolean Museum to see his beloved collection, almost certainly for the last time, as he died at home, in Callas House, on 6 March 1958. A.D. PASSMORE IN THE FIELD Passmore recorded his archaeological observations in an unpublished manuscript almost 700 pages long. Although object provenances are not as precise as modern standards demand, most include directions to the find spot within a farm, or even a field, that could easily be matched to at least a four or six-figure national grid reference. His notebook also contains information about his daily activities, so that, in effect, it describes the history of 20th- century archaeology in Wiltshire.’ The following extract 1s typical (Figure 5). Coate & Broome Stones. Old Daniel Skinner of Devizes Road can well remember the breaking up of the large standing stones at Broome Farm (Longstone Field). He remembers some which were very white stone (sarsen) being taken to near Woodstock. He and also my father remember one large stone there which had what was thought to be the impression of a mans foot in it, and the people thought it was the devil’s footprint as he walked amongst the stones. I may perhaps be accused of seeing circle and avenues in all groups of sarsen stones, but I firmly believe that a lot of the lines of stones about here were deliberately placed in position. There is the part of a circle behind the barns on the E side of the Swindon Hodson Road just N of the public house. Another 1/2 circle by the Roadside opposite the Black Horse on the Wroughton — Swindon Road, a line of stones in the second park field leading to Coate. A long line of big stones 500 yds NE of Swindon Christ’s Church and another along the NW shore of Coate Reservoir. There are also many stones still at Broom. (ADP unpublished 1903, 62 — 63) Passmore limited his fieldwork to sites in North Wiltshire and the area around Avebury, which was of particular interest to him. He wrote, for instance, about Kennet Avenue at Avebury: Sometime ago I noticed that a lot of small natural sarsens were being broken up in the line of the Kennett [sic] Avenue, one was somewhat larger & stood right on the line. Goddard & I considered it not worth troubling about, however someone wrote to H.M. Inspector of A.M. and I met he & Captain Edwards (boss of Olymphia Agriculture Co) at the spot. I suggested that the stone should be buried where it is. This is now being done. It is 234 paces S of the last remaining stone towards Avebury and 20 paces E of road (ADP unpublished 1922, 273). His fieldwork interest included the _ re- investigation of field observations made by earlier archaeologists such as William Stukeley, John Thurnam, and A.C. Smith. He wrote of examining a stone circle near Avebury that had been noted by A.C. Smith: The stone circle must have been E of the one remaining stone, see Falkner’s measurements. Have just noticed that the barrow H is a much-ploughed long barrow & not a round barrow as thought by Smith. It is roughly 150 ft x 72. Found also a new round barrow just above Beckhampton, at top of hill leading to Avebury, in grass field & almost touching the S side of road (by side of footpath). Opened. William Pullen, owner of the ‘Sanctuary Field’ where the end of the Avenue once stood, tells me that about 1890 he moved a big stone from this field in the line of the Avenue & about half way up, they dug it up and pulled it down hill to the south & heaved it into the rubbish pit on the SE corner. It is still there but covered up. They nearly killed a horse on the job. Also in the line of the Avenue in the field bounded by the Bath & Avebury roads there is a very big stone, AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE LIFE OF A.D. PASSMORE 279 ri a. ea Bey Te os enc Ig LES SATE ee an tate 4 + AEs feng, : EI i en a yee den (Aogee wk te odo (pate) opie lg) ocala tordAgele the engines used to slip over it when coming there threshing. Have tried to find the one supposed to be under the Brewery but could not, the men know nothing of it (14 — 6 — 1922). Stone just inside door of Brewery garden buried 7ft deep. NW of this, in bank between two small fields, there are several large stones. (ADP unpublished 1922, 283 — 284) The final repository for this manuscript was obviously a concern for Passmore. One of the more amusing pages shows his change in favour over time. On December 3, 1910, he wrote: ‘I wish to leave this book to the Museum of the Wilts Archaeological Society. Unless there is a proper museum in Swindon (not any Technical School foolery) in which case it should go there but unless it is a first class show let the book go to the W.A. Society.’ In 1914, he wrote ‘Swindon Museum off. Send book to Devizes, A.D.P’, which is reinforced in 1930 with ‘Not to Swindon on any account whatever.’ However, all of this is scribbled out, and the final comment is ‘Cancelled A.D. Passmore June/1952’ (ADP unpublished, 3). Passmore was alive when Leslie Grinsell put together the archaeological gazetteer as part of the Victoria History of Wiltshire (Grinsell 1957), and his Fig 5 A typical page in Passmore’s field notebook (WANHS Library, Devizes). For transcription see page 278 opposite Bite et Ft. a Leer oh Pats Poe aot é i - 1 | oa rie Be i (heh hong Uh, ING oNAg ete fea i ee a Stowe ie Foes oe fost foe eile oS) ent Ais Ga ee Ga ek foe oe S ie Mahe field notebook was still in his possession. The gazetteer contains references to Passmore’s published work, but on the whole his unpublished manuscript is rarely cited in archaeological publications. A.D. PASSMORE AND THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY Passmore was a member of the WANHS for about sixty years, listed as being on the ‘Committee’ for almost thirty years. He contributed a substantial number of articles and notes to the Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine (see Appendix 1), the first published in 1893 and the last in 1950, with regular contributions in between. He also recorded information for M.W. Willson’s bird reports (Willson 1931), and made _ financial donations for various WANHS projects, including maintenance work on the museum in Devizes, and the funding of urgent local archaeological projects. 280 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE He donated a variety of objects to both the WANHS Library and Museum collections, though the number seems scanty in proportion to the size of his private collection. Local objects of interest from Passmore’s collection were frequently displayed at the Annual General Meeting of the WANHS. He sometimes contributed to the programme of events at an AGM by giving lectures, either when the touring party visited an archaeological site, or indoors during the evening. A home-made archaeological model usually accompanied his outdoor lectures, while his indoor evening lectures were ilustrated using his lantern slides. Passmore featured on one of the ‘days out’ during the Annual General Meeting of the WANHS, on Wednesday 12 August 1936: Leaving Ashbury at 10:30 the cars went up the hill and along the rough track of the Ridgeway to Waylands’ Smithy where Mr. A.D. Passmore was awaiting their arrival with a large plaster model of the Long Barrow specially made for the occasion showing the megalithic passage and chambers of the interior, and the stones which originally surrounded it outside. Here Mr. Passmore spoke of megalithic tombs and burial customs, as illustrated by the model before him, which to many of the company explained the original condition of the monument far better than any verbal description could do...Thence the cars went up to the down above the White Horse and members congregated on the sides of the ditch of Uffington Camp where Mr. Passmore had another plaster model showing the camp with a double wooden stockade on the banks. Here he discoursed at length on the purpose and history of the great camps, and also on that of the White Horse. He showed on the spot enlarged drawings and actual specimens of the British gold coins showing the disjointed horse, a degenerate copy of the ‘Stater’ of Philip of Macedon, the likeness of which to the figure of the White Horse has led to the suggestion that the monument may really date from pre-Roman times like the coins rather than from Saxon times. He himself, however, stood by the Battle of Ashdown and the Saxon Chronicle account as a historical document, and thought that the White Horse was a probable and fitting monument of Alfred’s victory. Both Mr. Passmore’s addresses, as well as his models, were greatly appreciated by those present. (Anon 1936, 493 — 494) Passmore seems to have had a sound reputation within Wiltshire and the WANHS for most of his life. Alongside his excavation of barrows and field collecting, he also participated in excavations at high profile sites in Wiltshire with well-known archaeologists. In August 1922 he helped W. Flinders Petrie excavate at Silbury Hill (Petrie 1923), and in 1923 he photographed some of the excavation work done by Lt. Col. W. Hawley at Stonehenge. In the same year he excavated part of the Avenue at Stonehenge with his fellow WANHS Committee member O.G.S. Crawford (Crawford 1924). Passmore contributed information and many of the photographs to The Long Barrows of the Cotswolds (Crawford 1925). It is likely that Crawford introduced Passmore to _ the archaeological uses of aerial photography, which Passmore explored further during his acquaintance with Major G.W.G Allen. This resulted in their co- authored article about the enigmatic Highworth circles in north Wiltshire (Allen and Passmore 1935). It is unclear exactly what events caused his abrupt resignation from the WANHS in 1952. Passmore’s current reputation seems to be of an ill- tempered and disreputable character, possibly due to his clashes with prominent members of WANHS, including Maud and Ben Cunnington, Alexander Keiller, Stuart Piggott and O.GS. Crawford. Passmore was very critical of the Cunningtons throughout the years of their acquaintance, and he seems to have had little respect for either of them in spite of their eminence and generosity within the Society. In 1923 Passmore wrote in his field notebook about the protest against the proposal to erect a wireless tower at Avebury: The Betrayal Special meeting of W.A.S. to protest against Wireless at Avebury. Cunnington had seen the Manor people in Town they had thrown dust in his eyes, told him that this was the only suitable place in England (real reason, cheapest land) & had stated that if there was no interference they would respect antiquities. So without firing one [illeg.] of protest the W.A.S. tamely surrendered. A_ disgraceful betrayal of their trust. One & one man only fought against it for 1 1/2 hours right through the meeting, myself alone, A.D.P. (ADP unpublished 1923, 705) When WANHS had to consider moving their museum collections in case of air raids, Passmore found fault with the Cunningtons for their poor treatment of the Hoare collection when it was removed from Stourhead to Devizes Museum. He wrote in his notebook: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE LIFE OF A.D. PASSMORE 281 It always seemed strange that things in this collection figured by Hoare as perfect are now broken, it was unthinkable that they could have been smashed at Stourhead. It now appears that the Cunningtons went down themselves & brought it away without employing experienced packers & smashed the pots by their lack of knowledge of moving things. B.H.C. said at a meeting at the Museum in March 1940 ‘We moved the Stourhead Coll, & have been repairing ever since’. I heard him say this. (ADP unpublished, 435) Alexander Keiller shared Passmore’s contempt for the Cunningtons (Roberts 2002). Passmore was quick to befriend Keiller soon after he arrived on the Wiltshire archaeology scene. He seemed to identify with Keiller more than other members of the WANHS because they had both been in ‘trade’, and were therefore of a similar social standing. In June 1933 Passmore wrote to Keiller about the snobbery at WANHS, ‘... you must not forget that at one time I was engaged in business and as such am a very low person to be familiar with. . .(Passmore KM, 15 June, 1933). Keiller replied, ‘I quite see what you mean as regards the possible snobbery of the WAS members. ..’ [and that Keiller had] ‘.. .been in business ...in trade... [and] that perhaps I have not got any very fine sensibilities concerning social distinction, which personally I consider not only arbitrary but fictitious at best’(Keiller KM, June 29, 1933). Passmore and Keiller were acquainted for much of the 1930s, and both found fault in some of the local archaeological work carried out by the Cunningtons. In 1934, Keiller wrote to O.GS. Crawford about spending some time with Passmore: We [Keiller and Stuart Piggott] had a stupendous afternoon two days ago with Passmore — I always seem to get on awfully well with Passmore — and on this occasion he was remarkably illuminating; his mind is positively an encyclopaedia on local archaeological information. Some of his stories of the Cunningtons shook even me up a bit, to say nothing of the photographs of ‘Adam’ before its fall and after its re-erection. I blame anyone who saw the first photograph and the result of Mrs. Cunnington’s handiwork and yet tacitly permitted her to have another shot at the stone in the Avenue. (Keiller KM, June 27, 1934) This friendship ended when Passmore, Keiller and Stuart Piggott collaborated in the excavation of a chamber that Passmore had discovered in the Lanhill Long Barrow in 1936: In Oct 1936 I directed the job of putting a fence round the S. chamber and was there each day from 7:30 til 4:30, nothing found in the holes dug to take the upright... Keiller and Piggott let me pay all expenses & then put me off time after time then printed the report behind my back. Dirty. Piggott did the same to General Hardy who discovered Ladle Hill SW of Newbury, he dug there secretly & Hardy got the blame for doing so without permission, P got all the praise & goes free. (ADP unpublished, 206 — 207) Less than fifty years after his death, Passmore remains largely forgotten in the history of both the WANHS and of archaeology in Wiltshire, despite his life-long dedication to both causes. His tendency to fall out with fellow members of the WANHS was probably a large factor in his decision to look for an alternative to the WANHS Museum for the permanent accommodation of his collection. In 1941 he shared his concern over the future of his objects with W.J.Arkell: After much suffering have at last become fed up with Cunnington, the fussy little Welshman and have refused to send my things to Devizes and have now no home for them, one could not send the work of a lifetime to Swindon, have a good mind to make a will ordering the whole lot to be sold. (Passmore UMNH, Dec 7, 1941) In the last years of his life, Passmore seemed to feel that his efforts were no longer appreciated by the WANHS. Passmore wrote to Brailsford at the British Museum, and said that Devizes would get nothing from him: ‘After working for them for over 60 years they treat me badly, the usual way. In Wilts there is an old saying “A kick for a Kindness”.’ (Passmore BM, May 18, 1953). PASSMORE AND HIS COLLECTION Passmore’s zeal for local history and archaeology is evident in both his publications and _ his outstanding collection. While his archaeological collection may be of more interest here, it is important to note that he also collected, and had an almost expert knowledge of, fine British and Oriental ceramics, fossils,!! antique furniture, paintings, books, and Classical antiquities. It is likely that most of his antiques were amassed during his time running the family business. He 282 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE often researched the provenances of his new acquisitions, as well as the circumstances of their discovery, with the realisation that contextual information enhanced their interest factor (ADP unpublished, 210 — 211). He also acquired from other collectors, including ‘the Barnes Collection’,”” and a collection of flints from Windmill Hill and Avebury that formerly belonged to G.D. Leslie. Passmore was dedicated to repatriating objects that he came across to the museum closest to their original provenance. This is evident from the number of objects he donated to various museums around the South West of England (see Appendix 2). From time to time, he would sell an object to a museum, usually at the price that he paid for it, not for profit. His museum correspondents included Reginald Smith, Hercules Read, T:D. Kendrick, J.W. Brailsford, E.A. Wallis Budge, C.EC. Hawkes, and A.B. Tonnochy at the British Museum; W-.J. Arkell at the Natural History Museum, University of Oxford; C.H.V. Sutherland, Ian Robertson, Humphrey Case, Donald Harden and E.T. Leeds at the Ashmolean Museum; Herbert Bolton, Frederick $. Wallis and Leslie Grinsell at Bristol Museum and Art Gallery; R.S. Newall and Frank Stevens at Salisbury Museum; A.J.E. Cave at the Royal College of Surgeons; and R.J. Charleston, E.A. Lane, W.B. Honey, Bernard Rack, H.C. Smith and A.J.B. Wace at the Victoria and Albert Museum. His letters to curators, usually written to discuss a ‘most curious specimen’ in their field of interest, were always very congenial, and phrased as if he saw himself almost as their peer. He perhaps used his collection to fit into the world of museums and academia, with which he felt he had more in common than in his local environment. He wrote to W.J. Arkell at Oxford that there was ‘...not one man in the whole village who can get higher that [sic] racing, football, women and booze’. (Passmore UM, Dec 7, 1941) Passmore had been considering the fate of his collection since the 1930s, aware that well- provenanced archaeological specimens might one day be of interest to researchers. In 1930 he wrote to the Department of Woodwork at the Victoria and Albert Museum, inviting them to look at his collection for a possible bequest, saying, ‘I am the last of my race...’ (Passmore V&A, March 22, 1930). He also wrote to the Natural History Museum, London, and sent a list of the fossils he would like to bequeath to them, saying, ‘Have half promised to give all my things to the county museum at Devizes but think that the best fossils ought to be with you, am sure they would agree to this if you thought them acceptable.’(Passmore NHML, January 31, 1936). Passmore has been described as ‘incalculable’. This was particularly evident when he was in pursuit of a museum to receive his collection. In the early 1950s he approached Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery about the possibility of a bequest. Leslie Grinsell and some of the museum directors visited him in 1953 to view his collection. Passmore corresponded frequently with members of the museum staff about his collection in 1954. The bequest seemed to have been decided when Passmore changed his mind. It is unclear why Bristol fell out of his favour. At this time, his behaviour was often irrational, a characteristic that has been identified by Muensterberger (1994) as a trait common to obsessive collectors. Whatever the reason, Passmore was once again left in search of a home for his collection. In 1951, Humphrey Case, Assistant Keeper in the Department of Antiquities at the Ashmolean Museum, had been researching finds from the Seven Barrows, Lambourn, Berkshire, and contacted Passmore to see if there were objects from the site in his collection. Passmore invited Case to Callas House to see his collection. During the last few years of his life Passmore made frequent visits to the Ashmolean Museum. When Passmore eventually offered his collection to the Department of Antiquities in late 1954, it is possible that his decision was largely the result of his friendship with Case. He had also promised his collection of rare British ceramics to the Department of Western Art at the Ashmolean Museum, but fell out with the Keeper there when he accused the Department of damaging one of his most precious objects: a Chelsea cream jug. Consequently, the Department of British and Medieval Antiquities at the British Museum received his ceramic collection.” It is within the realm of possibility that the Antiquities Department at Ashmolean Museum might have fallen out of his favour eventually, but Passmore died within a few years of his collection coming to Oxford. The remainder was sold at Sotheby’s “by order of the public trustee’ in May and June 1959. DISCUSSION Like some of his fellow members of the WANHS, Passmore could be a difficult individual at times. He was demanding, self-righteous, impatient, intolerant of snobbery, and held inflexible opinions AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE LIFE OF A.D. PASSMORE 283 about what he believed to be true. It is hoped that the above biographical account has adequately demonstrated that he is worthy of being remembered for his contributions to the archaeology of Wiltshire, and that he deserves a respected place in the history of the WANHS. Part of what made Passmore a unique character in archaeological history is that his life span bridged two eras: that of the antiquarian amateur archaeologist, and the introduction of modern professional archaeological practice. He demonstrated many qualities of these conflicting roles. His fieldwork can be criticized by modern standards, but he believed in publishing his archaeological fieldwork as well as the objects he acquired. His field notebook contains detailed notes on almost all of his excavating activities, including plans and some stratigraphic sections. Passmore also understood the importance of recording the past as it was destroyed by modern development. Passmore has been criticized for purchasing objects not reported under the then Treasure Trove law (Robinson 1984). Under Treasure Trove’ the right to confiscate finds was sometimes given to various ‘worthy’ individuals acting on behalf of the Crown (Longworth 1993). According to entries in Passmore’s field notebook, these local stewards were sometimes not wholly trustworthy. He recorded situations in which finds were taken by a local steward and the finder left without reward (ADP unpublished, 300 — 301). In the situation described by Robinson, Passmore had purchased silver spoons that had not been reported as a possible Treasure Trove find and therefore not subjected to an inquest. It seems clear that the finder of the spoons in question was going to sell the objects. While this does not excuse Passmore, it is hard to believe that he had malicious intent as he recorded their discovery and purchase in his field notebook, and wrote of the spoons in letters (Robinson 1984), a course of action unlikely if he had set out with criminal intent to break the law. Passmore has also been accused of falsifying find-spots in his publications. He openly admitted that he used a code to record find-spots for objects on display in his collection, but the key to deciphering these symbols was listed in his field notebook. His explanation for using what could be interpreted as a ‘secretive’ system was that when he had some people over to look at his collection they immediately went and plundered the sites that his objects were from (ADP unpublished, 700). Despite Wiltshire being the provenance for a large part of Passmore’s collection he ultimately felt that the Ashmolean Museum was the most suitable institution to receive his collection. In a letter to Donald Harden, Passmore wrote, ‘.. . I now walk round my empty museum and think after 70 years of wandering around Wiltshire it is no light thing to part with my hard earned treasure, every week end [sic] wet or fine I walked to Avebury from Swindon and after a turn round the downs walked back full of bread cheese & beer, always more than a thirty mile walk...’ (Passmore ASH, 24 October, 1955). To accept the collection was to accept Passmore. For all his efforts, he seems to have felt that he had been treated as an inferior by the ‘great and the good’ of Wiltshire. The Ashmolean Museum, with a history of receiving visitors and scholars alike, had an expansive world-view more in accordance with what Passmore expected from the guardians of his cherished objects. Moreover, perhaps one of the most important factors to A.D. Passmore was that the Ashmolean Museum lay beyond the confines of Wiltshire and the WANHS. Acknowledgements I would like to thank everyone who encouraged my interest in A.D. Passmore, particularly Alison Roberts, Arthur Macgregor and Rachel John in the Department of Antiquities at the Ashmolean Museum; and especially Humphrey Case, without whom the Passmore Collection would have been lost forever. I would like to thank the English Heritage National Monuments Record Centre in Swindon for permission to use the photograph of Callas House; Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Museum and the Visitors of the Ashmolean Museum for allowing me to reproduce images and pages from Passmore’s field notebook; and Eva Oledzka at the British Museum for her time and effort in helping to locate Passmore’s letters in their archives. Epilogue Members of the Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural Hisiory Society who have any information or memories of Passmore might like to correspond with the author to fill in details in his biography. Using primarily archival sources, there is great potential for adding valuable information to the documentation of the objects in his collection. 284 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Notes 1 Taken from the beginning of A.D. Passmore’s unpublished field notebook [Hereafter referenced as ADP when quoted from], which he started in 1903. It contains some of his activities from before 1903 but the majority of the information is from after that date. The original manuscript is in the Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Museum at Devizes. A copy of this notebook is in the Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology, Oxford. Determining the year of Passmore’s birth is difficult. In obituaries, he is said to have been 85 when he died in 1958, which would indicate that he was born in 1873. In the 1891 census, however, he is recorded as being 14, which means that he was born in 1877. The date from the census is used here. Passmore was elected a member in 1923. John Treherne died in 1989. The character Uncle Hector, who is alleged to have been based on Passmore, was a cousin of the mother of the narrator. This relationship was possibly based on reality, though I have not come across Passmore making a reference to any living relations. Passmore did, apparently, have a ‘man-trap’ in his collection (Anon 1898, 92), but whether or not he ever actually used it will never be known. Many events of the life of ‘Uncle Hector’, as revealed in the course of the novel, are similar to events in Passmore’s life. This was written after Elliot did some ‘investigation’ after finding a book with Passmore’s name in it in a skip outside Sotheby’s. His ‘research’ included reading Passmore’s obituary and chatting to Passmore’s neighbours, who said that Passmore dressed up like a Roman, in a toga, at the end of his life, which is dubious. It is also unlikely that he was the last Englishman out of King Tut’s tomb. Howard Carter made his famous discovery in 1922, and catalogued the contents from 1925 to 1932 (Murray 1999b, 294 — 297). Passmore spent time in Egypt in 1910 to 1912, but in the years following Carter’s discovery seems to have been engaged in archaeological activities in Wiltshire. It is not clear from the letter whether it was sent to Dr. Eliot Curwen, or Dr. E. Cecil Curwen, both of whom were involved in archaeology in Sussex. This is now the Department of Prehistory and Europe. There is no record of this accession at the Bristol Museum and Art Gallery, thus it is not listed as being there in Appendix 2. The identification of Durocornovium with Wan- borough is now accepted as correct. Both Burnham (1990) and Rivet (1979) identify Durocornovium with Wanborough, but Passmore’s publication is not cited as the source for this information. According to Rivet, Passmore did arrive at the right conclusion but ‘it is based on the supposition that the distance from Gloucester to Cirencester was 14 (instead of 18) Roman miles; other figures in his table suggest that he was using a false value for the Roman mile’ (Rivet 1970, 58). 0 Schlanger (2002) discusses the importance of recognising the value of such manuscripts. One of Passmore’s discoveries from Swindon was a fossilized turtle. This specimen was subsequently identified by C.W. Andrews of the British Museum of Natural History as a new genus and named Tholemys passmorei after A.D. Passmore (Andrews 1921, 153). Passmore acquired this collection of worked flints from the area around Lambourn, Berkshire, in 1925. This collection also contained close to six hundred flints from Pusey, Oxfordshire. It is possible that ‘Barnes’ was J.O’N. Barnes [also referred to as J. O’Barnes and Mr. Barnes] who had a collection of archaeological finds from Berkshire (Anon 1895, 190, 204 — 205). The Departments of Egyptian Antiquities and Western Asiatic Antiquities at the British Museum were also recipients of objects from Passmore. [The Department of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities was split into the Department of Egyptian Antiquities and the Department of Western Asiatic Antiquities in 1955 (Miller 1973)]. See Appendix 2. ‘Treasure Trove was replaced in 1996 by the Treasure Act. References Unpublished archival sources (ADP unpublished year page) = Field notebook, kept by A.D. Passmore from 1903 to 1958. The original manuscript is in The Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Museum, Devizes. There is a photocopy of this manuscript in the Department of Antiquities, Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology, Oxford. The year or date, if known, indicates when the entry was written. ASH = Passmore letters in the Department of Antiquities, Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology, Oxford. BM = Passmore letters in the Department of Prehistory, British Museum. BR = Passmore letters in the Bristol Museum [Bris530 and Bris3606]. KM = Passmore letters in the Alexander Keiller Museum, Avebury. LM = Passmore letter in Lewes Museum, East Sussex. NHML = Natural History Museum, London [NHM DF100-175]. UMNH = Passmore letters in the Natural History Museum, University of Oxford. V&A = Passmore letters in the archives of the Victoria & Albert Museum, Kensington, London. [P497] AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE LIFE OF A.D. PASSMORE 285 Published Sources ALLEN, GWG & PASSMORE, A.D., 1935. Earthen circles near Highworth. WANHM 47, 114 -— 122 ANDREWS, C.W., 1921. On a new Chelonian from the Kimmeridge Clay of Swindon. The Annals and Magazine of Natural History 9th series. No. 38. February 1921, 145 — 153 ANON, 1895. Appendix of Archaeological Notes. 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A Late Celtic Inhabited Site at All Cannings Cross Farm. WANH™M 37,526 — 538 ELLIOT, C., 1985. Digging up Passmore. Popular Archaeology 6 (4), 11- 12 GRAHAM, H., 1908, The Annals of the Yeomanry Cavalry of Wiltshire vol II: Being a complete history of the Prince of Wales’ Own Royal Regiment from 1893 to 1908. Devizes: Geo. Simpson, ‘Gazette’ Printing Works GRINSELL, L.V., 1957, Archaeological Gazetteer. In Pugh, R.B. & Elizabeth Crittall (eds), The Victoria History of the Counties of England. A History of Wiltshire, Volume I, Part I, 21 — 272. London: Oxford University Press HAKEM, A. M. A., 1978. A history of Archaeological Research in Nubia and Sudan. in The Brooklyn Museum, Africa in Antiquity 1. The Arts of Ancient Nubia and the Sudan. The Essays, 36 — 45. New York: The Brooklyn Museum LONGWORTH, I., 1993, Portable Antiquities, in Hunter, John and Ian Ralston (eds) Archaeological Resource Management in the UK: An Introduction, 56 — Arthur D. Passmore. 64. Stroud: Sutton Publishing Ltd MILLER, E., 1973, That Noble Cabinet: A History of the British Museum. London: André Deutsch Limited MINISTRY of Finance, Egypt, 1908, Survey Department, The Archaeological Survey of Nubia. Bulletin No.1: Dealing with the work up to November 30, 1907. Cairo: National Printing Department MUENSTERBERGER, W., 1994, Collecting: An Unruly Passion. Princeton: University Press MURRAY, T, 1999a, Epilogue: The Art of Archaeological Biography, in Murray, Tim (ed) Encyclopedia of Archaeology: The Great Archaeologists, 869 — 884. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO Inc MURRAY, T., 1999b, Howard Carter, in Murray, Tim (ed) Encyclopedia of Archaeology: The Great Archaeologists, 289 — 300. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO Inc MURRAY, L.J., 1999c, Alexander Keiller: A Zest for Life. Swindon: Morven Books PASSMORE, A.D., 1893a. Notes on an undescribed stone circle at Coate, near Swindon. WANHM 27, 171-174 PASSMORE, A.D., 1893b. Opening of Two Barrows on Liddington Warren Farm, N. Wilts, WANHM 27, 175 — 176 PASSMORE, A.D., 1920a. Silbury Hill. WANHM 41, 185 — 186 PASSMORE, A.D., 1920b. Hammerstones. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society, 3, 444-7 PASSMORE, A.D., 1928. Fieldwork in N Wilts, 1926 — 1928. WANHM 44, 240 — 245 PASSMORE, A.D., 1935. The Meux excavation at Avebury. WANHM 47, 288 — 289 PASSMORE, A.D., 1948, The Roman Road from Caerleon to Silchester. Swindon: Twitcher & Co PETRIE, W.M.F, 1923. Report on Diggings in Silbury Hill, August, 1922. WANHM 42, 215 — 218 RIVET, A.L.F, 1970. The British Section of the Antonine Itinerary. Britannia I, 34 — 197 RIVET, A.L.F, and C. Smith, 1979, The Place-Names of Roman Britain. London: B.T. Batsford Ltd ROBERTS, J., 2002. ‘That Terrible Woman’: the Life, Work and Legacy of Maud Cunnington. WANHM 95, 46 — 62 ROBINSON, P, 1984. A Find of Silver Spoons from Marlborough — the Problem of the Concealment of ‘Treasure Trove’. WANHM 79, 239 — 240 SCHLANGER, N., 2002. Ancestral Archives: Explorations in the History of Archaeology. Antiquity 76: 291, 127 — 131 TOROK, L.,1997, Meroe City: An Ancient African Capital. Fohn Garstang’s Excavations in the Sudan. Part One: Text. London: The Egyptian Exploration Society TREHERNE, J., 1985, The Trap. London: Jonathan Cape WILLSON, M.W. (ed), 1931. Report on the Birds of Wiltshire for 1930. VWANHM 45, 418 — 431 286 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Appendix 1: Publications by A.D. Passmore 1893 Notes on an undescribed stone circle at Coate, near Swindon. WANHM 27, 171 — 174 Opening of Two Barrows on Liddington Warren Farm, N. Wilts. WANHM 27, 175 — 176 1895 Opening of a Barrow at Popple Church, near Aldbourne. WANHM 28, p. 262 — 263. British Skeleton at Swindon. WANHM 28, 263 1899 Notes on a Roman Building, and Interments, lately discovered at Swindon. WANHM 30, 217 — 220 1906 Notes on Recent Discoveries. WANHM 34, 308 — 312 1907 Some remarks on the Early History of Swindon. Transactions of the North Wiltshire Field and Camera Club I, 24 — 26 1911 Coin of Cuthred King of Kent 798 — 807. VANHM 37, 161 The Pre-Norman Sculptures at Rodbourne Cheney. Transactions of the North Wiltshire Field and Camera Club II, 21 — 23 1913 Prehistoric and Roman Swindon. IWANHM 38, 41 — 47 Notes: Dinosaurian Spine from Swindon. WANHM 38, 106 1914 Rarity of Large Flint Implements in Gloucestershire. Man 14, 134-135 Liddington Castle (Camp). WANHM 38, 576 — 584 On Some Bronze Age Pottery of ‘Food Vessel’ Type. WANHM 38, 585 — 588 1920 Wayland Smith Cave, Sarsen Stones at Ashdown Park, Berks, and Avebury, Wilts. Man 20, 9 — 10 Hammerstones. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 3, 444 — 447 Late Celtic Iron Objects of unknown Use. WANHM 41, 184 Triple Barrows in Wilts. WANHM 41, 184 Norman Building at Swindon. WANHM 41, 184 Silbury Hill. WANHM 41, 185 — 186 1921 Roman Wanborough. WANHM 41, 272 — 280 Notes on Roman finds in North Wilts. WANHM 41, 389 — 395 Pterodactyl Bone from the Kimmeridge Clay, Swindon. WANHM 41, 432 1922 The Devil’s Den dolmen, Clatford Bottom. An account of the monument and of work undertaken in 1921 to strengthen the north-east upright. WANHM 41, 523 — 530 The Avebury ditch. The Antiquaries Fournal 2, 109 — 111 Notes on field-work in N. Wilts, 1921 — 1922. WANHM 42,49-51 1923 Note [On Diggings in Silbury Hill]. WANHM 42, 218 Barrow 16 (Goddard’s list), Winterbourne Monkton. WANHM 42, 247 Barrow 25 (Goddard’s list), Winterbourne Stoke. WANHM 42, 248 Perforated maul or hammer of Greenstone. WANHM 42, 248 Earthwork on Sugar Hill, Wanborough. WANHM 42, 248 — 249 Langdean stone circle. WANHM 42, 364 — 366 Chambered long barrow in West Woods. WANHM 42, 366 — 367 (with M.A. Murray) The Sheela-Na-Gig at Oaksey. Man 23, 140-141 1924 The age and origin of the Wansdyke. Antiquaries Journal 4, 26 — 29 1925 Notes: Lyneham Barrow, Oxfordshire. Antiquaries Journal 5, 165 1926 Avebury. A new stone in the Kennett Avenue. WANHM 43, 341 — 343 , Early Iron Age antiquities from N Wilts. WANHM 43, 343 — 344 A new site for Naturally Polished Flints. WANHM 43, 344 1928 Fieldwork in N Wilts, 1926 — 1928. WANHM 44, 240 — 245 (with H.H. Thomas) Notes on stone implements of material foreign to Wiltshire in the collection of Mr. AD. Passmore. WANHM 44, 246 — 247 1930 Notes: An Aid to Excavators. Antiquaries Fournal 10, 389 Early Iron Age bronze horse bit roller. WANHM 45, 94 1931 A hoard of bronze implements from Donhead St Mary, and a stone mould from Bulford, in Farnham Museum, Dorset. WANHM 45, 373 — 376 1932 The Catalogue of the Sturge Collection of Flint Implements in the British Museum, by Reginald A. Smith, 1931. WANHM 46, 99 Marden Circle. WANHM 46, 99 Roman Coins from Wootton Bassett. WANHM 46, 100 A Saxon Mint at Chippenham, WANHM 46, 100 Square Earthworks at Russley Park, S. of Baydon. WANHM 46, 100-101 Roman Remains at Burderop Racecourse. WANHM 46, 101 Roman Hypocaust at Chiseldon. WANHM 46, 101 St. Catherine’s Chapel, Wanborough. WANHM 46, 101 — 102 An Iron Sword from Baydon. WANHM 46, 102 AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE LIFE OF A.D. PASSMORE 287 A Pottery Button from Upham. WANHM 46, 102 1933 A Saxon Saucer Brooch from Mildenhall. WANHM 46, 393 Roman remains from Easton Grey. WANHM 46, 270 — 272 The Giant’s Caves, Long Barrow, Luckington. WANHM 46, 380 — 386 Saxon internments at Coleshill, Berks. Antiquaries Fournal 13, 167 — 169 1934 A Beehive Chamber at Ablington, Gloucestershire. Transactions of the Bristol and _ Gloucestershire Archaeological Society 56, 95 — 98 The Earthen Hill Top Camps of Wessex. Swindon: privately published 1935 Internments at Bradenstoke Abbey. WANHM 47, 286 Cricklade Drainage. WANHM 47, 286 — 287 The Roman Road on Hinton Down S.E. of Wanborough Plain Farm. WANHM 47, 287 Earth Circle at Sudden Farm, Burbage. WANHM 47, 288 The Meux excavation at Avebury. WANHM 47, 288 - 289 (with G.W.G. Allen) Earthen circles near Highworth. WANHM 47, 114 - 122 1936 An earthen circle at Stratton St Margaret’s. WANHM 47, 529 — 530 1937 A Prick-spur from Wiltshire. Antiquaries Journal 17, 76 Hipposandals. Antiquaries Journal 17, 197 — 198 1938 The Barrow and Discovery of the New Chamber. In Keiller, A. and S. Piggott, Excavation of an Untouched Chamber in the Lanhill Long Barrow, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 4, 122 — 124 1939 An unrecorded long barrow at West Kington. VWANHM 48, 466 Excavation of a Barrow and Two Earthen Circles at Ashbury, Berks. Transactions of the Newbury District Field Club 7,5 1940 Barrow No. 2, Wylye, Wilts. WANHM 49, 117-118 Flint Mines at Liddington. WANHM 49, 118 — 119 Notes: A Disc Barrow Containing Curious Flints near Stonehenge, WANHM 49, 238 Notes: Earthwork at Ogbourne St. George. VWANHM 49, 239 Notes: Barrow 19 Aldbourne (Goddard). WANHM 49, 239 — 240 Barrow 4 Wroughton (Goddard). WANHM 49, 240 1942 Notes: Roman Burial at Highworth. WANHM 50, 99 — 100 Notes: Bronze Age Pottery from Swindon. WANHM 50, 100 Notes: Chute, Barrow 1. WANHM 50, 100-101 Notes: Mound at Compton Bassett. WANHM 50, 107 A Church Chest from Blunsdon. WANHM 50, 292 A skull full of Lead. WANHM 50, 292 An unrecorded Pigeon House. WANHM 50, 292 Notes: Roman Stones at Latton. WANHM 50, 293 1943 A flint implement in a horn handle from near Lidding- ton Castle, Wilts.’ Antiquaries Journal 23, 52 — 53 Medieval Enclosures at Barbury and_ Blunsdon. WANHM 50, 194 1944 Notes: Three Coins. WANHM 50, 494 — 495 1945 The Templars’ Bath. WANHM 51, 116-117 Slitting Cows’ Ears. WANHM 51, 118 A Wanborough Seal. WANHM S51, 118 1946 Unrecorded mounds at Wanborough. WANHM 51, 349 John Aubrey’s Lost MS, WANHM 51, 351 1948 The Roman Road from Caerleon to Silchester. Swindon: Twitcher & Co Notes: Two Jugs of Wiltshire Interest. WANHM 52, 393 Notes: The Cricklade Mint. WANHM 52, 393 — 394 A Roman Discus? WANHM 52, 394 1949 Bronzes from the Duke collection once at Lake House. WANHM 53, 257 — 258 The Double Celt Mould in the Pitt Rivers Museum, Farnham. WANHM 53, 258 Another ‘Witch Relic.” WANHM 53, 259 — 260 1950 The Rudge Attis. WANHM 53, 332 Appendix 2: Locations of Objects from the Passmore Collection and Related Archival Material The Alexander Keiller Museum High St, Avebury, Marlborough, Wiltshire SN8 IRF Correspondence”: c. 97 letters between ADP and Keiller from the 1928 to 1937. The Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology Beaumont Street, Oxford OX1 2PH Department of Antiquities: Objects: The present author has prepared a catalogue of the Passmore Collection, which is too extensive to be published here. 288 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE A copy of his field notebook. Two envelopes of photographs: Envelope 1: Aerial photos from Vol. 2 of the Passmore Collection. Most, if not all, of these photos were taken by Major G.W.G. Allen. Sites include: Port Farm, Latton; Blunsdon Circle; N. of Blunsdon; Ashmead Brake; Lower Burytown; Hannington; Common _ Farm, Highworth; Sevenhampton Circles; North Leaze; Dudgrove; Inglesham; Silbury Hill; East Kennet; Beckhampton; Avebury; Waden Hill; Overton Hill; Castle Eaton; Whitefield, near Ogbourne St. George; SW Barbury; Four Barrows Hill, Dorset; Liddington Hill Barn; and N of Liddington Castle. Envelope 2: Photographs of Avebury from the Passmore Collection, including photographs of individual stones at Avebury; an excavation of the south ditch c. 1920 and c.1922; the ditch; the outer ditch; the north circle; the south circle; the Avenue; Devil’s Coits; the longstones at Beckhampton (before one fell); the re-erection of ‘Adam’and Silbury Hill. Correspondence: c.100 letters; some of which are Passmore’s personal letters between himself and various contacts relating to objects in his collection that came to the Ashmolean; and others between Passmore and departmental - staff discussing his collection coming to the Ashmolean, visits to Callas House, visits to Oxford, etc. Heberden Coin Room'®: English coins: Anglo-Saxon and Norman pennies: Aethelred II, type IIIa of Wilton, moneyer Saewdne; Edward the Confessor: type XI of Bedwyn, moneyer Cild. Eustace Fitzjohn, Lion type (BMC (N) type B), penny (broken); engraved piece AE English halfpenny, engraved ‘Mary Collcutt Oxon 1762’. Department of Western Art'’: WA1956.31 Porcelain table centre of stag hunt, Sevres, c. Wii WA1956.32 Porcelain table centre of boar hunt, Sevres, c. WEY. WA1956.33 Porcelain table centre of wolf hunt, Sevres, c. 1775. Correspondence: c.90 letters between Passmore and departmental staff about his collection, particularly his Chelsea cream jug. Athelstan Museum" Town Hall, Cross Hayes, Malmesbury, Wiltshire SN16 9BZ 1977.645 Roman potsherds. White Walls, Fosse Way, Easton Grey. 1931. 1977.646 —7 Medieval Minety Ware mug. Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery” Queen’s Road, Bristol BS8 IRL 139/1953 Diana & dog [F3598] Two column bases [F3599, F3600] Archaeologia volumes | — 93 (45 missing) 17/1954 Four figures representing the Four Elements (Earth, Air, Fire, Water) in Champion’s Bristol Porcelain. [Sold to the Bristol Museum and Art Gallery in 1954] Correspondence: File: 5:30 BM&AG November 1917, 1918 16 Letters between Bolton and Passmore from Wood Street, Swindon and from when Passmore was stationed at R.E. Henbury Gloucestershire, about a Bristol Delft posset pot and archaeological finds. File: 3606 June 1953 M Acc. No. 139/1953 Notes by Grinsell to other museum directors on the visits to Passmore to discuss the possible bequest of his collection to Bristol and a summary of his collection; 14 letters from Passmore to Wallis (Director of Museum) about the bequest. The British Museum Great Russell Street, London WC1B 3DG Department of Egyptology’’: 1906.0514.855 Granite Vase, 18th Dynasty. 1947.1016.1 Green Glazed Shabti, 30th Dynasty. Correspondence: 4 letters between ADP and E.A. Wallis Budge, discussing the vase and the subsequent purchase of the vase by the museum. Department of Japanese Antiquities”: 1957.1216.1 Japanese porcelain jug with lid, 18th Century. Department of Oriental Antiquities: 1917.1109.1-.2 Buttons from Tibet, 19th Century. 1930.1021.1-.62 A collection of terracotta figurines (etc.) from Khotan, China. 1957.1216.2-.20 A collection of Chinese porcelain, Ming and Qing Dynasties. Department of Ethnography: Oc1919,-.10 Maori adze haft, from Kusai Island, Caroline Islands. 1900.0721.1 Maori canoe prow. Department of Prehistory”: 1913.1206.1 Bronze stirrup, 15th Century, from the New Forest, Hants. 1930.1021.1 Earthenware tile, 15th Century, from the Lower Severn. 1942.0504.1-.2 Clay kiln supports, 18th Century, from Temple Meads, Bristol. AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE LIFE OF A.D. PASSMORE 289 1957.1201.1-.62 A collection of fine British ceramics and porcelain”, 15th to 19th Centuries. Correspondence”: About 150 letters spanning 1903 — 1953, between Passmore and Hercules Read, Reginald Smith, C.EC. Hawkes, T.D. Kendrick, J.W. Brailsford about a variety of the objects in his collection, fieldwork and current archaeological issues. Department of Coins and Medals’’: 1936-4-4-1 A medal. 1936-4-4-2 A medal. 1936-4-4-3 A 17th C. token. Archives’: Trustees’ Minutes for 14 December 1957: mention of items of ceramics and glass listed in a report from the Keeper of British and Medieval Department, and from Oriental Antiquities recording a selection of Chinese porcelain. Two letters sent to the Director’s Office: Sept 1937, containing a photograph of a cheque sent as a gift. July 1945, offering a trade band from a barrel organ. Cheltenham Museum and Art Gallery” Clarence Street, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire GL50 3JT 1925.19 Plaster cast of a Romano-Celtic relief of Mars, found at Stow on the Wold (ADP retained original relief). 1929.32 Loaf stamp for the Royal North Gloucestershire Militia. Correspondence: 1 letter. Colchester Museum” Museum Resource Centre, 14 Ryegate Road, Colchester, Essex CO1 1YG COLEM1919.3836 Carinated Roman grey ware pot, from near Colchester, 1919. COLEM1919.3837. Roman grey ware jar, from near Colchester, 1919. COLEM1919.3838 Roman Colchester, 1919. stylus, from near Horniman Museum and Gardens London Road, Forest Hill, London SE23 3PQ A collection of pottery fragments, flints and bones, found in the large disc barrow at Chiseldon, Wiltshire. Purchased at Sotheby’s sale 16 June 1959, for £13. The Institute of Archaeology”, University of Oxford 36 Beaumont Street, Oxford OX1 2PG 1157 Glass lantern slides, subjects include: Swiss Alps and the Matterhorn, Rome, Venice, Pompeii, various Italian sites, coins,,Greece, Bronze Age Britain, Sudan, Nubia, Egypt, Pergammon. 54 negatives Lewes Museum” The Sussex Archaeology Society, Barbican House, 169 High Street, Lewes, East Sussex BN7 1YE LEWSA 1937:16 Three flint tools, Piddinghoe (1) and Eastbourne (2). Correspondence: 1 letter. The Natural History Museum, London Cromwell Road, London SW7 5DB Mineralogy Department: Objects: Undetermined at time of publication. Correspondence: Reference: DF1/ 33 8 letters Palaeontology Department: RS871 Fossil of a ‘turtle’ (Tholemys passmorei). BMNH G17467 6 natural casts of Pleurotomaria. {unknown acc. no.] 1 human skeleton, incomplete. Late Neolithic or Early Bronze Age. found in Portland, Swindon. [unknown acc. no.] Mass of echinoids (Holoaster planus) in flint. Cretaceous. From Liddleston [?recte Liddington], Wiltshire Correspondence: Reference: DF100/ 175 23 letters Anthropology Department*!: PASK4 The remains of a child’s skeleton, Neolithic, transferred from the Royal College of Surgeons in 1955. (Ex-RCS 4.00.13) From Lanhill, field 4, excavated 1926, donated to RCS by A.D. Passmore in 1940. Natural History Museum, University of Oxford Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PW Correspondence held in Archives”: 9 letters from Passmore to W.J. Arkell, between the years of 1938 and 1943. Geology Department: J.1583 —J.172S Jurassic specimens K.401 — K.415 Cretaceous specimens PY.11—PY.12 Pliocene specimens Q.925 — Q.933 Pleistocene specimens Correspondence: 19 letters between Passmore and J.M. Edmonds, mostly 290 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE from 1954 — 1955 when Passmore was donating the above specimens. Newbury Museum** West Berkshire Heritage Service, The Wharf, Newbury RG14 5AS 1932:79 [Room 10/31] Ashdown Estate. 1934:99 Fragments of Roman pottery, East Hendred. OA:124 Cast of Palaeolithic flint axe head, Wash Common. OA:154 [Room 12] Roman bronze tweezers, Newbury. [not located] Finds from excavation at Ashbury, 1933. Golden Eagle (shot c1865), Nottingham Brewhouse Yard Museum Castle Boulevard, Nottingham NG7 1FB ?Pieces of carriages — not formally accessioned, but returned to their former places on the carriages [NCM 1921-1/NIM 1977-24; NCM 1920-18/NIM 1984-20; NCM 1920-19/NIM 1984-21; NCM 1920-20/NIM 1984-22] Archive**: NCM 1921-18, 19 4 letters from Passmore about the 17th century ‘Baskerville’carriages. The Pitt Rivers Museum South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PP 1954.12.B 1 A cinerary urn from South America. Correspondence: 2 letters concerning the purchase of the urn. Reading Museum Service” Museum of Reading, Blagrave Street, Town Hall, Reading RG] 1QH 1936.55.1 Flint flake, Ashmansworth. Royal Anthropological Institute [Archives] Museum of Mankind, 6 Burlington Gardens, London W1S 3EX Correspondence’: Passmore’s letters to the RAI were not retained. There are 18 letters listed that were sent to him by the RAI, from 1910 to 1924. The subject matter ranges from his membership to discussion of his articles published in MAN. Royal College of Surgeons 35 — 43 Lincoln’s Inn Fields, London WC2A 3PE Specimens: Transferred to Natural History Museum, London. Correspondence”: HRLA/02/29 1934 3 letters, a postcard, and a report on bones from Chute Barrow, (?Wilts). HRLA/05/28 1932 6 letters and a report on bones from Luckington, Wilts. HRLA/SO1/16 1940 Report on Romano-British remains from Wiltshire. MLA/002676 3414 1927 Discussion of Bronze Age bones. MLA/002689 3415 1927 Discussion of bones from Northleach, Glos. MLA/002317 3416 1927 ADP requests return of bones from Swindon. Salisbury & South Wiltshire Museum* The King’s House, 65 The Close, Salisbury SP1 2EN SBYWM:1939.239 SBYWM:1913.49 Incense cup. Plaster cast. Correspondence: Correspondence between ADP and Frank Stevens, and R.S. Newall. Somerset Archaeological and Natural History Museum” The Castle, Castle Green, Taunton, Somerset TAl 4AA A.2353 Hollow flint scraper. Blagdon, Somerset, 1926. A.2354 2 thumb scrapers. Blagdon, Somerset, 1926. A.2475 Worked flint flakes. Blagdon, Somerset, 1926. A.3080 17th century Donyatt bucket pot with green glaze. North Cadbury, 1910. A.5238 Flint core. Taunton, Somerset, 1926. A.5239/ ?A.2551 Flint knife with dorsal ridge. Trull, Somerset, 1926. A.5240 5 flint scrapers. Norton Fitzwarren, Somerset, 1926. Swindon Museum & Art Gallery” Bath Road, Swindon SN1 4BA B 1977/247 Neolithic flint, found 1919 at Liddington Camp. B 1979/765 4 Roman box tile fragments, found 1897 at Roman building, Mill Lane. B 1988/67.1 Flint borer, found 1905 field walking at Liddington Castle. B 1988/67.2_ Unprovenanced flint blade. Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society Museum (Wiltshire Heritage Museum)" 41 Long Street, Devizes, Wiltshire SN10 1NS DZSWS:1961.16 Wiltshire. DZSWS:1968.42.1 Sword found in a well, 17th C., Zeals, Wiltshire. Jug handle, from Liddington, AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE LIFE OF A.D. PASSMORE 291 DZSWS:1968.42.2 Wiltshire. DZSWS:1968.42.3 Wiltshire. DZSWS:1968.42.4 Sword, 17th C., Stratton St Margaret, Wiltshire. DZSWS:1968.42.5 Wiltshire. DZSWS:1968.42.6 Sword, 17th C., Cleverton, Wiltshire. DZSWS:1968.42.7 Sword, 17th C., Wood Street, Swindon, Wiltshire. DZSWS:1968.42.8 Sword, 18th C., Seagry, Wiltshire. DZSWS:1968.42.9 Sword, 217th C., ?>Great Somerford, Wiltshire. DZSWS:1968.42.10 Sword, 17th C., Great Somerford, Wiltshire. DZSWS:1968.42.11 Sword guard, 17th C., Nettleton, Wiltshire. DZSWS:1968.42.12 Basket hilt, 17th C., Chelworth, Cricklade, Wiltshire. DZSWS:1968.42.13 Sword guard, 16th C., Broad Town, Wiltshire. DZSWS:1968.42.14 Sword blade. DZSWS:1975.152 Tile, 20th C., Bishopstone, N. Wiltshire. DZSWS:1995.89 Bedwyn, Wiltshire. DZSWS:1995.90 Bedwyn, Wiltshire. DZSWS:1995.91 Bedwyn, Wiltshire. DZSWS:1995.92 Bedwyn, Wiltshire. DZSWS:1995.93 Hand axe rough out, Knowle Farm, Little Bedwyn, Wiltshire. DZSWS:1995.94 Hand axe, Knowle Farm, Little Bedwyn, Wiltshire. DZSWS:1995.95 Bedwyn, Wiltshire. DZSWS:1995.96 Bedwyn, Wiltshire. DZSWS:1995.97 Bedwyn, Wiltshire. DZSWS:1995.98 Sword, 17th C., Malmesbury, Sword, 17th C., Broad Town, Sword, 17th C., South Cerney, Hand axe, Knowle Farm, Little Hand axe, Knowle Farm, Little Hand axe, Knowle Farm, Little Hand axe, Knowle Farm, Little Hand axe, Knowle Farm, Little Hand axe, Knowle Farm, Little Hand axe, Knowle Farm, Little Chopper, Knowle Farm, Little Bedwyn, Wiltshire. DZSWS:1995.99 Hand axe, Knowle Farm, Little Bedwyn, Wiltshire. DZSWS:1995.100 Scraper, Knowle Farm, Little Bedwyn, Wiltshire. DZSWS:1995.101 Bedwyn, Wiltshire. DZSWS:1995.102 Bedwyn, Wiltshire. DZSWS:1995.103 Bedwyn, Wiltshire. DZSWS:B27a Cast of bronze axe head from original found near Wootton Bassett, original in private collection. DZSWS:DM.42 Cast of silver mount from Cricklade, Hand axe, Knowle Farm, Little Hand axe, Knowle Farm, Little Hand axe, Knowle Farm, Little original in A.D. Passmore collection. DZSWS:DM.2487 Sherds, Giants Cave long barrow, Luckington, Wiltshire. DZSWS:DM.2488 Flints, Giants Cave long barrow, Luckington, Wiltshire. DZSWS:DM.2885 Iron arrowhead from Silbury Hill”, West Kennett, Wiltshire. DZSWS:DM.2886 Stones from Shaft No.6, Silbury Hill, West Kennett, Wiltshire. DZSWS:DM.2887 Iron pyrites from Silbury Hill, West Kennett, Wiltshire. DZSWS:DM.2888 Kennett, Wiltshire. DZSWS:DM.2889 Hand bones from Silbury Hill, West Kennett, Wiltshire. DZSWS:DM.2890 Kennett, Wiltshire. DZSWS:DM.2891 Kennett, Wiltshire. DZSWS:DM.2892 Kennett, Wiltshire. DZSWS:DM.2893 Clay specimens from Shaft No.6, Silbury Hill, West Kennett, Wiltshire. DZSWS:DM.2894 Stones from layer of Shaft No.5, Silbury Hill, West Kennett, Wiltshire. DZSWS:DM.2895 Stones from layer of Shaft No.5, Silbury Hill, West Kennett, Wiltshire. DZSWS:DM.2896 Unknown pieces from Shaft No.5, Silbury Hill, West Kennett, Wiltshire. DZSWS:DM.2897 Specimens from Shaft No.3, Silbury Hill, West Kennett, Wiltshire. DZSWS:DM.2898 Charcoal from layer of Shaft No.5, Silbury Hill, West Kennett, Wiltshire. Bones from Silbury Hill, West Stones from Silbury Hill, West Bones from Silbury Hill, West Bones from Silbury Hill, West Archival material: AA Box 22: A.D. Passmore notebooks, photograph albums etc: Passmore’s field notebook, purchased by WANHS in January 1961 from R.C. Hatchwell. A plan of stones at Swindon and a note. A book of photos. A map of Salisbury Plan with long barrows marked. Photo and notes of Tinhead Barrow. An album with survey measurements, photos and excavation histories for archaeological sites at Brattom; Amhill barrow; Ovendean; Bowle’s barrow; Imber; Pertwood Down; Cold Kitchen Hill; Sutton Veny; Sherrington; Corton; Stockton; Norton Down; Middleton; Heytesbury; Knook Barrow; The Old Ditch Barrow; Tilshead Lodge; Kill Barrow; White Barrow; Ell Barrow; Winterbourne Stoke; Uffington White Horse. A book of aerial photos, presented by G.W.G. Allen & Passmore. The Devil’s Den, by A.D.Passmore: an album of photos from when he watched the work at Devil’s Den 12 September 1921 to 5 October 1921. A manuscript containing miscellaneous short observ- ations and notes to himself. 292 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE A manuscript containing his notes of walks, purchases for his shop, flints etc. Victoria and Albert Museum” Cromwell Road, South Kensington, London SW7 2RL Department of Furniture & Woodwork: W.33-1935 Oak bench end, 15-16th century. W.8-1958 Oak bench end, 15-16th century. W.9-1958 Oak bench end, 15-16th century. W.10-1958 Oak bench end, 15-16th century. Department of Ceramics & Glass: C.14 to 14B-1936 Fragments of stained glass. Victoria and Albert Museum Archives: Blythe House 23 Blythe Road London W14 0QF Correspondence: MA/1/P497 and MA/1/P496: Around 70 letters between Passmore and curators of various departments about objects in his collection, particularly carved wooden bench ends and some porcelain figurines; and a selection of photographs of objects in his collection. Letters span the years 1917 to 1957. Notes to Appendix 2 '5 Access kindly provided by Ros Cleal. '6 Information kindly provided by Roz Brition-Strong. '7 List kindly provided by Catherine Casley. 'S List kindly provided by Roberta Prince. '° List kindly provided by Gail Boyle. * Information kindly provided by Patricia Usick. “1 Information kindly provided by Catherine Edwards. * Formerly the Department of British and Medieval Antiquities. > Included in this collection is the porcelain Chelsea cream jug, finely decorated with strawberries and butterflies, that Passmore accused the Western Art Department at the Ashmolean of having damaged. *4 Information kindly provided by Eva Oledzka. *> Complete list of all Passmore objects in the British Museum kindly provided by David Ward. 6 Information kindly provided by Gary Thorn. 7 Information kindly provided by Steve Blake. 8 List kindly provided by Stephen Yates. ?? Information kindly provided by Debi Harlan. *® Information kindly provided by Hannah Crowdy. +! Information kindly provided by Rob Kruszynski. * Information kindly provided by Stella Brecknell. * List kindly provided by Jane Burrell. *' Information kindly provided by Michael Cooper. * List kindly provided by Jillian Greenaway. *° Information kindly provided by Sarah Walpole. 7 Information kindly provided by Sarah Pearson. *8 Information kindly provided by Martin Wright. * List kindly provided by Mark Davis. * List kindly provided by Isobel Thompson. “| List kindly provided by Paul Robinson. ” These objects from Silbury Hill are likely those that were donated through Passmore by Flinders Petrie, and are from their excavation in the summer of 1922 (Anon 1927, 572). * Information kindly provided by Lynn Young. Wiltshire Archaeological & Natural History Magazine, vol. 97 (2004), pp. 293-299 Notes and Shorter Contributions A Medieval Pilgrim Badge from West Knoyle by Nick Griffiths Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales paint a vivid picture of a group of pilgrims making a leisurely pilgrimage to England’s premier shrine, that of St Thomas Becket. The leisure, and holiday atmosphere, of the group are explained by their largely middle- or upper class status; they were pilgrims with money and time to spare. What of labourers and farm-hands, and the like, who might have little money and only a day or two to spare, yet who felt the same desire to visit a shrine, seek intercession or salvation, and perhaps return with a metal badge, as both souvenir of the trip, and amulet? (Spencer 1990, 7f.) Local shrines, which might be reached on foot in a day or two, fulfilled the needs of the less well- off; in Wiltshire, three such were to be found in Salisbury and its vicinity. These were the shrines of Our Lady of Salisbury, and St Osmund, both centred on the Cathedral, and St Edith at Wilton Abbey. Badges of all three cults have been recognised and published, most notably the Salisbury Museum collection (Spencer 1990). Several badges relating to St Osmund have been found in London, as well as those found in Salisbury, perhaps reflecting the great interest prompted by his canonisation in 1457 - (Spencer 1990, 13f., cat. Nos. 1-7). Those of Our Lady of Salisbury (Spencer 1990, 33f., cat. Nos. 58- 63) are found almost exclusively at Salisbury, a single example being known from Canterbury. The popularity of Our Lady may have been purely local. St Edith of Wilton, daughter of King Edgar, died in 984, and miracles were soon reported at her tomb. Her cult was well established before the Conquest, and Edith was one of the few English saints to be acknowledged by the Norman church (Darbyshire 2003; Stroud 1984). Spencer identified a badge showing the upper part of the figure of a nun, holding a book, as appropriate to St Edith (Spencer 1990, 48, cat. no. 99 and fig. 132 : reproduced here as Figure la.) A similar head and shoulders, in a circular knobbed Fig. la Pilgrim badge of St Edith from Salisbury frame, found at Salisbury, was attributed to ‘Mother Julian’ of Norwich (Mitchiner, 1986, 178), but is much more likely to be another badge from St. Edith’s shrine (Spencer, 1990, 48). A more complete badge, again showing a nun holding a book and also a crozier, found at Westbury, is now in the Wiltshire Heritage Museum (Figure 1b); Brian Spencer suggested that this too could be attributed to St. Edith’s shrine. The crozier perhaps alludes to the story of her refusal to become Abbess of one of her father’s royal c/o WANHS, The Museum, 41 Long Street, Devizes SN10 1NS 294 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Fig. Ib Pilgrim badge of St Edith from Westbury honorary title of Abbess! (Darbyshire, 2003, 8, and fig., p. 14.) The attribution of these badges, all perhaps 15th century in date, to St Edith’s shrine allows the addition of a fourth (Figure Ic). Found some years ago at West Knoyle, its design is similar to that of the Westbury badge, though they are clearly from different moulds. This is perhaps an indication of increased demand in the 15th century, Wilton probably benefiting from the increased interest in Salisbury following St Osmund’s canonisation. The relatively local findspots, Salisbury, Westbury and West Knoyle, might also suggest that St Edith’s was a shrine appealing to devout Wiltshire folk whose circumstances did not permit leisurely pilgrimages to greater shrines. Fig. Ic Pilgrim badge of St Edith from West Knoyle Acknowledgements I am grateful to Mr T Biss for allowing me to record the West Knoyle badge, and to the curators of both Salisbury and the Wiltshire Heritage Museum for their permission to publish objects in their collections. Bibliography DARBYSHIRE, G., 2003 , The Life of Saint Edith of Wilton MITCHINER, M., 1986, Medieval Pilgrim and Secular Badges SPENCER, B., 1990, Pilgrim Souvenirs and Secular Badges. Salisbury: Salisbury Museum Medieval Catalogue Part 2 STROUD, D., 1984. Edith of Wilton (c.961-984): the Millenary of a Saint. Hatcher Review 2, no. 18, 352-8 The Arundell’s London Estate by Barry Williamson In my article, ‘The Ruin of a Great Wiltshire Estate: Wardour and the Eighth Lord Arundell’ (WANHM vol. 94, 2001), I mentioned that family legend blamed the ninth Lord’s second marriage (to a Protestant) in 1806 as the rock on which the Arundell ship finally foundered. The eighth Lord had previously inflicted permanent damage on the estates by amassing one of the largest recorded debts of the 18th and early 19th centuries, to the extent that by the time of his death in 1808, he had reduced the estates to one-seventh of the size they were when he inherited in 1756. They were simply too small to provide an income sufficient to maintain Wardour Castle, the largest Georgian mansion in Wiltshire. Bristol Grammar School, University Road, Bristol BS8 1SR NOTES AND SHORTER CONTRIBUTIONS Two things puzzled me. What had happened to the Arundell’s London estate, brought into the family by Elizabeth Panton on her marriage to the future fifth Lord in 1691? There were no records relating to it in the family archives (WSRO 2667). Only a single sketch map indicated that half the London property was sold in 1810 leaving just over one acre near Piccadilly Circus remaining in family ownership. There were no rent books or agent’s accounts and it had to be assumed that the ‘Disastrous Dowager’, Anne Lucy, widow of the twelfth Lord, had sold the estate during the Great War and destroyed all the papers. Secondly, what was the truth behind the family legend that the ninth Lord was as much to blame for the decline and fall of the family as the eighth? When I asked 295 Mrs Fagan, sister of the 16th and last Lord Arundell why she thought the estates had been ruined, she insisted that the eighth Lord, or ‘Old Piety’ as he was known in the family, had caused much of the problem, but that the coup de grace was administered by the marriage of the ninth Lord. I asked for more details, but she could give none. I should have taken such family legend more seriously. Mr Alan Miller of Bournemouth has been researching Dorset landowning families recently and he came across the details of the sale of the Arundell’s London estate. Mrs Fagan was correct. In May 1816 the ninth Lord made a will leaving the Panton estate ‘in the parishes of St James and St Martin in the Fields’ in trust for his sons Henry and Robert, children of his second marriage to Mary Burnet Jones. The children of = Tee Spee PI fen a \ 3 Been Shenae pel 2 eae tes Z UEC LISS, lar ; OL... Biceps ot ae Cafe Mas Pore Wh A BAA AO tM Bechin tp, * Funer dng LD SP 180. AA SSeS (Dfiblerpe SP brah Se ee wD Se Fig.l The Arundell Piccadilly estate (WSRO 2667/24/6). The dark ieee his first marriage, to the eldest daughter of the eighth Lord, simply received the Wardour estates. The annual rental value of the London estate was greater than all the other Arundell estates. At a stroke, the ninth Lord had ensured that the palatial mansion at Wardour could never be maintained as the seat of a great lord. Henry’s only child, Rudolphus, died in 1841, leaving the children of the second son, Robert, as the beneficiaries of the London estate. For some reason which is not clear, the children of Robert’s second marriage were omitted from the Trust. By 1913, one of Robert’s children, Edith, was still alive and the six children of her sister Aeddan. The Trustees decided to apply for an Act of Parliament to close Panton Street and Arundell Square and this was obtained in August 1913. The Estates Gazette reported the sale of the whole estate in July 1915 for £250,000 (about £12 million at today’s values). The reporter commented: ‘The Arundell Estate occupies one of the finest positions in the West End, immediately contiguous to Piccadilly Circus and the Haymarket . its future, whether as a West End palace of pleasure or for other purposes will be watched with great public interest’. shading indicates the land sold in 1810; the area shaded at the edge was retained until 1915. 296 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE The Minerva Plaque from Charlton Down by Paul Robinson The late Roman bronze plaque depicting the goddess Minerva (accession no.354 — fig. 1, left), found in the 19th century at Charlton is arguably the best known object of Roman date in the Society’s collection, and has recently been described as ‘surely one of the most interesting and attractive figural bronzes from Britain’ (Henig 2001, 110f). This note is inspired by the recent donation to the museum by Mrs_ Elizabeth Williamson of an early lead cast of the plaque (accession no.2003.6 — fig. 1, right) which she had originally purchased from an antiques shop in Chippenham. It provides the opportunity of confirming the findspot of the original plaque about which there has been confusion in the past as well as considering how and when it entered the museum collection. The first known reference to the plaque is a brief account of the exhibition by the Revd Edward Wilton of a cast of it on 6 June 1851 at a meeting of Fig. 1 The bronze original (left), and the lead replica (right) NOTES AND SHORTER CONTRIBUTIONS the Archaeological Institute in London (Archaeological Fournal 8, 1851, 318), the original of which ‘had been brought to him by a shepherd who said he had found it lying on the green sward in one of the “tinings” or enclosed pasturages on Salisbury Plain in the neighbourhood of an ancient encampment ... Numerous coins and a bronze figure about 3 inches in height had been found near the spot which is situated on Charlton Down, near Devizes, the property of Lord Normanton. A large tract of the Downs at this place seems to have been covered by habitations; vestiges of buildings are clearly to be traced upon it.’ The settlement in question is the well-known Romano-British settlement recently surveyed by the R.C.H.M. and published by English Heritage (McOmish et al, 2002). At times it has been incorrectly stated to lie in the adjacent parish of Rushall. The encampment which is mentioned is, of course, Casterley Camp hillfort; the bronze figurine is probably to be equated with the 2% inches high figurine of Mercury published as from Rushall Down, at one time in the Society’s museum (accession no.362) but missing since 1940. Although there is no certainty, the cast of the plaque in lead recently acquired by the museum may well be either the same as that exhibited by the Revd E Wilton, or it may be another cast from the same mould. It is most unlikely that a lead cast would have been made of this plaque after it entered the museum collection, while it is perhaps unlikely to have been cast on more than one occasion in the period before the museum acquired it. It is possible that the cast was made perhaps at a time when the Revd.Wilton did not own the original, or because he wished it to be better known and appreciated by other antiquaries or collectors. It is uncertain whether or not the Revd Wilton already owned the plaque in 1851 or indeed in 1853 when he exhibited it at the temporary museum set up at the inaugural meeting of the Society (WANHM 1, 1854, 62) but it is probable that he did do so. He is recorded as the plaque’s source in the early catalogues of the collections (Cunnington and Goddard, 1911, 352; 1934, 215). There is, however, no record of his donation of it to the Society either in the list of donations published each year in the Society’s journal or in the early manuscript list of donations to the Society’s collections. It is probable that the plaque was included among the ‘greater part of the collections of the late Revd Wilton’ 297 acquired in 1871 and recorded almost casually in WANHM (13, 1872, 222). Possibly the collection was purchased although there is no record of this in the Society’s minutes. In spite of the importance of the plaque it was not properly published for many years and by then its original findspot had been forgotten. Presumably because Revd Wilton owned an important collection of finds from West Lavington, the parish of which he was the incumbent, it was assumed that the plaque too came from the same area (Goddard 1909, 173f; Cunnington and Goddard 1911, 354). This error was later corrected by Goddard (1914, 377) but by accident was repeated in the second catalogue of the Society’s collections (Cunnington and Goddard 1934, 215). Although correctly published as from Charlton Down by L V Grinsell (1957, 55), the incorrect findspot has nevertheless occasionally been perpetuated, for example, by Toynbee (1964, 333) and Green (1976, 22). At the present day the findspot is invariably correctly given. It is beyond the scope of this note to discuss either the iconography of the Minerva plaque or its artistic importance, both of which aspects have been considered elsewhere and surely will be again in future studies of the archaeology of the Roman period in Wiltshire. Bibliography CUNNINGTON, M. E., and GODDARD, E. H., 1911, Catalogue of Antiquities in the museum of The Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society at Devizes, part 2. Devizes: WANHS [2nd edition 1934] GODDARD, E. H., 1909. Notes on some Roman Objects found in Wiltshire. The Reliquary and Illustrated Archaeologist 15 (3), 169-175 GODDARD, E. H., 1914. A list of Prehistoric, Roman and Pagan Saxon Antiquities in the County of Wilts arranged under Parishes. WANHM 38, 153-378 GREEN, M., 1976, A Corpus of Religious Material from the Civilian Areas of Roman Britain. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports 24 HENIG M., 2001, ‘Art in Roman Wiltshire,’ in Peter Ellis (ed.), Roman Wiltshire and after: papers in honour of Ken Annable, 107-126. Devizes: WANHS McOMISH, D., FIELD, D., and BROWN, G., 2002, The Field Archaeology of the Salisbury Plain Training Area. Swindon: English Heritage TOYNBEE, J.M.C., 1964, Art in Britain under The Romans. Oxford: Oxford University Press WANHS, The Museum, 41 Long Street, Devizes SN10 1NS 298 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE The Rugged Oil Beetle (Meloe rugosus Marsham) discovered in Wiltshire by Michael Darby I was recently asked to determine a small collection of beetles made by Godfrey and Michael Smith, the well-known lepidopterists, who live near Trow- bridge. To my surprise several rare beetles were present including Ischnomera caerulea (LL), which they had found in a rotten elm — its normal habitat — on their farm (3 specimens 5 April 1987), a surprising location for a species which is almost exclusively confined to ancient broadleaved woodland. But the most exciting discovery was undoubtedly a single specimen of the Rugged oil beetle, Meloe rugosus Marsham, picked from a Sainfoin plant on Bratton Hill on 24 September 1984. This rare beetle, not previously recorded from Wiltshire, is classed as Red Data Book 3 being known from only a handful of southern localities, and none at all since 1904 when a single female was noted at Upper Lypiatt in Gloucestershire. Interestingly a second specimen turned up on 12 December 1984 at Broadway in Worcestershire (Whitehead 1987) and since then there have been two further records. Meloe rugosus Marsham M. rugosus is immediately distinguishable from the Black Oil Beetle, M. proscarabaeus L., the only other member of the family recorded from the county, by virtue of its smaller size (max. 18mm), matt greyish-black colouring (never shiny), and the proportionately much broader pronotum. Another factor aiding identification is the time of emergence. M. proscarabaeus is always found in the Spring whereas M. rugosus does not emerge until September and has been recorded to breed throughout the winter (Whitehead 1990). Late emergence may account for the beetle having been overlooked. What marks out oil beetles as of particular interest is their fascinating life history. All are parasitic on bees of the genera Andrena, and Anthophora. In most species the female beetle, after making some small holes in the ground, deposits in them from two to four batches of tiny yellow eggs, some thousands at a time, glued together. After an interval of three to six weeks these hatch out into tiny larvae with long legs terminated in a single claw. The larvae climb on to low plants, chiefly Ranunculaceae or Chicoraceae, from which they attach themselves to visiting bees, sometimes in large numbers. Once in the bee’s nest they devour the bee’s eggs and change into a second form, arched, cylindrical and with toothed mandibles and stout legs. These feed on the food deposited by the bee for its young. After a time this second form changes its outer covering, which is not entirely shed but remains wrinkled and attached so looking like a ‘false pupa’. From this a third form emerges like the second, before the adult beetle finally appears usually in the early Spring. M.rugosus, however, differs from this pattern in that adults are able to survive the winter even when temperatures drop to as low as —15°C. Furthermore, Whitehead’s observations suggest that it favours the bee Anthophora plumipes exclusively as its host species. What gives oil beetles their name is the ability to secrete when disturbed an oily substance called cantharidin from their joints. This is highly toxic and acts as an anti-predation device. (Ramsay, 2002). However, cantharidin has also been recorded as strongly attractive to species of midge (Atrichopogon spp.) and anthicid beetles, which suck the blood from the adult beetles. Nine species of oil beetle have been recorded from Britain but nearly all are now extinct or in serious decline. Ramsay suggests that the reasons are unclear but it is possible that climatic change, The Old Malthouse, Sutton Mandeville, Salisbury SP3 SLZ NOTES AND SHORTER CONTRIBUTIONS M. violaceus Marsham loss of grassland and heath to arable and forestry, agricultural improvement and stabilisation of cliff grasslands may all have contributed to their demise. It is pleasing to know, therefore, that M. proscarabaeus continues to be regularly recorded in Wiltshire (more records in 2002 than any previous year) and that we can now add M. rugosus to our list 299 too. Interestingly, M. violaceus Marsham, the third and most widespread of the species still recorded from Britain, has not been found in Wiltshire but is very likely to occur here. In size it resembles M. proscarabaeus, but it is usually distinctly bluish- violet in colour and has a distinct dip at the base of the pronotum, missing in M. rugosus. Bibliography RAMSAY, A. 2002. British oil beetles. British Wildlife, 14 (1), 27-30 WHITEHEAD,PE 1990. Further observations on Meloe rugosus Marsham (Col. Meoidae) in Worcestershire. Entomologist’s monthly Magazine, 126, 110 Wiltshire Archaeological & Natural History Magazine, vol. 97 (2004), pp. 300-308 Excavation and Fieldwork in Wiltshire 2002 Aldbourne Transco Gas pipeline between Wanborough and Aldbourne (SU 2340 8080 to SU 2670 7665); Romano-Bnitish A programme of archaeological recording by Cotswold Archaeology was undertaken during construction of the 5.4km-long pipeline. Three sites were located. Ditches indicative of Romano- British field systems were identified centred on SU 2524 7889, as was the site of a midden and possible structure, which was preserved in situ. Further evidence of Romano-British field systems was recorded at SU 2607 7759 and SU 26247739. Amesbury Earl’s Farm Down (SU 173 418); Prehistoric to Post- medieval The evaluation and subsequent excavation of six Bronze Age ring ditches, a series of linear ditches and other features on land at Solstice Park, Folly Bottom, Amesbury, was undertaken by AC archaeology during the summer of 2002. Most ring ditches were generally of typical construction and profile, comprising generally steep-sloping sides and a flat base. There was no evidence in any ring ditch for mound material or a buried soil horizon which would have pre-dated construction of the barrows. Many burials and cremations were, however, present, including cremations in collared urns, one of which contained beads of faience, jet, amber and shale. The large vessel containing these objects may have been brought into this area from the South-West of Britain. There were four inhumations in pits within one ring ditch, with the remains comprising a woman and three children. One of the skeletons was within a charred wooden container or coffin. Based on the presence of Iron Age and Romano-British pottery in the upper fills of all the ring ditches, it is likely that the barrow mounds were completely removed as a result of ploughing during this time. There are indications in the immediate vicinity of an expansion in arable cultivation at the end of the prehistoric period, based on the extensive evidence for field systems of this date, which possibly includes the linear features investigated as part of this exercise. Amesbury Land adjacent to 42 Beaulieu Rd (SU 1630 4095) Archaeological evaluation of land adjacent to 42 Beaulieu Road, Amesbury, was undertaken by Wessex Archaeology, but recorded no archaeo- logical features or deposits. Amesbury Skye House, Stonehenge Road (SU 145 415); Iron Age An archaeological watching brief undertaken by Michael Heaton during groundworks associated with an extension to Skye House at Amesbury, located within and immediately adjacent to the ramparts of Vespasian’s camp Iron Age hillfort, revealed a single archaeological feature. Though lacking dating evidence, the feature is interpreted here as a _ post-setting of prehistoric date contemporaneous with the initial use of the hillfort. Amesbury Stonehenge Visitors Centre (SU 15500 42600); Prehistoric-Medieval Wessex Archaeology carried out archaeological mitigation prior to ground investigation works of land proposed for development near Countess Road, Amesbury. The site is bordered to the east by the River Avon, to the south by the A303, to the west by the rear of properties fronting on to the A345 Countess Road and to the north by Totterdown Clump. Previous archaeological works identified prehistoric, Romano-British, Saxon and medieval activity. A series of hand and machine dug 1 x 1m testpits confirmed the presence of a relict channel identified in earlier archaeological works. The channel was aligned roughly east to west along the southern boundary of the ‘paddock’. The upper fills of this channel produced worked flint and late EXCAVATION AND FIELDWORK IN WILTSHIRE 2002 301 prehistoric pottery. Colluvial hillwash containing worked flint was also identified in the ‘paddock’, an area previously uninvestigated. Ashton Keynes (and Somerford Keynes, Gloucestershire) Cotswold Community (SU 033 963); Prehistoric— Medieval The excavations at Cotswold Community 2002 and 2003 in advance of gravel extraction at the Hill’s Minerals and Waste’s quarry is revealing an important multi-period landscape. Archaeological features from the Neolithic to the medieval period have been recovered. During the 2002 fieldwork, Neolithic pits containing flint tools (including several axes) and Peterborough and Grooved Ware pottery were dotted across the site. Also scattered across the site were pits and burials dated to the late Neolithic — early Bronze Age period. From these features came flint tools and comb decorated Beaker pottery (including two nearly complete Beaker vessels and a wrist guard from inhumations). These features are important because the early prehistoric era in this area is poorly represented. The Neolithic and early Bronze Age activity found across the landscape may represent evidence of land clearance, markers or possibly a funerary landscape, especially as three Beaker burials were also located on this site. These excavations also uncovered a substantial early Iron Age settlement that was well organised into areas with circular post-built and square to rectangular structures. Settlement patterns of this period have not been seen on this site before, and this fills in the missing gap between the middle Bronze Age and middle Iron Age settlements located in previous excavations. Further sections of Roman trackways, seen in previous fieldwork, were excavated and would have served as communication links between associated field systems and rural communities such as the Romano-British farmstead currently under excavation this year. Excavations this year have uncovered a dense and complicated web of archaeological remains, rather more than expected from the air photography and evaluation. Already two small Roman cemeteries have been exposed, one of which is truncating a ring ditch. Also of particular interest is a possible squarish Roman shrine situated close to a_ trackway. Evidence of middle to late Iron Age remains, possible Roman stone structures (such as corn dryers and a well) are under investigation. As expected, a pit alignment made up of a double row of pits has made a reappearance after having been recorded during fieldwork carried out in 1999. This feature is thought to be late Bronze Age to early Iron Age in date, consisting of 280 pits, avoids a ring ditch and snakes across the top half of the site. An ‘L- shaped ditch, yet to be excavated, may be associated with circular post-built structures, fences, pits and waterholes situated within the vicinity. Avebury Avebury Park (SU 099 701); Medieval and Undated Observation by Michael Heaton and Bill Moffatt during construction of new sewerage across Avebury Park indicates that earthworks north of Avebury Manor are not based upon interpretable structural deposits. The platforms that are clearly visible on the surface represent localised enhancement of subsoils, nonetheless likely to have been cultural in origin. Within the car park area to the west (behind the great Barn), is a group of north-south aligned ditches, gulleys and banks, intensively intercut and disturbed by modern features. Dating evidence is limited to medieval pottery in the upper layers sealing these features; they could be prehistoric, Roman or medieval in date. Though apparently lacking in dating evidence, this group of features is varied in deposit type, well stratified and sealed and of high archaeological potential. Avebury Beckhampton Avenue, (SU 087 690); Prehistoric In March 2002 a magnetometer and earth resistance survey were conducted by the geophysical survey team from the Centre for Archaeology in an area to the south of Longstones long barrow, Beckhampton, Avebury, in attempt to further locate the line of the Beckhampton Avenue south of the standing stones, Adam and Eve. Unfortunately there appeared to be no obvious trace of buried stones or burning pits in this area, a fact later confirmed by excavation. Avebury Falkner’s circle (SU 109 693); Prehistoric In March and May of 2002, geophysical surveys were conducted by the geophysical survey team from the Centre for Archaeology around a standing stone believed to be the last remnant of Falkner’s Circle, near Avebury, Wiltshire. Several discrete anomalies lying on an are approximately 44m in diameter were identified and found, when excavated in the summer of 2002, to be either post- medieval destruction pits or possible stone sockets. 302 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Avebury/Bishop’s Cannings Horton Down, Beckhampton (SU 080 670); Pre- historic, Early Medieval, and Post-medieval A small area of surviving pasture, on either side of the boundary between the civil parishes of Avebury and Bishop’s Canning, was investigated and earthworks analytically surveyed by English Heritage. The area contains four round barrows and the banks and lynchets of a ‘Celtic’ field system which has been positioned up to and around the mounds, but post-medieval quarrying has damaged the critical interface, making the relative chronology uncertain. A linear bank and ditch cut over the apex of one of the barrows curves for a considerable distance across the surrounding downland cutting through ‘Celtic’ field boundaries en route. Its curved plan implies an enclosure from contemporaneously unenclosed land. As it not only marks the parish boundary, but more significantly the boundary of the Selkley Hundred it probably dates to the mid-to late Saxon period. Berwick St John Church Street (ST 9465 2237); Post-medieval An evaluation by means of trench excavation was carried out by AC archaeology during February 2002. The evaluation consisted of a single machine- excavated trench measuring 15m long and 1.8m wide. This trench uncovered a 600mm depth of soils that sealed the remains of a probable pond which appeared to have been partially infilled with silt and demolition rubble during the 18th or 19th century. Blunsdon St Andrew Groundwell Ridge (SU 141 894); Roman Roman masonry was unexpectedly discovered at Groundwell Ridge to the north of Swindon in 1996 when building work for a new _ housing development started, close to earthworks thought to be of medieval date. Geophysical survey by the Ancient Monuments Laboratory and subsequent limited excavations suggested a high status establishment such as a villa of some pretension or a religious complex. As a result, the remains were scheduled as an Ancient Monument, and the site was purchased and transferred to Swindon Borough Council. An area of some 5.7ha is now protected from development and it is proposed that the site be preserved as a public open space. As a result, the geophysical survey team from the Centre for Archaeology was asked to return to the site and extend the geophysical survey to cover this entire area. The survey results suggest that, whilst Roman activity in the form of masonry buildings, enclosures and _ ditches was concentrated towards the centre of the site, archaeological remains are likely to extend across other parts of the protected area. However, the magnetometer and earth resistance surveys appear to be responding to different features, often superimposed, hinting at more than one phase of activity on the ridge. REFERENCE Linford, P and Martin, L. 2002. Groundwell Ridge, Blunsdon St Andrew, Swindon: Report on Geophysical Survey, March-April 2002. English Heritage Centre for Archaeology report series, 44/2002, (unpub- lished) Blunsdon St Andrew Groundwell Ridge (SU 141 894); Roman A limited trial GPR survey by the geophysical survey team from the Centre for Archaeology was conducted over well preserved building remains revealed during a previous geophysical survey (see above) covering an apparent complex of Roman activity discovered, unexpectedly, at Groundwell Ridge to the north of Swindon in 1996. Despite unfavourable, clay-rich soil conditions the GPR survey provided a detailed plan of the Roman remains to a depth of approximately 1m, confirming their survival in the very near surface. The GPR results complement the previous earth resistance and magnetic surveys and together the data suggest the presence of a high status Roman building possibly incorporating thermoremanent features, for instance associated with a hypocaust system. REFERENCE Linford, N., 2002. Groundwell Ridge, Blunsdon St. Andrew, Swindon. Report on ground penetrating radar survey, July 2002. English Heritage Centre for Archaeology report series, 83/2002, (unpublished) Bradford-on-Avon Barton Grange Farm (ST 8230 6045); Post-medieval and Modern Archaeological works undertaken over a period of five years between 1998 and 2003, prior to and during renovation of the West Barn and within the Barton Grange Farm Scheduled Monument recorded significant data regarding the establishment and development of the farm EXCAVATION AND FIELDWORK IN WILTSHIRE 20062 303 buildings. The West Barn was constructed in the late-18th century, incorporating part of the foundations of a larger building of medieval date identified and published in 1978 by Jeremy Haslam. The two building episodes were separated by several centuries, represented by sequences of limestone pavements and culverts that sealed the earlier building and were cut into by the 18th-century barn. See Heaton and Moffatt this volume. Broad Chalke Blick’s Yard (SU 257 038); Undated Monitoring of groundworks during the machine excavation of footings trenches for a new house was carried out by AC archaeology between April and May 2002. No archaeological features or deposits were present. Calne Without Water pipeline, Sandy Lane ST971 673; Romano- British A watching brief was undertaken during the laying of a replacement water pipeline to the north of the Roman settlement of Verlucio. Occasional sherds of Romano-British pottery and iron slag were recovered in the section of the pipeline route in fields north of the A3102 around $T97206734. Where the pipe trench was cut along the carriageway of the A3102 to the east of the entrance to Wans Cottage (around $T971673) a series of archaeological deposits was exposed and recorded. These included wall footings, a paved area, an undated ditch and occupation and demolition spreads. Pottery associated with these features is predominantly AD Ist to 2nd century in origin. A more detailed report is in preparation. Codford Kitchen Wing, East Codford Farm (ST 975 398); Post- medieval and Modern Observations and photographic recording by Michael Heaton of fabric affected by demolition and rebuilding of the kitchen wing of East Codford Farm were made during February 2002. Collation of the observations suggests that the part of the kitchen wing and the stack it enclosed represented an earlier 17th-century phase of the farmhouse building that had been largely destroyed by fire during the mid-20th century. Coombe Bissett St Michael and All Angels Church (SU 1080 2635); Post-medieval and Modern A watching brief was maintained by AC archaeology during trenching for the laying of services across the north side of the churchyard. A total length of some 30m of hand-dug trench running to the north transept was observed, within which excavation encountered only redeposited and disturbed soils. Small quantities of post-medieval tile were noted immediately below the turfline, but no other dating evidence was recovered. Disarticulated human bone was present at one location, but was left at the base of the trench. The depth of the excavations (600mm) was insufficient to disturb any in situ burials, and no evidence concerning the construction and development of the church or any archaeological features was forthcoming. Crudwell Goldhill Quarry (ST 93700 92500) Wessex Archaeology carried out an archaeological evaluation of land at Goldhill Quarry in response to proposals for an extension to the existing quarry. The c. 1 ha was evaluated by means of four randomly located trenches, each 30m long and 1.8m wide and aligned generally east-west and north— south. No archaeological features, deposits or artefacts were recorded. Donhead St Andrew Old Wardour House (ST 9383 2622); Medieval An evaluation was carried out on the site of a proposed extension to Old Wardour House, in February 2002. The evaluation consisted of three machine-excavated trial pits located within the footprint of the proposed extension. These excavations generally revealed layers of redeposited soil and building rubble. One trial pit exposed the footings of an ashlar wall, possibly associated with an outbuilding to the south of the medieval stable block on the north east side of the house. Layers of clay visible in the sections of the other two trial pits may be part of general levelling up of the site for landscaping. No datable artefacts were recovered. Easton Grey Whatley Manor Hotel (ST 8975 8715); Undated A watching brief undertaken by Cotswold Archaeology during groundworks associated with the development of a spa complex identified no features of archaeological interest other than an undated well. 304 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Latton Latton Lands (SU 085 961); Bronze Age, Iron Age, Roman and Medieval Gravel extraction by Cotswold Aggregates continued to be monitored by Oxford Archaeology to the south of the quarry between the old and new A419 roads. From excavations and watching briefs carried out from 2001 to 2003 significant archaeological remains have been revealed (see Stansbie and Laws this volume). Longbridge Deverill Kingsdown Farm (ST 8830 3972); Undated An evaluation by means of trench excavation was undertaken by AC archaeology during February 2002. The evaluation consisted of the machine- excavation of four trenches, each 20m in length and 1.60m wide, and all located within or on the edge of areas likely to be affected by development. The work provided wholly negative results, with no features or finds identified. Malmesbury Saxon House, 39 High Street (ST 9333 8707); Medieval and Later A building recording survey was undertaken by Cotswold Archaeology during renovation of the upper two storeys of the main facade. Removal of render exposed poorly preserved but clearly historic structural timbers, indicating that the building is of greater antiquity than its current tripartite windows of c. 1900 suggest. Its origins appear to date from c. 1500 (since confirmed by dendrochronology), when two similar timber-framed gabled houses were built, with a single window located centrally to each of the close-studded, jettied upper floors. Three carved quatrefoils surviving on a stud suggest that these facades were highly decorated. In the 18th century the jetties, windows and gables were removed, the frames were set back into a common alignment, and the studs were rearranged to accommodate pairs of segmental-headed sashes throughout, creating a single, typically Georgian, facade. Further alterations to the timbers were made when the current windows were inserted, and a brick parapet was probably also added at this time. This parapet was removed as part of the renovation works. Malmesbury Former Cinema Site, Market Cross (ST 933 874); Medieval and Later A watching brief and excavation were undertaken by Cotswold Archaeology prior to residential redevelopment. The site lies immediately adjacent to the south transept of the 12th-century Benedictine Abbey Church. A graveyard was revealed, from which 76 burials were excavated and removed for analysis. The graveyard had been intensively used, with little space between the burials. The inhumations, all aligned east—west, were associated with 14th to 15th-century pottery and tile fragments, and included evidence both for wooden coffins and simpler interments in woollen shrouds. The presence of both males and females, and adults and children, suggests that this was a burial ground for the medieval townspeople rather than the religious or lay community. Structural remains were also revealed, including mortar and flagstone floor surfaces, robbed stone walls and an associated buttress. These may relate to a medieval chapel, possibly that of St Michael or St Lawrence, which was reputedly sited immediately adjacent to the south transept of the abbey. Mere/ Chicklade A303 Chicklade Bottom to Mere Improvement (ST 9390 3434 to ST 8210 3286); Prehistoric-Medieval Wessex Archaeology carried out an archaeological appraisal of 11km of land along the line of the present A303 between Chicklade Bottom and Mere. This stretch of road is proposed for improvement, which is likely to include dualling and diversion of the road to the south of Chicklade. Boundary and enclosure ditches and field systems cover up to 60% of the study area, which also contains long and round barrows and a Roman Road and adjacent ditch. A number of post-medieval and modern features, such as listed buildings and milestones, are also recorded. Six Scheduled Ancient Monuments including Neolithic and Bronze Age barrows and medieval lynchets are located within the study area, two of which are within a few metres of the proposed improvements. Eleven Grade II Listed Buildings, mostly consisting of milestones and farm/coaching buildings, lie adjacent or close to the proposed improvements or within Chicklade itself. The major impact of both the preferred route and two suggested variations will be on the various field systems within the study area. Although no information is currently available on the likely depth of any impact, it is possible that any penetration below existing made or disturbed ground will damage surviving traces of earlier archaeological deposits, which are likely to be of significant importance. EXCAVATION AND FIELDWORK IN WILTSHIRE 2002 305 Salisbury 20 Bedwin Street (SU 1450 3025); Medieval, ?Post- medieval, Undated An excavation was carried out by Cotswold Archaeology prior to the redevelopment of the site for housing. The excavation demonstrated that the majority of the site was covered by a series of accumulated medieval soil deposits, the earliest of which is dated to the 13th century or later. A single undated pit or posthole cutting one of the earliest of these layers was found. Wall foundations were identified along two sides of the site, with a series of floor surfaces butting against one of them. Although the original date of construction is uncertain, the latest of the surfaces dates to the 15th to 16th centuries. Salisbury Bishop Wordsworth’s School (SU 1427 2929); Post- medieval and Modern An archaeological watching brief was maintained by AC archaeology during the construction of a new classroom block at Bishop Wordsworth’s School, Salisbury. The site was previously the subject of an evaluation (WANHM 96, 235). No additional archaeological information was obtained. Salisbury Castle Street (SU 14375 30364) Wessex Archaeology carried out an archaeological watching brief during the installation of a cable duct along Castle Street and Mill Stream Approach. No archaeological deposits or features were recorded within the trench. The single archaeo- logical find of note was a Purbeck limestone block (at least 0.22m(+) wide and 0.55m long) found in the very base of the trench, which did not appear to be in situ. It was roughly dressed at both ‘ends’ and unmortared. It was not removed after being recorded. The block was found immediately adjacent to No.3 Castle Street (part of the Hussey’s Almshouses complex) to where the medieval Castle Gate coat of arms was removed in 1908. It may be a remnant of the medieval Castle Gate, probably constructed in the 15th century, partially demolished in 1788 and totally demolished in 1906. However, it could also be derived from other medieval or post-medieval structures in the vicinity. Salisbury Grasmere Hotel SU139 290; Post-medieval and Modern A watching brief was undertaken during the demolition of an _ existing extension and construction of a new four-storey extension to the hotel, along with the formation of additional parking areas and associated drainage. Much of the area in the vicinity of the hotel exhibited modern disturbance. Elsewhere garden soils and clayey subsoils were exposed. No pre-modern features or finds were recovered. Salisbury Salisbury District Hospital (SU 15200 27500) Seven evaluation trenches were excavated within a single plot of land of 1.25ha at Salisbury District Hospital in advance of development of car parking area. No significant archaeological features or deposits were discovered. The work was undertaken by Wessex Archaeology. South Marston Land adjacent to the A420 (SU 1915 8675); Medieval, Post-medieval and Undated An evaluation was carried out by Cotswold Archaeology to accompany an application for planning consent for development of the site. Three ditches were identified; one was medieval in date, one post-medieval and the other undated. It is likely that the medieval and post-medieval ditches represent activity directly associated with the adjacent farm, which is believed to be part of a shrunken medieval settlement. The undated ditch may represent cultivation activity also connected with the farm. Staverton Land between New Terrace and Marina Drive (ST 8580 6035); Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age, Iron Age, Romano-British and Post-medieval An evaluation was undertaken by Cotswold Archaeology in advance of the proposed construction of a link road. A number of significant features were revealed in trenches situated near the top of a south-facing slope, which appeared to have been exploited for settlement and agricultural purposes since the Late Neolithic. Features of Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age date were recorded, including a pit or gully containing Beaker-type pottery and flint artefacts indicative of domestic, rather than funerary, activity. Iron Age pits and postholes, Romano-British ditches and shallow linear features and a post-medieval pit were also recorded. Further downslope, a small number of undated features were identified. 306 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Steeple Langford Corpus Christi Barn, Duck Street (SU 03740 37389); Modern A photographic, drawn and written description of a military heraldic device situated on the inner face of the south gable of Corpus Christi Barn was made by Michael Heaton prior to partial destruction of the feature during building conversion. The device — an inverted pyramid of 15 red bezants over the logo “ One and All” — was used by a Reserve Battalion of the Duke of Cornwall’s Light Infantry, one detachment of which was training at nearby Codford during the early years of World War I. Southwick Cutteridge Farm (ST 843 533); Romano-British Two evaluation trenches dug by Michael Heaton, representing 7% of the footprint of a proposed large country house adjacent to Cutteridge Farm at Southwick in West Wiltshire, revealed a shallow gully containing a sherd of Romano-British pottery and a fragmented human femur, sealed beneath artefactually sterile subsoils. The pottery and disarticulated human bone within it are considered to be residual material derived from earlier disturbances of Romano-British graves known to have existed approximately 100m north- west of the site. Swindon Great Western Railway Works, (SU 143 850); Post- medieval and Modern An archaeological assessment of the former GWR works was undertaken by Cotswold Archaeology. Subsequent field evaluation, prior to redevelop- ment, revealed extensive and well-preserved 19th- and 20th-century structural remains including floors, footings and other below-ground remains of the 1847 Smiths Shops, the 1861 Rolling Mill and Central Boiler Station and the 1896 Points and Crossings Shop, Iron Store and Stamping Shop. While the truncated remains of these structures in isolation are not of particular archaeological value they do have significance by virtue of being intrinsic elements of the GWR site, the largest integrated railway works in Britain at the end of the 19th century. Swindon Hreod Parkway School (SU 1285 8670); Iron Age In August 2003 Oxford Archaeology (OA) carried out a field evaluation at Hreod Parkway School, North Swindon, on behalf of Swindon Borough Council. The evaluation followed an earlier phase of work at the same site carried out by OA in March 2003. Five trenches measuring 50 m in length were opened in the course of the works, targeting anomalies identified by geophysical as being of archaeological significance. The evaluation revealed significant archaeological remains in one trench only, suggesting localised Iron Age activity in the form of postholes. An undated hollow was also recorded. The majority of the site exhibited extensive layers of imported soil, ‘made ground deposits’, of recent date. Ten abraded sherds of pottery were recovered from one postpipe, for which an early to middle Iron Age date is suggested. These will be held by Oxford Archaeology and will be deposited with Swindon Museum and Art Gallery in due course. Trowbridge The Conigre/Broad Street (ST 8540 5814); Medieval and Post-medieval An archaeological evaluation by Bristol and Region Archaeological Services at the Conigre and Broad Street in the centre of Trowbridge revealed a number of Lias limestone walls typical of the many 17th- and 18th-century houses that covered the site until as recently as 1934. A number of these structures were traceable on the 1887 and 1937 Ordnance Survey plans. A significant amount of 11th- to 13th-century pottery was also recovered, associated with a linear feature that could perhaps represent a boundary ditch of the early medieval town. Trowbridge Ushers Brewery (ST 8550 5800); Medieval and Post- medieval In March 2002, an archaeological evaluation was undertaken by Bristol and Region Archaeological Services on land formerly owned by the Ushers Brewery. Work at the main brewery buildings on Manvers Street revealed no significant archaeology. However, excavations at the former bottling plant, to the north of Church Street, revealed a number of postholes and linear features associated with the expansion of the medieval town in the 12th century. The foundations of the 17th-century Conigre House were also identified. Urchfont Manor Farm (SU 0408 5715); 2 Late Neolithic/Bronze Age An evaluation was undertaken by Cotswold Archaeology. Two ditches and a gully were excavated EXCAVATION AND FIELDWORK IN WILTSHIRE 2002 307 to the east of the farm buildings. A small assemb- lage of Late Neolithic or Bronze Age worked flints was recovered from the fills of the above features. Warminster Warminster School (ST 870 453); Iron Age, Roman and Post-medieval A single trench dug by Michael Heaton, represented 6% of the footprint of a proposed new science block at Warminster School in West Wiltshire. The cutting revealed a number of features of post 18th-century date within generally artefact- ually sterile soils from which a single sherd of late Iron Age or early Roman pottery was recovered. Westbury Kendrick’s Garage (ST 87280 51490); Medieval—Post- medieval Wessex Archaeology undertook a preliminary archaeological evaluation of land at Kendrick’s Garage, Westbury where it was proposed to demolish three garage buildings and construct thirteen houses. Three trenches were mechanically excavated while the site was still in use as a garage and second- hand car lot. Archaeological remains were encountered in all three trenches, demonstrating the survival of occupational remains from the medieval period onwards. In trench 1, fronting on to West End, was an area of made ground, possibly representing the remains of a house platform. Post- holes and a beamslot suggest that a later building was constructed. Although none of these features was directly dated, post-medieval pottery was recovered from the area. Trench 2, running alongside Edward Street, contained two ditches and three pits of medieval and post-medieval date. Stone footings for a sleeper beam overlay the ditches suggesting a timber-built structure, while both stone and brick foundations were identified against the western edge of the trench. These probably date to the last two centuries, although the stone foundations may represent an earlier phase of building. The third trench with a property fronting on to Maristow Street, contained a medieval ditch, aligned north- north-east to south-south-west, the fills of which had been cut by a post-medieval pit. Westbury Madbrook Farm (ST 872 497); Mesolithic to Modern Fieldwalking by Mark Corney and Michael Heaton of five plots totalling an area of 38ha along parts of the proposed eastern route of the Westbury by-pass recovered significant patterns of artefact distribution indicating the presence of human activity from the Mesolithic to the present day. The most significant groupings were of prehistoric date, mainly lithic scatters, and evidence of an actively weathering Late Bronze Age/Iron Age midden site near Beggars Knoll. Westbury Storridge Farm (ST 8530 5245); Medieval and Post- medieval A field evaluation on land adjacent to Storridge Farm was carried out by AC archaeology during November 2002. The work comprised a detailed survey of surface features and the machine- excavation of eleven 30m x 2m trenches. The site contains the well-preserved remains of a water meadow system of the common and widespread ‘ridge and furrow’ type. The associated structural elements indicate a 19th-century date for its construction. Excavation of trenches provided profiles through these earthworks, but also revealed evidence for earlier activity in the form of linear ditches containing finds of early medieval date. In one of these ditches, located in the NW corner of the field next to Storridge Farm, the quantity of pottery recovered and the large unabraded size of individual sherds, suggests that settlement of this date must be close by, either immediately to the east, or most probably beneath the existing farm complex. Other ditches identified on the site are likely to relate to early field boundaries pre-dating the construction of the water meadows. Winterbourne Monkton The Cottages (SU 0970 7190); Medieval In November 2002 Oxford Archaeology (OA) carried out an archaeological watching brief at ‘The Cottages’, Winterbourne Monkton. The work was commissioned by Bybrook Developments in advance of a barn conversion and renovation to cottages. The watching brief revealed two undated features pre-dating the cottages. The barn dates to the post-medieval period. A fragment of medieval carved limestone basin was recovered from the disturbed soil underneath the barn floor, which will be held at Oxford Archaeology and finally deposited at WANHS Museum, Devizes. Winterbourne Stoke A303 Stonehenge: Areas R and T (SU 112 416-138 419); Prehistoric Wessex Archaeology undertook the archaeological evaluation of the Preferred Route of the A303 308 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Stonehenge Improvement in Wiltshire, Areas R and T; which lie south of the A303 and include Stonehenge Bottom, King Barrow Ridge and land as far east as Stonehenge Road. The northern part of Area R contains a Scheduled Monument (long barrow, SM 10314), and the remains of a milestone (Listed Grade II, Amesbury 5/7) are situated adjacent to the A303 within Area T. The underlying geology comprises Middle Chalk. Periglacial and colluvial deposits are known to exist in Stonehenge Bottom. Evaluation comprised the excavation of 29 trial trenches. Features of archaeological interest were found in only four of these. A sequence of periglacial and colluvial deposits was recorded in Stonehenge Bottom. A buried ditch previously recorded from cropmark evidence as Site 518 was recorded in Site R and produced Bronze Age worked flint. Other features consisted of an undated gully and an irregular linear feature thought to be a former hedgeline in Area R, and a former hollow way and associated cart ruts, together with traces of the former Stonehenge airfield, in Area T. Only a few worked flints and animal bones were recovered and no pottery. Trenches were variously targeted to examine features predicted by geophysical anomalies or cropmark evidence but only one trench successfully encountered a cropmark feature. In only three trenches were the anomalies found to represent buried archaeological remains; otherwise they represent natural features or variations in the chalk substrata. Winterslow Roman road, Middle Winterslow SU237 331; Modern A watching brief was undertaken during the excavation of wall foundation trenches for two new houses close to the presumed course of the Roman road in Middle Winterslow. Observations of the trench sections observed a thin topsoil overlying 800mm of silty clay which in turn sealed natural clay-with-flints and bedrock chalk. No pre-modern archaeological features, deposits or individual finds were noted. Wroughton Swindon Data Centre (SU 1600 7935); Modern The Oxford Archaeological Unit (OA) carried out a field evaluation at the Swindon Data Centre on behalf of Watkins Gray International LLP in July 2003. A line of postholes and a pit were found beneath the remains of modern levelling of the site and subsequent deposits of made-ground indicating possible modern construction of the World War II hospital. These are considered to be modern and no finds were recovered. Wylye A303 Wylye to Stockton Wood Improvement (ST 9910 3654 to ST 9600 3538); Prehistoric-Medieval Wessex Archaeology carried out an archaeological appraisal of land along the line of the present A303 between Wylye and Stockton Wood in advance of proposed road improvements. The area contains a large number of archaeologically significant features, ranging from boundary and field systems, possible barrows, and a Roman road and settlement. Two scheduled monuments lie close by: the 70ha complex of Stockton Earthworks (WA 7) 200m to the north of the road corridor and a section of the substantial bank and ditch of Grim’s Ditch (WA 8), which is crossed by the route of the proposed improvement. An 18th-century milestone (WA 22) lying 200m to the west of the western end of the proposed road improvements is included on the Register of Grade II Listed Buildings. A Roman Road is projected as running through the western half of the study area and is crossed by the current line of the A303. Recent fieldwork found no surviving traces at the estimated crossing point, although the road and associated features may be recoverable elsewhere. Undated field systems and enclosures/boundary ditches cover a large area of the eastern half of the study area (up to 40%), bisected by the A303 (WA 9-14 and 19). While some of these field systems have suffered damage from ploughing, a number of elements have survived in good condition. Two cropmarks denoting the sites of possible barrows (WA 3 and 4) have also been identified close to the road corridor. The potential for the survival of early archaeological evidence, both on the line of the present A303 and in its immediate surroundings, must be considered very high, with the potential for surviving remains of regional or national importance. Wiltshire Archaeological & Natural History Magazine, vol. 97 (2004), pp. 309-326 Index by Philip Aslett NOTE: Wiltshire places are indexed or referenced under civil parish. Page numbers in italics refer to figures; page numbers in bold refer to tables. A303 Trunk Road (Stonehenge Improve- ment), 307-8 Aberystwyth (Ceredigion), 87n Abingdon (Oxfordshire), 123 Abury see Avebury Abyssinia, 275 AC archaeology: evaluations, 302, 304, 307; excavations, 300; watching briefs, 303, 305 Academy of Natural adelphia), 27, 33 Accipiter nisus (Sparrowhawk), 262, 270 Accum, Friedrich Christian (1769-1838), 5 Acer campestre (Field Maple), 16, 23 Acer cappadocium (Coliseum Maple), 23 Acer platanoides (Norway Maple), 23 Acer pseudoplatanus (Sycamore), 15 Aceraceae (maples), 22, 23 acetolysis, 71, 135 Acheulian culture, 273, 275 Act of Indemnity (1674), 101 Acton (Greater London), 123 acts of Parliament, 295 Adams, Richard, 40, 42, 47, 48, 53; accounts, 56, 57, 58; cloth marks, 61 Addington, Henry, Ist Viscount Sidmouth (1757-1844), 4, 8, 9, 10 Addison, Joseph (1672-1719), 2 Adlam, George, 39, 42, 47; accounts, 50-1 Adlam, John, 39, 47, 48, 50; accounts, 59, 60 Adlam, Robert, 38, 39, 42, 47, 48; accounts, 46-7, 59, 60; activities, 49 Adlam, Robert, the younger, 53 Adlam, William, 37, 39, 40, 47, 48, 53 Adlam, William, the elder, 39, 48; cloth mark, 61 Adlam, William, the younger, 39, 48, 54 Adolphus, Gustavus (1594-1632), 2 Adoxa moschatellina (Town-hall Clock), 263 Adrena spp. (bees), 298 adult literacy, 1 Aegithales canolatus (Long-tailed Tits), 270 Aegopinella nitidula (mollusc), 127 aerial photography, 236, 239, 262, 280, 301 Aesculus carnea (Red Horse Chestnut), 17; diseases, 18 Aesculus carnea_ ‘Briotti’ Chestnut), 18, 24 Aesculus hippocastanum (Horse Chestnut), 17, 24 Aeshna cyanea (Southern Hawker), 266 Aeshna grandis (Brown Hawker), 266 Aeshna mixta (Migrant Hawker), 266 Aethusa cynapium (Fool’s Parsley), 97 Affarnwell, Nic., 47 Afghanistan, 276 Africa, 276 agricultural essays, 5 agricultural labourers, 34n, 274 agricultural machinery, 4-5, see also ploughing agricultural riots, 34n agricultural societies, 4 agriculture, 133, 137, 140-1, 245; Bronze Sciences (Phil- (Red Horse Age, 187, 243; improvements, 4-5; mixed, 130, 131-2, see also cultivation air raids, 280 aircraft, 252 airfields, 308 Albania, 17 Alcedo atthis (Kingfisher), 269 Aldbourne, 275, 300; Chandler’s Farm, 275; North Farm, 276; Sugar Hill, 275 Aldeburgh[?] (Suffolk), ships, 58 alders, 16, 261, 262, 263; pollen, 71, 135, 137, 177, 2313232 ale, 43, 53; measures, 62 Alexander Keiller Museum, 287 Alexander Turnbull Library Zealand), 27 Alfred, King, 280 Alkins’ Royal Menagerie, 10 All Cannings: All Cannings Cross, 189, 191; Tan Hill, 10, 92, 93, 198 Allen, G. W. G., 280 Allen, Michael J.: note on Folly Bottom, 234; note on land molluscs from Earl’s Farm Down, 238-41; note on land snails from Whitesheet Down, 171-4; note on land snails from Whitesheet Quarry, 191-2; note on stratigraphy of Avon Valley, 228-9; paper on millennium re- investigation of the Corton Long Barrow, 63-77; report on archaeological and environmental study of Avon Valley/Durrington Walls environs, 218- 48; report on investigation of the Whitesheet Down environs, 144-96 Allen, William, 40, 49, 53; cloth mark, 61 Allerod Interstadial, 231 Allington, 237 alluvium, 72, 219, 228, 233 almanacs, 2 Alnus spp. (alders), 176, 231, 232 Alnus glutinosa (Common Alder), 16, 135, 261, 262, 263 Alton: Knap Hill, 258; Walker’s Hill, 258 Alway, John, 40 Alwen, Mr, 80 Amati family, 6 Amazing Pig of Knowledge, The, 10 Amazonian rainforests, 17 amber objects, beads, 200, 300 Ambers, Janet, 154 America, 5 America’s Cup, 249 Amesbury, 219, 242; Beaulieu Road, 300; Boscombe Down, 243; Boscombe Down West, 189; Coneybury Anomaly, 227; Countess Road, 300-1; Earl’s Farm Down, 219, 220, 234-41, 243, 245, 300; Fargo Plantation, 275, 276; Folly Bottom, 219, 220, 234, 243, 300; King Barrow Ridge, 71, 224, 226, 238, 243, 308; Longbarrow Clump, 220, 234, 243, 245; milestones, 308; Ratfyn, 244, 245; Skye House, 300; Solstice Park, 300; Stonehenge Bottom, 308; Stonehenge (New Road, 300, 308; ‘Totterdown, 244; Totterdown Clump, 300; Vespasian’s Camp, 300; Woodhenge, 232, 233, 242, 243, 244, 245; Woodlands, 244, see also Stonehenge Amesbury Hundred, 92 Amiens, Peace of (1802), 9 AML (Ancient Monuments Laboratory), 302 ammonites, 33 Ammonites benettianus, 25 amphibians, bones, 238 Anabaptism, 101 Anacardicaceae (cashews), 22 Anagallis tenella (Bog Pimpernel), 265 Ancient Monuments Directorate, 278 Ancient Monuments Laboratory (AML), 302 Andersen, S. T., 135 Andles, Leonard, 58 Andover (Hants), Old Down Farm, 189 Andrews, Charles William (1866-1924), 284n Andrews and Dury, map (1773), 2, 87n Angelica sylvestris (Wild Angelica), 259, 260, 262, 268 Angle Ditch (Dorset), 139 Anglers’ Co-operative Association, 249 Anglesey (Wales), 80, 82, 86 angling, 249, 250, 252-3 Angling Times, 253 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 280 Anguilla anguilla (Common Eel), 238 animal bone see bone, animal animal husbandry, 133 Anisus leucostoma (mollusc), 33n, 127, 128 Anisus vortex (mollusc), 33n Annals of Agriculture, The (1784), 4 Anne, Edward, 6 Anne Fortune (ship), 59 Annual Register, The, 5 Anstie, Amelia, 6 Anstie, Benjamin, 2, 6 Anstie, John, 2, 4-5 Anstie, Samuel, 6 Anstie family, 5 anthicid beetles, 298 Anthocharis cardamines (Orange-tip), 266-8 Anthophora spp. (bees), 298 Anthophora plumipes (bee), 298 Anthropological Institute, 203 antiquarianism, 82 antiquarians, 25, 30, 80; France, 199; Wiltshire, 99 antique dealers, 274 antlers, 128, 167, 169, 170, 185, 227; fragments, 130, 132; worked, 109, 140, 227, 244 Antonye (ship), 57 Antwerp (Belgium), 35, 43, 50, 54; Bourse, 36; cloth marts, 36 Aphantopus hyperantus (Ringlet), 268 aphids, 17; predators, 98 Apodemus flavicollis (Yellow-necked 310 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Mouse), 270 Apodemus sylvaticus (Woodmouse), 270 apothecaries, 5 apprentices, 36, 54, 101, 102 apprenticeships, 35 aquaria, 253 aquatic plants, 138 Aquifoliaceae (holly), 21 Arable Weed Survey of South Wiltshire (1999), 98 Arable Weed Survey of South Wiltshire (2003), 95-8 arable weeds, 232; surveys, 95-8 Araneus diadematus (spider), 266 Araneus marmoreus (spider), 266 Araucariaceae (Chile pine trees), 19 Archaeologia, 65 Archaeological Institute, 297 Archaeological Fournal, 297 archaeological societies, and social class, 281 archaeology: amateur, 2713; professionalisation, 273 Archer, Robert, 45 Ardea cinerea (Grey Heron), 270 Arkell, William Joscelyn (1904-58), 281, 282 Armitage, P. L., 128 arms (heraldry), 30, 306 Army, in World War I, 306 arrowheads: Neolithic, 164; Late Neolithic, 226; chisel, 226, 244; Clark’s type C, 226; Clark’s type D, 244 artefacts, transport, 166 arthritis, 32 artisans, 10 artists, 6, 250, 252-4 arts, 11, 12; in 18th century, 5-7, see also music; paintings; theatres Arundell, Aeddan, 295 Arundell, Edith, 295 Arundell, Henry, 295 Arundell, Henry, 5th Lord Arundell, 295 Arundell, Henry, 8th Lord Arundell of Wardour, 294, 295 Arundell, James Everard, 9th Lord Arundell of Wardour, 294, 295 Arundell, John Francis, 12th Lord Arundell of Wardour (1831-1906), 295 Arundell, John Francis, 16th Lord Arundell of Wardour (1907-44), 295 Arundell, Robert, 295 Arundell, Rudolphus (d. 1841), 295 Arundell family, estates, 294-5 Aroicola terrestris (Water Vole), 270 ash, 151, 152 ash trees, 15, 24, 262, 268; charcoal, 174, 192, 245; felling, 175; pollen, 232 Ashbee, P,, 66 Ashbury (Oxfordshire), 277, 280 Ashdown, Battle of, 280 ashlars, 216 Ashlocke, Thomas, 39, 40, 47, 48; accounts, 58; cloth mark, 61 Ashmolean Museum, 200, 273, 275, 277-8, 282, 283, 284n, 287-8 Ashton Keynes, 108, 301 Askins, Martin, 271; note on spiders at Vera Jeans Nature Reserve, 266 Assizes, 8 Astley, Sir John Dugdale (1828-94), 34n Athelstan Museum, collections, 288 Atkinson, Richard John Copland (1920- 94), 82 Atlantic, 231 Atrichopogon spp. (midges), 298 Aubrey, John (1626-97), 84, 85, 87, 204; Monumenta Britannica (1980), 207; on stone circles, 199 augering, 71, 72, 219, 220, 234, 237; advantages, 74; barrows, 63, 67; ditches, 66; logs, 76; procedures, 68; soil Austropotamobius — pallipes samples, 69 aulnagers, 50, 52 (White-clawed Crayfish), 259 Avebury, 79, 82, 87, 205, 282; agriculture, 4; Alexander Keiller Museum, 287; Avebury Down, 197; Avebury Manor, 280, 301; Avebury Park, 301; Barn, 301; Bath Road, 278; Beckhampton, 203, 278, 302; Beckhampton Avenue, 301; Beckhampton Road, 71; church, 198; excavations, 274; Falkner’s Circle, 301; flintwork, 282; henge monument, 72; Horslip Long Barrow, 69, 70, 71; Horton Down, 302; Kennet Avenue, 84— 5, 278, 281; Longstones, 301; Marl- borough Road, 86; Morganwg on, 79- 80; Overton Hill, 82, 83; Sanctuary, 206, 207, 278; sarsens, 84-5; South Street Long Barrow, 69, 70, 71, 177; standing stones, 301; stone circles, 197, 202, 206, 207, 278-9; West Kennet Avenue, 226; West Kennet Long Barrow, 69, 70, 71; wireless tower, 280, see also Silbury Hill; Windmill Hill avenues, 200, 203, 207 Avon, River (North), 211 Avon, River (South), 255, 257, 300; habitats, 258-65, 267 Avon Valley, 37; archaeological and environmental studies, 218-48; geology, 219, 228-9; vegetational history, 228-34, 242 axe-hammers, 276 axes: Neolithic, 74, 164, 166, 301; flint, 160, 220, 226, 275; Graig Lwyd type, 244; sarsen, 275; stone, 275; volcanic rock, 185, see also hand-axes Ayre, John, 58 Ayre, William, 47 Azores, 249 backsword contests, 10 bacteria, intracellular, 17 badgers, 253, 271 badges, pilgrim, 293-4 Bagshot Beds, 206 Baker, John, 39, 47, 55—6n Baker, John (fl. 1526-35), 49 Baker, John (fl. 1814-50), 26, 33n Baker, Mr, 7 bakers, 3, 9 Baldwin, Thomas, 7 ballads, 6 balls (dances), 8, 9, 12 Bamis mart, 36, 46, 50, 54 bands, 9 bankers, 5 Banks, Benjamin (1750-95), 6 banks, 139, 302; Neolithic, 151 Banwell, Edward, 40, 48; accounts, 57, 58; cloth mark, 61 Banwell, Richard, 60 Banwyn, John, 60 Barbados, Archdeacon of, 29 Barbor (ship), 60 Barclay, Alistair, note on fired clay from Latton Lands, 126 bardic ceremonies, 85 bards, 79 bark beetles, 18 Barking, ships, 45 Barle, John, 53 barley, 192 Barnes, J. O’N., 284n Barnes, Symond, 45 Barnes Collection, 282 barns, 211-17, 302-3, 307; tithe, 211, 216 Barr Stone, 30 Barrow see Bergen-op-Zoom (Netherlands) Barrow Hills (Oxfordshire), 179 barrows, 199, 220, 274, 300, 308; prehistoric, 93; Neolithic, 63-77, 234, 304; Bronze Age, 71, 74, 139, 187, 243, 304; bowl, 146; disc, 219; discovery, 278; excavations, 275, 276-7, 280; long, 63— 77,177, 200, 245, 275, 280, 281, 301, 304; ovoid, 66; round, 71, 123, 139, 146, 197, 200, 208, 220, 302, 304; siting, 72-4; viewsheds, 72—4 Barrye, Robert, 45 Bartington MS2B meter, 68 Bartlow Hills (Essex), 277 Bartram, Bennett, 58 Barwis, William, 6 basins, limestone, 307 Bath, 6, 7, 11, 30, 211; coach roads, 83; coaches, 26; florists’ feasts, 3; social events, 8; stone quarries, 80 Bath and North East Somerset see Stanton Drew Bath Road, 83, see also Old Bath Road Bath Stone, 12 Bath and West Society, 5 Bathe, Joan, 40, 49, 51-3; cloth mark, 62 Bathe, Richard, 39, 48; alias Whitacker, 51, 52, 55n; cloth mark, 61 Bathe [/Baythe], Robert, 39, 40, 47 Bathyomphalus contortus (mollusc), 33n Batte [Bates], Richard, 37, 38, 39, 42, 44, 47, 48; accounts, 43, 45,51, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60; activities, 52; defective cloth, 50; goods, 54 Baxter, William, 57, 58 Bayley, Thomas, the elder, 40, 43, 45, 48, 53, 54; accounts, 42 Baylyff [Bayley], Thomas, 40; accounts, 59, 60 Baynton, Sir Edward, 46, 49 BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation), 254 beads, 275; Saxon, 275; amber, 200, 275, 300; faience, 300; glass, 93; jet, 300; shale, 300; stone, 276 beakers, 200; collared, 180, 187; decorated, 301 Bear Club, 6; Feast (1784), 9 bears, 244 Beaumont, Francis (1584-1616), 2 beavers, bones, 222, 227, 228 Becker, B., 231 Becket, Thomas a (1118-70), 293 Beckington (Somerset), 38 Bedfordshire see Whipsnade bedstraws, 179, 261 beeches, 16, 23, 65-6, 69, 176, 177 beef calcite, 157 beer, 43, 53; measures, 62 bees, 262, 271, 298; leaf-cutter, 266 beetles, 18, 262, 266, 269, 271, 298-9 Belgium see Antwerp bells, horse, 200, 275 belted Galloway cattle, 257, 259, 260, 263, 265, 270 Beminster, Miss, 26, 33n Benett, Catherine, 25 Benett, Etheldred (1775-1845): A Catalogue of the Organic Remains of the County of Wiltshire (1831), 26; ‘Catalogue of Wiltshire Fossils’ (1831), 25, 26; correspondence, 25-34; illnesses, 27; obituary, 32; silhouette, 30 Benett, John (1773-1852), 26, 27-9, 34n Benett, Thomas (1729-97), 25 Bennet, William, 55n Bennett, John, 40, 48, 53; accounts, 56, 57; cloth mark, 61 Bentinck, William Henry Cavendish, 3rd Duke of Portland (1738-1809), 3 Bergen-op-Zoom (Netherlands), 35, 44, 50, 52,53; cloth marts, 36 Berkeley[?] (Gloucestershire), 59; ships, 52;:53;58 Berkshire Archaeological Society, 274 INDEX Berula erecta (Lesser Water-parsnip), 262 Berwick St James: Bakes, 97; Big Pasture, 97; Lamb Down, 97; Langford Down, 97; Langford Hill, 97; Night Pasture, 97; Rag Bake, 97; Well Down, 95, 97, 98; Well House, 97; Yardfield, 97 Berwick St John, Church Street, 302 Betula spp. (birches), 137, 231 Betula pendula (Silver Birch), 16 Betula pubescens (Downy Birch), 16 Betulaceae (birches), 20 Bevan’s Quarry (Gloucestershire), 123 Biam[/n]s, William, 57, 60 Bible, 2 Bignoniaceae (bignonias), 22, 24 Binckes, Almon, 57 biodiversity, field margins, 95 birch trees, 16, 20, 137, 231 bird watching, 252 birds, 269-70, 271; migratory, 269 Birks, H. J. B., 135 Bishops Cannings: Easton Down Long Barrow, 70, 71; Horton Down, 302 Bishopstrow, clothiers, 39, 42, 47, 48, 59, 61 bivalves, 32 black canker, 18, 19 black pines, 16 blackberry, 183 Blackburn, Elizabeth, 2, 4, 6 Blackdon, William, 40, 48, 54; accounts, 57, 58, 59, 60; cloth mark, 60 Blackmoor Vale, 146, 184 blackthorn trees, 17, 175 blades, flint, 161, 163, 164—5, 166 Blagdon, John, 39, 47 blue-green algae, 17 bluebells, 263 Blunsdon St Andrew, Groundwell Ridge, 302 Board of Agriculture, 82 boars, 132, 170 Boehme, Jacob (1575-1624), 102 Boer Wars (1899-1902), 275 Boessneck, J., 128 bogs, 265 Bolton, Herbert (d. 1936), 276, 282 bone: animal, 140, 183, 185, 187, 200, 244 (prehistoric, 308; Neolithic, 150-1, 153, 154, 166, 167-71; Late Neolithic, 220, 221, 222, 223, 226-8; Late Neolithic/ Early Bronze Age, 155; Bronze Age, 118; Middle Bronze Age, 109, 115, 128— 33; Late Bronze Age, 238; Iron Age, 188; Romano-British, 237; ageing, 128; analysis, 128-9; erosion, 167; meta- carpals, 130, 167; phalanges, 167, 170, 227; taphonomy, 128, 132-3; tibias, 131, 132, 133, 227); burnt, 108, 128, 134, 151, 180, 275; disarticulated, 223, 303; fossilized, 275; human (Neolithic, 63; Middle Bronze Age, 133-5; Early Anglo-Saxon, 89, 90; analysis, 133; burnt, 64; crania, 115, 125, 133, 140; femurs, 89, 90, 115, 125, 134, 140, 306; lumbar vertebrae, 90; metacarpals, 89, 133; pelvic bone, 89; thoracic vertebrae, 89, 90); mammals, 167; radiocarbon dating, 89, 90, 150-1, 186, see also cattle bones; pig bones; sheep/goat bones; teeth bone nodules, 90 bone objects, 244 bonfires, 9 book clubs, 2 book collecting, 1-2, 11 book collections, sale, 2—3 book sales, 2—3 book societies, 2 Book of Trades, The (1818), 2 bookplates, 200 books, 5; subscribers, 2 booksellers, 3; sheet music, 6 bookshops, 1, 2 Boreal, 231, 233 boreholes, 228 Bos primigenius (aurochs), 170 Botanical Magazine, 3 botanists, 4, 25 botany: studies, 5, see also flowers; plants; trees boundaries, 308; Romano-British, 93; Middle/Late Saxon, 302; field, 140, 220, 307; hundred, 91, 92, 93, 302; parish, 92, 203, 302; ranch, 241 Bourne, River, 92 Bournemouth (Dorset), 123, 295 bowling greens, 10 bowls: Neolithic, 126; Early Neolithic, 157-8; Middle Bronze Age, 109; Iron Age, 124; Early Iron Age, 125; Early/ Middle Iron Age, 189; carinated, 157-8, 189, 238; wooden, 107, 109, 126, 138, 140 Bowood, 5 boxing, 10 Boyton: Barrow Hill, 63; Corton, 63, 70, 72, 73, 74; Corton Long Barrow, 63-77; Tenant Field, 63 Braaid (Isle of Man), 203 Brabant, Dr, 11 Brabant family, 8 bracken, 71, 233, 263; spores, 135, 177 Bradford-on-Avon: Barton Grange Farm, 211-17, 302-3; fossils, 26; geology, 211; Great Tithe Barn, 211, 216; West Barn, 211-17, 302-3 Bradley, R. J., 140, 241 Brailsford, John William (1918-88), 277, 281, 282 Braithwaite, William, 103 brambles, 261, 270 BRAS (Bristol and Region Archaeological Services), 306 Bratton, Bratton Hill, 298 Bray (Windsor and Maidenhead), 123 Brede, John, 37, 39 Brett, Colin, paper on Thomas Kytson and Wiltshire clothmen (1529-39), 35-62 breweries, 279 brewers, 4, 5, 43-4, 53 brewing, 55n bribes, 49-50 brickearth, 2 bricks, 216, 304; hand-made, 215 Bridges, Robert, 40, 48; accounts, 56, 57 Bristol, 5, 6, 87n, 276; Back Street, 80; Baker’s Yard, 80; coach roads, 83, 85; Henbury Camp, 276; motorways, 206; Orchard Street, 80, see also Clifton; Henbury Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery, 276, 282, 284n, 288 Bristol Fournal, 80 Bristol and Region Archaeological Services (BRAS), 306 British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), 254 British Magazine, 11 British Mineralogy, 4 British Museum, 31; and Passmore, 275, 276, 281, 282, 284n, 288-9; radiocarbon dating, 154 British Numismatic Society, 273 British Trust for Ornithology, Common Bird Census, 269 Brittany (France), 207 Britton, John (1771-1857), 202, 204; Beauties of Wiltshire (1800), 2 Brixton Deverill, Cold Kitchen Hill, 146 Briza media (Quaking Grass), 265 Broad Chalke, Blick’s Yard, 303 Broad Hinton, 93, 198 Broad Town: Broad Town Field, 92; inhumation, 89-94; Little Town, 92; 311 Thornhill Lane, 93 Broad Town Archaeological (BTAP), 89 Broad Town—Broad Hinton Road, 93 broadcloths, 43, 55n; exports, 37-40, 46-7, 48-9; prices, 42-3; purchases, 37—40, 50-4; sales, 39; sources, 37 Broadway (Worcestershire), 298 Bromham, 4; clothiers, 40 Bromus secalinus (Rye-brome), 192 bronze objects: figurines, 297; plaques, 296-7 Broome Heath (Norfolk), 159 Browne, Harry, 57, 58 Bruce, Robert (1274-1329), 250 Brutton, William, 2,5 Bryn Gwyddon, identification, 86 bryophytes, 135, 271 bryozoa, 121, 123 BTAP (Broad Town Project), 89 Buckingham, Duke of, 35 Buckland, William (1784-1856), Reliquiae Diluvianae (1823), 27, 33-4n Budge, Sir Ernest A. Wallis (1857-1934), 282 Buffon, Georges Louis Leclerc, comte de (1707-88), lV’Histoire Naturelle (1749- 1804), 2 builders, 7, 30 building materials: medieval, 304; post- medieval, 304; 19th century, 304; timber framing, 304, 307, see also bricks; chalk blocks; tiles buildings: Roman, 200, 275, 302, 303; Romano-British, 92; 2medieval, 211-17; medieval, 303, 304, 305, 307; post- medieval, 305, 307; 17th century, 306; 18th century, 303, 306; 19th century, 306; Georgian, 304; lacustrine, 203; listed, 211, 304, 308; post-built, 301, see also barns; farmhouses; houses; round- houses; villas; walls Bulford, Bulford Down, 234 bull baiting, 10 Bulla fontanalis (mollusc), 27, 33n Bumbargym, Anthony, 50 Burbage, 258 Burford (Oxfordshire), 55n Burgh Castle (Norfolk), 277 burials see cemeteries; cremation burials; inhumations Burl, Aubrey, paper on A. D. Passmore, 197-210 Burnham, B. C., 284n Burrough, Thomas, 3 Bury Hill (West Sussex), 185 Bury St Edmunds (Suffolk), 35 butchery, 167, 169, 170; Late Neolithic, 227; Middle Bronze Age, 129, 130, 131, 132; marks, 167, 170 Buteo buteo (Buzzard), 269 butterflies, 266-8 buzzards, 269 Byams, William, 60 Bybrook Developments, 307 Byng, John, 5th Viscount ‘Torrington (1743-1813), 11 Byron, George Gordon, 6th Baron Byron of Rochdale (1788-1824), Don Juan (1819- 24), 2 Project Archaeological CA see Cotswold Archaeology (CA) cabinetmakers, 274 cabinets, 3 Caerleon (Gwent), 277 cairns, 80, 83; flint, 66 Cairo (Egypt), 275 Calais (France), ships, 45, 52, 59 calcicoles, 255, 265 calcifuges, 255, 265 calcite, 157 312 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE calcium carbonate, 224 Callimorpha dominula (Scarlet Tiger), 268 Calne, 103; clothiers, 40, 61; cricket matches, 10; parish registers, 102 Calne Without: Bowood, 5; Sandy Lane, 303; Verlucio, 303; Wans Cottage, 303 Calopteryx splendens (Banded Demoiselle), 266 Caltha palustris (Marsh Marigold), 231, 260-1 Cambridgeshire see Etton Camden, William (1551-1623), 83, 87; Britannia (1586), 87n Campbell, Thomas, 11 Camperdown, Battle of (1797), 9 canals, 108, 216, 257, 258, 266; excavations, 4 canker, chestnut trees, 18 Cannabis spp. (hemps), 137 Cannon, Jon, paper on Iolo Morganwg, 78— 88 Canterbury (Kent), 293 cantharidin, 298 canvas, 44, 47, 49, 55n Cape Town (South Africa), 275 Capreolus capreolus (Roe Deer), 170, 271 Caprifoliaceae (elders), 22 Capsella bursa-pastoris (Shepherd’s Purse), 97 Carboniferous, limestone, 215 card playing, 8, 11 Cardamine pratensis (Cuckooflower), 261, 268 Carex spp. (sedges), 135, 259, 264 Carex acutiformis (Lesser Pond Sedge), 260, 262 Carex disticha (Brown Sedge), 265 Carex nigra (Common Sedge), 265 Carex panicea (Carnation Sedge), 265 Carex paniculata (Greater Tussock-sedge), 262 Carex pulicaris (Flea Sedge), 265 Carex riparia (Greater Pond-sedge), 264 Carex rostrata (Bottle Sedge), 261, 265 Carex stricta (Tussock Sedge), 262 carination, 157-8, 189, 238 Carn Brea (Cornwall), 158, 166, 184 Carnation Feast (Devizes), 3 carneddau (cairns), 80, 83 Carpenter, Miss, 2 carpenters, 276 carpets, Turkish, 49 carriages, 30, 31, 32 carriages (ducts), 255, 257 carriers, 54 carrs,, 176, 255, :257;, 258, 259, 261=3; Durrington, 231, 232 cart ruts, 237, 308 Carter, Howard (1873-1939), 284n Carus-Wilson, Eleanora Mary (1897-1977), 37, 45 Carver, Martin, 92 Carychium spp. (molluscs), 171, 183 Carychium tridentatum (mollusc), 127, 171, 183, 239 Case, Humphrey John (1918— ), 273, 282 Castanea sativa (Sweet Chestnut), 17 Castilly (Cornwall), 208 Castle Combe, 55n Castlecombs (cloth), 37, 38n, 43, 55n Castor fiber (European Beaver), 227 Catalpa bignonoides (Indian Bean Tree), 24 caterpillars, 265, 268 Catherine (ship), 45, 52 cattle, 133, 139, 186, 264; age data, 130; belted Galloways, 257, 259, 260, 263, 265, 270; draught, 130, 131; teeth, 130, 167 cattle bones, 185, 227, 244; Neolithic, 151, 167, 169, 170, 171; Late Neolithic, 220, 222; Middle Bronze Age, 109, 118, 129- 31; Iron Age, 188 Cave, Alexander James Edward (b. 1900), 282 Caxton, William (c.1422-91), Chronicle (1480), 3 Cecilioides acicula (mollusc), 127 Ceirog Du, Mr, 80 Celastraceae (spindle trees), 22 cellos, 6 cellulose, 71 Celtic (language), 203 celts, 275 Cementation Skanska, excavations, 81—2 cements, 83, 87n cemeteries: Bronze Age, 139; Roman, 301; Early Anglo-Saxon, 93; medieval, 304; round barrows, 220, see also execution cemeteries; inhumations Cenococcum geophilum (fungus), 192 census returns, 284n Centaurea spp. (knapweeds), 177 Centaurea cyanus (cornflower), 231 Centre for Archaeology, 301, 302 Cepaea spp. (molluscs), 127 Cepaea nemoralis (mollusc), 33n ceramics see pottery Ceratocystis novo-ulmi (fungus), 18 cereals, 245; pollen, 137-8, 177, 232; remains, 135, 178, 179, 192 Cerney Wick (Gloucestershire), 107 Certhia familiaris (Treecreeper), 270 Cervus elaphus (red deer) see deer Chaenorrhinum minus (Small Toadflax), 98 chains, gold, 46, 49 Chalk, 30, 157, 223, 224, 255, 257-8; burnt, 151; fossils, 26; soils, 71, 95, 150, 177, 179; woodland clearances, 232, see also Middle Chalk; Upper Chalk chalk blocks, 68, 76 chalk downland, 15, 74 chalk pits, 4 Chamaecyparis Cypress), 16 chandeliers, 6; Grecian, 8 chapels, 304 Chapman, John, 59, 60 Chapman, Richard, 58 Chapman, Robert, 58 charcoal, 109, 115, 116, 118, 135, 185; Avon Valley, 228, 232, 234; Durrington Walls, 220; Stonehenge, 242; Whitesheet Hill, 151, 166, 174-5, 179-80; Whitesheet Quarry, 187 Charleston, Robert Jesse (1916-94), 277, 282 Charlton, Charlton Down, 296-7 charters, Anglo-Saxon, 203 Chaucer, Geoffrey (c.1345-1400), 3; Canterbury Tales, 293 Cheilosia pubera (hoverfly), 271 Cheltenham Museum and Art Gallery, 289 chemical apparatus, 5 Chenopodiaceae (goosefoots), pollen, 135, 137, 231 Chenopodium album (Fat-hen), 97 Chenopodium quinoa (Quinoa), 98 cherry trees, 15, 16, 17, 18; girth, 24 Cheshire, cloth, 37 chestnut trees, 15, 17, 24; diseases, 18; girth, 24 Chichester (West Sussex), ships, 60 Chicklade, 304 Childrey, Joshua (1623-70), 83-4 Chimney Sweeps Bill (1841), 30 chimneys, maintenance, 30-1 Chippenham, 296; and Muggleton, 99— 105; parish registers, 102; St Andrew’s Church, 102 Chippenham Without, Barrow, 281 Chipping Sodbury (South Gloucester- shire), 55n Chiseldon, 201, 203, 276; Burderop, 204; lawsonia (Lawson’s Lanhill Long Burderop Wood, 204-5; Coate, 197, 200- 4, 205, 206, 274, 277, 278; Coate Farm, 201; Coate Reservoir, 200-1, 203, 206, 207; Day House Farm, 200, 201-4, 207; Day House Lane, 203, 204, 210; Fir Clump stone circle, 204-5, 206-7, 210; Hodson, 200, 201, 204, 205, 206, 207, 210, 278; parish boundary, 203; Station, 205; Theobalds Cottage, 277 chisels, flint, 275 Cholderton, Beacon Hill, 237 Christchurch (Dorset), 26, 33n Christian Kingship, 92 Christianity, 93 Christofer (ship): of Aldeburgh[?], 58; of Milton Shore[?], 57 Chrysosplenium — oppositifolium saxifrage), 263 Chub (fish), 250 church festivals, 10 churches, Perpendicular, 30 Churn, River, 107, 108, 139, 140 Cichoriaceae (chicory family), 298 cinders, 215, 217 Circle of Concord, 85 circuses, 10-11 Cirencester (Gloucestershire), 108, 284n civil wars (1642-51), 208, 275 Clare, Robert, 10 Clarke, Bob, paper on Early Anglo-Saxon burial at Broad Town, 89-94 Clarke, John, 45 class (social), and archaeological societies, (Golden- classification systems, 4 clay, 151, 152; burnt, 115; calcareous, 234; fired, 108,126, 188; sandy, 188; silty, 68— 9, 109, 111, 112, 115, 116, 126, 135, 215, 220-1, 223 Cleal, Rosamund M. J.: note on pottery from Durrington Walls, 223-4; note on pottery from Whitesheet Down, 155-60; report on archaeological and environ- mental study of Avon Valley/Durring- ton Walls environs, 218-48 cleavers (plants), 97, 179, 260 Cleevely, R. J., paper on the correspondence of Etheldred Benett, 25-34 cleg flies, 271 Clethrionomys glareolus (Bank Vole), 167, 270 Clevelod, John, 38, 54; accounts, 45, 57, 58, 59, 60 Clevelode, T., 53 Clifton (City of Bristol), 8 climate, 208; prehistoric, 231 clinker, 215 clocks, musical, 6 cloth: drying machines, 5; exports, 45, 46- 7, 48-9; faulty, 50; marks, 51, 52, 60-2; measures, 62; prices, 42-3; woollen, 38n, see also broadcloths Cloth Acts (1514, 1536), 43 cloth fairs, 35 cloth marts, 36 cloth-finishing industry, 36 clothiers, 4-5, 8; marks, 51, 52, 60-2; spatial distribution, 41; Wiltshire, 35-62 clover, 258 Cludair — Cyvrangon Conventions), 86 Clutton-Brock, J., 128 Clyffe Pypard, 198; Cuff’s Corner, 92, 93; Vicarage, 206 Cnoc Fillibhir (Western Isles), 207 coach roads, 83, 85; archaeological damage, 146, 148-9, 151, 185 coaches, 26-7, 83 coal miners, 79, 81 coats of arms, 305 Cochlicopa spp. (molluscs), 127 Cock Hill (West Sussex), 139 (Mound of the INDEX cock-fighting arenas, 208 cockspur thorns, 18 Cockyshed, William, 36 Codford, 63, 145, 306; Codford Down, 63; East Codford Farm, 303 Codford St Mary, Lamb Down, 74 coed (wood), 203 Coenagrion puella (Azure Damselfly), 266 coffins, 223; wooden, 300, 304 coins, 3, 197, 280; Roman, 200, 237, 238 coit (wood), 203 Coke, John, 39, 48 Coke, Thomas William of Holkham, Earl of Leicester (1752-1842), 5 cokkettes, 53 Colchester (Essex), 277 Colchester Museum, 289 Colchicum autumnale (Autumn Crocus), 4 Cold Marts, 36, 54; 1531, 53; 1533, 50; 1535, 45, 51, 58; 1536, 44, 56, 58; 1537, 43; 1538, 43, 52 Coldwell, William, 58 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor (1772-1834), 11 Coles, B., 227 collecting: 18th obsessive, 282 collections, Passmore’s, 274, 275, 278, 280, 281-2, 287-92 Collins, John, 2-3 colluvium, 192, 219, 234, 243 Collyns, George, 36 Colt Hoare, Sir Richard see Hoare, Sir Richard Colt (1758-1838) combs, Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age, 301 Common Eel, 254 Complete Body of Gardening, A, 3 Complete Tutor to the Violin, The, 6 Compositae (flowering plants), 177, 192, 231 concerts, 6, 11 conchology, 25, 27 conduit money, 44 conduitors, 44 conduits see culverts Congo, 249 conifers, 16, 262 Conopodium majus (Pignut), 178, 179, 265 Constantine, Mary-Ann, paper on Iolo Morganwg, 78-88 consumer society, rise of, 1 conversations, 8 Conwy (Wales), Aberconwy, 80 Cooke, Richard, 57 Cooke, W., The Way to the Temple of True Honour and Fame (1773), 2 cooking, 140 Coombe Bissett, St Michael and All Angels Church, 303 Cooper, John, 39, 42, 47; accounts, 36 coopers, 6 Cope, Alice, 46, 49 coppicing, 175 copying machines, 5 coral, fossil, 121 Corallian, 188, 211 cores: flint, 161, 162, 223, 224, 225, 238, see also flintwork corn see grain corn dryers, 301 Cornaceae (dogwoods), 22 Corney, Mark, 307; note on survey of Whitesheet Down, 146-8 Cornish (language), 203 Cornwall, 81, 207; hundreds, 93; pottery, 158, 159; tin, 44, 45-6, see also Carn Brea; Castilly; Lizard Peninsula Corylus spp. (hazels), 231, 232 Corylus avellana (Hazel), 15-16, 137, 176-7 Cotswold Aggregates, 304 Cotswold Archaeology (CA): archaeo- logical recording, 300, 304; evaluations, century trends, 4; 305, 306-7; excavations, 305; watching briefs, 303, 304 Cotswold Community (Gloucestershire), 107-8, 140, 301 Cotswolds, 107, 123, 211 cottons, 37, 44, 49, 55n Cottus gobio (Bullhead), 259 Coulston, East Coulston, 51, 55n, 61, 62 Counsell, Dominic, 271 country pursuits, 10 Countryside Stewardship Scheme, 95, 98 Courrier de l'Europe, 199 Courts of Assistants of the Mercers, 35 Cowbridge (Vale of Glamorgan), 86 cows’ ears, 200 Crakeman, Thomas, 60 Cranborne Chase: barrows, 68; pottery, 123 Crataegus spp. (thorns), 18 Crataegus monogyna (Hawthorn), 15, 18, 261, 262 Crawford, Osbert Guy Stanhope (1886— 1957), 281; The Long Barrows of the Cotswolds (1925), 280 crayfish, 259, 270, 271 Creel (magazine), 253 cremation burials, 134, 244, 300; Middle Bronze Age, 139, 179 Cretaceous, fossils, 25, 32, 33n cricket, 10 Cricklade, 107, 199, 204; Weaver’s Bridge, 108 criminals, inhumations, 89 Cristopher (ship): of Feversham, 45; of Maidstone, 45 Crocker, Philip (1780-1840), 65 cromlechs, 207 cropmarks, 220, 237, 245, 308 crops, arable, 139 Cross, Richard, 40, 48; accounts, 59 cross-roads, inhumations at, 89-94 croziers, 293 Cruciferae (herbs), 231 Crudwell, Goldhill Quarry, 303 crystallography, 4 cubits, 197 cuckoos, 269, 270 Cuculus canorus (Cuckoo), 270 Cucumber Feast (Devizes), 3 cultivation: prehistoric, Neolithic, 233 culture, 2, 11; Acheulian, 273, 275; cosmopolitan vs. popular, 1; Rinyo- Clacton, 226; urban, 1 culverts: stone, 214, 216, 303; stone-lined, 119, 141 Cunnington, Edward Benjamin Howard (1861-1950), 280-1 Cunnington, Maud Edith (née Pegge) (1869-1951), 273, 280-1, 289; excavations, 244, 245; fieldwork, 65-6, 68, 74 Cunnington, William (1754-1810), 26; excavations, 63, 66; fieldwork, 64-5, 68; survey error, 66 Cupressaceae (cypresses), 19 currency: English, 62; Flemish, 54, 62 Curtis, Samuel (1779-1860), 3 Curwen, E., 274 Curwen, E. Cecil, 284n Curwen, Eliot, 284n Cutler, D., 174 cyanobacteria, 17 Cydonia spp. (Quince), 18 Cylch Cyngrair (Circle of Concord), 85 Cyperaceae (herbs), 231, 232 cypresses, 16, 19, 24 146; Middle d-factors, 18 Dactylorhiza fuchsti (Common Spotted- orchid), 261, 264, 265 Dactylorhiza praetermissa (Southern Marsh- orchid), 261, 262—4 313 Daily Mirror, 252 Dalton, Richard, 59 dams, 257 damselflies, 266 dancing, 8, 11 dandelions, 71, 135, 138 Danebury (Hants), 189, 236 Daniell, J. J.: History of Chippenham (1894), 99; and Muggleton, 99, 100, 103, 104 Danube basin, 36 Darby, Michael, 271; note on beetles at Vera Jeans Nature Reserve, 269; note on other notable species at Vera Jeans Nature Reserve, 271 Darby, Paul, 271 Dark, Ken, 93 Dartmoor (Devon), 197, 207; hut-circles, 208 dating (radiocarbon) — see dating daubs, 188 Davis, James, 3, 11-12 Davis, Thomas, 5 Davison, Harry, 57, 58, 60 Davy, Thomas, 37 Davy, Thomas (of Horningsham), 39, 48; accounts, 56, 57, 58 Davy, Thomas (of Warminster), 47; accounts, 37 Davy, Thomas (of Westbury), 39 Dayll, Thomas, 60 DCM (Distinguished Conduct Medal), 275 de Harden, Anastasia, 255 Deane Water, 258 DED (Dutch elm disease), 18, 19 deer: antlers, 109, 128, 132, 167, 169, 170, 185; bones, 109, 128, 129, 130, 132, 227, 244 DEFRA (Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs), 98 demoiselles, 266 dendrochronology, 304 Dendrocopos — major Woodpecker), 270 denizens, 38n Denmark, King of, 44 Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), 98 Depetter, Lenard, 50 Derby, Drury Lowe Arms, 104n Derbyshire, Muggletonians, 104n Deroceras spp. (slugs), 191 Description of Antiquities of Wilton House, 2 Devensian, 231, 233, 234; gravels, 137, 228 Devil’s Dyke (Suffolk), 277 Devizes, 37, 297; The Bear, 2, 10; The Black Swan, 10; Book Scciety, 2; clothiers, 39, 40, 42, 47, 48, 61; Corporation, 9; County Court, 8; cricket matches, 10; The Crown, 9; Drew’s Pond, 7; The Elm Tree, 3, 10; The Green, 10; gunsmiths, 10; late Georgian social life, 1-14; Market Place, 9; Monday Market Street, 7; New Park, 3, 8, 9, 10; publications, 2; Roundway House, 8; St Mary’s church, 1; Southbroom House, 9; theatres, 7; Town Hall, 7 (Assembly Room, 7, 8); The White Bear, 3; The White Hart, 10, see also Wiltshire Heritage Museum (WHM) Devizes Gardening Club, 3 Devizes Mercer Company, 6 Devizes Museum see Wiltshire Heritage Museum (WHM) Devizes Prison, 5 Devon: manors, 35, see also Dartmoor; Exeter; Hembury; Plymouth; Tawstock diamonds, 8 Dictionary of National Biography, The (DNB), 100, 101, 103; historical background, 104n diet, Middle Bronze Age, 131, 132 Dimbleby, G. W., 175, 177, 228 radiocarbon (Great Spotted 314 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE dinner parties, 9 disci, Roman, 200 Discus spp. (molluscs), 171 diseases, trees, 18-19, 24 Distinguished Conduct Medal (DCM), 275 Distinguished Service Cross (DSC), 249 ditches, 234-7, 258; prehistoric, 92, 223; Neolithic, 63, 66, 67, 68, 74, 146-87; Early Neolithic, 185; Late Neolithic, 227; Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age, 306-7; Bronze Age, 108, 180, 220, 300; Early Bronze Age, 107; Middle Bronze Age, 108-9, 117, 116, 121, 123, 124, 126- 8, 130, 132, 133, 244; Late Bronze Age, 238; Iron Age, 116, 140; Early/Middle Iron Age, 187; Roman, 302; Romano- British, 300, 305; medieval, 107, 119, 305, 307; post-medieval, 107, 119, 305, 307; undated, 223, 301, 305; boundary, 304; causewayed, 150-1, 161, 171; linear, 107, 119, 139, 180-4, 219, 300; ring, 107, 108, 116, 778, 139, 140, 244, 300, 301, see also gullies; linears; pits ‘Divine Songs of the Muggletonians’ (1829), 100 DNB see Dictionary of National Biography, The (DNB) doctors, 1, 11, 249 dogs: bones, 109, 128, 129, 132, 139, 140; teeth, 132 Dolerus spp. (sawflies), 271 Dolerus bimaculatus (sawfly), 271 Dolerus megapterus (sawfly), 271 dolmens, 199 Domesday Book, 258 Domesday Survey, 255 Don Fuan, 7 Donhead St Andrew, Old Wardour House, 303 Dorchester (Dorset): Allington Avenue, 180; Maumbury Rings, 208; Mount Pleasant, 180 Dore, Edward, 3 Dorset, 5, 232; fossils, 25, 26; landowning families, 295; manors, 35; pottery, 123, see also Angle Ditch; Bournemouth; Christchurch; Dorchester; Gussage St Michael; Hambledon Hill; Maiden Castle; Portland; Shaftesbury; Shearplace Hill; South Lodge; Stepleton; Weymouth | Douglas (Isle of Man), 203 Douglas, James (1753-1819), Nenia Britannica (1793), 87n Dowse, Robert, 4 dragonflies, 266 drainage channels, 255 drains: French, 214, 215, 216; stone-lined, 214 drawns (drainage channels), 255, 257 Drepanites striatus (ammonite), 33 drilling experiments, 5 Druids, 3, 78, 79, 197-8, 202; monuments, 80, 82, 85, 199, 201, 203 Dryopteris spp. (ferns), 71, 177 DSC (Distinguished Service Cross), 249 ducks, stuffed, 10 ducts, 255 Duffell, John, 40, 48; accounts, 43-4, 59, 60 Duke of Cornwall’s Light Infantry, Reserve Battalion, 306 Duke, Edward (1779-1852), 198 Duncan, Adam, Viscount Duncan (1731- 1804), 9 Duncan, Isadora (1877-1927), 250 dung, 255, 271 Durmast oak see Quercus petraea (Sessile Oak) Durocornovium, 277, Wanborough Durrington: Durrington Pipeline, 226; Durrington Walls, 219, 220-8, 232, 233- 284n, see also 4, 238, 242-5; Larkhill Married Quarters, 244; Larkhill Road, 244; Packway Enclosure, 219-20, 244; pollen analyses, 231-3 Dursley (Gloucestershire), 55n Dutch elm disease (DED), 18, 19 dyed cloth, 36, 43 Dyers, Richard, 60 Dyet{[t], John, 39, 48 Eagles, B., 68, 72 earth resistance surveys, 301, 302 earth-nuts, 178 earths see soils earthworks, 74; Romano-British, 185, 187; ?medieval, 302; cross-ridge, 145, 146, 147, 179, 180-4, 185, 187; surveys, 146, see also ditches; enclosures; hillforts; mounds; Wansdyke Easkyngs, John, 60 East Indies, freemasons, 10 East Kennett, Langdean Bottom, 200, 207— 8 East Sussex see Lewes; Ranscombe Camp; Whitehawk Camp Easter mart, 36 Easton Grey, Whatley Manor Hotel, 303 economic trends, 18th century, 1 Edgar, King, 293 Edgar, Thomas, 46, 49, 55n Edinburgh Annual Review, 2 Edinburgh Monthly Review, 2 Edinburgh Quarterly Review, 2 Edington, 36; clothiers, 39, 42, 51-2, 61, 62; Tinhead, 52 Edward (ship), 45 Edwards, Brian, paper on Sir Peter Scott and Bernard Venables, 249-54 Edwards, Captain, 278 eels, 254; bones, 238 egg collecting, 253 Egypt, 273, 275, 284n; Pyramids, 79 Eight Acre Field (Oxfordshire), 140 elder trees, 16, 262 elections, 8 electricity, early experiments, 5 Eledona agricola (beetle), 269 elephants, 10 élite see upper classes elle (measure), 55n Elliot, C., 284n elms, 21, 298; diseases, 18, 19; pollen, 137, 231, 232 Emberiza citrinella (Yellowhammer), 269 Emberiza schoeniclus (Reed Bunting), 270 Ena montana (snail), 70 Enallagma_ cyathigerum Damselfly), 266 encarnation, 134 enclosures, 208, 304; Neolithic, 145-87; Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age, 107; Middle Bronze Age, 108, 115, 116, 119, 123, 245; Iron Age, 108, 219-20, 235; Roman, 302; ?Romano-British, 223; causewayed, 74, 145-87; mortuary, 66, 207; multivallate, 146; univallate, 146-8, see also hillforts; settlements encyclopaedias, 2, 5 English Heritage, 66, 68, 211, 297; surveys, 302 English Nature, 271 engravings, 2-3 entertainments, 7-10 environments: Upper Palaeolithic, 242; Mesolithic, 242; Neolithic, 71-2, 186, 242-3; Bronze Age, 187, 243; Romano- British, 243, see also landscapes Epipactis —phyllanthes — (Green-flowered Helleborine), 264 Episyrphus balteatus (hoverfly), 98 Equisetum spp. (Horsetails), 262, 269, 271 Equisetum palustre (Marsh Horsetail), 260, (Common Blue 261 Equisetum telmateia (Great Horsetail), 262, 263 Erdtman, Holger (1902-89), 71 Ericaceae (rhododendrons), 21 Erinaceus europaeus (Hedgehog), 270 Eriophorum angustifollum (Common Cotton-grass), 261, 265 Erlestoke, clothiers, 40, 59 Erlle, Richard, 38, 39, 42, 47 Ermine Street, 108 Erysimum cheiranthoides (Treacle Mustard), 97 escarpments, 92 Eskyns, John, 55n Essex see Bartlow Hills; Colchester Essington (Staffordshire), 55n Estates Gazette, 295 Estcourt, James, 9 Ethiopia, 275 Etton (Cambridgeshire), 126, 161, 186 Eubria palustris (water beetle), 269 Eupatorium cannabinum (Hemp-agrimony), 262, 268 Eupithecia trisgnaria (Triple-spotted Pug), 259-60, 268 Eurodryas aurinia (Marsh Fritillary), 265, 268 Euthrix potatoria (Drinker Moth), 268-9 Evans, J. G., 191, 228, 233, 238 Evans, John, 71, 72 Everleigh, Everleigh House, 34n Everyman his own Gardener, 3 Excel (software), 121, 128 Exchequer Enrolled Accounts, 38 execution cemeteries, Early Anglo-Saxon, 92 : executions, 92 Exeter (Devon), 166 Exmoor, 207, 208 exostosis, 130 export permits, 53 Eyer, William, 39 Eynsham (Oxfordshire), 126 Fabaceae (beans and acacias), 22 fabrics see textiles factors, 35,54 Faegri, K., 135 Fagaceae (trees and shrubs), 20, 23 Fagan, Isabel Mairi (née Arundell), 295 Fagus spp. (beeches), 176 Fagus sylvatica (Beech), 16 Fagus sylvatica ‘Purpurea’ (Copper Beech), 16; girth, 23 fairs, 10, 44 Falkner, John, 278 Fallopia convolvoulus (Black Bindweed), 97, 231 Fancourt, Samuel, | fans, gravel, 234, 243 fardells, 44, 45,52, 53, 55n farm buildings, 304, 307 farm machinery, 4-5 farmers, 4, 5 Farmer’s Magazine, The (1776), 4 farmhouses, 17th century, 276, 303 farming see agriculture farms, 305 farmsteads: Middle Bronze Age, 139; Romano-British, 301 farriers, 82 fashion, 8; cosmopolitan, 1 fauna, 266-71 Faversham (Kent), ships, 45 Fayal Islanders, 249 feasting, 140, 186, 228 feasts, 9 Fellowship of Mercers, General Court, 35, 44, 55n fences, Middle Iron Age, 139 fens, 137, 255, 258, 259-61, 263-5; INDEX Durrington, 231, 232 Fenton, Mr, 80 Ferdinandea cuprea (hoverfly), 271 ferns, 71; spores, 177 Ferrara, Andrea, 275 ferreting, 249 fétes champétres, 7-8 fiddles, 6, 11 Field, David, 68, 72, 81 field boundaries, 140, 220, 307; post- medieval, 223; Celtic, 302 field maples, 16 field margins, biodiversity, 95 field systems, 220, 304, 308; ?prehistoric, 147; prehistoric, 84; late prehistoric, 300; Bronze Age, 85; Roman, 220; ?Romano-British, 147; Romano- British, 239, 300; medieval, 106-43; medieval/post-medieval, 106—43; Celtic, 302, see also ridge and furrow fields, recovery, 255 fieldwalking, 307 Figheldean, 243; Robin Hood’s Ball, 179 figurines, bronze, 297 Filipendula ulmaria (Meadowsweet), 231, 232, 234, 260, 262, 263 Fille, Thomas, 58 fireworks, 9 Firsdown, Thorny Down, 123, 139, 140 First Terrace river gravels, 107 First World War see World War I fish, 250, 259; paintings, 252-3; sharks, 249, see also eels fishing, 249, 250, 252-3 Fitchew, Charles, 5 flakes, flint, 125, 148, 160, 237; Neolithic, 161, 163, 164, 165; Late Neolithic, 224— 6; retouched, 222, 226, 238; serrated, 166, see also flintwork Flanders, 35, 43; cloth imports, 46-7; cloth marts, 36, 54; cloth trade, 44 Flandrian, 231, 233; gravels, 228 flax, 49 Flay, Walter, 10 Fletcher, John (1579-1625), 2 flies, 98, 265-6, 271 flint cairns, 66 flint fragments, 152, 154; in pottery, 157 flint implements, 203 flint mines, 224, 244, 245 flint tools: Neolithic, 301; Late Neolithic/ Early Bronze Age, 301 flints: burnt, 125, 151, 160, 165, 166, 169, 185, 186, 188, 220, 221, 223, 238; chalk, 125; knapping, 166, 226; nodules, 150, 151, 160, 180, 183, 224, 234; raw materials, 160, 224; scattered, 107, 220, 307; struck, 160, 238, 244; tabular, 150, 153, 160; Whitesheet Hill, 160-6 flintwork, 220, 273, 300, 301; Palaeolithic, 275; Mesolithic, LOPie 1255592242; " Neolithic, 74, 151, 161-6, 180, 183, 185; Late Neolithic, 220, Doles 224-6: Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age, 125, 305, 307; Bronze Age, 308; Early/Middle Iron Age, 188; burnt, 160; collections, 276, 282, 284n; edge gloss, 165-6; retouched, 163-4, see also arrowheads; axes; blades; cores; flakes, flint; hammerstones; knives; scrapers; tools flooding, controlled, 255, 257 floodplains, 72, 140, 211, 219; sediments, 228-34 floors, 216; medieval, 304 flora, 271 florists’ feasts, 3 flowers: collecting, 4; wild, 252 Fluellen, Mores, 60 Flushing (Netherlands), ships, 53 flutes, 6 Fojt, Wanda, 271 food: 18th century, 9; Neolithic, 186; carbonised, 189 food waste, 185 foraminifera, fossil, 121 fords, 93 fossil shells, in pottery, 121-4, 157 fossils, 203, 284n; collecting, 4, 275; collections, 282; early studies, 25-34 Foster, Andy, 271 Foster, Thomas, 57 foundatiens, 212-15 Fowler, P, 87n Fox, B., 271 Fox, George (1624-91), 100 foxes, 271 France, 3, 276; antiquarians, 199, see also Brittany; Calais Francis (ship), 45 Fraunces, Robert, 40, 49 Fraxinus spp. (ash trees), 137, 232 Fraxinus excelsior (Ash), 15, 262 freemasons, 9-10; membership, 10 French, C. A. I., 68 French (language): works, 3 Fresell, John, 58 friezes, 37, 55n frogs, 270 Frome, freemasons, 10 Frome, River, 37 Froud, Pat, 271 fruits, 179 fulling mills, 11 Fumaria officinalis (Common Fumitory), 97 funerary monuments, 146 funerary rituals, 134 fungi, 18, 24, 192, 269, 271 fustian, 47, 49, 50 Fyfield, 4; Fyfield Down, 82, 83, 84-5 medical tracts, 2; Gage, Robert, 45 Gale, John, 5 Gale, Rowena, 176; note on charcoal from Whitesheet Down, 174-5 Galeopsis tetrahit (Common Hemp-nettle), 260 Galium spp. (herbs), 179 Galium aparine (Goose Grass), 97, 260 Galium uliginosum (Fen Bedstraw), 261 Galium verum (Lady’s Bedstraw), 179 Gallinago gallinago (Snipe), 269 gambling, 10 game certificates, 10 Game Laws, 10 gamekeepers, 10 Gandy, Ida, 257 Gansse, Robert, 57, 58 Garden, Alexander (c.1730-91), 5 garden engines, 4 gardening: books, 3; as leisure activity, 3 gardens, 24, 31-2; nursery, 4; town, 3 Gardiner, Julie, paper on millennium re- investigation of the Corton Long Barrow, 63-77 Garrick, David (1717-79), 2 Garth, Charles, 9 Garth, John (d. 1764), 1 Gastreds, John, 59, 60 Gastrodes, Mistress, 57 Gault, 188 Gay, Robert, 83 Geake, Helen, 93 gean see Prunus avium (wild cherry) Gent, James, 4 Gent family, 9 Gentleman’s Magazine, The, 2, 3,5 geological maps, 33n Geological Society, 26 geologists, 4; early, 25—34 geology: Avon Valley, 219, 228-9; Bradford-on-Avon, 197; Latton, 107; Salisbury Plain, 234; Stonehenge, 308; Vale of Pewsey, 257-8; Whitesheet 315 Down, 145, see also fossils; palaeontology; soils; stratigraphy geophysics: Avebury, 237, 301; Blunsdon St Andrew, 302; Swindon, 306; Whitesheet Hill, 149; Winterbourne Bassett stone circle, 198 George III, King, 9 George (ship), 57, 58, 59 German (language), medical tracts, 2 German traders, 36 Germany, 138; scientists, 5, see also Ulm Geum rivale (Water Avens), 263, 265 Gibbes family, 9 Gibbon, Edward (1737-94), 8-9 Gibson, Edmund (1669-1748), 87n Gillam, Beatrice, 271 Ginkgoaceae (ginkgo trees), 19 Gisborne, Thomas, 1-2, 5, 8 Glamorgan, 82, 86 Glantane (Ireland), 199 glass, 93; Saxon, 275 Glasyer, Richard, 35 glauconite, 157, 188 glees, 6, 10 Glendarragh (Isle of Man), 203 gliding, 249 globes, 5 Glomerella miyabeana (fungus), 18 Glorious Revolution (1688-9), 9 Gloucester, 284n; florists’ feasts, 3 Gloucestershire, 5; clothiers, 38n, 43, see also Berkeley; Cerney Wick; Ciren- cester; Cotswold Community; Dursley; Hazleton North; Horcott; Lechlade; Neigh Bridge; Preston; Roughground Farm; Shorncote; Siddington; Slim- bridge; Somerford Keynes; Stroud- water; Temple Guiting; Upper Lypiatt; Witpit Copse; Worms Farm; Wotton- under-Edge Glyceria maxima (Reed Sweet-grass), 260, 262, 263, 268-9 goat willows, 16, 17 goats: teeth, 167, see also sheep/goat bones Goddard, Ambrose, 9 Goddard, Edward Hungerford (1854— 1947), 93, 278, 297; correspondence, 206 Godwin, Thomas (1587-1643), 102 gold objects: chains, 46, 49, see also jewellery Goldsmith, Oliver (1728-74), History of the Earth and Animated Nature (1774), 4 goldsmiths, 11 Goodlad, John, 56 Goodwyn, William, 60 Gordon, Alexander (1841-1931), 101, 102, 103-4, 104n gorse, 266 gorsedd (bardic ceremony), 85 Gorsedd Bryn Gwyddon, 86 GPR (ground penetrating radar), 302 Graig Lwyd (Wales), 244 grain, 192; identification, 135; pollen, 137 Gramineae (grasses), 177, 231 granite, 85 Grant, A., 128 Grantham, John, 45, 55n, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60 grass-heaths, 266; restoration, 255 grasses, 71, 95, 258, 264; early, 255; pollen, 1353137,,2311 grasslands, 137, S658 e285 203; environments, 133, 139, 174, 177; snails, 127, 171, 182, 183, 191-2, 239, 241 grave cuts, 89-90 gravel extraction, 107, 108, 301, 304 gravel quarries, 275, 301 gravel terraces, 140 gravels, 111-12, Ds 116, 118, 133, 275; Devensian, 137, 228; First Terrace, 107; Flandrian, 228; valley, 219 graveyards see cemeteries graylings, 249 316 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Great Bath Road see Old Bath Road Great Oolite, 157 Great Shefford (West Berkshire), 275 Great War see World War I Great Western Railway (GWR), Locomotive and Carriage Works, 306 Greater London see Acton; London; Southwark; Stoke Newington Greece, 17 Green, M., 297 green lanes, 258 Green Park (Reading), 134 Green Street, 87n greenhouses, 4 Greensand, 157, 188, 232, 255, 258, 259; fossils, 26 greywethers, 80, 83, 85, see also sarsens Griffiths, Nick, note on a medieval pilgrim badge from West Knoyle, 293—4 Grigson, C., 171 Grime’s Graves (Norfolk), 277 Grim’s Ditch, 308 Grinsell, Leslie V. (1907-95), 146, 207, 208, 279, 282, 297 grocers, 10 Grose, Donald, The Flora of Wiltshire (1957), 98 ground penetrating radar (GPR), 302 Grove, Thomas, 53 Grypus equiseti (weevil), 269 gullies: Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age, 306-7; undated, 308, see also ditches gun volleys, 9 gunboats, 249 guns, 10 gunsmiths, 10 Gussage St Michael (Dorset), Down Farm, 139, 140 Gwent see Caerleon GWR (Great Western Railway), 306 Gygges, Thomas, 57, 58 Gyles, Frans, 54 Gyraulus alba (mollusc), 33n Gyrophaena angustata (beetle), 269 habitats, Vera Jeans Nature Reserve, 257— 66 haematite-coating, 189 Haematopota crassicornis (horse fly), 271 Halcomb, William, 8 Haliday, Mr, 205 Hambledon Hill (Dorset), 145, 148, 154, 158, 160; animal bone, 169, 170; artefacts, 166; ditches, 184; monuments, 185; pits, 185; snails, 174 Hamilton, Julie, note on animal bone from Latton Lands, 128-33 Hamilton-Dyer, Sheila: note on animal bone from Durrington Walls, 226-8; note on animal bone from Earl’s Farm Down, 238 hammers, 161, 224 hammerstones: Neolithic, 161, 164; sarsen, 166 Hampshire, 232; execution sites, 92; pottery, 189, see also Andover; Danebury; Hordle; Kimpton; Ladle Hill; Lee-on-the-Solent; Little Som- borne; Martin Down; Milton Shore; New Forest; Silchester; Southampton; Test, River hand-axes, 200; Acheulian, 273, 275 Handel, George Frederick (1685-1759), 6 Handy, Mr, 203 hanging, 92 Hannam, Edm., 47 Hannam, Edward, 39 Hanseatic traders, 36 Harden, Donald Benjamin (1901-94), 277— 8, 282 Harding, Philip, note on flintwork from Durrington Walls, 224-6 Hardy, General, 281 hares, 270 Harford, Thomas, 43, 44, 55n; accounts, 45, 57, 58, 60 Harleian Miscellany (1744), 99, 100, 101 harpoons, 249 harpsichords, 6, 11 Harris, James, 6 Harrison, William, 6 Harte, Walter (1709-74), History of the Life of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden (1759), 2 Harwood, Richard, 53 Haslam, Jeremy, 211, 212, 216, 303 Hather, Jon, 178 hawkers, 266 Hawkes, Charles (1905-92), 282 Hawley, W., 280 hawthorns, 15, 18, 171, 183, 261, 262, 266; charcoal, 175, 245 Haycock, Lorna, paper on social life in late Georgian Devizes, 1-14 Haydn, Franz Joseph (1732-1809), 6 hazel trees, 15-16, 71, 137, 171, 179, 266; charcoal, 174, 192, 245; coppicing, 175; pollen, 177, 231, 232 hazelnuts, 171, 179; charred, 185; radiocarbon dating, 151, 153; remains, 155, 176-7, 192; shells, 174, 177, 178, 180 Hazleton North (Gloucestershire), Long Barrow, 177 Healy, Frances, 185; note on flint from Whitesheet Down, 160-6; note on ground stone from Whitesheet Down, 166; report on investigation of the Whitesheet Down environs, 144—96 hearths, 188, 215 Heath, Beverley, paper on Vera Jeans Nature Reserve, 255-72 Heathcote, Josiah Eyles, 4 Heaton, Michael, 301, 303; evaluations, 306; excavations, 307; fieldwalking, 307; report on excavations at Barton Grange Farm, Bradford-on-Avon, 211-17; watching brief, 300 hedgehogs, 270 hedgerows, 266, 271 Hedge, John, 39, 43, 48 hedges, 15, 179 Helicella spp. (snails), 183-4 Helicella itala (snail), 71, 183, 238-9 Helicellids, introduced, 183 Helix spp. (molluscs), 27 Helix alba (mollusc), 27, 33n Helix annularis (mollusc), 27, 33n Helix contorta (mollusc), 27, 33n Helix genti (fossil shell), 4 Helix hispida (mollusc), 27, 33n Helix palustris (mollusc), 27, 33n Helix planorbis (mollusc), 27, 33n Helix spirorbis (mollusc), 27, 33n Helix stagnalis (mollusc), 27, 33n Helix vortex (mollusc), 27, 33n Hembury (Devon), 145, 158, 159 hemp, 49; pollen, 137, 139 Henbury (City of Bristol), 276 henge monuments, 197-210, 219, 220; Neolithic, 72, 221 Hengrave (Suffolk), 36, 49; Hengrave Hall, 35 Henry VIII (1491-1547), 35, 44 FHeracleum sphondylium (Hogweed), 259-60 heraldic devices, military, 306 heraldry, 30 herbicides, 95; resistance, 97, 98 herbs, 175, 177, 234 Herefordshire: cloth, 38n, see also Weobley Heritage Lottery Fund, 257 Heryot, Robert, 39, 48 Heytesbury, Baron, (1779-1860), 31 Francis Christopher William A’Court Heytesbury, 63, 66; barrows, 72, 73; clothiers, 39, 40, 58, 61; fossils, 26 Hidges, John, 45 Highland chief, dress, 3 Highworth, 280 Hill, Christopher, 103 Hill} D:J.,.271 hillforts, 197; Iron Age, 145, 148, 182, 184, 187, 300, see also enclosures; specific sites Hillman, Mrs Stephen, 7 Hills Minerals and Waste Ltd., 301 Hillson, S., 128 hillwash, 187, 188, 191, 301 Himalayas, 260, 276 Hinton, Pat, 176; note on plant remains from Whitesheet Down, 177-9; note on plant remains from Whitesheet Quarry, 192 Hippocastanaceae (chestnuts), 22 historical mythology, 79 History of Fossils, A, 3 Hoare, Sir Richard Colt (1758-1838), 65, 145, 146, 202, 204; The Ancient History of South and North Wiltshire (1812; 1821), 64; collections, 280; fieldwork, 68; The Modern History of South Wiltshire (1831), 26; on stone circles, 198 Hobbes, Thomas (1588-1679), 102 Hogarth, William (1697-1764), 3 Holbrok[e], William, 40, 48; accounts, 56, 57 Holcroft, Thomas (1745-1809), The Road to Ruin (1792), 7 Holland see Netherlands, The holland-cloths, 47, 49, 55n hollow ways, 82, 83, 87n, 91, 146, 150, 308 holly trees, 16, 24 Holmes, Richard, 45, 57 Holocene, 231, 242 holts, 271 Home Guard, 277 Honey, William Bowyer (1889-1956), 282 honeydew, 17 hops, 44; measures, 62; pollen, 137 Horcott (Gloucestershire), 123 Hordeum vulgare (barley), 192 Hordle (Hants), 33n horn, 128 horncores, 130, 131 hornets, 271 Horningsham: Brims Down, 33n; Brimsgrove (field), 26; Chute Farm, 26, 33n; clothiers, 39, 48, 56; Longleat, 26; Picket’s Field, 33n horse chestnut trees, 17; diseases, 18; girth, 24 horse flies, 271 horses, 278; bells, 200, 275; bones, 109, 128, 129, 132, 139, 238; white, 16, 280 hospitals, 308 houses: Norse boat-shaped, 203, see also villas Housz, Jan Ingen (1730-99), 5 hoverflies, 98, 271 Huckerby, Elizabeth, note on pollen from Latton Lands, 135-8 Hughes family, 8 Hume, David (1711-76), History of England (1754-62), 2 humic acids, 231 Humulus spp. (hops), 137 humus, 76 hundreds: boundaries, 91, 92, 93, 302; origins, 93 Hungerford (West Berkshire), 253 Hunt, Henry, 10 hunting, 132; with hounds, 10 Hurlock, John, 52 hut-circles, 207-8 HAyacinthoides non-scripta (Bluebell), 263 Hyde, Abbot of, 255 hydrochloric acid, 71, 135 INDEX hydrofluoric acid, 71, 135 Hypericum tetrapterum (Square-stalked St John’s-wort), 262 HAypholites pseudofalcatus (ammonite), 33 hypocaust systems, 302 ice skating, 249 Ichthyosaurus spp. (aquatic reptiles), 275 Idmiston, Gomeldon, 92, 93 Ilchester (Somerset), 145 Tlex aquifolium (Holly), 16, 24 Impatiens glandulifera (Indian Balsam), 260 implements: flint, 203; stone, 200, see also tools imports, 35 Inachis i0 (Peacock), 268 Inaugural Mayor’s Feast (1774) (Devizes), 9 incense cups, 275 Independent movement, 101, 102 India, 276 industrial sites, 192 Inferior Oolite, 157 inhumations, 244, 275, 300; Neolithic, 63, 66, 72; Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age, 301; Beaker, 108; Middle Bronze Age, 133-5, 139, 140; Late Bronze Age, 107, 115-16, 134; Early Iron Age, 134; Middle Iron Age, 134; ?Roman, 219; ?Romano-British, 223% Romano- British, 92, 306; Early Anglo-Saxon, 89— 94; medieval, 304; alignment, 89, 90, 93, 133, 223, 304; disarticulated, 107, 115, 133, 134, 223, 306; rituals, 134, 135 injuries, horse-related, 90 Innes, Edward, 4 innkeepers, 10 Inoceramus spp. (bivalve), 32 inquisitions, 255 insect remains, 135 insectivores, 270 insects, 98, see also specific insect genera inventions, 5 inventories, 6 invertebrates, 265, 271 Ipswich (Suffolk), ships, 57 Ireland: stone circles, 199, see also Glantane; Millstreet Iris pseudacorus (Yellow Iris), 261, 262, 263 Irish Sea, 207 iron grains, 122 iron objects: nails, 183; spears, 93 iron oxides, 157, 188, 223 iron slag, 188, 192; Romano-British, 303 Ischnomera caerulea (beetle), 298 Ischnura elegans (Blue-tailed damselfly), 266 Isle of Man, 203 Isle of Wight, 232 Italian traders, 36 Italy: trade, 36, see also Rome IW & DRE, 276 jackdaws, 30 Jackson, John Edward (1805-91), and Muggleton, 99, 100, 101, 103, 104 Jacob, Simon, 57 James, Harry, 53-4, 59 Fames (ship), 45, 57 Japanese cherry trees, 17, 18 jars: Middle Bronze Age, 121, 123, 125; Early/Middle Iron Age, 189 Jeans, Vera, 257 Jeans family, 257 Jefferies, Richard (1848-87), 201, 202-3 Jessopp, Augustus (1823-1914), “The Prophet of Walnut Tree Yard’ (1884), 101 jet objects, 300 jewellery, 8; Roman, 197, see also beads; gold objects Joes, Thomas, 54 Fohn Baptist (ship), 45, 53, 56, 57 John Evangelist (ship), 45 Jones, David Ceri, 87n Jones, Ffion, 87n Jones, G., 133 Jones, Inigo (1573-1652), 83, 85 Jones, Mary Burnet, 295 Jones, Owen, 82, 86 Jonson, Benjamin (1572-1637), 2 Fournals of the House of Commons, 3 journeymen, 36, 102 Juglandaceae (walnuts), 20 jugs, Chelsea, 282 Julian, Mother, 293 Juncus effusus (Soft Rush), 260 Jurassic, 123, 157; calcareous deposits, 188; limestone, 211 Karamzin, Nicolai Mikhailovich (1766— 1826), 11 Kay, Humphrey, 271; note on moths at Vera Jeans Nature Reserve, 268-9 Keene, Stephen (fl. 1668-1719), 6 Keevil, clothiers, 40, 42, 61 Keiller, Alexander (1889-1955), 273, 280, 281 Kendrick, Sir Thomas Downing (1895— 1979), 282 Kennet, River, 15, 16, 22, 23, 252, 253 Kennet and Avon Canal, 257, 258, 266 Kennet Valley, 85 Kent: cloth, 37; masons, 82, see also Canterbury; Faversham; Maidstone; Mayfield; Sandwich Kerridge, E., 255 kersies, 37, 43,51, 52, 55n Kesselor, George, 54 Kester, George, 50 Kickxia spuria (Round-leaved Fluellen), 97 Killeen, Ian, 271 Kilmington: clothiers, 40, 61, see also Whitesheet Down Kimmeridge Clay, 275 Kimpton (Hants), 123 Kingsbridge Hundred, 89, 91, 93 Kingston upon Hull, ships, 45, 57 Kingswood (South Gloucestershire), 55n, 87n; Kingswood Coalmines, 79, 81, 87n Kinnes, I., 68 Kirk Marown (Isle of Man), 203 Kirkdale Cavern (North Yorkshire), 33—4n Knight, John, 2, 6, 42 Knight, Richard, 2, 6 knives: flint, 165, 222, 226, see also blades Knook, 63; Knook Barrow, 72, 73 Knyght, John (of Bishopstrowe), 39, 47, 48; cloth mark, 61 Knyght, John (of Devizes), 39, 47, 48; accounts, 57, 58 Koudmarkt, 36 Kromer, B., 231 Kytson, Robert, 35 Kytson, Sir Thomas (1485-1540), 35-62; biographical notes, 35 Lackington, James, 1 Lacock, clothiers, 39, 40, 42, 53, 56, 61 Lactuca serriola (Prickly Lettuce), 98 Lactuceae (dandelions), 71 Ladies’ Library, The, S—6 Ladle Hill (Hants), 281 Lake, Jeremy, 211-12 Lambe, Aldhelm, 40, 48, 55n; accounts, 57, 58; activities, 51-3; cloth marks, 61, 02 Lambert, Aylmer Bourke (1761-1842), 25, 31, 63, 64 Lambourn (West Berkshire), 275, 284n; Seven Barrows, 282 Lamdin-Whymark, Hugo, note on flint from Latton Lands, 125 Lamont, William, 101, 103 Lampetra fluviatilis (River Lamprey), 259 Lancashire: manors, 35, see also Warton Lanckford, Edward, 48; accounts, 56, 57 317 land division, 187 land drainage, 4 land-use patterns, 187, 231, 232, 233-4, 238-41, 243-5 landscapes: prehistoric, 147-8, 218-48; Neolithic, 218-48; Late Bronze Age, 241, see also environments Lane, Edward Arthur (1909-63), 282 Langford, Alexander, the elder, 49, 53 Langford, Alexander, junior, 40, 49; cloth mark, 61 Langford, Alexander, senior, 40; cloth mark, 62 Langley, Botany, 4 Langley Burrell Without, 99 Lansdowne, Ist Marquis of, 5 lantern slides, 280 larch trees, 16 Larix decidua (Larch), 16 larvae, 298 Last, Barbara, paper on an arable weed survey of a farm in South Wiltshire, 95— 8 Lathyrus spp. (vetches), 178 Lathyrus montanus (Bitter Vetch), 179 Lathyrus pratensis (Meadow Vetchling), 261 Latton, 107, 123, 275; Beggars Field, 107; Creamery Field, 107; Field Barn, 108; geology, 107; Latton Lands, 106-43, 304; Roman Pond, 137, 138; Westfield Farm, 107 Latton Creamery, 107 laudanum, 79 Lauraceae (laurels), 20 law books, 2, 3 Lawrence, John, 38, 39, 42, 47, 48, 54; accounts, 57, 58, 59; cloth mark, 60 Lawrence, Thomas, 2 Lawrence, Thomas Edward (1888-1935), 250 Laws, Granville, 304; report on excavations at Latton Lands, 106-43 lawyers, 1,6 lead casts, 296 leaf litter, 174, 186, 259, 260 leafhoppers, 271 leats, 255-7, 259, 260 Leche, John, 45, 57 Lechlade (Gloucestershire), 133 lectures, 5, 280 Lediard, Rev., 10 Lee-on-the-Solent[?] (Hants), ships, 45, D2, 558 Leeds, Edward Thurlow (1877-1955), 282 Leeds, 11 Legge, John, A Treatise on the Art of Grafting and Inoculation (1780), 3 Legousia hybrida (Venus’s Looking-glass), 95, 97-8 Leguminosae (legumes), 22 leisure activities, 1, 10-11 Lenycke, Philip, 50 Leonerd (ship), 60 Lepidoptera see butterflies; moths lepidopterists, 298 Leptura quadrifasciata (Longhorn Beetle), 266 Lepus capensis (Hare), 270 Lerde, William, 53 Leslie, G. D., 205, 282 Lestes sponsa (Emerald Damselfly), 266 Leucozona laternia (hoverfly), 98 Levallois technology, 224, 226 Leversage, John, 49 Levine, M. A., 128 Lewes (East Sussex), Lewes Museum, 274, 289 Lewis, A. L., 203 Lewis (Western Isles), 207 ley lines, 198 Leylandii hedges, 23 Lias, 145, 306 318 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Libellula — quadrimaculata Chaser), 266 libraries, 5—6, 27, 79, 87n, 280; circulating, 1, 2; private, 2, 3; sale catalogues, 2 lichen, 271 Liddington: Liddington Castle, 275; Warren Farm, 274 lighters (ships), 53 lighting, public, 11 Liguliflorae (sunflowers), 135, 175, 177 Limacidae (keelback slugs), 183, 191 lime trees, 17, 23, 71, 137; pollen, 177, 231, 232 limestone, 124, 125, 157, 224; blocks, 305; burnt, 109, 112, 115, 116, 118, 125, 139; Carboniferous, 215; carved, 307; Jurassic, 211; ooliths, 121, 123, 124; Oolitic, 157, 212, 215; pavements, 214 limpets, 244 linea aspersa, 90 linears, 220, 234-7; Bronze Age, 235; Iron Age, 187; medieval, 306, see also ditches lions, 10 Listed Building status, 211, 304, 308 literacy, 11; in 18th century, 2; adult, 1 literary and scientific institutes, 11 literature, 2 lithology, 26 Little Somborne (Hants), 189 Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society, 101 Livingstone, David (1813-73), 249 Lizard Peninsula (Cornwall), 157, 159 Locke, John (1632-1704), 5; An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690), 2 Locke, Wadham, 2, 4, 5,9 Locke family, 8 Locustella naevia (Grasshopper Warbler), 269 London;. 6; 11; ° 26,, 27, ~32,;. 86; Archaeological Institute, 297; Arundell family estate, 294-5; Arundell Square, 295; Bishopsgate, 99-100, 102; Castle Baynard, 55n; Clerkenwell, 102; cloth trade, 43, 44, 52; coach roads, 83, 85; Coleman Street, 35; Court of Aldermen, 55n; Court of Husting Roll, 55n; Covent Garden, 3; Cripplegate, 9; exports, 36; farriers, 82; Haymarket, 295; Horniman Museum, 289; masons, 82; mercers, 37; merchants, 35; Milk Street, 35; motorways, 206; and Muggleton, 99; Natural History Museum, 253, 284n, 289; Newgate Prison, 101, 103; Panton estate, 295; Panton Street, 295; Passmore’s visits, 277; Piccadilly Circus, 295; Primrose Hill, 85; Russell Square, 274; St Botolph’s (Bishopsgate), 99-100; St James, 295; St Martin in the Fields, 295; St Mary Magdalen, 35; sales, 274, 275; shearmen, 54; ships, 45, 52, 53, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60; slums, 101; Soho, 5; theatres, 6; tradesmen, 37; Victoria and Albert Museum, 276, 277, 282, 291-2; watercress markets, 257; Welsh societies, 82; West End, 295; Zoo, 253, see also Acton; British Museum; Southwark; Stoke Newington London Magazine, The, 5 London, Master Recorder of, 49 London—Bristol Road, 87n Longbridge Deverill: clothiers, 39; Cow Down, 192; Kingsdown Farm, 304 Long[e], Thomas, 40, 48; accounts, 56, 57 Longford [Lanckforth], Edward, 39 longhorn beetles, 266, 269 Longworth, I. H., 224, 226 Longworth traps, 271 Look (television series), 254 loomweights, clay, 108, 126, 188 Looney, J. J., 11 (Four-spotted Lord Chief Justice, 101 Lotus pedunculatus (Greater, Bird’s-foot- trefoil), 260, 268 Low Countries, 3, 49 lower classes see working classes Lower Cretaceous, 26 Lower Greensand, 206 Lucas, Leigh, 89 Lucas, Tony, 89 Luckington, 200; Giant’s Long Barrow, 276-7 Lucy, Anne, 295 Ludlow (Shropshire), 38n Lukis, William Collings (1817-92), 198 Lunne, Nicholas, 36, 45; accounts, 50; activities, 51-2 Luscinia megarhynchos (Nightingale), 269 Lutra lutra (Otter), 271 Luxor (Egypt), 275 Luzula multiflora (Heath Wood-rush), 265 Lycaena phlaeas (Small Copper), 268 Lychnis flos-cuculi (Ragged Robin), 261 Lygephila pastinum (Blackneck), 268 Lymnaea spp. (molluscs), 127 Lymnaea palustris (mollusc), 33n Lymnaea stagnalis (mollusc), 33n lynchets, 146, 237, 304 Lyversidge, John, 40; cloth mark, 61 M4 motorway, construction, 205, 206 Maas, River, 36 Macaulay, Thomas Babington, Macaulay (1800-59), 101 McKinley, Jacqueline, 90 McOmish, D., 72; note on survey of Whitesheet Down, 146-8 Macrolepidoptera (moths), 268 madder, 4 magazines, 5, 11 magnetic suscepubility profiles, 63, 67, 68, 69, 70, 77 magnetometer surveys, 301, 302 Magnoliaceae (magnolias), 20 Maiden Castle (Dorset), 145, 158, 159, 160, 165, 277; animal bone, 170; causewayed enclosure, 186; ditches, 184; middens, 185; querns, 166 Maidenhead (Windsor and Maidenhead), 123 Maidstone (Kent), ships, 45 maize, 266 Malmesbury: Athelstan Museum, 288; clothiers, 39, 40, 43, 60; former cinema site, 304; High Street, 304; Malmesbury Abbey, 304; Market Cross, 304; Saxon House, 304; trees, 22 Maltby, J. M., note on animal bone from Whitesheet Down, 167-71 Malus spp. (apples), 18 Malus x purpurea (Purple-leaved Hybrid Apple), 18 mammals, 270-1; bones, 167, 170, 238 Man, Isle of, 203 man-traps, 200, 275, 284n manganese nodules, 151 Maniola jurtina (Meadow Brown), 268 manners, 12 manors, 35 Mantell, Gideon Algernon (1790-1852), 27,.28,-30, 31, .32; on Benett, 25, 26; fossils, 33 maple trees, 16, 22, 23 maps, 3; geological, 33n; sale of, 3; subscribers, 2; of Wiltshire, 2 Margett (ship), 57 mariners, 53 Market Lavington, 3 markets, 36 marks, cloth, 51, 52, 60-2 Marlborough, 4, 80, 253; Barton Dene, 16; cricket matches, 10; Field Cottage (Barton Dene), 16; George Lane, 15, 17, Baron 23; High Street, 15, 23; Hyde Lane, 15, 17; Littlefield House, 23; trackways, 91; turnpike roads, 83; West Woods, 252 Marlborough College: College House, 15; Cotton House, 18; Duelling Lawns, 15; establishment, 15; gardens, 24; Kennels, 23; Master’s Garden, 23; Mound (Mount), 15; New Pavillion, 23; Science Block, 22; trees, 15-24; Trout Ponds, 23 Marlborough College Nature Reserve, Nature Trail, 15, 16, 17, 18, 24 Marlborough Downs, 80, 84, 85, 123, 252; excavations, 89; sarsens, 208; trackways, 91 marls, 228 Marsh, John (1750-1828), 6 Marsh, Mr., 80 marshes, 266 Martin Down (Hants), 123 Marvell, Andrew (1621-78), 199 Mary (ship), 60 Mary & ohn (ship), 45 Mary Anne (ship), 57 Mary Fortune (ship), 52, 57 Mary Gabryell (ship), 45, 52 Mary Mychell (ship), 59-60 Mary Thomas (ship), 45 masonic emblems, 10 masons see stonemasons Mathe, Robert, 36 Matricaria spp. (herbs), 192 mauls, sarsen, 166 Maurice, Thomas (1915-2000), 249 Maurice, Timothy (1912- ), 249 Mawdelyn (ship), 60 May, Thomas, 55n Maye, Robert, 39, 40, 42, 47, 48; defective cloth, 50 Mayfield (Kent), 100 Meaden, Terence, 207 meat, 131, 132; sources, 133, 139 Mechanical Transport Corps, 276 medals, 3 medical tracts, 2 medicine, 179 medlars, 18 megalithic monuments, linear, 200, 203, 207 Meles meles (Badger), 271 Melksham: agriculture, 4; clothiers, 38, 39, 40, 42 Mellen, Paul, 34n Meloe proscarabaeus (Black Oil Beetle), 298, 299 Richardson (‘Dick’) Kindersley (‘Tim’) 197-210, 280; Meloe rugosus Marsham (Rugged Oil Beetle), 298-9 Meloe violaceus Marsham (Violet Oil Beetle), 299 melons, 3, 4 Members of Parliament, 8, 9, 27-8, 29 memorial inscriptions, 25; 18th century, | Mendip Hills (Somerset), 81 Mentha aquatica (Water Mint), 261 Menyanthes trifoliata (Bogbean), 261, 264 Mepham, Lorraine, notes on finds from Earl’s Farm Down, 237-8 Mercer, R. J., 185, 187 mercers, 35, 36, 37 Mercer’s Company, 35 Merchant Adventurers Company, 35, 36, 44,51; rules, 52 merchants, 35, 36 Mercury (god), figurine, 297 Mere: Chicklade Bottom, 304; Mere Down, 179-80, 182-4, 187, see also Whitesheet Down Mespilus spp. (medlars), 18 metalworking, 140 Meux, Sir Henry Bruce (1857-1900), 274 mica, 122 INDEX mice, 266, 270-1; bones, 238 Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti (1475-1564), 3 microdenticulates, 226 Micromys minutus (Harvest Mouse), 270 microscopy, 135, 175, 177 Maucrotus agrestis (Field Vole), 167, 180, 270 middens, 185; Late Bronze Age, 134-5; Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age, 307; Romano-British, 300 Middle Chalk, 63, 145, 234, 308; flints, 160 middle classes, 6, 10 Middle Thames Valley, 134 Middlecotts, Richard, 60 miles, Roman, 284n milestones, 304, 308 military service, 275 militia, 8 milk, 131 millennium celebrations, 66 Miller, Alan, 295 Miller, Philip (1691-1771), The Gardener’s Dictionary (1731), 3 Mills, John, 9 mills, 255-7; fulling, 11 Millstreet (Ireland), 199 Milton Shore[?] (Hants), ships, 57 mineralogy, 86 Minerva, 296-7 mines, flint, 224, 244, 245 Minety, pottery, 124 minimum number of individuals (MNI) method, 130 mink, 270, 271 mints, Saxon, 200 miracles, 293 mires, 264; lowland, 259 mitochondrial RNA (mRNA), 18 MNI method, 130 Mobsby, Piers, 271 ‘A Modest Account of the Wicked Life of That Grand Imposter Lodowicke Muggletor’ (1676), 101, 104n Moffatt, L., 179 Moffatt, William, 301, 303; report on excavations at Barton Grange Farm, Bradford-on-Avon, 211-17 Mohawk Indians, 5 moles, 270 Molinia caerulea (Purple Moor-grass), 265 mollusc remains: Avon Valley, 242-4; Earl’s Farm Down, 238-41; Latton Lands, 126-8, 139; Mere Down, 183-4; Whitesheet Down, 145, 150, 186, 187, 191-2 molluscs, 27, 70, 71, 233, 234; analyses, 234, 238; bivalves, 32, see also shells; snails monuments, mortuary, 74 Moon, worship, 205, 206 Moore, P. D., 135 Moore, Thomas (1779-1852), 7, 9, 11 More, Hannah, 12 Morganwg, Iolo (1746-1826), 78-88; antiquarianism, 82; biography, 87n; letters, 86; Poems, Lyric and Pastoral (1794), 85 Morris, Elaine L.: note on finds from Whitesheet Quarry, 188-91; note on pottery from Durrington Walls, 223-4 Morrison, Peleg, 3 Morsse, Robert, 45 Mortimer, Neil, 207, 208 mosses, 264, 266 moths, 252, 253, 259-60, 268-9, 271 moulds, 294, 297 Mound of the Conventions, 86 mounds, 275 Mount Murray (Isle of Man), 203 Mozambique, 249 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus (1756-91), 6 “Mr Cherry’, 253 ‘Mr Crabtree’, 249, 250, 252, 253 mRNA (mitochondrial RNA), 18 Muensterberger, W., 282 Muggleton, John, 99-100 Muggleton; Lodowick (John) (1609-98), 99-105; The Acts of the Witnesses of the Spirit (1699), 101, 102, 104; ‘The Answer to William Penn’ (1673), 100; in DNB, 100, 101; ‘The Looking Glass for George Fox and other Quakers’ (1668), 100; “he Neck of the Quakers Broken’ (1663), 100 Muggleton, Margaret (b. 1605), 99-100 Muggleton, Mary (d. 1612), 102 Muggleton, Ruth (b. 1607), 100 Muggletonians: beliefs, 100, 102-3; distribution, 100, 104n; revival, 101 Murchison, Sir Roderick Impey (1792- 1871), 25-6 murders, 197 Murray, Tim, Encyclopaedia of Archaeology: The Great Archaeologists (1999), 273 Muscardinus avellanarius (Dormouse), 266, 270-1 museums: collections, 282; private, 276, see also specific museums music, 11, 12; in 18th century, 5-6; Continental influences, 6; martial, 8 music festivals, 6 musical clocks, 6 musical instruments, 6 Mustela erminea (Stoat), 271 Mustela vison (Mink), 270, 271 Mychell (ship), 57, 58 Mydlecote, Richard, 39, 47, 48; accounts, 59 Myfyr, Owain, 82 Myosotis scorpioides (Water Forget-me-not), 261 Myrtaceae (myrtles), 22 nails: >Roman, 183; ?>Romano-British, 223 Napoleon I (Bonaparte) (1769-1821), 9 Nash, Sarah E., 27 Nashe, John, 53 National Library of Wales (NLW), 79, 87n National Monuments Record (NMR), 207 Native Americans, 5 Natrix natrix (Grass Snake), 264 natural history: 18th century trends, 4; books, 5; botany, 5, see also geology natural philosophy, 5 Nature Conservancy Council (NCC), 271 Navy, 44 NCC (Nature Conservancy Council), 271 Neate, John, 10 Neate, Stephen, 3, 10 Neate, William, 2 necklaces: Saxon, 275; glass, 200; stone, 276 Neigh Bridge (Gloucestershire), 108 Neomys fodiens (Water Shrew), 270 Nesovitrea hemmonis (mollusc), 183 Netherlands, The, 49, see also Bergen-op- Zoom; Flushing nettles, 268 New Botanic Garden, 4 New Forest (Hants), 265; pottery, 238 New Sarum see Salisbury New Zealand, 31, 138, see also Alexander Turnbull Library; Wellington Newall, R. S., 282 Newbury (West Berkshire), 281; Museum, 289; pottery, 123 Newbury and District Field Club, 274 Newcastle, florists’ feasts, 3 Newman, Caron, report on archaeological and environmental study of Avon Valley/Durringtor Walls environs, 218— 48 Newmarket (Suffolk), Devil’s Dyke, 277 newspapers, 1, 5, 11 nightshades, 178, 179 319 Nile, Battle of (1798), 9 nitrogen compounds, 17 NLW (National Library of Wales), 79, 87n NMR (National Monuments Record), 207 Noakes, Philip (d. 1979), 100 nonconformism, 5 Norfolk, 27, see also Broome Heath; Burgh Castle; Grime’s Graves; Spong Hill Norman Conquest (1066), 293 Normanton, Lord, 297 Norrington, John, 37, 39, 40, 44, 47, 48; accounts, 42, 49, 54, 58; cloth mark, 61 North America, plants, 34n North East Wiltshire Home Guard, 277 North West Frontier, 276 Northumberland, Duke of, 80 Norton Bavant, 26, 27; All Saints Church (Benett Chapel, 25; rebuilding, 29-30); barrows, 72, 73; Borrow Pit, 189; Manor House, 25; Scratchbury, 74; vicars, 29 Norway spruces, 16 Norwich, 276, 277, 293; florists’ feasts, 3 Nottingham Brewhouse Yard Museum, 290 nuns, 293-4 Nymphalinae (butterflies), 268 OA see Oxford Archaeology (OA) oak dieback disease (ODBD), 16, 18 oaks, 15, 16, 137, 262, 265, 268; charcoal, 192, 245; diseases, 16, 18; felling, 175; girth, 23; pollen, 177, 231 OAU (Oxford Archaeological Unit), 308 Ochlodes venata (Large Skipper), 268 ODBD (oak dieback disease), 16, 18 Ogbourne St Andrew, 276; Man’s Head, 91; Smeathe’s Ridge, 276 Ogbourne St George, 276 Ogilby, John (1600-76), Britannia (1675), 83 oil, measures, 62 oil beetles, 298-9 Old Bath Road, 82; traces, 83, 87n Old London Way, 87n Oleaceae (olives), 22 olive oil, 49, 55n Oliver, Jack, paper on trees of Marlborough College, 15-24 Olymphia? Agricultural Co., 278 Olympic Games, 249 ooliths, 121, 123, 124, 157, 188 Oolitic limestone, 188, 212, 215 operas, 6 Ophiostoma novo-ulmi (fungus), 18 Oplodontha viridula (soldier fly), 266 oral history, 103 Orchesia minor (beetle), 269 Orcheston, agriculture, 4 Ordnance Survey, 146, 257, 306 organic materials, 109 organs, 6, 11; self-acting, 6 orreries, 5 Orwell (Suffolk), ships, 45 Oryctolagus cuniculus (Rabbit), 270 Osborne, Walter, 55n, 58 osiers, 17 osteoarthritis, 90 Oswald, A., 184 otters, 271 Outer Hebrides, 207 Overton, T. C., Original Designs of Temples (1766), 2 ovicaprids: bones, 180-2, 188, see also goats; sheep Owen, Edward, 84 Owhyee, Chief of, 3 Owsse (ship), 45 oxen, fattening, 5 Oxendean-Heytesbury valley, 72, 73, 74 Oxford: Research Laboratory _ for Archaeology and the History of Art, 90, see also Ashmolean Museum Oxford Archaeological Unit (OAU), 308 320 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Oxford Archaeology (OA), 107; evaluations, 306; watching briefs, 304, 307 Oxford Clay, 145 Oxford University, 278, 282, 289; Museum of Natural History, 282, 289 Oxfordshire: clothiers, 38n, 43; pottery, 238, see also Abingdon; Ashbury; Barrow Hills; Eight Acre Field; Eynsham; Pusey; Rollright Stones; Uffington; Wallingford; Watkins Farm; Wayland’s Smithy; Woodstock; Yarnton Oxycera nigricornis (soldier fly), 266, 271 Oxycera trilineata (soldier fly), 266 Oxychilus cellarius (mollusc), 127 oysters, 4 Paasmarkt, 36 Pacifastacus leniusculus (American Signal Crayfish), 259 paddocks, 140 Paine, Thomas (1737-1809), The Rights of Man (1791-2), 79 paintings, 6; collections, 2-3, see also watercolours palaeoenvironmental materials, Neolithic, 69-71 palaeontology, 26; collections, 4, 274, see also fossils Palmer, Thomas, 58, 60 palynology, 135, 137-8 ‘Pantheon’ (1821), 6 Panton, Elizabeth, 295 Papaver argemone (Prickly Poppy), 98 Papaver hybridum (Rough-headed Poppy), 98 Papaver rhoeas (Common Poppy), 97 paper hangers, 274 Papilionaceae (legumes), 231 Paracymus scutellaris (water beetle), 269 Parastichtes ypsillon (Dingy Shears), 268 parish boundaries, 92, 203, 302 parish registers, 99-100, 102 parsley, 263 Parus ater (Coal Tit), 270 Parus caeruleus (Blue Tit), 270 Parus montanus (Willow Tit), 269 Parus palustris (Marsh Tit), 270 Pask mart, 36, 44 Passmore, Arthur Dennis (c.1877-1958), 273-92; biographical notes, 274-8; collections, 274, 275, 278, 280, 281-2, 287-92; critique, 282-3; fieldwork, 274— 7, 278-9; interests, 273-4; publications, 286-7; stone circle studies, 197-210; and WANHS, 279-81 Passmore, Hercules (be. 1874), 274 Passmore, Jane (bc. 1852), 274 Passmore, Richard Keylock (be. 1850), 274 Pastinaca sativa (Wild Parsnip), 97 pasturages, 241, 297, 302 paths, permissive, 257 Patyens, Roger, 59 pavements, limestone, 214, 215, 216-17, 303 Pawmer, Thomas, 58 Payne, Keith, 271 Payne, Robert, 55n; accounts, 57 Payne, S., 128 Paynes, Robert, 57, 58 Pearce, Mr, 9 peat, 137, 219, 228, 231, 255, 264 pebbles, polished, 125 pedogenesis, 232 Pedunculate Oak see Quercus robur (English oak) Pegge, Maud Edith see Cunnington, Maud Edith (nee Pegge) (1869-1951) Peglar, S. M., 135 penestones, 37, 44, 55n Penn, William (1644-1718), The New Witnesses Proved Old Heretics (1672), 100 Penruddock, Charles, 9 Penselwood (Somerset), Encie Farm, 192 Pentecost Fair, 36 pepper, 47, 49, 50; measures, 62 Pepys, Samuel (1633-1703), 84, 85 Perch (fish), 253 Peremans, John, 60 perfumes, 12 Perrett, Thomas, 45 Persicaria maculosa (Redshank), 137 Peshwar (India), 276 Peter (ship), 52, 57, 58, 59, 60 Petersburg, University of (Russia), 32 Petrie, Sir (William Matthew) Flinders (1853-1942), 280 petrol, rationing, 277 Petter, Robert, 37, 39, 47 Petty, William, Ist Marquis of Lansdowne, Lord Shelburne (1737-1805), 5 Pevsner, Sir Nikolaus Bernhard Leon (1902-83), 207 Pewsey: Dursden Lane, 257, 258; Jones’s Mill, 255-72; Jones’s Mill Mead, 255, 257, 260, 261, 265; Kepnal, 257; Kepnal Drove, 257, 259, 261; Knowle, 258; Martinsell, 257, 258; mills, 255-7; origin of name, 258; Pains Bridge, 258; Sunnyhill Lane, 257, see also Vera Jeans Nature Reserve (Pewsey) Pewsey Downs, 257, 268 Pewsey, Vale of, 92, 245, 255; geology, 257-8 Peyett, Ryse, 53 pH, 259 Philadelphia (US), 27, 33 Philip of Macedon, 280 Phillips, Laura, 200; paper on the life of A. D. Passmore, 273-92 Phillips, Nathaniel, 6 Phipps family, 9 photography, 276; aerial, 236, 239, 262, 280, 301 Phragmites australis (Common Reed), 137 Physa fontinalis (mollusc), 33n Phytophthora spp. (fungi), 18 pianos, 6 Picea abies (Norway Spruce), 16 picks, antler, 167, 222, 227 Picus viridis (Green Woodpecker), 270 Pieris napi (Green-veined White), 266-8 pig bones, 180, 185, 187, 226-7, 238, 244; Neolithic, 150-1, 153, 154, 167-71; Late Neolithic, 222; Middle Bronze Age, 109, 128, 129, 132; Iron Age, 188 Piggott, Stuart (1910-96), 146, 184-5, 186, 207, 280, 281 pignuts, 171, 178, 179, 265 pigs, 186; as feasting animal, 228; pannage, 186; teeth, 132, 169, 226-7 pilgrim badges, medieval, 293-4 pilgrimages, 293, 294 Pinaceae (pines), 19-20 pine trees, 16, 19, 137, 176, 231, 242 pineapples, as status symbols, 3 Pinus spp. (pines), 137, 176, 231 Pinus nigra (Black Pine), 16 Pinus sylvestris (Scots Pine), 16 Pinxten mart, 36 pipelines, 148, 180, 185, 187, 192; gas, 220, 300; water, 145, 219-48, 303 Pipizella virens (hoverfly), 271 pirates, 44, 55n pitchstones, 214, 215 pits, 149; Mesolithic, 71; Neolithic, 66, 107, 151-4, 166, 185, 219, 301; Late Neolithic, 220-3, 226, 227, 244; Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age, 301, 305; Beaker, 145, 179-80, 187; ?Bronze Age, 116-18; Bronze Age, 125; Middle Bronze Age, 107, 108, 112-15, 116, 121, 128, 130, 133, 140; Late Bronze Age, 107, 140; Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age, 301; Iron Age, 107, 116, 1/8, 140, 305; Early/Middle Iron Age, 187-8; medieval, 307; ?post-medieval, 301; post-medieval, 305, 307; modern, 308; undated, 305; amorphous, 116; location, 134-5, see also ditches; postholes Pitt Rivers Museum (Oxford), 290 planetaria, 198 Planorbis planorbis (mollusc), 33n plant remains, 135, 177-9, 192; charred, 166, see also pollen Plantago spp. (plantains), 233 Plantago lanceolata (Ribwort Plantain), 137, 1775231232. Plantago major (Greater Plantain), 231 Plantago media (Hoary Plantain), 231 plants: aquatic, 138; carr, 259, 261-3; col- lections, 4; fen, 259-61, 263-5; germination, 95, 97; imported, 3; propa- gation, 3-4; rare, 95; self-pollination, 95, 97, see also flowers; trees; weeds plaques, Late Roman, 296-7 plaster, Roman, 200, 275 plates, porcelain, 200 Plateumaris affinis (leaf beetle), 269 Platycnemis pennipes (White-legged Damselfly), 266 play-houses, 208 Pleiosaurus spp. (aquatic reptiles), 275 Pleistocene, 234 Plesiosaurus spp. (aquatic reptiles), 275 ploughing, 95; medieval, 76; archaeological damage, 65, 139, 146, 244, 300, 308; matches, 5 ploughs, 4 plum trees, 17 Plymouth (Devon), theatres, 7 Poaceae (grasses), 71, 135 poetry, 2, 82, 86 Poets Laureate, 11 Pollacia saliciperda (fungus), 18 pollen, 63, 66, 71, 135—8, 139; analyses, 135, 137, 175-7, 228, 229; Avon Valley, 229- 33; preservation, 175; samples, 109, 135, 166, 175-6, 229; sequences, 219, 242-3; Whitesheet Hill, 150, 175-7 Polter, Richard, 57 Polygonaceae (docks and knotgrasses), 233 Polygonum aviculare (Knotgrass), 137, 231 Polyommatus icarus (Common Blue), 268 Polypodium spp. (fern), 71, 177 Polypodium interjectum (fern), 23 Polypodium vulgare (fern), 71 Pomatias elegans (snail), 171, 239 Pomoideae (apple/medlar/quince — sub- family), 174, 175, 192 ponds, 139, 257, 258, 262, 266; post- medieval, 302; trout, 15 pondweeds, 138 Poor Laws, 9 Pope, Alexander (1688-1744), 2 poplars, 15, 17, 23, 265; hybrids, 24 poppies, 97, 98 Populus spp. (poplars), 17 Populus x canadensis ‘Regenerata’ (Railway Poplar), 15, 23 Populus x canadensis ‘Serotina’ (Black Italian Poplar), 23 Populus x jacku (Hybrid Balsam Poplar), 17 Populus nigra (European Black Poplar), 17, 265 porters, 53 Portland (Dorset), fossils, 26 Portland Stone, 29 Portugal laurels, 17, 18 postholes, 151; Neolithic, 154; Middle Bronze Age, 111-12, 116, 139; Iron Age, 305, 306; medieval, 306; post-medieval, 307; modern, 308; undated, 305, see also pits potassium hydroxide, 71, 135 potatoes, 5 Potentilla erecta (Tormentil), 265 INDEX Poterium sangutsorba (Salad Burnet), 177 Potterne, 189; Furzehill, 10; Hartmoor, 4 pottery, 200; ?prehistoric, 154; prehistoric, 220, 308; late prehistoric, 300-1; Neolithic, 74, 151, 153, 179, 223-4, 242; Early Neolithic, 148, 151, 154, 155-60, 185, 224; Late Neolithic, 221, 222; Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age, 305; Beaker, 301, 305; Bronze Age, 237; Middle Bronze Age, 108, 109, 112, 115, 116, 118, 119, 121-3, 140; 2?Late Bronze Age, 237-8; Late Bronze Age, 189, 237, 245; Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age, 189; Iron Age, 108, 116, 119, 123-4, 237, 300; Early Iron Age, 125, 188, 189; Early/Middle Iron Age, 188-91, 306; Middle Iron Age, 188, 189; Middle/Late Iron Age, 90, 92; Late Iron Age, 92; Late Iron Age/Early Romano-British, 155, 157, 159, 307; Roman, 220, 228, 232, 237; ?Romano-British, 154, 275, 306; Romano-British, 90, 92, 188, 237, 300, 303; Saxon, 108; medieval, 108, 119, 124, 301, 304, 306, 307; post-medieval, 119, 124, 307; modern, 229; analysis, 119-21; Black Burnished ware, 238; ‘British’, 203; chaff-tempered, 93; Chelsea ware, 282; coarse flint-tempered ware, 122; coarsewares, 238; Collared Beakers, 180; collections, 282; Decorated Style, 159; Deverel-Rimbury type, 107, 120, 121-3, 138, 140; Durrington Walls sub-style, 224; fine flint-tempered ware, 122-3; fine micaceous ware, 188; flint- tempered wares, 122, 123, 188, 237; fossil shell-tempered ware, 121; gabbroic, 151, 157, 158, 159, 160, 185; Grey Wares, 188; grog and fossil shell- tempered ware, 122; grog-tempered ware, 121-2, 124, 183, 188; Grooved Ware, 221, 223-4, 226, 227-8, 244, 245, 301; Hembury type, 158, 159; New Forest ware, 238; Oxfordshire ware, 238; Peterborough ware, 154, 155, 157, 159, 164, 186, 301 (Mortlake-style, 151, 159, 186); petrological analyses, 155, 157; pitting, 189; Samian, 200, 238, 275; sandy wares, 188; shell and limestone- tempered ware, 121, 188; shelly wares, 121, 123-4, 157; slipwares, 189; South- Western Style, 158, 159, 185; trumpet lugs, 158, 159; Windmill Hill type, 148, 159, see also beakers; bowls; jars; jugs; tiles; urns Pottery Record Numbers (PRNs), 159 pounders, sarsen, 166 Powell, John, 58 Powell, Mr, 99 Powell, Nathaniel, 101 Powell, Richard, 58 Prehistoric Society, 274, 276 Presbyterianism, 102 Preshute: tennis courts, 23; White Horse, 16 Preston (Gloucestershire), 108 Priestley, Joseph (1733-1804), 5 primroses, 263 Primula vulgaris (Primrose), 263 printers, 6 prints, collections, 2-3, 11 PRNs (Pottery Record Numbers), 159 processions, 9 Protestants, 294 proto-saucepan pots, Early/Middle Iron Age, 189 Prunella modularis (Dunnock), 270 Prunus spp. (plum/cherry/sloe), 173 charcoal, 174, 175 Prunus avium (Wild Cherry), 16, 17, 18; girth, 24 Prunus cerasifera Plum), 24 ‘Pissardii’? (Pissard’s Prunus x fruticans (Plum), 17 Prunus laurocerasus (Cherry Laurel), 17 Prunus lusitanica (Portugal Laurel), 17, 18 Prunus serrulata ‘Kanzan’ (Pink Japanese Cherry), 18, 24 Prunus spinosa (Blackthorn), 17, 178 Prunus spinosa var. microcarpa (Small- seeded Sloe), 178 Pteridium aquilinum (Bracken), 71, 177, 233, 263 pterodactyls, 200 Puilinus pectinicornis (wood borer), 269 public lectures, 5 publications, 2 Pughe, William Owen (1759-1835), 78, 81, 86; Elegies of Llyware Hen (1792), 85 pugilism, 10 Pullen, William, 278 punting, 249 Pupilla muscorum (snail), 71, 171, 183, 191, 238, 239 Purbeck Beds, 145, 157, 305 Puritans, 102 Pusey (Oxfordshire), 284n Pyarde, Christopher, 38n Pyarde, Katherine, 38n, 40, 49 Pymmells (agents), 50, 54 Pyramids (Egypt), 79 Pyrochroa coccinez (cardinal beetle), 269 Pyrochroa serraticornis (cardinal beetle), 269 Quakerism, 101, 102 Quakers, 100, 104n quarries: post-medieval, 302; abandoned, 146, 187-93; evaluations, 303; gravel, 275, 301, 304; stone, 80, 83, 85 quartz, 122, 124, 157, 224 quartzite, 125 quatrefoils, 304 Quercus spp. (oaks), 137, 176, 231, 268 Quercus borealis (American Red Oak), 23 Quercus petraea (Sessile Oak), 18; diseases, 19 Quercus petraea x robur see Quercus x rosacea (Hybrid Native Oak) Quercus robur (English Oak), 16, 19, 262, 265; diseases, 18; girth, 23 Quercus robur ‘Fastigiata’ (Poplar Oak), 23, 24 Quercus x rosacea (Hybrid Native Oak), 18; diseases, 19 Quercus rubra (American Red Oak), 23 Quercusia quercus (Purple Hairstreak), 268 querns: saddle, 166, 188; sarsen, 152, 166, 188 Quick, John, 102 quinces, 18 quinine, 32 quoins, 211, 216 rabbits, 270 Rack, Bernard, 282 radicals, 99 radiocarbon dating, 89, 90, 154—5, 184, 231; bone, 150-1, 153, 186, 244; charcoal, 242; Latton Lands, 138-9 Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory (New Zealand), 138 Radmund, John, 39, 47 railways, 32, 306 rainforests, 17 Rallus aquaticus (Water Rail), 269 Ramsay, A., 298-9 Ranscombe Camp (East Sussex), 175 Ranters, 102 Ranunculaceae (buttercups/crowfoots), 298 Ranunculus spp. (buttercups), 137, 177 rattles, watchmen’s, 275 Rawlings, Christopher, 58 Rawlings, John, 57 Rawlings, Mick, report on investigation of the Whitesheet Down environs, 144-96 321 Rawlins, George, 40, 48, 60 Rawlins, John, 40, 48; accounts, 57, 58, 59 RCHME (Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England), 66, 67, 68, 297 RDB (Red Data Book), 269, 271, 298 Read, Hercules, 275, 276, 282 Reading (Berks), theatres, 7 Reading Museum Service, 290 reading (books), 1-2 recipe books, 9 recreations, 10-11 Red Data Book (RDB), 269, 271, 298 red deer see deer Rede, Richard, 45, 56, 57 reeds, 137, 269 Reeve, Henry, 102 Reeve, John (1608-58), 99, 100, 101; in DNB, 101; and Muggleton, 102-3, 104 Reeve, John Henry, 102 Reeve, John, and Muggleton, Lodowick, A Transcendental Spiritual Treatise upon Several Heavenly Doctrines (1651/2), 99, 101, 104n, 105n Reeve, Walter, 102, 103 Reeve, William, 101, 102 Reeve, William (1757-1815), Don Juan (1787), 7 Reeve family, 102, 103, 104 Reevites, 102 Reevonians, 102 refuse disposal, 226 Regan, Charles Tate (1878-1943), 253 Regulus regulus (Goldcrest), 270 Reiss, Richard, 205 religious sites, 302 Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn (1606-69), 3 Remenham (Wokingham), 158 rendzinas, 175, 187, 219; humic, 68, 70, 76 reservoirs, 219, 220, 221 Revelation, Book of, 102 revolutionary politics, 79 Reynolds, Andrew, 91, 92 Reynolds, John, 39, 42, 50; accounts, 47-9 Reynolds, Sir Joshua (1723-92), 3 Rhagonycha translucida (beetle), 269 Rhamnaceae (buckthorns), 22 Rhine, River, 36 ridge and furrow, 147, 307; medieval, 107, 119, 124, 140, 141; post-medieval, 107, 119, 124, 141 Ridgeway, 280 Rinyo-Clacton culture, 226 rituals: and animal bone, 227-8; funerary, 134, 135 river crossings, 93 rivers, 258 Rivet, Albert Lionel Frederick (1915-93), 284n Rivington’s Annual Register, 2 Roach—Rudd hybrids, 253 roads: Roman, 108, 277, 304, 308; turnpikes, 83, 87n, see also coach roads; trackways Robert the Bruce (1274-1329), 250 Robertson, Ian Gow (1910-83), 282 Robins, John (fl. 1650-2), 102 Robinson, Paul, 283; note on Minerva plaque from Charlton Down, 296-7 roebucks, 244 Rollright Stones (Oxfordshire), 208 Roman Conquest, 80 Roman Empire, 87n Rome (Italy), 87n Rosaceae (roses and fruit trees), 17-18, 21— Rose, Charles, 4 Roughground Farm (Gloucestershire), 133 roundhouses, 207-8; Middle Bronze Age, 111, 772, 139; Celtic, 203; post-built, 107, 108 322 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Roundway, 4; farms, 5; Roundway Down, 6 rowan trees, 18 Rowde, 6; agriculture, 4 Rowlands, Henry (1655-1723), 79, 80, 82, 86 Royal Anthropological Institute, 276, 290 Royal Anthropological Society, 273—4 Royal Archaeological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 274 Royal College of Surgeons, 282, 290 Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England (RCHME), 66, 67, 68, 297 Royal Society, 5 Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, 4 Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry (RWY), 275 rubbers, stone, 166, 185 rubbish pits see middens Rubus fruticosus (Bramble), 261 Rudd (fish), 252 Rudd—Bream hybrids, 253 ruderals, 232 Rumex spp. (docks), 231, 268 Rumex hydrolapathum (Water Dock), 264 Rushall, 297; Rushall Down, 297 russets, 37, 55n Russia, 5, 32 Russia, Emperor of, 32 RWY (Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry), 275 rye, 192 Ryngland, Robert, 58 SACs (Special Areas of Conservation), 258 sailing, 249 sainfoin, 298 St Edith, 293-4 St Osmund, 293, 294 St Thomas Becket, 293 Salicaceae (poplars and willows), 20-1, 22— Salisbury, Our Lady of, 293 Salisbury: Bedwin Street, 305; Bishop Wordsworth’s School, 305; Castle Gate, 305; Castle Street, 305; circulating library, 1; clothiers, 40, 56; coaches, 26; Grasmere Hotel, 305; Hussey’s Almshouses, 305; Little Woodbury, 189; Mill Stream Approach, 305; music festivals, 6; publications, 2; shrines, 293; theatres, 7 Salisbury Cathedral: Our Lady of Salisbury’s shrine, 293; St Osmund’s shrine, 293, 294; shrines, 293, 294 Salisbury District Hospital, 305 Salisbury Museum see Salisbury and South Wiltshire Museum Salisbury Plain, 63, 80, 85, 145, 219, 258; barrows, 72, 73; butterflies, 268; geology, 234; pasturages, 297 Salisbury Plain Training Area (SPTA): Bowl’s Barrow, 72, 73, 74; Robin Hood’s Ball, 179 Salisbury and South Wiltshire Museum, 282, 290; pilgrim badges, 293 Salix spp. (willows), 16; diseases, 18-19 Salix alba (White Willow), 16, 17, 19, 24; girth, 22-3 Salix alba var vitellina (Golden Willow), 19 Salix caprea (Goat Willow), 16, 17 Salix cinerea (Grey Willow), 262, 268 Salix fragilis (Crack Willow), 261, 262; disease, 16, 17, 18, 19; girth, 22 Salix matsudana ‘Tortuosa’ (Corkscrew Willow), 18 Salix x sepulcralis (Weeping Willow), 19 Salix viminalis (Osier), 17 Salmo gairdneri (Rainbow Trout), 259 Salmo trutta (Brown Trout), 259 Salmon, Mrs, 6 Salmon, William Wroughton, 2, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10 Salmon family, 10 Sambucus nigra (Elder), 16, 262 SAMs see Scheduled Ancient Monuments (SAMs) Samuel, Raphael, 103 Sanctuary, 206, 207, 278 Sandes, John, 45 sands, 109, 112, 115, 118; glauconotic, 228; in pottery, 157; quartz, 223 sandstones, 166, 188; burnt, 187 Sandwell, Frederick, 2 Sandwich (Kent), ships, 57 sap, 17 saplings, 15, 16 sarsens, 83-5, 200, 201, 203, 204, 205, 206; at Broome, 278; at Langdean Bottom, 207; axes, 275; in barrows, 66; burnt, 166, 202; fragments, 153, 166; and inhumations, 92, 93; on Marlborough Downs, 208; origins, 79, 83-4, 85; querns, 152, 166, 188 Sarum see Salisbury satire, 11-12 Saturn (planet), 198 saucepans, Early/Middle Iron Age, 189, 191 saurians, 275 Savernake, Tottenham Park Estate, 24 Savernake Forest, 252; Arboretum, 24; trees, 15, 17, 23, 24 Savior (ship), 56 sawflies, 271 saws, flint, 226 Scabiosa spp. (scabious), 177 Scaeva pyrastri (hoverfly), 98 Scaife, Robert G., 137, 178, 242; note on pollen from Whitesheet Down, 175-7; note on pre-Roman vegetation in Avon Valley floodplain sediments, 228-34; note on soil pollen at Corton Long Barrow, 71 scallops, 244 Scandinavia, migrant birds, 269 Scandinavians, pirates, 44 Scaphisoma boleti (beetle), 269 Scheduled Ancient Monuments (SAMs), 74; Bradford-on-Avon, 302; hollow ways, 82, 87n; Latton, 107, 108; Mere, 304; Whitesheet Down, 145; Winterbourne Stoke, 308 Scheldt, River, 36 Schlanger, N., 284n Schmid, E., 128 schools, music, 6 sciences, 11; books on, 1-2; experiments, 5 scientific lectures, 5 Sciurus carolinensis (Grey Squirrel), 270 Scolopax rusticola (Woodcock), 269 Scolytus multistratus (Bark Beetle), 18 Scolytus scolytus (Bark Beetle), 18 Scotland: sawflies, 271, see also Lewis Scots, pirates, 44 Scots pine, 16 Scott, Sir George Gilbert (1811-78), 205 Scott, Kathleen (née Bruce), 250-2 Scott, Sir Peter (1909-89), 249-54; ancestry, 250-1; biographical notes, 249; paintings, 251] Scott, Philippa (née Talbot-Ponsonby), 251 Scott, Robert Falcon (1868-1912), 249 Scott, Sir Walter (1771-1832), 101 scrapers, 125; Neolithic, 164; Late Neolithic, 221-2, 225-6; flint, 148, 180, 225-6, 238, 275 sculptors, 250 seals: collecting, 30; lead, 52-3 seaside resorts, 11 Secale cereale (rye), 192 Second World War see World War II sedges, 259, 260, 261, 262, 264, 270, 271; pollen, 135, 231, 233 sedimentary rocks, 26, 27 sediments, floodplain, 228-34 seedlings, 15, 16, 17 seeds, 95, 98, 178-9; collecting, 4; dispersal, 97; impressions, 157 segetals, 231 seismic surveys, 81—2 Selkley Hundred, 91, 93, 302 Sesia bembeciformis (Lunar Hornet Moth), 268 Sessile Oak see Quercus petraea (Sessile Oak) settlements, 92, 93; prehistoric, 106—43; Neolithic, 74, 107; Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age, 305; Early Bronze Age, 140; Middle Bronze Age, 107, 139-40, 301; Late Bronze Age, 140; Iron Age, 108, 140, 237, 275; Early Iron Age, 301; Early/Middle Iron Age, 145, 187-93; Middle Iron Age, 192-3, 301; Late Iron Age, 108; Roman, 108, 303, 308; Romano-British, 237, 297; medieval, 108, 140, 305; post-medieval, 140-1, see also enclosures; towns Seven Years’ War (1756-63), 6 Seville oil, 49 Seymour, Lord, 199 Shaffrey, Ruth, note on stone from Latton Lands, 125 Shaftesbury (Dorset), 30 Shakespeare, William (1564-1616), 2 shale objects, 300 Shankey, Awen, 60 Shannon species diversity index, 171 sharks, 249 Sharpe, Matthew, 53-4 Shaw, George Bernard (1856-1950), 250 shearmen, 53-4, 59 Shearplace Hill (Dorset), 139 sheep, 133; breeds, 5; economic importance, 255; teeth, 131, 167 sheep shearing contests, 5 sheep/goat bones, 185, 238; Neolithic, 167, 169, 170, 171; Middle Bronze Age, 109, 128, 129-30, 131-2 sheet music, 6 Shelburne, Lord, 5 shells, 157; collecting, 4, 27, 31; fragments, 223; marine, 244; snail, 171-4, see also molluscs; snails shepherds, 297 Sheridan, Richard Brinsley (1751-1816), The Rivals (1775), 7 Sherrington, 63; long barrows, 72, 73, 74 ships, in cloth trade, 44, 45, 52,54, 55n shooting, 10 Shorncote (Gloucestershire), 126, 139-40; Quarry, 134 shrews, 238, 270 Shrewton, Robin Hood’s Ball, 179 shrines, 293; Roman, 301 Shropshire see Ludlow shrouds, woollen, 304 shrubs, 24, 171, 179, 259 sickles, 165 Siddington (Gloucestershire), 108 sieving, micromesh, 71 Silbury Hill, 15, 83, 87, excavations, 79-82 Silchester (Hants), 277 silicone oil, 135 silts, 108, 109, 111, 112, 115, 116; alluvial, 228; sandy, 257 Silver, I. A., 128 silver birches, 16 Simpson, Charles, 4 Sinapis spp. (charlocks), 231 singing, 6 Sinxten mart, 44, 45, 46, 52, 53; 1533, 50; 1536, 36, 43, 54 Sison amomum (Stone Parsley), 263 Sites and Monuments Record (SMR), 93, 211, 237 Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs), 258, 259, 269 198, 276; INDEX Sitta europaea (Nuthatch), 270 Skinner, John, 10 skulls, lead-filled, 200 slag, 188, 192, 303 slates, metamorphic, 215, 216 Slimbridge (Gloucester), 249 slip, red, 189 sloes, 17, 18, 178, 179 Sloper, George, 3, 6, 9 slugs, 183, 191 Smallis, William, 57 Smeth, Perys, 53 Smethe, John, 39, 40, 45, 48, 53; accounts, 56, 57, 59, 60; cloth mark, 61 Smith, Revd. Alfred Charles (c.1823-99), fieldwork, 198, 278 Smith, Godfrey, 298 Smith, Harold Clifford (1876-1960), 282 Smith, I. F, 164 Smith, Joshua, 3, 8 Smith, Michael, 298 Smith, Miss, 276 Smith, Reginald Allender (d. 1940), 275, 276, 277, 282 Smith, Thomas, 2 Smith, William (1769-1839), 4; principle of stratigraphy, 26, 33n SMR (Sites and Monuments Record), 93, 21237 snails, 187; extinct, 243; land, 63, 66, 69-71, 166, 171-4, 182, 191-2 snake worship theory, 206 snakes, 264 social class: and archaeological societies, 281; middle classes, 6, 10; upper classes, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11; working classes, 10-11 social clubs, 11 social events, 8 social life, 18th century, 1-14 social trends, 18th century, 1 sodium, 268 sodium hydroxide, 135 soil horizons, 68-9, 71, 72 soil pollen, 71 soils, 3, 151, 157, 234, 258; buried, 66, 68-9, 71, 76, 187, 191-2, 242-3; calcareous, 69, 71, 171, 175, 187, 219, 228; chalk, 71, 95, 150, 177, 179; deflation, 187; disturbed, 95; humic, 175, 187; medieval deposits, 305; pH, 259; pollen preservation, 175; prehistoric, 177, see also rendzinas Solanum dulcamara (Bitter-sweet), 178 Solanum cf. nigrum (Black Nightshade), 178 soldier flies, 265-6, 271 solution hollows, 152—3, 154, 185 solution pipes, 151, 153 Somerford Keynes (Gloucestershire), 301 Somerset, 5; clothiers, 35, 37, 38, 40, 43, 46, 54; manors, 35; water pipelines, 145, see also Beckington; Ilchester; Mendip Hills; Penselwood Somerset Archaeological History Museum, 290 Sonchus spp. (sow-thistles), 98 Sonchus arvensis (Perennial Sow-thistle), 97 Sonchus asper (Prickly Sow-thistle), 97 songs, 6, 10 Sorbus spp. (rowans/whitebeams), 18 Sotheby’s, 282, 284n South African Wars (1899-1902), 275 South Gloucestershire see Chipping Sodbury; Kingswood South Lodge (Dorset), 123, 140 South Marston, 305 Southampton (Hants), 31 Southey, Robert (1774-1843), 4, 10 Southwark (Greater London), 99 Southwick, Cutteridge Farm, 306 Sowerby, George Brettingham the elder (1788-1854), The Genera of Recent and Fossil Shells (1820-342), 27 Sowerby, James (1757-1822), 32; English and Natural Botany (1790-1814), 4; fossils, 4; Mineral Conchology (1812-46), 25—6, 33n Sowerby, James de Carle (1787-1871), 27 Sowerby family: correspondence, 27; fossils, 26, 27, 33n Sowle, John, 45 Spalding, Dr, 2 Spalding, Mrs, 7 Spanish chestnuts, 17 Sparganium spp. (bur-reeds), 231 Sparganium erectum (Branched Bur-reed), 263 sparrowhawks, 262 spas, 11 spearheads, 140, 200; Saxon, 275 spears, 93 Special Areas of Conservation (SACs), 258 Spectator, The, 2 Speechly, William (fl. 1776-1821), 3 spelt, 192 Spencer, Brian, 293 Spergula arvensis (Corn Spurrey), 137 Sphaerophoria scripta (hoverfly), 98 Sphagnum spp. (mosses), 232-3 Sphagnum palustre (moss), 264 Sphagnum plumulosum (moss), 233 spiders, 266, 271 spinners, 54 spinning, 42, 5C, 51; wool, 49 Spong Hill (Norfolk), 166 sponges, 25, 33n spores, 71, 175, 229; bracken, 135; ferns, 177 sporting season, 10 sports, 10, 11 springs, 255, 257 SPTA see Salisbury Plain Training Area (SPTA) squirrels, 270 SSSIs (Sites of Special Scientific Interest), 258, 259, 269 stables, 303 Stace; C;,-1135 staddle-stones, 211 Stafford, Elizabeth, note on molluscs from Latton Lands, 126-8 Staines (Surrey), 159, 166 standing stones, 276 Stansbie, Dan, 304; report on excavations at Latton Lands, 106-43 Stanton Drew (Bath and North East Somerset), 203, 206, 207 Stanton Fitzwarren, 276 stars, 206 staters, 280 stationers, 6 Staverton: Marina Drive, 305; New Terrace, 305 steam, 5 Steeple Ashton, clothiers, 39, 42, 47-9 Steeple Langford: Corpus Christi Barn, 306; Duck Street, 306 Stenus niveus (rove beetle), 269 Stepleton (Dorset), 170 Stern, Rod, 271 Stert;!> Stevens, Frank (c.1868—1949), 282 Stills, Robert, 60 stinging nettles, 260 stoats, 271 Stockton, 72, 73, 74; Stockton Earthworks, 308; Stockton Wood, 308 Stoke Newington (Greater London), 35 Stokes, Robert, 53, 56 Stone, J. E S. (Marcus’) (d.1957), 92, 146 stone blocks, 188, 305 stone circles, 278—9; Broome, 197, 199, 210, 278; concentric, 206-7; destruction, 199, 205, 206, 208; North Wiltshire, 197-210; purpose, 205-6; Swindon area, 197, 274; Winterbourne Bassett, 197-9, 210 323 stone curlews, 98 stone objects, 275 stonecutters, 79, 82 Stonehenge, 82, 87, 198, 241; Aubrey Holes, 200; Avenue, 280; bluestones, 207; car park, 242; collections, .273; Cursus, 243; excavations, 280; Friar’s Heel, 206; geology, 308; inhumations, 92, 93; Morganwg on, 86; pits, 71; sarsens, 83, 84, 85; stones, 80, 200, see also Amesbury Stonehenge Environs Project, 224, 242, 243 Stonehenge Improvement, 307-8 Stonehenge Visitors Centre, 300-1 stonemasons, 10, 82, 83 stones, 80, 277; burnt, 108, 115, 125, 140; capping, 66; ground, 166; polished, 115, 125, see also sarsens stonework: Neolithic, 166; Roman, 302, see also flintwork; hammerstones; querns storage pits, 139 Storey, M. W., 271 Stott, Jacob, 50 Stour Valley, 176 Stourhead collections, 280-1 Stourhead—Salisbury coach road, 146, 148— 9 Stourton with Gasper: Stourhead, 280-1, see also Whitesheet Down Stradivari, Antonio (c.1644—1737), 6 Strangalia aurentula (longhorn beetle), 269 Strangalia quadrifasciata (longhorn beetle), 269 stratigraphy: at West Barn, Bradford-on- Avon, 211-17; Avon Valley, 228-9; Folly Bottom, 234; pollen studies, 135; Smith’s principle of, 26, 33n Stratiomys potamida (Banded General Soldier Fly), 271 Stratton St Margaret, 205, 275; church, 200 streams, 257, 258, 264 Strix aluco (Tawny Owl), 270 Stroudwater (Gloucestershire), 55n Stuart, James, 4th Duke of Lennox and Ist Duke of Richmond (1612-55), 30 Stukeley, William (1687-1765), 79, 83, 85, 87, 202, 204; Abury (1743), 197-8, 200; fieldwork, 278; on sarsens, 84; snake worship theory, 206; Stonehenge (1740), 200 Stumpe, William, 40, 43, 48; accounts, 45; cloth marks, 60 Stylle, Robert, 58, 60 subscription lists, 2 Succisa pratensis (Devil’s-bit Scabious), 265, 268 Sudan, 275 Suffolk: manors, 35, see also Aldeburgh; Bury St Edmunds; Hengrave; Ipswich; Newmarket; Orwell; Sutton Hoo; Walberswick Sully, Maximilien de Bethune, baron de Rosny, duc de (1560-1641), Memoires des sages et royales (1638; 1662), 2 Summers, Audrey, 271 Summers, Harry, 55n Sun, worship, 205, 206 Sunbury (Surrey), 123 surgeons, 6 Surrey see Staines; Sunbury surveys: barrows, 64-6; Whitesheet Hill, 146-8 Sus scrofa (Wild Boar), 170 Sussex, 232, 274, 284n; causewayed enclosures, 186 Sutherland, Carol Humphrey Vivian (1908-86), 282 Sutton, Eleanor, 9 Sutton, James, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10 Sutton, Mrs, 3, 8,9 Sutton Hoo (Suffolk), executions, 92 Sutton Veny, 72, 73, 74 324 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Swallowcliffe, Swallowcliffe Down, 189 Swayne, Bennet, 11 sweet chestnut trees, 15, 17 Swift, Jonathan (1667-1745), 2 Swindon, 201, 208, 276, 279, 282, 302; auctions, 275; Black Horse, 278; Broome, 197, 199, 200, 204, 207, 210, 278; Broome Farm, 278; Broome Lane, 199; Broome Manor, 202; Christ Church (New Church), 204, 205, 278; Coate Reservoir, 200-1, 206, 207, 210, 278; Coate Road, 199; Devizes Road, 278; finds, 275; fossils, 284n; Great Western Railway Works, 306; Holy Rood Church (Old Church), 204, 205, 207, 210; Hreod Parkway School, 306; Longstone Field, 278; Longstone Road, 199; Longstones Meadow, 204, 207; Marlborough Road, 204-5; Oakus Quarry, 276; Old Town, 204, 274; stone circles, 197; University of Bath, 89, 90; Weslecot, 275; Wood Street, 274, see also Lechlade Swindon Borough Council, 302, 306 Swindon Museum and Art Gallery, 108, 279, 290, 306 Swindon—Hodson Road, 278 Switzerland, lacustrine dwellings, 203 swords, 275 sycamores, 15 symbiosis, 17 Sympetrum striolatum (Common Darter), 266 Symphytum officinale (Common Comfrey), 260, 262, 268 Tachybaptus ruficollis (Little Grebe), 269 tailors, 102 Talpa europea (Mole), 270 ‘Tamariaceae (tamarisk), 21 tanks, 252 Tanner, Roger, 38, 39, 42, 47, 55n; accounts, 49 Tany, Thomas (fl. 1649-55), 102 Taraxacum spp. (herbs), 175 Tawstock[?] (Devon), ships, 58 Taxaceae (yews), 20 Taxodiaceae (conifers), 20 Taxodium distichum (Swamp Cypress), 24 Taxus baccata (Yew), 15 Tayler, Nicholas, 55n; accounts, 57, 60 Taylor, Adam, Treatise on the Ananas or Pineapple (1769), 2, 3 Taylor, Kay S., paper Muggleton, 99-105 Taylor, Maisie, note on wooden bowl from Latton Lands, 126 Taylor, Mr, 80 Taylour, Thomas, 46, 49 teeth: analyses, 167; animals, 128, 238; beavers, 222, 226; cattle, 130, 167; dogs, 132; goats, 167; human, 133, 134; pigs, 132, 169, 226-7; sheep, 131, 167 Téeleosaurus spp. (aquatic reptiles), 275 telescopes: day and night, 5; reflecting, 5 Temple of Arts (1821), 6 Temple Guiting (Gloucestershire), 123 Tennyson, Alfred, Ist Baron Tennyson (1809-92), 23 Tennyson Beech, 23 Test, River (Hants), 271 textiles: canvas, 44, 47, 49, 55n; cottons, 37, 44, 49, 55n; fustian, 47, 49, 50; holland- cloths, 47, 49, 55n; kersies, 37, 43, 51,52, 55n; production, 139, 140, see also cloth; wool Thalictrum spp. (meadow-rues), 231 Thames, River, 140 ‘Thames and Severn Canal, 108 Thames Valley, 123, 126, 134, 139-40 theatres, 11, 208; establishment, 6-7 Thebes (Egypt), 275 on Lodowick theological works, 2, 3 Tholemys passmorei (fossil turtle), 284n Thom, Alexander (1894-1985), 198, 201 Thom, Archie S., 198 Thomas Sonday (ship), 57 threshing machines, 34n, 279 Thurnam, John (1810-73), 278 Tibet, 276 tigers, 10 tiles, 211; medieval, 304; post-medieval, 303 Tilgate Forest (West Sussex), 31 Tilia spp. (limes), 71, 176, 231, 232; decline, 137 Tilia cordata (Small-leaved Lime), 17 Tilia x europea (Common (Hybrid) Lime), 17, 24 Tilia platyphyllos (Broad-leaved Lime), 17 Tilia (software), 135 Tilia-Graph (software), 135 Tiliaceae (limes), 21 Till, River, 95 tillage, 187 timber: in buildings, 304, 307; dendro- chronology, 304 Timby, Jane, note on pottery from Latton Lands, 119-25 tin, 44, 62; exports, 45-6 tinings, 297 Tisbury, 25, 27, 29; fossils, 26; Wardour, 294, 295; Wardour Castle, 294 tithe barns, 211, 216 tithes, 29 tokens, clothiers, 51 Tonnochy, Alec Bain (d. 1963), 282 tools: flint, 224, 226; stone, 275, see also axes; implements Torrens, Hugh, 27 Touker, Nicholas, 55n town gardens, 3 towns, medieval, 306 Toynbee, Jocelyn Mary Catherine (1897- 1985), 297 trackways, 91-2, 93, 146, 237, 245; Roman, 301; medieval, 119, 141, see also hollow ways; roads traders, 36 Tradescant, John (1608-62), 34n tradesmen, 10 Transco Gas, 300 transport, 11, see also canals; railways; roads Treasure Act (1996), 284n Treasure Trove, 283, 284n Treatise on Peace and Soul and Content of Mind (1765), 2 tree hollows, 145, 154, 185 Tree Register of the British Isles (TROBI), 23 tree-throw holes, 116 trees, 179, 258, 259, 261, 262; common, 15— 17; diseases, 18-19, 24; exotics, 15, 24, 257; Marlborough College, 15-24; over barrows, 74; planting schemes, 15; pollen, 135-7; Savernake Forest, 15; special, 22-4; species list, 19-22 Treherne, John Edwin (1929-89), 284n Trichia spp. (molluscs), 183 Trichia hispida (mollusc), 33n, 127, 182, 183, 191, 238-9 Trifolium repens (White Clover), 266 Triglochin palustre (Marsh Arrow-grass), 264 Trinite Kydman (ship), 59 Trinite (ship), 45, 52, 57, 58, 60 Tripleurospermum — inodorum Mayweed), 98 Triticum dicoccum (emmer wheat), 157; seeds, 178, 179 Triticum spelta (spelt), 192 TROBI (Tree Register of the British Isles), 23 (Scentless trout, 253 trout ponds, 15 Trowbridge, 275, 298; Broad Street, 306; Church Street, 306; clothiers, 39, 40, 56, 61, 62; Conigre, 306; Conigre House, 306; Manvers Street, 306; Ushers Brewery, 306 “True Account of the Trial and Sufferings of Lodowick Muggleton, A’ (1808), 99 Truncatellina cylindrica (Cylindrical Whorl Snail), 243 trunk ulcers, 18 Trusler, John, 11 trusses, 44, 52 tubers, 178, 179 tumuli see barrows Tunnicliffe, W., Jopographical Survey of the Counties of Hants, Wilts, Dorset, Somerset, Devon and Cornwall (1791), 2 Turdus philomelos (Song Thrush), 270 Turkish carpets, 49 turnip fly, 4 turnips, slicing, 4-5 turnpikes, 83, 87n turtles, fossilized, 284n tusks, 197 Twittey, Thomas, 4 Tylee, Charles, 2, 4,5, 10 Tylee, John, 4 Tylee family, 8,9 Typha spp. (cat-tails), 231 Typha latifolia (Greater Reedmace), 261, 262 Tito alba (Barn Owl), 270 Uffington (Oxfordshire): Uffington Camp, 280; White Horse, 280 ulcers, chestnut trees, 18 Ullryght, 54 Ulm (Germany), 49 Ulmaceae (elms), 21 Ulmus spp. (elms): diseases, 18, 19; pollen, 231, 232 Ulmus glabra (Wych Elm), 18 Ulmus glabra ‘Camperdown’ (Camperdown Elm), 18 Ulmus glabra ‘Lutescens’ (Wych Elm), 18 Ulmus minor ssp carpinifolia_(Hornbeam- leaved Elm), 18 Ulmus procera (English Elm), 18 Umbelliferae, 271 Underditch Hundred, 92 Unitarianism, 79 United States (US) see Philadelphia universalism, 102 University of Bath, 89, 90 University of Oxford see Oxford University University of Reading, 220 University of Southampton, Department of Geography, 71 University of Waikato (New Zealand), 138 University of Wales, Centre for Advanced Welsh and Celtic Studies, 87n Upavon, 252, 253, 258; Casterley Camp, 297 Upper Chalk, 160, 219 upper classes, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11 Upper Greensand, 166, 188, 228; fossils, 33n Upper Lypiatt (Gloucestershire), 298 Upper Thames Valley, 126, 134, 139 Upton Lovell, 63 urban culture, development, 1 Urchfont, Manor Farm, 306-7 urine, 12 urns, 200; Neolithic, 64; Middle Bronze Age, 121-2, 123, 125; Saxon, 200, 275; Belgic, 200; bucket, 122, 123, 124, 140; collared, 300; Deverel-Rimbury type, 107, 121, 140; globular, 122, 123, 124 Urtica dioica (Stinging Nettle), 260, 262 Urtica urens (Small Nettle), 264 Usher, John, 39, 40, 47, 48; accounts, 56, 57; cloth mark, 61 Ushers Brewery (Trowbridge), 306 INDEX Valeriana dioica (Marsh Valerian), 261, 262 Valeriana officinalis (Common Valerian), 231, 261, 262 Valloma spp. (snails), 71, 127 Vallonia costata (snail), 171, 174, 238 Vallonia excentrica (snail), 191, 238 van Acland, Henry, 50 van Clett, John, 50 van Inmersell, William, 54 van Rotyngham, Garard, 50 van Wellick, Ayrt, 50 Vanellus vanellus (Lapwing), 269 Vanessa atalanta (Red Admiral), 268 vases, Etruscan, 3 Vaugham, John, 38-40, 42, 47, 50 vegetation history, Avon Valley, 228-34 Venables, Bernard (1907-2001), 249-54; biographical notes, 249; Mr Crabtree Goes Fishing (1949), 249, 250; paintings, 252, 253, 254 venison, 53 Venison Feast (Devizes), 8 Ventriculites benettiae (sponge), 33n Venus (planet), 198 Vera Jeans Nature Reserve (Pewsey), 255- 72; Big Forty, 257, 258, 263, 270; fauna, 266-71; habitats, 257-66; historical background, 255-7; Ida Gandy Pond, 257, 258, 266; surveys, 271-2 Verlucio, 303 Veronica anagallis-aquatica (Blue Water- speedwell), 263 Veronica anagallis-aquatica x catenata (Pink Water-speedwell Hybrid), 263 Veronica beccabunga (Brooklime), 263 Veronica persica (Field Speedwell), 98 Vertigo moulinsiana (Desmoulin’s Whorl- snail), 262, 271 Vertigo pusilla (snail), 70 Vertigo pygmaea (snail), 171, 183 Vespa crabro (Hornet), 271 vessels: closed, 157-8, 159; South-Western Style, 158 vetches, 178, 179 Viburnum opulus (Guelder-rose), 262 Vicia spp. (vetches), 178 Vicia sativa ssp nigra (Common Vetch), 178 Victoria Mistory of Wiltshire, archaeological gazetteer, 279 villas, Roman, 302 Viola arvensis (Field Pansy), 97 violin makers, 6 violins, 6 viols, 6 Virgil (Publius Vergilius Maro ) (70-19 BC), 3 virginals, 6 Vitrea contracta (mollusc), 183 Vitrea crystallina (mollusc), 183 volcanic rocks, 185 voles, 270; bones, 167, 180, 238 Voltaire, Francois Marie Arouet de (1694— 1778), 2 voluntary associations, 1 Von Den Driesch, A., 128 Vulpes vulpes (Fox), 271 Wace, Alan John Baynard (1879-1957), 282 Wainwright, Geoffrey John (1937— ), 224, 226, 245 Walberswick[?] (Suffolk), ships, 60 Walden, H. G., 238 Wales, 276, see also Aberystwyth; Anglesey; Caerleon; Conwy; Graig Lwyd Walesse, John, 40 Walgrave, Richard, 59 Walker, William, 30 Walles, John, 49 Wallingford (Oxfordshire), 126 Wallis, Frederick S., 282 walls, 212-15, 216, 305; medieval, 304; limestone, 306 Waltire, Mr., 5 Wanborough, 300; Callas House, 276, 277, 278, 282; Durocornovium, 277, 284n; Nythe Farm, 277 WANHM see Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine (WANHM) WANHS see Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society (WANHS) Wansdyke, 200 Wardour, Vale of, 145 warehouses, 35 Warminster, 33n, 37, 189; Battlesbury, 63; clothiers, 39, 40, 47, 53, 56, 59, 60, 61; fossils, 26; King Barrow, 72, 73, 74; long barrows, 72, 73; Oxendean Bottom, 72 Warminster School, 307 Warner, Richard (1763-1857), History of Bath (1801), 10 Warton (Lancashire), 35 wasps, 266; nests, 271 Wasshington, Thomas, 36, 42, 43, 52; accounts, 50, 54 waste, industrial, 226 watches, 3 watching briefs, 107, 108, 145 water meadows, 15, 257, 258; 18th century, 255; 19th century, 307; ditches, 220; floated, 255; nutrients, 259 water mills, 255 water pipelines, 145, 219 water worship theory, 206 watercolours, 85, 252 watercress beds, 257 waterholes: Middle Bronze Age, 107-41; dating, 138-9; location, 134-5; pollen samples, 135, 137, 138 waterlilies, 138 Watkin, B., 30 Watkins, Alfred (1855-1935), Early British Trackways, Moats, Camps, and Sites (1922), 199-200 Watkins Farm (Oxfordshire), 134 Watkins Gray International LLP 308 Watkins, Mr, 80 Wattes, Thomas, 45 Wayland’s Smithy (Oxfordshire), 69, 71, 200, 280 Waylen, William, 9 weavers, 54 weavers marks, 51 weaving, 42, 51, see also spinning weeds: arable, 95-8, 232; seed production, 95; seeds, 178-9, 192 weevils, 269 weights: clay, 126; stone, 125 Wellesley, William Pole Tylney Long, 4th Earl of Mornington and 2nd Baron Maryborough (1788-1857), 27-8, 29, 34n Wellington (New Zealand), 27 Wells, R., 275 wells: Roman, 276, 301; undated, 303 Welsh (language), 82, 203 Welsh bards, 79 Welsh societies, 82 Weobley (Herefordshire), 38n Wessex: barrows, 69, 71, 208; causewayed enclosures, 154; colluvial deposits, 234; downlands, 241; earthworks, 185; hut- circles, 208; inhumations, 92, 93; linears, 235; pottery, 123; settlements, 140; stone circles, 207 Wessex Archaeology, 90; archaeological mitigation, 300-1; evaluations, 300, 303, 304, 305, 307-8; excavations, 219; recording system, 155; watching briefs, 219, 305 Wessex Linear Ditch Project, 220, 237, 245 Wessex Water, 145 Wessex Water Construction Ltd., 219 West Berkshire see Great Shefford; 325 Hungerford; Lambourn; Newbury West Country, wrestling, 10 West Indies, 29 West, John, 40, 48; accounts, 56, 57; cloth mark, 61 West Knoyle, pilgrim badges, 293-4 West Lavington, 297; Strawberry Hill, 242 West Overton: “The Lacket’, 25], 252, 253; Lockeridge, 252; Piggledene, 83; West Woods, 252 West Sussex see Bury Hill; Chichester; Cock Hill; Tilgate Forest West Tisbury, Pythouse, 25, 27, 34n Westbury, 37; Beggars Knoll, 307; By-pass (proposed), 307; clothiers, 38—40, 42, 43, 48, 50-1, 56, 58, 59, 61; cricket matches, 10; Edward Street, 307; Kendrick’s Garage, 307; Madbrook Farm, 307; Maristow Street, 307; pilgrim badges, 293, 294; Storridge Farm, 307; West End, 307 Westwood, Iford, clothiers, 40, 56 wet flushes, 255, 258, 262, 265 wetlands, 15, 16, 19, 24 Weymouth (Dorset), 32; fossils, 26; ships, 57, 58 whaling, 249 wheat, grains, 192 wheel-ruts, 223 Wheeler, Thomas, 6 wheelwrights, 4 Whichcord and Gamble (builders), 7 Whipsnade (Bedfordshire), 277 Whitacker, Geoffrey (of Tinhead), 52 Whitacker, Geoffrey (of Westbury), 39, 45, 48, 52,54 White, Gilbert (1720-93), The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne (1789), 4 white horses, 16, 280 White, Robert, 57 whitebeams, 18, 175 Whitehawk Camp (East Sussex), 186 Whitehead, P F, 298 whites (cloth) see broadcloths Whitesheet Down: archaeological develop- ment, 186-7; archaeology, 146-87; geology, 145; investigations, 144-96; Mere Down, 179-80; Mere Down Linear, 145, 182-4; Whitesheet Hill, 145-79, 184-7, 192; Whitesheet Hill Linear, 145, 180-2; Whitesheet Quarry, 187-93 Whittle, Alasdair W. R., 157, 164 WHM see Wiltshire Heritage Museum (WHM) Wight, Isle of, 232 wild plants see weeds Wild TC2000 Total equipment), 146 Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust, 249 wildfowling, 249 Williams, D., 191 Williams, David, 155 Williams, Edward see Morganwg, Iolo (1746-1826) Williamson, Barry, note on the Arundell’s London estate, 294-5 Williamson, Elizabeth, 296-7 Williamson, George, 100 willow scab, 17, 18, 19 willows, 15, 16, 17, 261, 262, 266; diseases, 18-19, 24; hybrids, 24 wills, 10 Willson, M. W., 279 Wilsford cum Lake, Wilsford Shaft, 243 Wilton, Edward, 296-7 Wilton, 275; clothiers, 39 Wilton Abbey, St Edith’s shrine, 293, 294 Wiltshire: antiquarians, 99; clothiers, 35— 62; cricket matches, 10; flintwork, 273 Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Station (survey 326 THE WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINE Magazine (WANHM), 99, 205, 297; Editors, 206; Passmore in, 200, 274, 275, 276, 279 Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society (WANHS), 284n, 297; Annual General Meetings, 275, 280; Committee, 279; excursions, 200; field trips, 276, 280; lectures, 280; Library, 280; membership, early, 99, 103; and Passmore, 273, 274, 276, 279-81; snobbery, 281, see also Wiltshire Heritage Museum (WHM) Wiltshire Band, 8 Wiltshire Biodiversity Action Plan (2002), 266 Wiltshire County Archaeological Officer, 89 Wiltshire County Council, Archaeological Service, 255 Wiltshire Flora Mapping Project, 261, 263, 264 Wiltshire Gazette, 200 Wiltshire Herald, 203 Wiltshire Heritage Museum (WHM), 279, 290-1, 293, 307; collections, 297; don- ations, 297; Stourhead Collection, 280-1 Wiltshire Notes and Queries (1893-1916), 99 Wiltshire Regiment, 4th Battalion, 276 Wiltshire Society see Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society (WANHS) Wiltshire Society for the Encouragement of Agriculture: Annual General Meetings, 5; Committee of Manufactures and Commerce, 5; establishment, 5 Wiltshire Studies see Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine (WANHM) “Wiltshire Tracts’, 99 Wiltshire Trust for Nature Conservation (WTNC), 257 Wiltshire Wildlife Trust, 271; Vera Jeans Nature Reserve, 255-72 Windermere Interstadial, 231 Windmill Hill, 145; animal bone, 169, 170; ditches, 184; flintwork, 164, 166, 282; plant remains, 179; pottery, 148, 158, 159, 242 windows, 304 Windsor and Maidenhead - see Maidenhead wine, measures, 62 Winslow, Roger, 40, 42, 43, 49; cloth mark, 61 Winterbourne Bassett: Hoare’s Field, 199; stone circles, 197—9, 200, 206, 210 Winterbourne Monkton: The Cottages, 307; Hackpen Hill, 91 Winterbourne Stoke, 97, 307-8; barrows, 276 Winterbourne—Porton Road, 92 Winterslow, Middle Winterslow, 308 wireless towers, 280 witches, 200 Witkin, Annsofie, note on human bone from Latton Lands, 133-5 Witpit Copse (Gloucestershire), 108 woad, 47, 49, 62 Wolfe, Nicholas, 50 Wolsey (ship), 45 women: musical accomplishment, 6; social events, 8 wood: Celtic words for, 203; charred, 175; radiocarbon dating, 138 wood fragments, 135 wooden objects: prehistoric, 126; bowls, 107, 109, 126, 138, 140 Woodhenge, 232, 233, 242, 243, 244, 245 woodland, 132, 133, 137, 174, 176-7, 192, 258; Mesolithic, 242; Neolithic, 186; ancient, "635 -71, 1713 beetles; 298; clearances, 232, 234, 243; deciduous, 233; management, 179; mixed, 15; pigs and, 228; regeneration, 234 Woodstock (Oxfordshire), 278 Woodward, Horace Bolingbroke (1848- 1914), 30 Woodward, John, 55n Woodward, Samuel Pickworth (1821-65), 27, 30, 32 Woodward family, 30 woodwork, 14th century, 276 wool: improvements, 5; spinning, 49 woollen cloths, 38n woollen shrouds, 304 Wootton Bassett, 91 Wootton Rivers, 258; Clench, 258 Bray; Worcestershire see Broadway working classes, leisure activities, 10-11 World War I, 257, 295; military training, 306; Passmore in, 276 World War Il, 257; Home Guard, 277; hospitals, 308; propaganda, 252 World Wide Fund for Nature, 249 Worms Farm (Gloucestershire), 108 Wotton-under-Edge (Gloucestershire), 55n Wren, Sir Christopher (1632-1723), 84 wrestling, 10 Wroughton: Ladder Hill, 204, 205, 206; Swindon Data Centre, 308 Wroughton—Swindon Road, 278 WTNC (Wiltshire Trust for Conservation), 257 Wulworth, Thomas, 55n Wyatt, James, 8 Wyatt family, 9 Wyles, Sarah F, note on land molluscs from Earl’s Farm Down, 238-41 Wylkyns, William, 42, 53 Wylye, 308 Wylye, River, 63 Wylye Valley, 65; barrows, 72-4; Neolithic remains, 63—77 Nature Xysticus ulmi (spider), 266 Yarnton (Oxfordshire), 123, 126 Yerbyrre, Humphrey, 40 yew trees, 15, 16, 24, 252 York, 11 Young, Arthur (1741-1820), 5 Young, Edward Hilton, lst Baron Kennet (1879-1960), 252 Ysse, William, 53 Ystradowen (Vale of Glamorgan), 86 Yucca filamentosa (Adam’s Needle/Silk Grass), 31-2, 34n Zambezi, River, 249 Zonatids, 171 Zsigmondy system, 133 Zygaena lonicerae (Narrow-bordered Five- spot Burnet-moth), 268 Zygaena trifolu decreta (Five-spot Burnet- moth), 268 Publications of the Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society Recent and some earlier issues of the Magazine may be purchased from the Society. Volumes 93-95 are available at £15 per copy. For details of earlier volumes apply to the Curator. Other WA&NHS publications may also be purchased, as follows: Annable, EK., and Simpson, D.D.A., Guide catalogue of the Neolithic and Bronze Age collections in Devizes Museum, [viii] 133pp, plates, casebound, 1964 (reprinted), £15.00 (4+ £3 p&p) Dillon, Patrick (ed.), Mammals in Wiltshire, xii, 1S56pp, paperback, 1997, £7.50 (+ £1.50 p&p) Ellis, Peter (ed.), Ludgershall Castle: excavations by Peter Addyman 1964-1972, ix, 268pp, ill, A4 paperback, 2000 (WANHS Monograph Series 2), £19.95 (+ £4.50 p&p) Ellis, Peter (ed.), Roman Wiltshire and after: papers in honour of Ken Annable, xii, 240pp, ill, casebound, 2001, £19.95 (+ £4.50 p&p) Haycock, Lorna, Devizes in the Civil War, 24pp, ill, paperback, 2000, £2.95 (+ £1.00 p&p) Thomas, James H. (ed.), Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society: the first 150 years, xxxiv, 246pp, ill, casebound, 2003, £12.00 (+ £3.95 p&p) During 2004 the Society plans to publish a volume on art in Wiltshire; and in its Monograph Series a report on barrow cemetery excavations at Snail Down, 1953-7. WILTSHIRE HERITAGE MUSEUM GARE a. LIBRARY Published by The Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society ISSN 0262 6608