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WOOD: A MANUAL OF THE NATURAL HISTORY AND
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF THE
TIMBERS OF COMMERCE

SOME. OPINIONS OF THE PRESS
ON THE FIRST EDITION

“An immense amount of information about the timbers of commerce from
many points of view. . .. The author has done his work much in his own way,
and, on the whole, has done it well. ... The material is well arranged and
rendered accessible by what appears to be a very complete index.” —Nature.

“This handy, useful volume.”—Engineering News.

“

...A book of solid information on a subject that few people know
anything about. It is a book much wanted by practical people, and will be
a useful volume for the landowner and the timber merchant, and, in short, for
anyone who works in wood, from the boy of the village carving club to the
architect and surveyor... .”—Pall Mall Gazette.

“We have no hesitation in recommending the present volume as a useful
elementary work of reference to all who are interested in timber and its many
and varied uses. It is just the book that has long been wanted by land agents,
foresters, and woodmen, and it should find a place in all technical school and
village libraries.”—Field.

*.. . The book may unhesitatingly be commended for the clear arrangement
and presentation of the contents. ... Professor Boulger’s book may safely be
commended to the notice of those who are seeking for an introduction to the
subject, especially those who have already some practical knowledge which they
wish to supplement.”—Swurveyor.

“e

.. . The arrangement of the matter being excellent, and the printing very
clear, while the standardisation of the commercial names of the woods, by
adopting one synonym, and referring to it all the other synonyms which are
given in the alphabetical list, is very useful. The accenting of the Latin
scientific names of the trees should ensure their correct pronunciation. ...
Mr. Boulger has produced a very useful work; and although it cannot be
considered as a completely authoritative account of wood, it will be easy to
correct its defects in a new edition. ... There are disputes in the trade as
regards the identity of some kinds of timber, that find their way into the Law
Courts, and such disputes would be less frequent were Mr. Boulger’s book to be
consulted by timber merchants. . . .”—Gardeners’ Chronicle.

‘a ae .
“So far as arrangement and lucidity are concerned, seems to us a capital

text-book.”— Times.

> WwooD

PANU AL OF THH NATURAL HISTORY AND
DUS ERTAL APPLICATIONS OF THE
TIMBERS OF COMMERCE

BY

Capos DOULGER, F.L.S:, F.G.8., F.R.H.S., A.S-1.

HONORARY PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE; LECTURER
ON BOTANY, GEOLOGY AND FORESTRY IN THE CITY OF LONDON COLLEGE ; HONORARY
MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ENGLISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY ; AUTHOR OF
““FPAMILIAR TREES,” ‘‘ THE USES OF PLANTS,” ETC.

WITH 48 PLATES AND 43 OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS

SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED

LONDON
EDWARD ARNOLD
1908

[All rights reserved]

Dedicated

BY KIND PERMISSION
TO

THE MASTER AND WARDENS OF
THE WORSHIPFUL COMPANY OF CARPENTERS
AND THE MASTER AND WARDENS OF

THE WORSHIPFUL COMPANY OF TURNERS

PREFACE

In an attempt, such as this, to cover a wide ground, within a book
of small compass, perfect accuracy cannot be hoped for, complete-
ness is impossible, and originality is neither expected nor desirable.
Rather, however, than burden the body of the book with constant
acknowledgments of indebtedness, I have thought it better to add
a bibliographical appendix, indicating those works from which I
have borrowed most freely. For Figs. 1, 7, 16, 17, 20, and 29 I am
indebted to the courtesy of Mr. Francis Darwin and the Syndicate
of the Cambridge University Press ; for Figs. 10, 18, 21-28, and
27 to that of the late Professor Marshall Ward and Messrs. Kegan
Paul, Trench, Triibner and Co. ; for Figs. 12, 13, 15, 26, and 30 to
that of Professor Somerville and Mr. David Douglas; and for
Figs. 4 and 28, which are photographed from nature, to Mr. D. F.
Mackenzie of Morton Hall, Midlothian ; whilst Figs. 2, 3, 6, 8, 9,
11, 14, 24, 25, and 37-43 have been drawn for me by Miss Emily
Carter.

To Mr. James A. Weale, of Liverpool, I am even more deeply
indebted. - Not only has he supplied the photographs for Figs. 32-36
and for all the 48 plates in Appendix IV.; but throughout my work
of revision he has aided me with numerous corrections and suggestions
from the store of his unrivalled practical knowledge.

I have thought it well to indicate the pronunciation of the Latin
names by putting an accent over the syllables on which the stress
falls; and it may be desirable to point out here that the chief
symbols employed in Part IT. are explained on pp. 120 and 121.

How incomplete my work is may be gauged by the statement
that, while there are undoubtedly several thousand woods used
in various parts of the world, only about 1,000 are here enumerated ;
but these include most of those which are practically known in
general commerce, and to have dealt with more would have necessi-
tated a volume fully twice as large.

GiasaB:

‘** Woop is an indispensable part of the material structure
upon which civilization rests; and it is to be remembered
always that the immense increase of the use of iron and
substitutes for wood in many structures, while it has meant
a relative decrease in the amount of wood used, has been
accompanied by an absolute increase in the amount of
wood used. More wood is used than ever before in our
history.” PRESIDENT RoosEVELT, January 3, 1905.

vi

CONTENTS

PART I.—OF WOOD IN GENERAL

CHAPTER I

THE ORIGIN, STRUCTURE, AND DEVELOPMENT OF WOOD, AND ITS USE

TO THE TREE S - - e 3 ‘ é

CHAPTER II

THE RECOGNITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF Woops

CHARTER fl
DrFrects oF Woop = - : z c = z i

CHAPTER IV

SELECTION, DURABILITY, SEASONING, AND STORAGE OF Woops

CHAPTER V
Tue Users or Woops - = = : a s

CHAPTER VI

Our SUPPLIES OF Woop - 2 = = = 2

CHAPTER VII
Testina Woop - : = = < 2 = . :

PART II.—WOODS OF COMMERCE

THEIR SOURCES, CHARACTERS, AND USES. - - - -

vil

PAGE

34

76

94

vill CONTENTS

APPENDICES
PAGE
J. EXPLANATION OF SOME TERMS USED WITH REFERENCE TO COoN-

VERTED TIMBER, ETC. - - - - - = = = X08}
Il. Tort Microscopic EXAMINATION OF Woops = : 2 = St0ks
III. Sexecr BrBLrioGRAPHy - - = E = : = : = ay

IV. THe Distinctive Microscopic STRUCTURES OF Woops:
(Puates I.-XLVIII.) - = = : : = - - 309
NOTES - - - - - - - - - - - - 9322

INDEX - = = S = = Xs S 7 és = Spt

— ba |
owns SS oe Go bo m5

Ll oe cd
Cone

= —
HID OP

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURES IN THE TEXT

Transverse Section of an Oak : sf m

. Growing-point of Stem - : = 2
. Terminal Bud - 2 ’ '

Transverse Section of Stem of Clématis 2 =
Early Development of Exogenous Stem _ - -

. Diagrams of Exogenovs Stem - - :

Transverse Section of Stem of Helianthus -

. Longitudinal Section of Helianthus - -
Pits) s - - - -

. Elements of Oak Wood - . -
. Coniferous Wood — - - - -
. Wood of Spruce (Picéa excélsa)

. Transverse Section of Picéa excélsa_ -

. Resin-duct—- - - -

. Radial Section of Abies pectindta

. Diagram of Merismatic Tissue -

. Transverse Section of Pinus sylvéstris

18.
. Transverse Section of Oak, natural size -

. Transverse Section of Oak, diagrammatic

. Tangential Section of Oak, magnified - -
. Tangential Section of Oak, more highly magnified -
. Radial Section of Oak, highly magnified — -

. Wood of Oak, diagrammatic - -

. Dicotyledonous Wood, magnified — - -

. Transverse Section of Beech, magnified -

. Transverse Section of Oak, highly magnified

. Transverse Section of Buckthorn, magnified

. Transverse Section of Linden - -

. Radial Section of Pinus sylvéstris - -

. Transverse Section of Ash, natural size -

. Transverse Section of Humiria floribinda -

. Transverse Section of Lophira alata - - -

Transverse Section of Oak, magnified -

1X

PAGE

20
20
21
22
23
24
24
25
26
27
28
2g
20
dl
32
40
43
45
46
47

Plank badly laid

XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXI.
XXII.
XXIII.
XXIV.
XXV.
DOXA.
XXVII.
XXVIII.
XXIX.
XXX.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

. Transverse Section of Dillénia indica - -
5. Transverse Section of Rhus Cotinus - - -
. Transverse Section of Juglans cinérea - =
. Cup- and Heart-
. Star-shake

. Heart-shake - - - -
. Structural Aggregates - - - -
. Plank well laid
42.
. Honeycombed Board - - - - -

shake - - - -

PLATES IN APPENDIX IV

. Banksia serrata, transverse section
. Banksia serrata, radial section

. Banksia serrata, tangential section

. Moreton Bay Fig (Ficus macrophylla)
. Padouk (Pterocarpus marsupium)

. Cassia Fistula

. Lignum-vite (Guaiacum officinale)

. Albizzia procera

. Greenheart (Nectandra Rodici?)

. Thingan (Hopea odorata)

. Sideroxylon borbonicum)

. Calophyllum Tacamahaca

. American Ash (Fraxinus americana)
. Locust (Robinia pseudacacia)

. Laburnum (Cytisus Laburnum)

American Elm (Ulmus americana)
Chestnut (Castanea sativa)
American White Oak (Quercus alba)
Hickory (Hicoria ovata)
Persimmon (Diospyros Virginiana)
Teak (T'ectona grandis)

African Mahogany

Cuban Mahogany

Cigar-Box Cedar (Cedrela odorata)
Buckthorn (Rhamnus catharticus)
American Walnut (Juglans nigra)
Karri (Lucalyptus versicolor)

Western or American Plane (Platanus occidentalis)

American Beech (Fagus ferruginea)
Hornbeam (Carpinus Betulus)

PAGE
48
50
51
56
57
58
67
67
68
70

XXXI.
XXXII.
XXXII.
XXXIV.
XXXV.
XXXVI.
XXXVII.
XXXVITI.
XXXIX.
XL.

XLI.
XLII.
XLITI.
XLIV.
XLV.
XLVI.
XLVII.
XLVITI.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Alder (Alnus glutinosa)

Syeamore (Acer pseudoplatanus)

American Holly (llex opaca)

Canary Whitewood (Liriodendron tulipifera)

Satin Walnut (Liquidambar styraciflua)

Basswood (T%lia americana)

Hawthorn (Crategus oxyacantha)

Pear (Pyrus communis)

Canadian Birch (Betula lenta)

Willow (Salix alba)

Yew (Laxus baccata)

Californian Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens)

Cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus libant)

White Spruce (Picea alba)

Larch (Larix europea)

Oregon or Douglas Pine (Pseudotsuga Douglasii)

Pinus palustris (the Pitch Pine of English Commerce)

Pinus Strobus (the Yellow Pine of English Commerce, White
Pine of America, Weymouth Pine of Gardens)

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7 -
.

PART I.—OF WOOD IN GENERAL

CHAPTER I

THE ORIGIN, STRUCTURE, AND DEVELOPMENT OF WOOD AND ITS
USE TO THE TREE.

Few, if any, of the products of nature are of such manifold utility
as wood. Though coal has in many lands largely replaced it as
fuel, and as a source of tar, though stone, brick, and iron or steel
have often been substituted for it as house-building materials,
and the metals last mentioned for the construction of ships, new
uses are constantly arising for it, such as railway sleepers,
pavements, and paper-making, so as to more than make up for
the saving effected by these substitutes. In England and the
United States, for example, the consumption of wood per head
of the population during the last half-century has more than
doubled.

Most people are aware that for these manifold uses a great
number of different woods are employed in the various countries
of the world—woods that differ in colour, grain, hardness, weight,
flexibility, and other properties almost as widely as the trees by
which they are produced vary in foliage, flower, or fruit. It is,
however, not so generally recognized that the suitability of wood
of any kind for some particular purpose depends mainly upon its
internal structure. This structure is determined not by man’s
employment of the material, but by the vital requirements of the
tree when growing.

Our present concern is with wood as a material in the arts, and
not with any merely botanical interest it may have, or with its
cultivation as a crop by the forester. In dealing with the means
of recognizing different kinds of wood we shall, therefore, not
depend in any way upon characters derived from bark, leaves,
flowers, or fruit—the characters, that is, of standing, or of un-
converted timber—but only on those of the wood itself as it.

1

2 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

appears in the timber market. At the same time, if we are to be
able to identify woods and determine their suitability for various
economic applications, it is absolutely essential that we should
know something of their origin, structure, development, and use
to the plants that produced them.

Wood does not occur in any plants of a lower grade than ferns ;
and in the higher plants in which it does occur it is chiefly, but
not exclusively, in the stem. The main physiological function of
wood is the mechanical one of giving strength to resist the increasing
weight of the structure as it grows erect and branches. Submerged
aquatic plants, buoyed up, as they are, by the water, do not form
wood in their stems, nor, as a rule, do annuals, nor, at first, the
succulent, flexible shoots of longer-lived plants. In ferns, even
when growing into lofty trees, and in allied plants, the wood,
though dense, consists largely of scattered longitudinal strands
and often of cells of no great vertical length. Though there are
also generally woody layers just below the surface of the stem,
giving it considerable strength as a whole, this structure renders
tree-ferns useless as timber.

For all practical purposes, therefore, wood is produced only by
the highest sub-kingdom of the plant world, the seed-bearing or
flowering plants, the Spermatophyta or Phanerogamia of botanists.
This great group of plants is sub-divided, mainly by characters
derived from parts other than their stems, into two divisions, the
Gymnospérme, or plants the seeds of which are naked, 7.e. not
enclosed in a fruit, and the Angiospérme, or fruit-bearing plants.
The Gymnosperms are all perennial trees and shrubs; but of
three ‘“‘ Natural Orders”? into which they are divided, two, the
Cycaddcee and Gnetacee, belong almost exclusively to the Southern
Hemisphere and are valueless as timber. The third Natural
Order is the Conifere, so named from the general arrangement of
its seeds on a series of overlapping scales arranged in a cone, but
having also other general characters, one of the most conspicuous
of which is the production of numerous narrow, rigid, undivided
leaves, whence they get the familiar name of needle-leaved trees.
The members of this Order, which includes the Pines, Firs,
Larches, Cedars, etc., have much-branched stems, and wood
which, though in many points, such as its arrangement in annual
rings of growth, it resembles that of some other, more highly-
organized plants, has, as we shall see, many peculiarities. It is,
in general, of rapid growth, soft and of even texture, and very
commonly abounds in resinous substances. They are, therefore,
often spoken of as *‘ soft woods” or as ‘‘ resinous woods,” and being,
from these characteristics, both easily worked and of considerable

PLANTS WHICH PRODUCE WOOD 3

durability, are more entensively used than any other class of
woods. The Maidenhair-tree of China and Japan (Ginkgo biloba)
is exceptional among conifers in having broad leaves : neither this
tree nor the Yew can be said to bear cones, though their seeds are
naked: the Yew is destitute of resin; and the epithet “ soft-
wooded ” applies to Willow, Poplar, Horse-chestnut, etc., as truly
as to conifers.

The second and higher division of seed-bearing plants, the
Angiospérme, is divided into two Classes, which, whilst agreeing
in having their seeds enclosed in fruits, differ in many characters,
and in none more than in the structure of their stems. They are
known botanically, from the number of seed-leaves or cotyledons
of their embryos, as Monocotylédons and Dicotylédons. The Mono-
cotyledons, with one such seed-leaf, comprise lilies, orchids,
bananas, palms, sedges, grasses, etc. Few of these, such as
Palms and Bamboos, reach the dimensions of trees, and those
which do so have generally unbranched stems which do not as
a rule increase in diameter after the very earliest stages of their
growth, the wood in them being confined to isolated strands
crowded together towards their outer surfaces. Though such
stems may occasionally, like those of tree-ferns, be utilized “in
the round,’ and veneers, cut from the outer part of the stem
of the Cocoa-nut Palm (Cocos nucifera), and known, from the
appearance of the dark-coloured woody strands in the lighter
ground-tissue, as “ Porcupine-wood,” are used for inlaying,
Monocotyledons may well be ignored as economic sources of
wood.

Dicotyledons, so named from having two seed-leaves to the
embryo, comprise an immense and varied assemblage of plants,
a very large proportion of which are merely herbaceous, never
forming wood. In those perennial members of the Class, how-
ever, which acquire the dimensions of trees or shrubs, the stem
generally branches freely, has a separable “ bark,’ and increases
in girth with age; the wood, though, as we shall see, it differs
in several important but not very obvious characters, agreeing
with that of conifers in being arranged in rings produced in
successive seasons (Fig. 1). These rings, as they appear in a
cross-section of a tree, or conically tapering sheaths surrounding
the tree, as they in fact are, form on the outside of the wood of
previous seasons and beneath the bark; and this type of stem,
characteristic of gymnosperms and dicotyledons, is in consequence
correctly termed exdgenous, from the Greek ex, outside of, and
gennao, to produce. The term enddgenous, still sometimes applied

to the structure of the stem of monocotyledons, is less accurate.
1—2

4 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

Dicotyledons are commonly slower of growth than conifers, and
their wood, especially that near the centre of the stem, is often
much harder. They bear as a rule also broad, net-veined leaves ;
and are known familiarly, therefore, as ‘* hardwoods,” or as
‘* broad-leaved trees.” Such are the Oak, Beech, Ash, Elm, Teak,
Willow, Alder, etc.

It is then only with the two classes of exogenous stems, those
of gymnosperms or needle-leaved trees, and those of dicotyledons
or broad-leaved trees, that we are concerned.

Though, as we have already said, conifers and broad-leaved
trees present important differences in the structure and conse-
quent character of their wood, their manner of growth is so
nearly identical in its initial stages and broad outlines that
we may well treat them at first collectively. It is, perhaps,
the many branches and the numerous small leaves exposed by

Fic. 1.—Transverse section of an Oak, 25 years old. (After Le Maout and Decaisne,
from The Elements of Botany, by permission of Mr. Francis Darwin and the Syndicate
of the Cambridge University Press.)

means of these branches to a maximum of air and light in
these two groups of plants (as contrasted with the general
absence of branching, and the small number and large size of
the leaves in ferns and palms) that has determined the produc-
tion of the progressively enlarging, solid stem that characterizes
them. It must be remembered, however, that the stem of a
tree fulfils several very distinct physiological purposes. Besides
bearing up the weight of leaves and flowers so as best to obtain
the air and light they require, it is the means of communication
between the root and the leaves. Through it the water and its
1 « This statement is too general when the trees of the whole world are taken
into account. Species of Hucalyptus and Casuarina, Altingia excelsa, Bombax mala-
baricum, Cedrela Toona, Mahogany, and planted Teak grow faster than any Conifer.
Even among our European trees, Birch, Alder, Ash, and Sycamore more than hold
their own with Conifers for the first thirty years; the rapid growth of Poplars is
well known, and Beech beats Spruce and Silver fir up to seventy or eighty years,
and after ninety outgrows Scots Pine.’ —Gardeners’ Chronicle, December 20, 1902.

USE OF WOOD TO THE TREE 5

dissolved gases and saline substances, taken in by the root from
the soil, are conveyed to the leaves, which have been termed the
“laboratory of the plant,’ to be built up in them, with the
carbonaceous food-material taken in from the atmosphere, into
those complex “ organic’? compounds of which the whole struc-
ture of the plant is composed. Furthermore, the stem serves
as a reservoir in which some of these organic compounds, the
‘plastic material”? of the plant, are stored up for use in future
growth.

Every stem and every branch—and a branch is but a secondary
stem, differing only in position—as long as it remains capable of
elongation, is terminated, in the groups of trees with which we
are concerned, by a bud. <A bud is a growing-point protected by
overlapping rudimentary leaves.

In the immediate neighbourhood of this growing-point the
stem in this its initial stage is entirely made up of structures
which almost completely resemble one another. Whether we
cut such a growing-point across or lengthwise it presents under
the microscope the appearance of a delicate mesh-work of thin
membrane filled in with a viscid semi-fluid substance. These
meshes, from their resemblance to honeycomb, were in 1667
named cells by Robert Hooke. The delicate membranes which
form them, the cell-walls as they are termed, are composed of a
substance, or rather group of substances, known as cellulose. It
contains the three elements, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, in
definite proportions, which the chemist represents as C,H,,0;, that
is, in a hundred parts by weight 44 are carbon, 6 are hydrogen,
and 50 are oxygen. Cellulose, like starch and sugar, belongs to a
group of compounds of carbon with hydrogen and oxygen in the
proportions in which these two elements occur in water, which
are known as carbo-hydrates. It has, in fact, the same percentage
composition as starch, though differing from it in many properties.
It is insoluble in water, flexible, slightly elastic, permeable, but
only slightly absorbent, and does not readily undergo fermenta-
tion. When treated with acid it passes into a starch-like condi-
tion, as is evidenced by its then turning blue with iodine, and
under certain conditions in the living plant it would seem capable
of being formed from, or of passing into, sugar. Cotton-wool
consists almost entirely of pure, unaltered cellulose. The viscid,
semi-fluid substance contained in the cells is of far more complex
chemical composition. It contains not only carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen, but also, though in far smaller proportion, nitrogen,
with traces of sulphur, and, perhaps always also, phosphorus and
other elements. It is probably a mixture in varying proportions

6 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

of some of those substances which, from their resemblance to
albumen or white of egg, are known as albuminoid, and, from the
readiness with which they undergo chemical change or decompo-
sition, as proteids. Being the substance out of which all plant-
structures originate, the sole constituent of the first germs of all
living beings, it is known as protoplasm, from the Greek protos,
first, plasma, formed matter.

Any collection of similar cells or modifications of cells having a
common origin and obeying a common law of growth is known as
a tissue. These young cells at the apex of a stem, of nearly
uniform size, and that extremely minute, with their delicate, as
yet unaltered, cell-walls filled with protoplasm, form an embryonic
tissue, one, that is, which will undergo change. Its uniform
character causes it to be termed undifferentiated, while the various
kinds of tissue to which by different changes it gives rise are
known in contradistinction as permanent tissues. One change to
which any cell is liable so long as it contains protoplasm is
division into two, a partition wall of cellulose forming across it.
The formation of this solid wall from material in solution in the
protoplasm, and a correlative power, which, as we shall see, the
living plant possesses, of dissolving a cell-wall, illustrate that
interchangeability of sugar and cellulose of which we have
spoken. A tissue the cells of which undergo division is termed
merismatic or meristem, from the Greek merisma, division ; so that
the embryonic tissue at the apex of the stem is known as apical
meristem.

Although its cells are all embryonic, they nevertheless at a
very early stage commonly present such a degree of differentia-
tion as to make it possible to distinguish three well-defined
rudimentary tissue-systems (Fig. 2). First, there is a single
layer of cells on the outside of the growing-point, with thickened.
outer walls and undergoing division only in planes perpendicular
to the surface. If we trace this layer backwards down the
surface of the shoot below its apex we shall find it continuous
with similar cells which have lost their protoplasm and have even
thicker outer walls. As this outer layer of permanent tissue is
called the epidérmis, from the Greek epi, upon, derma, skin, the
embryonic layer in which it originates is termed the dermdtogen
(derma, skin, and genndo, to produce). In the middle of the
growing-point is a solid column-like mass of cells which are all
somewhat elongated in the direction of the elongation of the
stem. This is known as the plerome, and the central axis of
tissues to which it gives rise as the stele (Greek for a column)
(Fig. 3). Between the outer dermatogen and the inner plerome

THE STELE 7

there is a layer, or a series of layers, of cells which undergo
division both in planes perpendicular to and in planes parallel to
the surface of the stem. These are known as the periblem. On
tracing them backwards down the shoot we find them continuous
with tissues which immediately beneath the epidermis are com-

Fic. 2.—Growing-point of stem, showing apical meristem. P, plerome ; R, peri-
blem ; HZ, dermatogen ; I, rudiment of leaf. (After Leunis and Frank.) ,

monly green, and which often have their cells much thickened
in the corners in herbaceous plants or shoots, whilst still further
back, on older parts of woody shoots, the green layer is often
buried under one or more layers of brown cork. These tissues

Fic. 3.—Terminal bud, showing growing-point of stem, overlapped by rudimentary
leaves with buds in their axils, the whole covered by dermatogen. In the centre is
the stele to which descend the midribs of the leaves. (After Prantl.)

which thus originate in the periblem are known collectively as the
cortex.

It is with tissues originating from the central plerome or stele
that we are mainly concerned. If we cut a young shoot across, a
little below its entirely embryonic apex, we shall see that, whilst

8 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

there is a central whitish mass, which on being magnified exhibits
a comparatively wide-meshed structure, there are round this a
ring of patches of a greyer, closer tissue. These grey patches
may be observed to be roundish or slightly wedge-shaped in out-
line, their longer diameter lying in one of the radii of the stem,
and they are wider across their outer parts. They appear grey
on account of the smaller diameter of their cells. Longitudinal
sections show these patches to be cross-sections of long strands or
bundles of cells, narrower and more elongated than those around
them. The central mass of tissue is the pith or medulla, and these
strands are known as procambium or desmogen.

Fic. 4.—Transverse section of the stem of Traveller's Joy Clématis (Vitalba), showing
relatively large central pith and large vessels.

The pith is relatively large in the stems of herbaceous plants or
in young shoots (Fig. 4), but does not increase in bulk as the tree
grows older. Its cells are at first full of fluid, and their walls
often remain thin. Those of its outer portion, near the pro-
cambium strands, are smaller, and all its cells are often two or
three times as long in the direction of the elongation of the stem
as they are broad. Thus in shape they are short, polygonal,
closely-packed prisms. In many cases, as in the Elder, the cells
of the pith die, losing their fluid contents, shrivelling, and so
completely disorganizing the entire tissue that the stem becomes
hollow, or a mere line of dry powder in the centre of the inner-
most ring of wood marks this structural centre of the stem. In

BUNDLES AND PITH-RAYS 9

other cases, as in the Oak, the cells of the pith have their walls
thickened, and turn from white to brown ; but even then its rela-
tively minute width makes it difficult to detect in a stem several
years of age.

The procambium strands extend, from the rudiments of leaves near
its apex, right through the stem into the root. They get their
name from a Latin word, cambio, to grow, being in a merely transi-
tory or embryonic condition. In Monocotyledons the whole of
their tissue passes into the condition of wood and bast; so that
the bundle, as the strand in its permanent form is termed, being
incapable of any further growth in diameter, is said to be closed.
It is because it gives rise to a bundle (Greek, desmos, a bond) that

Fic. 5.—Three stages in the early development of an exogenous stem. m, pith;
r, cortex ; h, primary xylem: H, secondary xylem ; b, primary phloem ; B, secondary
phloem ; ¢, cambium ; ms, pith-ray.

the procambium is termed désmogen. In those trees, however, with
which we are concerned, viz. Gymnosperms and Dicotyledons,
whilst the inner portion of each strand becomes wood or xylem
(Greek, xylon, wood) and the outer part bast or phloem (Greek,
phloios, bark), a band between these two parts remains embryonic.
This layer is called the cambium, or more precisely, for a reason
we shall see presently, the fascicular cambium, the cambium, that
is, within the bundle. Such a bundle, possessing such a cambium-
layer, is termed an open one.

Between the bundles, connecting the pith in the centre with
the cortex on the outside of the ring of bundles, are parts of the
original or ground-tissue of the stem, which are known as primary
medullary rays or pith-rays (Fig. 5). In Dicotyledons they are

10 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

often broad and conspicuous ; but in Gymnosperms they are so
narrow as not to be visible to the naked eye. From the cambium-
layer in one bundle to those in the bundles on either side of it
the formation of cambium extends, across the primary pith-rays,
so that instead of mere strips of cambium running longitudinally
down the stem between the xylem and phloem of each bundle,
there is now a cylindrical sheath of cambium extending from the
embryonic tissue of its terminal bud downwards over the whole
stem. In transverse section this sheath appears as a ring, and is
accordingly sometimes called the cambium-ring. Those parts of
it that extend between the bundles are termed interfascicular
cambium, in contradistinction to the precisely similar tissue within

Fic. 6.—Diagrams of exogenous stem with six bundles, during the first year, at the
beginning and at the close of the second year’s growth, the last showing the wedge-
shaped masses of primary xylem projecting into the central pith, and the formation
of the first ring of secondary wood during the second year by the activity of the
cambium ring.

the bundles. This cambium-sheath is familiar to us all as the
layer of delicate thin-walled cells, full of sticky protoplasm, through
which we easily tear when we peel a stick. Having what has been
termed the quality of perpetual youth, it remains recognizable in
a stem many years of age, and with the pith furnishes us with a
convenient rough classification of all the structures of such a stem.

As we have seen, the pith, not having grown since its earliest
condition, remains as a mere central line in such a stem. From
this pith to the cambium-sheath is wood or aylem: outside the
cambium is the rind, or, as it is commonly but somewhat mis-
leadingly termed, bark, made up of the outer and often corky
cortex and the inner, largely fibrous, phloem or bast.

VASCULAR BUNDLES ut

In the first year the xylem and phloem are formed directly by
the modification of the inner and outer parts respectively of the
procambium-strand ; but subsequently all wood, bast, and pith-
rays originate in the cambium. Accordingly the xylem and
phloem of the first year are termed primary, and that formed
from the cambium secondary (Fig. 6).

The pith of trees seems mainly a structure of temporary utility
to the plant, and the function of the cortex is chiefly protective ;

AAS ZN VO
Ss Ky VOSS

>>

Fic, 7.—Transverse section of the stem of the Jerusalem Artichoke (Helidnthus
tuberosus). From The Elements of Botany, by Mr. Francis Darwin, by his permis-
sion and that of the Syndicate of the Cambridge University Press. c, cortex ; f, bast
fibres ; c.c, companion-cells ; 7.cb, interfascicular cambium ; d.v, pitted vessel; p.2,
spiral vessel of protoxylem; e, endodermis; s.t, sieve-tube: cb, cambium; m.7.p,
pith-ray ; x.f, wood fibre: p.p, pith.

but as the main function of the stem is to convey liquid nourish-
ment from the root to the leaves, and to carry back, also in a
diffusible form, the material elaborated in the leaves to growing
parts, it is one of the most noticeable characters of the bundles
that they are largely composed of vessels, elongated tube-like
structures formed by the absorption of the transverse, or top and
bottom, walls of rows of long cells placed end to end. For this
reason they are often spoken of as vascular bundles. They also
contain, however, cells which have not been thus fused into vessels,

12 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

such cellular tissue, when its constituent cells are not more than
three or four times long as they are broad, being technically known
as parenchyma.

As we have already seen, in addition to its function of conduct-
ing liquids, which necessitates these vessels or other conducting
tissue, as it is termed physiologically, the stem has to perform the
mechanical function of bearing up a considerable weight—itself,
its branches, leaves, etc. To enable it to do this, both xylem and
phloem are commonly accompanied by elongated elements, of
which the chief characteristic is that their walls are much
thickened and hard. The elements of this mechanical tissue are
known as fibres, and from containing them the bundles are often
termed fibro-vascular bundles (Figs. 7 and 8).

DS 1 Een C Sv B E Cz

Fic. 8.—Longitudinal section of a fibro-vascular bundle in Helianthus. (After
Sachs.)

P, pith ; S, spiral vessels of protoxylem ; F, wood-fibres ; 7, trachex ; C, cambium ;
Sv, sieve-tubes ; B, bast fibres; H, endodermis ; Cz, cortex.

The walls of cells, fibres, and vessels in the xylem acquire
mechanical strength or resistance by undergomg a change known
as lignification. This consists in their impregnation with a sub-
stance known as lignin. Lignin consists of the same three
elements as cellulose, viz. carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but in
different proportions, its percentage composition being 49 per
cent. of carbon, 6 of hydrogen, and 44 of oxygen. Its chemical
constitution is, however, as yet unknown. It is harder and more
elastic than cellulose, readily permeable by water, but not absor-
bent, not, that is, retaining the water. It is more soluble in acids,
such as chromic acid, than is cellulose, and is recognised by turning
brown when treated with Schulze’s solution, a mixture of zinc-

PHLOEM AND XYLEM 13

chloride, potassium-iodide, and iodine which turns unaltered
cellulose blue.

The elements of the phloem, with which we are less concerned
than we are with the xylem, though often variously thickened,
are not lignified. They consist of bast-parenchyma, sieve-tubes,
companion-cells, and bast-fibres, besides the medullary rays which
traverse xylem and phloem alike. Bast-parenchyma consists of
slightly elongated cells in vertical rows of four or six, of which
the terminal cells taper. This arises from each row having been
formed by several transverse divisions of a single procambium or
cambium cell. They generally contain protoplasm and sometimes
grains of starch or crystals. Szeve-tubes are the vessels of the bast,
long tubes with transverse partition-walls, and retaining their
protoplasm but communicating through these transverse walls by
the sieve-plates from which they take their name. The sieve-plate
is a thin portion of the wall perforated by numerous pits close
together. The sieve-tubes are the chief channel by which proto-
plasmic matter manufactured in the leaves is conveyed through
the stem. Companion-cells occur only in angiosperms. In longi-
tudinal section they appear as narrower cells alongside the sieve-
tubes filled with granular protoplasm and with unperforated
transverse walls adjoining those of the sieve-tubes. In a trans-
verse section they appear like small corners cut off the larger
sieve-tubes, and they have their name from the fact that each of
them originates in this way, a longitudinal wall dividing the
original cell into two unequal parts, of which the larger contributes
to a sieve-tube, the smaller remains a cell. Bast-parenchyma,
sieve-tubes, and companion-cells are known collectively as soft bast
in contradistinction to bast-fibres or hard bast. SBast-fibres are
extremely elongated structures, tapering at each end, containing
only water or air, and with their walls so thickened as sometimes
to almost obliterate the cavity or Jwmen, as it is termed. Their
walls are generally at least partially lignified and give a reddish
colour with Schulze’s solution, and the thickening is absent from
some spots on their walls. These unthickened spots are known
as pits. Pits, which are important as occurring also on some of
the elements that make up wood, are of two main classes, simple
and bordered. A simple pit is a spot at which a cell-wall is left
unthickened, generally on both sides, each successive thickening-
layer leaving the same space uncovered. It appears accordingly
as a bright spot on the wall; or, if in section, as a canal, the
length of which depends upon the thickness of the wall. A
bordered pit is so called because the bright spot appears surrounded
by, or crossed by, a second circle or ellipse. The structure will

14 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

be best understood from the diagrams (Fig. 9). In the thicken-
ing of the cell-wall the area of the outer circle is at first un-
thickened, but successive layers of thickening overlap this
unthickened area more and more so as to make a short canal
broad at the end near the original cell-wall and narrow at the end
towards the centre of the cell. Subsequently a slight thickening
termed the torus forms in the centre of the unthickened area.
Pressure of liquid on one side of the pit-membrane often forces it
against the “ border,” in which case the torus does not completely
occupy the opening in the border or inner circle. The whole
mechanism has been compared to a laboratory filter, the border
being the funnel that acts as a support, the unthickened mem-
brane, which is permeable, corresponding to a filter-paper and the
torus to the small platinum cone sometimes placed in the middle
of the filter to protect it from direct pressure of liquid. The
bordered pits on xylem vessels in Oak have been compared to

Al

A2

Fic. 9.—Pits. A, Simple pit ; Al, in tangentiallongitudinal section ; A2, in surface
view. B, Bordered pit; Bl, in tangential longitudinal section ; B2, the same, with
the middle lamella thrust to one side; B3, in surface view; B4, in semi-profile.

screw-heads, discs traversed by an elongated mark like the groove
for a screw-driver, and the structure has been explained by the
following imaginary model :! ‘Imagine a pair of watch-glasses
each pierced by a narrow slit, and imagine them united face to face
with a delicate circular piece of paper between them, and then fixed
into a hole cut in a thick piece of card. The outline of the screw-
head is the outline of the united watch-glasses where they are let
into the card; the groove in the screw-head is the oblique cleft
which leads into the space between the glasses.” In some cases,
under pressure from the cell-contents on the other side of it, the
unthickened membrane in a pit bulges into the cavity of the
adjoining vessel. Such projections, which are known as tyloses,
may undergo cell-division and may even form a mass of tissue
blocking up the entire lumen of the vessel. This is the case in
some of the vessels of Oak and still more strikingly in the Locust

1 Francis Darwin, Elements of Botany, pp. 77-8.

iin

PITS 15

or Acacia (Robinia Pseudacacia), in which the wood consequently
appears non-porous, but, their cell-walls being thin, the tyloses
appear in transverse section as light yellow spots on the dark
heartwood. In Letterwood (Brésimum Aublétii), on the other

ZZ.)
pgs) |
Ke) i 10)
Ih | ey {i
i of Koni
| Q® Hh | a Q
Hl eal IS fe
hal ¢ =
| :
& =
® S
(| =
Q we
C) 3
@ >|| =
bs) 13) =
| 8 - =
=F Ss
) =
® =
i =
=
=
sS
=
tS
4
S
=
=
=
=
=
=

SP.

Fic. 10.—Elements of Oak Wood, highly magnified. f, fibre; w.p, part of row of
wood-parenchyma cells ; tr. tracheid ; p.v, trachea (part of) ; sp, part of a spiral vessel.
(From The Oak, by permission of Prof. Marshall Ward and Messrs, Kegan Paul,
Trench, Triibner & Co.)

hand, the trachez are filled up with tyloses, the cells of which
have their walls very much thickened so that they appear
dark.

We come next to the tissues which are of the greatest im-
portance in our present study—those of the xylem or wood,

16 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

developed on the inner side of the procambium strand and
subsequently on the inner side of the cambium sheath. The
development of xylem in a procambium strand begins with the
conversion of one or a few cells, or vertical rows of cells, of
the inner part of the strand into spirally, or occasionally
annularly, thickened tracheids or trachee, known as the protoxylem
or first-formed wood. This conversion consists in the loss of
their protoplasmic contents, the lignification of their walls, the
deposit of a spiral thickening band internally, or of a series of
rings, and, in the case of trachez, the absorption of the trans-
verse walls of the vertical rows of cells. Whilst tracheids are
elongated cells, losing their contents, generally becoming lignified
and having thickened walls, so as to be adapted for the conveyance
of air or water, trachee or true vessels differ from them only in
being formed by the fusion of vertical rows of cells. In a
transverse section the protoxylem is recognizable by the relatively
small diameter of its tracheze or tracheids; and, where there
is a distinct pith, they may be seen projecting into the outer
part of the pith in a discontinuous ring known as the medullary
sheath. In longitudinal section the loose rings or spirals of their
thickening are usually conspicuous, since, being the first vascular
elements to form, they are considerably stretched by the growth
in length of the adjoming fundamental tissue. The spiral or
annular thickening permits, by an uncoiling in the former or
a separation of the rings in the latter, a considerable amount
of such stretching (Fig. 10).

The differences between the wood of coniferous trees and that
of broad-leaved trees show themselves in the protoxylem and
the rest of the primary wood, though they are even more im-
portant in the secondary xylem, 7.e. that formed after the cam-
bium-ring is complete. We will, therefore, now deal with them
separately, taking the simpler type, that of the conifers, first
(Fig. 11).

The xylem of conifers, both primary and secondary, consists
mainly of tracheids; but trachez, or true vessels, occur in the
protoxylem. In addition to the protoxylem the primary wood,
i.e. that which is formed direct from the inner cells of the pro-
cambium strand, contains other wider tracheids with bordered pits
between the turns of their spiral thickening.

A cross section of a Pine or Spruce shows distinct annual rings
each made up of an inner, softer, light-coloured portion, the
spring wood, and an outer, firmer, darker-coloured portion, the
summer wood. The outer zone of the wood, that next to the bark,
comprising from 30 to 50 of the most recently formed of these

CONIFEROUS WOOD 17

annual rings and from one to three or more inches across, is of
lighter colours and is known as the sap-wood or alburnum. Many
of its cells are still in a sufficiently active state of vitality to store
up starch, at least in winter, though growth is confined to the
outermost layer of all, the cambium. The inner rings are darker
and constitute the heart-wood or duramen, the cells of which are
physiologically dead and serve only the mechanical function, of
supporting the weight of the tree and resisting the lateral strain
of the wind. The darker colour of this heart-wood is due to
infiltration of chemical substances into the cell walls, but not,

cs
ZS ————— SS
Hits LEA
A a a AEH
Pea eG spwE Wa
HVS toot CTY
| | | \ \ smi | ( | i H
Pe WO aay
Ay 10 ee
Mm er |

Fic. 11.—Coniferous wood, about natural size. 77'S, tangential section ; RS, radial
section ; C'S, cross section; SPW, spring wood ; SW, summer wood. (After Roth.)

in pine, as is sometimes supposed, to any greater thickening,
lignification, or fillmg up of the cells than there is in the sap-
wood. The proportion of sap-wood to heart-wood is always
considerable, but it varies in width even in different parts of the
same tree, the same year’s growth being sometimes sap-wood in
one part and heart-wood in another. The width of the annual
rings varies from half-an-inch or more near the centre of very
quick-grown trees to one-eighth or one-sixth of an inch (3-4 mm.),
common widths for the twenty innermost rings in deal, one-
twelfth of an inch, a general average width, one-thirtieth

(0-7 mm.), an average for the twenty outermost rings, and even
: 2

hd

18 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

a minimum of one two-hundredth of an inch (0-2 mm.).1 Many
local causes, especially exposure to wind, produce excentricity
of growth, few trees presenting a truly circular cross-section or
a truly central pith, though this is more common among pines
than among other trees. Branches almost always present an
excentrically oval section, the pith nearer to the upper surface.
The summer-wood in each ring being darker, heavier, and denser,

if 2

Lube
iE ay
ET ‘A

y Sen |

= ae LESS. EMT

—=

~

anes

ise
— | ye"
3 = = Vi \ ine e*[) Soh) he
= —— * Ney °
SSeS psec eth
es IO | *(°,
es Poe | * {Re
= SS - SSS = ———— —
SS

Fic. 12.—1. Piece of wood of Spruce (Picea excélsa) with the bark removed, natural
size. 2. A portion from the nearest upper outside angle of 1, showing wood near the
outside ‘of an annual ring, magnified 100 times. (From Hartig’ s Timbers and how to
know them, by permission of Dr. Somerville and Mr. David Douglas.)

its relative proportion to the spring-wood largely determines the
weight and strength of the wood, so that colour becomes a valu-

1 Poplars grown in moist ground may reach a diameter of 14 inches in 8 years.
Laslett records (Timber and Timber-trees, ed. 2, pp. 44-5) exceptionally fine English
Oak and Elm, and an average drawn from several specimens of Canadian Oak and
Elm which gave the following number of rings at 6, 12, 18, and 24 inches diameter :

6in 12 in 18 in. 24 in.
English Oak, - - - - - - 13 19 24 30
Canadian Oak, - - - - - 49 105 160 216
English Eln, - - - - - - 10 16 25 36

Canadian Elm, - S - : 2 80 156 252 —

CONIFEROUS WOOD nm

able aid in distinguishing heavy, strong pine wood from that
which is light and soft. Whilst on a cross-cut or transverse
section the annual growths appear as rings, on a longitudinal
radial section they are represented by narrow parallel stripes
alternately light and dark, and on a longitudinal but tangential
section by much broader alternating and less parallel stripes with
some V-shaped lines (Fig. 12).

Under the microscope a transverse section of coniferous secondary
wood presents regular straight radial rows of apparently four-sided
meshes or openings, the transverse sections of tracheids. These
are as broad in a radial as in a tangential direction in the spring

wood, but much narrower radially in the summer wood of each

ii

»— Api

1G

nin

INNA

Fic. 13.—Transverse section of Spruce (Picea excélsa), magnified 100 times, showing
narrow rings, thin walls and three resin-ducts. (From Hartig’s Timbers and how to
know them, by permission of Dr. Somerville and Mr. David Douglas.)

ring. The cell-walls also are thicker in the summer wood. The
radial walls have bordered pits, and in some cases such pits also
oceur on the tangential walls. Scattered through the summer
wood are numerous irregular greyish dots, which on being mag-
nified are seen to be the cross sections. of relatively large spaces,
the resin-passages, each surrounded by a layer of thin-walled cells,
the resin-epithelium (Fig. 13). These resin-passages are not cells
or vessels, but intercellular spaces, into which the resin oozes from
the surrounding epithelium (Fig. 14). They generally occur singly,
though sometimes in groups, and are most readily detected on a
very smooth surface, or are often more easily seen on radial or
tangential sections. On these they appear as fine lines or scratches
2—2

20 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

running longitudinally. The whole mass of xylem is traversed
radially by pith-rays, most of which appear in the transverse sec-

Fic. 14.—Resin-duct in coniferous wood, in transverse section, highly magnified,
showing the epithelial cells surrounding the duct.

tion of the stem as only one cell in width and made up of cells
elongated radially. In a longitudinal and radial section (Fig. 15)

WHtsit S151

:

——s
© Ol

=

:
a
ie
EET

Fic. 15.—Radial section of Silver Fir (Abies pectindta), showing a medullary ray,
with simply pitted, parenchymatous cells, crossing wide tracheids of spring wood,
and narrower ones of autumn wood, with bordered pits. Magnified 100times. (From
Hartig’s Timbers and how to know them, by permission of Dr. Somerville and Mr. David

Douglas.)

it appears that the tracheids are from 5), to } inch long, 50-100
times as long, that is, as they are wide; that they have their

DEVELOPMENT OF CONIFEROUS WOOD 21

bordered pits in a single row down their radial walls; and that
they are closed at their ends by a tapering to one side like the
cutting edge of a carpenter’s chisel. The pith-rays in longitudinal
sections are seen to extend only a short way longitudinally, each
appearing on radial sections as a band of 8 to 10 rows of cells
elongated at right angles to the elongation of the tracheids like
bricks in a wall 8-10 bricks high, with bordered pits on the cells
of the upper and lower rows, in Pines and Spruces, and simple
pits on the others. On tangential sections the rays appear as
vertical series of 8-10 pores tapering above and below. In Pines
there are some larger pith-rays containing horizontal resin-passages.

The development of this comparatively simple type of wood

A 5 B

Cc D b
I

D

>
Q

A CG A
a
a
D
< II
Cc
A B Ill
c ad
a b c d
a b
Cc D
IV
Cc Vv 18)

Fic. 16.—Diagram illustrating merismatic tissue. I, a merismatic cell ABCD ;
II, a cross-wall ab has appeared ; III, AabB has grown and again equals ABCD in
size, whilst aCDb has also grown ; IV, AabB has been divided by a cross-wall ed;
V, AcdB has again grown: it equals ABCD in size and is ready again to divide.
Meanwhile cabd and aCDb have increased in size considerably- (From The Elements
of Botany, by Mr. Francis Darwin, by bis permission and that of the Syndicate of the
Cambridge University Press. )

from the cambium can be readily traced. The cambium is a
cylindrical sheet of very thin-walled cells, each of which is rect-
angularly prismatic, broader in a tangential direction and tapering
above and below to a radially-directed chisel-edge. These cells
contain protoplasm. After they have grown somewhat in a radial
direction, partition walls form across them in the longitudinal
tangential direction, so that each cell gives rise to two radially
placed towards one another, and, this process being then repeated
in one or both of the resultant cells, a radial row is formed (Fig. 16).
After several such divisions the innermost and earliest-formed of
these cells ceases to divide, and uses up its protoplasmic contents
in lignifying and thickening its walls, except at certain spots which

22 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

become pits. It has, in fact, become a water-and-air-conducting
tracheid. A cambium cell in the same radial row as a pith-ray
undergoes transverse division into 8-10 superposed cells which
elongate radially and retain protoplasmic contents, thus continu-
ing the pith-ray (Fig. 17). Im spring, when there is little heat,
light, or activity of root and leaf to supply material, and when the
bark, split by winter, may exert but little pressure, tracheids are
produced with relatively thin walls and wider radial extension,
constituting the spring wood; but in summer heat, light, and
physiological activity, thicker walls are produced, whilst increased
pressure of new bark allows less radial extension. As winter comes
on, the active growth and division of the cambium cells ceases, and
its recommencement to form large thin-walled tracheids in the
following spring, after being dormant for several months, produces
the sharp contrast between compressed summer tracheids and
larger spring ones that marks a new annual ring.

Fic. 17.—Transverse section of Scots Fir (Pinus sylvéstris). After Strasburger.
(From The Elements of Botany, by permission of Mr. Francis Darwin and the Syndi-
cate of the Cambridge University Press.)

phl, phloem ; s.p, sieve-plate ; m.7, pith-ray ; c, cambium ; i, initial cell of cam-
bium ; z, xylem; 1, 2, 3, successive stages in the development of bordered pits.

The simple uniformity of structure in coniferous wood contri-
butes largely to its great technical value.

Space does not permit any detailed discussion of the physio-
logical uses of the different parts of such a stem as that of a conifer
to the growing tree. The following recapitulation must suffice.
The vitality of the pith of trees is generally confined to the very
earliest stages of their existence, and the spirally-thickened ele-
ments of the protoxylem also only serve as conducting tissue
when all the xylem is young. Heart-wood has ceased to have
any active functions, serving merely for strength. Whilst cortical
tissue serves to protect from external action, damp, etc., and to
check transpiration, the sieve-tubes of the phloem appear to be
the chief carriers of the food-materials elaborated by the leaves
to the growing parts of the stem ; and the formation of new phloem
and xylem is the one function of the cambium. In the sap-wood

FUNCTIONS OF CONIFEROUS WOOD 23

of conifers, consisting, as it does, so largely of tracheids, it is these
tracheids, communicating as they do by the bordered pits on their
radial walls, that convey water and air from the roots to the leaves,
though they also store up starch in autumn and winter. The pith-
rays being elongated radially, retaining their protoplasm, forming

x

ENO

Fic. 18.—Transverse section of part of young stem of Oak, highly magnified.
ab, pith; ¢, cortex ; i, epidermis; , periderm; g, collenchyma; 7, spiral vessels
forming protoxylem ; pv, pitted vessels (trachez) ; si, secondary pith-rays ; p, wood-
parenchyma ; 2, m, cambium; /, bast-fibres. (After Hartig, from The Oak, by per-
mission of Professor Marshall Ward and Messrs. Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co.)

starch, and communicating through their pitted walls with phloem
and even cortex as well as xylem, undoubtedly play an important
part in the transfer of formative material from one part of the
stem to another.

When we examine the stem of a broad-leaved tree, such as an

24 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

oak, we find, with the same general exogenous arrangement of
pith, bark, heart-wood, sap-wood, and annual rings, considerably
greater complexity in the variety and grouping of the elements
of which the tissues are built up (Fig. 18). The pith presents

Fic. 19.—Transverse section of Oak, photographed direct from nature.

considerable variety among broad-leaved trees, so as to be used
to some extent in discriminating woods seen in complete cross-
sections. Thus in its proportion to the area of the wood in cross-
section it may vary from equality, ¢.e. being as wide as the xylem,
as in three-year-old shoots of Elder, to z4,, as in shoots of the

[oy

Fic. 20.—Part of transverse section through a branch of Cork Oak (Quéreus Siber),
4 years old, (After Le Maoutand Decaisne, from The Elements of Botany, by permission
of Mr. Francis Darwin and the Syndicate of the Cambridge University Press. )

M, pith ; PC, phloem and cortex ; 8, cork ; 1, primary pith-ray, running from pith
to cortex ; 2, 8, and 4, secondary pith-rays formed in successive years.

Cork-Elm of the same age. In outline it may be pentangular or
hexagonal, as in Oak, Spanish Chestnut, Black Poplar, or White
Willow ; triangular, as in Birch, Beech, and conspicuously in Alder ;
ovoid, as Linden, Plane, Holly, Ash, and Maples ; or nearly circular.

PITH OF BROAD-LEAVED TREES 25

In the last-mentioned case the projections of the primary xylem
into the pith may give the pith a wavy or crenate outer margin, as
in Hawthorn, Rowan, Laburnum, Horse-Chestnut, or Elder; or
this margin may appear even, as in Elm, Hazel, and Dogwood
(Cornus). In the Walnuts the pith has an interrupted or chambered
structure : in the Elder it soon dies and disintegrates, leaving the
stem hollow ; whilst in young stems of Elm the inner portion of it

Fic. 21.—Tangential longitudinal section of Oak, magnified 50 diameters, showing
transverse sections of pith-rays. (After Miiller, from Zhe Oak, by permission of Prof.
Marshall Ward and Messrs. Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co.)

has thin walls and loses its protoplasm, whilst the outer part
becomes thick-walled but retains its cell-contents.

The pith-rays of broad-leaved trees are in general far more
conspicuous than those of conifers. In Oak the large primary
pith-rays extending from pith to cortex are often twenty or more
cells in width, appearing as long, clearly defined, greyish lines in
a transverse section of the stem (Fig. 19). The secondary pith-
rays are much narrower as well as shorter (Fig. 20). In a tan-

26 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

gential section (Figs. 21 and 22) the primary rays may be several
hundred cell-rows, 7.e., upwards of an inch, in height, and, however
wide at the middle, taper to one cell at each end. On a radial
section they appear as broad, shiny bands, the “ mirrors,’ ‘‘ felt,”
or “silver grain,” so that they are conspicuous on any section, in

M.Str.

2S

JUUULULU"

(After Kny, from The Oak, by

Librf, wood-fibres ; Gef, smaller
of Prof. Marshall Ward and Messrs. Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co.)

ak, highly magnified. M.Str, Pith-rays,

é

oor

SOS SSEQVNS SS Se

O10
H| !
(}

pe6eecunescuns

=—<——S =a9S:

Fic, 22.—Tangential longitudinal section of O:
a large one to the left—of course in transverse section.
trachee; Trach, tracheids; H.P, wood-parenchyma.

pe missi

SSSR oS.
whatever plane it may be. In Oak they constitute 16-25 per cent.
of the wood (Figs. 23 and 24).

The protoxylem of broad-leaved trees differs from that of conifers
mainly in that its spirally-thickened elements are trachee or true
vessels, owing to the absorption of the transverse walls of a vertical
row of tracheids. But it is in the elements of the secondary xylem

WOOD OF BROAD-LEAVED TREES 27

that we find the greatest complexity and variety. This may con-
tain from three to five of the following six kinds of elements :
tracheids, vessels, woody fibres, fibrous cells with thick or with
thin walls, and wood-parenchyma. The trachew or true vessels
vary considerably in transverse diameter, some of them being the
widest pores seen in a transverse section of wood and being some-

(After Kny, from The Oak, by

; Librf, w.od-fibres ; H.P, wood-
Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co.)

s of tracheids to the left of the centre of the figure lies over

HT
og

Rat

D 09

i)
i
if

a
a0)
Gam 8,

Sy
Me

hi

pe
- a a @
> 4

The large mas

23

3.—Radial longitudinal section of Oak, highly magnified. M.Str, pith-rays ;

Fra.

Trach, tracheids ; Gef (to the left), smaller pitted vessels

parenchyma,
one of the large trachee. J.Gr, boundary of annual ring.

permission of Prof. Marshall Ward and Messrs,

times specially conspicuous in the spring-wood. Some of them, in
young wood, have net-like thickening, but most of them have
bordered pits, as have also the tracheids. The chief differences in
fact between these two kinds of elements are the smaller diameter
and lesser length of the tracheids. As they are each formed from
a single cambium-cell, these tracheids have no transverse divisions ;

28 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

whereas in the vessels there are much-perforated or partially ab-
sorbed partitions inclined towards the pith-rays, indicating the
origin of the vessels from the fusion of a chain of cells. Woody
fibres may be as long as, or longer than, the trachex, and are often
more pointed, but their distinctive characteristic is their much-
thickened, lignified walls, marked with few simple pits, often oblique
and narrow. This thickening of their walls sometimes almost
obliterates the cell-cavity or lumen, and, together with their early
loss of all contents but water and air, serves to indicate their main
function to be that of mechanical support. Fibrous cells only differ
from fibres in retaining their protoplasmic contents. Their walls
sometimes remain thin. Both thick-walled fibrous cells and woody
fibres sometimes become chambered by the formation of delicate
transverse walls. Wood-parenchyma consists of vertical groups of

ao

Fic. 24.—Two annual rings of wood and the bark of the Oak, the upper surface in
transverse section, part of the inner ring (unshaded) in tangential, and the front
view of both rings in radial section. The medullary rays are shown black in trans-
verse, shaded in radial section. (After Hough.)

short cells, the upper and lower cell of each group tapering to a
point, each group originating, in fact, from the transverse division
of one cambium-cell. They retain their protoplasm and become
filled with starch in autumn. Their walls are not much thickened,
but are lignified and pitted, having bordered pits where in contact
with trachee or tracheids, but simple pits elsewhere. Wood-
parenchyma is commonly grouped in narrow circles round the
vessels, appearing in longitudinal sections as cloudy margins to
them. It may expand from such circles laterally into wings form-
ing a spindle-shaped patch with the vessel in the centre, and these
wings may widen until they meet others, so forming straggling
oblique lines, long wavy streaks, or concentric circles (“ false
rings’). These transverse lines of tissue may be very narrow,
as in Ebonies, or broad and conspicuous. Wood-parenchyma much

WOOD OF BROAD-LEAVED TREES 29

resembles the pith-rays, especially in tangential longitudinal sec-
tions ; but its walls are not elongated radially.

As has been said, the wood of broad-leaved trees may contain
from three to five of these different elements. Vessels are always
present, but in some cases tracheids are absent. The wood of
Plane, Ash, and Citrus (Orange, Lemon, etc.), for example, con-
sists of vessels, woody fibre, thin-walled fibrous cells and wood-
parenchyma only. That of Holly, Hawthorn, and Pyrus (Apple,
Pear, Rowan, etc.) is made up of vessels, tracheids, and wood-
parenchyma : that of Maples, Elder, Ivy, Huonymus, etc. contains
also thick-walled fibrous cells. The wood of Berberis (Barberry)

a

OL Ee. ow a i}
pear Se TESS. sre BSNS y porn g

Pr, 42a Se | f |

_— ——
——__ =

\ ene i :
| | Weep:
HH] | | 1 a eee
iii} it \| | an
| |
HTT
i Hh }

WP
Fia. 25.—A piece of dicotyledonous wood, m: er about 100 times. A transverse
section is shown above, with a pith-ray (Pr) crossing the zone of autumn wood
(a) which forms the outer boundary of an annual ring. In front is a radial longi-
tudinal section showing wood parenchyma (IVP), some large trachez (7), and much
wood-fibre, crossed by another pith-ray. The tangential section is in shadow.

consists exclusively of vessels, tracheids, and thin and _thick-
walled fibrous cells; and that of Oaks, Hornbeams, Plum, and
Buckthorn of vessels, tracheids, woody fibre, and wood-paren-
chyma (Figs. 25 and 26). The most common type of structure, how-
ever, occurring in Willows, Poplars, Alder, Birch, Walnut, Linden,
Magnolia, Ailanthus, Robinia, etc., contains vessels, tracheids,
woody fibre, thin-walled fibrous cells, and wood-parenchyma.
The distinctive features of woods, however, depend rather
upon the proportions in which these elements are present, and
upon their arrangement, than upon the absence of any of the six
kinds of elements. There is, as a rule, among the woods of

30 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

broad-leaved trees no such regularity of radial arrangement of
elements as characterizes the simple wood of conifers. In the
cambium region, it is true, owing to the repeated regular tan-
gential divisions, the cells not only appear rectangular in a trans-
verse section, but are also in regular radial rows ; but in the xylem
itself this regularity is disturbed by the different diameters
attained by the various elements as they become fully formed.
In Oak, for example, the annual rings are marked in a cross-
section by the large and conspicuous pores, or sections of the
vessels, which occupy the greater part of the spring wood of each
ring (Fig. 27). On a radial section the layers appear as parallel

Fic. 26.—Transverse section of Beech (Fagus sylvdtica). Magnified 100 times.
a, narrow pith-ray ; 6, broad pith-ray ; c, boundary of an annual ring. The large
pores are transverse sections of vessels (trachez). The thick-walled elements with
narrow lumina are wood-fibres ; those with thinner walls and wider lumina, wood-
parenchyma or tracheids. (From Hartig’s Timbers and how to know them, by permission
of Dr. Somerville and Mr. David Douglas.)

stripes, and on a tangential one as broader and less parallel stripes ;
but, whilst in coniferous woods the dark bands were denser summer
wood, in this case the darker parts are produced by the vessels
in the spring wood, the more uniform fibres of the summer wood
appearing lighter. Vessels, tracheids, and fibres formed in spring
have larger diameters and thinner walls than those formed in
autumn, which fact produces much of the distinctness of the
annual rings. In timbers with well-marked rings the distinctness
of these rings may either be due, as in Oak, Ash, Teak, etc., to the
contrast between wood with numerous large vessels and that with
fewer or smaller ones ; or, as in Birch, Maple, Horse-chestnut, etc.,

RINGS AND FALSE RINGS 31

to the fibres being smaller across and thicker-walled in one part of
each ring, whilst the vessels may be evenly dispersed through the
whole wood. Woods differ widely as to the circularity of their
rings. In not a few cases they are distinctly wavy ; and, whilst
in Beech and Hornbeam the crests of the waves—as seen in a

= 4 Sean, Baya
ot SS rp RI Set Faey yp &
GEES Cy SG Oy SS ORD 3

8

d

M.Str., pith-

YAY)
0
0

®
an
raVn

0729,

of)
ABhin a

Cone na
Ors \i

vere
0/0

3

20,
Gef., Large trachee ;

rays, a large one to the left ; Librf., wood-fibres ; H.P., wood-parenchyma ; T'rach., tracheids ;

J.Gr., boundary of annual ring.

40

G

a
Kny, from The Oak, by permission of Prof.

(After
Marshall Ward and Messrs. Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co.)

Fia. 27.Transverse section of Oak, highly magnified.

x
2
Re

cross-section—bend inwards at the primary pith-rays, in the Bar-
berry they bend outwards. In evergreens, to which type belong
the bulk of tropical broad-leaved timbers, where there is not the
check to physiological activity produced by the “ fall of the leaf,”’
we do not, as a rule, find such well-marked annual rings. Some-
times, however, the annual rings are replaced by less completely

32 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

concentric zones, often stretching as wavy, pale, bar-like markings
from one primary pith-ray to another, and sometimes running into
one another. These “false rings,” as they have been termed,
which are seen in the wood of Figs, She-oaks (Casuarina), Poon
(Calophyllum), etc., will be found on microscopic examination to
be mainly produced by zones of wood-parenchyma.

The grouping of the vessels also affords some useful distinctive
characters. Thus in Box and in Quince they usually occur singly ;
in Hazel and Holly in groups of from 5 to 12 ; in Hornbeam in long
sinuous radial lines between the pith-rays ; in Elms in concentric

Fic. 28.—Transverse section of Buckthorn (Rhdmnus cathdrticus), showing flame-like
groups of vessels.

bands like false rings ; and in Oaks, Chestnut and Buckthorn, from
20 to 50 together, in flame-like groups (Fig. 28).

The elements of the wood are generally parallel in direction
to the axis of the stem or limb in which they occur—+.e. the wood
is straight-grained ; but they may be spirally twisted round the
stem, or oblique, in which latter case if successive layers lie in
opposite directions the wood is cross-grained. <A slightly wavy
longitudinal course in the elements of the wood produces the
condition known as curly grain, frequent in Maple; whilst slight
projections or depressions repeated on the outer surface of suc-
cessive annual layers produce the bird’s-eye and landscape varieties
in the same wood. The presence of undeveloped buds or knots,

PITH-RAYS AND PITH-FLECKS 30

.as in “burrs,” produced on many trees by the attacks of mites
(Phytoptus), causes similar ornamental wavings of the grain.

One main cause of the elements not being vertical is their growth
in length and in diameter after leaving the cambium stage. Such
growth in length causes the tips of the fibres to crowd in between
those above and below, and become interlaced and oblique in
direction. This adds to the toughness of the wood and makes it
less easy to split, and may produce a visible twisting of stems or
branches.

Up to a certain age the segments or chambers (original cells)
of the vessels, the tracheids and the fibres, gradually increase each
year both in length and diameter.

The pith-rays—as seen in cross-section—afford a very useful
distinctive character, varying much, as they do, in number and
in width. In Willow, Horse-chestnut and Ebony, as in Conifers,
they are either only one cell in width, or are at least so incon-
spicuous as to require a lens for their observation, whilst in Oak
and in the so-called She-oaks (Casuarina) they are conspicuous to
the naked eye. They vary in width from -005 millimetre to a
millimetre ; and in number from 20 or less in a breadth of 5 milli-
metres, as in Labirnum and Robinia, to 64 in the same space, as in
Oak, or even 140 in the case of Rhododéndron maximum.

Another character of some value in discrimination is the occur-
rence of pith-flecks, or medullary spots, dark rust-like patches, which
occur in Alder, Birch, Hazel, Hawthorn and some species of Willow,
Poplar and Pyrus. They are supposed by some authorities to
originate in passages bored by the larve of a species of Tipula
(wire-worm) which live in the cambium, these passages becoming
filled up immediately with cellular tissue ; but their origin requires
further investigation. We will postpone the consideration of such
characters of woods as weight, hardness, colour and odour—char-
acters that depend little, if at all, upon structure—to a subsequent
chapter. It may be noted here that, while it is the lignified ele-
ments of woods, especially their tracheids and fibres, that give
them their chief technological value, it is the stored up nitrogenous
and other more complex, and therefore more chemically unstable,
substances that are the most combustible, 7.e. the most readily
oxidized, and also the most readily decomposed by the attacks of
fungi. It is these substances, therefore, that have to be eliminated.
or at least taken into account, in the processes of seasoning or
preserving timber, and it is their presence which renders sap-
wood generally less durable than the physiologically inert heart-
wood.

CHAPTER Il
THE RECOGNITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WOODS.

Nor only carpenters and other workers in wood, but engineers,
surveyors and timber-merchants at present recognize the timbers
with which they are familiar as to kind, and even largely as to
quality, by methods obviously and confessedly empirical, mere
“rule of thumb.” From this it results that, though woods may
be accurately discriminated generically, as oak, ash, birch or
pine, the species are seldom correctly distinguished, and, as a
consequence, the best wood for any particular purpose is very
often not obtained.

In these empirical identifications such more obvious but variable,
and therefore less trustworthy, characters as weight, hardness,
colour and odour are often more used than most of the struc-
tural characters described in the previous chapter. In attempting
a more thorough-going discrimination we cannot ignore these more
obvious characters ; but it is important to recognize their varia-
bility and consequently merely secondary importance. Details as
to the testing of weight and hardness will form the subject-matter
of a subsequent chapter: we are here only concerned with rough
approximations.

Weight of wood.—The weight of wood depends mainly upon
two things, its compactness and its moisture. Compactness sig-
nifies the amount of woody or other solid matter in a given bulk,
and this will generally be greater in slow-growing than in quick-
growing species, greater in heartwood than in sapwood. Moisture
is so far more variable in amount in the same wood, according to
the extent to which it has been naturally or artificially seasoned,
that no comparison of the weights of different woods can be of any
value unless the samples have been kiln-dried, and even by this
method it is difficult to secure a uniform elimination of moisture.
If finely powdered and completely dried, all woods have a density
or specific gravity—a weight, that is, as compared to that of water
—of approximately 1-5. Many tables have been published giving
the density or specific gravity of various woods to three or even four

34

WEIGHTS OF WOODS 35

places of decimals. A more useful form of statement, however,
is perhaps the weight of a standard cube, either that of a cubic
foot in pounds or that of a cubic decimetre in grams.t Thus,
while water weighs 62-321 lbs. per cubic foot, timbers range from
13 to 85 lbs. per cubic foot.

They may be grouped from this point of view in the following

six grades :
Approximate weight

of 1 cubic foot Specifiz
in pounds. gravity
1. Very light, - - = = = - - - not exceeding 24 "26—"4
Spruce, Willow and most Poplar.
2. Light, - = = - . 24—30 “4—'5
Northern Pine, Hemlock Sree, Tedens Giesenae
3. Medium, - - = : - - - 30—36 “5—'6
pricks -pine, Douglas Spruce, Sycamore.
4. Heavy, - - = - - - 36—42 6— 7
Most Birch, Beech and Walnut,
5. Very heavy, - = = - = - 42—48 ‘7—'8
Hornbeam, Hickory and good ASS and Elm.
6. Heaviest, - - - - - - - Above 48 Above ‘8

Some Oak, most Teak, Mahogany, Teh Mora and Greenheart.

Whilst such kiln-dried weights as those employed here range
from a specific gravity of :26 in Ficus atrea, or 13 lbs. to the
cubic foot in Erythrina suberosa, to 1-3 in Black Iron-wood (Con-
ddlia férrea), or 85 lbs. to the cubic foot, as in Anjan (Hardwickia
bindta), none of the native woods of temperate latitudes are, when
dry, as heavy as water.2. Most of the woods in grade 6 of the above
table grow within the tropics.

Hardness of wood.—Though in testing woods for engineering
purposes various resistances, such as stiffness or elasticity and.
compressibility, have to be ascertained, hardness, or resistance to
indentation, is often estimated roughly. It may be expressed.
with precision by the number of kilograms required to sink a
punch one centimetre square to the depth of 1-27 millimetres
(j> of an inch) perpendicularly to the fibres of the wood, or by
the number of pounds per square inch to produce such an indenta-
tion. Here too we may, perhaps, group all woods roughly into
six grades :

1. Hardest, such as the Iron-wood of India, Mésua férrea, which
turns the edge of almost any tool, and Lignum-vite (Gudiacum),
which requires 793 kilograms to produce the standard indentation.

i To facilitate the conversion of one measure into the other it may be noted that
1 cubie foot =nearly 284 (28°315) cubic decimetres, and 1 pound avoirdupois=4533
(453°592) grams.
2 This is true when the contained air is not eliminated. For more precise esti-
mates see Chapter VII.
3—2

36 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

2. Very hard, requiring more than 3200 lbs. per square inch,
such as Hickory and good Oak and Elm.

3. Hard, requiring from 2400 lbs.-—3200 Ibs., such as Ash, Walnut,
Beech, Holly, Sycamore, and Sweet Chestnut.

4. Medium, requiring from 1600 lbs.-2400 lbs., such as Douglas
Spruce.

5. Soft, requiring less than 1600 lbs., such as the majority of
coniferous woods, Pine, Spruce, Cedar, Poplar, Linden and Horse-
chestnut.

6. Very soft, such as the so-called Cotton-tree of India (Bémbax
malabaricum), which is so soft that a pin can be readily driven
into it with the fingers.

Hardness and density or weight to a great extent vary together.
They also increase from the base of a stem up to its first branch,
and decrease from that point upward.

Colour of wood.—The colour of the heartwood affords in
many cases a useful aid in identification, while mere differences of
tint are often indicative of quality or soundness. The black
duramen of the Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), of other species
of Diospjros known as Ebonies, and of Laburnum (Cytisus
Labirnum), the dark brown of the Walnuts, the purplish-red of
Logwood (Hematéxylon campechidnum), the lemon-yellow sapwood
and bluish-red heartwood of the Barberry (Bérberis vulgaris), the
narrow yellow sapwood and greenish heart in Lignum-vite (Gudza-
cum officindlé), or the mottling of dark and light browns in the Olive
(Olea européa), are obvious distinctions.

The Northern Pine (Pinus sylvéstris) presents numerous varia-
tions in the colour of its wood, as well as in its mode of branching,
dependent probably in part upon the conditions under which it is
grown, and the superiority of ‘“‘red deal”? to the more resinous
honey-yellow varieties is well known in trade. Northern hill-
grown wood is commonly redder than that of the south grown in
plains, the finest being that of the Riga pines, with a close pyramid
of ascending branches, including the timber from Smolensk, Vitebsk,
Tchernigov, and Volhynia.

The Locust or False Acacia of the United States (Robinia
Pseudacacia) includes at least four varieties of wood. The most
durable, most beautiful, .and most valuable is the red: the
commonest, the green, a greenish-yellow wood (apparently the
only kind imported), is next in value ; the black is only recorded
in the Western States ; and the white is the least valuable.

In West Virginia three varieties of the Tulip-tree (Liriodéndron
tulipifera) are distinguished as ‘“* White,” “ Blue,” or ‘“ Yellow
Poplar,” of which only the last named is commonly shipped to

ee

HARDNESS AND COLOURS OF WOODS 37

this country. Grown only for ornament in Europe, in America
this tree is largely used for rafters, wainscots, roof-shingles,
boxes, furniture, and turnery, and increasing quantities now
arrive at Liverpool from New York under the names of American
or Yellow Poplar, American Whitewood or Canary Whitewood.
These names and that of ‘‘ Tulip-wood ”’ are nearly all objectionable,
as previously applied to very different woods, or as suggesting a
connection between the tree, a member of the Magnolia family,
and the Poplars. The yellow variety of its wood comes from
moist low-lying ground, and is valued for staining or polishing, by
cabinet-makers, shop-fitters, and coach-builders.

Exposure to air or light darkens the colour of most wood, as is
well seen in freshly felled, as compared to seasoned, Mahogany.
Moisture carries this darkening deeper into the wood, whilst the
black of Oak and the dark brown of Yew after prolonged immer-
sion in bogs are well known. The translucency of all sound
timber when in thin slices gives it a characteristic lustre, whilst
incipient decay renders it dull and opaque. Any local departure
from the natural colour peculiar to the species is an indication of
incipient decay. The deterioration that sets in directly growing
timber passes maturity generally shows itself first by a white
colour at the centre of the butt-end of the leg. This is not a
serious defect ; but the yellowish-red tinge subsequently assumed
indicates a loss of toughness and tenacity, and suggests that the
log is not well fitted for constructive work. So too spots of
discoloration scattered through a log, especially at its butt-end,
are liable to prove centres from which serious decay, caused or
accompanied by parasitic fungal moulds, may spread. This
remark does not apply, however, to the so-called pith-flecks or
medullary spots, which are often numerous in woods when perfectly
sound. The reddish-brown tinge known as foxiness is a clear sign
of advanced decay, unfitting wood for any purposes requiring
strength ; but Oak is very often much prized by cabinet-makers
when in this condition, merely on account of its colour, it being
then known as ‘** Brown Oak.”

Odours and resonance of woods.—The odours of woods, such
as the resinous smells of Deal or Teak, the fragrance of Cedars,
Toon, or Sandal-woods, the characteristic perfume of Camphor-
trees and the unpleasant smells of the Stinkwood (Ocotéa bulldta)
of South Africa and the Til (Oreodaphné fétens) of Madeira, may
sometimes be of use in discrimination, as, to an educated ear,
may the notes given out by different woods when struck by a
hammer. In the manufacture of musical instruments the wood
must be of uniform structure, even-grained, free from knots, well

38 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

seasoned, and unbent, so that each fibre may vibrate freely. The
notes emitted will vary in pitch directly with the elasticity, and
indirectly with the weight of the wood.

Spruce (Picéa excélsa), imported as “‘ Swiss Pine,” ‘ Violin-
wood,” or ‘‘ Bois de resonnance,” is employed for the sounding
boards of pianos and the belly of violins, whilst Maple, a dense
wood, is used for the back and ribs of the latter instrument.

Classification of woods.—Obviously these “rule of thumb”
characteristics are generally made use of in practice, not sepa-
rately, but together. This will also be the case in the classification
which we are about to propose, which refers mainly to the ap-
pearance of transverse sections, including both heartwood and
sapwood.

For ready identification and comparison of timbers, considering
even the great variety that are used in the arts in various parts
of the world, it is obviously necessary to have some system of
classification. Botanists group trees, as they do other flowering
plants, in accordance with the characters of their flowers, fruit,
and leaves, a method which is undoubtedly the best for the
purpose of indicating the genetic affinities of the various species.
As we have seen, for instance, timber-yielding trees fall naturally
into two main groups, conifers and dicotyledonous angiosperms, of
which the first is generally distinguished by needle-like leaves
and seeds borne exposed on the inner surfaces of scales arranged
in a cone, whilst the second group has generally broad leaves and
the seeds enclosed in a fruit. For the practical study of timber,
however, we require a scheme of grouping based upon the wood
itself ; and, having often to deal with converted timber it is well to
be as independent as we can of characters derived from bark, or
even from pith. Speaking of this problem in his excellent work,
Timber and some of its Diseases, Professor H. Marshall Ward
writes : “‘ It may be doubted whether all the difficulties are likely
to be surmounted. ... In any case, while allowing that it is as
yet impossible so to arrange a collection of pieces of timber, that
all the kinds can be recognized at a glance, it must be admitted
that the attempt to do so at least aids one in determining many
kinds.” ;

In describing the many valuable timbers of India, Mr. J. 8.
Gamble makes use of eight classes of characters: (i) the size of
the trees ; (ii) whether they are evergreen or deciduous ; (iii) the
bark ; (iv) the wood, its colour, hardness, and grain; (v) the
annual rings ; (vi) the pores or vessels; (vii) the pith rays; and
(viii) other miscellaneous characters, such as concentric markings
or false rings. Of these, the first three are not available to the

DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS 39

student of converted timber. The annual rings by their width
indicate the rate of growth, a character of great importance
as to quality, if not of great distinctive value. More than 12
rings to the inch, giving, as it does, 6 feet of girth in 134 years,
may be termed slow growth; from 12 to 6 rings to the inch,
which would mean 6 feet of girth in from 134 to 67 years,
moderate ; and less than 6 rings to the inch, or 6 feet of girth in
67 years, fast growth.

The absence of pores or vessels is characteristic of coniferous
woods. As to the size of pores, Mr. Gamble classifies them in
7 groups: extremely small, as in Box; very small, as in Acer
pictum ; small, as in Haldu (Adina cordifdlia) ; moderate-sized, as
in Mahwa (Bassia latifolia) ; large, as in Siris (Albizzia Lébbek) ;
very large, as in Erythrina suberdsa ; and extremely large, as in
many climbers (Fig. 4, for instance).

So too the pith-rays, as distinctive characters, are grouped
under seven types: extremely fine, as in Hudnymus ldcerus ; very
fine, as in Ebony (Diospyros Melanoxylon); fine, as in Siris
(Albizzia Lébbek); moderately broad, as in Dillenia pentagyna
(Compare Fig. 34, p. 48); broad, as in Plane (Platanus orientdlis),
im which case they measure } mm. ; very broad, as in some Oaks,
in which they reach 1 mm.; and extremely broad, as in Sdmara
robista. The number and distance apart of the pith-rays are also
characters of consequence. When further apart than twice the
diameter of the pores they may be termed distant.

There are some of these microscopic characters that are
eminently distinctive of large groups, such as the Natural Orders
into which botanists group plants. The Cwpulifere, for instance,
that great group to which the Oaks, Beeches, Chestnuts and
Hornbeams belong, have their pores in wavy radial lines or
queues: in the Hbendcew, or Ebony tribe, and the Sapotdcee, a
closely-allied tropical Order, including the Bullet-woods (Mimusops),
the pores are in short, wavy lines, and there are wavy false rings ;
but whilst the Ebendcee have white, grey or black wood, that of
the Sapotdcee is reddish. So too the tropical Order Anondcee,
or Custard-Apple family, which includes the Lancewood of the
West Indies, has regular ladder-like transverse bars on its woods
that are very characteristic.

Several of the characters used in the classification of woods,
such as weight per cubic foot, hardness and amount of ash left on
combustion, not only vary together, but also differ according to
the age of the tree and the distance of the sample from the root.
Weight, for instance, increases from the butt to the lowest branch,
and decreases from the latter point upward.

40 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

Among minor characters sometimes of use in discriminating
woods may be mentioned the colour of a solution obtained by
boiling the wood in water or in alcohol, its reaction when treated
with a solution of iron sulphate or perchloride, and the colour of
the ash produced in burning. Jarrah, for instance, yields a black
cindery mass, whilst the only less valuable paving wood Karri
gives a white ash.

Unfortunately trees of the same Order, or even of the same
genus, by no means always have similar woods. Mr. Gamble, for
instance, cites the important genus Dalbérgia, three Indian species
of which—the Blackwood (D. latifolia), Sissoo (D. Sissoo), and D.
lanceoldria—have hard, dark-coloured, heavy woods ; whilst other
species have only white and often soft sapwood, not forming any

Fic. 29,—Transverse section of Linden, a ring-porous wood, showing three annual
rings. (After Van Tieghem, from The Elements of Botany, by permission of Mr.
Francis Darwin and the Syndicate of the Cambridge University Press.)

‘duramen,’ or heartwood. When, however, we compare heartwoods
microscopically they do as a rule resemble one another in allied
species.

In many cases a knowledge of the locality from which a timber
comes may aid us in identifying it. Thus, save by this means, it
is apparently impossible to distinguish the woods of Owpréssus
Lawsonidina from Oregon, C. thydides from the Eastern States,
Thiya gigantea, the Canoe Cedar or Red Cedar of the West, and
T’. occidentalis, the Arbor-vite of the North-east, all of them being
known to American timber-merchants as White Cedar.

The following table is by no means exhaustive, few Asiatic or
Australian woods being, as yet, classified in it. It has seldom
been possible to carry the discrimination further than genera.
Though obvious naked-eye characters have been largely employed,
use 1s also made of those seen only in microscopic sections. For

CLASSIFICATION OF CONIFEROUS WOODS 41

this purpose it is only necessary to take a single shaving, across
the grain, with a well-sharpened plane, put it at once into methyl
blue or some other die, and then mount it as an ordinary micro-
scopic slide. The first character to be observed is the presence
or absence of ‘‘ pores” or the transverse sections of large trachee.
If they are absent, which practically means that the wood is
coniferous, we next look for conspicuous resin-canals, and for the
presence of heartwood defined by a distinct colour. The out-
lines of the annual rings, the hardness, colour, weight, taste and
smell of the wood then afford further means of identification ;
whilst such microscopic characters as the presence of tracheids
in the pith-rays, or of spiral thickening in the tracheids, are only
requisite as a last resource. Where, on the other hand, the
presence of ‘“‘ pores” indicates that the wood is that of a broad-
leaved tree, we first note whether there are, or are not, distinct
annual rings, or whether “ false rings’ of wood-parenchyma are
present; then whether the “pores” are so collected in the
inner or spring portion of each ring that we should class the
timber in question as “‘ ring-porous”’ (Fig. 29), or whether they are
so scattered that we may call it ‘‘ diffuse-porous.”” The grouping
of the pores, the prominence of the pith-rays, the weight, hardness,
and colour here again furnish subsidiary characters.

I. CONIFEROUS OR NON-POROUS WOODS.

No visible or conspicuous pores on a transverse section, even
when magnified, the wood containing no trachez or true vessels,
except immediately round the pith. Resin-canals often present
in the autumn wood. Annual rings generally sharply marked
by denser, dark-coloured autumn bands. Pith-rays very fine and
numerous, invisible to the naked eye.

A. Without conspicuous resin-canals.

1. No distinct heartwood : rings well rounded.

a. Yellowish-white, soft: no tracheids in the pith-rays.
Abies. The True or Silver Firs, e.g. A. pectindta of
Central Europe, A. Webbidna of the Himalayas, 4d.
balsimea, the Balsam Fir of the North-Eastern United
States, and A. grandis, A. concolor, A. amabilis, A.
nobilis, and A. magnifica of the Western States.

b. Reddish, soft, brittle: pith-rays with tracheids. T'szga.
The Hemlock Spruces, including 7’. canadénsis of North-
east, and 7’. Mertensiana of North-west America.

«

42 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

2. Heartwood present and contrasting in colour.

a. Heavy, hard, non-resinous, dull. Heartwood brownish
or orange-red : sapwood lemon-colour. Rings excentric,
wavy and sinuous. Yaxus. The Yews, including 7’.
baccata of Europe and Northern Asia, and 7’. brevifolia
of North-west America.

b. Light, soft to medium hard, usually aromatic. Heartwood
rose, yellowish or brownish red: sapwood yellowish
white. Rings wavy and sinuous. Pith-rays very fine.
The *‘ Red Cedars,” Juniperus.

Heartwood rose to brown red. J. virginiana.
Heartwood yellowish-brown. J. communis and J. Oxycédrus.

c. Very light, very soft, odourless. Heartwood light-red,
turning brownish: sapwood narrow, amber-coloured.
Rings regular. Pith-rays very distinct, especially on
the radial section. Resin-canals in a single row, or
absent. ‘* Redwoods,” Sequoia.

d. Medium heavy and hard, often camphor-scented. Heart-
wood rich brown, often mottled with darker brown
or yellow: sapwood narrow, white. Rings wavy.
“Cypress Pines,” etc. Callitris.

e. Light, moderately hard, or soft, fragrant. Heartwood
yellowish or reddish-brown. Rings well rounded.
Resin-ducts few and narrow. COédrus.

3. Heartwood present, but differmg only in shade from the sap-
wood, of a dull yellowish or greyish brown.

a. Odourless and tasteless. ZJ'axddium.

b. Light, soft, with slight resinous odour, tasteless. Rings
finely and coarsely wavy. Pith-rays very fine but
distinctly coloured. ‘* White Cedars,” including Thuya
occidentalis and T’. gigantea, Cupréssus thyoides and C.
Lawsoniana.

c. Light, soft, with resinous smell and peppery taste. Incense
Cedar, Libocédrus.

Near here belong apparently the Huon Pine and allied species,
Dacrydium, ete.

B. Resin-canals present, at least in autumn wood.

1. Heartwood not distinctly coloured, white: resin-canals few,
very narrow: rings imperfectly rounded ; tracheids in pith-
rays. Spruces, Picea.

2. Heartwood distinct.

a. Resin-canals not numerous, nor evenly distributed.

CLASSIFICATION OF CONIFEROUS WOODS | 43

(i) Canals solitary or here and there in pairs; tracheids
without spirals. Heartwood reddish-brown, sapwood
yellowish. Knots irregularly distributed. Larches
or Tamarack, Larix.

(ii) Canals in groups or lines of 8-30: tracheids with
spirals, otherwise resembling Larch. Douglas Spruce,(¥ )
Pseudotsuga.

b. Resin-canals numerous, evenly distributed. Knots in
regular whorls. Pinus.

1)
Ms

ie
a

rT

sine

i

ae
rh

Oe

°)

©)
©

@Q © ©

©@@@® &

Fic. 30.—Radial section of Scots Fir (Pinus sylvéstris). Magnified 100 times.
a, narrrow tracbeids of autumn wood with small bordered pits on their radial walls ;
b, broad spring tracheids; cd, resin-duct lined with epithelium ; e, parenchyma of
pith-ray with large simple pits ; f, tracheids of pith-ray with small bordered pits and
Gentate projections. (From Hartig’s Timbers and how to know them, by permission of
Dr. Somerville and Mr. David Douglas.)

(i) Wood tolerably hard and firm: transition from spring
to autumn wood abrupt : resin-canals more numerous
in autumn wood : heartwood reddish: tracheids of
pith-ray with dentate projections, when seen in
radial section (Fig. 30). Hard Pines.

* 1 or 2 simple pits on radial wall of each tracheid of
pith-ray. ‘‘ Norway pine ” of U.S.A., Pinus resinosa.

** 3 to 6 such pits.
+ Wide rings. Loblolly and Short-leaf Pines of
U.S.A., P. téda and P. echindta ; Northern,

44 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

Black Austrian, and Cluster Pines of Europe,
P. sylvéstris, Laricio, and Pinaster.
tt Narrower rings. Longleaf Pine of U.S.A., P.
palustris ; Dwarf Pine of Europe, P. montana.
(ii) Wood soft and light: transition from spring to
autumn wood gradual; autumn wood narrower and
with fewer resin-canals : tracheids of pith-ray without
dentate projections. Soft Pines.
* Rings rather narrow, circular: resin-ducts very large
and numerous : wood yellowish. P. Cémbra.
** Rings broad : wood redder. Weymouth and Sugar
Pines, P. Strébus and P. Lambertidana of U.S.A. ; and
probably the Aleppo Pine, P. halepénsis.

II, LEAF-WOODS, HARD-WOODS, OR POROUS WOODS.

Pores visible on transverse section, either to the naked eye or
when magnified, often characteristically grouped, especially in
spring-wood. Pith-rays either all fine or some broad.

A. Without distinct annual rings, though sometimes with
false-rings or partial zones of wood-parenchyma. Mostly
tropical.

1. With false rings.
a. Some pith-rays broad. Indian Oaks, Quércus lamellosa, etc.
6. All pith-rays narrow.

(i) False rings very distinct.

* No distinct heartwood : wood moderately hard and
dense, greyish. Banyan, Ficus bengalénsis, Myro-
balans, Termindlia belérica, and various Asiatic
Acacias and other Leguminose.

** Dark heavy heartwood. J#.g. the very hard, tough
purplish-brown Jhand, Prosopis spicigera.

(ii) False rings obscure: wood dense, heavy, red, brown,
purple or black. Including the chief hardest woods
of India and other tropical countries, such as the
Ebonies, Diospijros, Ironwood, Mésua férrea, Pynkado,
Xylia dolabriformis, Anjan, Hardwickia binata, Rose-
woods, Dalbérgia, Pterocarpus, ete., Babul, Acdcia
ardbica, and other species, such, perhaps, as the
Australian Myall, A. homalophylla, Saj, Termindlia
tomentosa, Bandara, Lagerstrémia parvifolia, Lignum-
vitee, Gudiacum, ete. Olive (Olea ewropéa), a close,

———— Os

CLASSIFICATION OF HARD-WOODS 45

compact, yellow wood, characteristically mottled
with brown, with uniformly scattered vessels, may,
perhaps, be classed here.
2. Without false rings.
a. Soft, with no distinct heart. Silk-cotton, Boémbax, Mango,
Mangifera, etc.
b. Harder, denser, usually with distinct heart. Siris,
Albizzia Lébbek, Eng, Dipterocdrpus tuberculdtus, ete.
(Compare Fig. 33, p. 47.)

B. With distinct annual rings.

1. Ring-porous : vessels in spring wood large or numerous, those
in summer wood small or few and scattered.
a. Vessels in the spring wood larger.

Fic. 31.—Transverse section of Common Ash (Fréwinus excélsior), photographed
from nature.

(i) Vessels in tree-like or dendritic groups, or in circles,
often scattered in the inner part of the rings.

* Slightly dendritic or concentric: pores in summer
wood minute, regularly distributed, singly or in
groups, or in short peripheral, but never radial lines.

t Pith-rays minute, scarcely distinct.
§ Wood heavy and hard : vessels in summer wood
not in clusters, or 2-4 together.

(a) Heartwood not yellow in radial section ; con-
tinuous zone of pores in spring wood. Ash,
Fraxinus.

Vessels in summer wood in peripheral lines.

46 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

White and Green Ash, F. americana and
F. viridis.

Vessels in summer wood not united in peri-
pheral lines. English, Black and Red Ash, F.
excélsior (Fig. 31), F. sambucifolia, F.
pubescens.

(b) Heartwood yellow, very heavy and very
hard. Osage Orange, Maclura.
§§ Wood light and soft : vessels in summer wood in
groups of 10-30. Catdlpa.
tt Pith-rays very fine, but distinct : heartwood red-
dish brown: sapwood yellowish white: vessels

Fic. 32.—Transverse section of Bastard Bullet-wood (Humiria floribinda).

in summer wood single or in short lines :
odour. Sassafras.
ttt Pith-rays fine, but distinct.

§ Very heavy and hard : heartwood dark yellowish
brown: sapwood yellow: vessels 1-10 to-
gether, filled, so appearing as yellow dots.
Black Locust, Robinia.

§§ Heavy : moderately hard or hard.

(a) Vessels in summer wood very minute, usually
in small clusters of 1-8, open: heartwood
yellow to light orange-brown, reddening on

CLASSIFICATION OF HARD-WOODS 47

exposure to light : sapwood yellowish white :
odourless. Mulberry. Morus.
(b) Vessels in summer wood small or minute,
usually solitary: heartwood cherry-red.
Coffee Tree, Gymnoclddus.
+ttt Pith-rays fine, but very conspicuous to the naked
eye : heartwood rose-red to brownish : sapwood
pale lemon or greenish white; vessels open.
Honey-Locust, Gleditschia.
ttttt Pith-rays rather coarse, lustrous : heartwood
brownish or greyish orange: sapwood broad,
yellowish : broad zone of very large open pores

Aan een palabhg Lili

mgt
AA oe

hiss

| | | Tah HH tt H oa
TL NSE Sih
ATT unin Nay
hd Heese in wa si

8 dani
Per YMC att

Fic. 33.—Transverse section of African Oak (Lophira alata), a type of the Dipterocarpacee.

in spring wood: vessels in autumn wood 1-5
together in segments of circles. Azlanthus.

** Strikingly dendritic : pores in summer wood minute
or small, appearing as finely feathered hatchings on
tangential sections.

+ Vessels 1-8 together : pith-rays fine, but distinct.
+ Heartwood yellowish or greenish brown to black,
hard : sapwood narrow, yellowish. Laburnum.
tt Heartwood greenish or yellowish white, hard,
heavy: sapwood not differing. Hackberry.
Celtis.

48 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

Tt Vessels 1 to several dozen together, in wavy peri-
pheral lines in autumn wood : heartwood brown,
hard, heavy: sapwood yellowish-white. Elm,
Ulmus.

t Pores of spring wood forming a broad band of
several rows. English, Scotch and Red or
Slippery Elm, Ulmus campéstris, monténa and
fulva.

ti Pores of spring wood in a single row, or nearly
so. White, Rock, Winged and Cedar Elms of

Fic. 34.—Transverse section of Dillénia tndica.

U.S.A. Ulmus americina, racemdsa, aldta
and crassifolia.
Vessels in radial lines or queues, wavy or branched,
the branches often uniting.
7 All the pith-rays very broad.
t Wood beset with large pores : heartwood reddish-
brown. Vine, Vitis.
tf Wood, sulphur yellow, hard: zone of vessels
narrow. Barberry, Bérberis.
rt Pith-rays so narrow as to be hardly perceptible :
heartwood oak-brown: zone of vessels very
broad and vessels large, but less crowded than in
Oak. Chestnut, Castanea.

ROKK

.

CLASSIFICATION OF HARD-WOODS 49

ttt Some of the pith-rays very broad and easily visible
to the naked eye. Oaks, Quercus.

+ Pores in summer wood very fine, numerous and
crowded : heartwood light brown. White Oaks,
Q. dlba, bicolor, palistris, obtusiléba, etc., in U.S.A.
and Robur in Europe.

tt Pores in summer wood fewer but larger: heart-
wood dark brown. Red and Black Oaks of
U.S.A., Q. rubra, tinctoria.

ttt Pores few, gradually but slightly diminishing
across the entire ring: wood very dense and
heavy. Live Oaks, Q. virens of U.S.A., Ilex and
Suber of Europe.

ttt Pith-rays moderately broad and distinct : vessels
in spring wood very large, those in summer wood
much smaller, 1-8 together : heartwood brownish
yellow : sapwood white. Judas-tree, Cércis.

**** Vessels in summer wood mostly but little smaller

than those of the spring wood, scattered, solitary,
or few together. Mostly hard, heavy woods.

+ Fine peripheral lines of wood-parenchyma : pith-
rays fine: zone of vessels interrupted : summer
wood reddish nut-brown. Hickories, Hicoria.

+t Similar, but with blackish heartwood. Persimmon,
Diospyros virginiana.

ttt Vessels distinct and large, sometimes filled with
white phosphate of lime: pith-rays fine, distinct,
light-coloured: wood brownish-red. Teak, T'ectona.

+ttt Vessels equally distributed: pith-rays fine, dis-
tinct : wood a warm red brown, often beautifully
figured. Mahogany, Swieténia Mahagoni.

TttTt Vessels very large, open or partly filled with a
brown resin : pith-rays distinct : heart-wood cin-
namon brown, very soft, fragrant. Honduras
Cedar, Cedréla odorata.

b. Vessels in the spring wood not larger, but generally more
numerous and crowded than in the autumn wood.
(i) Pith-rays distinct.

* Heartwood reddish-brown, zone of vessels in spring
wood lighter coloured: vessels 1-4 together: hard,
heavy. Plum, Prinus domestica.

** Heartwood yellowish-brown, with greenish streaks,
fragrant: vessels 1-8 together: hard. Mahaleb
Cherry, Primus Mahaieb.

4

50 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

*** Heartwood yellowish-brown, with an unpleasant
odour at first: sapwood yellowish-white: vessels
1-8 together: moderately hard. Bird Cherry,
Prinus Padus.

*** Heartwood blackish-brown, with pitch-flecks : sap-
wood reddish: vessels 1-5 together: hard. Black-
thorn, Prinus spinosa.

wee Heartwood yellowish-brown: sapwood reddish-
white: vessels minute, 1-13 together: hard, heavy.
Cherry, Prénus Cerasus.

eK Sanwood yellowish-white: heartwood - slightly

a IO ey
rk
eae

Fic. 35.—Transverse section of Sumach (Rhiis Cotinus, L.).

browner: vessels 1-8 together: hard: pith very
large. Elder, Sambicus.
(ii) Pith-rays not at all, or scarcely visible.

* Heartwood orange-red: sapwood yellow: vessels
about 50 together in branching flame-like groups :
hard, heavy. Buckthorn, Rhdmnus catharticus
(Fig. 28).

** Similarly coloured; but vessels 1-7 together, not in
flames, but equally distributed and minute: soft.
Berry-bearing Alder, Rhamnus Frdangula.

*** Heartwood greyish-green, autumn wood in darker
zones: sapwood narrow, yellowish - white: soft.
Stag’s horn Sumach, Rhis typhina.

CLASSIFICATION OF HARD-WOODS 51

*«#* Heartwood greenish to golden: sapwood narrow,
white: vessels 1-7 together: harder. Venetian
Sumach, or Wig-tree, Rhus Cotinus (Fig. 35.)

**kK Heartwood light brown, touched with red or violet :
sapwood narrow yellowish-white : hard, heavy. Lilac,
Syringa vulgaris.

2. Diffuse-porous : vessels numerous, usually minute, but neither
larger nor more numerous in the spring wood : rings some-
times rendered distinct by closer texture of the elements of
the autumn wood.

a. Vessels large, open, but few.

Fic. 36.—Transverse section of Butternut (Jiiglans cinerea).

(i) Wood soft and light: heartwood light reddish-brown.
Butternut or White Walnut, Jiéglans cinérea (Fig. 36).

(ii) Wood hard and heavy: heartwood chocolate-brown :
pith-rays fine: fine peripheral lines of parenchyma
vessels 1-4 together: with darker wavy zones.
Common Walnut, Jiéglans régia.

(iii) Similar, but darker. Black Walnut, Juglans nigra.
The Indian Sal (Shérea robusta) belongs here.

b. Vessels minute. re
(i) Broad pith-rays present.
* Pith-rays numerous, mostly broad, crowded : rings bend-
ing outwards at the rays: reddish-white or light brown:
4—2

52 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

hard, moderately heavy. Plane, Buttonwood or
Sycamore, Platanus occidentalis.
** Only some of the pith-rays broad.

t Broad rays numerous: rings bending inwards at
the rays: reddish-white or light brown: hard.
Beech, Fagus.

ti Broad rays few, light-coloured : rings very sinuous,
bending inwards at the rays: yellowish-white :
hard, heavy, tough. Hornbeam, White or Blue
Beech, Carpinus.

tit Broad rays few: rings almost circular: reddish-
white, soft. Hazel, Coérylus.

titt Broad rays few: rings bending inwards at the

rays: white, becoming brownish-red, with brown

pith-flecks, soft. Alder, Alnus.
o broad pith-rays.
ith-rays narrow but quite distinct to the naked eye.

+ Wood hard.

§ Pith-rays with a decided satiny lustre. Maples, Acer.
it Rings perfectly circular.

§{ Wood white, hard and heavy: pith-rays
straight : Sycamore or Plane. A. Pseudo-
platanus.

{| Similar; but with winding pith-rays.
A. opulifolium.

ti Rings slightly wavy.

| Wood reddish, very hard, sometimes with
curled, bird’s-eye or blister figures.

(a) Sometimes with pith-flecks. Field Maple, A. cam-
péstré and Moose-wood, A. pennsylvanicum.

(b) Without pith-flecks. Rock or Sugar Maple, A. bar-
batum.

§{ Wood reddish, but lighter, hard, with very
fine but conspicuous pith-rays.

(a) With distinct, dark-coloured heartwood. Red Maple,
A. rubrum.

(b) Without distinctly coloured heartwood. Norway or
Plane Maple, A. platanoides.

"| Wood light-coloured, reddish, or yellow,
lighter and softer.

(a) Red-tinged, sometimes curled. Silver or soft Maple,
A. saccharinum.

(b) Yellowish, with very broad rings: vessels minute,
numerous. Box-elder, A. Negundo.

=

(ii) N
* P

CLASSIFICATION OF HARD-WOODS 53

§§ Pith-rays very fine, but distinct, not markedly
satiny : rings circular : wood white or greenish :
vessels minute. Holly, lez.

tt Wood soft or very soft.

§ Pores crowded, occupying nearly all the space
between the pith-rays.

+ Yellowish-white, often darker or greenish in the
heartwood. American White-wood, Yellow-wood
or Yellow Poplar, Liriodéndron tulipifera, and
Cucumber-tree. Magndlia acumindta and allied
species.

tt Sapwood greyish-white: heartwood light to dark
reddish-brown, heavy, but soft. Sweet Gum,
Bilsted or Red Gum of U.S.A., Liquidambar styra-
ciflua.

§§ Pores not crowded, occupying not more than
one-third of the space between the pith-rays :
brownish or reddish-white to light brown ; only
slightly silky; pith-rays less distinct and less
lustrous than in the Maples: light. Linden,
Lime or Basswood, Tilia.

** Pith-rays not distinct to the naked eye.

+ Wood hard: distribution of vessels uniform, or some-
times in wormlike lines.

§ Vessels 1-3 together.

t Wood flesh-coloured, with pith- flecks. Haw-
thorn, Crataéqgus Oxyacantha.

tt Yellowish-white. Spindle-tree, Hudnymus euro-
pacus.

tit Greenish. Bladdernut, Siaphzylea pinnata.

§§ Vessels 1-4 together.

t Without pith-flecks.

§| Heartwood flesh-coloured. Dogwood, Cdérnus

sanguinea.

{| Brownish-red, no distinct heartwood. Pear,

Pyrus communis.

4/9] With a dark-red brown heartwood. Apple,

Pyrus Malus.

tt With pith-flecks.

§] Sapwood reddish-white: heartwood reddish-
brown: pith-flecks few, near centre. White
Beam, Pyrus Aria.

§|§| Brownish-yellow : pith-flecks numerous. Wild
Service-tree, Pyrus tormindlis.

54

OF WOOD IN GENERAL

§§§ Vessels 1-5 together: pith - flecks numerous:
reddish. Rowan or Mountain Ash, Pyrus Aucu-
parva.

§§§§ Vessels 1-8 together, minute: sapwood whitish :
heartwood reddish, with satiny lustre. Birch,
Bétula.

S§SS§ Light yellow, very compact and fine-grained,
almost horny: rings scarcely visible: heavy.
Box, Bixus.

++ Wood soft.

§ Creamy white, yellowish or reddish, light: vessels
1-7 together, indistinct: rings wide. Horse-
chestnut or Buckeye, 4sculus.

§§ Sapwood white or reddish: heartwood light red
to dark brown, sometimes lustrous, light : rings
sometimes angular : vessels in worm-like groups.
Willow, Sdlix.

§§§ Sapwood white: heartwood light brown, lustrous :
rings angular: vessels 1-5 together. Black
Poplars or Cottonwoods, Populus nigra, moni-
lifera, balsamifera.

§§§§ Rings circular: vessels 1-7 together.

7 Without pith-flecks: heartwood yellow-brown.
White Poplar, Populus alba.

tt With white pith-flecks: white, with no distinct
heartwood. Aspen, Populus trémula.

Further details as to the main types of structure are given and

illustrated in Appendix IV.

CHAPTER III
DEFECTS OF WOOD.

In every stage of their growth trees are liable to mischances, from
defects of soil or climate, from accident, or from the attacks of
fungi, of insects, or of other animals. Some of these mischances have
permanent and important effects upon their wood. Although, in
healthy surroundings and in the absence of external injury, there
is no very definite limit to the longevity of any species of tree, after
it has reached maturity a certain deterioration generally shows
itself at the centre of the trunk, which will subsequently manifest
itself as decay. After felling, shrinkage in the process of drying and
the attacks of species of fungi, mostly differing from those that
injure growing trees, develop further defects in timber of the very
gravest practical import to the consumer.

The attacks of insects or of fungi upon the leaves of trees, though
they may prove fatal to seedlings, have generally in later stages of
growth merely the effect of injuring the nutrition of the plant. They
may thus diminish the amount of wood formed in the season, and.
may, therefore, be of first-rate importance to the forester or timber-
grower, but do not in general concern the timber-user.

Cup-shake.—When, however, the caterpillars of some moths,
such as T'ortrix viridana, entirely destroy the young leaves of the
Oak in June, though the tree may put out new leaves in July and
August, it will only do so at the expense of wood-forming reserve-
materials, and there may possibly result so complete a check to
the nutrition of the tree that the wood of one year may fail to cohere
to that of the preceding season, a cwp-shake or ring-shake being pro-
duced (Fig. 37).

Such a separation between successive annual rings—a defect
seriously interfering with the conversion of timber into planks—
is, however, undoubtedly produced for the most part by various
other causes, and may be briefly here described. It occurs in
various species, such as Hazel, Oak, Poplar, Pitch Pine, and Lignum-
vite, and seems to some extent local. The Oaks of Sicily, for
instance, a variety of our British species, Quércus Robur, and those

5d

56 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

of the Forest of Dean (Q. Rébur, var. sessilifléra), are peculiarly
subject to this defect, which in the latter case has been doubtfully
ascribed either to the rocky character of the soil or to the swaying
to and fro of the tall trees by strong winds. This action of wind
bending the rings of wood alternately in opposite directions, in a
manner obviously calculated to tear them apart, may well explain
the occurrence of this form of shake in Poplars. Cup-shake has
also been attributed to frost, the rings of sapwood and heartwood
in a living tree containing varying proportions of water and the
outer layers being most likely to freeze first. The explosive
rending of trees by frost, the noise of which disturbs the stillness of
night in the forests of North America, may in this way be sometimes
concentric in its action. This may explain the prevalence of this
defect in the swamp-loving Pitch Pine (Pinus australis) of Vir-

Fic. 37.—Cup- and heart-shake.

ginia. Frost cannot, however, be the cause of the frequency of cup-
shake in the tropical Lignum-vitz ; but in this case the sun may have
produced an effect similar to that which sometimes occurs when
part of the cambium ring at the base of a stem is injured by a forest
fire. Lastly, in some Pines this defect is the result of the attacks of
certain fungi (7'’ramétes), the ‘‘ spawn” or “ mycelium” of which
spreads as a felted mass of colourless mould especially in the cam-
bium. Cup-shake occurs most frequently at the base of the stem :
when of long standing, it is often accompanied by traces of rot, and
in many cases it is also associated with star-shake.
Star-shake.—Star-shake consists in clefts radiating from the pith
along the planes of the pith-rays and widening outwards (Fig. 38).
It occurs in many species and in trees of all ages. The clefts
may only extend a small distance and be so slightly open when the

STAR- AND HEART-SHAKE 57

tree is newly felled as to be scarcely perceptible. In such a case
they generally widen during seasoning, from the more rapid drying
of the outer layers, their sides becoming darker in colour than the
rest of the wood. In other instances the clefts may have extended
to the circumference of the stem, in which case they may have been
so overgrown by new wood as to form a longitudinal rib down the
exterior of the bark, a sure sign of the defect to the experienced
timber surveyor. Such extreme cases at least seem to be always
the result of frost or sun, the latter being specially frequent in the
case of smooth thin-barked species, such as Beech and Hornbeam,
in which lines of the cortex are killed by sun-burn.

iN

Ni

———~ . \
=

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caret

ti ay)
Ss

=~
R\\
ail
Eg
a
oe

SS
ES
aca
Py
EA

2
OA
Ws

W
o-

Fic. 38.—Star-shake.

Heart-shake.—More common than either cup-shake or star-
shake is heart-shake, one or two clefts crossing the central rings of
the stem and widening towards the centre (Fig. 39).

This may occur in almost every kind of timber, whether coni-
ferous or broad-leaved, and seems to be quite independent of soil
or situation. Among species least affected by it Mr. Laslett
mentions the so-called African Oak or Teak (Oldfieldia africana),
Sabicu, Spanish Mahogany, Common Elm, Dantzic Fir or Redwood
(Pinus syléestris), Canadian Red Pine (Pinus resinésa), and, some-
what less free from it, Canadian Yellow Pine (Pinus Strobus) ;
whilst as exceptionally liable to the defect he mentions the true
Indian Teak (Tectona grandis), the Australian Tewart (Hucalyptus
gomphocéphala), the Riga and Swedish varieties of Pinus sylvéstris,
and P. australis, the Pitch Pine of the southern United States.

1 Timber and Timber-trees, cd. ii., p. 54

58 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

Greenheart (Nectindra Rodiaéi) commonly develops two crossing
heart-shakes for two or three feet up the butt-end of the log. One
of the worst forms of this defect is when, owing to spiral growth, the
shake shifts its direction as we trace it up the stem. It may in
this way sometimes be nearly at right angles at one end of the tree
to its direction at the other, thus rendering the conversion of a
log into plank wellnigh impossible.

It is this hindrance to the conversion of timber into plank that
constitutes the main practical importance of all forms of shake,
as they do not at first involve any decay, and consequently do
not much interfere with the employment of the logs in bulk.
Heart-shake, however, is probably in itself an indication of that
incipient decay that comes when timber has passed its maturity
and the older layers shrink more than the outer.

Fic. 39.—Heart-shake.

Rind-gall.—Somewhat allied to cup-shake is the local defect
known as rind-gall. This originates from the destruction of part
of the bark of a growing tree, whether by another tree falling
against it, the scorching of a forest-fire, the gnawing of an animal,
or even the cutting of initials by some misguided youth. If the
cut has penetrated to, exposed, and destroyed the cambium, there
may, in spite of the gradual overgrowth of layers of new wood
from the margins of the injury, be a local want of cohesion between
the exposed wood and that subsequently formed over it. This
defect may entirely escape detection from the outside of an un-
converted log.

Decay.—Bright-looking wood is generally of better quality
than that which is dull; while any departure from the usual
colour of the timber of the species is commonly, as we have

FUNGAL ATTACK 59

already stated, an indication of at least incipient local decay.
Discoloured patches, such as occur on the exterior of the butt-
ends of some masts of the Kauri (or Cowdie) Pine of New Zealand
(Agathis australis), will generally be found to be relatively brittle.
They are usually white at first and are then of small extent or
consequence ; but when they are yellowish-red, the mischief has
gone further; and a decided red or foxy colour indicates a wide-
spread decay so serious as to disqualify the timber for purposes of
construction. Oak, however, in an advanced state of foxiness
and decay is in request for cabinet-work. In old Beeches, and
other trees, decay appears to begin in the pith and spread outwards,
such wood being known in France as bois rouge ; but it very fre-
quently originates in a broken branch, a rind-gall, or a star-shake
reaching the surface, so that air, damp and fungi find access to the
wood of the tree. It is this decay spreading from the pith that
gradually hollows out old trees; but this hollowing occurs much
earlier in pollards where water and rotting leaves may accumulate
in the fork of the crown, or in trees in which broken limbs or
other injuries have been neglected. The breaking of a small
branch may set up decay, and yet such a druxy knot, as it is termed,
may gradually be covered up with sound wood, so that only a
slight swelling may indicate the defect at the surface of the stem.
Any such excrescence should be removed directly a tree is felled ; as,
though the healing over, by excluding further damp, may have
checked the mischief, there is no telling from the outside how deep
it may have extended, and such a patch of decayed wood, if left to
itself, is certain on being laid bare in the process of conversion to
absorb more atmospheric moisture and so enlarge itself.

It is now clearly understood that the pure lignified cellulose of
seasoned wood is practically imperishable. It may be splintered
and pulverized by mechanical action, but neither air nor moisture
have per se any destructive effect on it. Originally secreted by the
protoplasm of the vegetable cell, it is, however, liable to be re-
dissolved or digested by this powerful natural solvent, or, perhaps,
rather by the ferments which it contains. This protoplasmic
fermentative action may affect wood in two ways. When wood
is “green” or imperfectly seasoned, it may be set up by the
nitrogenous matter remaining in the tissues of the wood itself.
On the other hand, after seasoning, if proper ventilation is absent,
and if the tissues of the wood have not been refilled with some
preservative, it may originate in the action of the living protoplasm
of some other plant, such as a “mould” or saprophytic fungus,
or the cellulose-bacteria of the soil.

Fungal attack.—Fungi excrete ferments, which, in the presence

60 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

of moisture, air, and some degree of heat, exert a solvent action,
some on cellulose, some on lignin. The fungus feeds on what it
dissolves, and specially flourishes in the living nitrogenous matter
of sapwood. As no fungal growth takes place without water and
air, neither absolutely dry wood, nor completely submerged wood,
will decay. Some fungi confine their attacks to living trees, others
to timber after it is felled ; and of the first-mentioned class some
are true parasites, attacking the roots of living and otherwise
healthy trees, whilst others are wound-parasites, the minute spores
or reproductive germs finding their way into the tree through
some wound not produced by the fungus. Holes bored by insects,
excoriations of the bark by animals of any kind, and branches
broken by wind or badly pruned, afford wounds suitable for the
attacks of these last. When the disease caused by a wound-para-
site manifests itself first in the cortical and cambium tissues it is
termed a canker. Some fungi are confined to single species of trees,
others attack conifers only, others hard woods only, whilst some
seem capable of attacking trees of all kinds alike. The fungi most
destructive to timber belong to the more highly organized sub-
divisions of the class, the Peziza, which produces the canker in the
Larch, being, for instance, one of the Ascomycétes, whilst many
others known as “ wet rot,” “‘ dry rot,” etc., are members of the
order Hymenomycétes, that to which the mushrooms belong.

One of the most generally destructive of these last is the toad-
stool Agaricus (Armillaria) mélleus, clusters of the yellow fructi-
fications of which are often seen near the base of unhealthy Beech,
Spruce, Oak, or other trees in autumn. The upper surface of its
tawny cap is shaggy with hair; the gills on the under surface run
down on to the stalk, round which there is a well-marked torn
ring ; and the spores, when ripe, are white. Underground, instead
of the delicate white “spawn” or mycelium, resembling cobweb,
which is common among fungi, this species produces stout, pur-
plish-black strands, which may extend, at a depth of six or eight
inches below the surface, to a distance of several feet. These strands
are known as rhizomorphs, from their root-like appearance. They
have growing points capable of penetrating the cortex of living tree
roots, and, when they have done so, extend into the cambium and
send off branches into the pith-rays and the wood. When this
parasite attacks a resinous tree, such as Spruce, a quantity of the
resin flows from the pierced root, and the fungal threads travel
partly along the resin-passages. In these cases the fungal threads
commonly exude a fermentative secretion, by means of which they
soften and dissolve the walls of cells or vessels : on penetrating cells
containing protoplasm, starch, etc., they readily absorb such

—

CANKER AND DRY-ROT 61

substances ; but they also destroy cellulose and lignin itself, at first
producing various discolorations of the wood, and ultimately
reducing it to the condition of “* touchwood ” or “* punk.” It will
readily be understood that all these progressive changes are accom-
panied by a decrease in the specific gravity of the timber, for the
fungus decomposes the substance much in the same way as it is
decomposed by putrefaction or combustion, 7.e. it causes the
burning off of the carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen, in the
presence of oxygen, to carbon-dioxide, water, and ammonia,
retaining part in its own substance for the time being, and living
at its expense.t

Another true parasite, T’ramétes radicipérda, only attacks coni-
fers. Its spores, which can be readily conveyed in the fur of mice
or other burrowing animals, germinate in the moisture around the
roots: the fine threads of “spawn” penetrate the cortex and
spread through and destroy the cambium, extending in thin, flat,
fan-like, white, silky bands, and, here and there, bursting through
the cortex in white oval cushions, on which the subterranean
fructifications are produced. Each of these is a yellowish-white
felt-like mass, with its outer surface covered with crowded minute
tubes or “pores”? in which the spores are produced. The wood
attacked by this fungus first becomes rosy or purple, then turns
yellowish, and then exhibits minute black dots, which surround
themselves with extending soft white patches.

The many pores in the fructification of T’ramétes indicate its
kinship with the genus Polgporus, many species of which are well
known as “ shelf-funguses,” projecting like brackets from the
stems of trees, and having their pores on their under-surfaces.
Most of these are wound-parasites. One of the commonest, the
yellow cheese-like Polyporus sulphireus, occurs on Oak, Poplar,
Willow, Larch, and other standing timber, its spawn-threads
spreading from any exposed portion of cambium into the pith-rays
and between the annual rings, forming thick layers of yellowish-
white felt, and penetrating the vessels of the wood, which thereupon
becomes a deep brown colour and decays.

The ravages of such wound-parasites are often the result of
neglect, broken branches being left untrimmed as a lodgment
for the spores of the fungus. We have known an Elm-tree to be
divided in this way by a broad zone of touchwood, originating
from the attack of a Polyporus on a snag, so that, though sound
timber both above and below, the tree snapped readily in half in a
slight gust of wind.

1 Timber and some of its Diseases, by Prof. H. Marshall Ward, F.R.S., to which
work I am particularly indebted in the present chapter.

62 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

Another species of Polyporus, P. vapordrius, though it acts as a
wound-parasite on coniferous trees, frequently develops and does
its chief mischief in stacked timber. It is then commonly confused
with the true dry rot, of which we shall speak presently. Its
spores (which are, as in most fungi, extremely minute and produced
in myriads) fall into cracks of wood, whether the result of injuries
to timber when standing, or “shakes”? developed after the tree
is felled and barked. As their spawn-threads develop in the timber
and gradually decompose and absorb its substance, the wood
shows deep red or brown streaks, warps and cracks up, and becomes
thoroughly rotten, and is penetrated by thick snowy-white ribbons
of the felted fungus. In stacked timber this rot frequently develops
mainly in the lower, less ventilated, layers of a stack.

Some of the diseases that show themselves conspicuously in the
cortex and are known as cankers may be set up by frost, by sun,
or by insect attack ; but in Oak, Beech, Maple, Hornbeam, Alder,
Lime, and Larch, canker is mostly the result of wound-parasite
fungi. The spores of most, if not all, of these fungi are incapable of
penetrating sound cortex; but how many are the chances that
bring about small ruptures of this layer! In the case of that
most destructive of cankers, the Larch disease, it has been shown
that the fungus which produces it, Peziza Willkommit, is far less
common and less deadly in the drier colder air of Alpine heights
where the Larch is indigenous ; but that late frosts attacking the
more advanced and sappy trees in the moist air of the lowlands
kill many a shoot and form wounds by which the spores can enter.
The moister and warmer air at the same time is more favourable
to the growth of the fungus. Its spawn-threads ramify in all
directions through the wood, turning it brown and drying it up ;
while resin flows out at the wound in the bark, which enlarges
yearly as the tissues surround it with successively wider-gaping
lips of cork in the futile effort of the tree’s vitality to heal it over.
Round the margins of the wound appear the little orange cup-
shaped fructifications of the Peziza scattering their spores so as
to infect other trees ; whilst the ultimate effect is that each tree is
ringed by the destruction of its cortex and then generally succumbs.

Many of the fungi which attack standing timber are so ruinous
in their action that the wood of the affected trees will never reach
the hands of the timber-merchant ; but the wood-worker is more
seriously interested in those diseases which attack converted
timber. Of these the most important is “‘dry rot” (Meritlius
licrymans). The spores of this fungus germinate on damp wood,
provided some alkali is present, such as the ammonia fumes in
stables. Then, under the influence of warm, still air (¢.e. the

BURRS—INJURIOUS ANIMALS 63

absence of ventilation) its spawn-threads spread not only in all
directions through the wood, forming greyish-white cords and
flat cake-like masses of felt on its surface, but even over surfaces
of damp soil or brickwork, and thus to other previously uninfected
timbers. Feeding upon the elements of the wood, getting its nitrogen
from cells which retain their protoplasm, such as those of the pith-
rays, but its carbonaceous and mineral substances from the walls
of the tracheids and other fibrous elements, the fungus destroys
the substance of the timber, lessening its weight, and causing it to
warp and crack ; until, at length, it crumbles up when dry into a
fine brown powder, or, readily absorbing any moisture in its neigh-
bourhood, becomes a soft, cheese-like mass. At an earlier stage
the affected timber appears dark-coloured and dull; and, long
before its total disorganization, it will have lost most of its strength.
Imperfectly seasoned timber is most susceptible to dry rot; the
fungus can be spread either by its spawn or by spores,and these latter
can be carried even by the clothes or saws of workmen, by currents
of air, by rats, mice or insects, and are, of course, only too likely
to reach sound wood if diseased timber is left about near it ; but
on the other hand dry timber kept dry is proof against dry rot,
and exposure to really dry air is fatal to the fungus: If only the
ends of properly seasoned beams which are inserted in brick walls
are previously creosoted, it will prove a most effective protection.

Burrs.—Another class of malformations of considerable interest
to the timber-merchant are the gnarled and warty excrescences
known as burrs or knauers. These are sometimes due to some
mechanical injury to the cortex, at other times apparently to the
sudden exposure of a previously shaded stem to the light, as by
the felling of a neighbouring tree. They consist of a number of
dormant buds, capable of growing in thickness and putting on
wood, but insufficiently nourished to grow in length. In course
of years they may grow several feet across, their wood being very
irregular, and, owing to its slowness of formation, very dense.
The cross-sections of these bud-axes, as in the “‘ bird’s-eye ” variety
of the Hard Maple (Acer barbdtum), the Elm, the Yew, the Walnut,
the Oak, and other species, furnish beautiful veneers.

Injurious animals.—Brief mention must be made here of three
classes of enemies to both living and converted timbers, viz.,
the ship-worms or Teredos, the termites (erroneously known as
“white ants”), and various insect-larvee known generally as
“worms.” Terédo navdlis, the ship-worm, and its allies, are
bivalve mollusks, which bore into most kinds of timber when
immersed in sea-water, some very dense species, and especially
those with pungent resinous secretions, being proof against them.

64 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

On the other hand, creosoting is by no means always sufficient to
keep off their attacks. Shipworms occur in all seas: they gene-
rally bore with the grain, lining their burrows with a layer of
calcareous matter, and carefully avoiding one another’s burrows.
They will sometimes completely riddle timber within four or five
years. In Australia they are known as “ cobra.”

The termites belong to the Neuroptera, an entirely distinct
Order of the insect class from that to which the true ants belong.
They occur in a great variety of species throughout the Tropics,
but especially in South America, living in societies of prodigious
numbers, and, no doubt, fulfilling a useful function in the economy
of nature, by disintegrating, removing, and destroying wood that
is already decayed, just as the ship-worms rid the seas of much
derelict timber. The termites will, however, attack most species
of wood after conversion, sometimes eating their way upward
from the foundations of a house to its rafters until all its timbers
are reduced to a mere shell, or completely destroying wooden
articles of furniture. The pungent resinous secretions which repel
the teredo seem also generally effective as a protection against
termites.

The large and voracious larvee of some moths are most destruc-
tive to growing trees, and sometimes attack converted timbers.
Very generally their eggs are laid in the bark, and the grubs
generally bore downward through the sapwood. The Goat-moth
(Coéssus lignipérda), for instance, specially attacks aged and already
unsound Willows, Ash, Elm, Cork Oak, etc.; but will attack
converted as well as living wood. The Wood-leopard (Zeuzera
esculi) specially attacks living fruit-trees and Horse-chestnuts,
and its Australian congener, the Wattle Goat-moth (Z. eucalyptz), fre-
quents the various species of Acacia. Such insects are most destruc-
tive; but their large galleries are only too obvious in converting
timber. Of the wood-boring beetles, on the other hand, many only
attack unhealthy trees : others, such as Scélytus destructor, the Elm-
bark beetle, tunnel in and under the bark, especially of fallen logs,
only occasionally penetrating a small depth into the outer wood.
Others are far more destructive, in many cases mainly attacking
sound converted timber. The widespread Death-watch beetles,
for instance (Anobium domesticum, A. tessellatum, and allied forms),
the chief cause in England of the familiar ‘‘ worm-holes ” in Oak,
frequently entirely destroy the timbering of roofs, and still more
commonly riddle our smaller articles of furniture. In the Tropics
and warmer Temperate regions their place is largely taken by the
numerous family Bostrjchide, some of which attain far larger
dimensions.

CHAPTER IV
SELECTION, DURABILITY, SEASONING, AND STORAGE OF WOODS

Selection of wood.— The wood-worker must, of course, deter-
mine first what kind of wood is best suited for his purpose, and then
take steps to secure that the wood he obtains is a sufficiently good
sample of its kind.

It cannot, unfortunately, be at all assumed that the botanical
determination of the species will prove a guarantee of the quality
of a timber. Experience shows that Pinus sylvéstris or Quércus
Roébur from different parts of Europe, or even from different situa-
tions in one country, or Tecténa grandis from different districts of
India, may be a very different thing from the same species of Pine,
Oak, or Teak from elsewhere. Botanical identification, therefore,
though a most important preliminary, will not obviate other tests.
For many purposes, such as mere temporary hoardings, crates,
packing-boxes, or the carcases of low-priced furniture, cheapness
may be a consideration paramount to all others.

Speaking generally, warm countries, sunny exposures, and dry,
elevated land produce heavier, harder, and stronger timber.

It is important that timber should be selected for felling when
mature, when the quantity of sapwood is small and the heartwood
nearly uniform, hard, compact, and durable. After this stage,
wood may become brittle, inelastic, discoloured, and perishable,
while before maturity, when the sapwood is in excess, it will seldom
be durable. Oak, for instance, for building, should not be less than
50 nor more than 200 years old, and Teak not less than 80 years
of age.

Autumn or winter felled wood, owing to the lower temperature,
splits less in drying, and for this reason, and on account of the
season being less favourable to fungus-growth, is generally more
durable than that felled in the spring or summer.

Shakes, knots, especially if disposed in a ring round a stick,
upsets, 7.e., fibres crippled by compression, or cross-grain are all
defects which reduce the strength of timber. Both butt and top
should be close, solid, and sound, any sponginess near the pith,

65 5

66 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

discoloration at the top, rind-gall, worm-holes, or splits produced
in seasoning being indications of weakness. Bright-coloured and
smooth-working wood is generally better than any that is dull or
works with a rough surface ; and heavier wood is in all respects
stronger than lighter wood of the same species.

Where lightness and stiffness are desirable, coniferous wood is
generally preferable ; and, where a steady load has to be supported,
the denser coniferous woods equal those of broad-leaved trees,
which are costlier and heavier. Where, however, moving or
jarring loads have to be sustained, the tougher hard woods should
be used.

Conversion of timber. — Split wood is straighter in grain and
more easily seasoned than sawn timber ; and, when sawn, timber
will prove stronger and more durable, will season better and will
warp less if sawed as nearly as possible along the radii of the annual
rings, or, as it is termed, “ quarter” or “rift”? sawed. This
method is more expensive than tangent sawing ; but a little con-
sideration will show how it secures—in flooring boards, for instance
—a more even exposure of the grain—+.e., the hard bands of summer
wood—on the surface. It must be borne in mind that ina squared
beam with the pith in its centre, whilst we have some complete
annual cones of wood appearing as rings at the butt end and taper-
ing to a point or to smaller rings at the top, we shall also have other
imperfect cones represented by rings at the top but presenting
tangent or “‘ bastard ”’ faces on the sides of the beam and not repre-
sented at the butt. These different ‘structural aggregates ”
differ materially in strength, the central cone, with its numerous
knots, being the weakest part, whilst the strongest is the hollow
cylinder formed of cones that occur as rings both at butt and top
(Fig. 40). Quarter-sawing secures the most advantageous unifor-
mity in the proportion of each of these aggregates in every plank.

In ordinary tangent-sawed timber it is, as pointed out by Mr.
Laslett, important to notice that there is an outside and an inside
to every board, and that it is desirable in construction to leave the
outside exposed, as shown in Fig. 41, since otherwise (Fig. 42) the
inner rings of wood soon shell out.

Durability of wood.— All wood when first felled contains a
large quantity of moisture, and this, together with the readily
decomposable organic or protoplasmic matter also present, furnishes
(especially at temperatures between 60° and 100° F.) the most
favourable conditions for the growth of those fungi which are the
main causes of decay. If completely submerged, or buried, or
when once dried and kept so, timber may last indefinitely. The
piles in the Swiss lake-dwellings must be many centuries old ; and

CONVERSION AND SEASONING 67

ancient Egyptian objects in the British Museum must be several
thousand years ; wood of Juniperus Oxycédrus buried in the island
of Madeira has remained undecayed and fragrant for 400 years ;
and Spruces 3 to 4 feet in diameter have been observed in the moist
forests of North-West America growing on the prostrate but still
sound trunks of Thuya gigantea.

Speaking at the Surveyors’ Institution in 1905, Mr. H. J. Elwes

Fic. 40.— A beam, showing structural aggregates. 1, central or pith cone;
2, eylinder of rings continuous throughout; 3 and 4, partial cylinders, making
‘* bastard faces’ on the sides. (Modified from Roth.)

said : ‘‘ Last April he was in a house in Massachusetts which was
built of White Oak in 1704, and had never paint or tar or preser-
vative on it, and yet stood sound and water-tight to-day. He had
lived in Switzerland in a house built of Larch logs which dated
back more than 400 years. He had also lived in a timber house in
Norway said to be 160 years old, and still perfectly sound, although
the much-despised Spruce was the timber used.”

Seasoning.1—By girdling standing timber the process of season-

Fic. 41.—Plank well laid, with inside, or inner rings, downward. (After Laslett.)

ing is to a great extent anticipated. Thus, in order to float the
timber, which in its green state is at least as heavy as water, it is
the general practice in Burmah to cut a complete ring through the

1 “There is probably no one to-day who does not believe that timber preservation
in one form or another pays. Treated timber in almost every respect is cheaper in the
long run than untreated timber ; furthermore, the better treatments, although more
expensive at first, are much cheaper in the long run.” —Hermann von Schrenk (1905).

68 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

bark and sapwood of the Teak three years before it is intended to
fell it. This stoppage of all ascending sap kills the tree in a few
weeks : the heat of the climate helps the seasoning process ; and,
as usually about a year elapses between the felling of the timber
and its delivery in England, it is then fit for immediate use. It is
recommended that the dense Australian timbers should, like Teak,
be ringed while standing. This should be done a year or more
before felling, and between April and August, when the sap is
quiescent. The tree is most thoroughly drained of its sap when
thus left vertical. It has, however, been objected to this process
that it causes or intensifies heart-shake, and, by drying the wood
too rapidly, renders it brittle and inelastic.

Seasoning of some kind is, in all other cases, rendered imperative
by the changes in volume, irregular shrinkage, or warping, that all
green woods undergo under the influence of changes in atmospheric
temperature and moisture, especially in their cross sections. So
important is it to avoid this warping in furniture, wheelwright’s

Fic. 42.—Plank badly laid, with the inside, or inner rings, upward. (After Laslett.)

work, etc., that it is a common practice to block out work roughly
and let it season a little longer before finishing.

Seasoning is ordinarily understood to mean drying; but, in
addition to the evaporation of water, it implies other changes, such
as the drying out or partial decomposition of the albuminous sub-
stances in the wood, rendering it more permeable and less ferment-
able.

The strength of many woods is nearly doubled by seasoning,
hence it is very thriftless to use it in a green state ; as it is then not
only weaker, but is liable to continual change of bulk and form.
The longitudinal fibres of the wood being, as it were, bound together
by the radiating pith-rays, as the wood shrinks it finds relief by
splitting radially from the centre along the pith-rays. When a log
is sawn into four quarters, by passing the saw twice through the
centre at right angles, the outer annual rings shrink the most, so
that the two flat surfaces of each quarter of the log cease to be
strictly at right angles to one another. In tangent-sawn timber,

AIR AND HOT-AIR SEASONING 69

however, the same shrinkage causes the centre plank to contract
in thickness at its edge, whilst planks cut from the outside will
shrink in breadth, their edges curving away from the centre of the
tree.

The many methods of wood-preservation may be classified as
seasoning methods, either ‘“‘ natural ”’—i.e., slow or accelerated—
surface carbonization, or impregnation methods. Of these it is
generally believed that natural or air seasoning gives the best
results. Firewood should be dried rapidly ; but in other cases slow
drying in cool air and in the shade—a process difficult to effect in
the tropics—is most desirable in order to reduce the amount of
cracking. The timber should be squared as soon as cut, and even
halved or quartered, for the rate of drying depends largely on the
shape and size of the piece, an inch board drying more than four
times as fast as a 4-inch plank, and more than twenty times as fast
as a 10-inch timber. The wood is then piled in the seasoning yard
so as to be protected as far as possible from the sun and rain, but
with air circulating freely on all sides of each log. Bad ventila-
tion is sure to cause rot ; but at the same time exposure to high
wind is likely to cause unequal drying, and is, therefore, to be
avoided. One of the most fertile causes of decay is the leaving of
logs to sink into soft ground where they are felled, often in the
immediate neighbourhood of rotting stumps or dead twigs, the
most fertile source of infection by fungus - spores that can be
imagined. Timber should therefore be stacked, or at least skidded
a foot off the ground, as soon as possible and protected by a roof.
Experience is against the stacking of timber vertically or at an
angle, as this only produces unequal drying ; but planks may be
stacked flat or on edge. Laslett gives the following table of the
times required for seasoning Oak and Fir in a shed :

Months. Months.
Pieces 24 ins. and upwards square, Oak about 26 Fir, 13
Under 24 ins. to 20 ins. ¥ i ee pp all
20); Ges 5 A op. als) an Ay
Gry: IS 3H 5 ee npn idl
IW) 5. Sie sr 55 my lO 5
Su; A ys Pe se 10 3

”

For planks half or two-thirds of these times would be requisite,
according to their thickness. Too prolonged seasoning will cause
an undue widening and deepening of the shakes that open at the
surface during drying.

‘The chief methods of accelerated seasoning are kiln drying, or
hot-air seasoning, and steam-drying processes. Of these the
former is a rapid but expensive method. It is a common practice

70 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

to first steam the timber, which reduces its hygroscopicity and,
therefore, its warping. This, however, is said to reduce the strength,
if not also the durability, of the wood. If not steamed, the ends of
boards should be clamped before kiln-drying to prevent splitting
and warping. Neither hygroscopicity nor shrinkage of wood can
be altogether overcome by drying at temperatures below 200° F. ;
but as a rule only the first shrinking is likely to cause splitting, so
that any timber which has had from three to six months’ air-drying
may be safely kiln-dried. Too rapid kiln-drying, however, is apt
to produce “ case-hardening ” in Oak and other hard woods, the
drying and shrinking, that is, of an outside shell followed by “ honey-
combing,” or splitting of the interior along the pith-rays (Fig. 43).
Previous air-drying or steaming will obviate this. Various tem-
peratures are employed in kiln-drying ; but it is stated that at 100°
to 120° F., Oak, Ash, and other hardwoods can be seasoned in dry
kilns without any of the loss of strength often alleged to result
from artificial heat. Poplar planks are dried in kilns in America
at 158° F. to 180° F. ; but Oak, Ash, Maple, Birch, Sycamore, etc.,

Fic. 48.—‘*‘ Honeycombed” board, splitting along the pith-rays. (After Roth.)

are first air-seasoned for three to six months, and are then exposed
to these temperatures for six to ten days for l-inch stuff. Pine,
Spruce, Cypress, and Cedar of the same dimensions are dried for
four days immediately after being felled and sawn up. Such
temperatures are more than sufficient to kill and prevent fungus
growth, and the fact that well-ventilated seasoned wood is seldom
attacked shows that the amount of moisture then left in the wood
is insufficient to support fungus growth. Walnut gun-stocks are
desiccated in the rough by a current of air at 90° or 100° F., passing
over them at such a rate as to change the whole volume of air
every three minutes, and it is found possible in this way to save a
year of seasoning. Temperatures of 250° to 300° F. are almost
certainly detrimental to the wood. Such desiccated timber must
not be exposed to damp before being used or it will re-absorb
moisture, and coloured woods are said to lose colour and lustre
under this treatment.

Seasoning by passing the smoke-laden products of combustion
from the furnace through the timber pile has been found successful,

VARIOUS METHODS OF SEASONING 71

and has an important preservative effect. A modification of this,
known as M‘Neile’s process, consists in exposing the wood to a
moderate heat in a moist atmosphere charged with the products of
the combustion of fuel.

Boiling timber in water has much the same effect as steaming,
but is costly, and probably weakening in its effects.

Seasoning by immersion in water is a slow method that answers
well for wood to be used in water or in damp situations. It re-
duces warping, but renders the wood brittle and less elastic. It is
important that the submergence be total, as otherwise there is
great danger of fungus attack along the water-line. Two or three
weeks’ water-seasoning is often a good preparation for air-seasoning,
and it must be remembered that foreign timbers have often had
some weeks or months of such treatment while being transported
by water to the port of shipment. It is important that wood
seasoned in this way be thoroughly dried before use, otherwise dry
rot will setin. In Mauritius, Ebony, which is perfectly sound when
freshly cut, is immersed immediately for 6 to 18 months, and
then, on being taken out, is secured at both ends of the logs with
iron rings and wedges. Soaking timber or burying it under corn
were methods of seasoning practised by the ancient Romans,
who also steeped wood in oil of cedar to protect it against
worms.

Salt water makes wood harder, heavier, and more durable; and
the rules of Lloyd’s add a year to the term of classification of a ship
if she is “ salted ’’ during construction, having her timbers, that is,
packed with salt. Salt water cannot, however, be applied to any
timber intended for use in ordinary buildings, as it gives the wood
a permanent tendency to attract moisture from the air.

Boiling in oil is an effective and strengthening, but costly, method
of seasoning, employed in making wooden teeth for mortice gears.
The wood is roughed out in blocks little more than the size of the
finished work, and the oil kept at a temperature not exceeding
250° F.

In Australia the abundance of hardwood, its great weight, and
the high price of labour, has led to a general total neglect of season-
ing, which has had a very deleterious effect upon the reputation of
Australian timbers in the markets of the world. Though admittedly
too costly for general use, the modification of the oil process adopted
by Mr. J. H. Maiden, curator of the Technological Museum of
New South Wales, for museum specimens of timber is interesting.
The logs are stood on end and the upper end is soaked with boiled
linseed oil, and a day or two later covered with a cream of white
lead. Iron bands are then put round each end of the logs and

72 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

hammered to their outline, the ends of the bands being turned out
at right angles and bored for a screw bolt, by means of which the
bands can be tightened up every few days.

The various steaming processes justly claim that the high tempera-
tures employed destroy disease germs and coagulate the albuminous
constituents of the sap. The two most important methods are, per-
haps, the Erith and the Haskin. The former consists in the circu-
lation of warm but very moist air round the timber, so as to avoid
case-hardening and to remove the moisture from the centre out-
wards. Haskinizing consists in submitting the wood to circu-
lating superheated air under considerable pressure, “‘ causing the
constituents to organize into an oleaginous compound, saturating
the fibre, and filling the pores.”’ This process is costly, and the
drawbacks to all such methods are the danger of a deterioration of
the wood by a separation of its fibres and the removal of some of
its substance without any replacement.

Carbonizing, or charring the outer surface of wood, destroys all
fungus-germs at the surface ; and, charcoal resisting the solvents
of fungi, this process renders the wood little liable to subsequent
infection. It also dries the surface, destroys any tendency to fer-
mentation, and distils such antiseptic substances as acetic acid and
creosote out of the surface wood, leaving them free to act as pre-
servatives. Thus it is stated that the stakes found in the bed of
the Thames, near Weybridge, and supposed to have been used to
oppose the invading Romans, and the piles upon which the city of
Venice was built, had alike been charred. M. de Lapparent, who
introduced this process into the French dockyards forty years
ago, held that the durability of carbonized timber is secured by the
absence of fermentation in the juices of the interior of the wood.
The results are satisfactory, but care must be taken not to cause
surface splitting. M. de Lapparent’s process is carried out by
means of a jet of gas.

The most important series of methods of seasoning are those
which may be termed impregnation methods, which all depend upon
the principle that the sap may be replaced by some substance that
is antiseptic or poisonous to fungus-germs. The most primitive
of these is merely to paint the substance, such as tar, as thickly
as possible over dry wood and leave it to soak in, and this un-
doubtedly has a great preservative effect, even on sapwood or wood
very imperfectly dried ; but the chief drawback to this, and the
chief difficulty in several other impregnation processes, is the very
small distance that the liquid soaks, so that slight cracks expose
unprotected wood to fungus attacks. Whilst it is comparatively
easy to inject sapwood in a longitudinal direction, it is far more

IMPREGNATION METHODS 73

difficult to inject heartwood ; and it is vastly easier to force liquids
through wood tangentially than radially.

An improvement on any painting process is to submerge the
timber in a bath of the preservative, which may be tar, sulphate
of iron, copper, zinc, lime, or magnesia, chloride of zinc, borax,
creosote, or sugar, and in these processes the replacement of the air
and sap in the wood by the liquid will generally be hastened by
heat. Penetration is, however, slight, and long submergence
renders the timber brittle.

The main desiderata in a preservative are that it should be
antiseptic or incapable of supporting fungal life, easily injected,
but remaining in the wood when injected, and cheap.

Of the materials employed for impregnating timber, the most
effective is corrosive sublimate (mercuric chloride), the use of which
is known, from its inventor, Kyan (1832), as kyanizing. It forms
insoluble compounds in the wood, and is, therefore, permanent,
except in sea-water ; but its costliness and dangerously poisonous
character are against it. Zinc chloride, mainly introduced by Sir
William Burnett in 1838, is cheap and effective against both insects
and fungi, but less so than creosote. It is claimed that, in Bur-
nettizing, as the process is termed, the salt enters into a perma-
nent chemical combination with the fibre of the wood, and, without
discolouring it, renders it proof against mould and termites, and
less flammable ; that wood may be treated when green; that it
will not corrode nails embedded in it ; and that it will take paint or
varnish. Copper sulphate, sometimes used for sleepers in France,
is cheap; but is deposited in crystals in the wood, rendering it
brittle, and, owing to its solubility, is as easily washed out as it is
injected. In the Hasselman or Xylosote process a compound
solution of iron and copper sulphates and kainite (potassium and
magnesium sulphate and chloride) isemployed. Creosote, originally
suggested by Bethell in 1838, and now very largely employed in
various ways, is cheap, lasting in its effects, and useful in rendering
the wood damp-proof. The more expensive carbolic acid and ferric
tannate have also been used.

To force the antiseptic solution into the wood, M. Boucherie,
who first employed copper sulphate, proposed placing it in an
elevated reservoir connected by a pipe with the lower end of a log ;
but this requires the log to have its bark on, and is thus a wasteful
process.

A more complicated and costly, but very successful, process
consists in the use of air-tight chambers, in which the converted
timber is placed. The air is then partially exhausted, so as to
draw out some of that in the vessels of the wood, and the anti-

74 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

septic solution is then forced in by pumps, preferably with steam
or heat, the whole process occupying less than an hour. About
75 lbs. of creosote, however, are required for the impregnation of
an ordinary railway sleeper, and various attempts to reduce this
quantity by the use of some liquid solvent have failed. Though it
is very difficult either to secure the penetration of the creosote or
to determine the amount absorbed, it is usually specified that from
8 to 13 lbs. of creosote shall be injected per cubic foot. Herr F.
Seidenschnur proposes that the timber be first steamed under
pressure, the air then exhausted by reduced pressure, and then
an emulsion of 15 per cent. of creosote, in a resin soap to which
water is added, forced in under a pressure of seven atmospheres. The
latest process of this class, known as the Nodon-Bretonneau method,
is electrical. The timber is placed on a lead plate, connected with
the positive pole of a dynamo, in a tank filled with a solution, a
second lead plate, connected with the negative pole, being on top.
The circuit is completed through the wood ; and, within from 5
to 8 hours, the sap rises to the surface of the bath, the aseptic
solution replacing it in the pores of the wood. Artificial drying, or
a fortnight’s natural seasoning in summer weather, will then com-
plete the process. Solutions of magnesium or zine sulphate or of
borax are employed.

Some recent trials undertaken by the United States Govern-
ment show that all injection under pressure tends to lessen the
cohesive strength of the wood.

Powellizing consists in boiling the wood in a saccharine solution
without pressure, so as to expel air and moisture and coagulate the
albumen, and then drying it at a high temperature. Green wood,
and some species, such as Spruce, which cannot readily be creosoted,
can be treated by this process ; and the wood is not only seasoned
within a few days of being felled, but small cracks are closed up,
the porosity of the wood is much diminished—a very important
point in connection with wood-paving—and its strength, tough-
ness, resiliency, and durability are enhanced. The process need not
discolour the wood, but may be made to bring out figure, and thus,
in more ways than one, render it possible to substitute a lower grade
timber for the more expensive grades now in use. The processed
wood will take paint or varnish, and is completely immune to the
attacks of dry rot. Having no unpleasant odour, powellized wood
is adapted for furniture as well as for paving or railway sleepers ;
whilst a slight modification of the treatment protects it from the
attacks of termites.

Such impregnation methods double or treble the life of railway
sleepers. On the other hand, it should be remembered that paint

FLAME-RESISTING WOOD—STORAGE 75

prevents not only the entrance of moisture, but also its exit; so
that if applied to imperfectly seasoned wood it merely protects
the dry rot which finds a sufficiency of moisture in the wood.
Even perfectly seasoned wood, if not protected by tar or paint,
requires good ventilation if it is to last. Warm, moist, stagnant
air or draught, and partial contact with moist earth or water are
the most unfavourable conditions for the durability of timber.

Flame-resisting wood.—In connection with building, and still
more with railway rolling-stock, it is important that wood, though
it can hardly be made absolutely fire-proof, should be rendered so
fire-resisting that it will only smoulder and not burst into flame.
Several substances have been injected for this purpose, and others
have been used as surface paints. Of the former, the more im-
portant are sodium tungstate, ammonium sulphate with boric
acid, and ammonium phosphate, the last-mentioned being the
most efficacious, but requiring to be injected under a high pres-
sure. Of the paints, asbestos and soluble glass are, perhaps, the
best.

Storage.—For the storage of seasoned timber much the same
precautions are requisite as for that which is undergoing air-
seasoning—viz., thorough ventilation, absence of contact with moist
earth, and preferably some protection from rain and sun. If logs
are stacked with their butt-ends outward and slightly lower than
their tops, if every log or scantling be so separated by small packing
billets that it can be removed without disturbing the remainder,
and if each tier of timber is set back a few inches so as to obviate
the use of a ladder, it will render the stock not only safe but acces-
sible.

CHAPTER V
THE USES OF WOODS.

So multifarious are the uses to which wood is applied that it is
wellnigh hopeless to attempt to classify or enumerate them. Still
less is it possible here to mention all the different kinds of wood
locally employed for each purpose, or to describe the methods in
which they are treated. We must be content with a rough cata-
logue mainly confined to species widely used or known in general
commerce, with occasional mention of less known kinds of timber
for which we believe there may be a demand in the near future.

The term “ timber,” from the Old English ‘‘ timbrian,” to build,
is strictly applicable only to felled and seasoned wood fit for build-
ing, as distinguished from “fancy” or furniture-woods, dye-
woods, etc. Undressed trunks without branches are termed “ round
timber”; or, if of young trees, “‘ spars’; hewn logs are called
“square timber’; or when quartered, “ billets”; when split,
staves’ or “lathwood’’; or when sawn, “ deals,’’ ‘‘ battens,”
“ planks,” “* boards,” and ‘“‘ scantling.”

Some very strong timbers, such as Teak, Sal, and Padouk, are
specially designated as “‘ Ordnance woods.”’

Shipbuilding.—There is, perhaps, no purpose for which timber
has been, and requires to be, more carefully tested and selected
than for shipbuilding. From this point of view we have a full
account of most timbers so employed in the late Mr. Thomas
Laslett’s Timber and Timber-trees, originally published in 1875, of
which a new edition by Professor Marshall Ward appeared in
1894. The requirements of the dockyard are, however, very
varied, durability being generally necessary ; but great strength,
even if accompanied by weight, and freedom from decay on contact
with metal, being important for armoured vessels ; resistance to
ship-worms or termites for those not metal-sheathed ; lightness
for boats ; freedom from splintering for planks ; extreme toughness
for blocks ; evenness of growth and great resistance to strain for
masts; flexibility for oars. For general purposes, among the
heavier woods, Teak (T'ecténa grandis) is taken as a standard, and

76

SHIPBUILDING TIMBERS ad

is far more used than the Oaks, whether European or American,
of former days,! valuable as these are, however, especially for
exposed and compass timbers. The Indian Jarul (Lagerstremia
Flos-regine) and Thingan (Hépea odordta), the Greenheart of
Demerara (Necténdra Rodiwi), the Angélique (Dicorynia guianén-
sis), African Oak or Teak (Oldfiéldia africana) from West Africa,
Stinkwood (Ocotéa bulldta) and Sneezewood (Pterdéxylon utile) from
the south of the same continent, the Rata or Ironwood of New Zea-
land (Metrosidéros robista and M. lucida), and probably the Billian
(Husideréxylon Zwageri) of Borneo, are but little inferior.

Lloyd’s Register, classifying shipbuilding timbers in 17 lines,
places Teak alone in the first ; in the second, English Oak (Quércus
Robur), African Oak (Oldfiéldia africana), Live Oak (Quércus virens),
Adriatic, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and French Oak (Q. Cérris,
Aisculus, pyrendica, Ilex, Suiber, and Rébur), Morung Saul (Shérea
robusta), Greenheart (Nectandra Rodiéi), Morra (Mora excélsa),
Tron-bark (Hucalyptus siderophloia, and probably EL. leucéxylon, and
E. sideroxylon), and White Ironbark (apparently H. erébra, amyg-
dalina, and paniculata) ; in the third, Cuba Sabicu (Lysiloma Sabicu),
Pencil Cedar (Juniperus Bermudiana, or perhaps Dysoxylon Muélleri,
and D. Fraseridnum), Angelly (Artocarpus hirstita), Vanatica (Pithe-
colobium sp ?), Jarrah, (Hucalyptus margindta), Karri (£. diversicolor),

1 “ SHIPBUILDING IN 1805.

‘The oak was very costly, for the service required the very best wood. It could
not be, or should not have been, used for a year after cutting, for it needed to be
seasoned before being handled by the shipwrights. On coming to the yards it was
stacked for some months in sheds, in various positions, according to its future use, to
allow it to season. In times of stress much of it was used green—not properly
seasoned,

‘The ships were built in the open air, and it was the custom to allow the frame
or skeleton of every ship to stand exposed ‘for a twelvemonth or a little more’
before any timbers were placed across her ribs. It was thought that this exposure
seasoned the Oak of the frame. As a matter of fact, the constant wettings and
warpings from rain and sun set up decay in the exposed wood, so that many ships
had begun to rot ‘before a plank was put on.’ Some, indeed, were as green as grass
with mildew and fungus before the timbers were fitted. The general life of a ship of
those days built under these conditions was only eight or nine years. Few lasted so
long ‘ without great repairs equal almost to their first cost.” Many rotted to pieces
after a few mouths at sea. In 1812 fine three-decker, which had seen no hard sea
service, was condemned as rotten a year after she was launched.

**In those ships in which American Oak had been used, the decay set in more
quickly than in other cases. These ships used to strain their seams or timbers
open, ever so slightly, in heavy weather, admitting water to the cracks. The wood
so wetted began to develop dry rot or fungus from the moment the water penetrated
its fibres. Both fungus and dry rot spread with strange rapidity when once it had
established itself, and a ship so attacked had either to be pulled to pieces, so that the
rotting oak could be removed, or broken up as useless.”—Macefield, Sea-life in
Nelson’s Times

78 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

Blue Gum (£. Glébulus), Red Gum (E£. rostrata), Box (LE. hemiphloia ?),
Thingan (Hopea odordta), Puhutukawa (Metrosidéros tomentosa),
Molave (Vitex geniculdta and V. altissima), Dungon (Stercilia
cymbiformis), Yacal (Shorea reticuldta), Mangachapuy, (Shorea
Mangachapoi), Betis (Payéna Betis), Ipil (Afzélia bijuga), Guijo
(Shorea robusta), Narra (Pterocdrpus pallidus and P. santalinus),
Batitinan (?), and Palomaria de Playa (Calophyllum Inophyllum ?) ;
in the fourth, those of the first and second line when second-hand ;
in the fifth, Stringy Bark (Hucalyptus obliqua, etc.), Red Cedar
(apparently Cedréla Toéna), Banaba, which is the Jarul of India,
and Philippine Islands Cedar (probably chiefly Cedréla Toona) ; in
the sixth, Danish and other Continental White Oak, Mahogany
(Swieténia Mahdgani), Spanish Chestnut (Castanea sativa), Flooded
Gum (Eucalyptus saligna), Spotted Gum (£. maculata), Grey Gum
(EZ. vimindlis), Turpentine (H#. Stuartiana, chiefly), Black Butt (EZ.
piluldris), Tulip-wood (Harpillia péndula ?), Tallow-wood (Hucalyp-
tus microcorys), and Mulberry(?) ; in the seventh, North American
White Oak (Quércus alba) ; in the eighth, Pitch Pine (Pinus rigida),
Oregon Pine (Pseudotstiga Douglasii), Huon Pine (Dacrydium Frank-
linii), Kauri Pine (Agathis australis), Larch (Ldrix européa), Hack-
matack or Tamarac (L. americana), and Juniper (?) ; in the ninth,
Dantzic, Memel, and Riga Pine (Pinus sylvéstris), and American
Red Pine (P. resinésa) ; in the tenth, English Ash (Frazinus ex-
célsior) ; in the eleventh, foreign Ash (F. sambucifolia americana,
etc.), and Rock Maple (Acer barbdtum) ; in the twelfth, American
Rock Elm (Ulmus americana and racemésa), and Hickory (Hicéria
ovata, alba, glabra, minima, Pécan, etc.) ; in the thirteenth, European
and American Grey Elm (Ulmus campéstris and others); in the
fourteenth, Black Birch (Bétula lénta) and Black Walnut (Jzglans
nigra); in the fifteenth, Spruce Fir (Picea excélsa), Swedish or
Norway Red Pine, and Scotch Fir; (Pinus sylvéstris) ; in the six-
teenth, Beech (Fdgus sylvatica); and in the seventeenth, Yellow
Pine (Pinus Strobus).

The Turpentine-tree (Syncarpia laurifolia), White Box (T'ristania
conférta), Box (Hucalyptus hemiphloia) and Spotted Gum (£. macu-
lata) of New South Wales are also generally useful. The Securipa
and Guarabu of Brazil, the latter of which may be Termindlia
acuminata or Peltogyné macrolobium, though little known, are
employed locally ; but the Stringy-bark of Tasmania (Hucalyptus
obliqua) and the Blue Gums (#. Globulus in Tasmania, and £.
botryoides in Victoria) have been proved suitable both for beams
and planks. Other dense timbers are employed mainly for beams
and keelsons, such as the Mora of Demerara (Dimorphandra Mora,
or Mora excélsa), Tewart (Hucalyptus gomphocéphala) of West

SHIPBUILDING TIMBERS Te.

Australia, Iron-bark (H. siderophloia) of Queensland and New
South Wales, and Sabicu (Lysiloma Sdbicu) of Cuba. Chow, or
Menkabang Penang (Casuarina equisetifolia) from Borneo, the
““Cedre ” of the Seychelles, though a heavy wood, is mainly em-
ployed for masts, as are also the Poon, Tatamaka, or Alexandrian
Laurel of India (Calophyllum Inophyllum), which is known as
‘“ Phung-nyet” in the Andaman Islands, as ‘‘ Domba” in Sin-
halese, and as Penago, Panagah, Pingow, or Borneo Mahogany
in Borneo, the Peroba branca (Sapota gonocarpa) of Brazil ; and,
still more, such soft woods as Riga Fir (Pinus sylvéstris), Yellow
Pine (P. Strébus), Oregon or Douglas Fir (Pseudotsiiga Douglasit),
the unequalled Kauri Pine of New Zealand (Agathis austrdlis), and
the Huon Pine of Tasmania (Dacrydium Franklinii). For this
purpose a certain elasticity is requisite, resistance, that is, to wind.
Other coniferous woods are of more general use, such as Dantzic
Fir (Pinus sylvéstris), the Totara (Podocarpus Tétara) and Tana-
kaha (P. asplenifolius) of New Zealand, the Moreton Bay Pine
(Araucdria Cunningham), mostly for spars, Red Pine (Pinus
resinosa) and Pitch Pine (P. palustris), which serve equally for
spars and for planking. Other species, mainly on account of their
dimensions, are chiefly employed in boat-building, such as the Black
or Cypress Pine (Cdllitris robusta), the Oyster Bay Pine (C. rhom-
boidea) and the Bermuda “ Cedar” (Juniperus bermudiana) among
conifers ; and European and American Elm, Jarrah (Hucalyptus
margindta) and Red Gum (#. rostrdia), Pynkado or Pyengadu
(Xylia dolabriformis), which is the Ironwood of Pegu and the Acle
of the Philippines, Anan (Fagrea fragrans), Gumbar (Gmelina
arborea), Sundri (Heritiéra littordlis), and the Brazilian Camara
(Geissospermum Vellosit) among hard woods. Some timbers are
most valuable for compass timbers, such as the Angelim vermelho
(probably Andira fraxinifolia) of Brazil and the Puriri (Vitex littor-
dlis) and Pohutukawa (Metrosidéros tomentdsa) of New Zealand ;
whilst others are used almost exclusively for decks and planking,
such as the Turpentine Tree or Stanthorpe Box (Hucalyptus Stucar-
tana) and White Beech (Gmelina Leichhardtii) of Eastern Australia,
the Canella preta (Nectandra dtra) of Brazil, and the Lauan (Dip-
terocarpus thurifer) of the Philippines. Exceptionally hard and
tough woods, such as Lignum Vite (Guaiacum officindlé) and the
Ironwood of Tasmania (Noteléa ligustrina), are required for blocks ;
whilst tough but flexible kinds, such as the Ash of Europe or America
and the Silver Wattle (Acacia dealbdta), are employed for oars.
For the internal fittings of ships almost any species can obviously
be used which is employed in ordinary civil architecture or
joinery.

80 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

Submerged structures.—Passing next to timbers used for piles
or other submerged structures, such as locks and water-wheels,
Elm, Larch, Chestnut (Castanea), Live Oak (Quércus virens), Sal
(Shorea robista), Totara (Podocirpus Tétara), Eucalyptus globulus,
E. rostrdta, and Rassak (Vdtica Rdssak) of Borneo, may be
specially mentioned. Greenheart, Jarrah, Pynkado, Chow, Kapor
(Dryobdlanops aromdtica), another Bornean timber, Alder, and
Beech are also used for these purposes. For the strouds of water-
wheels and for paddle-boards Willow is employed ; and for water-
conduits, Pine.

Strength timbers.—For such engineering purposes as require
considerable strength, and resistance to definitely calculable strain,
for bridges, piers, or baulks of timber, Teak, Jarul, Sal, Sissoo
(Dalbérgia Sissoo) and Anan (Fagréa frdagrans) among Indian
timbers, the Locust of Trinidad (Hymenéa Cotrbaril), Oak, and
the superior kinds of Pine may be mentioned.

Sleepers.— Railway sleepers absorb enormous quantities of
timber, which requires to be durable when in contact with the
earth and with metal.1 Creosoted Red Deal (Pinus sylvéstris) is
the chief wood employed for this purpose in Britain ; but treated Oak
and Beech are largely used in France. Deodar (Cédrus Deoddra),
Sal, Blackwood (Dalbérgia latifélia), Poon (Calophyllum Inophyllum),
Nagesar or Ironwood (Mésua férrea), and Chilauni (Schima Wallichit)
among Indian timbers ; the Box of New South Wales (Hucalyptus
hemiphloia) ; Puriri (Vitex littordlis), Hinau (Eleocdrpus dentdtus)
and Totara (Podocirpus Tétara) in New Zealand ; when creosoted,
the Upright or Real Yellow-wood, Geel Hout, or Umceya (Podo-
carpus latifélius or P. Thunbérgii) in Cape Colony ; and the Chilian
“ Roble ” (Fdgus obliqua) in Argentina, are employed for this pur-
pose ; and one of the most important industries of the future in
the colony last mentioned is the cultivation of the European Cluster
Pine (Pinus Pindster) and of Eucalyptus for the same use.

Mining timber.—Less care is exercised in the selection of pit-
props for mines. Larch and pine, both home-grown and of Baltic
origin, are largely used in English mines, and Pinus Pindster is
imported from Bordeaux to the Welsh collieries and Cornish tin-
mines. In French mines the order of durability has been found to
be Spanish Chestnut, Oak, Scots Fir, Alder, Ash, Pinus Pindster,
Acacia. It has been said that for every ton of coal taken out of a
mine we should put back a cubic foot of timber.

1 “* As yet no substitute has been devised for wood ties that is economical or
desirable. They maintain the alignment of the railroad, so essential to safety, better
than any metal substitute, and give an elasticity to the road-bed most important for

the preservation and maintenance of the rolling-stock.”—C. F. Manderson in What
Forestry Means to Representative Men: U.S. Bureau of Forestry, Circular 33.

TELEGRAPH POLES, BUILDING TIMBERS, ETC. 81

Telegraph poles.—For telegraph poles much ‘the same char-
acters are requisite as for masts, in addition to durability under-
ground. Besides Larch and European Pine and Douglas Fir, the
Black or Cypress Pine of New South Wales (Callitris robusta), being
proof against termites, is in request for this purpose, and, in the
United States, Chestnut (Castanea vulgaris, var. americana) is
used.

Building.—Less durability is essential in scaffold-poles and
ladders, for which Spruce (Picea excélsa) is largely used. For
joists, rafters, and flooring, no wood is so much used with us as
Dantzic Fir (Pinus sylvéstris), though the somewhat shaky and
cheaper Swedish Fir of the same species is also largely used, whilst
that of Norway is imported in the form of ready-made flooring and
match-boarding. In the West of England Baltic Pine is largely
replaced by American White Pine (Pinus Strobus). The Pitch-
Pine of the United States (Pinus palustris) is now largely employed
in match-boarding and other internal work in English buildings,
and Larch is much used for flooring, as also are both Baltic and
American Black Spruce (Picea excélsa and P. nigra). Since the
importation of these coniferous timbers from the Baltic and from
America, which dates mainly from the beginning of the eighteenth
century, Oak, till then the chief building-timber in North-west
Europe, has been but little used, though, of course, old oak beams,
floors, and panellings are still abundant. From its not splintering,
Willow is still occasionally used for flooring. In the United States,
whilst White Oak (Quércus dlba) is very largely employed for the
main timbers of houses, the Pines, especially the soft White Pine
(Pinus Strébus), the Long-leaf Pine (P. palustris), the Loblolly Pine
(P. teda) and the so-called Norway Pine (P. resindsa), with other
species in the west, are (under a confusing jumble of popular names)
the timbers most used. In Northern India, the Bhotan Pine (Pinus
excélsa) and Himalayan Cypress (Cupréssus torulosa) are important
coniferous timbers, and there are several valuable species of Oak—
viz., Quércus semecarpifolia, Q. dilatdta, Q. pachyphylla, Q. lamel-
losa, Q. fenestrata, Q. spicata, and Q. Griffithii. Among the other
hardwoods important in building are Champa (Michélia Champaca),
Redwood (Adenanthéra pavonina), Sal, Ironwood (Mésua férrea),
the Myrobalans, Babela, and Harra (T'ermindlia belérica and 7’. Ché-
bula), Shoondul (Afzélia bijuga), Ulupi (Bassia longifélia), and Iron-
wood or Pyengadu (Xylia dolabriformis). In Australia, the Pepper-
mint (Hucalyptus amygdalina) and the White Stringy Bark (#.
capitélla) ; in New Zealand, the Totara (Podocirpus Totara) and
Tanakaha (Phyllocladus trichomanoides) ; the Yellow-wood (Podo-
carpus elongatus and P. latifolius) in South Africa; Mora and

6

82 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

Angélique in Guiana ; Canella preta (Nectandra dtra and N. mollis)
in Brazil ; and Cagiieyran (Copaifera hymeneifolia) in Cuba, are all
timbers valuable to the builder.

Wood-paving.—The consumption of wood for paving in our
large towns, already enormous, is rapidly increasing, although the
comparative advantages of soft wood, in England mainly Pine,
with its greater cheapness, and hard woods, with their greater
durability and the chance of their becoming slippery, are not yet
decided. The chief hard woods as yet used in England are Jarrah
(Eucalyptus margindta) and Karri (#. diversicolor) from South-
western Australia. In Paris Pinus Pindster and Larch are em-
ployed. Black-butt (#. piluldris) and Crow’s Ash (Flindérsia
australis), from Eastern Australia, were laid experimentally in
Wellington Street, Strand, in 1895; and Tallow-wood (Lucalyptus
microcorys), from New South Wales, Bloodwood (£. corymbésa)
and Ironwood (Tarriétia argyrodéndron), from Queensland, and Blue
Gum (Eucalyptus glébulus) and Stringy Bark (£. obliqua), from Tas-
mania, have also been tried. Little can be said in favour of the Red
Gum of the Eastern United States (Liquidambar styraciflua), a large
quantity of which was ordered for use in Westminster in 1901.
“‘ Cedar,’”’ often spoken of in this connection in Western American
cities, is probably mostly the wood of Thiuya gigantea (T. plicata)
and Cupréssus lawsoniana.

Shingles and fencing—Wooden shingle roofs, for which Oak
used to be employed, are of much less importance in England than
in the United States, where White Cedar (Thiya gigantea and
T’. occidentalis, Cupréssus lawsonidna, and C. Thyoides and Libocédrus
decuirrens) is largely used for this purpose, which requires a straight-
grained wood, easy to split. In all countries enormous quantities
of split and sawn timber are consumed for fencing purposes ; more
especially Oak, Larch, and Spanish Chestnut with us ; “ Cedar” in
the United States ; the so-called “‘ Birch,” really a Beech (Fagus
Soldndri), in New Zealand ; and Beefwood or Swamp or Forest
Oak (Casuarina equisetifélia) and allied species, together with
various species of Eucalyptus, in Australia, of which, perhaps,
E. amygdalina, E. rostrata, and E. vimindlis are the chief.

Carpentry.—The work of the carpenter and joiner links that
of the builder to that of the cabinet-maker. In Europe, in addition
to much Baltic and American Pine, chiefly Pinus sylvéstris, P.
Strobus, and P. palustris, he uses much Spruce (Picea eacélsa),
Bordeaux Pine (Pinus Pindster), and Swiss Pine (Abies pectindta),
besides Oak, Ash, and Chestnut. To give additional strength, Elm
is used for the ends of ammunition-boxes, whilst their sides are of
Pine. So also in the United States and Canada, the Hemlock

FENCING AND CARPENTERS’ WOODS 83

Spruce (T'stiga canadénsis), White and Black Spruces (Picea dlba
and P. nigra) ; and in the West Indies, Fiddlewood (various species
of Citharéxylum) may be specially mentioned as carpenters’ woods.
In South Africa the Cedar Boom (Widdringténia juniperdides),
though not very durable, is a useful wood, as the allied species,
W. Whitet, from the kloofs of the Shiré Highlands, may probably
prove; and in Eastern Australia the Moreton Bay Pine (Arau-
caria Cunningham) may be mentioned in this group. The carpenter
requires cheap wood, easily worked, and of moderate strength.

Carriage-building.—We may class here the various woods em-
ployed in the many branches of the wheelwright’s, waggon and.
carriage-builder’s trade. Hornbeam (Carpinus Bétulus), Elm, and.
Australian Blackwood (Acdcia melandxylon) are peculiarly fitted
for the hubs; Oak, Robinia, Ash and Eucalyptus crebra and E.
goniocdlyx for spokes; Hickory (various species of Hicéria) for
axle-trees and shafts ; Poplar, American White-wood (Liriodéndron
tulipifera), Birch and Maple (Acer barbdtum) for panels ; the dense
Pyengadu (Xylia dolabriformis) and Padouk (Pterocarpus indicus) of
Burma, for gun-carriages or the frames of railway-waggons, and the
Bastard Peppermint of New South Wales (T'ristania suavéolens) for
somewhat similar purposes, in which tough hard wood is needed.
About 1750, Satinwood, upon which Cipriani and Angelica Kauff-
mann executed their paintings, became fashionable for coach-
panels ; whilst for the humbler purposes of wheelbarrows Willow
is useful from its freedom from splintering.

Furniture.—An immense variety of woods have been employed
in the making of furniture, susceptibility to polish, beauty of
colour or grain, and durability being their chief requisites, together
with freedom from shrinkage, whilst they are variously employed
either planed, carved, turned, or bent. Thus some wood known
as ‘“‘ Cedar” seems to have been largely used in ancient Assyria
and Egypt, forming the beams of the temple of Apollo at Utica,
said by Pliny to have been sound 1,200 years after their erection ;
employed alike in Solomon’s temple, in Greek sculpture, and in
carpentry, as for the chest in which Cypselus of Corinth is said to
have been concealed about 550 B.c. As Vitruvius speaks of that
of Crete, Africa, and Syria as the best, it is probable that then, as
now, the wood of several species was confused under one name,
probably the Lebanon Cedar (Cédrus libani), that of Mount Atlas
(C. atlantica) and the ’Arar (Tetraclinis articuldta) of Morocco.
This last sweet-scented wood, known also as Atlas Cypress, was
the much-vaunted ‘“ Citrus” or ‘“ Citron’? Wood of the Romans
and probably the ‘‘ Thyine Wood ” of the Apocalypse. The roof of
the cathedral at Cordova, originally a mosque, is built of it, it being

6—2

84 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

there known as “ Alerce.”’ The true Cypress (Cupréssus semper-
virens) was, no doubt, largely used, not only, as is related, for
Alexander the Great’s Babylonian fleet or Semiramis’ bridge over
the Euphrates, but owing to its durability and resistance to moth,
for clothes-chests. | An Italian chest of this wood of the fourteenth
century is preserved at South Kensington, and John of Gaunt
bequeaths one in his will in 1397. The Certosina work, or inlay-
ing of this wood and walnut with ivory, so called from the choir
fittings of the Certosa between Milan and Pavia, an art practised
at Florence in the fifteenth century, was perhaps brought by the
Venetians from Persia, from which country it also reached Bom-
bay. Sissoo (Dalbérgia Sissoo), possibly the Chittim of Holy Serip-
ture, and other species of Rosewood, Ebony, Teak, and Walnut,
may have reached Assyria, Syria, and even more western lands
from India ; but the Corsican Ebony used by the Romans for veneers
was probably the Laburnum, the ‘‘ Faux Ebénier ” of the French.
Lotos-wood, said to have been used in Greek sculpture, may have
been that of the Nettle-tree (Céltis australis), still much used in
Southern Europe. We read of the Romans using Box and Beech
for chairs and for veneers ; Beech for chests ; Olive, both wild and
cultivated, for veneers ; Fig, Willow, Plane, Elm, Mulberry, Cherry,
and Cork-Oak, as ground for veneers ; Maple, especially Bird’s-eye
Maple (probably Acer campéstré), for tables ; and Syrian Terebinth
(Pistacia Terebinthus), and Poplar for various other purposes.
Though Norway Pine was imported by Henry III., in the thirteenth
century, for panelling at Windsor, throughout the Middle Ages, Oak
was the main furniture wood as it was the chief building material.
As in the timber-frame houses of the Chester rows, the fourteenth-
century roof of Westminster Hall, or the marvellously carved one of
the Palais de Justice at Rouen in the sixteenth ; so in the great bed
of Ware and other English and Flemish furniture during the Tudor
period, Oak alone is employed. It was used as a bed wood for
veneering by Boule under Louis XIV., and was painted white and
oilt in the time of Louis XVI. Italian Walnut (Juglans régia) was
much used in Italy for carving and gilding from the fifteenth century,
and it was at Venice and Florence that the use of the soft white
woods of Willow, Linden, and Sycamore for carved and gilt frames
for mirrors originated in the sixteenth. A beautiful cabinet of
English sixteenth-century workmanship in the Victoria and Albert
Museum is adorned with high-relief carvings in Pearwood ; and a
South German one in the same museum of seventeenth-century date
is of Pine and Oak veneered with Hungarian Ash and Walnut.
The use of Ebony, especially for inlaying Walnut wardrobes, became
more general after the Dutch settlement in Ceylon in 1695 ; Grinling

+ FURNITURE WOODS 85

Gibbons, who was partly of Dutch descent, employed Linden and
other white woods for his inestimable carving ; and the work of
Thomas Chippendale in the eighteenth century gave Mahogany the
popularity in England that Satinwood enjoyed at that time in
France. Heppelwhite and Sheraton employed Mahogany not only
for chairs, but for small articles such as tea-caddies, whilst in the
inlaid work of the period it was used, not only with other dark woods,
such as Rosewood, Laburnum, and Purple-heart (Copaifera pubi-
flora), but also with Holly, Maple, and Pear. At the present day
Mahogany is used for dining-room furniture and veneers, though
much Oak, some of which is the Canadian Red Oak (Quércus rubra),
is used for the same purpose, whilst large quantities of Walnut
Jiglans nigra), Ash (Frdxinus americina), Bass-wood (Tilia
americdéna), Maple (Acer barbdtum), and Birch (Bétula lénta) are im-
ported from North America for library and bedroom furniture,
stained or painted Deals being employed for yet cheaper goods.
Fifty years ago American Walnut was only used in England for
inferior purposes, such as framing for veneers ; but now it has much
advanced in popularity with cabinet-makers and shopfitters with
a doubling of its former price. Another American wood of in-
creasing importance is the American Whitewood, or Canary White-
wood (Liriodéndron tulipifera), used for the seats of American
Windsor chairs, and, from its suitability for staining or polishing,
rapidly becoming a favourite with wood-workers. Beech and Yew
are the staple woods of our Buckinghamshire chair factories, Ash
being used in bent wood-work ; whilst bamboo work and cane-seats
are somewhat outside our present scope.
Among furniture woods in use in other countries we can only
enumerate a few :
In India :—
Ebony (Diospyros spp.),
Rosewoods or Blackwoods (Dalbérgia latifolia, etc.),
Sissoo (Dalbérgia Sissoo),
Redwood (Adendnthera pavonina),
Padouk (Pterocarpus indicus and P. dalbergidides),
Bija Sal or Bastard Teak (Pterocarpus Marsupium),
Margosa or Neem (MJélia spp.),
Siris (Albizzia spp.),
Chittagong wood (Chickrassia tabularis),
Chatwan (Alsténia scholdris), a soft wood, named from its
use for blackboards in Indian schools,
Gumbar (Gmelina arborea),
Toon, Moulmein Cedar or Indian Mahogany (Cedrela Toona) ;
and Jack or Ceylon Mahogany (Artocdrpus integrifolia).

86 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

In Mauritius and other islands in the Indian Ocean :—
Tatamaka or Rosewood, under which name are confused
Thespésia populnea and Calophyllum Inophyllum.
In South Africa :—
Sneezewood, Neishout, or Umtati (Pterdxylon utile),
Stinkwood (Ocotéa bullata),
Cape Ebony (Huclea pseudébenus, etc.),
Cape Ash, Essen Boom, or Umgwenyuizinja (Hckebérgia
capensis),
Saffron-wood, or Umbomoana (EHl@odéndron créceum),
Assegai-wood, or Umguna (Ourtisia faginea),
Salic-wood, or Unkaza (Buddléia salvicefolia), and
Red Cedar, or Rood Els (Cundnia capénsis).
In Yoruba Land, West Africa :—
Iroko (Chloréphora excélsa), resembling Satinwood.
In Borneo :—
Mirabow (Afzélia palembanica).
In Australia :—
Blackwood (Acacia melanéxylon, ete.),
Jarrah (Eucalyptus margindata),
Shingle Oak (Casuarina stricta),
Queenwood (Daviésia arborea),
Rosewood (Dyséxylon Fraseridnum),
Beefwood (Grevillea striata),
Mulberry (Hedycarya angustifolia),
Silky Oak (Stenocarpus salignus),
Moreton Bay Pine (Araucaria Cunningham), and
Pencil Cedar (Podocarpus eldia).
In Tasmania :—
Honeysuckle (Banksia marginata) and
Huon Pine (Dacrydium Franklinit).
In New Zealand :—
Honeysuckle or Rewa-rewa (Knightia excélsa),
Kauri Pine (Agathis australis),
Rimu (Dacrydium cwpressinum),
Miro (Podocarpus ferruginea), and
Totara (P. totara).
And in Tropical America :—
Mahogany or Baywood (Swieténia Mahégani),
Sabicu (Lysiloma Sabicu),
Santa Maria, or Galba (Calophyllum Cdlaba),
Green Ebony (Brya Ebenus),
Zebra Wood (Coénnarus guianénsis, etc.),
Sapodilla (Achras Sapota), and
Braziletto (Cesalpinia brasiliénsis, ete.).

VENEER WOODS, TURNERY, ETC. 87

Veneers.—Very choice ornamental woods are employed mainly
as veneers. Such are, in addition to many of those just enumer-
ated : Amboyna wood, the product, it is believed, of some species
of Pterocdrpus ; the burrs of Yew, largely used for tea-caddies, etc.,
in the eighteenth century ; those of Walnut; and the beautiful
Lacewood or Honeysuckle wood of North America (Pldtanus occi-
dentalis).

Turnery.—The turner requires a tough wood, which will often
be also hard and susceptible of good polish. No wood is more
generally useful to him than the Ash, as it does not splinter. Curi-
ously enough, cankered Ash-wood, popularly known as “* bee-sucken
Ash,” being apparently twisted in its grain, is extremely hard and
tough, and, therefore, suitable for mallets. Beech is used for
wedges, planes, and tool-handles; Hornbeam for the bearers of
the cylinders of printing-machines ; Pear for T-squares ; and Elm,
and in former times Maple, for bowls; whilst the record of the
demand for Walnut for the manufacture of gunstocks reads like a
romance. In 1806 France required 12,000 Walnut-trees per annum ;
while in England, before the Battle of Waterloo, £600 was paid for a
single tree. For cheaper gunstocks American Walnut is now used,
whilst the American species of Ash, Beech (Fagus ferruginea), and
Hornbeam (Carpinus carolinidna, known as “blue Beech’’), are
employed in the United States for purposes similar to those to which
their European equivalents are put. The Hickories (Hicéria),
more especially for handles, the Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana)
for shuttles, plane stocks, etc., and the Cherry (Priénus serotina)
are also important to the American turner. In Japan, Kizi (Pauwl-
ownia imperidlis) is the main basis for lacquer-ware: the so-
called Cherry (Hxocdrpus cupressiformis) and the fragrant Musk
wood (Olearia argophylla) of Australia, and the Violet-wood
(Copaifera bracteata) of Brazil may be specially mentioned ; whilst
in South Africa the various species of Olea known as Ironwood, the
Silk-bark or Zybast (Celdstrus acumindtus), Buffelsbal (Gardénia
Thunbéergir), Ladle-wood (Hartégia capénsis), and Umzumbit (Mil-
léetia Kafra); and in India the Babul (Acacia arabica), Ironwood
(Mésua férrea), Ebonies (Diospyros spp.), calamander (D. quesita),
Anjan (Hardwickia bindta), Tamarind (T’amarindus indica), Dhaura
(Anogeissus latifolia), Bullet-wood (Mimusops littordlis), Satin-wood
(Chloréxylon Swieténia), and Sandal-wood (Sdntalum dlbum), are
noteworthy.

Walking-sticks, ete.—A great variety of woods are used in the
manufacture of walking-sticks. Not to mention Jersey Cabbages
and the leaf-stalks of the Date-palm and a great variety of Canes,
imported specially from Singapore, these include English-grown
Oak, Ash, Blackthorn, Holly and Hazel, Whitethorn, Aspen, Birch,

88 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

Crab-apple, Furze, Maple, Hornbeam, and Rowan. Medlar (Més-
pilus germdnica) and Chestnut (Castanea sativa) are imported from
France ; Cork Oak (Quércus Suber) from Spain ; Carob (Ceraténia
Siliqua) from Algeria; Guelder-rose (Vibirnum Opulus), under the
names of ‘‘ Teazle’’ or ‘“‘ Balkan-rose,” from the Balkans ; Olive
and Orange from Southern Europe, while ‘“‘ Black Orange” is a
trade name for the common Broom (Cytisus scoparius) ; Box, from
Persia ; Ebony, from Ceylon; and, from the West Indies, Cocus
or ‘Flowered Ebony” (Bria Ebenus), Partridge-wood (Andira
inérmis), Pimento (Piménta officindlis), and Letter-wood or Leopard-
wood (Brésimum Aublétii). Edward IV. ordered all bows in
Ireland to be made of Yew, Wych-hazel (Ulmus glabra), Ash, or
Alder; and, in his time, much Yew was imported from Dalmatia
via Venice. Lancewood and Hickory are now largely used for this
purpose.

Engraving.—For wood-engraving, the Box (Buéaxus semper-
virens) of Turkey is unequalled, and the use of metallic blocks has
diminished the urgency of the search for a substitute for, as wasteful
consumption threatened exhaustion of the supply of, this species.
The Cape Box (Bixus Macowdnit), introduced in 1885, is now con-
siderably used : Ebony is nearly equal in texture to Box, but its
colour militates against its use; Hawthorn is probably next best
to Box of any known wood, but cannot readily be obtained of
sufficient size: Pear (Pyrus communis), used for calico-printer’s
blocks, the Chinese T’eng li mu (Pyrus betulefolia), and Pai’cha
(Huénymus européus, var. Hamiltonianus), the American Box or
Dogwood (Cornus flérida) and other species are suitable for coarse
work ; but Jamaica Box (T'ecéma pentaphylla) is on the whole the
most likely successor to Box.

Musical instruments.— While any well-seasoned ornamental
wood, such as Rosewood, Mahogany, or Walnut, is used for the
cases of pianofortes, those parts of musical instruments in which
resonance is produced must consist of wood of uniform texture,
free from all knots or other defects or contrasts of grain. Ancient
Etruscan flutes seem to have been made of Box; whilst at the
present day the Green Ebony (Bria Ebenus) of the West Indies
is, when properly seasoned, the very best wood for this purpose.
Evelyn writes that Cypress is a sonorous wood, and is employed in
making harps, organ-pipes, and other musical instruments ; but
the Spruce (Picéa excélsa), known in the trade as “‘ Swiss Pine,”
is now accounted the most resonant of all woods, and is used for
the bellies of the violin and the sounding-boards of pianos, Sycamore
(Acer pseudo-pldtanus) or Hard Maple (A. barbdtum) being employed
for the back and sides of the former instrument.

MISCELLANEOUS USES OF WOOD 89

Miscellaneous uses.—Even tobacco-pipes consume large quan-
tities of certain woods, such as the Bruyére, commonly known as
Briar (Erica arbérea), from Southern Europe, the Myall (Acacia
homalophylla) from Australia, and the Cherry (Priéinus avium,
Méhaleb, etc.), used for long pipe-stems and grown mainly in
Austria. The light white woods of the Horse-chestnuts or Buck-
eyes (4isculus) are used for artificial limbs, just as, judging by the
writings of the comic dramatists, Linden-wood was employed in
making corsets for male dandies in ancient Greece. Millions of
cubic feet of Bermuda Cedar and of the Red or Pencil Cedar of
Virginia (Juniperus bermudidna and J. virginidna) are cut annually
for the manufacture of pencils alone. The quantities of Alder
(Alnus glutindsa), Beech, Willow (Salix dlba more especially), Spruce
or White Deal (Picea excélsa), Birch (Bétula alba), Linden, Poplars,
and even Horse-chestnut (4sculus hippocdstanum) in Europe, and
of Tupelo (Ngssa sylvdtica) and Canoe Birch (Bétula papyrifera) in
North America, consumed for sabots must be immense, to say
nothing of the quantities of these and other woods used for shoe-
lasts, shoe-pegs, boot-trees, hat-blocks, etc. Soft white woods,
such as Willow, Alder, Linden, Poplar, or “‘ Cottonwood,” that of
the Tulip-tree (Liriodéndron) and the Cucumber-tree (Magnolia
acumindta), confounded together as “Canary Whitewood,” and
the Spruces (Picea) and Soft Pines (Pinus Strdbus, etc.), are those
chiefly in demand by the toy-manufacturer.

Cooperage.—The requirements of the cooper are more varied
than might be supposed, different woods being needed for staves,
for hoops, for head-pieces, and for dry, liquid, or volatile goods.
Oak is largely used for staves, especially French Oak (Quércus
Robur), and American White Oak (Q. dlba), but in Australia the
Black Wattle (Acdcia mollissima) takes its place. Willow and
Hickory are used for hoops and Ash for a great variety of purposes,
but for dry goods the cooper employs cheap soft white woods such
as those used for the manufacture of packing-cases.

Packing-cases.—Packing-cases made of inferior Silver Fir
(Abies pectindta) are sent all over the world from Switzerland and
the Tyrol: its cheapness causes Norway Spruce (Picea excélsa) to
be almost as universally employed ; and on the continent of Kurope
the Black Austrian, Bordeaux Cluster, and Italian Stone Pines
(Pinus austriaca, Pindster, and Pinea) are also largely used for this
purpose. Their not splitting when nailed renders the Poplars
admirable for this purpose, and the White, Aspen, and Lombardy
Poplars (Pépulus canéscens, trémula, and fastigidta) are accordingly
largely used in France, as are Populus monilifera and other “* Cotton-
woods,” as they are there called, in the United States. Picea

90 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

Smithidna, the Himalayan Spruce, is in common use in India ; but
for tea-chests, though Chir (Pinus longifolia), Chatwan (Alstonia
scholaris), Chaplash (Artocarpus Chaplasha), Toon (Cedréla Toona),
Shembal (Bémbax malabdricum), and Maples, such as Acer Camp-
béllit in the north-east, and A. pictum in the north - west, are
employed, there is an inadequate supply of suitable native wood,
which is being met by the importation of Birch veneers from
Russia.

Crates, ete.— Ash, Alder, and Birch are largely used in the
making of crates; and few persons probably, outside the trade,
notice the variety of woods, in addition to Willow, which go to the
making of our baskets. Enormous quantities of the Pine timber
of Sweden (Pinus sylvéstris) are consumed in the form of lucifer
matches ; while wood-shavings and wood-wool, as it is called, much
used in packing, are little more than bye-products in the conversion
of timber for other purposes.

Paper-pulp.— The manufacture of wood-pulp for paper, an
industry belonging almost entirely to the last twenty-five years, has
grown to such dimensions as to seriously affect the question of our
timber supplies. It is carried on mainly in Scandinavia, Germany,
the United States, and Canada. The Poplars, Alders, Buckeyes, ,
and Spruces are the most suitable woods for this manufacture ; but
the coarser kinds of printing paper, packing paper, and paste-board
are made from Pine, even the branches and chips, formerly wasted,
being utilized. The refuse of Juniperus virginidna from the pencil
factories yields a paper useful for underlaying carpets or wrapping
articles liable to be injured by moth. Two methods are followed,
the mechanical, yielding a granular inferior product, and the
chemical. Of this last there are two principal modifications—viz.,
the soda or alkaline process, and the sulphite or acid process, accord-
ing as the reagent employed is caustic soda or bisulphite of lime,
The former produces softer, the latter harder and more transparent,
paper. Cellulose, prepared by these chemical processes from
coniferous wood, is also manufactured in Germany into an infinite
variety of articles. As an illustration of the growth of the wood-
pulp industry it may be stated that in 1891 the product of Norway
was valued at 8,600,000 kronor (about £430,000), and that of
Sweden at 10,400,000 kronor (£520,000), whilst in 1900 they were
27,400,000 and 33,200,000 kronor respectively. In 1892 there were
already 600 paper-pulp factories in Germany and 200 in Austria-
Hungary ; by 1900 the value of the industry in Canada was esti-
mated at 64 millions sterling ; and in the following year Dr. Schlich
calculated that Norway was producing 1,400,000 tons a year,
Canada 1,200,000, and Sweden 1,000,000, tons. British imports

FUEL AND CHARCOAL 91

of wood-pulp in 1899 exceeded 20,000 tons, valued at nearly two
millions sterling. These amounts have undoubtedly at the present
time been largely exceeded.

Fuel.—The heat-producing value of wood as fuel varies greatly,
owing to the differing capacity that woods have for retaining
moisture. Thus, while green wood may contain 50 per cent. of
moisture, ordinary stack-wood may contain only 25 per cent., and
kiln-dry wood only 2 per cent. With 25 lbs. of water, 100 Ibs. of
fire-wood will contain about 1 lb. of incombustible ash and 74 lbs.
of the dry substance of wood. This last consists of 37 lbs. of carbon,
32 lbs. of oxygen and 4-4 lbs. of hydrogen ; and in burning the whole
of the oxygen combines with 4 lbs. of hydrogen to form water, so
that only the 37 lbs. of carbon and 0-4 lb. of hydrogen—+.e., about
half the weight of the dry substance of the wood—are available for
heat-production. Every pound of water combined in the wood
requires about 600 units of heat to evaporate it, the unit being the
amount of heat necessary to raise 1 lb. of water 1° C.; so that
100 lbs. of stack-wood (25 per cent. moisture) only furnishes about
255,000 units, whilst if kiln-dry (2 per cent.) it would yield 350,000.
The advantage of seasoning for firewood is, therefore, obvious.
The resinous woods of the conifers produce most flame and are
most useful accordingly in starting a fire; but the denser hard
woods produce from 25 to 30 per cent. more heat.

Charcoal and distillation of wood.—When wood is heated to
200° F. without access of air, it remains unaltered, at 220° it becomes
brown, and at 270° to 300° it suffers decomposition, torrefied wood
or red charcoal being formed. At 350° it is resolved into volatile
products and true or black charcoal. If the temperature is raised
gradually, so that 600° F. is not reached for several hours, the pro-
cess is called dry distillation. The first product of distillation is
almost entirely water ; but at 500° pyroligneous (crude acetic) acid,
or wood-vinegar, wood-spirit and uncondensable gases pass off,
charcoal and some tar remaining. In the primitive method of the
charcoal-burner, or meiler, in which billets of wood are stacked
horizontally or inclined round a central chimney opening, most of
the volatile products are lost ; but for charcoal this process is still
largely employed on the Continent. If the fire is steady and
regular, the slower the process the better the yield. For gun-
powder-charcoal, however, and acetic acid, iron or brick ovens are
mostly employed. The best gunpowder-charcoal is produced from
light woods, such as Willow, Buckthorn, or ‘“‘ Dogwood ” (Rhamnus
Frdngula), and Alder. Charcoal is darker, heavier, a better con-
ductor of heat and electricity, less easily ignited, and gives out
greater heat in burning, the higher the temperature at which it has

92 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

been made. The proportion of charcoal yielded is greater (24 to
30 per cent.) with a slow process, that of the volatile products with
a rapid one. From experiments with. Hornbeam, Alder, Birch,
Rowan, Beech, Aspen, Oak, Buckthorn, Silver Fir, and Larch, we
find the yield of charcoal to range from 20 per cent. with slow, to
34-6 per cent. with quick distillation ; the total distillate from 43 to
53 per cent. ; the pyroligneous acid from 47-5 in the hardwoods to
38 in the conifers ; and the tar from 2:9 in Beech to 9-7 in conifers.
In practice only about 18 to 20 per cent. by weight of charcoal is
obtained, or about half the volume of the wood. Pyroligneous
acid is in England largely manufactured from spent dye-woods,
such as fustic, logwood, etc., the charcoal obtained being largely
used for packing the meat refrigerators in ships. The gas manu-
factured on the Continent by the distillation of wood consists, like
coal-gas, of carbon-monoxide, hydrogen and hydrocarbons such as
acetylene, olefiant gas, benzene, etc. That from Silver Fir (Abies
pectinata), for instance, contains carbon-monoxide 22-3 to 61-8 per
cent. by weight, hydrogen 18-4 to 48-7, heavy hydrocarbons 6-5
to 10-6, and light hydrocarbons 9-4 to 35-3 per cent. The products of
distillation, under the most favourable circumstances, are stated as:

rude :

Charcoal. Tar. Pyaar = fe ae OuE
| Acid. :
Birch a yecee ot 22-4 86 | 45-0 4°47
Beech, - - =| 24°6 9°5 44:0 4:29
Oak, - - : 26°2 971 43°0 3°88
Juniper, - Seer 22% 107 | 45'8 2 34
Silver Fir, - 3] PAD lgsyi | 41:2 2°16
Scots Fir, - - 2D 11°8 | 42°4 2°14

Purer acetic acid is obtained by re-distillation, and, when mixed
with certain essences, constitutes aromatic vinegar. Among the
acetates prepared on a large scale from pyroligneous acid are those
of lime, the brown containing from 60 to 70, and the grey from
80 to 85 per cent. of acetate. In the preparation of these naphtha
is recovered ; and from this, by neutralizing with lime and re-
distilling, wood spirit or methyl alcohol. Wood-tar, used for
creosoting wood and in the manufacture of roofing-felts, is a thick,
dark, viscous material, containing from 5 to 20 per cent. of acetic
acid, from 30 to 65 per cent. of pitch, and from 20 to 45 per cent.
of tar-oils. From these last, creosote, a colourless, highly refracting
oil, with a specific gravity of 1-04, boiling at 406° F., and paraffin,
used for candle-making, are obtained, by neutralizing with car-
bonate of soda and further distillation.

DYEING AND TANNING 93

Dyeing and tanning. — Finally, somewhat apart from these
other uses to which woods are applied, is the employment of certain
species for dyeing and tanning. Of the former the most important
are Logwood (Hematéxylon campechianum L.), which dyes red. or
black, and of which we import over 50,000 tons annually from
Central America ; Fustic, a yellow dye, obtained from the wood of
the large West Indian trees, Chloréphora tinctoria Gaud. (= Mac-
lira tinctoria D.Don) and its varieties, xanthdxylon and dffinis ;
Sappan or Yellow-wood, from Cesalpinia Sappan L.; the red dyes
known as Brazil, Braziletto, Nicaragua, or Lima wood, from Cesal-
pinia crista L., brasiliénsis L., echindta Lam., C. bijuga, and C. tinc-
toria ; Camwood, Baphia nitida Afz., from West Africa ; and Red
Sanders or Sandal-wood, Pterocdrpus santalinus L. fil., and Adenan-
thera pavonina L., from India.

Barks are more used for tanning than are woods ; but the Que-
brachos, the produce of several South American species, have been
a good deal employed of late years.

The various methods employed consist essentially in a machine
for grinding the dye-wood into a fine state of division, and a boiler
or digester in which an extract is prepared by dissolving the grated
wood in a suitable lye.

CHAPTER VI
OUR SUPPLIES OF WOOD,

In spite of the substitution of iron or other substances for wood
in shipbuilding and other industries, with the increasing numbers
of civilized man the consumption of wood increases at such a rate
as to demand serious attention.

The clearing of forest land for the purposes of agriculture has
been most recklessly carried out, especially during the last century
in the United States and in Canada, much of the wood being wasted.
Where, too, the timber has been cut for use, this has in general
been done so completely without any provision for the regenera-
tion of the forest-lands as to lead to their extinction. The floods
and famines of China, the waste of the agricultural soil in Ceylon,
the barrenness of Mesopotamia, Syria, Asia Minor, and Cyprus, the
drying up of the springs and deterioration of the climate in South
Africa, Mauritius, Turkey, and Spain have been attributed mainly
to wholesale destruction of forest. The felling of the woods on
the Atlantic coast of Denmark has exposed the country to sharp
sea winds and drifting sand, forming lagoons and bogs and causing
a marked deterioration of the climate: the disafforesting of the
Apennines during the last two centuries has much increased the
violence of the mountain-torrents ; and even in Russia, which has
not only the largest area of forest of any European state, but the
largest percentage of her whole area under forest, a decrease
in the waters of the Volga has been attributed to the same
cause.

Whilst all woodland has disappeared from some lands, special
species are threatened with extinction in others. The pine forests
of Tunis have disappeared during the last hundred years: some
districts of Australia already experience a scarcity of fire-wood
and of mine-props : until Government regulations put a stop to the
felling of saplings to act as rollers in transporting the larger logs,
the valuable Greenheart of Demerara was in imminent danger of
extinction ; and the enormous drain upon the supply of White Pine
(Pinus Strébus) is a grave danger in North America.

94

BRITISH WOOD SUPPLY 95

Great Britain.—In Great Britain the abundance of coal renders
us independent of wood as fuel, and our geographical position so
facilitates the importation of timber that we have to a great extent
neglected our woodlands as a source of profit, while our mild insular
climate has enabled us to overlook the hygienic importance of forests.
There is accordingly little more than 3 million acres of woods and
forests in the United Kingdom, or only 4 per cent. of the entire
area, a lower percentage than that of any other European state,
except Portugal, while this country stands pre-eminent as the
greatest importer of timber, exceeding 300 million cubic feet, or,
including paper-pulp, gums, bark, and other forest produce, an
annual value exceeding 35 millions sterling. No complete statistics
are available as to our consumption of home-grown timber ; but it
probably does not exceed 2 million tons. Special local demand is
to some extent met by local supply, as, for instance, in the case of
the bobbin-wood in the cotton-mill districts, pit-props in the
Scottish mining area, and the Beech of the Chilterns, from 12,000
to 15,000 loads of which are used annually in the Buckinghamshire
chair-making industry, by which some 50,000 families are supported.
Of our imports, over five millions sterling is the value of the timber
received from Canada, and even greater amounts from Sweden and
Russia.

The United Kingdom imported timber to the following values
in the years 1898, 1899, and 1900 from

1898. 1899. 1900.
Russia, - - - £4,645,549 £4,957,001 £5, 993,377
Sweden and )\ f 5,681,274
? - 6,600,283 6,889, 85 pOOT AL
Norway, J i (1,934,171
Germany, - - 660,446 606,230 727,842
United States, - 2,078,012 2,421,100 3,360,466
ini 620,095 626,101 731,842
Canada, - - - 4,342,244 4,751,069 5,243,496
Other countries, = - 1,000,050 1,277,568 1,478,759
Total - - £19,946,679 £21,528, 926 £25,151,104
Besides _furniture-
woods and veneers, 646,075 659,312 722,460
and Mahogany, 691,220 693,949 826,520

Sir J. F. L. Rolleston, M.P., in his presidential address to the
Surveyors’ Institution in November, 1901, said :

‘* Before leaving the subject of land and its future, I should like to say that of all
its products the only one, the value of which appears to be in the ascending scale, is
timber, In the midland counties I have been furnished with accounts of timber sales
at which single Oak trees have realized up to £100, while other woods are command-
ing good prices, and poles and thinnings are readily sold. There is a reason for this.
The great onslaught that has been made on the virgin forests of the world, from the

96 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

time of the Phienicians onwards, without artificial reafforestation, must at length be
appreciably felt.

The increase of population and the advance of civilization must also point 2 an
increased use of timber of all kinds for works of construction, for articles of use and
ornamentation, and for fuel. A rise in the value of home-grown timber seems
possible ; in any case a ready sale may be anticipated.

With the decline in the value of cereals it can hardly be doubted that a consider-
able portion of the land of this country (some of which is derelict, and some let at a
very low rental) might be planted to advantage.”

The forest area of Europe was estimated by Dr. Schlich in 1901
at 758,080,000 acres, ¢.e. 31 per cent. of the total area, or 2 acres
per head of the population. That of the chief countries is estimated
as follows :

*Russia, - - - - 516,000,000 acres, z.e. 40 per cent.
* Sweden, - - - 48,000,000 acres, z.e. 40 per cent.
* Austria-Hungary, - - 46,410,000 acres, z.e. 30 per cent.
France, - - - - 23,530,000 acres, z.e. 18 per cent.
Spain, - - - - 20,960,000 acres, 7.e. 17 per cent.
Germany, - = - 34,490,000 acres, z.e. 26 per cent.
*Norway, - - - 17,000,000 acres, z.e. 21 per cent.
Italy, - - - - 10,110,000 acres, z.e. 14 per cent.
Turkey, - - = - 6,180,000 acres, ze. 8 per cent.
Great Britain, - - 3,030,000 acres, z.e. 4 per cent.
Switzerland - - - 2,100,000 acres, 7.¢. 20 per cent.
Greece, - - - - 2,030,000 acres, z.e. 16 per cent.
Portugal - - - 770,000 acres, z7.e. 3 per cent.
Belgium, - - - 1,250,000 acres, ¢.e. 17 per cent.
Holland, - - = 570,000 acres, ¢z.e. 7 per cent.
Denmark, = 2 = 600,000 acres, z.e. 6 per cent.
*Bulgaria - = - 10,650,000 acres, z.e. 45 per cent.
*Bosnia and Herzegovina - 6,790,000 acres, ¢.e. 53 per cent.
Servia - . - - 2,390,000 acres, 7.e. 20 per cent.
*Roumania = - - - 5,030,000 acres, ¢.e. 17 per cent.

The asterisk indicates the chief exporting countries.

With civilization comes an increasing demand for timber for
fencing, building, mine-props, railway-sleepers, and telegraph-
poles, not to mention that for more valuable woods for furniture,
etc., and the multitudinous other minor uses of timber. Thus
American statisticians have estimated 3 million cords! of wood as
used annually in brick-burning, a million cords of Birch for tool-
handles and boot-lasts, 100,000 cords of Soft Maple for shoe-pegs,
and over 3,000 cords of Pine for lucifer matches in the United States
alone.

In 1904 Dr. Schlich calculated from the returns of the five pre-
vious years the net annual imports and exports of timber by
European countries in tons as :

1 A cord=24 loads, 24 tons, or 125 cubic feet.

WOOD SUPPLY OF RUSSIA, SCANDINAVIA, ETC. 97

Imports. Exports.

Great Britain and Roumania, - - 60,000

Ireland, - - 9,290,000 Norway, - - - 1,040,000
Germany, - - 4,600,000 Austria-Hungary - 3,670,000
France, - - - 1,230,000 Sweden, - - - 4,460,000
Belgium, - - 1,020,000 Russia, with Finland, 5,900,000
Denmark, - - 470,000 a
alee = = 420,000 Total 15,130,000
Spain, - - - 210,000
Holland, - - 180,000 Net import into
Switzerland, - : 170,000 Europe, - - 2,620,000
Portugal, = - 60,000
Bulgaria, - - 50,000
Greece, - - - 35,000
Servia, - - - 15,000

Total 17,750,000

Russia.—In the well-managed forests of Germany the average
yearly growth, and, therefore, the amount legitimately felled
annually, is estimated at 2-3 cubic feet for every 100 cubic feet of
standing timber, or 50 cubic feet per acre. But in spite of the
enormous annual yield which this computation gives to the forests
of Russia (viz., 23-475 million cubic feet), when we find nearly
half that amount (10,000 millions) now used within the country for
fuel alone, and 30 millions for house-building, it will be realized
how little reliance can be placed in Russia as a permanent source
of supply for Europe. Before reckoning for her increasing popu-
lation we may recall the saying that Russia is burnt down every
seven years. Of the total timber output from Russian Govern-
ment forests in 1880 of 2,900,000 cubic fathoms, Spruce (Picea
excélsa) constituted 37:5 per cent., Pine (mainly Pinus sylvéstris),
27°8, soft woods (Birch, Linden, Aspen, etc.), 19-5, and hard woods
(Oak, Beech, etc.), 8-8 per cent. Besides paper-pulp from the
Aspen, and a certain amount of Walnut, Russia exports Box from
Odessa, and a large amount of Deal from the White Sea and Baltic
ports. The growing supply of timber at Archangel and the other
White Sea ports is yearly drawn from a greater distance inland.

Seandinavia.—Sweden sends more than half of her exported
timber to Great Britain. It consists largely of Pine, both as pit-
props and in a manufactured form, as window and door-frames ;
Spruce or “‘ White Deal,” used for scaffolds, ladders, etc. ; matches,
of Pine and Aspen; and paper-pulp of Aspen, Spruce, and Pine.
The exports of Norway are similar, a certain amount of Birch and
Maple (Acer platandides) also coming from this country to England.
Both Norway and Sweden are apparently reducing their forest areas
by cutting more than the annual increment.

France —Though a well-wooded country, with carefully managed

98 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

forests in almost every department, exporting Oak and sending
Bordeaux Pine (Pinus Pindster) as mine-props to our Welsh col-
lieries, France imports common building woods from Scandinavia,
Russia, and America, as well as the more costly kinds used for
furniture, etc., her imports exceeding her exports to the value of
over five million sterling per annum.

German Empire, ete. — Spain imports, but does not export
timber. Prussia has 23 per cent. of its area under forest, over
6 million acres, or 30 per cent. of the whole, being under Govern-
ment administration. The yield is about 47 cubic feet per acre per
annum, 7.e. safely within the calculated annual increment of
50 cubic feet, the total expenditure about 1} millions sterling, and
the net surplus over a million, or about 3s. 6d. an acre for all ground
in use. The chief species are Kiefer (Pinus sylvéstris), exported as
Dantzic or Riga Fir or Prussian Deal, and Fichte or Roth Tanne
(Picea excélsa), forming between them three-fourths of the whole
crop. KEiche (Quércus Rébur) is exported to England as Baltic
or East Country Oak, and the Silver Fir, Edeltanne or Weissfichte
(Abies pectindta) abounds in the Vosges and occurs in Schleswig-
Holstein and Silesia. More than a quarter of the area of Bavaria
is under wood, and, though there is a large local demand for fuel,
the careful foresight of the administration is evidenced by the fact
that in 1885 a government forester was sent to study the timber-
trees of the United States, who frankly explained his mission
by saying, “In fifty years you will have to import your timber,
and as you will probably have a preference for American kinds, we
shall begin to grow them now, so as to be ready to send them to
you at the proper time.” Timber is the chief export of the country.

Saxony has over a million acres of forest, one-third of which
belongs to the State, the annual cut being estimated at a million
cubic feet. The Saxon forests include Oak, Beech, Ash, Birch,
and Alder, as well as Pine, Spruce, Silver Fir, and Larch.

Wurtemberg has nearly 13 million acres, or over 30 per cent.
of its whole area under forest, comprising the Pine-wood districts
of the Black Forest and the hardwoods of the Swabian Alps.
Pine, Spruce, Silver Fir, and Oak are floated down the Rhine to
the Dutch shipbuilding yards, whilst Beech furnishes the chief fuel
of the country, and is used for ships’ keels, carriage-building, and
chair-making, and Aspen is in demand for matches and paper-pulp.

Hesse-Darmstadt, the Fir-trees from which are in special demand
in Holland, has one-third of its area under forest ; whilst Baden
has also over a million acres, or one-third of its area, so occupied.

Austria-Hungary.—The forests of the Austrian Empire occupy
over 424 million acres, those of Austria being 30 per cent., those

WOOD SUPPLY OF SWITZERLAND, ITALY, ETC. 99

of Hungary 26-6 per cent., of the entire areas of the two countries.
Beech, Spruce, Silver Fir, and Larch are the prevalent species, and
the bulk of the timber is consumed, for building purposes or fuel,
at home. Hungary has also some large forests of excellent. Oak.

Switzerland. —From the 1,900,000 acres of the forests of Switzer-
land it is estimated that over 89 million cubic feet of timber are
cut annually, but, in addition to considerable clearing, the demands
of a growing population for building purposes, and the use of much
wood. as fuel, there has been considerable waste, as, for instance,
in cutting young trees for fencing, so that the total cut has been
estimated as in excess of the yield, and the export has accordingly
declined. Spruce, Silver Fir, and Pine are the predominant
species.

Italy.—Italy exports a certain amount of Oak of various qualities,
but of ill-ascertained origin. The best, the Tuscan, Neapolitan,
and Sicilian, would seem to be Quércus Rébur, Q. Aisculus, and
Q. pyrendica. Modena, Roman, and Sardinian Oak and Adriatic
Oak (Q. Cérris) are inferior. The country is, however, deficient in
timber, from the point of view both of climate and of demand.
While with our moist climate we can manage with a far smaller
proportion of forest, the countries bordering on the Mediterranean
all suffer from the removal of their forests. Centuries ago the Karst
region of Southern Austria was covered with magnificent Oak
forests and furnished piles and shipbuilding timber to Venice in
her palmy days. It was said that a squirrel could travel for miles
along the Istrian coast from tree to tree. Reckless felling by the
Venetians led to the washing away of the surface soil, until the
country for twenty miles north of Trieste was reduced to bare rock.
Forty years ago the Austrian Government began a costly system of
reafforestation.

Asia.—Turning from Europe to Asia, we find undoubtedly a
large supply of Larch (Larix sibirica), Pine, Spruce (Picea cepha-
lonica), Birch, and other species in Siberia ; but, unless the Amoor
can, to some extent, play the part of the St. Lawrence, the difficulty
of transport will be insuperable. Neither China, the interior of
which probably suffers much from the effects of disafforesting, nor
Japan, holds out any prospect of any large export either of common
or of choice woods, whilst, except perhaps in the remote future to
western North America, cost of freight would put the former class
of timber out of the question.

In Japan, where forest conservancy dates from the third century
A.D., half the area of the country, or about 47,000,000 acres, are
stated to be forest, yielding more than 120 species of valuable
timbers, of which the Nikko Silver Fir (Abies homolépis S. and Z.)

7—2

100 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

and Saghalien Fir (4. sachalinénsis Masters) are the cheapest, and
Hi-no-ki (Cupréssus obtusa Koch) and Ke-ya-ki (Zelkowa acuminata
Planchon) are the most expensive.

India.—Taking British India as 480 million acres, 40 millions,
or one-twelfth of the whole area, are forest. In spite, however, of
the enormous local consumption for fuel and the increasing demand
for railway-sleepers, India produces such a variety of valuable
ornamental and dense hardwoods that conservation is likely to
enable her long to continue her exportation. Of some 2,500 species
of timbers described from India the fourteen most important are
Teak, Sal, Deodar, Sissoo, Babul, Juniper, Kheir, Blackwood,
Sandalwood, Red Sanders, Pyengado, Nahor, Anjan, and Mahwa.
In 1899-1900 she exported Teak to the value of over £600,000,
besides Blackwood, Padouk, Satinwood, Ebony, and Sandalwood ;
but her supply of cheap softwood for tea-chests, etc., is hardly equal
tothedemand. At the same time many of her ornamental furniture
woods might well be more largely used in Europe, especially Iron-
wood, Saj, Toon, Thingan, and Eng.

Such woods as Pynkadoo (Xylia dolabriférmis), Kranji (Didlium
indum), and Tampinnis (Sloétia siderdxylon), in the Malay Pen-
insula, the Lauan (Dipterocarpus thurifer) and Acle (Xylia dolabri-
formis) of the Philippines, and the Rassak (Vdtica Rassak), Billian
(Eusideréxylon Zwagert), and Compass (Kempdssia malaccénsis) of
Borneo, may well prove worthy of European attention, especially
for density and durability, when they become better known, and
the supply of them may be said to be as yet untapped.

Among 200 species thought worthy of trial in the arsenal at
Manila, the essentially Malayan flora of the Philippines includes :

Acle (Xylia dolabriformis),

Banaba (Lagerstremia Flos-Regine),

Betis (Payéna Bétis),

Bolongnita (Diospyros pilosanthera),

Cedar (Cedréla Toona),

Dougon (Stercilia cymbiformis),

Guijo (Shorea robusta),

Ipel (Afzélia bijuga),

Lauan (Dipterocarpus thurifer),
Mangachapoi (Shorea Mangachapot),
Molave (Vitex geniculdtus and V. altissima),
Narra (Pterocarpus pallidus and P. santalinus),
Padouk (Pterocarpus indicus),

Palo Maria (Calophyllum Inophyllum), and
Yacal (Shorea reticulata).

WOOD SUPPLY OF AUSTRALASIA 101

Australasia. — Australian timbers have, as we have already
said, suffered in European repute by not being seasoned ; and as,
in spite of a vast area of scrub, the area of timber-producing forest
is comparatively small, wholesale clearing for the purposes of
agriculture, the use of wood for fuel, and the great demand for
building, fencing, railways, and telegraphs, have sensibly affected
the supply. The areas under marketable timber are stated to be
as follows :—

Acres. Acres.
Queensland, - - 40,000,000 Tasmania, - - 11,000,000
West Australia, - 20,400,000 Victoria, - - 5,000,000
New South Wales, 20,000,000 South Australia, - 3,840,000

Total 100,765,000

Conservation has begun; but mine-props and even firewood are
Jocally scarce.‘ Queensland exports Red Cedar (Cedrela Toodna),
and Moreton Bay, Kauri and Cypress Pines (Araucdria Cunning-
himii, Agathis robista, and Cdllitris robista). Among the chief
other species of this State are Ironbark (Hucalyptus siderophloia),
Peppermint (EH. microcérys), Stringybark (EH. acmenidides), Woolly-
butt (#. botryoides), Bloodwood (E. corymbésa), River Gum (E.
rostrata), Blue Gum (E. tereticdrnis), Grey Gum (E. saligna), Gum-
topped Box (HZ. hemiphloia), Brisbane Box (T'ristania confeérta),
Swamp Mahogany (7. swavéolens), Moreton Bay Chestnut (Cas-
tanospérmum austrdlé), Paper-barked Tea-tree (Melaléuca Leuca-
déndron), Gidgee (Acacia homalophylla), Beech (Gmelina Leichardtit),
Kauri Pines (Agathis robusta and A. Palmerstoni), She Pine (Podo-
carpus eldta), and the Pencil Cedars (Dyséaylon Fraseridnum and.
D. Muellerii). New South Wales sends Cedar (Cedréla Todna)
and Pine (Araucdria Cunninghamii) to China and New Caledonia,
and the area under the former species is now considerably reduced.
Among other important woods of this State are most of those just
mentioned as occurring in Queensland, together with White Iron-
bark (Lucalyptus paniculata), Narrow-leaved (EH. crébra), and Red
(H. Sideréxylon), Blackbutt (H. piluldris), Woollybutt (H. longi-
folia), Forest Mahogany (EH. resinifera), Grey Gum (EH. propinqua),
and Spotted Gum (#. maculata), Turpentine (Syncarpia laurifolia),
Silky Oak (Grevillea robista), Tulip-wood (Harpullia péndula), and
Coachwood (Ceratopétalum apétalum). Nearly half the area of the
colony of Victoria (40,000 out of 88,198 square miles) was estimated
as forest in 1878, most of it being in the hands of Government,
and more than half of it consisting of Hucalyptus. Many Victorian
timbers are extremely dense and hard, such as Red Gum, Blue
Gum, White Gum or Peppermint, Messmate and Iron-bark (Huca-
lyptus rostrata, globulus, amygdalina, obliqua, and leucdxylon), ete. ;

102 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

and accordingly, though some of them may well maintain a more
than local value for sleepers, wood-paving, etc., timber at present
appears among the imports rather than among the exports of the
colony. Other important species in this State are the Grey Box
and Bairnsdale Grey Box (Hucalyptus hemiphloia and EH. Bosis-
toana), the Yellow Box (#. melliodo6ra), the Stringybarks (EH. macror-
rhynca, E. capitellata, E. piperita and H. Muelleriana), the Silvertop
Tronbarks (H. Sieberidna and E. virgata), the Spotted Gum (£.
goniocalyx), the Blackwood (Acdcia melanoxylon), and the Cypress
Pine (Callitris verrucésa). The forest-area of South Australia,
where Hucalyptus also forms the staple of the timber supply, is not
large. It is West Australia, however, and especially its south-
western parts, from which we at present import the bulk of our
Australian timber-supply. Besides Sandalwood (Sdntalum_ cyg-
norum or Fusdnus spicdtus) to the value of nearly £30,000 annually,
sent mainly to China, West Australia is exporting timber to the
value of half a million sterling, the chief species being Jarrah
(Eucalyptus marginata), which is officially stated to be the pre-
dominant species over 14,000 square miles, Karri (H#. diversicolor)
occupying 2,300 square miles, Tewart (Z. gomphocéphala) occupy-
ing some 500 square miles. Other species are the Red Gum
(Eucalyptus calophylla), Wandoo (E. redinca), Blackbutt (£. patens),
York Gum (#. loxophléba), and Yate Gum (£. cornuta).
The timber areas in West Australia are stated as :

Jarrah (with Blackbutt and Red Gum), - - - 8,000,000 acres.
Karri, - - - - - - - 1,200,000 ,,
Tewart, - - - - - - - - - 200,000 ,,
Wandoo, - - - 7,000,000 ,,

York Gum, Yate, Baaphornys -jam, and Sandalsread! - 4,000,000

9

This area is estimated to contain 62 million loads of mature
timber worth £3 per load, a total value, deducting 4 for waste in

sawing, of £124,000,000.

Nearly one-half of the island of Tasmania (8,000,000 acres) is
timbered, seven-eighths of the woodland being under Government,
but the timber area is diminishing. The beautifully mottled,
durable Huon Pine (Dacrijdium Franklinit) has become scarce and
high - priced. The bulk of the timber exported consists of Stringy-
bark (Hucalyptus obliqua), sent in planks to Victoria, South Australia,
and New Zealand ; but the most valuable timber of the colony is
the Blue Gum (2. glébulus), which is abundant in the south of the
island. Other leading species are the Peppermint (Hucalyptus
amygdalina), Swamp Gum (#. régnans), Ironbark (EH. Sieberiana),
Myrtle (Fagus Cunninghamii), She Oak (Casuarina quadrivalvis),
and Blackwood (Acacia melandaylon).

WOOD SUPPLY OF AFRICA 103

The forest-area of New Zealand, estimated at over 20,000,000
acres in 1830, was only 12,000,000 acres in 1874, when clearing
was proceeding at the rate of 4 per cent. per annum ; but conserva-
tion was then inaugurated and the many valuable species of timber
thereby saved from extermination.

Of these the most valuable is the Kauri Pine (Agathis australis),
which is confined to the North Island. This fine durable timber
is the softwood of the country, and is extensively converted for
export to Australia, the freight militating against it in competition
with Baltic timber for the English market, though it is employed to
some extent for the decks of yachts.

Africa.—Little can be said as to the timber resources of the
African continent. Neither Atlas Cedar (Cédrus atlantica), re-
sembling the Deodar, nor Atlas Cypress (T'etraclinis articuldta), the
Citron-wood of the ancients, are well known commercially, and
the same must be said of Morocco Ironwood (Argania Sideroxylon).
Algeria, however, has nearly 5 million acres of forest, three-fifths
of which are under State control, and its Evergreen Oaks (Quércus
Ilex, Suber, bdllota, etc.), its Kabyle Ash, said to be equal to English,
and Maritime Pine (Pinus Pindster) should prove of value. From
our West African colonies we did import small quantities of African
Oak or Teak (Oldfiéldia africéna), a dense wood, shipped from Sierra
Leone, and still obtain African Rosewood (Pterocarpus erindceus) ;
but the trade in Mahogany from Lagos, Benin, Bathurst, Axim,
Assini, and other ports has of late years assumed considerable
dimensions. Several distinct species are undoubtedly imported
under this name. But little is known of the timber-trees of
tropical Africa, though several valuable species appear to extend
right across the continent from east to west ; while the south of the
continent is one of the districts of the world which suffers most in
climate from the want of timber, partly from reckless destruction.

Little is known as yet as to the botanical nature or abundance
of the undoubtedly valuable timbers of Rhodesia. It is estimated
that there are about 2,000 square miles of forest in Matabeleland,
while Mashonaland is not so well timbered. Annual grass fires
kill innumerable young trees: the natives are answerable for the
destruction of many thousands; and the felling of large timber
is attended with much unnecessary destruction of smaller trees.
The Gwaai forest, which extends along the river of that name,
fifty miles from Buluwayo, consists of Ikusi, or Native Teak,
several kinds of Acacia, and Mopane. Large areas in Mashona-
land also are covered with Ikusi, a handsome dark brown wood
streaked with yellow, which is worked for building purposes. The
Shangani river passes through a forest of Baobab, the largest tree

104 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

of the country ; whilst the Mahobohobo, valuable as a mine-timber
because it is termite-proof, abounds in the Selukwe and Belingwe
districts. Katope, resembling Pine; Mbawa and Malombwa, re-
sembling Mahogany ; and Muwowa, used for native canoes, and
stated to reach an immense height, are also valuable species.

. Cape Box (Biixus Macowdnii) is far inferior to Turkey Box ; but
many of the cabinet-woods of Cape Colony, such as Stinkwood
(Ocotéa bulldta) and Sneezewood (Pterdéxylon utilé), deserve more
than local repute. The remnants of the indigenous forests of
“Pencil Cedar” (Widdringténia juniperdides) will repay strict
conservation, whilst one of the most important industries of the
future will be the growth of the Maritime Pine (Pinus Pindster)
for railway-sleepers. Natal has 165,000 acres of forest; but
depends largely for firewood upon the rapid-growing Hucalyptus
and Casuarina which have been introduced from Australia. Some
of the indigenous timbers, such as Essenboom, or Cape Ash (Ecke-
bérgia capénsis), Assegai-wood (Curtisia faginea) and Umzimbit or
White Ironwood (Todddlia lanceolata) may prove worthy of atten-
tion, especially by cart-builders. Like the as yet undetermined
Pink Ivory, a singularly beautiful wood, they unfortunately grow
mostly in kloofs or other somewhat inaccessible situations.

In 1898 Cape Colony imported over 34 million cubic feet of rough
timber, of which over 2,600,000 cubic feet came from Sweden, and
2 million cubic feet of planed timber, of which over 930,000 cubic
feet came from Norway, and 691,000 from Sweden. In the same
year Natal imported 1,687,000 cubic feet of rough timber, of which
1,292,000 were from Sweden, and 1,150,000 cubic feet in planks,
918,000 cubic feet of which were from the same country.

Three-quarters of the area of the island of Madagascar is stated
to be forest, mainly as yet untouched. Its woods are as yet little
known botanically. They include one or more Ebonies, a “ Violet-
wood ”’ (perhaps an Acdcia) and a ‘“‘ Rosewood,” besides a valu-
able hard redwood suitable for joinery, known as “ Lalona.”

South America.—Timber does not form an article of export
from the southern or western portion of South America; but
Argentina is now becoming a considerable exporter of timber, and
Brazil resembles Australia in the extent and variety of its forests.
At the Chicago Exhibition of 1893 no less than 440 different Brazilian
timbers were exhibited ; but unfortunately many of these have
not yet been botanically identified. It is stated that some of the
species vary much in durability according to the situation in which
they are grown; that some of them are too hard and too heavy
for many ordinary purposes; and that the absence of railway
facilities for transporting the timber to the coast has much reduced

WOOD SUPPLY OF AMERICA 105

the exports. These, however, exceed £100,000 annually, com-
prising Mahogany, Logwood, Rosewood, and Brazilwood. Rose-
wood is Dalbérgia nigra, shipped from Rio, whilst other species of
the genus are known as Violet-wood and King-wood. Brazilwood,
hard and heavy, but largely used as a dye, is Cesalpinia echindta.

French Guiana produces many valuable timbers, including
Angélique (Dicorynia paraénsis), Cuamara or Tonka-bean (Cowma-
rouna odordta), Courbaril or Locust (Hymenéa Courbaril), Balata
(Mimusops Bdlata), Lancewood (Duguétia quitarénsis), and Crab-
wood (Cdérapa guianénsis), several of which species grow also in
Dutch and British Guiana. In all three colonies the forests cover
almost the whole area. British Guiana, where forest conservation
has been introduced, produces hundreds of species of timber,
suitable for almost every purpose, growing, however, in a mixed
virgin forest, though at present the exports amount only to about
170,000 cubic feet, valued at £11,000 a year. The most important
species are Greenheart (Nectdéndra Rodig&i), Mora (Dimorphandra
Mora), Crabwood (Cdrapa guianénsis), Bullet (Mimusops globosa),
and Locust. Trinidad grows Mora, Crabwood, Bullet, Locust,
Lignum-Vite (Guaiacum officindlé), Galba (Calophyllum Cdlaba),
the dye-wood Fustic (Chloréphora tinctéria), and other valuable
species ; but its export is insignificant. Ecuador, Colombia, and
Venezuela have extensive forest resources, but export little or no
timber. Honduras, however, exports Mora, Mahogany, Fustic,
and Zebra-wood (Guettdérda speciésa), whilst British Honduras now
only exports Cedar (Cedréla odordta), Mahogany, and Logwood.
The annual British import of Mahogany from America has notably
declined, being only 2 million cubic feet in 1906, as against
23 million of West African.

West Indies.—Though exporting little timber save Mahogany,
and even employing Pine imported from the United States in its
sea-ports, Cuba possesses extensive and valuable forests, yielding
Cedar, Logwood, Fustic, Lignum-Vitz, Ocuje (Calophyllum Calaba),
Roble Blanco or Jamaica Box (Z'ecéma pentaphylla), an Ebony
(Diospyros tetraspérma), Cocus-wood or Granadillo (Brya Ebenus),
and the valuable Sabicu (Lysiloma Sabicu).

In 1873 Jamaica was estimated to contain 800,000 acres of
timber, of which 20,000 were in the hands of Government ; but
clearing was then proceeding at the rate of 30,000 acres a year.
Dye-woods, such as Logwood, Fustic, etc., now form over 8 per
cent. of the exports of the island, which exceed 1} millions sterling ;
but the forests contain many valuable cabinet-woods, the Mahogany
being harder and richer in grain than that of Honduras. —

While Barbadoes and some others of the Windward Islands are

106 OF WOOD IN GENERAL ~

wholly dependent, even for fuel, upon imported timber, Grenada,
Tobago, St. Lucia, and Dominica produce Cedar, Galba (Calo-
phillum Cdlaba), Angelin (Andira inérmis), Bullet-wood (Mimusops
globosa), and Bois Riviere or Water-wood (Chimdrrhis cymésa), and
have a small export.

North America.—In the United States and Canada during the
last twenty years, timely, if somewhat alarmist, warnings have
been put forward against the reckless waste of the timber resources
of the continent. Mr. B. E. Fernow, Chief of the Forestry Division
of the United States Department of Agriculture, in 1886 expressed
the opinion that the reason why the prophecies of a dearth of timber
made for more than a century by alarmists in Europe have not been
realized is that their clamour has induced more careful husbanding
of forest resources. He then estimated the forest area of the
United States, exclusive of Alaska, as less than 500 million acres,
much of this being only brushwood or thinly stocked with trees.
The amount of wood then used he quotes as 20,000 million cubic
feet, made up as follows :

Lumber-market and manufacture, - - - - 2,500 millions.
Railroad construction, - - = - - - 300) =,
Charcoal, - . - - - S E = - 250s
Fences, - - - - - - - - - 500eee
Fuel, - : - - - - - - = AvSD00 Ne.

“There is also to be added,” he writes, “an item requiring
yearly a considerable amount of wood for a use to which no other
civilized nation puts its forests. I refer to the 10,000,000 acres
or so of woodland burnt over every year, intentionally or unin-
tentionally, by which a large amount of timber is killed or made
useless ; and, what is worse . . . the capacity of the soil for tree
growth is diminished.” Reckoning 50 cubic feet as the yearly
accretion per acre, the 20,000 million cubic feet consumption here
indicated would require an area of not less than 400 million acres
to be kept well stocked.

Some day, no doubt, the development of the coal-fields of the
United States will considerably lessen the consumption under the
largest of the above-mentioned items, and there is certainly room
for economizing in other directions. It is computed, for instance,
that, in the Californian Redwood (Sequdia sempervirens) forests, to
produce a railroad-tie worth 35 cents, timber to the value of 1-87
dollars is wasted. In 1894 there were in the United States 156,497
miles of railroad ; there were in 1899 189,294 miles. Reckoning
2,640 as the average number of sleepers per mile would make the
number used by 1884 413,152,080. The young sound trees employed
will not commonly make more than two sleepers each, 7.e. not more

WOOD SUPPLY OF NORTH AMERICA 107

than 100 to 200 sleepers could be cut from an acre of such timber-
land as prevails in the States, so that the lines existing in 1884 had
required all available timber from 4,131,520 acres. The average
‘life’ of a sleeper is seven years, so that 59,021,700 ties, or the
product of 590,217 acres, would be requisite to keep the existing
lines in repair. The average length of new line built every year was
then about 5,000 miles, requiring 13,200,000 ties, or the timber of
132,000 acres. If we allow twenty-five years as the time necessary
for trees to attain a size suitable for making ties, then it would re-
quire the annual growth of 14,755,425 acres to keep good the
existing lines, and 3,300,000 to supply the annual demand for new
lines, to say nothing of keeping the latter in repair. Not less than
18,000,000 acres of woodland need, therefore, to be kept in reserve
for the sole maintenance of the permanent way of the railroads of
the United States. By 1905 it was estimated that there were
620 million cross-ties in use in the United States, so that from
90 to 110 millions would be annually required for repairs and ex-
tensions. Bridge-timbers, fence-posts, telegraph-posts, car materials,
and other railway building timber would together equal the amount
demanded for cross-ties. The annual fuel consumption is reckoned
as the produce of 64 million acres annually, and the entire con-
sumption as 25 million acres. Not only have too many Redwood
trees been used for fuel, but of late ordinary building has absorbed
a great many, panels of Redwood having become very popular in
San Francisco as a substitute for plastered walls, whilst there has
also been considerable exportation to China, Hawaii, and the
Philippines. Some lumbermen predict that within a few years
the Redwood tree will be as scarce as the buffalo, and that a shortage
has already begun is evident from the fact that the price of Red-
wood has risen rapidly from 25 to 45 dollars per 1,000 square feet.
Another serious factor in the question of timber supply in the
United States is the extravagant manner in which the turpentine
industry is conducted. Instead of any care being taken not to
destroy the timber (as is done in the south of France), it has been
said that there is no business connected with the products of the
soil which yields so little return in proportion to the destruction of
the material involved. The turpentine is chiefly obtained in Georgia
from the Long-leafed and Loblolly Pines (Pinus palistris and
Tcéda), and the forests of this State were once unsurpassed, and, if
properly husbanded, might have continued indefinitely to yield a
handsome return. The turpentine farmers, however, aim only at
obtaining the maximum amount of crude-resin with the smallest
expenditure of labour, caring nothing for the fate of the trees they
attack.

108 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

If, however, 500 million acres of true timber-forest were main-
tained in the United States, an annual cut of 20,000 million cubic
feet, or 40 cubic feet per acre, would not at first sight appear exces-
sive. It is, however, important to bear in mind that the White Pine
(Pinus Strobus) requires 90 years to reach the dimensions attained by
the Northern Pine of Europe (Pinus sylvéstris) in 70, whilst the Long-
leafed Pine (P. palustris) requires 200 years for the same growth.

The White Pine has for half a century been the most important
timber of the United States, furnishing, as it does, the best quality
of soft Pine. Of the home consumption of this wood some idea may
be formed from the fact that the city of Chicago alone received in
one year over 2,000 million feet, principally of this species, or an
amount equal to the entire produce of Canada during that year.
Speaking of this species, in 1882 Professor C. 8. Sargent of Harvard
wrote, “‘ It has been wantonly and stupidly cut, as if its resources
were endless: what has not been sacrificed to the axe has been
allowed to perish by fire. The Pine of New England and New York
has already disappeared. Pennsylvania is nearly stripped of her
Pine, which only a few years ago appeared inexhaustible.” .. .
“In Michigan there remained of standing White Pine timber, suit-
able for market, but 35,000 million feet, board measure,’ whilst in
1880 there had been cut in the State over 4,000 million feet, “‘ re-
quiring only eight years at this rate to exhaust the supply.” In
Wisconsin there were standing 41,000 million feet, with a cut of
over 2,000 million for that year, ‘‘ leaving a supply that would last
but fourteen years.” In Minnesota there were remaining 8,170
million feet, and 541 million were cut in 1880, leaving a supply for
fifteen years ; so that the supply in the three States would be ex-
hausted in twelve years. There was in fact little more than 80,000
million feet in the United States, whilst consumption was at the
rate of 10,000 million per annum and the demand constantly and
rapidly increasing. Already by 1885 the United States were im-
porting timber from Canada to the value of nearly two millions
sterling, or about 75 million cubic feet, more than the entire cut of
the province of Ontario. That the extreme forecasts of the alarmists
have not been wholly realized throughout the United States may
be owing to the fact that it has been cheaper for the more densely
populated north-eastern States to supplement their own dwindling
resources from Canada rather than from the southern States. Thus
Mississippi, with 18,200 million feet board measure of Long-leaf
Pine standing in 1880 and with an annual cut of 102 million feet,
can supply timber at the same rate for 150 years, a period sufficient,
with proper conservation, to enable the supply to renew itself.

Throughout Newfoundland and the Dominion of Canada reckless

WOOD SUPPLY OF CANADA 109

waste has prevailed in the past. Forest fires and the absence of
replanting has reduced the forest area of Newfoundland to about
+. of the whole area of the country, or some 464,000 acres, bearing
White Pine, Spruce (Picea dlba and nigra), Tamarack or Red Larch
(Larix microcarpa), said to be better than that of the mainland,
Yellow Birch (Bétula excelsa), and Poplar. Prince Edward’s
Island produces the same species, together with Rock Maple (Acer
barbatum), Hemlock Spruce (7'stiga canadénsis), and the valuable
Cedar (Juniperus virginidna), which has been largely sacrificed for
railway purposes ; but fires and clearings have largely diminished
the supply, the annual cut being more than 17 times the incre-
ment. Nova Scotia had 9 million acres of timber land in 1875, but
the annual cut was for years 25 per cent. more than the increment.
Hackmatack or Larch (Larix americana), White Pine and Hemlock
Spruce, are the chief species. New Brunswick had but 6 million
acres of timber land in 1874, mainly covered with hardwoods.
Sleepers of Cedar (Cupréssus thyoides) and Hemlock bark-extract
for tanning are important articles of export, besides deals, con-
sisting mostly of Black Spruce (Picea nigra). In the province of
Quebec the lumber industry is still by far the most important trade ;
but, whereas in 1874 there were 74 million acres, there are now only
62 million, 32 million of which are under license to cut timber.
The species are mostly the same as those of New Brunswick, in-
cluding White Pine and a scarce but valuable Oak (Quércus alba).
The wood-pulp industry has grown from an annual value of 160,000
pounds sterling in 1890 to nearly forty times that amount; and a
service of rangers has been organized to prevent forest-fires. In
Ontario lumbering has ceased to be the sole industry that it once was ;
but almost the whole amount felled is exported, and the demand of
the adjoining States of the Union keeps the annual consumption
far in excess of the increment. Though two-thirds of British
Columbia, or about 110 million acres, were under timber in 1874,
and almost all was under Government control, destructive fires
and wholesale clearing have very much lessened the supply. There
is, however, a very extensive timber reserve on the coast, consisting
of Douglas Fir (Pseudotstiga Douglasit), Spruce, Red Cedar (Juni-
perus virginiana), Yellow Cedar (Cupréssus nootkaténsis), and Hem-
lock (T'stiga Mertensiana), the available supply of which is from
40,000 to 100,000 million feet. British Columbia has now a wooded
area estimated at 285,000 square miles, extending along the coast,
river-valleys, and foot-hills as far north as Alaska, and producing
many useful species besides the Douglas Spruce. There are,
however, sixty saw-mills in operation, with an annual capacity of
550 million feet.

110 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

' Jn the early days of its occupation by the French, the forests of
Eastern Canada, which then stretched unbroken from the Atlantic
to the head of the St. Lawrence basin, a distance of over 2,000 miles,
engaged the attention of the Government, who drew from them
large numbers of masts and spars for their navy and issued stringent
regulations for the preservation of the Oak. On the conquest of
the country by Great Britain, which then had almost the entire
trade with the Baltic, Canadian lumber was neglected ; but the con-
tinental blockade during the war with Napoleon directed the atten-
tion of our timber importers to the resources of Canada, and an
import of 2,600 loads in 1800 grew to one of 125,300 loads in 1810,
and over 300,000 loads in 1820, whilst for the last fifty years it has
exceeded a million loads annually. Whilst during the first half of
the last century Canada only exported wood to the United King-
dom and the West Indies, for the last twenty years she has experi-
enced a steadily increasing demand from the United States, which
now take about half her annual export, or some 13 million dollars’
worth annually. For many years past the Pine logs floated down
to Ottawa have numbered nearly four millions a year ; and now the
demand for paper-pulp has given the Spruce, owing to the far greater
area of its distribution, a value in the aggregate much greater than
that of the Pines.

In addition to the southern forest belt, now so largely cleared
or depleted in the eastern half, there is the great northern forest
which stretches from the Straits of Belle-Isle round by the southern
end of James Bay to Alaska, a distance of about 4,000 miles, with
a breadth of some 700 miles. ‘‘ This vast forest,” says Dr. Robert
Bell of the Canadian Geological Survey, “ has everywhere the same
characteristics. The trees, as a rule, are not large, and they con-
sist essentially of the following nine species: Black and White
Spruce, Banksian Pine, Larch, Balsam Fir, Aspen, Balsam Poplar,
Canoe Birch, Bird-Cherry, White Cedar, White and Red Pines:
Black Ash and Rowan occur sparingly in the southern part of this
belt.”

With nearly 38 per cent. of the whole area of the Dominion under
forest, Canadians have in the past given little heed to conservation,
believing in the power of natural reproduction to balance the forces
of destruction, a belief which, when not substantiated by careful
statistical investigation, is a dangerous fool’s paradise.

Conclusions.—A most valuable practical test of the increased
consumption and the growing scarcity of timber is the advance in
prices. It has been estimated that in Germany from about 1550
to 1750 wood quadrupled in price, from 1750 to 1830 the progres-
sive increase of price was at the same rate, but from 1830 to 1880

CONCLUSIONS 111

the rate was much higher, reaching in some cases 300 per cent.
within the half-century. What was worth 100 francs in 1840 was
worth 150 francs in 1850, 260 francs in 1860, 360 francs in 1865, and
400 francs by 1877. In the United States prices rose 100 per cent.
between 1874 and 1882!; and an equal rise took place in Russia ;
whilst in Sweden and Norway between 1847 and 1882 (35 years)
a rise of from 150 to 200 per cent. according to species occurred.

The obvious conclusions to be drawn from this necessarily in-
complete survey of the world’s resources and consumption of timber
are that, in spite of substitutes, the use of wood increases with
advancing population and civilization ; that there is still in many
lands much waste, much over-felling and but little conservation or
forethought ; that no country can safely declare its supply inex-
haustible ; and that, though an absolute dearth of timber may be
far distant, some valuable species are in danger of extermination,
and we may expect a considerable enhancement of the price of the
commoner kinds as the supply has to be drawn from more and more
remote sources.

It is undoubtedly, from the magnitude of the interests at stake,
a question which demands the attention of the economists, land-
owners and legislature of every country. If, as Bernard Palissy
wrote in the sixteenth century, “ after all the trees have been cut
down it will be necessary for all the arts to cease’; and if even
Colbert could prophesy that ‘“* France will perish for want of wood,”
the danger, in our own time and in many lands besides France, is
far more serious.

1 “ Wood-prices, even in the United States, have been rising continuously for the
last seventy years at the rate of about 14 per cent. a year.”—B. E. Fernow (1905).

CHAPTER VII
LES TING WOOp:

THE very general substitution of iron or steel for wood in per-
manent structures renders the exact investigation of the strength
of timber less important now than formerly. Nevertheless, in
merely temporary structures, such as scaffoldings or centerings,
its power of withstanding different strains is of very serious concern.
Practically, although not scientifically, every joist, rafter, window-
sash or door-frame, the chair we sit on, the floor we walk on, the wood
of the cart or boat we ride in, are all tested as to their strength, their
elasticity, their hardness and their toughness. In the workshop it
is recognized that the fitness of a wood for a given purpose in-
variably depends upon a combination of several qualities. A
spoke, for instance, must not only be strong, it must be stiff to keep
its shape, tough and hard ; and accordingly it must be made from
wood split with the grain, and not from sawn or cut material. The
experienced wood-worker judges the suitability of any particular
piece of wood for his purpose by rule-of-thumb. This rule-of-
thumb guess is largely based on the general rule that, in timber,
weight, hardness, and power of resistance to most strains, vary
together. ‘To this rule, however, there are many important excep-
tions, where testing would prove what no rule-of-thumb is likely
to perceive ; and it was in reference to this that Tredgold remarked
that actual testing may take the place of a life-time of practical
experience in carpentry.

In the scientific testing of timber each property is examined
separately. A beam resists bending, and is accordingly termed
stiff ; wicker bends readily, or is flexible ; while the rod or beam
that straightens itself again on the removal of a load that has been
applied to it is termed elastic. Resistance to a pull in the direction
of the grain is known as tensile strength ; whilst a force applied in
an opposite but parallel direction is a crushing force. ‘The pressure
of a hammer-head across the grain of the handle tends to shear the
fibres, and a nail entering a board tests its cleavability or tendency

to split.
112

TESTING WOOD 113

The results of the many tests that have been published are often
widely discordant. This arises from various causes, e.g. incorrect
identification of the species, nature of the locality where the tree
was grown, the age of the tree when felled, the part of the tree from
which the test specimen was taken, the extent to which it was
seasoned, the size of the piece tested, and the method of stating the
experimental results. The use of popular names, such as Ironbark
or Blue Gum, each applicable to half-a-dozen different species, is
an obvious source of error. As we have already seen, the same
species grown under different conditions of heat, moisture, etc.,
varies widely in rate of growth, and accordingly in strength also.
Timber is at its best when the tree is at its maturity, an age which
depends upon the species, the climate and the soil. Before that age
not only does the less durable sapwood predominate, but the heart-
wood has not yet reached its full strength ; whilst after maturity
the heartwood is the first to show symptoms of weakness. As we
have already seen, the centre, with its many knots, is generally the
weakest part of the heartwood, and a scantling will have greater
transverse strength, or resistance to bending stress, and tensile
strength in proportion to the number of rings that occur both at its
butt and its top. Seasoning, as we have seen, may double the
strength of timber. Early experiments on the strength of timber
were generally made with very small pieces owing to the difficulty
of holding and bringing strains to bear upon large scantlings.
Pieces less than a quarter of an inch square were often used. Such
pieces might give an unduly unfavourable result from the cutting
across of individual fibres ; or, on the other hand, being freer from
knots or other defects, more readily seasoned throughout and more
homogeneous, they are rather picked than average samples, and
may give an unduly favourable result.

In an excellent series of tests carried out for the Forest Depart-
ment of the United States Board of Agriculture by Professor
Johnson in 1891-92, an accurate record was kept, when each tree
was felled, as to the condition of the soil, the climate, the size, age
and growth of the tree and the date of felling.

Density.—We can only give here a bare outline of the principles,
methods, and results of testing. Much, as we have seen, depends
upon density ; and, admitting that, owing to air or moisture in the
wood, the results are not as satisfactory as could be wished, we
have two simple methods, described by Professor Unwin, for
determining this character, viz. (i) by measuring and weighing
planed rectangular blocks, and (ii) by weighing the block and the
water it displaces. In the former method, if b=the breadth,
t=the thickness, and h=the height of the block in inches, its

8

114 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

th
volume will= ala cubic feet ; and if W=its weight in pounds, the

1728
1728W
sik lbs.
In the second method, if W= the weight of the block in pounds,
W’=the weight in pounds of the water it displaces, and G=the
weight of a cubic foot of water, i.c. 62-4 Ibs. at the normal tempera-

/

heaviness of the wood per cubic foot will=

ture, then —=the volume of the block in cubic feet, and the

G

GW
heaviness of the wood per cubic foot will be Ww

Mr. Stephen P. Sharples, who made the examinations of North
American timbers incorporated by Professor Sargent in the Ninth
Census of the United States, vol. ix. (1880), making at least two
determinations for each species, calculated the specific gravity by
measurement with micrometer calipers and weighing. The speci-
mens tested were 100 millimetres long and about 35 millimetres
square, and were dried at 100° C. until they ceased to lose in weight.
Of the 429 species experimented upon the specific gravity ranged
from 0-2616 in the Small-fruited Fig (Ficus aurea) to 1-3020 in
Black Ironwood (Condalia férrea).

Bauschinger found, by experiments made at Munich in 1883
and 1887, that the density and strength of timber is greatly affected
by the amount of moisture it contains, the strength falling very
rapidly in any one quality of timber as the percentage of moisture
increases. To determine the percentage of moisture Professor
Unwin gives this method. Drill a hole through the test block and
weigh the shavings at once. Dry them in an oven at a temperature
of from 200° to 212° F. for 8 or 10 hours, and, when they cease to
lose weight, re-weigh them. If then W=their first or wet weight,
and D= their second or dry weight, W — D= the weight of moisture

100(W — D)
D

they contain, and =the percentage of moisture.

The maximum of strength is reached, not when the timber is
perfectly dry, but when there is from 3 to 4 per cent. of moisture
in it.

Bauschinger decided on 15 per cent. of moisture as the standard
dryness of air-dried wood.

Ash percentage and fuel value.—From the specific gravity
Mr. Sharples deducted the percentage of ash (determined by burning
small dried blocks at a low temperature in a muffle furnace), in order
to obtain the relative approximate fuel value. This calculation
is based on the assumption that the real value of the combustible

DENSITY, FUEL VALUE AND STRENGTH 115

or volatile substance of all woods is the same. Though resinous
woods give off more than 12 per cent. more heat on burning than do
non-resinous woods, at least this amount is lost in the case of the
former in the form of unconsumed carbon in the smoke. The
amount of heat obtained is, in fact, very nearly in direct proportion
to the specific gravity, t.e. the heavier the wood the greater the
amount of heat obtained. Taking as the unit of fuel value an
imaginary wood with no ash and a specific gravity of 1, the relative
fuel value of 430 woods examined varied from 0+248 in Yucca to
1-194 in Black Ironwood (Conddlia férrea). Taking as a unit of
heat the amount necessary to raise 1 cubic decimetre or | kilogram
of water 1° C., 4,000 units will be produced by burning a kilogram.
of dry wood, ?.e. the relative fuel value of any wood multiplied by
4,000 will give approximately the amount of heat obtained by
burning a cubic decimetre of it.

Strength.—All measurements of the strengths of timbers are
determinations of their powers of resisting certain stresses, or forces
tending to produce strains, or changes of shape. It must always be
remembered that, unlike metals or many artificial products, wood
is not, and cannot be, considered as uniform in structure and compo-
sition : it is not homogeneous or isotropic. Stresses applied to it,
and the resultant strains must, therefore, be considered separately.
Those stresses which are exerted in a direction normal, or at right
angles, to a cross-section or imaginary surface of division are termed
pushes or pulls, and being continuous, or in parallel though opposite
directions, may be considered as identical, or rather as differing
only in mathematical sign (+or—). Those which are exerted at
a tangent to such a cross-section are termed shearing stresses. The
intensity of a stress is its amount per unit of surface, and may,
therefore, be expressed in pounds or tons per square inch, or in
kilograms per square millimetre, or per square centimetre.!

Broadly speaking, the strength of timber increases with its
heaviness. More accurately, the greater the density or weight the
greater the resistance to compressive strain. Density is no criterion
as to tenacity or tensile strength. The most valuable timbers for
structural purposes are those which have considerable strength
without excessive heaviness, as is the case with Pine.

In 1676 Robert Hooke enunciated the law that (using modern
terminology) within the limits of elasticity, or recovery from strain
when the stress is removed, strain is proportional to stress. In
accordance with Hooke’s law, Thomas Young postulated the

! To facilitate the conversion of results thus variously stated, it may be mentioned
that 1 ton, or 2,240 lbs. per sq. inch=1°511 kilos. per sq. mm., or 151°1 kilos, per
sq. centim. ; whilst 1 kilo. per sq. centim. =14°22 lbs. per sq. inch.

8—2

116 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

modulus of longitudinal extensibility that bears his name. This
is generally called the modulus of elasticity, but incorrectly, since
there are others. It is constant for any material, being represented
by the letter E, and is, in fact, the ratio of the intensity of push or
pull to longitudinal strain. Thus, if /=length and ol=change of
length under a stress, p, then 6:1: :p: E, or
lp
K= ar

Obviously, a stress applied to a transverse section of wood will
have to break the fibres across, while one applied to a longitudinal
section tends to separate the fibres from each other. Thus the
strength of wood along the grain depends upon the strength of the
fibres ; that across the grain, upon their cohesion. This latter or
lateral strength is, in broad-leaved trees, from 3 to 4} of the longi-
tudinal strength ; but in coniferous woods it is only from 4, to 75.

One of the simplest and most instructive tests of timber is that
of transverse strength or breaking weight. Two knife-edges, or
supports for the ends of the beam, a cradle to sling from the centre,
in which pig-iron or other weight can be placed, a stretched cord
and a 2-foot rule are practically all the apparatus required for such
testing. Laslett, in his Woolwich experiments, took pieces 84 inches
long, 2 inches wide, and 2 inches thick, placed upon supports
72 inches apart, and then poured water gradually into a scale sus-
pended from the middle, noting the deflection with 390 lbs. weight
and at the breaking point. The transverse strength (p) is calcu-

v’

pounds, /= the length between supports, b= the breadth, and d= the
thickness of the sample, or with the dimensions employed,

lated from the formula p= where w’= the breaking weight in

w’ x 72
ppd peed ST?
epee gig 2.
'L
Mr. Gamble uses the formula * qe? where L=the length between

supports in feet, b=the breadth of the bar in inches, and d=its
thickness in inches. Bauschinger employed for bending tests
beams 20 inches square and 9 feet long, with 98-4 inches between
their supports ; and Professor Lanza of the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology employed beams varying from 4 to 20 feet in length,
from 2 to 6 inches in width, and from 2 to 12 inches in thickness.
Then, W being the load at the centre in tons, / the length in inches
of the beam between supports, b its breadth, and / its thickness,
also in inches, f, the greatest direct stress on the fibres, or coefficient
of bending strength, is obtained in tons per square inch from the

STRENGTH OF WOOD 117

WI : : ee
formula f= p73" If 5=the deflection at the centre in bending in
inches, the coefficient of elasticity (EK) in tons per square inch is

We
obtained from the formula E= +} FS Sir John Anderson has re-
duced the results of many experimenters to a simple comparative
table of mean breaking weight for beams 1 foot long and 1 inch
square in timbers employed in England, which, with some slight
modifications, is as follows :—

Ash (Fraxinus exclésior), - - - - - 690 lbs.
Beech (Fagus sylvatica), - - - - - = O25;
Elm (Odmus campestris), - - - - - 405 ,,
Larch (Ldria ewropéa), - - - - - = 44.005.
Memel Fir (Pinus sylvéstris), - : - = )56105,,
Riga Fir a - - - - = AD ys
Scots Fir An mA - - - - =) (Soll a.
Christiana Fir ,, s - - - - = LOWES as
American Red Pine $5 - - - = O01.
ee White Spruce - - - - - = 5i7A0) Gr
Oak, English (Quércus Heeue): - - - =a DON
ae Dantvic, - - - - - = dle) 56
,, Adriatic, - - - - - - - 460 ,,
,, Canadian - - - - - = 580) ,;
or Teak, African (Oldfiéldia africéna), - HS OO!
Mahogany (Se ieténia Mahagoni), - - - = Dole.
Teak (Tecténa grandis), - - - - - = olla) 55

The ultimate strength of a material is that stress which is required
to produce rupture, and this may be either tensile stress or that
exerted longitudinally or parallel to the axis of a beam, crushing
stress, or resistance to compression in the direction of the fibres,
or shearing stress, z.e. tangential.

Professor Unwin figures details of various instruments ewclored
for testing timbers, more especially for tensile strength, including
Bauschinger’s roller and mirror extensometer, and several shackles
for holding the test-specimens. The principle of most modern in-
struments for these purposes is the same, the weight being applied
gradually, either by small weights or by hydraulic action, to a
system of levers, the force exerted being shown by a delicately
adjusted steelyard. Thus the comparatively simple instrument of
American design, introduced at Woolwich in 1854 by Sir John
Anderson, and figured in his work,! consists of a combination of two
levers which together give a purchase of 200 to 1, that is to say, 1 lb.
applied to the end of the long arm of the upper lever will exert a
stress of 200 lbs. on the specimen attached by shackles to the
lower one.

1 The Strength of Materials and Structures, London, 1872, p. 16.

118 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

The dimensions of the specimens tested by different experi-
menters, whether for breaking weights, tensile strength, or other
measurements, have unfortunately varied greatly. In contra-
distinction to the long beams just mentioned as used by Bau-
schinger and Lanza, Captain Fowke, in testing the New South
Wales timbers at the Paris Exhibition of 1855 for breaking weight,
etc., used samples 2 inches square and 12 inches between supports.
Mr. Laslett used samples of the same sectional area, but 72 inches
between supports; whilst Mr. F. A. Campbell, experimenting on
Australian timbers in 1879, employed a sectional area of only 5}, of
an inch.

The term strength, when used absolutely, generally means the
breaking weight under a bending test, and in English books is
bxd?xE

l
b=breadth in inches, d=depth in inches, /=length in feet, and
E= the constant or modulus. This constant, in England, means the
number of pounds’ weight applied in the middle of a bar 1 inch
square and 12 inches between supports required to break the bar.

When a beam is supported at each end in such experiments as
these, the distance to which the middle of the beam is forced down
below its original position by the load is termed its deflection.
In solid rectangular beams the deflection varies directly as the load
and the cube of the length, and inversely as the breadth and the
cube of the depth. The resistance to deflection is known as stiff-
ness or rigidity. If then we require two beams of the same breadth,
but of different lengths, to be equal in stiffness, then their respective
depths must be in proportion to their lengths. Thus, if the beams
are 24 and 12 feet long respectively, and the latter is 12 inches
deep, the former will have, in order to be equally stiff or rigid, to
be 24 inches deep. Strength, on the other hand, in solid rectangular
beams, varies inversely as the length, directly as the breadth, and
directly as the square of the depth, so that, in the example given
above, the longer beam will only require to be 17 inches deep in
order to be as strong as the shorter. If the beams are equal in
breadth, but of different length, and are required to be equal in
stiffness, their breadths must be as the cubes of the lengths. In
two beams 24 and 12 feet long, for example, the breadths must be
in the ratio of 248 to 123, 7.e. 13,824 to 1,728, oras8is to 1. In other
words, the long beam would have to be eight times as broad as the
shorter one to be equally rigid, whereas it only requires to be twice
as broad to be equally strong. So, too, in cylinders, the strength
varies as the cube, the stiffness as the fourth power of the diameter.

The constants or values of deflection were deduced by Barlow

expressed in pounds. It is found by the formula , where

STRENGTH OF WOOD 119

3
from the formula D= Lh ls where J=length in feet, W=the
bxd*x 6

greatest weight in pounds which the beam can bear without losing
its elasticity or acquiring a permanent set, b= breadth in inches,
d=depth in inches, and 6=deflection in inches. From this it
obviously follows that

13x W
"bxexeD
It is found in practical engineering that the deflection of timber
beams (6) should not exceed ;3,th of their length.

Bauschinger employed, for testing tensile strength, rods 18 inches
long and 1 or 22 inches square for 51 inches at each end, reducing to
4 or 13 inch in the middle. He does not, however, consider these,
or his experiments on bending (in which the individual variation of
the large beams employed, as to knots, etc., produces wide differ-
ences in the results), so instructive as to the relative values of
timbers as are crushing experiments. For such experiments he
used blocks 6 inches high and 34 inches square, protected at the
ends with metal plates.

Results will be affected by so many circumstances that it is
most important that the history of logs experimented with should
be known. The nature of the locality in which the timber is
grown, the age of the tree, the part of the tree from which the
timber is taken, and the extent to which it has been seasoned, will
all modify the results. Thus Bauschinger showed that strength
varies according to the proportion of summer to spring wood, and
that the centre of a tree is therefore weaker ; whilst the following
table of the range of variation in 26 trees of Pinus palustris, quoted
by Professor Unwin from a Report of the U.S. Department of
Agriculture, shows how butt, middle, and top logs differ in strength,
largely no doubt for the reason, which we explained in a previous
chapter, that the annual increments of wood forming cones do
not extend uniformly from end to end of a log. [See p. 66 and
Fig. 40.]

f)

Heaviness poem of Coefficient
in lbs. a ney Tensile | Crushing | of Shearing
per B aoe Strength. Strength. | Bending Strength.
cubic foot. (eLeteats; | Strength. |
Test.
All in tons per squareinch.
Butt, 28-64'8 500-1380 3°84—-14°4 2°13—4°40 2°12-7°25 “21="58

Middle, | 36-53°5 | 510-1369 | 2°82-13°4 | 2°25-4:15 | 3:40-7°65 | -24-°55

Top, 32-56°5 | 375-1200 | 1°85-10°8 | 2:04-4:06 | 1°90-7:00 | *22-°52

120 OF WOOD IN GENERAL

As to seasoning, since timber loses from + to + or, when per-
fectly dried, 4 of its weight in the process, and strength and the
co-efficient of elasticity vary directly with density, its effect is
obvious.

Unfortunately, the systems employed for stating the results of
experiments vary almost as much as the dimensions of the speci-
mens tested, so that it is a matter of considerable calculation to
compare the records of different experimenters. Mr. Sharples,
for instance, defines the co-efficient of elasticity, or rather of longi-
tudinal extensibility, as the weight in kilograms sufficient to
elongate a stick 1 centimetre square to double its original length,
were that possible, and states results ranging from 25,699 in Ficus
aurea to 165,810 in the Western Tamarack (Larix occidentalis).
To translate his results into the tons per square inch usual in
England it is necessary to divide them by 151-1. (See footnote
on p. 115.)

So too while Professor Thurston defines the modulus of rwpture
as “the quantity which represents the stress upon a unit of area
of cross-section . . . at the instant of breaking under the transverse
stress,” and Mr. Sharples expresses this breaking-weight, as it is
generally termed, in kilograms per square centimetre, English
writers here also use tons or pounds per square inch. So too
Mr. Sharples gives the resistance to longitudinal pressure, or ultimate
weight which a stick will support, in the number of kilograms re-
quired to crush a stick one centimetre square by such pressure,
while Mr. Laslett terms this vertical strength, and states it in the
number of pounds of vertical force required to crush 1 square inch
of base. Mr. Sharples also gives the resistance to indentation or
number of kilograms required to sink a punch 1 centimetre
square to the depth of 1:27 millimetres perpendicularly to the
fibres.

It is well-nigh impossible to reduce all the results of
different experimenters. They will, therefore, be here stated
mainly in the form and with the terminology of their respective
authors.

The following symbols will be employed :

8.G.= Specific gravity, compared to water as 1000.

W = Weight of a cubic foot in pounds.

E= Co-efficient of elasticity, stated in tons or pounds per square
inch, or in kilograms per square centimetre.

e’= Elasticity compared to Oak as 1-00.

p= Transverse strength in pounds per square inch.

’='Transverse strength compared to Oak as 1-00.

f=Co-efficient of bending strength in tons per square inch.

ABBREVIATIONS EMPLOYED 121

ft=Tensile strength or tenacity along the fibre, in tons per
square inch.

c= Direct cohesion, in pounds per square inch.

c’= Cohesion compared with Oak as 1-00.

fc= Crushing strength along the fibre, in tons per square inch.

v’= Crushing strain as compared to Oak as 1-00.

fs= Shearing resistance along the fibre, in tons per square inch.

R= Modulus of rupture for transverse strain, stated either in
kilograms per square centimetre, or in pounds per square inch.

,

hy

PART I.—WOODS OF COMMERCE,
MHETR SOURCES, CHARACTERS, AND USES

Acacia, in England, Robinia Pseudacacia L. See Locust.

Acacia (Hucryphia Moorei F. v. M.: Order Rosdacee). New
South Wales and Victoria. Known also as “‘ Plum, Acacia Plum,”’
or ‘‘ White Sally.” Warm, light brown, moderately hard, of
considerable dimensions, easily worked. Used for the bodies of
buggies.

Acacia Cedar (Albizzia Todna Bail.: Order Leguminose).
Queensland. Also known as “‘ Mackay Cedar.” A large trec.
The heartwood resembles that of Moulmein Cedar.

Acajou,, a general name in the French timber-trade for Ma-
hogany. See Mahogany. In French Guiana it is applied
also to Cedrela guianénsis A. Juss.: (Order Melidcee). S.G. 577.
Reaching large dimensions, soft, not very flexible, very homo-
geneous and free from flaws, working well, without splitting, dur-
able, owing to a bitter principle obnoxious to insects, and termite-
proof. Fairly common and in much request as a furniture-wood.
Used in Europe for cigar-boxes.

In Guadeloupe ‘‘ Acajou blanc” is Simariba amadra. See
Simarouba.

In Barbadoes “‘ Cedre acajou” is Cedréla odorata. See Cedar,
West Indian.

Acle (X¢lia dolabriférmis Benth.: Order Legumindse). India,
the Malay Peninsula, and the Philippines. ‘* Ironwood” of Pegu
and Arracan. Hindi “ Jambu,” Burm. ‘“ Pyengadu,” Philipp.
“ Acle.” Formerly named Mimosa Aclé and Inga xylocarpa.
Height 70—100 ft., diam. 3—4 ft., yielding timber 1—2} ft. square ;
S.G. 934—1225, W 63, e’ 2-19, p 17,200, p’ 1:58, c 8960—10,360,
c’ 1:275, v’ 1-527, fe 5-2. Heartwood dark brown or reddish-brown,
often beautifully mottled with a waved and twisting grain, heavier
than water, hard, tough, strong, rigid, its pores filled with a thick,

123

124 WOODS OF COMMERCE

oily resin, which renders it clammy until completely seasoned,
difficult to cut, causing sneezing in working, taking a good polish,
shrinking + in. per foot in seasoning, ‘“‘ more indestructible than
iron,” being both termite and teredo-proof, but having sometimes
extensive heart-shakes which unfit it for constructive purposes.
The Burmese wood contains more resin than that from the Deccan.
It is used for piles and beams of bridges ; in Bengal and Burma for
telegraph-posts ; in Southern India for posts, railway-sleepers
(for which purpose it ranks next to Teak), carts, ete. ; in Burma for
agricultural implements ; and for house and boat-building in the
Philippines, and is probably the best hardwood in India for paving.

Ah-pill (Hrythrophleum Labouchérii F. v. M.: Order Leguminose).
Northern Queensland and North Australia. Probably the “ Legu-
minous Ironbark” of Leichhardt, and also named Labouchéria
chlorostachys F. v. M. A medium-sized tree. Wood red, close-
grained, very durable, and the hardest in Australia. Used by
natives for spear-heads.

Ailantus (Ailanthus glandulosa Desf. : Order Simartibee). Molucca
** Ailanto,” French ‘*‘ Ailante,” Germ. ‘‘ Gotterbaum,”’ Ital. ‘“‘ Albero
di paradiso,” Russ. ‘‘ Pajasan,’’ Span. ‘‘ Barniz falso de Japan.”
Height 50—60 feet ; diam. 1—2 ft.

Sapwood broad, yellowish. Heartwood not dissimilar, greyish-
orange, not readily distinguishable in a transverse section from
Ash. Rings wide and distinct. Springwood very broad with
numerous large vessels towards its inner margin and few small
ones, scattered, or in segments of circles, four or more together,
towards its outer part. Medullary rays distinctly visible to the
naked eye, with a satiny lustre. Pith-mass very large. The
wood contains vessels, tracheids, wood-fibres, fibre-cells, and
parenchyma. It is moderately heavy, tolerably hard, somewhat
difficult to split, and of a beautiful satin-like lustre. It is durable,
and, although not common, is appreciated by cabinet-makers ;
but the tree is mainly grown for shade. A native of Japan and
Northern China, it is grown for ornament in England and the
Eastern United States. It is used for charcoal in Europe.

Akagashi (Quércus acita Thunb.: Order Cwupulifere). South
Japan. The dark red-brown, very hard and heavy wood of an
Evergreen Oak, which with that of some allied species, such as the
grey-white Shiragashi (Q. vibrayeana Tr. and Tav.) is used in boat
and waggon building, and, owing to the growing scarcity of American
White Oak, is now established in the European market.

Akashide (Carpinus laxiflora Bl.; Order Cupulifere). Japan,
Height 40 ft. ; diam. 1 ft. It is used for furniture, waggon-building,
agricultural implements and firewood.

ALDER 125

Alder, Common or Black (Alnus glutindsa Medic.: Order Betu-
ldcee). French “‘ aune,”’ Ital. “ alno ” or “‘ ontano,” Span. “ alano ”’
or “aliso,” Germ. ‘‘schwarz Erle” or “ Else,” Russ. “ olse.”’
S.G. fresh 901, dry 551. W 50—62 when green, 50—26 when dry.
Strength, compared to Oak, 80; stiffness, 63. Height 20—40,
very rarely 70—80 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. No heartwood. Wood white
when alive, red when cut, becoming pinkish-brown. Rings rather
broad, not very distinct, waving inwards where they cross the few,
lighter-coloured, medullary rays. Brown pith-flecks are frequent.
Pith-mass triangular with rounded angles, from which the medullary
rays radiate in curves. The wood contains vessels, tracheids,
wood-fibres, fibre-cells, and parenchyma ; but the vessels are small,
few, and uniformly distributed. It is soft, easily split, rather light,
with a smooth, fine grain, and lustrous. It does not warp or
splinter. When kept wholly submerged it is very durable, but not
at all so otherwise. To preserve the finer pieces from insect attack
they are sometimes, in Scotland, immersed for some months in
peat-water, to which some lime is added, which gives the wood some
resemblance to Mahogany. It has then been used for tables.
Alder was formerly used for piles, water-pipes, sluices, etc., but
Elm, being far more durable when alternately wet and dry, is
much better for such purposes. The piles of Ravenna, according
to Vitruvius, and those of the Rialto at Venice, and those of
Amsterdam, according to Evelyn, were largely of Alder, and
Pliny speaks of it as “ eternal’ when so used. Alder is employed
for packing-cases, the staves of herring-barrels, shovels, clogs and
sabots, bobbins, barrows, kneading-troughs, etc. The roots and
knots, being often handsomely veined, are used in small articles
of turnery and cabinet-making. Alder is practically the best
wood for gunpowder-charcoal. It is imported from the Baltic
ports of North Germany, where there are extensive pure forests
of this species, sometimes mixed with Birch; and it is mainly
bought by the Lancashire clog-makers.

Alder, American or Hoary (Alnus incana Willd: Order Betu-
ldcee). Germ. ‘‘ Weisserle.” A similar but inferior wood, with
more lustre, fewer pith-flecks, very few, wide, but indistinct medul-
lary rays, has a wide range in North America.

Alder, Red, Alnus ribra Bong.=A. Oregéna Nuttall, a native of
the Pacific slope, known also as “‘ Oregon ”’ or ** Western Alder,”
is a large tree yielding a light brownish wood sometimes employed
for charcoal, canoes, or furniture.

Alder, Red, of the Cape. See Cedar, Red, in Cape Colony.

Alder, White, the name in the western United States for Alnus
rhombifélia Nutt.; but applied in Cape Colony to Platylophus

126 WOODS OF COMMERCE

trifolidtus Don, a yellowish-white, hard, tough, durable wood, from
a tree 20—50 ft. high and 2—4 ft. in diam., much used in the Colony
for furniture and boat-keels. It takes a good polish and in the
lower part of the tree has generally a fine twisted grain. W 38.
Boer name, ‘“* White Els.”

Aleree (Tetraclinis articuldta). [See Thuya.] In Chile the name
is applied to Libocédrus tetrdgona, a very durable coniferous wood
of moderate dimensions, used for spars and roof-shingles.

Algarrobo, applied in Brazil to Hymeneéa [See Locust], is in
Argentina the name for the allied Prosépis nigra Hieron. and
P. dlba Griseb. (Order Leguminése), small trees not exceeding a foot
in diameter, yielding a very tough, fine-grained wood, used for
wheel-felloes and paving-blocks.

Almond, Indian (Termindlia Catappa L.: Order Combretacee).
India, Queensland, Fiji, etc. ‘‘ Tavola” of Fiji. <A large deciduous
tree. Wood reddish-brown, waved, rather close-grained, taking
good polish, durable. Sapwood light-coloured. W 32—4l.

Almond, Wild (Brabéjum stellatifolium L.: Order Proteacee).
South Africa. Known also as “ Red Stinkwood,” ‘“‘ Caffre,” or
“* Wild Chestnut,” “‘ Amandelboom.” Usually small but reaching
60 ft. in height and 1}—6ft.indiam. Durable. Used for waggons
furniture, and turnery.

Amboyna-wood. Moluccas, especially Ceram and Amboyna,
Arru and New Guinea. Malay name, “‘ Kaya Boka,” corrupted
into ‘‘ Kiabooca,” known also as ‘‘ Lingoa wood.” The tree throws
out burrs which are sawn off in slabs 2—8 in. thick and up to 9 ft.
in diam. The burrs are known as Amboyna-wood, the wood as
Kiabooca, but both are now rare on the market. Light reddish-
brown to orange, fragrant, somewhat resembling Thuya, very hard,
beautifully mottled and curled, taking a good polish and very
durable ; but of uncertain botanical origin, probably a species of
Pterocdrpus (Order Leguminése), but possibly Meliaceous. Sold
in Singapore by weight. Used in inlaying and for fancy boxes, etc.
8.G. 634. W 39.

Amaranthe. See Purple-heart.
Amarello Pao. See Fustic.
Ameixera. See Sanders, Yellow.

Amla ka (Phyllinthus Emblica Gaertn: Order EHuphorbidcee).
India, China, and Japan. Red, hard, elastic, durable, especially
under water ; but seldom straight. Its fruit is known as Emblic
Myrobalans.

Anan (Fagrea fragrans Roxb.: Order Loganidcee). Burma and
Indian Archipelago. Red-brown, hard, close-grained, beautifully

ANCONA—APPLE 127

mottled, very durable, teredo-proof. Used for bridges and boat-
building. W 52-5. S.G. 840.

Ancona. See Walnut (Juglans regia).
Andiroba. See Crabwood.

Angelim vermelhe (Andira fraxinifélia Benth.?: Order Legu-
minose). Brazil. Of crooked growth, reddish-brown, moderately
heavy. Used for ship-timbers.

Angelin (Andira inérmis Kunth: Order Leguminése). Tropical
America. ‘“‘Cabbage” or “ Bastard Cabbage Tree.” Cuba,
“Yaba.” Height 20—50 ft. ; diam. 3—5 ft. S.G. 644—688. W 33:8
—60-4. E 563 639. R 300 lbs. f 2:01—5-44. fe 1-98—2-99.
fs -32—-45. Brown, veined, hard, very durable underground or
under water. Used for mill-rollers and in house and ship building.
Some ‘“ Partridge-wood ” may be the timber of this species.

Angelique (Dicorynia paraénsis Benth.: Order Leguminése).
Brazil and Guiana. Height 20—54 ft., yielding timber 12—22 in.
square. 8.G.746—916. R215kilos. Reddish-brown, moderately
hard, tough, strong, elastic, straight and even-grained, easily
worked, durable in sea-water, insect-proof, sometimes with an
ornamental waviness of grain, with but little sapwood ; but with
slight shakes and an unpleasant odour, and said to rust nails.
Used in French dockyards, as a substitute for Teak, for backing
armour plates, etc., far more durable than Oak.

Angelly (Artocarpus hirsita Lam.: Order Artocarpacee). India,
chiefly in the south-west, Ceylon, Burma. Known also as “‘ Jungle
Jack” and “ Aini.” Height 50—60 ft.; diam. 23—3 ft. S.G.
590. W 36—51. Very tough, bears exposure to water well, and,
if kept oiled, is very durable. Used for planks in house-building,
canoes, fishing-boats, etc. Classed in the third line in Lloyd’s
Register.

Angico (Piptadéma rigida Benth.= Acacia Angico Mart. : Order
Leguminose). Brazil. ‘‘ Angica vermelho.” In logs of 6—10 in.
diam. W 71:5. Reddish or dark brown, with black lines, hard.
Turnery.

Anjan (Hardwickia bindta Roxb.: Order Legumindse). Central
and Southern India. Telugu ‘‘ Epe,’ Tamil ‘“ Acha maram.”
Height 50—60 or 120 ft., straight. Dark red, streaked with black
and often purplish, close-grained, “perhaps the hardest and
heaviest wood in India,” resinous, very durable, not warping, but
liable to split, very strong. W 84—85. Used for bridges, sleepers,
beams, rafters, house posts, and ornamental work.

Apple (Pyrus Malus L.: Order Rosdcee). German “* Apfelbaum,”’
French ‘“‘ pommier,” Span. “ manzana,” Russ. ‘ jablon.”

128 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Height seldom over 30 ft., or diam. over 23 ft. Dark brown,
generally strongly tinted with red. Sapwood, dull white. Rings
distinct, broad, often over 4 in. across ; with no pith-flecks ; medul-
lary rays not visible to the naked eye; vessels small, uniformly
distributed, 1—4 together. Heavy, very hard, close-grained,
brittle, taking a high polish, but warping badly on drying. S.G.
790. W41—50. Used for mallets, tool-handles, and other turnery,
and traditionally preferred in Cornwall for “ poling ”’ tin-ore.

Apple, Black or Brush (Siderézylon australé, Benth. and Hook.
fil.: Order Sapotécee). New South Wales and Queensland. Also
known as ‘‘ Native” or “‘ Wild Plum.” Height 80—100 ft., diam.
1—3 ft., W 55—58. Pale yellow, close-grained, prettily veined,
but requires careful seasoning. Used for staves, laths, and build-
ing, but suitable for cabinet work.

Apple, Emu. See Plum, Sour.

Apple, Oregon Crab (Pyrus rivuldris Dougl.: Order Rosdcee).
Alaska—California. Height 15—25—40 ft.; diam. 1—Il} ft.
8.G. 832. W 51:8. Light reddish-brown, heavy, very hard, close-
grained, taking a fine polish. Used in mill-work and for handles.

Apple-tree (Angéphora lanceolata Cav.: Order Myrtacee). New
South Wales and Queensland. Also known as “‘ Mountain Apple
Tree, Orange, Red,” or ‘“‘ Rusty Gum.” Aborig. ‘“ Toolookar.”
Height 70—80 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. S.G.893. Hard, used for rough
work and fuel.

Apple-tree, Broad-leaved (Angéphora subvelutina F. v. M.).
New South Wales and Queensland. Aborig. “‘Illarega.” Red-
dish, tough, polishes well, durable, but requires careful seasoning.
W 52—53. Used by wheelwrights and for fencing.

Apple-tree, Narrow-leaved (Angophora intermédia DC.). Eastern
Australia. Formerly Metrosidéros floribunda Sm. Height 40—
100 ft.; diam. 1—3 ft. Hard, tough, bears damp well, but is sub-
ject to gum-veins. Much used by wheelwrights.

*Arar. See Thuya.
Arbor-vite. See Cedar, White.

Argan (Argdnia Siderdxylon Rom. and Schult.: Order Sapo-
tacee). Morocco. ‘‘ Morocco Ironwood.” Height seldom more
than 20—30 ft.; diam. 8 ft. or more. Heavier than water, very
hard.

Arjun (Termindlia Arjuna Bedd.: Order Combretdcee). India,
Burmah, Ceylon. Apparently known also as ‘‘ Kahua” or “ Ko-
wah.” Height 50—80 ft. ; diam. 2—8 ft. Dark brown or brown-
red, very heavy, strong, but sometimes rotten at the heart, splits

ASADA—ASH 129

freely when exposed to the sun, durable, but liable to termite
attack. Recommended for beams, rafters, and masts.

Asada. See Hornbeam, Hop.

Ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.: Order Oledcew). Germ. “ Esche.”
Dutch ‘‘ aesche,” Dan. and Swed. “ask,” French ‘‘ fréne,” Ital.
““frassino,” Span. “fresno,” Russ. “‘jasan.” §.G. fresh 852, dry
750—692, W 43—63, E 750 tons, e’ 1.28, p 11,600, p’ 1-05, ft 2—7,
c 3,780, c’ -499, fe 2—4, v’ -912, fs -2—3-7, R 15,120 lbs. Stress
required to indent ,'; in. transversely to the fibre, 2,300 Ibs. per
square inch. (Fig. 31.)

Height 30—50, or even 80—100 ft. ; diam. 1}—2 ft.

The sapwood, very broad, about 40 rings, yellowish or greyish-
white ; the heart, light brown, or greyish-white, not very different
from the sapwood, or, in colour, from light Oak. Rings very
distinct, with a broad zone of spring-wood with numerous larger
vessels, sharply marked off from the autumn wood, in which the
few small vessels stand singly or from 2—4 together. Pith-rays
scarcely recognizable. Pith-mass, ovoid, very large. The wood
contains vessels, wood-fibres, fibre-cells, and parenchyma. It is
of moderate weight and hardness, very even and close in grain,
lustrous and susceptible, of a good polish, the toughest of European
woods, and very pliable. It warps but little ; and, if felled in winter
and properly seasoned, is extremely durable, though few woods are
more perishable if these precautions are neglected.

‘* Very great advantage will be found in reducing the Ash logs soon after they are
felled into plank or board for seasoning, since, if left for only a short time in the
round state, deep shakes open from the surface, which involve a very heavy loss
when brought on later for conversion” (Las/ett).

The compression or contortion of its fibre produces a lateral
grain or figure in Ash known as “‘ram’s-horn,” or, from its re-
semblance to the figured Maple used for the backs of violins, as
* fiddle-back.”’ This is best shown in billets imported from Austria
and Hungary. Though the Ash grows in almost any soil, it pro-
duces the best light-coloured wood when grown quickly in rich
loam and a moist climate, as in the valleys of Britain and Central
Europe. The slower-grown wood of poorer soils, mountains, and
Northern Europe is apt to become “ black-hearted,” as also does
that of pollard-trees. This is sometimes attributed to incipient
decay, and is held to lessen the strength of the wood, but produces
the figured veneers imported from the Pyrenees, as ‘‘ Pyrenean
Ash.” Wounds or cankers also occur in the heart-wood, which are
believed, in the North-East of England, to be caused by bees ;
but this “‘ Bee-sucken Ash,” as it is termed, is extremely hard and
tough, so as to be suitable for mallets, etc.

The utility of the Ash has long been recognized, and few woods

9

130 WOODS OF COMMERCE

have a greater variety of uses, so that the poet Spenser terms it
“The ash, for nothing ill.” Greeks, Romans, and Teutons alike
used its tough saplings for lances, the Romans preferring the wood
obtained from Gaul, and the Teutons also employing it for bows,
arrows, shields, and boat-building. Roman agricultural writers
recommended it for implements, and from its varied uses in this
respect it has been called ‘‘ the husbandman’s tree.” It is fre-
quently coppiced, this young, or ‘‘ Maiden Ash,” and the “ stooled ”
shoots, or second growth from the original roots, which are very
tough, being fit for walking-sticks or whip-handles when four or
five years’ growth, for lance-poles or hop-poles a year or two later,
for spade-handles at nine years, and when 8 inches in diameter as
valuable as the timber of the largest tree. These growths are fre-
quently termed “Ground Ash.” In the Potteries it is largely
used for crate-making, for which purpose it is cut every five or six
years, though for other purposes only every seven or eight. Since,
when steamed or heated, it can be easily bent, without injury, into
any curve, it is invaluable for hoops. Larger wood is largely used
by the wheelwright, for both spokes and felloes, and by the carriage-
builder, and for oars. As it does not splinter, it is also useful for
chopping-blocks, shop-boards, handles, such as those of croquet-
mallets, and billiard-cues. “For furniture it is chiefly used where
softer, as in Central Russia. Its flexibility unfits it for use in archi-
tectural work. When seasoned, the sapwood is as valuable as the
heart. The roots and knotty parts of the stem were formerly
valued by cabinet-makers. There being no bitter principle in the
heart-wood, Ash is very liable to the attacks of the larvee of the
furniture-beetle, though painting renders it more durable.
Ash is valuable as fuel, and its residue is rich in potash.
The tree is a native of Europe and Northern Africa.

Ash (Lleocarpus obovitus Don: Order Tilidcew). North-Eastern
Australia. ‘‘ Chereen ”’ of natives in New South Wales, ‘‘ Woolal ”’
in Queensland. Height 80—90 ft., diam. 2—24 ft. White, hard,
tough, easily worked. Used for oars.

Ash (Flindérsia). See Flindosa.

Ash, American, Quebec, or White (Fraxinus americana L.=F.
acuminita Lam., F. canadénsis Mich. : Order Oledcew). S.G. 654.
W 30—40, Coefficient of elasticity 101,668, R 861 kilos, Resistance
to longitudinal pressure 463, Resistance to indentation 171. Height
70—100 ft.; diam. 1—3 ft. Imported in partly squared logs,
18—35 ft. long, and 10—18 in. square, in planks and partly manu-
factured, as oars, etc. Wood generally much whiter, and with
narrower rings than Common Ash (Ff. excelsior) ; the sapwood, when
well seasoned, nearly white ; the heart, light reddish, contrasting with
the sapwood more than in Common Ash, but less than in other

ASH 131

American kinds, in the best quality, lightest and most uniform ; in
second quality, slightly stained alternately red and yellow ; and in
the third quality, mottled red. It is of much slower growth than
Common Ash, the rings being only about half the width of those
in that species, very distinct, with a narrow zone of spring-wood
and fewer larger vessels. Though it may be termed rather heavy,
it is less so than the European species, moderately hard, but very
tough and elastic, except in the oldest timber, clean and straight
in grain, very easy to work, and standing well after seasoning.

In America it is used for all purposes to which Common Ash is
applied in England. The small wood of young trees or stools,
which is mostly sapwood and white, is the best material for oars.
Larger logs, when white, are much sought after for bedroom and
other furniture, and for coach-panels ; but the more coloured logs
are universally considered by the trade inferior in strength and
durability, though, being more easily worked, they are used by
cabinet-makers for drawers and carcass work, for which European
Ash is never employed. It occurs generally throughout Canada
and the Eastern United States, chiefly on river-banks, and is the
species imported into England for bending and carriage-work.

Ash, Arkansas. See Ash, Water.

Ash, Black, Hoop, Ground, Swamp, or Nova Scotia (Frazxinus nigra
Marshall= F. sambucifolia Lam. : Order Oledceew). Germ. “ schwarze
Esche,” French “ fréne noire,” Span. “fresno negro.” §8.G. 632,
W 38—44:5, Co-efficient of elasticity 87,185, R 806 kilos, Re-
sistance to longitudinal pressure 423, Resistance to indentation 194.
Height 80 ft. or more, diam. 2—24 ft. Slow-grown, trees 22 in.
in diameter having 234 annual rings. Sapwood thin, light brown,
or nearly white, sharply contrasting with the dark brown heart.
Numerous thin medullary rays. Spring-wood with crowded ducts
forming a narrow sharply-defined zone. Moderately heavy, rather
soft, not strong, but tough, elastic, coarse-grained, separating easily
between the rings, not durable, except under water.

Less valuable than White Ash, but much used in America for
furniture and interior finishing, and for fencing and hoops. The
Indians use it for making chair-bottoms and “splint ”’ baskets,
working it “‘into sticks as wide along the rings as the splints are
to be, and perhaps 2 inches thick. These are then bent sharply
in the plane of the radius of the rings when they separate into thin
strips nearly or quite as many as the rings of growth”? (Romeyn
Hough). Large wart-like swellings, or “‘ burls,”’ on the trunk, with
much contorted grain crossed by innumerable radiating “ pins,”
or abortive branches, form, when cut tangentially, very valuable
veneers.

Swampy situations from Newfoundland and Winnipeg south-
ward, the most northern American Ash.

9—2

132 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Ash, Black (Litswa dealbata Nees: Order Laurinew), New South
Wales and Queensland. Height, 100—150 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft.
Yellowish, streaked with brown longitudinally, fragrant, close-
grained, tough. Used for indoor work. The name is also applied
to the smaller white wood of Cupania semiglauca F. v. Muell., the
‘“* Tyal-dyal ’ of New South Wales, which is not used.

Ash, Blue (Fraxinus quadranguldta Michx.: Order Oledcee).

Dry woods in the central United States, Michigan to Tennessee,
best in the basin of the lower Wabash River. Height, 70 ft. ;
diam. 2 ft. Heavy, hard, and more durable, especially when alter-
nately wet and dry, than any other Ash. Valuable for tool-
handles, used also in carriage-making, flooring, and other purposes,
as is White Ash.

Ash Blue (Elaodéndron australe Vent.: Order Celastrdcee),
North-East Australia. Known also as ‘‘ White Cedar” or “ Cour-
aivo.” Height 20—30 ft.; diam. 4—12 in. W 49-5. Pinkish,
close-grained, prettily marked, but liable to shakes. Valuable for
oars, staves, or shingles.

Ash, Blueberry (El@ocarpus cyaneus Ait. and E. holopétalus F.
v. Muell.: Order Tilidcee), the former in Tasmania and through-
out Eastern Australia, the latter in Victoria and New South Wales.
The former is known also as ‘‘ White Boree”’ or “‘ Native Olive,”
the latter as ‘‘ Maddagowrie ”’ or “‘ Prickly Fig.” EH. cydneus grows
40—50 ft. high, with a diameter of 12—15 in., has a dark heart and
white sapwood and is very tough, and is useful for tool-handles.
E. holopétalus reaches 60—80 ft. with a diam. 1—2 ft., and W 37°5,
is white, close-grained and suitable for cabinet work.

Ash, Brush (Acronychia Bauert Schott.: Order Rutacee). New
South Wales and Queensland. Height 40—70 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft.
Very hard, close-grained, and strong. Excellent for tool-handles,
and might be used for cabinet work.

Ash, Cabinet. The English trade name for Fraxinus nigra [See
Ash, Black], F. Pennsylvdnica [See Ash, Red] and F. Caroliniana
[See Ash, Water].

Ash, Cape (Ekebérgia capénsis Sparrm.: Order Meliacee). Natal
and Cape Colony. Boer “* Essen-boom,” Zulu “‘ Umgwenyuizinja.”
Height 20—30 ft ; diam. 2—3 ft., close-grained, tough. Used for
furniture, the sides of waggons, etc.

Ash, Crows’. See Flindosa.

Ash, Elderberry (Pdanax sambucifolius Sieber: Order Aralidcee).
Northern and Eastern Australia. A small tree. Wood very tough,
prettily marked, and used locally for axe-handles.

Ash, Green (Frdaxinus lanceolata Borkh.=F. viridis Michx.=
F. Pennsylvinica, var. lanceolata Sargent: Order Oledcee). Ver-

ASH 133

mont and Saskatchewan to Texas, Arizona, and Florida, most
common and best in the Mississippi valley. Height 50—60 ft. ;
diam. 143—2 ft. 8.G. 718. W 44:35. Brown, with obscure pith-
rays and several rows of open ducts in each ring. Heavy, hard, and
strong. Somewhat inferior to White Ash ; but often employed for
the same purposes.

Ash, Grey. See Ash, Red.

Ash, Moreton Bay (Hucalyptus tesselaris F. v. Muell.: Order
Myriacee). Central and North-Eastern Australia. ‘ [lumba,”’
* Corang,” and “ Carbeen”’ of natives. Height 30—60 ft. ; diam.
1—2 ft. Dark brown, tough, not hard or durable. Used for
building purposes, being of better quality in the warmer parts of its
range.

Ash, Mountain (Pyrus Aucuparia L. Order Rosdcew). See
Rowan.

Ash, Mountain (Alphitonia excelsa Reisseek : Order Rhamndcee).
North-Eastern Australia. Also known as “‘ Red Ash,” ‘‘ Leather-
jacket,” ‘‘ Humbug,” ‘‘ Murr-rung.” Height 45—50 ft.; diam.
1—2 ft. W 53. Heart light-red to dark-brown ; sapwood pinkish,
darkening with age, hard, close-grained, very tough, polishing well,
durable, but warps in drying. Valuable for staves and, perhaps,
for gun-stocks.

The name is also applied in the Illawarra district of New South
Wales to Hleocdrpus longifolia C. Moore and EH. Kirtoni Bailey
(the latter being also known as “ Australian White Beech” or
* Kirton wood ’’), close and fine-grained, light-brown woods, easily
worked and employed by wheelwrights and for oars ; and in other
parts of Australia to Hucalyptus Stuartiana F. v. M., the Apple-
scented Gum, to H. Sieberidna F. v. M., the Cabbage Gum, to
EL. pilularis Sm., the Blackbutt, to HL. pauciflora Sieb., to H. hamd-
stoma Sm., the Scribbly Gum, in East Gippsland to H. goniocdlyx
F. v. M. (See Box, Bastard), and in Victoria to H. amygdalina
Labill., and especially the tall variety régnans. This last-named
species is a native of Southern Australia and Tasmania, and is
probably the tallest tree on the globe, often reaching 100—150 ft.,
with diam. from 3—S8 ft., but in some cases 400, 410, or even
420 or 471 ft. It is, therefore, appropriately called ‘‘ Giant Gum,”’
the name “ Peppermint tree”? belonging apparently to smaller
specimens. The Gippsland aboriginal name ‘‘ Wangara”’ is the
equivalent of “ Stringybark,” applied to many other species. S.G.
air-dried 1045—1076, dry 908—703. W 47:54. R 778—1,152 lbs.
Light yellowish brown, with a neat striped figuring, straight in
grain, easily worked, sometimes proving durable under water, not
twisting in drying, suitable for fencing, shingles, ships’ planks,

134 WOODS OF COMMERCE

keelsons, packing-cases, carpentry, or railway-carriage building ;
but less durable than E. glébulus or E. obliqua.

Ash, Black Mountain (Lucalyptus lencéxylon F. v. M.). See
Tron-bark.

Ash, Oregon (Fraxinus Oregéna Nutt. Order Oledcew). North-
Western United States. Height 30—40 or 60 ft. ; diam. 1—1} ft.
Resembling White Ash, rather heavy, sometimes brittle, not
strong. Used for furniture, waggon and carriage - frames and
cooperage.

Ash, Prickly (Zanthéxylum Clava-Hérculis L.: Order Rutdcee).
West Indies. The prickly young stems are imported under the
name of “ Briar” for walking-sticks. In Jamaica it is known as
“Prickly Yellow - wood.” W 60:66. E 499. f 2:7. fe 1-77.
fs -418.

Ash, Red, Grey, or Brown-barked (Frdxinus Pennsylvdnica
Marshall= F. pubéscens Lam. = F.. tomentésa Michx. : Order Oledcee).
New Brunswick and South Ontario to Louisiana and Florida,
along streams, chiefly in the north. French “ Fréne rouge,” Germ.
‘ Rothesche,” Span. ‘‘ Fresno colorado.” Height 50 ft.; diam.
2ft. S.G. 625. W 38—96. E8,122]bs. R 869 kilos.

Sapwood light brown or nearly white, sharply defined ; some-
times streaked with yellow; heart rich or light reddish brown,
moderately heavy, hard, rather strong, coarse-grained, brittle ;
pith-rays numerous, thin. Used locally for agricultural imple-
ments, fence-rails, interior finishing or furniture, as a substitute for
Black Ash.

In Australia the name ‘‘ Red Ash” is applied to Alphiténia
eacélsa [See Ash, Mountain,] and to Orites excélsa [See Oak, Silky.]

Ash, Rock, of Cape Colony. See Els, Klip.

Ash, Water, Swamp, or Arkansas (Frdxinus Carolinidna Miller=
F. platycérpa Michaux.: Order Oledcee). Swamps: Virginia—
Louisiana. W 35-75. Coarse-grained, brittle.

Other less important species, used locally, are Fraxinus anédmala
Watson. S.G. 660. W 41—11. Light brown with thick sap-
wood (30—40 rings), thin medullary rays, many large scattered
ducts and several rows of small ducts. Heavy, hard, close-grained.
Colorado, Utah, Nevada.

F. Berlandieridna D.C. Used for tool-handles in Mexico.

F. velutina Torrey (= F. pistaciefélia Torrey). Used, for axe-
handles and waggons, in New Mexico, Texas, and Arizona.

Aspen (Populus trémula L.: Order Salicinee). German “ Aspe,”
“ Espe,” “‘ Zitterpappel,” French ‘‘ peuplier tremble,” Span.
“alamo tremblon,” Russ. ‘‘ osyka.’? Possibly the Becaim, amu
or Mulberry (A.V.) of 2 Samuel v. 23, the “‘ Pyrus ” of the Vulgate.

ASPEN—BABUL 135

Dingy white, looking reddish-brown in transverse section, with
no heartwood. Rings circular, broad, distinct; medullary rays
not visible to the naked eye ; vessels small, uniformly distributed,
dendritic, 2—7 together ; generally with white pith-flecks near the
centre. Soft, light, elastic, easily split, warping and cracking
but little. Used as blindwood, for cooper’s ware, milk-pails,
herring casks, butchers’ trays, clogs, pack-saddles and paper-pulp ;
and, in France, for sabots and for flooring. Imported in small
quantities from the southern Baltic ports, mainly for turnery.

Aspen, American or Quaking Asp (Pépulus tremulotdes Michaux :
Order Salicinew). Throughout North America, coming up after
fires and replacing destroyed fir-forests. Germ. “ Amerikanishe
Zitter-Espe,” French ‘tremble d’Amerique,” Span. “ Alamo
tremblon.” §S.G. 403. W 25—13. Coefficient of elasticity 81441.
R 677 kilos. Resistance to longitudinal pressure 330 kilos. Re-
sistance to indentation 80 kilos. Height seldom 60 ft. or 2 ft. in
diam. Light brown with very thick, very white sapwood. Re-
sembling Aspen in texture, close-grained, cottony in fibre, light,
soft, not strong, soon decaying in contact with damp. Used in
turnery, and occasionally for flooring, chiefly in the Western United
States ; but chiefly for paper-pulp, for which purpose, though very
white, in strength it is inferior to Spruce.

Aspen, Large-tooth (Pépulus grandidentita Michaux). [See
Poplar, Large-toothed. |

Assegai-wood (Curtisia faginea ‘Ait.: Order Corndcee). Zulu
“Umguna,” ‘‘ Umnoiso.” ‘‘Cape Lancewood.” Cape Colony
and Natal. Height 40—80 ft. ; diam. 1—4 ft. W 60. Bright red,
becoming dull on exposure, close-grained, very strong, tough,
elastic and durable even in damp situations. Used for furniture,
shafts of assegais, tool-handles, spokes and felloes, and is one of the
best woods for waggon-building.

Avocado Pear (Pérsea gratissima Gertn.: Order Lauracee).
Cuba “ Aguacate.” West Indies. S.G. 661. A handsome, dark
red-brown, resembling Mahogany, with wavy figure; but grown
chiefly for its fruit.

Axe-breaker (Notel@a longifdlia Vent.: Order Jasmindcee).
“Mock Olive.” Aborig. ‘‘ Coobagum.” New South Wales. Height
48—50 ft.; diam. 1—14 ft. Hard, close-grained, and firm.

Babela (Termindlia belérica Roxb.). See Myrobalan wood.

Babul (Acdcia ardbica Willd.: Order Legumindse). Hinde
“ Babul.” Bengali ‘“‘ Babla.” Panjabi ‘“ Kikar.” Height 50—
60 ft.; diam. 2—21 ft. W 45. Heartwood, pinkish to brown,
mottled, with dark streaks, hard, and, if well seasoned, very dur-
able. Used extensively in Northern India for wheels, sugar and

136 WOODS OF COMMERCE

oil-presses, rice-pounders, agricultural implements, and tool-handles;
and in Sind for boat-building, rafters, occasionally for railway-
sleepers, and for fuel.

Bagasse, the name of two similar but distinct timbers of French
Guiana : (i) Bagdssa guianénsis Aubl. (Order Artocarpdacee), a large,
straight-growing tree. S.G. 1130—730. R 215 kilos. Very dur-
able and excellent for flooring ; and (ii) Icica altissima Aubl. (Order
Burserdcee), known also as ‘‘ Cédre blanc,” “* Kurana ” or “ Carana,”
also of large size. S.G. 1036—842. R 226 kilos. Soft, but of
excellent quality. Used for canoes and for cabinet-making.

Bakula (Mimusops Eléngi L.: Order Sapotdcee). Sinhalese
“ Munamal.” Tamil ‘ Makulai.” India, Ceylon, Moluccas. 8.G.
736. W 46—6l. Red, hard, strong, fairly durable. Used in
house-building and for furniture in Southern India and Ceylon.

Bailey Gum. See Gum, Bailey.

Balau. See Teak, Johore.

Ballow, as yet undetermined. W 61. Resembling Oak, hard,
strong, durable, easily worked. Extensively used for railway-
sleepers, piles, beams, and planks. British North Borneo.

Bally Gum (Litse@a reticuldta Benth. : Order Laurinee). Queens-
land. “* Cudgerie.” Large, grey, close-grained, light, easily worked
and susceptible of staining. Suitable for flooring or cabinet-
work ; but not plentiful.

Banaba. See Jarul.
Bancoulier. See Walnut, Belgaum.

Bandara. (Lagerstremia parvifléra Roxb. var. majiscula C.B.
Clarke: Order Lythrdceew). India. A large tree. Diam. 2 ft.,
W 40. Red or light brown, compact, moderately hard, tough,
elastic, seasons well and is easily worked, and durable in water.
It is used for beams, rafters, and boat-building, and is reeommended
for sleepers.

Banksia (Banksia littordlis R. Br.: Order Proteacew). West
Australia. Height 20—40 ft.; diam. 1 ft. W 43-75. Rich brown,
beautifully grained. Coming into use for furniture.

Barranduna (T'rochocarpa laurina R. Br.: Order Epacriddcee).
New South Wales and Queensland. ‘‘ Beech, Brush, Cherry,” or
“Myrtle.” Height 20—30 ft.; diam. 6—12 in. W 48. Warm
brown, prettily grained, hard, close-grained, tough, requiring
careful seasoning. Useful for turnery.

Barberry (Bérberis vulgaris L.: Order Berberiddcee). Germ.
‘“ Sauerdorn.”’ Too small to be of use. Sapwood lemon-yellow ;
heart bluish-red. Pith-rays widening outwards, all broad ; pore-
circle very narrow, with very large vessels in radial lines. Europe.

BARWOOD—BEECH 137

Barwood, generally considered identical with Camwood, but
possibly Pterocirpus santalindides L’Hérit. or P. angolénsis DC.
(Order Leguminése). West Africa. S.G. 620. W 38-75. A dye-
wood.

Basswood (Tilia americéna L.: Order Tilidcew). “* American
Linden ” or “ Lime,” “ Bee tree.” Germ. “ Amerikanische Linde,”
French “ Tilleul d’Amerique,” Span. ‘“ Tilio Americano.” Eastern
United States and Canada. Height 80—100 ft.; diam. 3—4 ft.
S.G. 452. W26—45-5. R589kilos. Ash percentage 55. Relative
fuel value -45. Coefficiency of elasticity 84,010 kilos. Resistance
to longitudinal pressure 348 kilos. Resistance to indentation
63 kilos. White to light brown, or tinged with red, light, soft,
tough, close-grained, easily worked, but not strong, shrinking
considerably in drying ; but durable. Extensively used for cheap
furniture, toys, carriage-panels, chair-seats, carpentry, turnery,
cooperage, and to some extent for paper-pulp and charcoal. It is
sometimes worked up by a rotary knife-cutting veneer machine so
as to make a thin board, as long as the log and as much as 100 ft.
broad, for three-ply wood.

Basswood, White (Tilia heterophylla Vent.). Middle and Southern
States. Not distinguished commercially from the preceding.

Bay-wood. See Mahogany.

Bead-tree (Mélia composita Willd.=M. Azedardch L.: Order
Melidcee). ‘Persian Lilac,’ “Pride of India.’ In Australia
““ White Cedar ” or “ Cape Lilac.” Hind. “Nim.” French “ Lilas
des Indes,” ‘“ Sykomore,” ‘‘ Laurier grec.” Port. “‘ Margosa.”
Tamil “Vem-pu.” Syria, India, China, Australia. Height
40—50 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. W 30—38. Sapwood yellowish-white ;
heart yellowish to reddish-brown, handsomely marked, especially
vertically, soft and rather loose-textured, easily worked, but taking
a good polish and becoming hard and durable, but warping and
splitting. It is used in India for furniture, being known in the south
as “ Bastard Cedar.” [See Margosa. |

Bean-tree, or Bean, Black. See Chestnut, Moreton-Bay.
Bean, Red (Dysdéxylum Muélleri). See Cedar, Pencil.

Beati (Cassia sidmea Lamk.: Order Legumindse). Sinhalese
““Wa.” Southern India, Ceylon, Burma. 14 ft. diam. W 62.
Heart nearly black, often beautifully mottled longitudinally, very
hard. Used in Burma for mallets and walking-sticks, and in
Ceylon for fuel for railway-engines. Exported to Bombay and
thence to England as ‘“‘ Bombay Black-wood”’ or ** Rosewood.”

Beech, Common (Fagus sylwitica L.: Order Cupulifere). Germ.
‘““Gemeiner”’ or “ Roth Buche,” Dutch ‘ Rood beuke,” Danish

138 WOODS OF COMMERCE

* Bog,” Swedish “ Bok,” Russian and Polish ‘‘ Buk,” Ital. “‘ Faggio,”
Portug. ‘“‘ Faya,” Span. ‘‘ Haya,” French “ Hétre.”’ “* White Beech ”’
in America. S.G. 700—720, average 705. W 41—56. E 603 tons.
ft 23—7. fe 3—4. f 4:7. fs -4—-5. Breaking weight (tensile)
4,853 lbs. per sq. in. Crushing strain on sq. in. 9,363—7,733 lbs.
Lighter than Oak, with less tensile but almost equal crushing
strength. Height 70—100 ft. ; diam. 3—44 ft. Wood varying in
colour from red to yellow or white, the red being the better, grown
on richer soil. Rings distinct, bulging between the medullary
rays. Vessels small, more numerous in the spring wood, 1—5
together, so that autumn wood appears darker. Medullary rays
broad, very distinct, with a satiny lustre, occupying nearly a tenth
of the transverse section. Pith-mass triangular, small. The wood
contains vessels, tracheids, wood-fibres and parenchyma. It is
hard, heavy, as strong as Oak and tougher, but 25 per cent. less
stiff, close and even in texture, with a fine silky grain, easily cleaved
along the rays, very durable under water, and, when well
seasoned, not liable to split. (Fig. 26.) It must, however, be
kept either wet or dry. It is liable to become worm-eaten ; but
can readily be treated with preservatives. Beech is largely used for
chair-making in Buckinghamshire and in Vienna, in the latter district
being often stained. Burning rapidly with a bright flame, it is
the chief fuel on the Continent of Europe. It also yields one of the
best gunpowder-charcoals. It is in great request among turners
for tool-handles, wooden screws, wheel cogs (for which it ranks next
to Hornbeam), shoe-lasts, printers’ rollers, wood type, knife-handles
and bobbins, and makes excellent wedges. In France and Germany
it is considered the best of all woods, except Walnut, for sabots and
wooden soles, for which purpose it is ‘‘ smoked ”’ over branches and
chips of beech, so as to become charged with pyroligneous acid,
when it is extremely impermeable. It is also used for railway-
sleepers, shafts, oars and boat-building. It is imported from Hol-
land and Germany to our Eastern ports.

The name is applied in Australia to T’rochocarpa laurina R. Br.
[See Barranduna], Flindérsia australis R. Br. [See Flindosa],
F. Oxleyina F. v. M. [See Jack, Long], T'ristania laurina R. Br.
[See Box, Bastard], Schizoméria ovdta D. Don [See Coach-wood],
Monotoca elliptica R. Br. [See Wallang-unda], Cryptocarya glau-
céscens R. Br. [See Beech, She], and to Gmelina Leichhardtii F. v. M.
(Order Verbendcee). This last is also termed ‘‘ White Beech,”
and. by the aborigines ‘“‘ Binburra”’ and “‘ Cullonen.” It is a native
of Queensland and New South Wales, 80—150 ft. in height ; 2—4 ft.
in diam. W 36. Light-coloured, with a fine, bright, silvery grain,
strong, not warping, if moderately seasoned, durable, not easily
attacked by termites, and easily worked. It is one of the most
valuable of Australian timbers, being useful for turnery or for floats

BEECH 139

of mill-wheels, but specially valued for the flooring of verandahs
and the decks of coasting vessels, posts, carving, cooperage, etc.

Beech, American or Red (Fagus ferruginea Ait.: Order Cupu-
lifere). Germ. “‘ Amerikanische Buche,” French ‘‘ Hétre d’Amer-
ique,’” Span. ‘Haya Americana.” Eastern North America.
Height up to 100 ft.; diam. up to 4 ft. S.G. 688. W 41—43.
Ash percentage -51. Relative fuel value -685. E 120,996 kilos.
R 1,148 kilos. Resistance to longitudinal pressure 478, to indenta-
tion 196 kilos. White to light brown; heart reddish, pith-rays
large and conspicuous. Moderately heavy, hard, stiff, strong,
tough, rather coarse in texture, warping in drying, but taking a
very smooth and beautiful polish, liable to insect attack, and not
tolerant of contact with the ground, but otherwise durable. Used
in America for plane-stocks, shoe-lasts, chairs, tool-handles, furni-
ture, ships’ timbers, and fuel. It is exported to a small extent to
England, but is inferior to English Beech.

Beech, Black. See Beech, She.

Beech, Blue. See Hornbeam.

Beech, Cape (Myrsiné melanophleos R. Br.: Order Myrsindcee).
South Africa. “‘ Beukenhout.’”? Height 50 ft.; diam. 24 ft.
W 39:5—46. Brownish, with prominent and beautiful reddish
silver-grain, hard, tough, fine and even-grained, easily worked,
durable, neither cracking nor warping. Used in waggon-building.

Beech, Evergreen (agus Cunninghamii Hook: Order Cupu-
lifer). “Myrtle.” ‘‘ Negro-head Beech.” Tasmania and Vic-
toria. Height 100—200 ft. ; diam. sometimes 8 ft. or more. S.G.
972—593. W 37—53:°69. R 548—692 lbs. E 842. f 4-06.
fe 2-58. fs 557. Reddish-brown, satiny, with beautiful feathery
cross veins, especially in the warty protuberances on the trunk,
hard and free from knots, susceptible of an excellent polish. Used
for cogs, doors, furniture, carpentry, fret-saw work, piano carcases,
ball-room floors, etc. [See Roble.]

Beech, Indian (Pongamia glabra Vent.: Order Leguminése).
Bengal. “ Kurunja,”’ Burm. “ Karung,” Tamil “ Poonga,” Fiji
“ Vesivesi.” India, Tropical Australia, and the Pacific. Height
40—50 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. W 40—42. White, turning yellow on |
exposure, moderately hard, close-grained, tough, prettily marked,
but much attacked by insects, and not durable, though improved
by seasoning in water. No distinct annual rings, but marked wavy
“false rings ”; vessels few, scattered ; pith-rays distinct. In India
used mainly for fuel.

Beech, Red, in Queensland (Flindérsia Chatawaiana F. M. Bailey :
Order Melidcee). Also known as “ Maple.” Used for joinery and
cabinet work.

140 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Beech, She (Cryptocdrya glaucéscens R. Br.: Order Laurinee).
‘** Black Beech, Sassafras, White Laurel.”? North-Eastern Australia.
Height 70—80 ft. ; diam. 1}—2 ft. Soft, ornamental, not durable.
Used in cooperage. The name has also been applied to C. obovdta
R. Br. [See Syeamore, White. ]

Beech, White, in Canada is Fagus sylvatica L. [See Beech,
Common]. In Australia the name is applied to Eleocarpus Kirtoni
F.v. M. [See Ash, Mountain], Gmelina Leichhardtii F. v. M. [See
Beech, Common], and to Phyllanthus Ferdinindi Mull. Arg. (Order
Euphorbidcee). This tree, also called ‘‘ Pencil Cedar,” “ Lignum-
vite,” and by the aborigines “‘ Chow-way” and “ Tow-war,” a
native of the north-east, reaches a height of 70—80 ft. and a diameter
of 1—14 ft. Its wood is grey, close-grained, and easy to work, but
warps. It is used in building and for staves.

Beech, Water. See Hornbeam.

Beef-wood in Trinidad is Rhépala montana (Order Protedcee), a
valuable timber ; but in Australia the name is hopelessly vague,
being applied to members of four genera of Protedcee, viz. , Banksia,
Grevillea, Hakea and Stenocdrpus, and to several species of the
widely differing genus Casuarina. For Banksia see Honeysuckle ;
for Hdkea, Pinbush; for Stenocdrpus, Oak, Silky; for Casuarina
equisetifolia, Oak, Swamp ; for C. suberdsa, She-oak, Erect ; and for
C. torulosa, Oak, Forest.

Grevillea stridta R. Br. (Order Protedcew), also known as “‘ Silvery
Honeysuckle,” and by the aborigines as “‘ Turraic,” reaches a height
of 40—50 ft., with a diam. of 14 ft. Its timber is red and prettily
marked, though named from its resemblance to raw beef, hard,
close-grained, and susceptible of a good polish. It is used for
fencing, cabinet work, and furniture. [See also Bullet-wood.]|

Bendy-tree. See Umbrella-tree.

Betis (Payéna Bétis Villar : Order Sapotdcee). Philippines. Used
in ship-building, and classed in the third line of Lloyd’s Register.

Big-tree (Sequoia gigantea Decaisne: Order Conifere). “ Mam-
moth tree of California.” ‘‘ Wellingtonia.” French “Sequoia
gigantesque,’’ Germ. ‘“‘ Riesen Sequoia,” Ital. “‘ Gigante della Cali-
fornia.” Western slopes of Sierra Nevada, California, 5,000—
8,000 ft. above sea-level. Height 250—400 ft.; diam. sometimes
exceeding 35 ft. The specimen, 62 ft. in girth, of which a section
is exhibited in the Natural History Museum, South Kensington,
has 1,335 annual rings. Wood red-brown, light, soft, brittle, weak,
eross-grained, durable in contact with soil. Formerly used locally
for lumber, fencing, shingles, etc., but now only of historical interest.
Introduced into England as an ornamental tree by William Lobb
in 1853.

BIJA—BIRCH 141

Bija. See Teak, Bastard.

Billian or Borneo Iron Wood (Lusideréxylon Zwagert T. and B.:
Order Laurdcee). British North Borneo. A very large tree.
W 67. Resembling Oak when newly cut, but with age or exposure
becoming black as Ebony. Very heavy and hard, strong and
durable, bearing exposure, resisting termites and the ship-worm.
The best wood in the Bornean and Chinese area for piles, beams, or
planks.

Billy Web. See Ebony, American.
Bilsted (Liquidambar styraciflua L.). See Gum, Sweet.

Birch, Common, European, White or Silver (Bétula dlba L.:
Order Betulacee). French ‘‘ Bouleau commun,” Germ. ‘‘ Gemeine
Birke,”? Dutch ‘‘ Berk,”? Danish “ Birk,” Swedish * Bjork,’ Russian
“* Bereza,” Port. “‘ Bettula,” Span. ‘ Abedul.”? Northern Europe
and Asia. Height 40—50 ft.; diam. 13 ft. S.G. fresh 909, dried
664. W 32—49. ft 2:3—10. fs -43. Yellowish or reddish-white
to light brown, the vessels so minute as to be almost imperceptible
to the naked eye, a smooth transverse section appearing as though
sprinkled with flour. Rings and pith-rays distinctly marked:
pith-flecks numerous near the centre: wood consisting of trachee,
tracheids, fibres, fibre-cells, and parenchyma. Moderately hard
and heavy, even-grained, difficult to split, but easily worked,
neither strong nor durable, and lable to the attacks of worms.
Burrs are occasionally produced on the stem, with solid marbled
wood, valued by turners, and made into cups and bowls in Lapland.
In many countries on the Continent, Birch as the cheapest native
hardwood, is largely used for furniture and turnery: in France it
is largely used for felloes of wheels, cooperage, and sabots ; and in
the Scottish Highlands for an infinity of purposes, including spoons
and plates, as in Russia. It is a valuable fuel in Northern Europe,
comparing with Beech as a heat-producer as 13 to 15. It also pro-
duces excellent crayon charcoal, and its coppice-wood is largely
used for brooms, hoops, and crate-making ; for tanning leather ;
for a yellow-brown, or, with alum, a brownish-red, dye ; and, when
burnt, for distilling Scotch whisky and smoking herrings and hams.
Birch timber is imported, mostly with the bark on, from Prussia
and the South of Sweden, to Grimsby, Hull, and Ireland ; but that
from Sweden is often crooked ; and the sapwood, especially if felled
in the spring, left on the ground, kept too long on the voyage, or
stored without ventilation, will become ‘“‘ doated ” or foxed, under-
going, that is, a fungoid fermentation. A new industry has been
recently started in Russia in the manufacture of Birch three-ply
planks for export to India for tea-chests. The logs are cut rotarily,
as we have already mentioned in the case of Basswood, and three
thicknesses are then glued back to back with their grains crossing so

142 WOODS OF COMMERCE

as to correct warping. We are not here concerned with the manifold
uses of Birch bark—especially in Russia, Sweden, and Scotland—
for boxes, baskets, boots, boats, cordage, dyeing, tanning, and even
bread-making. The two forms known as Bétula verrucésa Ehrh.,
the ‘‘ Raubbirke ” of Germany, and B. pubéscens Ehrh., the “‘ Haar-
birke,” are here treated as one species. In Jamaica the name
Birch is applied to Bursera gummifera, a tree in no way
similar, and in Tasmania to Dodoneéa viscosa. [See Lignum-
vite vi. |

Birch, American, a trade name for the imported timber, which
is the product of more than one species, though chiefly of Betula
lénta, the Cherry Birch, and, to a much less extent, B. lutea, the
Yellow Birch.

Birch, Black (Bétula lénta L.). See Birch, Cherry.

Birch, Black or White, of New Zealand (Fagus Solandri Hook.
fil.: Order Cupulifere). Maori ‘“Tawhai rauriki.” Really a
Beech, but known in Nelson as ‘ White,’ and in Wellington as
“Black Birch.” Height 100 ft.; diam. 4—5 ft. W 47. Hard
and very durable, and suited for fencing or fresh-water piles, but
liable to attack by the ship-worm. The names “ Black” and
“Red Birch” are also applied to Fagus fusca Hook. fil., a tree
reaching a greater diameter and with darker wood. ‘“ Tawhai
raunui.” §.G. 700. W 48:6—53:25. p 202°:3.

Birch, Canoe (Bétula papyrifera Marshall: Order Betuldcee).
“White” or ‘ Paper Birch.” Germ. ‘‘ Nachen Birke.” Canada
and the Northern United States. Height 60 ft. or more; diam.
3 ft. or more. Sapwood white, heart reddish-brown, with a fine
glossy grain. Rather heavy, hard, tough, and strong, not durable
where exposed to alternations of moisture and heat. Used for
bobbins, shoe-lasts and pegs, turnery, and extensively for paper-
pulp and fuel. A curl in the grain where the branches are given
off is sought after by Boston cabinet-makers for veneers.

Birch, Cherry (Bétula lénta L.: Order Betuldcee). “‘ Black,
Sweet,” or ‘‘ Mahogany Birch,” ‘‘ Mountain Mahogany.” French
“ Bouleau doux,” Germ. ‘‘ Kirsche-Birke,’’ Span. ‘‘ Abedul dulce.”
Canada and Eastern United States. Height 60—80 ft.; diam.
3—4 ft. S.G. 762. W 37-5—48. Ash percentage -26. Relative
fuel value -759. Coefficient of elasticity 141,398. R 1,216 kilos.
Resistance to longitudinal pressure 619, to indentation 226 kilos.
Sapwood when first sawn distinctly yellow, with the heart a brownish
red. After seasoning the sapwood fades to a cream white and the
heart to a pinkish red. Heavy, hard, very strong, close-grained,
taking a beautiful satiny polish, not attacked by worms, and fairly
durable, but becoming duller after conversion. It presents the
‘roll figure,” seldom seen in any other wood. If the boards after

BIRCH—BITTERWOOD 143

sawing are allowed to lie together, mildew soon develops, and the
sapwood becomes what is known as ‘“‘dozy.” Largely used,
especially in the Northern States, for furniture, sometimes stained
to imitate Mahogany or Cherry, and also for turnery, for bakers’
troughs, in ship-building, and for fuel. It is exported to England
in sawn planks and in slightly waney logs 6—20 ft. long and 1—2} ft.
square, the best coming from Quebec. It is here chiefly used for
bedroom furniture, the planks, which seldom exceed 9 in. in width,
being used chiefly for chair-making, while the logs are in great
request by the coachbuilder.

Birch, Grey. See Birch, Yellow, and Birch, Old-Field.

Birch, Mahogany. See Birch, Cherry.

Birch, Old-Field (Bétula populifélia Marshall: Order Betuldacee).
*“ White, Grey,” or ‘‘ Poplar-leaved Birch.” From the St. Lawrence
to the Delaware. Height 25—30 ft.; diam. 1 foot. 8.G. 576.
W 35:9. R 778 kilos. Sapwood brownish-white ; heart light-
brown, light, soft, fine-grained, taking a fine satiny polish, not
strong, nor durable. Used for bobbins, shoe-pegs, paper pulp,
and fuel.

Birch, Paper. See Birch, Canoe.

Birch, Indian Paper (Bétula Bhojpatra Wall.). Sanskri¢t “* Bhur-
jama,” Telugu ‘“‘ Bharjapatri,” Japan “ Onoore.” Northern India.
Yellow to reddish-white, hard. Used for furniture and exported.

Birch, Red or River (Bétula nigra L.). Eastern United States.
French ‘‘ Merisier rouge.” Smaller, lighter, and less valuable than
the other American species, nearly white. Used like poplar, but
not exported. The name Red Birch is applied in New Zealand to
Fagus fusca [see Bireh, Black or White] and also, with “ Silver
Birch,” to F. Menziésii Hook. fil. S.G. 626. W 39. p 158-2.

Birch, Sweet. See Birch, Cherry.

Birch, White. See Birch, Common, Canoe, Black, and Old-
Field.

Birch, Yellow (Bétula litea Michaux fil.). “Grey” or “ Tall
Birch.” Germ. ‘‘ Gelbe Birke,” French ‘‘ Bouleau jaune,’ Span.
** Abedul amarillo.” Eastern Canada and United States. Height
60—80 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft. S.G. 655. W 40°8. R 1,248 kilos.
Sapwood nearly white ; heart light reddish-brown, heavy, very hard,
close-grained, tough, very strong, taking a beautiful satiny polish.
Burrs occur, which are used for mallets. The saplings are split for
hoops and the older wood for very small woodware, such as button-
moulds, for chair-seats, wheel-hubs, and, in Canada, for frames of
sledges. It is also largely used for fuel.

Bitterwood. See Quassia and Simarouba.

144 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Biwa. See Loquat.

Blackbutt (Hucalyptus pilularis Sm.: Order Myrtacee). ‘* Flint-
wood, White-top,’ or sometimes “ Mountain Ash, Willow,” or
“ Stringy-bark.” Aborig. “Toi, Tcheergun, Benaroon.” South-
Eastern Australia. Height 50—150 ft. ; diam. 2—4 ft. S.G. 990.
W 46—66. E 1-152. f 5:79. fe 3-75. fs -36. Warm greyish
brown, close and straight-grained, moderately heavy, very strong,
but occasionally liable to gum-veins and shakes, working fairly
well, but warping and requiring careful seasoning, comparatively
non-inflammable. Suitable for sleepers, paving, telegraph-poles,
planks, or house-carpentry. The demand for waggon-planks of
Blackbutt is increasing as the supply of American Oak diminishes.
The name is applied in New South Wales to H. hemastoma [See
Gum, Spotted]; in Victoria, to HL. amygdalina régnans [See Ash,
Mountain]; in Tasmania to H. Sieberidna [See Gum, Cabbage] ;
occasionally to EH. piperita [See Peppermint]; and in South-West
Australia to EH. patens Benth., which reaches a height of 100 ft.,
with a diam. of 6 ft., W 46—74, is tough and durable, especially
underground, and is used for wheelwrights’ work, paving, piles,
and sleepers.

Blackthorn (Préinus spindsa L.: Order Rosdcee). “‘ Sloe.” Hard,
tough. Sapwood reddish ; heart blackish-brown, often with pith-
flecks, pith-rays distinct, vessels small, numerous, equally dis-
tributed. Used for walking-sticks.

Blackwood, in Australasia (Acacia melanoxylon R. B.: Order
Leguminése). In Tasmania “ Lightwood,” in New South Wales
‘Hickory, Silver Wattle,” or ‘“ Black Sally,” Aborig. ‘‘ Moot-
chong,” ‘‘ Mooeyang.” ‘Tasmania, and South-East Australia, and
naturalized in India. Height 60—100 ft.; diam. 13—3 ft. S.G.
854529. W 36—63°5. E 1,064. f 5: 45. fe 3: 24. fs -687.
Dark brown, the older growth beautifully figured, sometimes
‘* fiddle-back,” with about an inch of nearly white sapwood, hard,
close and very even in grain, easily split and worked, and taking,
with care, an excellent polish, but warping unless very carefully
seasoned. One of the most valuable of Australian timbers, an
excellent substitute for American walnut ; but it has the defect of
resin-veins, so that newly-sawn boards feel sticky. Largely used
for oil-casks, in staves 3 inches thick, for gun-carriages, furni-
ture, gun-stocks, tool-handles, crutches, the sounding-boards of
pianos, picture-frames, etc., the figure-wood being cut into veneers
for railway-carriage panels, billiard- tables, ete.

Blackwood, in Cape Colony (Ro yena lucida L. : Order mbes
Boer “ Zwartbast,” Zulu ‘“‘Umeaza.” Height 40—50 ft.; diam.
1—2 ft. W 39. Yellowish with brown stripes, very hard. tough,
taking a good polish. Used in waggon-building, but adapted for

BLACKWOOD—BLOODWOOD 145

furniture or turnery. f. nitida Thunb., from Natal, is a smaller
but similar wood, known by the same vernacular names.

Blackwood, African (Dalbérgia melanoxylon Guill. and Perr. :
Order Leguminose). ‘‘ Senegal Ebony,” ‘“‘Congoholz.” Tropical
Africa. W 74:5. Sapwood narrow, brownish-white ; heart jet-
black or brownish-black, heavy, hard, coarse but even-grained, with
a slight smell of rosewater, burning with a smoky flame and the
tarry smell characteristic of Dalbérgia. Used, as ebony, in turnery.

Blackwood, Indian (Dalbérgia latifolia Roxb. : Order Leguminése):
“Malabar Blackwood,’ ‘‘ Bombay Rose-wood.” ** Rosetta Rose-
wood.” Beng. “Sit Sal,” Tam. “Iti.” India. A large tree
reaching 80 ft. in height and 5 ft. diam. 8.G. 1064—818. W 46—
66:75. R 522—602 lbs. Sapwood whitish; heart dark-brown to
greenish-black, often mottled with lighter purplish streaks, heavy,
very hard, tough, close but cross-grained, and containing lime-
incrustations, and therefore difficult to work, taking a fine polish,
durable. Used for sleepers, agricultural implements, gun-carriages,
cart-wheels, tool-handles, carving, and especially furniture, for
which purpose it is exported via Bombay, and has fetched £13 10s.
per ton in London, whilst £7 to £10 is an ordinary price. With it is
confused the wood of its variety D. latifolia, var. sissotdes, known in
Tamil as “ Biti,’? a smaller tree common in the extreme South of
India, very strong and tough, but with much heartshake and so
much oil as to be unfit to receive paint; and that of D. cultrdta in
Burma. [See Yen-dike. |

Bloodwood (Hucalyptus corymbésa Sm. : Order Myrtdcee). Aborig.
* Boona.” Southern Queensland and New South Wales. Height
30—100 ft.; diam. 1—4 ft. S.G. 983—853. W 72:6. E 1023.
f 7:57. fe 4:48. fs -615. Dark red-brown, moderately heavy,
easily dressed, straight and close in grain, but full of gum-veins,
and not, therefore, a favourite with sawyers, becoming hard on
drying, very strong and durable, little attacked by termites. Used
chiefly for posts and rails, but also for piles and sleepers. The name
is also applied to the allied H. termindlis F. v. M. of the interior, the
* Arang-mill ” of the aborigines, a very red wood, forming the chief
large timber of the area, but not otherwise valuable ; and also to
EL. paniculata Sm. [See Ironbark, White and Ironwood xxi.]

Bloodwood, Brush, or Serub (Baldghia licida Endl.: Order
Euphorbiacee). ‘* Roger Gough.” New South Wales, Queensland,
Norfolk Island, New Caledonia. Height 70—80 ft..; diam. 2—23 ft.
W 44—45. Buff or light reddish, fine and close-grained, but rather
soft and not used. [See also Rosewood (Synéum glandulésum). |

Bloodwood, Mountain, Smooth-barked, or Yellow (Hucaljptus
eximia Schauer: Order Myrtdcee). ‘‘ Rusty Gum.” Blue Moun-
10

146 WOODS OF COMMERCE

tains. Height 80 ft. Light-coloured, soft, not durable, except
under water. Useful for work under water and as fuel.

Boco or Coco Wood (Bocéa prouacénsis Aubl. : Order Leguminése).
Guiana. Demerara “ Eta balli.” 8.G. 1234—706. R 402 kilos.
Tall, yielding logs 20—50 ft. long and 12—18 in. in diam. Sap-
wood very hard and compact, clear yellow; heart dark-brown
black, working well. Suitable for walking-sticks, carving and
cabinet-work.

Bois Chaire (Z'ecdma leucdxylon Mart.: Order Bignonidcee).
Brazil, Guiana, Trinidad. Brazil “* Quirapaiba,’’ Cayenne “‘ Ebéne
verte.” A large tree yielding logs 14 ft. long, squaring 14—16 in.
8.G. 1220— 1211. R 480 kilos. Hard, even-grained, durable
dark-green, or, when polished and varnished, a dark brownish-
black. Used in chair-making, whence its name; in building and
for the sounding-boards of pianos.

Bois d’are. See Osage-Orange.

Bois de feroles. See Satiné.

Bois de natte (Labourdonnaisia calophylloides Boj., L. glatca,
Mimusops Imbricaria Willd., etc.: Order Sapotacee). Mauritius
and neighbouring islands. Extensively used for ship-building,
cabinet-work, and furniture.

Bois de Sang-Vene. See Rosewood, African.

Bois de Table, of the Seychelles, Heritiéra littordlis. See Sundri.

Bois graine bleu (Symplocos martinicénsis Jacq. : Order Styrdcee).
‘“* Kakarat.’”? Dominica, Martinique, etc. A small tree. Used for
planks in internal work.

Bois Lezard (Vitex divaricdta Swartz: Order Verbendcee). Brazil
and West Indies. Strong and durable.

Bois Mulatre (Pentaclethra filamentosa Benth.: Order Legum-
inose). “‘Palo Mulato.” Trinidad. Height 30—40 ft.; diam.
1—2 ft. Dark, even-grained, and said to be durable underground.

Bois Riviere. See Water-wood.

Bois Violet. See Purple-heart.

Bolongnita (Diospyros pilosanthera Bl. : Order Ebendcee). Philip-
pines.

Bottle-brush, Red (Callisteémon lanceoldtus DC. : Order Myrtdcee).
“Water Gum.” <Aborig. ‘“‘Marum.” Eastern Australia. Height
30—40 ft.; diam. 1—14 ft. Hard, heavy. Used for mallets, in
ship-building and wheelwrights’ work.

Bottle-brush, White (C. salignus DC.). ‘* River or Broad-leaved
Tea-tree,”’ “‘ Stone-wood,” “‘ River Oak,” Aborig. ‘‘ Unoyie, Hum-
bah.” Eastern Australia. Height 40 —50 ft.; diam. 1$—2 ft.

BOW-WOOD—BOX 147

S.G. 983. W 57—61. Drab to dark red, sometimes prettily-
grained, very hard, close-grained, fairly easy to work, and said to be
very durable underground.

Bow-wood. See Osage-Orange.

Box (Bixus sempervirens L.: Order EHuphorbidcee). French
‘** Bois commun,” ‘‘ Bois beni,’? Germ. ‘“‘ Buchsbaum.” Northern
and Western Asia, North Africa, and Central and Southern Europe.
Height 8—30 ft.; diam. small. S.G. 950—980. W _ 80:5—53.
Light yellow, very homogeneous, almost horn-like, neither rings,
pith-rays, nor vessels being distinct, hard, heavy, firm, free from
heart-shake, difficult to split, but works up smoothly, with a slight
silky lustre, and is durable, when thoroughly seasoned. ‘‘ Box-
wood is very apt to split in drying ; and to prevent this, the French
turners put the wood designed for their finest work into a dark
cellar as soon as it is cut, where they keep it from three to five years.
They strike off the sapwood with a hatchet, and place the
hardwood again in the cellar till it is wanted for the lathe. For the
most delicate articles, the wood is soaked for twenty-four hours in
fresh very clear water, and then boiled for some time. When taken
out of the boiling water, it is wiped perfectly dry and buried, till
wanted for use, in sand or bran.”” Compared for closeness of grain
to Ebony by Theophrastus : used by the Romans for veneers and
flutes : Virgil mentions the Box as used by the turner :

‘* Smooth-grained and proper for the turner’s trade,
Which curious hands may carve, and steel with ease invade.”
(Dryden’s translation. )

Invaluable for mathematical instruments, the chief use of Box
since the fifteenth century has been for wood-engraving, for which
purpose it is chiefly imported from Abasia in Circassia, Persia, and
Odessa in billets 3—8 ft. long and 3—12 in. across, fetching as much
as £60 a ton for large sizes. In spite of the advance of other
methods of engraving, Box is so unequalled for this purpose that
careful search is being made for any wood likely to approach it in
suitability. (See p. 88 supra.) The largest number of box-trees
in Europe are in the mixed forests of Ligny and of St. Claude on
the Jura. At the latter place the wood, which is not of large
dimensions, is turned into small boxes, beads, spoons, forks, ete.
The Teasshur or wvéos of Ezekiel xxvii. 6, which was inlaid with
ivory, was probably Buxus longifolia of Lebanon.

In Australia the name Box is applied to a great number of
Kucalypti, such as #. hemiphloia [See Canary Wood], E. largiflorens
[See Gum, Slaty], H#. lewcdxylon [See Ironbark], EL. odordta [See
Peppermint], H. stelluldta, E. Stuartidna, and E. vimindlis [See Gum,
Manna]. In America the name is applied to Cornus florida L. [See
Dogwood]; in the Bahamas to Vitex uwmbrosa Sw.

10—2

148 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Box, Bastard is also a name of wide application in Australia,
sometimes referring to Eucalyptus largiflorens [See Gum, Slaty],
E. longifolia [See Woolly Butt], H. microthéca [See Box, Dwarf],
E. polyanthema [See Box, Red], H. punctdta [See Leather-jacket],
or E. tereticornis [See Gum, Slaty]; but chiefly to Tristania con-
féerta, T. laurina, and Eucalyptus goniocalyx.

Tristania conférta R. Br. (Order Myrtdcew), otherwise “ Bris-
bane, Brush, Red,” or ‘‘ White Box,” or ‘‘ Brisbane Mahogany.”
Aborig. “ Tubbil-pulla.”” North-Eastern Australia. Height 80—
120 ft.; diam. 1—3 ft. W 59—64. Greyish or brownish, some-
times prettily grained, strong, tough, hard, elastic, and durable,
but warping very much unless carefully seasoned, dressing well
and not attacked by termites. Used for ship-building, bridges,
tram-rails, tool-handles, etc.

T. laurina R. Br., of Eastern Australia, known also as ‘‘ Water
Gum, Beech,” and ‘‘ Swamp Mahogany,” is a smaller tree. Height
50—60 ft.; diam. 1—2 ft. Dark-coloured, hard, tough, close-
grained, difficult to season. Used for tool-handles and cogs.

Eucalyptus goniocalyx F. v. M. (Order Myrtacee), of Tasmania
and South-Eastern Australia. ‘‘ Grey Box, Mountain Ash, Spotted,
Grey, White,” or “ Blue Gum.” Height up to 300 ft. ; diam. to
6 or 10 ft. §8.G. 1152—798. W 72—74. R799 lbs. Pale yellow
to light brown, very hard, tough, usually free from gum-veins,
straight-grained, difficult to split, not warping, very durable,
especially underground. Used for joists, beams, rafters, sleepers,
spokes, staves, boat-building, and fuel.

Box, Black (Hucalyptus largiflorens). See Gum, Slaty.

a » (E. obliqua). See Stringybark.
Ms », (E. microthéca). See Box, Dwarf.

Box, Brisbane or Brush (7'ristdnia conférta). See Box, Bastard.

Box, Brown. See Box, Red.

Box, Cape (Buxus Macéwani Oliv. : Order Euphorbidcee). Eastern
Cape Colony. Height 40—80 ft. ; diam. upto4ft. W74. Yellow,
hard, close and even-grained, resembling European (Turkish)
Box, but not equally valuable for engraving. Used for turnery.
The name is also applied to Goniéma Kamdssi E. Mey. [See
Kamassi. |

Box, China (Murraya exotica L.: Order Rutdcee). Queensland.
Small, resembling Box, but apt to crack, requiring careful seasoning.
W 61—63. Used for tool-handles.

Box, Cooburn (Hucalyptus largiflorens). See Gum, Slaty.

Box, Dwarf, Flooded, or Narrow-leaved (£. microthéca F. v. M.:
Order Myrtdcee). Also known as “ Bastard” or “ Black Box.”
Australia, in most of the colonies. Reddish, hard, heavy, elastic,

BOX 149

sometimes figured like walnut, but darker, heavier, closer-grained,
and too hard for ordinary cabinet-work. Used in building.

Box, Bairnsdale Grey (Hucalyptus Bosistoina F. v. M.: Order
Myrtdcee). Victoria. Height up to 70 ft. Durable wood for
piles, wheelwrights’ work, etc.

Box, Grey (Hucalyptus goniocdlyx). See Box, Bastard.

mn » (H. hemiphloia). See Canarywood.
ie » (EH. largiflorens). See Gum, Slaty.
(EZ. polydnthema). See Box, Red.
ss » (E. saligna). See Gum, Blue.
», Ironbark (#. obliqua). See Stringybark.

,, Jamaica or West Indian (7'ecoma pentaphylla Juss. = T'abe-
biia pentaphylla Hemsl.: Order Bignonidcee). Brazil, Venezuela,
West Indies, etc. ‘‘ White Cedar,” ‘‘Cogwood,’ ‘‘ Roble blanco.”
S.G. 876—834. W 49—54:5. Light yellow, fine, close and even-
grained, liable to split in drying. Used for piles, house and. boat-
building, and suggested for engraving, but inferior to Box.

Box, Knysna. See Kamassi.

,» Native. See Boxthorn.

, Poplar (Hucalyptus populifolia Hook.: Order Myrtdcee).
“Red” or ‘‘ White Box, Nankeen,” or‘“‘ White Gum.” Aborig.
“ Kgolla.”” North-east Australia. Height 50—60 ft.; diam. 2 ft.
Grey or light-brown, hard, heavy, close-grained, tough, strong,
hard to work, often unsound, handsome when polished, durable.
Used for sleepers, posts, building, etc.

Box, Red (7'ristania conférta). See Box, Bastard.
(Eucalyptus populifolia). See Box, Poplar.

53 » (Eucalyptus polyanthema Schau.: Order Myrtdcee).
South-Eastern Australia. Also known as “ Bastard, Brown ”’ or
“Grey Box, Lignum-Vite,” or ‘ Poplar-leaved Gum.” <Aborig.
“Den.” Height sometimes 250 ft. S.G. 110—1248. R 749—803 lbs.
Brownish-red, very hard, fine-grained, very tough, often hollow, but
very durable. Used for pit-props, cogs, naves, felloes, and fuel.

Box, Serub (7'ristania conférta). See Box, Bastard.
Box, White (Lucalyptus hemiphloia). See Canarywood.
(EZ. odorata). See Peppermint.

(EL. populifolia). See Box, Poplar.

= (Tristania conférta). See Box, Bastard.

» Yellow (Hucalyptus melliodéra A. Cunn.: Order Myrtacee).
Eastern Australia. Also known as “ Yellow Jacket, Honey-

2? ee)

29 29

29 22

2) 99

150 WOODS OF COMMERCE

scented ” or “‘ Red Gum.” Aborig.‘‘ Dargan.” Height 40—80 ft.
diam. 13—34 ft. S.G. 876—1125. W 60—70. R 725—695 lbs.
Light yellow or pale brown, very hard, heavy, close-grained, tough,
durable, with a wavy figure, but with some gum-veins and cup-
shake. Used for spokes, naves, cogs, treenails, posts, and, to
some extent, engraving. The name Yellow Box is also applied to
Eucalyptus hemiphloia [See Canarywood], and to LH. largiflorens [See
Gum, Slaty].

Box-Elder. See Maple, Ash-leaved.

Boxthorn (Bursdria spindsa Cayv.: Order Pittospordcee). Aus-
tralia and Tasmania. ‘‘ Native Box” or “ Olive.” Height 20—
30 ft. ; diam. less than a foot. White, close-grained, and taking a
fine polish. Used in turnery.

Braziletto or Brazil-wood (Cesalpinia brasiliensis Sw.: Order
Leguminose), now almost extinct, C. crista L., C. bijuga Sw., and
C. tinctoria H.B.K. Tropical America. Hard, heavy woods,
taking a polish, and employed for violin-bows and in cabinet-work,
but mainly as a red dye. They contain a red colouring-matter
known as Braziline, soluble in water, and giving, with lime, baryta
and tin chloride, a red precipitate, whilst Logwood gives a blue
one. [See also Nicaragua wood, Peach wood, Pernambuco wood and
Sappan wood. |

Break-axe. See Ironwood xxiii.
Briar. See Ash, Prickly.

Briar-root (Hrica arborea L.: Order Ericdcee). French “‘ Bru-
yére.” Southern Europe. Dark brown, dense, mottled. Small
wood, used exclusively for tobacco-pipes, imported from France.

Brigalow. See Myall, Brigalow.
Brimstone-tree (Morinda citrifolia). See Canary-wood.

Broom (Cytisus scoparius Link.: Order Legumindse). Western
Europe. Cultivated in Algeria, its stems being imported under the
trade names of ‘‘ Congo Oak” and ‘‘ Black Orange ”’ as walking-
sticks.

Buckeye, Ohio (4sculus glabra Willd.) and Sweet Buckeye
(44. flava Ait.: Order Sapinddcee). Eastern United States. Small
trees with creamy-white, light, soft, fine, and even-grained wood,
not strong, but often tough, easily worked. Used locally for build-
ing, but more for turnery, artificial limbs, and especially paper-pulp.
These woods, and that of 4. indica Colebrooke, from North-West
India, resemble that of the Horse-Chestnut. [See Tochi.]

Buckthorn (Rhamnus catharticus L.: Order Rhamnacee). Europe,
Siberia, North Africa. Germ. ‘* Kreuzdorn.” A shrub with narrow,
greenish-yellow sapwood and orange-red heart, with a narrow but

BUCKTHORN—BULLY 151

distinct zone of pores in the spring wood, and remarkable flamboyant
groups of vessels in the autumn wood (Fig. 28); pith-rays indis-
tinguishable. The wood is hard and heavy, and suitable for
turnery, but small. The other British species, R. Frdangula, the
Alder or Berry - bearing Buckthorn, yields the wood known as
Dogwood.

Buckthorn, Canadian (Rhamnus Purshiana DC.). North America.
““Bearberry, Wild Cherry” or “ Shittim-wood.” W 31:5—35.
Not more than 12 in. diam. Sapwood light-yellow, heart yellowish-
brown with purplish streaks, fine-grained. The bark is the drug
Cascara Sagrada.

Buffelsbal (Gardénia Thunbérgi L.: Order Rubidcee). Cape
Colony. Hard and heavy. Used for clubs, tool-handles, axles, etc.

Bullet-wood, Balata, Bully, or Buruch (Mimusops globésa Gaertner,
Sapota Mulléri Miquel: Order Sapotdcee). Apparently identical
with Mimusops Balata Crueg. Surinam “ Balata rouge,” “ Horse-
flesh wood,” ‘‘ Beef wood,” ‘‘ Red Lance-wood.” S.G. 1232—
1032. W 63—80:97. E 1097. f 8-58. fc 4:77. fs 494. R 353
kilos. Height 100 ft.; diam. 2—7 ft. In logs 20—50 ft. long,
squared up to 36 in. or 42 in. Dark red-brown, fine, straight and
close-grained, very heavy, hard, strong, easily worked, taking a
fine polish, very durable ; but subject to serious heart-shake, un-
fitting it for use in large scantlings, and to the attacks of teredo
and termites. Of three varieties, ‘‘ Red,’’ ‘‘ White,’ and ‘* Black,”’
the “‘ Red” is the best. Much used in house-building for beams,
floors, and mill-work, being said to have more than three times the
resistance of Oak, and nearly twice that of the best Teak. Used
also for shafts and bending, but limited in quantity. This tree
yields the elastic substance Balata. British Guiana and West
Indies.

The name is also applied to the wood of the allied Sapodilla
(Achras Sapéta L.), (q.v.).

Bullet-wood, Andaman (Mimusops littordlis Kurz.: Order Sapo-
tacee). Tenasserim and Andaman Islands. ‘‘ Mowha.” A large tree,
yielding a very hard, red-brown, close-grained, durable wood, which
is, however, apt to split. W 60—70. Used for bridges and house-
posts, and recommended for sleepers. [See also Palu, and Sapodilla. ]

Bullet-wood, Bastard (Humiria floribinda Mart. with numerous
synonyms: Order Humiridcee). Tropical America. W 74:5.
Sapwood brownish-white, heart light orange-red, heavy, hard.
Spokes and house-building. (Fig. 32.)

Bully, Naseberry (Sapdta Siderdxylon Gr.: Order Sapotdcee).
Jamaica. W 74. E 1,080. 9-16. fc 4:31. fs -50. One of the
most valuable woods of the Colony.

152 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Bunya-bunya (Araucaria Bidwilli Hook: Order Coniéfere).
Queensland. Height 100—150 ft. ; diam. 24—4 ft. Light-coloured,
straight-grained, beautifully veined, very strong, easily worked,
susceptible of polish, not warping, durable. Suitable for cheap
furniture, but seldom felled, as its seeds are eaten by the aborigines.
‘“* Mottled ” outside planks showing figure are used for veneers and
turnery.

Butternut (Jzglans cinérea L.: Order Juglanddcee). Eastern
North America. ‘‘ White Walnut.” “Oil nut.” French “‘ Noyer
cendre,” Germ. ‘“‘Graue Walnuss.” Height 50—60 ft.; diam.
2—3 ft. Reddish-brown, light, soft, not strong, free from the
attacks of worms, not easily split. Used for sleepers, for internal
work in building, coach-panels, boats and canoes, wooden dishes,
shovels, and cabinet-work. Seldom imported into England.

Button-wood. See Plane.
Cabbage-bark. See Angelin.

Cagueyran (Copaifera hymeneifolia Moric.: Order Leguminése).
Cuba. A large tree, the wood of which is used in building.

Caileedra. See Mahogany, African.

Cajeput (Melaléuca leucadéndron L.: Order Myrtaceew). Malaysia
and tropical Australia. ‘“‘ Milkwood, White” or “Swamp Tea-
tree.” Aborig. “* Atchoourgo.” Malay ‘‘ Kayu puti.” New Cale-
donia “‘ Niaouli.”” Height 40—50 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. Hard, heavy,
with a ripple-like mottling, close-grained, very durable under-
ground. Used for posts and in ship-building, turns well, and is
suitable for carriage-work, being considered in New Caledonia the
most valuable native wood.

Calabash (Crescéntia Cujété L.: Order Bignonidcece). Cuba
‘““ Guira.”” West Indies. S.G.580. W 54:69. E-230. R 243 lbs.
{2°62. fc1-69. fs-358. Light brown, soft, elastic. Pith irregular,
rather large ; rings and pith-rays indistinct ; vessels equally but
sporadically distributed, small. Used for lasts, saddle-bows, ete.

Calamander or Coromandel wood (Diospyros quesita Thwaites,
D. oocdrpa Thw. and D. hirsuta Linn. fil.: Order Hbendcee). Tamil
**Calamander maram,” Sinh. ‘“‘ Kalu-médiriya.”” W 57. One of
the most valuable ornamental woods of Ceylon, but now scarce,
red-hazel-brown or chocolate brown, with handsome black stripes,
intermediate between Rosewood and Zebra-wood, hard, close-
grained. Used for turning and veneers.

Caloon or Calshum (El@ocarpus grandis F. v. M.: Order Tili-
dcee). North-East Australia. ‘‘ Mountain Ash.” “ Brisbane
Quandong.” ‘“ Moorgum” in North Queensland. ‘ Blue Fig”
in New South Wales. W 45:5. Large, light greyish-brown, close-

CAMARA—CANARY-WOOD 153

grained, tough, readily split, resisting termites. Used for building,
staves, oars, sculls.

Camara (Geissospérmum Vellosii Allem.: Order Apocyndcec).
Brazil. §S.G. 746. Light-coloured, moderately heavy, strong, but
small. Used in boat-building.

Camphor (Cinnamomum Camphora Nees: Order Laurdcee).
- Formosa, ete. Height 30—60 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. Light-coloured,
fragrant, soft. Used for entomological and ornamental cabinets,
and the source of most of the camphor of commerce which is
obtained by destructive distillation.

Camphor, Borneo (Dryobdlanops aromatica Gaert.: Order Dip-
terocarpacee). Malay ‘Teng Mang.” ‘‘Kayu Kapor Barus.”’
Borneo and Sumatra. A large tree, 150 ft. high and 3—4 ft. in
diam., yielding timber 25—45 ft. long and 1—2 ft. square. W 47.
S.G. 895—1053. E 3,770,000. p 16,000. e’ 3:36. p’ 1-47.
c¢ 6,790. c’ -896. v’ 1:561. Light red, resembling Honduras
Mahogany, not fragrant, plain, straight-grained, moderately hard
and tough, durable, but liable to star-shake. Used for planks,
beams, piles, etc. Camphor separates out in large masses in the
wood.

Camphor, Nepal (Cinnamomum glanduliferum Meissn.: Order
Laurinee). India. Also known as “ Nepal” or ‘‘ Assam Sassa-
fras,” and apparently identical with ‘‘ Martaban Camphor-wood ”
and “‘ Burmese Sassafras.” A large tree yielding timber 20—30 ft.
long and 13 ft. in diam., floating when seasoned, brown, tough,
strong, durable, with the odour of Sassafras, and a grain resembling
Bay-wood. Used for house-carpentry, cabinet-work, tool-handles,
etc.

Camphor-wood (Australian). See Cypress-Pine.

Camwood (Baphia nitida Afz.: Order Leguminose). West Africa.
“Trosun,” “Osrin.” Height 8—10 ft. W 59-5—67-25. Red,
hard, coarse-grained. Imported from Sierra Leone in logs 4 ft.
long and 1 ft. or less in diam., or powdered. Used by native
women for rubbing on their bodies to check perspiration, and in
England, with iron-sulphate, as a dye for red handkerchiefs.

Canary Whitewood. See Tulip-tree and Cucumber-tree.

Canary-wood (Hucalyptus hemiphloia F. v. M.: Order Myrtdcee).
South-East Australia. Known also as ‘‘ Box, Grey, White, Yellow ”’
or “Gum-topped Box,” “White Gum.” Aborig. ‘* Narulgun.”
Height 50—60 ft. or more; diam. 2—4 ft. or more. 8.G. 1230—
773. W 48—74. Yellow-white or light buff, heavy, very hard,
strong, tough. cross-grained, not readily split, durable, but often
hollow and subject to dry-rot and termite-attack. Used in Australia
for sleepers, piles, planks, pit-props, fencing, handles, cogs, naves,

154 WOODS OF COMMERCE

felloes, screws, tree-nails, etc., but as yet of no commercial im-
portance.

Canary-wood (Morinda citrifolia L.: Order Rubidcee), {= Nau-
clea undulata Roxb., Sarcocéphalus corddtus Miq.). ‘* Indian Mul-
berry,” ‘‘ Leichhardt’s Tree.” Hind. “ Al,’ Tam. ~ Nonna
maram,” Fvjz “‘ Kura.’ ‘“Tolmgah” or ‘“ Brimstone-tree ”’ of
Sierra Leone. India and the Eastern Tropics to Queensland.
Height 50—70 ft.; diam. 2—2i ft. W 30—4l. Yellow, soft,
cross-grained, sometimes with a beautiful wavy figure, easily worked
and taking a good polish, bitter, astringent, and insect-proof.
Suitable for turning or cabinet-work ; but little used, save as a
dye. [See also Tulip-tree. ]

Canella or Canelle, a name applied to various Brazilian woods
belonging to the Laurdcee, including Dicypéllium caryophyllatum
[See Rosewood, Cayenne], Aydéndron canella Meissn., Nectandra
atra, and N. mollis. The latter is brown, light, easily worked, but
not durable. §.G. 744. It is procurable of a considerable size, and
is used for decks, house-building, and carpentry.

Cannon-ball tree (Xylocdrpus Grandtum Koen. = Carapa moluc-
cénsis Lam.: Order Melidcee). Ceylon, Burma, Fiji Islands, ete.
“Sea Cocoa-nut.” Burm. “ Pen-lay,” Fiji “ Dabi.” Height
20 ft.; diam. 4 ft. W 47. Whitish, turning red, hard. Used for
house-building, handles, spokes, furniture, etc. In South America
the same name is applied to Couroutpita guianénsis, belonging to
the Brazil-nut group (Lecythidacee).

Caoba. See Mahogany.
Carapa or Carapo. See Crab-wood.

Carob (Ceraténia Siliqua L.: Order Leguminose). French
**Caroubier.”” Chiefly known for its fruit, the “ Locust bean” or
“St. John’s-bread ’’; but imported from Algeria as walking-sticks.

Cashew-nut (Anacdrdium occidentdlé L.: Order Anacardidcee).
A native of South America, cultivated for its fruit throughout the
Tropics. French “‘ Acajou 4 fruits, 4 pommes”’ or “de Guade-
loupe,’ Germ. ‘“‘ Acajoubaum,” Hind. “‘ Kaju,” Zam. “‘ Mundiri.”
Red to brown, moderately hard. Used in boat-building, for
packing-cases and for charcoal, especially for iron-smelting.

Catalpa (Catdlpa speciésa Warder: Order Bignonidcee). South
Central United States. “‘ Bois Shavanon.” Height 80 ft. ; diam.
4 ft. Brown, light, soft, not strong, brittle, coarse-grained, durable,
especially in contact with the soil. Used for posts and fencing ;
but suited for internal fittings, and being now much planted.

Cedar, a name extended from the Lebanon Cedar (Cedrus Libani
Loud. : Order Conifer) to other species of the genus, to various
Junipers and other coniferous woods, and to many other woods of

CEDAR 155

broad-leaved trees, especially the Meliaceous genus Cedréla, most
of which resemble the true Cedar in being brown, even-grained
woods of moderate hardness and often fragrant. The true Cedar
is a native of the Lebanon, Taurus, and neighbouring ranges of
South-West Asia, and was introduced into England as an orna
mental tree after the middle of the seventeenth century, that at
Enfield being perhaps the oldest existing English tree. French
“Cedre du Liban,” Germ. ‘ Libanon Ceder,” Stal. ‘‘ Cedro del
Libano.” Hebr. “Erez,” Greek xédpos. Height 50—80 ft. ;
diam. 3—4 ft. or more. 8.G. 480. Reddish-brown, light, straight
and open-grained, very porous, soft and spongy in the centre, easily
worked, but rather brittle, liable to extensive heart- and cup-
shakes, not strong. Mountain-grown Cedar is harder, stronger,
less liable to warp and more durable. The wood has a pleasant
odour, which is obnoxious to insects. It is, therefore, suitable
for cabinets, internal work, carving, etc., for which purposes it
seems to have been mainly employed by the ancients, with whom
it had so great a repute for durability. In the Cilician Taurus it is
used for the best household furniture and for church-fittings. The
“Cedar” of the English timber trade is the West Indian Cedrela
odordta, shipped from Cuba, Trinidad, Honduras, and Tabasco,
and fetching 3d. to 43d. per foot. [See Cedar, West Indian. |

Cedar, Atlas (Cédrus atlantica Manetti). Mount Atlas. Height
80—100 ft.; diam. up to 5 ft. W 49—85. Sometimes a deep
Mahogany-red, fibrous, even-grained, not strong, very durable,
neither splitting nor warping, taking glue well. The outer part of
the heartwood beautifully veined, resembling in quality and value
that of the Deodar of India. Used in North America for sleepers,
paving, cabinet-making, and carpentry. Pliny states that the
beams of the Temple of Apollo at Utica, made of Numidian Cedar,
were sound after 1,178 years. The French Government in Algeria
is offering a forest of this timber in the Aures Mountains for sale.

Cedar, Barbadoes (Juniperus barbadéensis L.: Order Cupressinee).
““ Juniper Cedar.” Barbadoes, Jamaica, etc. Closely allied to,
if not identical with, the Red Cedar of the United States (Juniperus
virginiana L.).

Cedar, Bastard, in India. See Bead-tree and Mahogany, East
Indian.

Cedar, Bastard, in Jamaica (Guazima tomentdsa H.B.: Order
Sterculiacee). French “‘ Orme d’Amerique,” Telugu ‘“ Rudraksha
chettu.”” West Indies. Introduced into Ceylon and Southern
India more than a century ago and now common. Light, splitting
easily. Used in Jamaica for staves for sugar hogsheads.

Cedar, Bastard Pencil (Dysdxylon réifum Benth.: Order Meli-
dcece). Queensland and Northern New South Wales. Height

156 WOODS OF COMMERCE

40—50 ft.; diam. 13—2 ft. Red, nicely grained, easily worked.
Used for cabinet-work.

Cedar, Bermuda (Juniperus bermudiana L.: Order Cwpressinee).
Bermudas. Closely allied to the Red Cedar, Juniperus virginiana,
of which it is supposed to be a geographical variety. Height
50—60 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft. Used for boat-building and formerly
exported for pencils, for which purpose the Red Cedar has super-
seded it.

Cedar, Black (Nectandra Pisi Miq.: Order Laurdcee). ‘“ Brown
Cirouaballi ” or “‘ Siruaballi.” Guiana. Height 90 ft. ; diam. 14 ft.
8.G. 830. W 49:5. Dark-brown, moderately heavy, firm, easily
worked, teredo- proof. Useful for boat-planks and masts, but
suitable for furniture.

Cedar, Borneo. See Serayah.

Cedar, Canoe (Thuya gigantea Nutt. : Order Cupressinee). ** Yellow
Cedar.” ‘‘ Red Cedar” (of the Western States). ““ Red Cypress ”’
of British Columbia. One of the “‘ White Cedars ” of the American
trade. ‘‘ Lobb’s Arbor-Vite.” French ‘‘ Thuia géant de Californie,”
Germ. ‘“‘ Riesens-Lebensbaum,” Jtal. ‘“‘ Albero de la vitadi Lobb.”
Western North America, from Alaska to California. Height 130—
200 ft.; diam. 9 ft. or more. W 19-75—26°5. Heartwood light
brown, light, soft, brittle, moderately strong, free from knots, easily
split or worked, not warping, and very durable in contact with soil.
An important lumber tree, the only wood used by the Red Indians
of the North-West for canoes. Used by white settlers for fencing,
shingles, cooperage, doors, window-sills, indoor fittings, and the
coarser kinds of furniture.

Cedar, Clanwilliam (Cdllitris arborea Schrad.: Order Conifere).
Cederberg Mountains, South Africa. W 36. Light-brown, soft,
fine and even grained, not resinous, fragrant, durable, with silver
grain resembling Maple.

Cedar, Cigar-box (Cedréla odordta [See Cedar, West Indian] and
the allied C. guianénsis, from the Guianas and Brazil, and C. brasil-
iénsis, from Brazil and the Argentine. The supply of these woods
is now so limited that they are used only for boxes for the best
cigars, cheaper ones being made of the less aromatic African Ma-
hogany.

Cedar, Cuba. See Cedar, West Indian.

Cedar, Deodar (Cédrus Deoddra Loud. : Order Conifere). Afghan-
istan to the Western Himalayas. “Indian Cedar.” French
“* Cedre de ’ Himalaya,” Hind. “‘ Devaderu.” Height 150—240 ft. ;
diam. 5—7 or even 10—12 ft. at base, tapering to one-third at 80 ft.
up. Heartwood light yellowish-brown, compact, even-grained,
moderately hard, not readily splitting or warping, fragrant, with an

CEDAR 157

abundance of resinous “oil,” but no distinct resin-canals, and
exceedingly durable: annual rings uniform, with well-marked
autumn zones: resin-canals absent. The pillars in the Shah
Hamaden Mosque at Srinagar of this wood are probably over 400
years old, and some of the bridges in the same city, though their
piers are alternately wet and dry, are said to have lasted even
longer. This species was introduced into England as an orna-
mental tree in 1831. It is the chief timber of North-West India,
where it is used for sleepers, for all purposes of construction and
even for furniture.
Cedar, Florida. See Cedar, Red.

Cedar, Guiana (Icica altissima Aubl.: Order Burserdcee), ‘‘ Kur-
ana” or “Carana-gum.” French ‘“‘ Cédre blanc, Cédre bagasse.”
A large and very valuable wood of French and British Guiana,
easily worked, fragrant, durable. Height up to 100 ft. S.G.
1036—842. R 226 kilos. Used for canoes, book-cases, internal
house-fittings, ete. a

Cedar, Honduras. See Cedar, West Indian.

Cedar, Incense (Libocédrus decirrens Torr.: Order Cuwpressinee),
** Bastard, White or Post Cedar.’ French ‘“‘ Cédre blanc de Cali-
fornie,” Germ. “ Californische Flussceder.” Pacific slope of the
United States. Height 100 ft. or more ; diam. 6 ft. or more. Light
greyish-brown, light, soft, fine- and close-grained, but brittle
and not strong, very durable in contact with soil. Extensively
used in California for posts, fencing, shingles, laths, internal work
and furniture.

Cedar, Indian. See Cedar, Deodar.
Cedar, Japanese. See Sugi.

Cedar, Mackay. See Acacia Cedar.
Cedar, Mexican. See Cedar, West Indian.

Cedar, Moulmein (Cedréla Toéna Roxb. : Order Melidcee). India,
‘Java, Australia. ‘‘ Bastard Cedar,” “ Bastard” or ‘Indian
Mahogany,” or “ Chittagong wood ” of India, ‘‘ Cedar” or “‘ Red
Cedar ” of Australia. Hind. ‘‘ Té6on,” “ Toona.” Burm. ‘ Thitkado.”
French ‘“‘ Cédre de Singapore.” Height 70—180 ft. ; diam. 2—10 ft.
S.G. 508—576. W 28—36. Timber generally from 14—40 ft.
long, and from 11—26 in. square. Pale brick-red, resembling
Mahogany, often beautifully curled near the root or branches,
fragrant, clean and straight, but open in grain, moderately hard,
easily worked, does not warp, but splits somewhat in seasoning,
and is liable to heart- and star-shakes, durable, termite-proof. A
very valuable wood, formerly hollowed out for canoes in North-
East India and largely used for tea-chests, but not now sufficiently
abundant. Much employed for boat-planks in Queensland, for

158 WOODS OF COMMERCE

furniture, door-panels and carving, and yielding beautiful veneers.
The best of the woods known as Chittagong woods.

Cedar, New Zealand (Libocédrus Bidwillit Hook. fil. or L. Doniana
Endl.: Order Cupressinee). Maori “ Pahautea,” ‘“ Kawaka.”’
Height 60—100 ft.; diam. 3—5 ft. W 28. Soft, close-grained
reddish woods, resembling the Incense Cedar of the Western
United States. Suitable for planks and spars.

| Cedar, Oregon (Cupréssus Lawsonidna Murr.= Chamecyparis
Lawsonidna Sargent: Order Cupressinee). ‘‘ Port Orford Cedar,
Lawson’s Cypress, Ginger Pine.” South Oregon and North Cali-
fornia. Height up to 200 ft.; diam. up to 12 ft., but generally
120—150 ft. high. §.G. 460. Light yellowish-brown, light, but
heavier than other ‘“‘ white Cedars,” hard, strong, very close-
grained, abounding in fragrant resin, easily worked, susceptible of
a beautiful polish, very durable in contact with the soil. One
of the most valuable timber-trees of North America, largely
cut for lumber and used for ship and boat building, fencing,
flooring.

Cedar, Pencil, a name applied in English commerce to Juniperus
virginiana [See Cedar, Red], but in Northern New South Wales
and Queensland to (i) Dyséxylon Fraserianum and (ii) D. Muélleri,
Phyllanthus Ferdinandi (See Beech, White], and (iii) Podocarpus
eldta, and to Lucima galactoxylon [See Miva]; in India to Juni-
perus macropoda [See Juniper, Indian], and (iv) in Cape Colony to
the Coniferous Widdringténia juniperoides. (i) Dyséxylon Fraseri-
anum Benth. (Order Melidcee), known also as “ Australian
Mahogany,” ‘‘ Rosewood” or ‘‘ Bog-onion,” 50—70 ft. in height
and 3—4 ft. in diameter, yields a reddish, prettily-figured, fragrant,
easily-worked wood, valued for furniture, turning, engraving
and ship-building, being, in fact, a substitute for Mahogany.
(ii) D. Muélleri Benth., known as *“‘ Red Bean ” and, from the smell
of the wood when freshly cut, as “‘ Turnip-wood,” the “ Kidgi-
kidgi’”’ of the aborigines, a taller tree, yields a rich red wood,
equally valuable, and sometimes figured. (i) Podocarpus elata
R. Br. (Order Taxdcew), known also as “ Pine, White,” “‘ Brown
Pine ” or “‘ She Pine,” or ‘‘ Native Deal,’ is a fine tree, 50—130 ft.
high and 2—5 ft. in diam. W 45-7. Though seldom cylindrical,
it is free from knots, sometimes beautifully figured, soft, fine, close
and silky in grain, easily worked, durable, termite- and teredo-proof,
and valued for joinery and cabinet-work. (iv) Wuiddringtonia
juniperoides, growing above the winter range of snow on the Ceder-
berg in the Clanwilliam district of Cape Colony, sometimes reaches
12 ft. in diam. It is known as ‘‘ Ceder Boom” to the Dutch, and
the demand for it exceeds the supply. The allied W. Whiter
Rendle, of elevated kloofs in the Shiré Highlands, Nyassaland, is

CEDAR 159

a fine tree, 150 ft. high, reaching 6 ft. diam., and yielding an orna-
mental, fragrant, light, yellow-brown wood, susceptible of a good
polish, and suitable for building, pencils and other purposes.
Though suitable for re-afforesting tropical highlands, this species
is not at present abundant.

Cedar, Red, in North America (Juniperus Virginiana L.: Order
Cupressinee). ‘Florida Cedar, Savin, Pencil Cedar.” French
“Cédre de Virginie,” Germ. “* Virginischer Sadebaum,” “ Virgin-
ische Wachholder,” ‘ Bleistift-holz.” Throughout the coasts of
the United States, but large only in the South. Height 40—50 or
even 100 ft.; diam. 1—4 ft. S.G. 330. W 20—35. Sapwood
broad, yellowish ; heart rose-red to brown-red, fragrant ; annual
rings sinuous ; pith-rays very fine ; resin-ducts absent ; light, soft,
brittle, compact, fine-grained, strong, easily split, durable, especially
in contact with the soil or water, and obnoxious to insects. One
of the most valuable coniferous woods of America. Formerly much
used by the Spaniards in Florida for ship-building, and in England,
up to fifty years ago, for cabinets, work-boxes, etc., it was occa-
sionally employed in the United States for railway-sleepers and
fencing, in the Southern States for coffins, and in Philadelphia for
cooperage. It is, however, now too dear for any use but pencil-
making, for which purpose several million cubic feet are cut annually.
A useful paper for protection against moth is made from the refuse
of the pencil factories.

Cedar, Red, in Cape Colony (Cunonia capénsis L.: Order Cunoni-
dcew). Dutch “Rood Els” or “ Elzenhout.” Height 15—25 or
even 60 ft.; diam. 1}—2 ft. W 46. Red; close-grained, tough,
taking a good polish. Much used in cabinet-work and turnery,
for railway-sleepers, and by wheelwrights.

Cedar, Pink or Red, of Sikkim tea-planters, used for tea-chests
and furniture, is Acrocirpus fraxinifolius Wight (Order Legum-
inose), the *“* Mandania ”’ of the natives.

Cedar, Red, in Australia (Cedréla Toona). See Cedar, Moulmein.

Cedar, Rock (Juniperus sabinoides Sarg.), a native of Mexico and
Texas. Height 20—40 ft.; diam. 1 ft. S.G. 690. W 43. Sap-
wood thin, nearly white; heart brown, often streaked with red,
slightly fragrant, light, hard, close-grained, not strong, very durable
in contact with soil. Used for sleepers, telegraph-poles, fencing,
and fuel.

Cedar, Sitka, or Yellow (Cupréssus nutkaénsis Hook. =Chame-
cyparis nutkaénsis Spach : Order Cupressinee). United States and
Canada. Also known as “ Yellow Cypress.” W 20.75. Large,
sometimes exceeding 6 ft. diam. ; light reddish-brown, soft, weak,
easily worked, but shrinking unless seasoned, very durable in

160 WOODS OF COMMERCE

contact with soil and said to be teredo-proof. Sleepers, posts, boat-
building, interior work, cooperage, etc.

Cedar, Tasmanian (Athrotdaxis selaginoides Don. with A. cupres-
soides: Order Taxodiew). ‘“‘ King William Pine.” Height about
45 ft. Light, yellow, or pink, straight, even-grained, tough, strong.
Used for furniture and boat-building.

Cedar, Western Red (Juniperus occidentalis Hook. : Order Cupres-
sine). Western North America. Known also as “ Yellow Cedar,
Californian Juniper,” or “ Pencil-wood.” W 36. Pinkish-brown,
soft, fine, straight and even-grained, very durable in contact with
soil, slightly fragrant. Used for fencing or fuel; but suitable for
pencils.

Cedar, West Indian (Cedréla odordta L. : Order Meliacee). ‘‘ Cuba,
Havana, Honduras, Jamaica”? or ‘‘ Mexican Cedar.” ‘“‘ Cédre
Acajou.”” The “ Cedar” of English commerce. A tall tree capable
of yielding timber 18—40 ft. long and 1—2 ft. square. 8.G. 372—
664. W 27—47. p 7,600. p’ “7. e€ 1:0. | S025 jemiegs:
fs °362. c 2,870. c’ -379. v’ -586. Sapwood narrow, reddish-
white ; heart cinnamon-brown ; annual rings broad and distinct ;
pith-rays numerous and distinct ; vessels very large, open, scattered,
but more numerous, larger and partly filled with brown resin in
spring wood. Fragrant, often beautifully marked and resembling
the allied Mahogany ; but very much softer, light, easily split,
bitter in taste and with a peppery smell. Used mainly for cigar-
boxes, but also for furniture.

Cedréla fissilis Vell. (=C. brasiliénsis Juss.), the “Cedro” used
for furniture in Northern Argentina, being unseasoned, warps,
but might be used for other purposes.

Cedar, White, in the United States, a name applied to the similar
coniferous woods of JLibocédrus decurrens [See Cedar, Incense],
Cupréssus Lawsonidna [See Cedar, Oregon], Thiya gigantea [See
Cedar, Canoe], Cupréssus Thyoides, and Thuya occidentalis. In
Australia it is used of Ele@odéndron australé and Mélia composita.

Cupréssus Thyoides L. French ‘ Cédre blanc,” Germ. “ Weisse
Ceder, Ceder-Cypresse.” Swamps on the east coast of the United
States. Height 70—80 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft. Light greyish-brown,
very light, soft, not strong, slightly fragrant, close-grained, easily
worked, very durable in contact with soil, not warping. Used for
sleepers, posts, shingles, cooperage, and boat-building.

Thiya occidentalis L., known also as ‘“ Arbor-Vite.” French
‘** Arbre de vie,” Germ. ‘‘ Lebensbaum.”’ Eastern North American.
Height 30—40 or 60 ft.; diam. 2—4 ft. 8.G. 320. Light, soft,
brittle, very fragrant, rather coarse-grained ; but otherwise resemb-
ling the preceding in characters and uses.

Eleodéndron australé. See Ash, Blue.

Melia composita. See Bead-tree.

CEDAR—CHERRY 161

Cedar, Yellow. See Cedar, Sitka and Yellow-wood.

Champak (Michélia Champaca L.: Order Magnolidcee). Beng.
“Champa” or ‘‘Champaka.” Sinh. “Sapu.” India, Ceylon,
Moluccas. Height 30 ft.; diam. up to 4} ft. S.G. 6731. W 42.
R 350 Ibs. Light to dark olive-brown or greenish, soft, but seasons
well, taking a good polish, very durable. Used for furniture,
house- and boat-building. The allied M. excélsa Blume is the
** Bara-Champ ”’ of the Eastern Himalaya, the principal building
and furniture wood of Darjiling, whilst M. nilagirica Zenk., the
* Pila Champa ”’ of Southern India and Ceylon, is also used.

Chaplash (Artocarpus Chaplasha Roxb.: Order Mordcee). India.
“Lesser” or ‘Thorny Jack.” Hind. “Chaplasha.” Height
100 ft. S.G. 556. W 34-75. Yellow-brown, moderately hard,
even-grained, durable, especially under water. Used for canoes,
tea-chests, furniture, etc.

Chatwan (Alsténia scholdris R.Br.: Order Apocyndacee). India,
Ceylon, Moluccas. Telugu “ Eda-kula.” Malay “ Kayu Gabas.”
A large tree, yielding white, close, but rather coarse-grained, soft,
perishable, bitter wood. Used for writing-boards in schools, whence
its name, for boxes, tea-chests, coffins, turnery, etc., and as a tonie.

Cheesewood (Pittosp6rum unduldtum Vent.: Order Pittosporee).
Kastern Australia. ‘‘ Native Laurel, “Mock Orange.” <Aborig.
* Wallundun-deyren.” Height 30—50 or 90 ft.; diam. 1—23 ft.
W 61:25. White or whitey-brown, very close-grained, hard.
Suitable for turning, rollers for mangles, and engraving, though
inferior to Box. The name is also applied to P. bicolor Hook., the
“ Whitewood ” of Tasmania, where it was used by the aborigines
for clubs. This is a smaller tree with yellower wood. 8.G. 874.
Used for axe-handles, billiard-cues, etc.

Cherry (Prunus Avium L. and P. Cérasuy L., and probably
P. Padus L.: Order Rosdceew). Europe, Northern and Western
Asia. §8.G. 750. W 33:-5—49. Sapwood reddish or yellowish
white ; heart light yellowish-brown, hard, heavy, firm, fine and
even-grained, but not durable; annual rings distinct ; pith-rays
distinct, fine ; vessels fine. The wood is valued by turners and for
inlaying. After soaking for several days in lime-water it becomes
a beautiful brownish-red, and can be used as a substitute for
Mahogany. More important, however, is the “‘ Perfumed Cherry,”
P. Mahaleb L., the perfumed brown or green-streaked wood of
which is grown and manufactured in Austria into pipe-stems and
walking-sticks.

Cherry, Brush (Hugénia myrtifolia). See Myrtle, Native.

Cherry, Brush (T'rochocarpa laurina R.Br.). See Barranduna.
vu

162 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Cherry, Canadian (Prunus emargindta Walp.: Order Rosdcee).
United States and British Columbia. W 35:5. Brownish, hard,
fine and straight-grained.

Cherry, Native (Hxocdrpus cupressiformis) R.Br.: Order Santa-
lacee). Australia. Height 10—20 or 40 ft.; diam. 6—20 in.
8.G. 756—845. Close-grained, handsome, hard, durable. Used
for tool-handles, spokes, gun-stocks, cornice-poles, ete. The allied
E. latifolia is sometimes called ‘ Broad-leaved Cherry.” See
Sandal-wood, Scrub.

Cherry, Wild Black (Prunus serotina Ehrh.: Order Rosdcee).
Eastern United States. W 36:5. “American Cherry.” Height
90—120 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft. Sapwood yeliowish-white ; heart
pale reddish to brown, often with discoloured flaws, compact,
fine- and close-grained, hard, heavy, strong, shrinking in drying,
but taking a good polish, durable. Valued for cabinet-work and
interior decoration ; but scarce.

Chestnut (Castanea vulgaris Lamk.=C. sativa Gaértn., C. vésca
Gaértn. : Order Cupulifere). ‘‘ Spanish Chestnut.” French “* Cha-
taignier.”’ Germ. ‘‘ Edelkastanie.”’ A iarge tree, sometimes reach-
ing an enormous girth, native to the continent of Europe and
represented by a closely related variety, americana, in the Eastern
United States. Sapwood yellowish-white or light brown ; heart
darker brown, resembling Oak but distinguished by the absence of
broad pith-rays ; pores large, forming a broad circle in the spring-
wood and bifurcating lines beyond ; moderately hard, but much
softer than Oak, light, coarse-grained, not strong, warping in drying,
subject to ring-shakes and worm-boring, but durable when dry or
wet. S.G. 450. E 85,621. R 696 kilos. W 28—46:5. Used for
fence-posts and rails, staves, vine-props, hop-poles, cabinet-work,
and charcoal. It is one of the best woods for veneering, taking
glue well. The ancient roofs in England alleged to be of Chestnut
are really of Oak, and can be readily recognized as such by the
broad pith-rays.

Chestnut, Horse. See Horse-Chestnut.

Chestnut, Moreton Bay (Castanospérmum australé A. Cunn.:
Order Leguminése). ‘‘ Bean-tree.”’ ‘“‘ Black Bean.” North-East
Australia, introduced into India. Height 80—90 or 130 ft. ; diam.
2—3 or 6ft. W 35—46°5. Sapwood yellow, heart prettily grained,
streaked with dark brown, somewhat resembling walnut, soft, fine-
grained, shrinking much in drying and so requiring thorough
seasoning, taking a good polish, but not durable. Used for furni-
ture, cabinet-work, gun-stocks and veneers.

Chestnut, Wild, of South Africa (Calodéndron capénsé Thunb. :
Order Rutdcee). Dutch ‘‘ Kastanie.”” Height 20—30 or 70 ft. ;

CHILAUNI—COFFEE-TREE 163

diam. 2—3 or 5 ft., the dimensions in Cape Colony exceeding those
in Natal. W 36—44. White, very light, but soft, tough, strong,
easily worked. Used for yokes, hoops of waggons, etc.

Chilauni (Schima Wallichii Chois.: Order Camellidcee). Bengal.
Red, coarse-grained, durable. Much used for bridges and sleepers.

China-berry, an American name for Mélia compdsita. See
Bead-tree.

Chinquapin, in the Eastern United States (Castdénea pumila
Michx.), in the Western States (Castandpsis chrysophylla A. DC.),
small trees allied to the Chestnut, with similar but slightly heavier
wood.

Chir (Pinus longifélia Roxb.: Order Conifere). India. Easily
worked, but not durable. Used mainly for fuel, charcoal, tar, and
turpentine.

Chittagong-wood, a name applied to several woods imported
to Madras, from North-East Bengal, the best of which is Cedréla
Toona [See Cedar, Moulmein.] Chukrdsia tabuldris A. Juss.
(Order Melidcew), otherwise known as ‘‘ Cedar, Bastard Cedar ”’
or ‘“‘ Deodar.” Bengal. ‘‘ Chikrassi.”?> Sinh. “ Hulanhik.” Tamil
** Kal-otthi,” is also so-called. Height 80 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft.
W 24—45. Yellowish-brown to reddish-brown, with a splendid
satiny lustre, fragrant, hard, seasoning and working well, but
warping and creaking in very hot dry weather. Used for furni-
ture and carving.

Coach-wood (Ceratopétalum apétalum D. Don.: Order Saai-
fragdcee). ‘‘ Light-wood’” or “‘ Leather-jacket.”” New South
Wales. Height 50—70 or 100 ft.; diam. 14—2 or 3 ft. W 42.
Soft, light, close-grained, exceedingly tough, with the fragrance of
coumarin. Used for coach-building, tool-handles, cabinet-work,
boat-building, etc., and suggested for sounding-boards and stetho-
scopes. The name is also applied to Schizoméria ovata D. Don., an
allied reddish wood of inferior character, known also as “ Cork-
wood, Beech,” or ‘‘ White Cherry.”

Cocobola Wood. (Humiria?: Order Humiridcee). British
Guiana. W 75. Sapwood brownish, heart deep orange with
jet-black linear markings, hard, heavy, coarse-grained. Used for
turnery, inlaying and Tunbridge-ware.

Cocus (Bria Ebenus). See Ebony, American.

Coffee-tree (Gymnoclidus canadénsis Lam.: Order Leguminése).
French ‘‘ Chicot, Gros fevier.”” Germ. ‘‘ Amerikanischer Schusser-
baum.” Span. “ Arbol de café falso.” Eastern United States.
Height 100 ft. ; diam. 3ft. S.G.693. W 43:2. E 104,822. R771
kilos. Sapwood yellow or greenish-white ; heart brown blotched
with red, heavy, cross-grained, hard, strong, very stiff, taking a

11—2

164 WOODS OF COMMERCE

high polish, handsome, and durable. Used for fencing, building,
and cabinet-work.

Cogwood (Ceanéthus Chloréxylon Nees = Zizyphus Chloréxylon W. :
Order Bhamndcee). Jamaica. “‘Cerillo”’ W 67. Dark nut-
brown, hard, heavy, very fine-grained, elastic and durable under
water. Used for cogs in sugar-mills.

Compass (Koompdassia malacénsis Maingay : Order Leguminése).
Borneo. W 58. Red, heavy, tough, strong, coarse-grained, but
liable to termite-attack and nct durable.

Cooper’s wood (Alphitonia excélsa). See Ash, Mountain.

Cork-wood tree of Missouri (Leitnéria Floridana Chapm.: Order
Leitneridcee). §.G. 210. The lightest known wood.

Cork-wood tree of the Antilles (Hibiscus tilidceus L.: Order
Malvacee). ‘‘Mahoe.” Grown throughout the Tropics. Nut-
brown, very light. Used for floats for fishing-nets.

Cork-wood in Australia (i) (Dubotsia myoporoides R.Br. : Order
Solanacee). Also known as ‘‘ Elm.” New South Wales and
Queensland. Height 15—30 ft.; diam. 1—2 ft. W 30—380-75.
White or yellowish, very soft, close-grained, and firm. Used for
carving. Named from its bark resembling that of Cork Oak.
The name is applied (ii) to Schizoméria ovdta [See Coachwood], and
(ili) to Weinmannia rubifolia F. v. M. [See Marrara. ]

Cork-tree, Indian (Millingténia horténsis L. fil.: Order Big-
noniacee). Yellow-white, soft, taking an excellent polish. Used
for furniture.

Cornel and Cornelian-wood. See Dogwood.

Coromandel-wood. See Calamander.

Cotton-tree (Bombax Céiba L.: Order Bombdcece). Identical
with B. malabaricum DC. Southern India, Burma, Northern
Australia. ‘‘ Malabar Silk-cotton,” ‘‘ Red-Cotton tree.” French
‘“ Fromage de Hollande.” Hind. ‘“‘Shembal.” Height 60 ft. or
more; diam. 5 ft. W 20—32. Light, soft, coarse-grained, not
durable. Used for planks, packing-cases, tea-chests, coffins,
canoes, and fishing-floats.

Cotton-wood. See Poplar and Dogwood, in Tasmania.

Courbaril. See Locust.

Cowdie-pine. See Kauri.

Crab-wood (Carapa quianénsis Aubl.: Order Melidcee). Guiana,
Trinidad, etc. ‘‘ Caraba, Carapo, Andiroba.’’ Height 60—120 ft.
upward ; diam. 1—3 ft. S.G.894—349. W 39:25—46:25. fe 3:29.
fs °433. R 80 kilos. Reddish-brown, moderately heavy and
hard, straight-grained, resembling inferior Mahogany, but affected
by shakes and splitting in seasoning, taking a good polish, little

CROW’S ASH—CYPRESS 165

attacked by insects. Used for furniture, internal fittings, masts,
spars, staves, and shingles. Caradpa procera DC. (=C. guineénsis
Sweet, C. guyanénsis Oliver), the ‘‘Touloucouna”’ or ‘ Tallicoma”’
of Senegambia, is a very similar wood, as also is C. grandiflora
Sprague, of Uganda.

Crow’s Ash. See Flindosa.

Crow’s-foot Elm. See Silver-tree.

Cuamara. See Tonka-bean.

Cucumber-tree (Magnolia acumindta L.: Order Magnoliacee).
*“Mountain Magnolia.” Eastern United States. Height up to
100 ft. ; diam. 4 ft. S.G. 409. W 29-23. R 671 kilos. Sapwood
broad, white; heart yellowish-brown, soft, light, close-grained,
moderately compact and durable, taking a satiny polish. Closely
resembling and often confounded with Tulip-wood (Liriodéndron
tulipifera), though generally distinguishable by its wider sapwood,
this wood is used for turnery, wainscot, packing-cases, and cheap
furniture. [See also Papaw. |

Cudgerie. See Flindosa.

Curupay (Piptadénia cébil Grisebach (?): Order Leguminose).
Bolivia. Height 65 ft.; diam. 3 ft. S.G. 1:14. Reddish, very
heavy, hard, coarse-grained, durable when submerged, and there-
fore valuable for bridge-construction or ship-building. It is an
admirable wood for the spokes of heavy motor-waggons. Another
less valuable wood, yellowish-brown, with dark purple streaks,
comes to England under the same name.

Cypre, Bois de (Cordia Gerascanthus Jacq.: Order Borraginee).
Tropical America. ‘‘ Prince-wood,” ‘‘ Spanish Elm,” ‘ Dominica
Rosewood,” “‘ Bois de Rhodes.” Dark brown with dusky excentric
zones, open-grained, soft, durable. W 42—47-69. E 553. f 2°73.
fe 2-16. fs -428. Used in cabinet-work.

Cypress (Cupréssus sempervirens L.: Order Cupressinee). Medi-
terranean region, Asia Minor, and Persia. Height up to 100 ft. ;
diam. sometimes 7 ft. S.G. 620—570. Reddish, fragrant, mode-
rately hard, very fine- and close-grained, and virtually indestructible.
Used by the ancient Egyptians for mummy-cases ; for the coffins
of the Popes ; in Assyria and in Crete for shipbuilding ; for the gates
of Constantinople destroyed by the Turks in 1453, eleven hundred
years after their construction ; and for the doors of 8S. Peter’s, which
were quite sound when replaced, about the same time and after a
similar duration, by brass. Perhaps the Tirzah of Isaiah xliv. 14, 15.
Used, according to Evelyn, for harps and organ-pipes, ae also for
vine-props ; but now seldom employed.

Cypress, Bald, Black, Deciduous, Red, Swamp or White (Tanbdium
distichum Richard: Order Taxodiée) Swamps of the Southern

166 WOODS OF COMMERCE

United States. Height 80—100 or more ft. ; diam. 6—8 or 13 ft.,
but tapering. Wood lighter and less resinous on low ground, and
then termed ‘‘ White Cypress,” reddening on exposure, soft,
straight- and fine-grained, not strong, but very durable in contact
with the soil. Formerly used in Louisiana for canoes, water-pipes,
and house-frames, and now for sleepers, fencing, and, on a large
scale, for shingles. So nearly identical with Redwood (Sequoia)
as to be often so-called.

Cypress, Himalayan or Indian (Cwpréssus torulésa D. Don.), a
light-brown, fragrant, moderately hard wood, used for building, etc.

Cypress, Japanese. See Hi-no-ki.

Cypress, Red. See Cedar, Canoe and Cypress, Bald.

Cypress-pine, the general name for the species of Frenéla (Order
Cupressinee), in Northern and Eastern Australia, especially the
varieties of F. robusta A. Cunn. (= Callitris robista R. Br.), “‘ Black,
Common, Dark, Lachlan, Murray, Murrumbidgee” or “‘ White
Pine, Camphor-wood.” <Aborig. ‘‘ Marung.” Height 60—70 ft. ;
diam. 13—2 ft. Light to dark brown, often with pinkish longi-
tudinal streaks and beautifully figured, with a camphor-like frag-
rance, straight-grained, but very full of knots, easily worked,
shrinking and warping but little, and taking a good polish, largely
teredo- and termite-proof. Much used for piles, building, and
furniture. Frenéla robusta, var. microcdrpa A. Cunn., the “* Coo-
rung-coorung ” of the aborigines, is a similar and valuable wood,
but dark-coloured and somewhat brittle, used for telegraph-
poles. F. robusta, var. verrucédsa A. Cunn., sometimes known also
as “ Rock Pine,” ‘‘ Desert Cypress,” or ‘‘ Sandarac Pine,” is also
dark. 8.G. 691. W 43—44-5. It is used for telegraph-poles and
cabinet-making, its camphoraceous smell being said to be obnoxious
to insects. Frenéla Endlicheri Parlat., known as “ Black, Red,
Scrub” or “ Murray Pine,” a rich brown, beautifully mottled
with darker brown, presenting a superb figuring, fragrant, fine-
grained, susceptible of a high polish and durable, is a valuable
wood, used for internal work and for piles, sleepers, ete. Frenéla
rhomboidea Endl., known also as “ Light” or ‘‘ Illawarra Mountain
Pine,” or, in Tasmania, as ‘‘ Oyster Bay Pine,” is close-grained,
strong, easily worked, takes a good polish and is durable, but
smaller than the varieties just mentioned. W 39-25. It is used
for similar purposes.

Cypress-pine, Mountain (Frenéla Parlatorei F. v. M.), also known
as “ Stringybark Pine.” Height 40—60 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. Light
straw-colour, fragrant, close-grained, soft, easily worked. Much
used for joinery.

Dagame (Calycophijllum candidissimum DC.: Order Rubi-
dcee). Cuba. Known also as “‘ Degame” or “ Degame Lance-

DAMINIYA—DOGWOOD 167

wood.” W 49. Yellow, moderately heavy and hard, very fine
and close-grained. Used as Lancewood.

Daminiya (Gréwia tiliefolia Vahl: Order Tilidcee). Ceylon and
Southern India. Dark, Walnut-like, elastic, strong and tough.
Used for masts, oars, and shafts.

Date, Kafir, or Plum (Harpephijllum Cdffrum Bernh.). Cape
Colony. W 45:7. f 5°86. fe 2°94. Dull red mahogany-like,
easily worked, and suitable for carpentry and cabinet-work.

Deal, a term properly describing soft (coniferous) wood sawn
in thicknesses of 2—4 in., but often used with prefixes as to colour
or country of origin. Thus Dantzic, Red or Yellow Deals are
derived from the Northern Pine (Pinus sylvéstris L.) [See Pine,
Northern], White Deals from the Spruce (Picea eacélsa), Canadian
and New Brunswick Spruce Deals, mostly from Picea nigra, narrow-
ringed trees yielding the ‘‘ Black,” wide-ringed ones the ‘‘ White
Spruce ” of Canadian lumbermen.

Very large quantities of White Deals are now reaching England
from Galatz, of greater average length and coarser grain than
Baltic White Deal, and competing with Canadian Spruce.

Deodar. See Cedar, Deodar.

Del (Artocdrpus nobilis Thw.=A. pubéscens Moon.: Order
Urticdécee). Ceylon. Sinh. “‘ Aludel.” W 39:5—50. Large,
greenish-brown, moderately heavy and hard, cross-grained. Used
for canoes and furniture.

Dhaura (Anogeissus latifolia Wall.: Order Combretacee). India.
Height up to 200 ft.; diam. 3 ft. or more. Sapwood wide, grey
or yellowish ; heart purplish, hard, very strong and tough, but
splitting in seasoning and only durable when kept dry. Used for
axles, axe-handles, agricultural implements, furniture, etc.

Dilo. See Poon.
Dogo. See Mangrove.

Dogwood, in England (i) (Cornus sanguinea L.: Order Corndcee),
Europe and Northern and Western Asia. Known also as “ Cornel,”’
** Prickwood.” A mere shrub. Hard, horny, flesh-coloured, with
minute evenly distributed vessels 1—4 together, without pith-flecks
and with indistinguishable pith-rays. Used formerly for skewers
and arrows, and to some extent for gunpowder charcoal. (ii) Rham-
nus Frangula L.: Order Rhamnacee). Europe, North Africa, and
Siberia. Known also as “ Berry-bearing Alder,” and to gunpowder-
makers as “‘ Black Dogwood.” A shrub 5—10 ft. high. Sapwood
narrow, light yellow ; heart brilliant yellowish-red ; vessels minute,
not in flamboyant groups as in the allied Buckthorn (R. catharticus) ;
soft. Largely used in the manufacture of sporting gunpowder
charcoal.

168 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Dogwood, in the United States and Canada (Cérnus florida L.
and C. Nuttalli Aud.: Order Corndcee). The former is known
commercially as “ Cornel’ and also as ‘‘ Boxwood” and as “‘ Cor-
nelian wood,” and the latter as ‘‘ Western Dogwood.” W 46—50.
Small, not exceeding 15 in. diam., with white sapwood and reddish-
brown heart, heavy, very hard, fine-grained and strong. Used for
turnery, wood-engraving, cogs, tool-handles, mallets and shuttles,
and formerly for arrows and charcoal. In the manufacture of
shuttle-blocks, for which it is largely employed, the blocks are
reduced by hydraulic pressure from 2 inches square to 12 in., a test
very few woods can stand without rupture of the fibres.

Dogwood, in the West Indies (Piscidia Hrythrina L.: Order
Leguminose). W 56°89. f 3°74. fe 2°03. fs -387. Used in
building.

Dogwood, in Tasmania (Bedfordia salicina DC.: Order Com-
posite), the ‘‘ Cottonwood” of New South Wales. Height 12—
30 ft. §.G. 896. Pale brown, often beautifully mottled, hard,
close-grained, fetid when cut, brittle and difficult to season. The
name is also applied to Pomadérris apétala (Order Rhamnacee).
Height 30 ft. ; diam. 12 in. Used for cabinet-work and furnishing
burrs for veneers.

Dogwood, in Australia (i) (Hmmenospérmum alphitonioides
F.v. M.: Order Rhamndcee). Height 130—170 ft. ; diam. 2—24 ft.
Straight-grained and durable. Useful for tool-handles, oars, staves,
boat- and house-building. (ii) (Jacksénia scoparia R. Br.: Order
Leguminose). Height 10—15 ft.; diam. 3—12 in. W 55:25—
56:5. Dark-yellow or brown, hard and polishing well, fetid when
burning. Too small for much use. (iii) (Myoporum montanum
R. Br., Order Myoporinee), known also as ‘‘ Waterbush” or
“Native Daphne.” Height 30—40 ft.; diam. 1 ft. W 47. Soft,
light, tough, straight-grained. Used in building. (iv) (Myo-
porum platycdrpum R. Br.), known also as “‘ Sandal” or ‘“‘ Bastard
Sandal-wood,” or ‘ Sugar-tree.” Small, light walnut colour,
fragrant when cut, often with a bird’s-eye mottling, especially in
burrs, fine-grained, taking a fine polish. Suitable for veneers.
(v) (Synoum glandulésum). See Rosewood.

Dongon (Stercilia cymbiférmis Blanco). Philippine Islands.
Douglas Fir. See Pine, Oregon.

Dudhi (Wrightia tinctoria R. Br.: Order Apocyndcee). India.
Hind. “‘ Kala Kudu.” Tamil ‘“ Nila Pila.”” A small tree, 12—15 in.
in diam. Wood white, close-grained and hard, resembling ivory.
Used for turning.

Durmast. See Oak, Durmast.

EAGLE-WOOD—EBONY 169

Eagle-wood (Aquildria Agdllocha Roxb. in Sylhet, and A. malac-
cénsis Lam. of Further India: Order Aquilaridcee). ‘ Lign-aloes,
Aloes-wood, Agilawood, Black Agallocha.” French “* Bois d’ Aigle.”’
Germ. ‘‘ Adlerholz.” Sanskrit ‘“‘ Agaru.” Arab. “ Aqulugin.”
Latin ‘“ Agallochum.” Large trees with whitish or light yellow
wood, containing an abundance of resin and an essential oil, much
valued as a perfume and possibly the “aloes” of Psalm xlv. The
wood retains its fragrance for years, and is burnt in Indian temples
and also used for inlaying and as a setting for jewels, selling at
£30 per cwt. in Sumatra.

Ebony, a name for a very dense, hard, and generally black
wood, mentioned by Herodotus and perhaps by Ezekiel, and
originally applying to Diospyros Ebenum Konig (Order Ebendcee).
Latin ‘“‘ Ebenus.”” French ‘*‘ Ebene.” Germ. “* Ebenholz.”? Sinh.
** Kaluwara.” Arabic ‘‘ Abnoos.” Hebrew ‘‘Hobnim” (Ezek.
xxvii. 15). A large tree, a native of Southern India and Ceylon.
S.G. 1,187. W 70—76; the heart 75—80. p 756—1,180. Sap-
wood dingy grey with black patches, flexible and very liable
to insect attack; heart deep black, very heavy, hard, and fine-
grained, the rings and pith-rays being scarcely recognizable,
capable of a very high polish, but affected by weather, and, there-
fore, used largely as veneer, selling in England at from £5 to £10
per ton.

Ebony, Acapuleo, Cuernavaca or Mexican (Diospyros Hbenaster
Retz.). A native of India, cultivated in Mauritius, the Philippines
and tropical America, the “‘ Bastard Ebony ” of Ceylon.

Ebony, American, Green, Jamaica or West Indian (brya Ebenus
DC.=Amerimnon Ebenus Sw.: Order Legumindse). ‘‘ Cocus”
or “‘Cocos” of Jamaica, “‘ Granadillo’’ of Cuba, “‘ Billy Web”
or “* Chichipate ” of Honduras. A small tree. §S.G. 1,206—1,210.
W 61-45—87. E1,178 tons. (9:10. fe 4:5. fs -529. R 480 lbs.
Heavy, dark greenish-brown to purplish, very fine and even-grained,
durable. Used for inlaying flutes, flageolets, etc.

Ebony, Bombay, Ceylon and Siam (Diospyros Ebenum Konig,
Ebenaster Retz., melandxylon Roxb. and other species). D. melan-
oxylon Roxb., also known as “‘ Coromandel ” or “‘ Godavery Ebony.”
Hind. “‘Tendu.” A large tree. 8.G. 978—1,200. W 61—82.
R 294 lbs. Sapwood pink; heart black, with beautiful purple
streaks, irregular, heavy, very hard, strong. Used for building,
shafts, carving, etc.

Ebony, Camagoon (Diospyros pilosanthera Bl.), the “ Golong-
nita ” of the Philippine Islands.

Ebony,\Cape or Orange River (Liiclea Pseudébenus E. Mey : Order
Ebendcee). South-West Africa. Jet-black, hard, durable.

170 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Ebony, Cuba (Diospyjros tetraspérma Jacq.). ‘‘ Ebano Real.”
$.G. 1,300. R 305 Ibs. Black, hard, brittle. Used in cabinet-
work,

Ebony, False, the ** Corsican Ebony ” of ancient Rome (Cytisus
Labirnum .: Order Leguminése). French ‘‘ Faux ebénier.”
Sapwood broad, yellowish ; heart dark-brown with a greenish tinge ;
rings and pith-rays distinct ; vessels in spring-wood large, crowded
in groups of six or eight between the rays, those of the later
wood in crescentic groups; hard, capable of high polish, but not
durable. Used for whip-handles, in turnery, and by the ancients as
veneer.

Ebony, Gaboon, Lagos or Old Calabar (Diospiyros Dendo Welw.).
Tropical West Africa. ‘‘ N’Dendo.” W 72:5. Small, black,
sometimes streaked with brown, very hard.

Ebony, German, the wood of Pear or Yew, stained black.

Ebony, Green, in the English timber trade and in the West Indies
is Brya Ebenus [See Ebony, American]; but in Southern India it is
Diospyros chloréxylon Roxb. (Telugu ‘‘ Nella ulimera”’), a large
tree yielding a hard, useful wood. In Brazil the name is applied
to Tecoma leucéxylon Mart. (Order Bignoniacee), also known as
*“ Quirapaiba,” a heavy, hard, dark-green, close-grained cabinet-
wood yielding logs 14 ft. long and 14—16 in. square. 8.G. 1,220—
1,211. R 481 kilos.

Ebony, Madagascar, Macassar or Zanzibar (Diospyros mespili-
formis Hochst., haplostyjlis Boiv. and microrhémbus Hiern.), weigh-
ing 49—61 lbs. per cubic foot, and also Acacia glaucophylla Steud.
and the heavier Dalbérgia melanéxylon Guill. and Perr. [See
Blackwood, African], all natives of tropical Africa, with black heart-
wood. Some apparently occur near both the east and west coasts.

Ebony, Manila (Diospyros philippénsis Giirke and D. Ebenaster
Retz.).

Ebony, Mauritius (Diospyros tesselaria Poir).

Ebony, Mountain (Bauhinia Hoodkeri F. v. M. and B. Carrénii
F. v. M.: Order Leguminése). Also known as ‘ Queensland
Ebony.” Eastern Australia. The former 30—40 ft. high ; 1—14 ft.
in diam., dark-jed, heavy: the latter light-brown to dark-brown.
Suitable for veneers.

Ebony, Purple (Dalbérgia sp. ?). Ceylon. W 53:5. Dark purple,
streaked with black.

Ebony, Red (Diospyros ribra Gartn.). Mauritius.

Ebony, St. Helena (Démbeya melanéxylon Roxb. : Order Byttneri-
dcee). Height 10—15 ft. S.G. 1,145. W 71:5. Almost exter-
minated by goats.

EBONY—ELM 171

Ebony, White (Diospyros Malacapai A. DC.). Philippines.
[See Tarco. |

Eki (Dipterocadrpus sp.%). Lagos. W 72. R_ 51,154 Ibs.
Stiffness (taking Oak as 100) 237-7. Worth 7s. per cubic foot for
piles or blocks.

Elder (Sambucus nigra L.: Order Caprifolidacee). Europe, West
Asia and North Africa. French *‘ Sureau noir.” Germ. “‘ Schwartze
Holder.”” A small tree. W 35-5—64. Pith very large; pith-
rays numerous and distinct: vessels more numerous in spring-
wood ; wood yellowish, hard, firm, difficult to dry, warping. Used
in turnery. In Cape Colony the name is applied to Nuaxia flori-
binda Benth. See Vlier.

Elder, Box. See Maple, Ash-leaved.

Elm, a name referring originally and mainly to species of the
genus Ulmus (Order Ulmacee), broad-leaved trees with very large
vessels in their spring-wood, and the vessels in the autumn-wood
in wavy peripheral lines. French “‘ Orme.” Germ. “Ulm” or
* Ruster.” Jtal. “‘Ulmo.” Span. “ Olmo.”

Elm, American, Water or White (Ulmus Americdéna L.). French
“Orme parasol.” Alluvial ground in Eastern North America.
Height 100 ft. or more ; diam. 6—7 ft. S.G. 650—540. W 34
40°5. R 852 kilos. Sapwood yellowish-white ; heart light-brown,
heavy, strong, tough, compact, but not durable ; pores in spring-
wood conspicuously large and almost entirely in a single row.
Valuable for tool-handles, agricultural implements, wheel-hubs,
cooperage, etc., and for fuel.

Elm, Canadian, Cliff, Cork, Hickory, Rock or White (U. racemoésa
Thomas). French ‘‘Orme a grappe.” Germ. ‘“ Trauben Ulme,
Felsen Ulme.” Canada and Eastern United States. Height
80—150 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. S.G. 726—765. W 43—47. R 1,066
kilos. ¢ 9,182. c’ 1-213. v’ 1-191. e’ 1:39. p’ 1:14. Sapwood
greenish, not durable ; pores in spring-wood small, those in summer-
wood in fine rather distant lines ; heavy, hard, compact, very strong,
tough and elastic. Logs 20—40 ft. long and 11—16 in. square,
liable to split in drying, and, therefore, preferably kept immersed ;
very durable under water. A valuable, but very slow-growing
timber, making on an average only one inch of diameter in fourteen
years. Largely used for the same purposes as the above-mentioned
species, and for house- and boat-building, being one of the best
timbers for bending, and exported in large quantities, in hewn
logs and in the round, to Liverpool and London for coach-building,
wheels, piles, boat-building, etc., fetching 3s. 6d. per cubic foot.

Elm, Cork, Common or English (U. campéstris Sm.). Germ.
“ Korkulme, Rote Riister.” Height 80—90 ft. ; diam.'2—3 ft. S.G.

172 WOODS OF COMMERCE

542—909. W 34—56-7. E445 tons persq.in. e’ °56. p 14,000—
13,489. p49. {3°5. f(6°25. ¢5,460. ¢°°721. fe4:6.. w--757-
fs 62. Sapwood narrow, yellowish-white, as durable as the heart ;
heart dark-brown or brownish-red, heavy, hard, firm, elastic, very
tough, very difficult to split, susceptible of high polish, extremely
durable if kept either dry or wet. The Rialto at Venice is
said to be built on 12,000 elm piles. The wavy lines of pores in
the summer-wood consist of single rows of pores and are inter-
rupted: pith-rays hardly distinguishable: grain twisted. Though
free from shakes, Elm timber is very liable to druxy knot, and,
though not splitting, is difficult to season without twisting. On
the Continent Elm is valued for gun-carriages. In England it
was used formerly for water-pipes and is now employed for coffins,
butchers’-blocks, pulley-blocks, naves of wheels, pumps, ships’
keels, coachbuilding, turnery, etc., though for most purposes
inferior to Oak. Both this and the Scotch Elm are largely used for
chair-making at High Wycombe.

Elm, Crows’-foot. See Silver-tree.

Elm, Dutch or Sand, a large-leafed form, allied to the last-men-
tioned, grown only for ornament, its wood being subject to star-
shake.

Elm, Indian (U. integrifolia Roxb.). Hind. “ Papri.” Telugu
“Nalli.” Burm. “ Thalai.” India, Ceylon, Burma. A large
tree. Wood lght yellowish-grey to red, moderately hard and
strong. Used for door frames, cart-building, and carving.

Elm, Japanese. See Keyaki.

Elm, Moose, Red or Slippery (U. fulva Michx.). French “*“ Orme
gras.” Southern Canada and North-Eastern United States.
Height 60—70 ft. ; diam. 2 ft. S.G. 695. W 43°35. R 869 kilos.
Brownish-red, heavy, hard, strong, compact, tough, more durable
than other Elms; pores in spring wood forming a broad band of
several rows, those in the summer wood in broken, slightly waved,
narrow lines. It is more easily split than other Elms, and is, there-
fore, much used for fence-rails, whilst its toughness and flexibility
when steamed fit it for the ribs of boats.

Elm, Scotch, Wych, or Mountain (U. montana Sm.). Also
known as “ Chair-elm”’ and formerly as “‘ Wych-hazel.” Germ.
‘“* Bergriister.”” Height 80—120 ft. ; diam. up to 16 ft. In Britain
most abundant north of the Trent. Wood lighter-coloured, softer,
straighter-grained, and, therefore, more easily split than English
Elm. Pores in the summer wood in complete bands. Used for
the backs of Windsor chairs, shafts, and other purposes to which
Ash is applied, and for boat-building.

Elm, Spanish. See Cypre, Bois de.

ELM—FIDDLE-WOOD 173

Elm, Spreading (U. effusa Willd.). Germ. “ Flatterriister.”
Sapwood broad, yellowish; heart light-brown; vessels in spring
wood in a single line, those in the summer wood in broad con-
tinuous wavy bands ; less strong than the other species ; but valued
on the Continent on account of its markings for turnery, cabinet-
work, gun-stocks, etc.

Elm, Winged, or Cork-winged (U. aldta Michx.). Aborig. ‘‘ Wa-
hoo.” South-East United States. Small, heavier and more
compact than U. americana, fine-grained ; pores in spring wood
small, in a single row, those in summer wood in broad, slightly
wavy bands.

In Australia the name “‘ Elm ” is applied to Duboisia myoporoides
[See Cork-wood] and to Aphanathé phillippinénsis Planch. (Order
Urticeew), known also as “ Tulip-wood,” and by the aborigines as
“Mail,” a tree introduced in the north-east, 80—90 ft. high and
1—13 ft. in diam., yielding a light-coloured, close-grained wood,
used for internal work in building.

Els, Klip or Rock Ash (Rhus Thunbérgit Hook. : Order Anacardi-
dcee). Cape Colony. Hard, heavy, close-grained, and tough.
Suitable for musical instruments or carving.

Els, Rood. See Cedar, Red.

Eng (Dipterocarpus tuberculdtus Roxb.: Order Dipterocarpacee).
Burma. Burm. “Eng.” A large tree, 60 ft. in height and 3 ft.
in diam. W 55. Reddish, hard. Used for house-posts, canoes,
and planking. Other species, such as D. grandifléra Wall. and
D. alatus Roxb. [See Gurjun], are confused under the same name.

Engyin (Shorea siaménsis Miq.: Order Dipterocarpacee). Burma
and Siam. Perhaps the same name as the preceding. A large
tree, resembling the allied Sal. W 54—55. Heart very hard, very
heavy and cross-grained: pith-rays finer than in Sal. Used in
house-building, and for bows, etc.

Epel of Borneo may be “ Ypil” of the Philippines, ‘‘ Yepi,
Apa” or “ Epe” in Telugu, Afzélia bijuga A. Gray [See Shoondul],
Bauhinia diphylla Buch. or Hardwickia bindta Roxb. [See Anjan. ]

Essen-boom. See Ash, Cape.

Featherwood (Polyosma Cunninghamu J. J. Benn.: Order Sazi-
fragacee). North-Eastern Australia. “‘ Hickory, Wineberry.”
Aborig. “ Yaralla.” Height 40—60 ft.; diam. 1—3 ft. W 49:3.
Yellow, close-grained, tough. Used for ladders, hand-spikes, ete.

Fiddle-wood (Citharéxylum melanocardium Sw., cinéreum L.,
surréctum Griseb., and quadrangularé Jacq.: Order Verbendcec).
West Indies. French ‘‘ Bois fidéle, Bois de cotelet.’? Used for
posts, shingles, ete.

174 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Fig, the general name for the genus Ficus, few species of which
yield timber of any value. That of Ficus indica L. (Order Arto-
carpacee) is used in Ceylon for common furniture ; but it, and that
of other species, being soft and spongy, is readily charged with oil
and emery for knifeboards or polishing purposes.

Fig, Blue. See Caloon.

Fig, Leichhardt’s Clustered (Ficus glomerdta Willd.). India,
Burma, Northern Australia. Aborig. ‘‘ Parpa.” Hind. “ Kith
Gular.” Height 40—60 ft.; diam. 1—3 ft. W 25—36. Greyish
or straw-colour, coarse but straight-grained, light, soft, porous,
moderately strong, not durable, except under water. Used for
well-frames in India, and for furniture in Ceylon, and suggested
for packing-cases.

Fig, Illawarra, Port Jackson or Rusty (Ff. rubiginosa Desf.).
Aborig. “‘Dthaaman.” LEastern Australia. Height 60—80 ft. ;
diam. 4—5 ft. W 28-5. Light, soft, brittle, spongy. Sometimes
used for packing-cases.

Fig, Large-leaved or Moreton Bay (F. macrophylla Desf.). North-
Eastern Australia. Height 50—100 ft.; diam. 3—6 ft. W 34.
Pale-brown, with a beautiful wavy figure on a darker brown, but
difficult to season, soft and not durable, so only occasionally used
for packing-cases.

Fig, Prickly. See Ash, Blueberry.

Fir, a name very loosely used both in commerce and in botany,
mostly for coniferous trees.1 Thus Dantzic, Eliasberg, Memel,
Norway, Red, Riga, Saldowitz, Scots, Stettin, Swedish and Yellow
Fir are all Pinus sylvéstris [See Pine, Northern], named mainly
from the port of shipment, Douglas or Oregon Fir is Pseudotstiga
Douglasii [See Pine, Oregon], and White Fir (‘‘ Baltic White ’’)
is Picea eaxcélsa [See Spruce, Norway]. The name is preferably
restricted to the genus Abies, conifers distinguished by their flat
leaves with two lateral resin-canals, and by their erect cones which
fall to pieces when the seed is ripe. Their wood is generally without
resin-ducts, coarse-grained, soft, and perishable.

Fir, Balsam or American Silver (Abies balsimea Miller). Wet
ground in Eastern North America. Known also as “ Balm-of-
Gilead Fir.” French ‘‘ Sapin baumier.”’ Germ. “ Balsam-Tanne.”
Height 30—60 or 80 ft.; diam. 2 ft. S.G. 382. W 23:8. R 515
kilos. Yellowish, very light, soft, coarse-grained, not strong or
durable. Sometimes used for staves for fish-barrels. The most
valuable product of this species is Canada balsam, a resin collected
in Quebec. The names ‘‘ Balsam Fir” and “ Black Balsam ”’ are
sometimes applied to A. céncolor [See Fir, White].

' Among Anglo-Indians species of Caswarina are known as “ Fir.’’ See Oak,
Swamp. ]

FIR—FIRE-TREE 175

Fir, Red (A. nobilis Lindl.). Western United States. ‘* Larch-
fir.’ “Noble Fir.” Germ. “Edel Weisstanne. Height 100—
200 ft. or more; diam. 4—5 ft. or 9 ft. Light-brown, streaked
with red, light, hard, strong, durable when seasoned. Used for
internal work. The name is also applied to A. magnifica Murray,
Germ. “‘ Prachtige Weisstanne,” a loftier species of the same region,
with inferior timber, used for rough work or fuel.

Fir, Scots. See Pine, Northern.

Fir, Silver (A. pectindta DC.=A. dlba Miller). Mountains of
Central and Southern Europe. ‘‘Swiss Pine.” French ‘‘ Sapin
des Vosges, Sapin de Lorraine.” Germ. ‘Tanne, Edeltanne,
Weisstanne, Silbertanne.” Height 100—180 ft.; diam. 6—8 ft.
Yellowish or pinkish-white without distinct heart, and with few or
no resin-canals, with regular circular, well-defined rings, owing to
the darker autumn wood, light, soft, porous, silky in lustre, strong,
elastic, easily worked, not durable, taking glue well. Used by the
ancient Romans for masts and ship-building. (Virgil, Georgies ii.,
68, Pliny, Nat. Hist., xvi.), and still so employed. Much used in
toy-making, for carving, and for packing-cases, which are largely
exported from Switzerland and the Tyrol. Used also, where it
grows, for fence-posts, internal work, sluices, joists, planks, general
carpentry, paper-pulp, and charcoal ; but inferior to Spruce.

Fir, Colorado Silver (A. concolor Lindl. and Gordon). Western
United States. ‘“‘ White Fir, Balsam Fir, Black Balsam.” Germ.
“ Californische ” or “ Gleichfarbige Weisstanne.” Height 100—
250 ft. ; diam. 4 ft. or more. Very light, soft, coarse-grained, neither
strong nor durable. Used locally for butter-tubs, etc.

Fir, Great or Tall Silver (A. grandis Lindl.). North-Western
United States and British Columbia. ‘‘ White Fir of Oregon” or
“Western White Fir.” Germ. “ Grosse Kiistentanne.” Height
250—300 ft.; diam. 3—5 ft. or more. W 22—29. Light, soft,
easily worked, not strong or durable. Used for indoor carpentry,
packing-cases, cooperage, etc., and forming, with Oregon Pine, the
chief lumber exported from the Pacific ports.

Fir, Indian Silver (A. Webbiana Lindl.). Himalayas. Height
120—150 ft.; diam. 3—5 ft. Whitish, scentless, non-resinous,
open-grained, soft, easily worked, but not durable, if exposed.
Used locally for shingles and building.

Fir, Western or Lovely Silver (4. amdbilis Forbes). North-
Western United States and British Columbia. ‘‘ White Fir.”
Height 150—200 ft.; diam. 3—4 ft. Light, hard, but not
strong.

Fire-tree (Stenocarpus sinudtus Endl.: Order Protedcew). North-
Eastern Australia. “ Tulip-tree.” Aborig. “ Yiel-yiel.” Height

176 WOODS OF COMMERCE

60—70 ft.; diam. 2 ft. Nicely marked, close-grained, hard, sus-
ceptible of a good polish, durable. Used for staves and veneers.

Flindosa (Flindérsia australis R. Br.: Order Meliacee). North-
Eastern Australia. ‘‘ Crow’s”’ or “‘ Mountain Ash,” or ‘‘ Beech.’’
Aborig. “‘ Cudgerie.” Height 80—100 ft.; diam. 2—4 ft. S.G.
936. W 44:8—77°8. E960 tons. f 7-03. fe 4:54. fs 62. Re-
sembling Oak, with slight or no figure, very hard, close and strong,
difficult to saw, but shrinking little in drying, very durable, not dis-
coloured by iron. Used for staves and as a substitute for Beech,
and suitable for railway construction and shafts.

Flintamentosa or Wyagerie, the product of a larger tree, reach-
ing 150 ft. in height and 6 ft. in diam. in Northern New South Wales ;
may be the same or some other species of Flindérsia. It is used in
house-building.

Fuchsia (Fuchsia excorticata L. fil.: Order Onagrdcee). New
Zealand. Maori ‘‘ Kohutuhutu.” Height 10—30 ft.; diam.
sometimes 3 ft. Durabie.

Fustie (Chloréphora tinctéria Gaud., var.” Xanthéxylon= Morus
tinctoria W, Maclura tinctoria D. Don. : Order Mordcee). _'Tropical
America. French “ Bois @orange.” Span. “‘ Fustete, Palo nar-
ango.”’ Port. ‘‘ Espinheiro branco, Amoreira de espinho.” W 39—
46:5. R 305 Ibs. A large tree, yielding timber 20 ft. long and a
foot or more wide. Canary-yellow, light, tough, hard, durable.
Used for spokes; but chiefly as a dye under the name of “ Old
Fustic,” ‘‘ Young” or “‘ Zante Fustic ”’ being the wood of Rhus
Cotinus. [See Sumach, Venetian. |

Galaba or Galba. See Santa Maria.

Gangaw. See Ironwood, xix.

Gidya. See Myall ii.

Gold-spangle Wood (Cardwéllia sublimis F. v. M.: Order Prote-
dacee). Tropical Queensland. Large, light-coloured, prettily
marked. Suitable for cabinet-work.

Granadillo (Amyris balsamifera L.: Order Burserdcee). West
Indies. Known also as ‘“‘ Rosewood,” ‘‘ Mountain Torchwood,”
*“Lignum Rhodium,” or “ Funera.” W 74—60. E 986—565.
tons. f 6°7—4°7. fe 4—5°7. fs °35—-43. Red, handsomely
figured, aromatic, resinous, hard. Used for building and furniture,
and exported. In Cuba the name is applied to Brya Ebenus. [See
Ebony, American. |

Grape, Sea-side (Coccoldba wvifera Jacq.: Order Polygondcee).
Jamaica. W 65°34. E637 tons. f 413. fe 2°52. fs -428.

Greenheart (Nectindra Rodiei Schomb.: Order Laurdcee).
North-Eastern South America and the West Indies. <Aborig.

GREENHEART—GUAYACAN Lf)

* Bibiru,” “‘Sipiri.”” A large tree 60—100 ft. high, yielding timber
42—70 ft. long and 1—2 ft. square. S.G. 1,079—1,210. W 58—
fora 1286 tons. e¢'\:97. p’ 1°65. (8-97. ¢ 8,820. c’ 1-165.
fe 5-17. v’ 2-0. fs -435. Dark-greenish or chestnut, often nearly
black in the centre, fine, even, and straight-grained, the rings
indistinguishable, very heavy, hard, tough, strong, elastic, and
durable, the heartwood ‘being teredo-proof, though the similar
sapwood is not so. This very valuable timber is liable to heart-
shake. It is largely used for piles, bridge-building and the keelsons,
beams, and planks in ships, being classed in the second-line in
Lloyd’s Register, for carriage-shafts, fishing-rods, etc. All the
dock-gates, piers, and jetties of the Liverpool Docks are of this
wood. It is imported in hewn logs, up to 60 ft. in length, fetching
3s. 6d. per cubic foot at Liverpool. These logs have tapered
or “snape”’ ends to facilitate their being drawn out of the
forest. These “‘ ends,” from 2 to 5 feet long, are cut off in con-
version, and are useful for many purposes, such as motor-waggon
spokes, belaying-pins, tobacco-pegs, etc., fetching 25s. to 50s.
per ton.

Grignon (Bicida angustifolia DC. : Order Combretacee). Guiana.
Known in Surinam as ‘“‘ Wane.” §8.G. 714. Very large, straight-
growing, pale red, rather less hard than Oak, even and straight in
grain. Used for masts and for furniture.

Grignon fou (Qudlea cerulea Aubl.: Order Vochysidcee). Guiana.
Known also as “ Couaie.”” 8.G. 800. Large, reddish, soft, straight-
grained, very common, but of inferior quality to the preceding.
Used for masts.

Gru-gru (Astrocdryum sp. and Acrocémia sclerocérpa Mart. :
Order Palmdcee). Trinidad. Height 20—30 ft.; diam-s 1 ft.
The outer part of the stem of these palms is hard, heavy,
susceptible of a fine polish, and durable. Used for walking-
sticks.

Guarabu (Zerminalia acuminata Allem.: Order Combretdcee,
or Peltogyné macrolobium Allem., or P. confertiflora Benth. : Order
Leguminose). Brazil. ‘“‘ Pao roxo.” A large tree, yielding
straight, dark-purple, fine-grained wood, with numerous pores
filled with a hard white substance. Used in ship-building.

Guayacan, the native name of various species of Guaiacum in
Central and South America [See Lignum-Vitz], is applied in
Venezuela to Tecoma Gudyacan Scem. (Order Bignonidcee), S.G.
1-3, and in Argentina to Cesalpinia melanocarpa Griseb. (Order
Leguminése), a rich, dark-brown colour, very heavy and dense in
grain, said to be the hardest wood in the country, resisting moisture

12

178 WOODS OF COMMERCE

well. It yields timber 18 ft. long and a foot square, and is used for
door-frames, wheel-hubs, etc.

Guijo. See Sai.

Gum, a name referring mainly to the many and valuable Aus-
tralian and Tasmanian species of the Myrtaceous genus Hucalyptus,
the identification and synonymy of many of which is much in-
volved.

Gum, Apple-seented (Eucalyptus Stuartidna F. v. M.). Eastern
Australasia. Frequently called ‘“‘ Turpentine” or ‘‘ Peppermint-
tree’; in Tasmania ‘“‘ Red Gum”’; in Victoria also ‘‘ Mountain
Ash” or “‘ Apple-tree ’’; in New South Wales ‘“‘ Woolly Butt ”’;
in Queensland ‘* Box ” or “* Tea-tree.”” Introduced in the Punjaub.
Height 40—90 ft. ; diam. 2—4 ft. S.G. 834—1,050. W 66 Light
red-brown, wavy, hard, difficult to split, with gum-veins, weak, but
said to be durable underground, polishing well. Used for ships’
planks, sleepers, fence-posts, and rough furniture.

Gum, Bailey (H. Baileyana F. v. M.). Southern Queensland.
“Rough Stringybark.” Large, light-grey, very tough, suitable
for tool-handles.

_ Gum, Bally.;. See Bally Gum.
Gum, Bastard. See Gum, Cider.

Gum, Black, in North America (Nyssa uniflora Wangenh. =
N. tomentosa Michx.). See Tupelo.

Gum, Black, in South-East Australia (Hucalyptus stelluldta Sieb.),
known also as “‘ White, Green,” or ‘‘ Lead Gum,” “Sally,” and
‘* Box,” from 12—50 ft. high and 13—3 ft. in diam., but used only
as fuel,

Gum, Blue (Z#. globulus Labill.). South-Eastern Australasia.
Introduced into India, South Africa, California, and Southern
Europe as a supposed preventive of malaria. Height 200—
—350 ft.; diam. 6—25 ft. S.G. 698—1,108. W 43—75.
e’ 1:75. p’ -88. c 6,048. c’ -798. v’ -915. Pale straw-colour,
hard, heavy, moderately strong, tough, elastic, with curled and
twisted grain, planing well, durable, partially immune from Teredo ;
pith-rays very numerous, fine ; pores moderate-sized, round, grouped
or in lines. Used for fence-rails, telegraph-poles, bridge-building,
piles, shipbuilding, felloes, shafts, spokes, and implements ; exten-
sively for carriage-buildings, and formerly for sleepers, for which
E. rostrata is now preferred ; and classed in the third-line of Lloyd’s
Register for ship-building. The whalers of Hobart Town were
built of this wood, the most durable of Tasmanian hardwoods. It
is preferred to Jarrah or Karri for the piles driven in advance of

GUM 179

the shield in tunnelling. For Dover Harbour piles 70—100 ft.
long and 18 or 20 in. square have been employed. Being hardy
and quick-growing in any soil, in districts free from frost, this species
has been largely planted in many parts of the world—as, for instance,
in South Africa—for firewood and for mine-timbers. |

Gum, Blue (ZH. saligna Sm.). In New South Wales known
also as “Flooded, Grey, White,” or “‘Silky Gum,” or “ Grey
Box.” Height 40—120 ft. ; diam. 2—7 ft. S.G. 1,023. W 63—74.
Warm red-brown, wavy, very heavy, close- and cross-grained,
easily worked, difficult to season, strong and durable, but liable
to shakes. Excellent for sleepers, fencing, ships’ planks, spars,
paving, and building.

Gum, Blue, in Queensland (EH. tereticérnis). See Gum, Moun-
tain.

Gum, Bastard Blue and Scribbly Blue are names of EH. leucdaxylon.
See Ironbark.

Gum, Brown. See Mahogany, Swamp.

Gum, Cabbage (H. Sieberidna F. v. M.). Known also as “* Gum-
top Stringybark, Ironbark, Bastard,’ or ‘‘ White Ironbark, Green-
top, Silvertop,” and ‘“‘ Blackbutt ” in Tasmania, and as “‘ Mountain
Ash” in New South Wales. Height 40—150 ft. ; diam. 1—5 ft.
8.G. 896. W 55—60. Buff, moderately heavy, rather coarse and
cross-grained, very tough, easily worked, elastic, full of gum-veins,
seasoning badly, generally soft, whence its name, and doubtfully
durable. Used for posts, rails, building, furniture, and fuel.

Gum, Cider (ZH. Génnii Hook. fil.). Tasmania and South-
Eastern Australia, being known in the latter district as “‘ Sugar,
White, Swamp, Yellow,” or “ Bastard Gum.” Height 30 or
exceptionally 250 ft. S.G. 700—1,021. W 44. Light reddish-
brown, hard, tough, with a few gum-veins, often crooked. Chiefly
valuable for charcoal and for its sap.

Gum, Creek (H. rostrata). See Gum, Red.

Gum, Dreoping (H. wmindlis [See’ Gum, Manna] or L. pauci-
flora [See Gum, Mountain White)).

Gum, Flooded, a name applied to H. Gunnii [See Gum, Cider],
E. pauciflora [See Gum, Mountain White], HL. rostrata [See Gum,
Red], H. saligna [See Gum, Blue], LH. tereticornis [See Gum, Moun-
tain].

Gum, Giant (ZL. amygdalina). See Ash, Mountain.

Gum, Gimlet (H. salibris F. v. M.). West Australia. Known
also as “‘ Fluted Gum.” Height 120 or 156 ft. W 65—68. Dark

neutral brown, with warmer-coloured bands, tough, but easily
12—2

180 WOODS OF COMMERCE

worked. Used for shafts, implements, rough engraving, and
furniture.

Gum, Green (Z. stellulata). See Gum, Black.

Gum, Grey, a name applied to #. crébra [See Ircnbark, Grey],
E. goniocdlyx [See Box, Bastard], HL. largiflorens [See Gum, Slaty],
E. punctata [See Leatherjacket], EL. resinifera [See Mahogany],
E. saligna [See Gum, Blue], LH. tereticdrnis [See Gum, Mcuntain],
and £. vimindlis [See Gum, Manna].

Gum, Lead (£. stelluldta, Sieb.). See Gum, Black.

Gum, Manna (£. vimindlis Labill.). South-Eastern Australasia.
Known as ‘“‘ White” or “Swamp Gum” in Tasmania, as “ Grey,
Blue, Ribbony, Drooping,” or ‘‘ Weeping Gum,” or as “ Woolly
Butt”? in New South Wales, and as “ Box” or “ Peppermint
Gum” in Victoria. Height up to 320 ft.; diam. up to 17 ft.
S.G. 685—1,003. W 44—67-5. Buff to dull brick-colour or warm-
brown, moderately heavy, straight coarse-grained, full of gum-
veins, weak, easily worked, requirmg careful seasoning, only
durable underground. Used for palings, shingles, flooring, and
building material. The name is also applied to #. amygdalina.
[See Ash, Mountain].

Gum, Morrell (LZ. longicérnis F. v. M.). West Australia. W 56—
73. Carmine-red, heavy, very hard, fine-grained, planing oe
durable. Used i rafters and wheelwrights’ work.

Gum, Mcuntain (ZL. tereticdrnis Sm.), Eastern Australia. Known
also as “‘ Red, Flooded, Grey, Blue,” or “ Slaty Gum ” and “ Bas-
tard Box.” Aborig. ‘‘ Mungurra.” Height 40—150 ft. ; diam. 13—
4 or 6 ft. S.G. 843. W 52-5. Red-brown, resembling Cedar,
with cross, curly grain, lustrous, heavy, very hard, tough, with
some gum-veins, easy to dress, but difficult to season, very durable.
Largely used for fencing, naves, felloes, sleepers, telegraph-poles,
building, paving, fuel, etc.

Gum, Mountain White (2. pauciflora Sieb.). South-Eastern
Australasia. Known in Tasmania as “ Weeping Gum,” and in
Australia as ‘‘ White, Swamp, Drooping,” or ‘ Flooded Gum,”
‘** Peppermint ”’ or ‘‘ Mountain Ash.”’ Height 100 ft. ; diam. 2—4 ft.
White or buff, soft, straight but short-grained, full of gum-veins.
Used for fencing, and excellent for fuel.

Gum Nankeen (H. populifolia Hook.). North-East Australia.
Also known as “ White Gum, White, Red, Poplar,” or ‘‘ Bembil
Box.” Height 50—60 ft.; diam. 2 ft. Grey or light brown,
hard, heavy, close-grained, very tough, strong, hard to work, but
susceptible of a fine polish, liable to gum-veins and often unsound,
durable. Used for sleepers, posts, and building.

GUM 181

Gum, Peppermint. See Gum, Manna.

Gum, Red, a name applied in Australia to Angéphora lanceolata
[See Apple-tree], Hucaljptus amygdalina [See Ash, Mountain],
E. Ginnii [See Gum, Cider], EH. mellioddra [See Box, Yellow],
E. punctdta [See Leatherjacket], HL. resinifera [See Mahogany,
Forest], H. tereticérnis [See Gum, Mountain], and especially to
(i) EL. rostrdta and (ii) EH. calophgjlla. (i) E. rostrata Schlecht.
Eastern Australia. Known also as ‘‘ Creek, River, Forest, Flooded,
Blue, White, or Murray Red Gum,” or “* Yellow-jacket.” Aborig.
* Yarrah,” not to be confounded with Jarrah, though little inferior
to it. Height 30—80 or 100 ft. ; diam. 1—6 or 8 ft. S8.G. 790—
1,045. W 53:5—65. Dark red, with a pretty curly figure, mode-
rately heavy, exceedingly hard when dry, and therefore most
difficult to work, liable to twists and shakes in seasoning, but can
take a fine polish, very durable, termite- and teredo-proof. Highly
valued for ships’ beams, sleepers, piles, bridges, posts, building,
fencing, and charcoal ; but, owing to its hardness, only slightly for
furniture. This is the chief wood used for paving in Melbourne,
costing about £9 per 1,000 blocks, or 14s. per 100 feet super.
(ii) EZ. calophylla R. Br. of South-West Australia, reaching a height
of 150 ft., and 3 ft. diam. ; yields a yellowish-red, tough, but not
durable wood, with many gum-veins. W 47—72. Used for
wheels, handles, and building.

Gum, Red, in Tasmania (H#. Stuartidna). See Gum, Apple-
scented.

Gum, Red, in the United States, a trade name for Liquidambar
styraciflua. See Gum, Sweet.

Gum, Rusty. See Apple-tree.

Gum, Salmon (£. salmonophloia F. v. M.). West Australia.
W 60—79. Salmon-colour to dark red, fine-grained, exceedingly
hard and tough, difficult to split or plane, but readily sawn, durable.
Used for piles, mine-timbers, and wheelwrights’ work.

Gum, Scribbly (Hucalijptus hemdastoma Sm.). Queensland and
New South Wales. Known also as “‘Gum-top Stringybark ”’ of
Tasmania, and as ‘‘ Spotted, White,” or ‘‘ Blue Gum,” “ Black-
butt,” “‘ Mountain Ash,” etc. Height, 60—120 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft.
S.G. 1,101. W 68-75. Grey or reddish, wavy or stripy, often
crooked, close, smooth, short-grained, brittle, easily worked, not
durable. Used for coach-building, flooring, and fuel.

Gum, Slaty (Z. largiflorens F. v. M.). Eastern Australia. Known
also as “‘Cooburn, Black, Yellow, Bastard, or Grey Box,” or as
*“Tronbark.”’ Height 100—120 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft. Red, hard,
tough, durable, especially underground. Used for fencing, sleepers,

182 WOODS OF COMMERCE

building, cogs, ete. The name is also applied to £. tereticérnis.
[See Gum, Mountain. |

Gum, Sour. See Gum, Black.

Gum, Spotted, a name applied to Hucalyptus capitellata [See
Stringybark, White], LH. goniocdlyx [See Box, Bastard], H. hema-
stoma [See Gum, Seribbly], and 7’. maculata Hook. This last-men-
tioned species, native to Eastern Australia, reaches 100—150 ft.
in height, and 3—8 ft. in diam. S.G. 1,035—1,170. W 60—67.
Light yellow to walnut-brown, sometimes with a wavy figure,
heavy, close but very coarse in grain, with large gum-veins, strong,
tough, durable. In great demand for paving, girders, bridge, and
ship-building, shafts, naves, shingles, etc. It fetches 2s. a cubic
foot in London.

Gum, Sugar (LZ. corynocdlyx F. v. M.). South Australia. Height
120 ft. ; diam. 5—6 ft. Yellowish-white, very heavy, hard, strong
and durable, termite- and teredo-proof, not warping. Used for
sleepers, piles, planks, fencing, wheels. The name is also applied
to H. Ginnii. [See Gum, Cider. |

Gum, Swamp. See Gum, Cider, Manna, and Mountain White.

Gum, Sweet (Liquidambar styraciflua L.: Order Hamameldcee).
Eastern United States. ‘‘ Bilsted ’ or ‘‘ Red Gum,” ‘ Californian
Red Gum ” (though shipped from New Orleans). ‘‘ Satin Walnut,”
“Hazel Pine.” French ‘‘ Copalm,” Germ. “‘ Storaxbaum,” Span.
“ Liquid-ambar.”’ Height 100 ft. or more; diam. 4—5 ft. S.G.
591. W 36-8—59-5. R 651 kilos. Sapwood cream-white ; heart
irregular, reddish-brown, with dark false rings, rather heavy,
close-grained, soft, tough, free from knots, taking a satiny polish,
warping and twisting badly in drying, unless first steamed. Used
for furniture, veneers, turnery, shingles, and clap-boards, and,
though little suited for the purpose, for paving. It is commonly
supposed in the timber-trade that ‘‘ Hazel Pine ” is merely a trade
name for the sapwood and ‘“‘ Satin Walnut ” for the heart, whilst,
with equal ingenuity, the wood when offered for paving purposes
was dubbed ‘ Californian Red Gum.” As a matter of fact, whilst
the so-called Satin Walnut is often beautifully marked with the
rich dark stripe of the false rings, which makes it a favourite wood
for cheap furniture, the so-called Hazel Pine is the same species
grown in low-lying, swampy districts where the dark colouring-
matter is not developed. The vessels are filled with a hygroscopic
gum, which renders the wood very susceptible to changes in the
moisture of the atmosphere, and causes it to both twist longitudin-
ally and warp transversely. Satin Walnut is, therefore, only used
for cheap bedroom furniture, not being fit for rooms in which fires
are lit. The Hazel Pine is largely imported in planed boards,

HICKORY—HONEYSUCKLE 187

Hickory, in Australia, is applied to Acdcia binervata [See Wattle,
Black], A. doratéxylon [See Spearwood], A. falcita [See Myall,
Bastard], A. melandxylon [See Blackwood], Hucalyptus punctdta
[See Leatherjacket], HL. resinifera [See Mahogany], and Polyosma
Cunninghémit [See Feather-wood].

Hinau (Eleocérpus dentitus Vahl.: Order Tilidcee). New
Zealand. S.G. 562. W 33—39-25. p 125. Small, light dull
brown, very fine and close-grained, very tough, strong, and
durable, almost incombustible. Used for sleepers, fencing, etc.

Hinoki (Cupréssus obttisa Koch: Order Cupressinee). Japan.
“ Japanese Cypress.” Germ. “‘ Feuercypresse, Sonnencypresse.”’
Height 70—100 ft.; diam. 24—3 ft. Sapwood yellowish-white ;
heart rose-red, fragrant, strong, fine-grained, taking a high polish.
One of the best of Japanese timbers, held sacred by the followers
of the Shinto faith, whose temples are built of it, as also are the
palaces of the Mikado. It is also the best for lacquering.

Holly (Ilex Aquifolium L.: Order Ilicinee). Central Europe
and West Asia. French ‘‘ Houx.” Germ. “‘Stechbaum, Hulse,
Christdorn.”” Height 10—40 or 80 ft. ; diam. 1—4 or 5 ft. W 47—
60. White to greenish-white, fine-grained, with fine but distinct
rings and pith-rays, vessels scarcely visible, approaching ivory in
colour and texture more than any other wood, hard, heavy, sus-
ceptible of a high polish, but shrinking and warping very much.
Used, in the round, for engraving, especially in calico-printing ;
for staining as imitation Ebony, as in the wooden handles of metal
tea-pots ; in veneers, especially for white or stained strings in
inlaying, as in Tunbridge ware ; and also for walking-sticks and tool-
handles.

Holly, American (Ilex opdca Ait.). Eastern United States.
Height 50 ft.; diam. 3—4 ft. S.G. 582. W 36. R 686 kilos.
Similar to the European species and similarly used.

Holly, Smooth (Hedycarya angustifolia A. Cunn.: Order Moni-
midcee). Eastern Australia. ‘‘ Native Mulberry.” Small, very
light, close-grained, and tough. Used by the aborigines for fire-
sticks and spears, and fit for cabinet-work.

Honey, Locust. See Locust, Honey.

Honeysuckle, a general name in Australasia for species of Banksia
(Order Proteccee), especially B. margindta and B. serrata.

B. margindta Cav. (=B. austrdlis R. Br.). South-Eastern
Australasia. Height 10—20 or 40 ft. S8.G. 598—610. W 38.
When fresh cut resembling raw beef, with reddish-white sapwood,
light, soft, porous, twisting and warping; but, when thoroughly
seasoned, hard, susceptible of a fine polish, and beautifully figured.
Used for cabinet-work.

188 WOODS OF COMMERCE

B. serrata Linn. fil. Eastern Australasia. §S.G. 803. W 39—
50. Dark red, mahogany-like, handsome, finely figured, coarse
and open-grained, strong, requiring careful seasoning, much bored
by beetles. Used for window-frames and boats’-knees, and might
be used for furniture. (See Appendix IV.)

Honeysuckle, Coast (Banksia integrifolia L.). Eastern Australia.
Known also as “ Beefwood.” Height 20—30 ft.; diam. 1 ft.
S.G. 799. W 50—39. Pink, beautifully grained, moderately
dense, tough, durable when not exposed. Used for boats’-
knees, etc.

Honeysuckle, Silvery. See Beefwood.

Honeysuckle in New Zealand (Rymdndra eacélsa). See Rewa-
rewa.

Honeysuckle-wood in the United States (Pldatanus occidentalis).
See Plane.

Honoki (Magnolia hypoléuca 8. and Z.: Order Magnoliacee).
Japan. Height 50 ft.; diam. 24 ft. A dense, hard, ornamental
wood, used for tables, wocden shoes, pencils, and for charcoal.

Hoobooballi (? Stryphnodéndron guianénsé Benth. =Mimosa gui-
anénsis Aubl.: Order Legumindse). British Guiana. Height
100 ft. ; diam, 2—3 ft. W 55-75. Sapwood white, heart whitish-
brown, with dark concentric streaks, very ornamental, durable
in contact with water. Suitable for cabinet-work.

Hoop Pine. See Pine, Mereton Bay.

Horco Cebil (Piptadenia communis Benth.: Order Leguminose).
Northern Argentina. Yielding timber 15 ft. long and 28 in. square,
of a light Mahogany colour, as hard as Box, close and smooth-
grained, but not withstanding moisture. Very useful for beams,
cabinet-work, etc.

Horeo mollo (Lumélia obtusifolia Roem. and Schutt.: Order
Sapotacee). Argentina. Light red-brown, fine and even-grained,
easily worked. Useful for building.

Hornbeam (Carpinus Bétulus L.: Order Coryldcece). Central
Europe and West Asia. French ‘‘ Charme.” Germ. “ Weiss-
buche,”’ ‘‘ Hainbuche.” Height 40—50, sometimes 70 ft. ; diam. 1,
rarely reaching 33 ft. S.G. 1,250—759. W '75:6—45. c 6,405.
c’ -846. v’ 1:087. Yellowish-white, close-grained, heavy, hard,
very tough, strong, difficult to split, somewhat lustrous, and very
durable if kept dry; pores minute, in radial lines; broad pith-
rays lighter than the rest of the wood; annual rings very sinuous,
bending outward between the broad pith-rays. Used for handles,
mallets, lasts, skittles, etc., unequalled for cogs and bearers for
printers’ rollers, and excellent for fuel, and imported in considerable
quantities from France. Value 2s. 3d. per cubic foot. We have

HORNBEAM—IROKO 189

seen the similar timber of C. dwinénsis Scop. (= C. orientalis Lam.)
of South-Eastern Europe labelled *‘ Oriental Beech.”

Hornbeam, American (Carpinus Carolinidna Walt.). Hastern
North America. Known also as ‘‘ Blue” or ‘‘ Water Beech ” and
**Tronwood.” Height sometimes 50 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. 8.G. 728.
W 45:4. R 1,149 kilos. Used to a small extent for handles,
mallets, levers, and hoops ; but apparently slightly inferior to the
European species.

Hornbeam, Hop (Ostrya virginica Willd.: Order Corylacee).
Eastern North America. ‘‘ Stonewood, Ironwood, Leverwood.”’
French ‘Bois dur.” Germ. ‘‘ Amerikanische Hopfenbuche.”’
Height 50 ft. ; diam. 2 ft. S.G. 828. W 47-5—58. R 1,134 kilos.
Sapwood whitish ; heart dull brownish, heavy, hard, very strong
and tough, durable. Used for fence-posts, handles, levers, etc.,
but scarce: excellent fuel. The Hop-Hornbeam of Southern
Europe and Asia Minor (Ostrya carpinifolia Scop.) is a similar but
reddish wood resembling Pear, and suitable for turnery, or as a
substitute for Hornbeam.

Horse-chestnut (4sculus Hippocastanum L.: Order Sapin-
ddcee). Supposed to be a native of Asia; but largely grown for
shade throughout Europe and the United States. French “ Mar-
ronier d’Inde.”” Germ. ‘‘ Roszkastanie.”? Height sometimes 80 ft. ;
diam. 3—4 ft. W 60—29-5. White, or slightly yellowish or
reddish, soft, close-grained, warping little, not durable, being
deficient in tannin and resin; annual rings wide, circular ; pith-
rays narrow, numerous, indistinct; vessels small, numerous,
uniformly distributed, 1—7 together; pith large, round. Wood
similar in character to Willow and Poplar. Used for flooring,
cart-linings, barrows, packing-cases, blind-wood in cabinet-making,
moulds for castings ; and, in France, for sabots. [See Buck-eye,
Tochi. |

Huon Pine (Dacrydium Franklinii Hook. fil.: Order Conifere).
Tasmania. Also known as “‘ Macquarie Pine.” Height 60—80 or
100 ft. ; diam. 3—6 ft. W 33. Light yellow, very beautifully marked
with dark wavy lines and small knots, light, close-grained, tough,
easily worked, susceptible of a good polish, durable, noxious to
insects. Used for boat-building, carving, and bedroom furniture,
and burns briskly with an aromatic fragrance ; but is now quite
scarce.

Iilupi. See Mahwa. 7
Ipil. See Epel.

Iroko (Chloréphora excélsa Benth. and Hook. fil. : Order Mordcee).
Tropical West Africa, principally Southern Nigeria. ‘ Iroko ”’
in Yorubu land, ‘‘Odum” in Guinea, “ Mbundu” in Uluguru,

190 WOODS OF COMMERCE

‘*Muamba-Camba ” in Angola. Reaching large dimensions up to
3 ft. square. W 39—49. R 34,951 Ibs. Yellowish or brownish,
with dark zones, becoming with age a rich dark brown, handsome,
moderately hard and strong, straight, coarse and open in grain,
and very durable, proof against termites and other xylophagous
insects. This wood has probably a great future on the European
market, being one of the finest known substitutes for Teak, which
it resembles in colour, and, when sawn tangentially, in texture.
Though inferior to Burmese Teak, it is superior to Javanese, being
worth 6s. per cubic foot. It is at present used in West Africa
for railway-sleepers and building purposes. The grain picks out
so that it will not polish.

Ironbark, a name applied to various species of Hucalyptus
(Order Myrtacee). In Tasmania, FL. Sieberidna [See Gum, Cabbage].
In Australia, #. largiflorens [See Gum, Slaty], L. macrorrhyncha
[See Stringybark], and especially EH. leucdxylon and EH. siderophloia.
E. leucézylon F. v. M. South-Eastern Australia. Known also
as “ Black” or ‘‘ Red Ironbark, Black Mountain Ash, White,
Bastard,” or “‘ Scribbly Blue Gum.” Height up to 200 ft.; diam.
2—5 ft. S.G. 1,173—908. W 73-26—63-5. Light brown,
yellowish or pale pinkish-white, close- and straight-grained, hard,
very strong, tough, and durable, both in water and in the ground,
slightly greasy, which renders it suitable for cogs. It is also used
for naves and felloes, sleepers, piles, planks, telegraph-poles,
fence-posts, axe-handles, beams, rafters, tree-nails, and screws.
An allied form, E. sideréxylon A. Cunn. in New South Wales, has
darker and heavier wood, similarly employed, and furnishing one
of the best fuels in the country. £. siderophloia Benth. New
South Wales and South Queensland. Known also as “ Red”
or ‘‘ Broad-leaved Ironbark.” Aborig. ‘‘Tanderoo.” Height
70—100 ft.; diam. 14—4 ft. S.G. 1,171—936. W 71-5—64.
e’ 2:16. p’ 1:74. c 8,377. c’ 1-106. v’ 1-348. Deep red, very
hard, heavy, strong, rigid, and difficult to work, plain and straight-
erained, liable to heart- and star-shake ; pores very minute, filled
with a hard, white, brittle secretion. Used for beams, keelsons
in ship-building, piles, sleepers, and paving, being one of the strongest
and most durable of Australian timbers.

Ircnbark, Grey (EZ. crébra F. v. M.). Eastern Australia. Known
also as ‘‘ White, Red,” or ‘“‘ Narrow-leaved Ironbark,” or ‘“‘ Grey
Gum.” Height 70—90 ft.; diam. 14—3 ft. S.G. 1,119—1,211.
Dark purplish or brown, hard, very heavy, tough, cross-grained, hard
to work, durable. Used for sleepers, piles, fence-posts, spokes, etc.

Ironbark, White (H#. paniculata Smith). Eastern Australia.

Known also as “ Red, Pale,” or ‘“‘ She Ironbark,” and as “ Blood-
wood.” Height 70—150 ft. ; diam. 3—4 ft. W 71—76. Brown,

IRONWOOD 191

heavy, very hard, tough, strong, seasoning and working well,
durable. Perhaps the most valuable Ironbark: much used for
sleepers and other railway work, fence-posts, beams, etc. [See
also Gum, Cabbage. |

Ironwood, a name applied to many widely different timbers in
various countries; but to a greater variety in Australia than elsewhere.

(i) Acacia excélsa Benth. (Order Legumindse). Queensland.
Height 70—80 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft. Violet-scented, ornamental,
hard, close-grained, tough, elastic. A cabinet wood.

(ii) A. stenophylla A. Cunn. Eastern Australia. Known also as
“Dalby Myall.”” Height 40—60 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. Dark, beauti-
fully marked, very hard, heavy, close-grained, taking a fine polish.

(iii) Casuarina equisetifolia Forst. (Order Casuarinee). See
Oak, Swamp.

(iv) Melaletica genistifolia Sm. (Order Myrtdcee). North-Eastern
Australia. Known also as “‘ Ridge Myrtle.” Height 30—40 ft. ;
diam. 14—2 ft. Greyish, close-grained, hard, durable.

(v) Myrtus gonoclada F. v. M. (Order Myrtdacee). North Queens-
land. Very hard, and suggested for engraving.

(vi) Noteléa ligustrina Vent. (Order Oledcee). South-Eastern
Australasia. Known also as “ Native Olive, Heartwood” in Tas-
mania, and as “Spurious Olive,” or ‘‘ White Plum ”’ in Victoria.
Height 30 ft. ; diam. 1 ft. S.G.925. Irregularly figured, like Olive
wood, exceedingly hard and close-grained, and taking a fine polish.
Used for mallets, blocks, and turnery.

(vii) Olea paniculata. See Marblewood.

(viii) Tarriétia argyrodéndron. See Silver-tree.

In Borneo and the Straits Settlements (ix) Husideroxylon Zwagérit
is so called. See Billian.

In Burma (x) X¢lia dolabriformis goes by this name. See Acle.

In Cape Colony (xi-xv) Olea lawrifélia Lam. (Order Oledcee).
60—90 ft. high and 2—3 ft. in diam. O. undulata Jacq., O. capénsis
L., O. exasperdta Jacq., and O. verrucésa Link., ‘‘ Olyvenhout ”’ or
“Umguma,” all very similar and nearly equal to Lignum-Vite,
are known as “ Black Ironwood,’ W 54:6, used for guides for
stamps in gold-crushing; whilst (xvi) V'odddlia lanceolata Lam.
(Order Xanthoxylacee) is known as “ White Ironwood” [See
Umzimbit], and (xvii) Sideroxylon inérmé L. (Order Sapotdcee),
which occurs along the east coast of Africa from the Cape to Zanzi-
bar, a very heavy, hard, close-grained, durable, greyish-yellow
wood, with brownish-red markings, used in ship- and bridge-building,
and for telegraph-poles, is known as ** White Ironwood of Mauritius,”
and also as “‘ Soft ” or “‘ White Milkwood ” in South Africa. Copat-
fera Mopdné Kirk, which occurs from Guinea to Mozambique, is
(xviii) also known as “* Ironwood.” [See Mopane. |

In Ceylon and India the name “‘ Ironwood ”’ is applied to (xix)

192 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Mésua férrea L. (Order Guttifere), also known as “ Indian Rose-
chestnut.”” Hind. ** Nagesar.”? Assam. *‘ Nahocr.”’ Andaman and
Burm. ** Gangaw.” Height 20 ft. or more ; diam. 1—2 ft. W 69—
77. Dark red, extremely hard and difficult to work, taking a high
polish, strong, durable. Used for gun-stocks, handles, wood-
paving, and building, and suitable for furniture. “‘ Black Iron-
wood ”’ is here (xx) Condalia férrea Griseb. (Order Rhamndcee).
S.G. 1,300. W 85.

The Irenwocd of China and Japan, used for rudders and anchors,
is believed to be (xxi) Metrosidéros véra Rumph. (Order Myrtacee),
occurring in the Malay Archipelago, and known in Amboyna as
“Nani”: that of Guiana and Honduras is (xxii) Laplacea Hemat-
é6xylon Camb. (Order Camellidcee), also known as “ Blcod-
wood,” and used for cogs ; whilst in Jamaica (xxiii) Slodnea jamai-
cénsis Hook. (Order Tilidcew), known also as “‘ Break-axe,”’ and
(xxiv) Erythroxylon areolatum L., also known as “‘ Redwood,” are
also so named. The latter has a light reddish-brown sapwood
and dark heart, with some figure. It is durable in water, and is
used for mill-frames and cogs.

Ironwood, Morocco (xxv). See Argan.

In Natal, besides the White Ironwood [See Umzimbit], there is
(xxvi) Olea laurifélia Lam., known as “‘ Black Ironwood,” Zulu
‘““Tamboti.”” Height 40—70 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft. W 64:68—73-5.
E 896 tons. 7:84. fe4:79. Brown with dark streaks, resembling
Olive, and suitable for turnery.

In New Zealand the name is applied to (xxviil-xxix) Metrosidéros
robusta and M. lucida A. Rich. [See Rata] and to WM. tomentésa
A. Cunn., Maori “ Pohutakawa.” This last yields timber 10—
20 ft. long, and 9—16 in. square, with 8.G. 1,200—858, dark red
or walnut-brown, very heavy, hard, close-grained, strong and
durable, suitable for ship-building.

In the United States (xxx) Carpinus caroliniadna is sometimes
called Ironwood [See Hornbeam, American]; but in New Mexico
the name is applied to (xxxi) Olneya Tesota, A. Gray (Order Legumi-
nose). In Persia (xxxii) Parrétia pérsica (Order Hamamelida-
cee) ; and in the island of Réunion (xxxiii) Stadmannia sideroxylon
DC. (Order Sapinddcee) is so called.

Irosun or Osun, the native name of several West African woods.
[See Camwood and Rosewood, African. |

Ivory Wood (Siphdénodon australé Benth.: Order Celastrdacee).
North-East Australia. Not plentiful, tall, straight, diam. 1 ft.,
white, very close-grained, firm, easily worked. Used for spools
and turnery, but suitable for engraving.

Jacaranda, the Brazilian name for various species of Dalbérgia
and Macherium (Order Leguminése), known in English commerce

JACK—JARRAH 193

as Rosewood, including Jacaranda eabiuna (Dalbérgia nigra Allem.),
Jacaranda roxa (Macherium firmum Benth.), and Jacasanda preto
(M. legalé Benth.). See Rosewood.

Jack (Artocarpus integrifolia L.: Order Mordcee). India.
Beng. “Kanthal.” Sinh. “ Kos.” Brazil. “Jaqueira.”” Some-
times known as “ Orangewood.” Height 80—100 ft. ; diam. 2—
5 ft. §8.G. 554—676. W 35-6—45. Yellow or orange, darkening
on exposure to a dull red or mahogany colour, somewhat coarse and
crooked in grain, moderately hard, requiring thorough seasoning
to check warping, taking a good polish ; but brittle when dry and
not tolerant of alternations or dryness and damp. Used as a
yellow dye, for house- and boat-building, furniture, musical instru-
ments, grain-measures, and in England for cabinet-work, marquetry,
turning, and the backs of brushes.

Jack, Jungle. See Angelly.

Jack, Long (Flindérsia Oxleyana F. v. M.: Order Melidcee).
North-Eastern Australia. Known also as “‘ Light Yellow Wood.”
Height 80—100 ft. ; diam. 2—3} ft. Yellow, often pretty, light,
fine-grained, strong, durable, almost tremite-proof. Used for
hand-screws and buggy-shafts, in boat-building and cabinet-work
as a substitute for Cedar and often coming to market as “* Beech ’”’—
d.e., Gmelina Leichhardtii [See Beech] ; but not so valuable.

Jambolana (Syzygium Jambolana DC.: Order Myrtdcee). India,
Ceylon, Mauritius, Australia. Port. “‘Jambu.” Hind. “ Ja-
moon.” Beng. “Jam.” Mahr. “Jambool.” Tam. “Nagal.”’
Austral. aborig. “‘ Durobbi.” Height 80—100 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft.
W 49. Flesh-colour or red, hard, firm, close-grained, durable,
shrinking little in drying, resisting the action of water or termites.
Used for sleepers, building, carts, well-work, and agricultural
implements.

Jam-wood. See Myall (iii).

Jarrah (Hucalyptus margindta Sm.: Order Myrtdacee). South-
Western Australia. Sometimes known as ‘“ Mahogany” or
* Bastard Mahogany,” a name which has led to ruinous customs-
tarifis. Height 90—150 ft. ; diam. 3—5 or sometimes 10 ft. S.G.
837—1,120. W 48—76. E 620 tons. e’ -66. p 2,113—10,000.
p 85. f 413. ft 7-20-46. fe 3-04. c¢ 2,940. c’ -388. v’ -937.
Straight-grown, and, even when unsound in the centre, yielding
timber 20—40 ft. long and 1—2 ft. square, red, mahogany-like in
colour, sometimes exhibiting a ray of light across the grain and a
beautiful mottling, and sometimes curled in grain, very heavy,
hard, close-grained, working smoothly, taking a good polish, and,
when sound, extremely durable, resisting the action of damp,

water, earth, or rust, and very uninflammable. This most valuable
13

194 WOODS OF COMMERCE

of Australian timbers is stated to cover 14,000 square miles ; but
the best timber grows only on the ironstone ridges. It should be
cut when the sap is at its lowest ebb and banded if in the round, or
seasoned one month for every inch in thickness if in scantlings.
Its durability is due to from 16— 20 per cent. of a powerfully
astringent gum, mainly consisting of an acid allied to tannic, which
is present in the heartwood when sound. Burrs are sometimes
formed on the trees, from 6—10 ft. across, and equal to those of
Oak or Walnut in their figure. For ship-building Jarrah is classed
in line 3 of Lloyd’s Register : it can be used without copper-sheath-
ing: while cheaper in India than Teak when in the log, and only
half its price in scantlings, roof-shingles made of it are almost
uninflammable ; and it is largely used for sleepers, telegraph-poles,
piles, dock gates, and keelsons, but especially for wood paving-
blocks, for which purpose it has been largely employed. Jarrah
sleepers are apt to split in manufacture, and when in small scantlings
this timber twists and changes in shape for years. It can appar-
ently be much improved in this respect by impregnation. Its price
in England is about £7 per ton, or from £9 10s. to £13 10s. per 1,000
blocks, the freight alone being 50—60 shillings a ton. The orna-
mental varieties are valued for furniture, in spite of their great
weight ; and the wood also yields an excellent charcoal.

Jarul (Lagerstremia flos-regine Retz.: Order Lythracee). India,
Burma, and Ceylon. “‘ Queen Lagerstroemia.’? Sansk. “‘ Stotu-
lari.” Hind. “ Jarul.” Burm. ‘“ Pym-mah.” Sinh. “ Muruta.”’
Height 30 ft. to first branch ; diam. 4 ft. S.G. 744. W 41—46-5.
EK 544 tons. / 5:22. fe 2:76. fs -337. R 822 lbs. Light red,
hard, lustrous, durable under water. The most valuable timber of
North-East India and second only to Teak in Burma. Chiefly
used in boat-building, often yielding compass-timber suitable for
knees ; but also for naves, felloes, waggon-frames, gun-carriages,
and. building.

Jati. See Teak.

Jelutong (Dyera costuldta Hook. fil.: Order Apocyndcee). Malay
peninsula. Used locally for planks, ete.

Jhand (Prosdépis spicigera L.: Order Legumindse). Persia,
Afghanistan, Western India. A moderate-sized tree, yielding
timber 9 in. square, purplish-brown, straight-grained, very hard,
tough and strong, easily worked, but not durable. Used for wheels,
carts, agricultural implements, weavers’ shuttles, furniture, and
building.

Judas-tree (Cércis Siliquastrum L. : Order Leguminése). Southern
Europe and Warmer Temperate Asia. Known also as “‘ Love-tree.”’
French ‘‘ Arbre de Judée, Gainier.”” Germ. ‘‘ Judasbaum.”’ Sap-
wood white ; heart brownish-yellow, veined with black, handsome,

JUNIPER—KAMASSI 195

hard, taking an excellent polish ; rings distinct ; pith-rays moderately
broad ; vessels in spring-wood large, those in the summer-wood
much smaller, 1—8 together.

Juniper (Juniperus communis L.: Order Cupressinee). Europe,
Northern Asia, and North America. Amer. ‘‘ Ground Cedavr.’’
French ** Genévrier.” Germ. ‘‘ Wachholder.” Height 15—20 ft.
or more; diam. seldom considerable. 8.G. 660. W 33—41.
Sapwood narrow, yellowish ; heart light yellowish-brown, fragrant,
fine and close-grained, with no resin-ducts, no distinguishable
pith-rays, wavy annual rings marked by narrow reddish-brown
zone of autumn-wood, tolerably heavy, soft, difficult to split, very
durable. Used, on the continent of Europe, for whip-handles,
vine-stakes, buckets, and turnery. Very similar in character to
the wood of Cupréssus and Thija, and with similar burrs.

Juniper, Indian (Juniperus macropoda Bois.). Afghanistan,
Biluchistan, Himalaya to Nepal. ‘‘ Himalayan Pencil-Cedar.”’
Height 30—45 or 70 ft. ; diam. 1—7 ft. Light, moderately hard,
very fragrant, deep red, often purplish, easy to work, durable.
Often the only valuable timber, as near Quetta. Used for building
and carpentry.

In Australia the name “‘ Native Juniper ”’ is applied to Myopérum
serrdtum R.Br. (Order Myoporinee), known also as “‘ Blueberry,
Native Currant, Native Myrtle,” and ‘‘ Cockatoo Bush.” S.G.
809—819. White, hard, durable when protected, but small. Used
for inlaying.

Kaddam (Siephegyne parvifolia Korth.: Order Rubidcee). India,
Burma, Ceylon. Height 70—80 ft. ; diam. 2—5 ft. W 37. Light
pinkish-brown or deep yellow, easily worked, taking a good polish,
durable if kept dry. Used for building, furniture, carving, and
turnery.

Kafir Date or Plum. See Date, Kafir.
Kahikatea. See Pine, White, of New Zealand.

Kakeralli (Lécythis Ollaria L.: Order Lecythiddcee). Tropical
America. “‘Monkey-pot, Sapucaia-nut.” W 61. Large, dense,
even and smooth-grained, brown, durable, teredo-proof. Used
in wharf- and house-building.

Kamahi (Weinmannia racemosa L.: Order Saxifragdcee). New
Zealand. “'Towhai.’” W 45-25. Dark reddish-brown, fine-
grained, soft.

Kamassi (Gonioma Kamdssi KE. Mey.: Order Apocynidcee).
Cape Colony. ‘“‘ Cape, East London,” or ‘“‘ Knysna Boxwood.’’
Height 16—20 ft.; diam. 1—1}4 ft. W 58. Close-grained, hard,
tough, heavy. One of the finest woods in South Africa, but small.

13—2

196 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Used for cabinet-work, planes and other carpenters’ tools, and
suitable for engraving.

Kapor. See Camphor, Borneo.
Karamatsu. See Larch, Japanese.

Karri (Lucalyptus diversicolor F. v. M.: Order Myrtdaceew). South-
West Australia. Sometimes known as “Blue Gum.” Height
300—400 ft.; diam. 3—12 ft. S.G. 1,023—885. W 50—72.
E. 760.tons. e’ 2°10. p’ 1:05. /(6:20. fe2-92. ¢7 070 =e eet
Reddish, very heavy, slightly wavy or curled in grain, but without
ornamental figure, hard, tough, strong, elastic, not so easily wrought
as Jarrah, subject to star-shake and gum-veins, durable under
water or when exposed to alternate drought and wet, but not
between wind and earth, comparatively non-inflammable, but
more liable to dry-rot than Jarrah. Much used locally for wheels,
ship-building, and planks, being classed in the third-line of Lloyd’s
Register, suited for piles and bridges, and coming into use for
paving-blocks, waggon-building, and for furniture. Stated to
cover 2,300 miles of country.

Katsura (Cercidiphyllum japonicum 8. and Z.: Order Magnoli-
acee). Hokkaido, Japan. Height 80 ft.; diam. 3 ft. Used in
building, carpentry, and turnery.

Kauri (Agathis australis Salisb. = Dammara australis Lamb. :
Order Araucarinee). North Island, New Zealand. ‘“ Kauri” or
‘*Cowdie Pine.” Height 120—200 ft.; diam. 4—10 or 20 ft. at
base. S8.G. 498—623. W 38-96—37-4. E 470 tons. e’ 1:-78—
1°39. p’ 1-01—79.. f 2:16. fe 2°03. ¢ 4,543. c’ *6. “wo -769:
Sapwood 3—5 in. wide, very resinous : heart yellowish-white to
brown, clean, fine, close and straight in grain, moderately hard for
Pine, very firm, strong and elastic, generally sound or with slight
heart-shake, shrinking very little in seasoning, planing up well, with
a beautiful silky lustre like the plainest Satinwood, taking a good
polish, staining well, wearing even, without splintermg, and more
durable than any other Pine, except where exposed to the teredo.
It is sometimes richly mottled or “curly.” Unrivalled for masts
and spars, valuable for the decks of yachts owing to its freedom
from knots and regularity of grain, used also for sleepers, telegraph-
posts, house-building, and joinery. It is the most valuable forest-
tree of New Zealand and the soft wood of the country ; but the
supply is limited, and, though there is a considerable export trade
to Australia, the cost of freight limits its employment elsewhere.
It is imported only in the form of sawn planks, its price in London
auctions being from 3s. 3d. to 4s. 6d. per cubic foot.

Kauri, Queensland. See Pine, Dundatha.

KAYA—KIRTON-WOOD 19%

Kaya (Torreya nucifera S. and Z.: Order Taxacee). Japan.
“‘ Japanese Torreya.” French ‘‘ Porte-noix Torréya.” Height
20—30 or 80 ft.; diam. up to 4—5 ft. Yellowish-white, hard,
straight-grained, strong. Much valued for building and cabinet-
making.

Keurboom (Virgilia capénsis Lam.: Order Legumindse). Cape
Colony. Height 15—40 ft.; diam. 14—2 ft. W 44:2. Light,
moderately hard, open-grained. Occasionally used for rafters.
spears, etc.

Keyaki (Zelkowa acuminata Planch.: Order Ulmadcee). Japan.
“Japanese Elm.” The best deciduous timber-tree in Japan.
Used for common lacquered ware.

Khair (Acdcia-Catechu Willd.: Order Legumindse). Punjaub—
Berar. A. catechuoides Benth. Bengal—Burma, and A. Sundra
DC. Western India. ‘‘ Cutch,. Kath.” Burm. ‘Sha.’ Dark
red-brown to light brick-red, very hard, heavy, and durable, termite-
and teredo-proof, and taking a fine polish ; but chiefly used as a
source of the tanning extract catechu.

Kharpat (Gariga pinndta Roxb.: Order Burserdcee). India
and Burma. Mahr. ‘“‘ Kooruk.” Telug. “‘ Garuga.” Height 40 ft.
to first branch; diam. 3 ft. W 52. Reddish, moderately hard,
seasoning well, but not durable. Occasionally used for building
or for fuel.

Khat (Cdtha édulis Forsk.: Order Celastrinee). East Africa.
Seldom more than a shrub, but yielding a beautiful reddish-white
wood, with zones of darker red, very hard and heavy.

Kiabooca. See Amboyna-wood.

Kiamil (Odina Wodier Roxb.: Order Anacardidacee =Calésium
grandé O.K.). India, Burma, Ceylon. Burm. “‘ Na-bhay.” Tam.
“ Ooday.” Telug. ‘“‘Goompana.” Height 50 ft. to first branch ;
diam. 4 ft. S.G. 656. W 41—65. Light-red when first cut,
darkening to red-brown on exposure, close-grained, moderately
hard, seasoning well but slowly, requiring two or three years, not
warping, not very durable. Used for spear-shafts, scabbards,
spokes, oil-presses and rice-pounders, suitable for cabinet-work.

Kino. See Rosewood, African.

Kino, Indian. See Teak, Bastard.

Kirni (Mimusops Kaiki L.: Order Sapotacee). India, Burma,
and represented by a variety, Brownidna A.DC. in tropical Australia.
Port. ““ Poma d’Adeo.” Hind. “‘ Kirni.”” Malay. ‘‘ Manil kara.”

‘““Tronwood ”’? in commerce. Red, fine-grained, very hard, easily
worked.

Kirton-wood. See Ash, Mountain.

198 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Kizi (Paulownia imperidlis S. and Z.: Order Scrophularidcee).
Japan. A moderate-sized tree, yielding a soft, white, very light
wood, employed for the finest lacquer ware.

Knobthorn (Zanthoxylum capénsé Harv.: =Fagardstrum capénsé
D.Don.: Order Rutdcee). South Africa. ‘‘ Knobhout, Paarde-
pram.” Height 50—60 ft.; diam. 1 ft. W 44-75—48-5. Sap-
wood greenish-yellow, heart brown, heavy, hard, close-grained.
Used for axles, tools, etc.

Kohekohe (Dysoxylum spectabilé Hook. f.: Order Melidcee).
New Zealand. ‘“ Redheart.” S.G. 678. W 36—42. p 117-4.
Sapwood brown, heart rose-red, soft, fine-grained, easily worked.
Used for cabinet-work.

Kola (Cola acuminata R. Br. : Order Sterculidcee). West Africa ;
introduced into tropical America. Height 40 ft. Whitish, light,
porous, Poplar-like wood, obnoxious to insects. Used in boat and
waggon-building and for tables.

Kolavu (Hardwickia pinndta Roxb.: Order Leguminése). South-
West India. Brown, moderately hard. Used in building.

Kosum (Schléichera trijuga Willd.: Order Sapinddcee). India,
Burma, Ceylon. ‘“‘ Ceylon Oak.” Beng. “‘ Koon.” Mahr. “ Ku-
soombh.” Sinh. “Kon.” Tam. ‘“ Kulu” or “ Puvu.” Height
50 ft.; diam. 1—4 ft. W 60—70. Red, very heavy and hard,’
strong, durable, but not large. Used for axles, spokes, pestles,
sugar-crushers, and screw rollers for mills, beams and trusses.

Kowhai (Sophora tetraptera var. grandiflora Ait.: Order Legumi-
nose). New Zealand. S.G. 884. W 48:75—55. p 207-5.
Brownish-white, very hard and tough. Used for cogs.

Kranji (Didlium: Order Leguminose). Malay peninsula, Java,
Borneo. ‘‘ Tamarind Plum.” A general Malay name for five or
six species, D. indum L., D. laurinum Baker, D. Maingayi Baker,
D. patens Baker, and D. platysepalum Baker, the last being known
as “‘ Kranji sepan.” They are 50—80 ft. high, 4—5 ft. in diam.
W 67. S.G. 956—1,067. e’ 3:4.. p’ 1:83. c¢ 10,920. c’ 1-442.
Sapwood whitish, heart red, very heavy, hard, tough and strong,
close-grained, resembling Spanish Mahogany, but without figure,
wellnigh indestructible. Used in Borneo for ship- and house-
building.

Kretti (Nectindra sp.%: Order Laurdcee). British Guiana.
Height 80 ft. ; diam. 2 ft. W 32. Brown, resembling the heavier
Black Cedar, but with the fragrance of West Indian Cedar.

Kurumi (Jiéglans mandshirica Maxim.: Order Juglandacee).
Japan. Resembling the European Walnut in characters and uses.

Laburnum. See Ebony, False.

LACEBARK—LARCH 199

Lacebark. Under this name and the Maori name ‘‘ Powhiwhi ”’
are confused the two Malvaceous trees Hoéheria popilnea A. Cunn.
and Plagidnthus betulinus A. Cunn., both confined to New Zealand.
The former is brown, coarse-grained, soft, and brittle. W 42.
It is used for furniture. The latter is lighter in colour and weight
(W 36-5), and finer in grain.

Lacewood. See Plane.

Ladle-wood (Hartégia capénsis L.: Order Celastrinee). Cape
Colony. Resembling Mahogany, hard. Suitable for turnery or
cabinet-work.

Lancewood in Honduras, etc. (Guattéria virgita Dun: Order
Anonicee). ‘‘ Yaya.” Yellow, light, elastic, hard, fine-grained.
W 52—63. Used for shafts, fishing-rods, bows and arrows, and
imported in spars fetching about 7s. each. In Guiana the allied
or identical ‘‘ Yariyari”’ (Duguétia quitarénsis Benth.) is exported
under the same name. Diffuse-porous, with minute pores and
fine rays. The ladder-like cross-bars of soft tissue between the
rays, which are characteristic of the Order Anonacee, are in this
species white and finer than in some others. [See also Myrtle,
Serub, and Shad-bush.] In Tasmania the name is applied to
Eriostémon squameus (Order Rutdcee). Height 20 ft.; diam. 1 ft.
S.G. 801. W 50. A scarce, yellow wood, used for shafts and tool-
handles.

Lancewood, Red. See Bulletwood.

Lapache (Zabebtiia flavescens Benth. and Hook. fil.: Order
Bignoniacee). Bolivia and Northern Argentina. Abundant,
averaging 20 ft. high, and reaching 3 ft. in diam. S.G. Il.
Greenish-brown, closely resembling Greenheart, heavy, tough,
durable. Used for hydraulic work and sleepers in Bolivia, and
for beams, spokes, telegraph-arms, and “ varillas,’’ or fence-droppers,
in Argentina.

Lareh (Larix européa DC.: Order Abietinew). Alps of Central
Europe, and represented by a variety in Siberia. French “* Méléze.”
Germ. “‘ Larche.” Ital. “‘ Larice.’ Height 80—100 or 120 ft. ;
diam. 2—4 ft. at base. S.G. 809—519. W over 68, when green
32—38. E 400—600 tons. e’ 1-45. p’ -78. f -43. ft 4—5-5. ¢ 4,203.
c’ -555. fc 2°5. v’ -783. fs -75. Yellowish - white, generally
straight and even, but sometimes rather coarse in grain, soft,
tough, strong, very easily split and very durable, being rich in
tannic and phenolic antiseptic substances, shrinking excessively
and warping in seasoning, but lustrous and working up tolerably
well. In its native cold uplands, though there may be an inch of
yellowish-white sapwood, the heart is reddish-brown and harder.
The pith is small; the pith-rays with tracheids with bordered pits

200 WOODS OF COMMERCE

above and below, and parenchyma with simple pits in the middle ;
resin-ducts smaller and fewer than in Pinus; knots irregularly
distributed ; annual rings wide, defined by a broad dark zone of
autumn-wood, finely sinuous. Its durability rendered Larch a
favourite wood in ancient Rome. Czsar styles it “‘lignum igni
impenetrabile.” Augustus built his forum with it; Tiberius
brought this timber for the repair of bridges from the forests of
Rheetia and preserved one tree, which was 120 feet long and 2 feet
in diameter throughout, as a curiosity ; and Vitruvius attributes
the decay of the buildings erected in Rome at the time to the
disuse of Larch on the exhaustion of the forests near the city.

Much of Venice is built on Larch piles, which, after ages of
exposure to alternate wet and drought, are still sound. Being of
rapid growth, Larch is much used for scaffold-poles, ladders, pit-
props, sleepers, and fencing; and, being more free from knots
than Spruce, is much prized by carpenters and wheelwrights. In
ship-building, though its durability is in its favour, its shrinking
is against it; but it is classed with Douglas, Huon, Kauri, and
Pitch Pines, in the eighth-line of Lloyd’s Register. Larch is not
largely imported ; that from Italy being small, crooked, and coarse-
grained, that from Poland rather larger and straighter, and that
from Northern Russia the largest. When growing in the plains
the Larch has proved so susceptible to the fatal attacks of the
fungus Peziza Willkommii that it seems likely to be replaced as an
object of cultivation by the Douglas Spruce.

Larch, American, Black, or Red. See Tamarack.

Larch, Chinese or Geclden (Pseudolarix Kempferi Gord.: Order
Abietinee). China. Height 120—130 ft. Very heavy and hard.

Larch, Himalayan (Larix Griffithii Hook. fil.). Hastern
Himalayas. Height 40—60 ft. Of small dimensions, white,
soft, easily split, but durable. Of little value.

Larch, Japanese (lL. leptolépis Gord.). Central mountains of
Japan. “Toga, Kara-matsu, Fuji-matsu.” Height 60—80 ft. or
more ; diam. 1}—4 ft. Heart red-brown, heavy, hard, and strong ;
but little used, as it grows at altitudes of 5,000 or 6,000 ft. This
species is, however, now being largely cultivated in Europe.

Larch, Western. See Tamarack, Western.

Lasrin (Albizzia odoratissima Benth. =Mimosa~ odoratissima
Roxb.: Order Leguminése). India, Burma, and Ceylon. Sinh.
‘** Hurihi.”” This species and A. Lebbek constitute the East Indian
Walnut of commerce. [See Walnut, East Indian.| W 42—60.
Dark brown with darker streaks, very hard, seasoning and polishing
well, and fairly durable. Used for wheels, oil-mills and furniture,
suitable for carving.

LAUAN—LAURIER MADAME 201

Lauan (Anisdptera thurifera Blume =Dipterocarpus thirifer
Blanco : Order Dipterocarpaicee). Philippines. Does not split
with shot. Used formerly for ship-building.

Laugoussi (Termindlia Tanibotica Rich.: Order Combretdcee).
French Guiana. S.G. 1,226—922. R 250 kilos. Very commonly
used for canoes and curved timbers.

Laurel is a name not applied to any timber-tree in Europe.
The true Laurel or Bay (Latrus ndbilis L.), though 50—60 ft. high
in Southern Europe, is always more of a shrub; and though the
Cherry-Laurel (Prunus Laurocerasus L.) is recorded with stems
of large girth, its wood does not seem to be used. In Australia the
name is applied (i) to Panax élegans and (ii) to Cryptocarya australis.
Pénaz élegans F. v. M. (Order Aralidcee). North-Eastern Australia.
Also known as “ Light” or ‘“‘ White Sycamore” or “* Mowbulan
Whitewood.” Height 30—40 ft.; diam. 1 ft. W 31. White,
with a pretty grain, much resembling Ulmus in structure, light,
soft, easily split, not durable, warping and cracking unless very
carefully seasoned. Might do for cricket bats or blind-wood.

Cryptocarya australis Benth. (Order Laurinee). North-Kastern
Australia. Also known as ‘‘ Moreton Bay Laurel” and “ Grey
Sassafras.” Height SO—100 ft.; diam. 1—1} ft. White, light,
easily wrought, obnoxious to insects, not durable if exposed.

In Northern Argentina the name is applied to Nectdndra por-
phyria Griseb. (Order Laurinee), yielding timber 10—12 ft. long
and 3 ft. square, of a rich dark-brown colour, well figured. Abun-
dant, used for beams, furniture, and railway-carriage fittings ; but
liable to crack in the sun.

Laurel, Alexandrian. See Poon.

Laurel, Big. See Magnolia, Large-flowered.

Laurel, California (Umbelluldria californica Nutt.: Order Laur-
dcee). California. Also known as “Myrtle.” Light brown,
heavy, hard, susceptible of a high polish. A local substitute for
Oak. |

Laurel, Madrona (Arbutus Menziésxi Pursh.: Order Hricdcee).
North America. ‘“* Strawberry-tree.”’ W 44—55. Small, reddish-
brown, hard, tough, fine and even-grained. Used for gunpowder
charcoal.

Laurel, Native. See Cheesewood.

Laurel, White. See Beech, She.

Laurier Cypre (Ocotéa cérnua Mez. =Oreodaphné cérnua Nees:
Order Laurinew). West Indies. Durable, useful timber of
moderate size.

Laurier Madame (Nectdindra sanguinea Rottb.: Order Laurinee).
West Indies. Light, used for staves and planks.

202 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Laurier marbré (NV. concinna Nees). A cabinet wood.

Leatherjacket, a name applied in Australia to (i) Alphitonia
excélsa [See Ash, Mountain], (ii) Ceratopétalum apétalum [See
Coachwood|], (iii) Cryptocarya Meissnérii F. v. M. (Order Laurinee).
North-Eastern Australia. Height 80—100 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft.
White, close-grained, tough. Used for staves.

(iv) Eucalyptus punctata DC. (Order Myrtdcee). New South
Wales. Also known as “‘ Hickory, Turpentine, Bastard Box,”
““Grey Red,” or ‘“ Yellow Gum.” Height 40—100 ft.; diam.
1—2 ft. Sapwood yellow; heart pale reddish-brown, heavy,
hard, close-grained, tough, with gum-veins, difficult to split, but
seasoning well and very durable. Used for sleepers, fence-posts,
ship- and house-building, wheelwrights’ work, and fuel.

(v) Weinmannia Benthamii F. v. M.: Order Saxifragacee).
North-Eastern Australia. Height 50—60 ft.; diam. 13—2 ft.
Close-grained, firm, easily wrought. Used for staves and inside
work.

Lein or Lienben (Vermindlia bialdta Wall.: Order Combretacee).
India, Burma, and the Andaman Islands. Height 80 ft. to the
first branch; diam. 4 ft. W 39. Brown, beautifully mottled,
moderately hard.

Lemon-wood (Psychétria eckloniana F. v. M.: Order Rubiacee).
Cape Colony. ‘* Lanumi.” Height 20—30 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft.
Hard, tough, useful.

Leopard or Letter-wood (Brésimum Aublétii Poepp. =Pira-
tinéra guianénsis Aubl.: Order Mordcee). Guiana. Known in
English commerce as “‘ Snakewood.”. French “‘ Lettre moucheté.”’
term. ‘‘ Lettern-holz.” Port. ‘“‘ Pao de letras.” Aborig. ‘‘ Buro-
koro.” §8.G. 1,333—1,049. W 77—83. R 340 kilos. Sap-
wood yellow, not used ; heart squaring 20 in., but only exhibiting
its characteristic dark mottling for about 6 in., very hard, heavy,
compact, taking an excellent polish, but difficult to work and full
of defects. The heartwood is imported for inlaying and walking-
sticks, but rare. Microscopically this wood is remarkable in
having its large vessels filled with tyloses of very thick-walled cells,
with dark, ruby-coloured resin.

Letter-wood, Red or Striped (Amanda guianénsis Aubl.: Order
Euphorbidcee). Guiana. French “ Lettre rouge”’ or “ rubanné.”’
S.G. 1,175—1,038. R 317 kilos. Sapwood whitish ; heart brown-
red with blackish veins.

Lightwood. See Blackwood and Coachwood.

Lign-Aloes. See Eagle-wood.

Lignum-vite (Guaidcum officindlé L.: Order Zygophyllacee).
Colombia, Venezuela, Jamaica, Cuba, Hayti, but chiefly St. Do-

LIGNUM-VITA 203

mingo. Cuba ‘‘Guayacan.” Height 20—40 ft.; diam. 1—2 ft.
S.G. 1,3983—1,248. W 60—83. E 508—498 tons. / 4:88—7-18.
ft 7-14. fe 3-444. fs -447—1-246. R 246 lbs. Sapwood dingy
yellow, }—1 in. broad, as durable as the heart, some of it being,
therefore, left on to preserve the rest from splitting ; heart blackish
with a greenish tint ; pith-rays not recognizable and annual rings
scarcely so ; very heavy, hard, strong, and close-grained, with fibres
running obliquely both radially and tangentially, so that it can
hardly be split, and containing 25 per cent. of gum-resin, which
renders it almost imperishable. It is liable to cup-shake when
more than 10 in. in diameter. Imported in lengths of 6—12 ft. up
to 10 in. diam. and 3—6 ft. when of greater diam., realizing £5—£18
per ton. Used for ships’ blocks, pestles, mortars, skittle-balls,
rulers, heads of croquet-mallets, string-boxes, etc. Among the
ancients and in France the name has been applied to T'etraclinis
articuldta. [See ’Arar. |

Lignum-vite, African (Combrétum truncatum Welw.: Order
Combretacee). Guinea to Mozambique. ‘*‘ Mozambiti.” Large,
very heavy, dense, close-grained, with light-coloured sapwood and
deep reddish-brown heart.

Lignum-vite in Australia (i) Acdcia falcata [See Myall, Bastard],
(ii) Myrtus semenioides [See Myrtle, White], (iii) Hucalyptus poly-
anthema [See Box, Red], (iv) Phyllanthus Ferdinand: [See Beech,
White], (v) Vitex lignum-vite A. Cunn. (Order Verbenacee). North-
Eastern Australia. Height 50—70 ft. ; diam. 1}—2 ft. Blackish,
hard, close-grained. Useful, but not yet known to cabinet-makers.
(vi) Dodonea viscédsa L. (Order Sapinddcee). Found throughout
the tropics. “‘Switch-sorrel”? of Jamaica. “ Birch” of Tas-
mania. Sapwood white, heart dark-brown, in some _ varieties
greenish-black, streaked with rose, very hard, close-grained, and
durable. Used in India for engraving, turning, tool-handles, and
walking-sticks, and suited for all the uses of the true Lignum-
vite.

Lignum-vite, Bahama (Gudiacum sinctum L.). Florida and the
Bahamas. W 89. Sometimes as much as 26 ft. long and 12 in.
in diam., resembling G. officindlé and similarly employed.

Lignum-vite in British Guiana (Ixdra férrea Benth. =Sidero-
déndron triflorum Vahl: Order Rubidacee). Known also as “‘ Hackia,’
or “* West Indian ” or ‘‘ Martinique Ironwood.” Height 30—60 ft. ;
diam. 1—2 ft. W 65-8—73. E 1,027 tons. f 6-72. fe 4:85.
fs :-457. Dark-brown and hard. Valuable for cogs, shafts, or
furniture. ,

Lignum-vitz, Guayaquil, an unknown species, nut-brown, hard,
fine-grained, having nothing in common with the true Lignum-
vitz, to which it is inferior. W 49. Shipped from Guayaquil.

204 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Lignum-vite, Maracaibo (Gudiacum arbéreum DC.). Brazil,
Paraguay. “‘ Palo Santo.” S.G. 1,306. W 69. Sometimes 60—
70 ft. long, and 1—2 ft. in diam., brown, excessively hard, fine and
close in grain.

Lignum-vite in New Zealand (Metrosidéros scandens Banks and
Sol.: Order Myrtdcee). Known also as ‘“‘ Akibaum.’? A creeper
““ growing up the stem and over the tops of the tallest trees in the
New Zealand forests . . . so exceedingly like the Rata (M. robista)
in wood, bark, leaf, and flower, that I could never distinguish any
difference between them ”’ (Laslett).

Lilac, Persian. See Bead-tree.

Lilly-pilly (Hugénia Smithii Poir.: Order Myrtdceew). Eastern
Australia. Height 80—120 ft.; diam. 1—3 ft. S.G. 935—898.
Close-grained, but liable to split in seasoning and to dry-rot. Used
for axe-handles.

Lima-wood. See Peach-wood.

Lime, a corruption of Line, also known as Linden (Tilia cordata
Miller, platyphijllos Scop. and argéntea Desf.: Order Tilidcee).
Europe, the last-named only in the south-east. French “ Tilleul.”
Germ. “* Linde,” 7’. corddta being known as ‘‘ Winterlinde,”’ 7’. platy-
phyllos as ‘“‘Sommerlinde.” Russ. ‘‘ Lipa.” Height 20—90 ft. ;
diam. 1—4 ft. 8.G. 794—522. W 29-5—32-5. Pale yellow, white,
or reddish-white, light, soft, close-grained, easily split, with a
feebly silky lustre, not very durable, being liable to become “‘ worm-
eaten ’’; annual rings indistinct ; pith-rays fine but distinct ; vessels
scarcely visible, equally distributed. Though not durable where
exposed to the weather, Linden wood stands fairly well when
thoroughly dried and kept in a uniform atmosphere or protected
by paint or varnish. Used for sabots, and in Japan for “ getta,”
or sandals, as blind-wood in pianofortes and other furniture, in
turnery, especially for druggists’ boxes, for carving, as in the
beautiful work of Grinling Gibbons, for leather-cutters’ planks, and
for gunpowder-charcoal. It makes good sounding-boards for
pianos, and has been imported from Lithuania for this purpose.

Lime, American. See Bass-wood.

Locust, in Guiana and the West Indies (Hymenea Courbaril L. :
Order Leguminéose). ‘‘ Simiri,”’ “‘ Courbaril.”? Span. “‘ Algarrobo.”
Height 60—80 ft. ; diam. 8—10 ft. S.G. 1,191—904. W 33-25—
59. KE 549—1,018 tons. f 4:54—8-13. fe 2-23—5-41. fs -49—
585. R 333 kilos. Fine reddish-brown, streaked with darker
veins, hard, compact, close and even-grained, easily worked, elastic,
taking a beautiful polish, not splitting or warping in seasoning.
Used for ships’ planks, engineering, tree-nails, furniture, and
cabinet-work, and suitable for cogs.

LOCUST—LOQUAT 205

Locust or Black Locust in the United States are names used
indiscriminately for the allied Robinia pseudacdcia and Gleditschia
triacanthos, the former known distinctively as the Yellow, the
latter as the Honey or Sweet Locust.

Robinia pseudacacia L. (Order Leguminése). Southern United
States. Height 75 ft. or more; diam. 3 ft. or more. W 36—82.
Sapwood very narrow, comprising generally only five rings,
yellowish-white ; heart yellowish-brown, with shades of red and
green, very heavy, hard, strong, tough, firm, offering the greatest
resistance to compression in the direction of the fibres, elastic,
shrinking considerably in seasoning, but very durable, especially
in contact with soil. Vessels all plugged with thin-walled tyloses
and appearing as clear yellow spots: those in the spring-wood
very large, forming a broad pore-circle, those in the autumn-wood
often in peripheral lines. Used for sleepers, piles, waggon-hubs,
and tree-nails in America; and in Europe, where it is considerably
grown, under the name “ Acacia,” especially on railway-banks
to protect forests from sparks, for vine-props, wheel-spokes, turnery,
and cabinet-work. It has recently acquired increased importance
both here and on the Continent from its suitability for the spokes
of motor-cars.

Gleditschia triacanthos L. (Order Leguminose). Central United
States. Known also as “ Three-thorned Acacia.” French ‘‘ Fevier
& trois épines.”” Germ. ‘“‘ Dreidorniger Honigdorn.” Span. “ Al-
garrobo de miel.” Height 90—100 ft. ; diam. 3—4 ft. S.G. 674.
W 42. R 923 kilos. Sapwood broad, yellowish to greenish-white ;
heart rose or brownish-red, heavy, hard, fine- and close-grained,
strong and very durable, especially in contact with the soil, re-
sembling Robinia in character and uses ; but with open vessels—
7.e., without tyloses.

Logwood (Hematoxylon campechidanum L.: Order Leguminése).
Central America, naturalized in Jamaica and introduced into
India. “Campeche.” Germ. ‘‘ Blauholz, Blutholz.’’ Height 40 ft. ;
diam. 1} ft. S.G. 995. Deep dull brownish-red, very heavy and
hard, violet-scented. The heartwood is used exclusively as a
red or black dye. We import 40,000 to 60,000 tons annually, and
it fetches from £5 to £10 per ton. It comes to market in logs about
3—4 ft. long. The colouring-matter, ‘“‘ hematein,’’ forms metallic
green crystals, but gives a port-wine coloured solution with water.
For purple dyes stannate of soda is used as a mordant: with lime,
baryta and tin chloride logwood gives a blue precipitate ; and
“ woaded blacks” are dyed first in indigo and then in logwood
extract and potassium bichromate. Logwood is also extensively
used in the manufacture of ink.

Loquat (Hriobotrya japonica Lindl.; Order Rosdcee). Japan. “‘Biwa.”
Germ. ‘‘ Wellenmispel.”” Hard. Used for musical instruments.

206 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Magnolia, Large-flowered (Magnolia grandiflora L.: Order
Magnolidcee). Southern United States. ‘ Big Laurel,” “ Bull
Bay.” Height 70 ft. or more; diam. 3 ft. White, heavy, soft,
not strong. Suitable for cabinet-work and interior finish.

Mahoe, Blue (Hibiscus eldtus Sw.: Order Malvdacee). Tropical
America. ‘‘ Tulip-tree.” §.G.722. W 44:5—49. Brownish-grey,
occasionally shaded with dark blue, peppery when worked, hard,
coarse-grained, very flexible, longer in fibre and more durable than
Ash. Used for gunstocks, carriage-poles, fishing-rods, etc.

Mahogany originally (Swieténia Mahagoni L.: Order Melidcee).
Central America, Mexico, Cuba, and other West Indian islands.
*‘ Spanish ” or “‘ Cuba Mahogany,” and “St. Domingo ”’ are local
names. French ‘ Acajou.” Germ. ‘‘ Mahagoniholz.” Span.
*“Caoba.” Height 5—50 ft. to the branches; diam. 1—4 ft.
8.G. 560—880. W 35—67. E 560—650 tons. e’ 1-11—1-9. p’ -97—
1:06. 7 4:46. ft -76—7. fs -15—25. ec 2,998—3,791. c’ -396—
5. fe 3:3—3-5. v’-772—-953. When freshly felled light reddish-
brown, soon darkening on exposure to light ; vessels equally dis-
tributed ; annual rings distinct; pith-rays fine, but distinct ;
sapwood only 3—1 in. thick; heart generally heavy, hard, close,
and straight in grain, difficult to split, susceptible of a very high
polish, with a beautiful satiny lustre, and sometimes with a wavy
figure that much enhances its value as a furniture wood. The
figures are known as “ roe,” “‘ mottle,” “‘ cross-mottle,” ‘‘ dapple,”’
** fiddle-back,” “‘ plum-pattern,” and “‘ curls.” It does not, as a
rule, shrink or warp, and is superior to all other woods in taking
a firm hold of glue: it is also durable, and almost non-inflammable.
Of the varieties above enumerated Cuba or Spanish Mahogany
yields accurately squared timber 18—35 ft. long and 11—2é4 in.
square, very solid at centre, rarely affected by cup- or star-shake,
and with insignificant heart-shake. Its specific gravity ranges
from 720—817. W53. e’1-71. p’ 1:06. 'c¢3,791. c’-5.. v" -953.
From the time of Cortez and Raleigh, in the sixteenth century
down to the eighteenth, Mahogany was used as an Oak-substitute
in ship-building for beams, planks, and stanchions, whilst figured
logs demand high prices for furniture, but are now only seen in very
small sizes. St. Domingo Mahogany is very similar in quality, but
much smaller, generally 8—10 ft. long and 12 or 13 in. square,
though occasionally 25 ft. long and 15 in. square. It is very hard,
almost horny, a stress of 4,300 lbs. per square in. being required to
indent it 4, in. transversely to the fibres. It is mostly figured,
presenting a rich curl or feather at the bases of its branches. It is
now very seldom exported, and appears to be almost exhausted in
the accessible districts. There seems, in fact, to be very little
American Mahogany in the market which is truly Swieténia Ma-
higoni, the distinctive anatomical characters of which seem to be

MAHOGANY 207

a nearly continuous ring of pores in the spring-wood and few pores
in the outer part of the annual ring.

The Mahoganies of the Central American mainland, which form
the bulk of the rapidly shrinking American supply, and are known
as Honduras, Tabasco, Bay-wood, Colombian, Panama, Mexican,
or Bermuda, are probably the wood of species of Cedréla, a genus
closely allied to Swieténia. They are almost always considerably
lighter in weight than the old Spanish or Cuban Mahogany, weigh-
ing 35 lbs. or less per cubic foot as against from 35 to 67 lbs., and
are also decidedly softer. Anatomically they are marked by the
general absence of a continuous pore-ring in the spring-wood and
by the presence of almost as many scattered pores in the outer as
in the inner part of each annual ring.

Honduras Mahogany, shipped from Belize, Trujillo, and Tabasco
(the largest logs, which frequently have heart-shakes, coming from
the latter port), reaches 50 ft. at its first branch and 3 ft. in diam.,
and yields logs 25—40 ft. long and 12—24 in. square, or even larger.
It is seldom figured, becomes somewhat brittle on drying, and is
apt to develop deep star-shakes. S.G. 644—684. W 35. e’ 1-11.
p’ -99. c 2,998. c’ -396. v’ -806. Stress required to indent it
zp in. transversely to its fibres 1,300 Ibs. It is known commercially
as “‘ Baywood,”’ and, besides being used as an Oak-substitute in
ship-building, is largely used in cabin fittings and by cabinet-
makers, turners, and carpenters. Some Mahogany sold as Honduras
is really Guatemalan. Mexican Mahogany reaches the largest
dimensions, sometimes squaring 48 in., but generally coming to
market in logs 18—-30 ft. long and 15—36 in. square. It is generally
somewhat soft and spongy at the centre, often affected by star-
shake, and plain in figure. 8.G.612—790. e’1:9. p’:97. ¢3,427.
c’ -451. v’ -772. We import some 75,000 loads of Mahogany
annually, the value of which is about £730,000.

Mahogany, African, is the trade-name for several allied woods
belonging to the Order Melidcee, and not distantly related to the
Swieténia of the West Indies, and the genus Cedréla, which is
represented in the tropics of both hemispheres by valuable timber-
yielding species. The species most frequently represented on the
Liverpool market are Khaya senegalénsis A. Juss., K. grandifélia
Stapf, K. Purchii Stapf, Trichilia Pricuridna A. Juss., Entandro-
phragma Candollei Harms, E. Candolleina De Will. & T. Dur,
and H. angolénsé C. DC.; but it is probable that many other
species are also sent to market as Mahogany, which accounts for
the great variation in the nature of the wood so named. So-called
African Mahogany is shipped from settlements as far apart as
Senegal and Angola; but though some reaches Liverpool, the
chief European port of import from French territory, such as Grand
Bassam and Assinee, on the Ivory Coast, the bulk of the supply

=~

208 WOODS OF COMMERCE

at present reaches us from the British settlements on the Gold Coast
and in Southern Nigeria. Khaya senegalensis seems to be the chief
species north and west of the Gold Coast, being known to the French
as “* Cailcedra,” as “‘ Gambia Mahogany ” in our Northern colonies,
as “Hie” in Jolop, “‘Jallow”’ in Mandingo, ‘“‘ Dubina”’ and
“ Oganwo ”’ on the Gold Coast. It does not appear to be in any
quantity south-east of Sekondi on that coast ; but is reported from
Angola and Nyassaland. W 34:5. Between Sekondi and Lagos
no Mahogany is shipped ; but from Lagos to Benin Trichilia Pri-
curiana is the predominant species, and from Benin to Sapeli
Entandrophragma Candollei. Some of the trees reach very large
dimensions, being often 100 ft. to the first branch, and squaring
2 ft. at that height. The wood is, however, mainly shipped in logs
from 10—29 ft. long, and mostly between 15 and 20 ft., and from
13—52 in.—or mostly 20—30 in.—deep at the butt. There is
an apparently illimitable demand for logs 30—36 in. deep. The
wood shipped from Assinee and Axim reaches the largest dimensions,
that from Sekondi seldom exceeding 50 cubic ft. per log, and
that from Lagos being also small. In colour the woods vary from
yellow to brown, with dark zones, and it is sometimes so finely
figured as to realize 5s. to 12s. per superficial foot for veneers.
Bathurst wood is the hardest ; but whilst those from Guinea are
mostly of good quality in this respect, that from the Gaboon is
little better than Birch, fetches much lower prices, and is probably
quite a distinct species. Some of the best wood is shipped from
the Ivory Coast ; but, owing to the surf, it is difficult to get the logs
off, so that but little reaches Liverpool. Very large quantities
are shipped from Axim, and the logs fetch good prices, up to
5, 7, 9, and even from 12 to 19 pence a foot. Sekondi is increas-
ing in importance as a port of shipment, the small logs brought down
by rail from north of Tarquah being firm and of good colour.
More than a quarter of the whole supply is now shipped from Lagos :
the Benin wood is excellent, and that from Sapeli (Entandro-
phragma ?) is fine, large, well-squared, and scented like a Cedar.
Entandrophragma Candolleina De Wild. & T. Dur., known
locally as “ Cail-Cedra,” is a large tree, 100 ft. high, described,
from the neighbourhood of Stanley Falls in the Congo Free State,
as “‘un bel Acajou,” and as yielding abundance of a yellowish
resin. EH. angolénsé C.DC. (=Swietenia Angolénsis Welw.),
“ Quibaba da Qucta,” is also a large tree; but, perhaps, yields
inferior wood. Khaya anthothéca C.DC. “ Quibaba da Mus-
sangue,”’ described by Welwitsch, from the south-west, as a large
tree, 40—60 ft. high and 4—5 ft. in diam., is stated by Mr. M. T.
Dawe to occur in the Semliki Forest and in Unyoro in Eastern
Tropical Africa. In this region the last-named botanist also
records a Trichilia near to 7’. emética Vahl as yielding a useful

MAHOGANY 209

timber near Lake Victoria Nyanza, Khaya senegalénsis as only
a small or medium-sized tree, Pseudocedréla excélsa Dawe &
Sprague, from the West Ankole Forest, as a valuable timber-tree
reaching 100 ft. in height, and P. utilis Dawe & Sprague, from
Unyoro, reaching an equal height, from 3—65 ft. in diam., and
yielding a valuable light Mahogany.

African Mahogany is very strong and termite-proof, and the
demand during the last few years has more than kept pace with
the supply. The Liverpool import of 9 million feet in 1894 grew to
13 million in 1897, 18 million in 1900, 21 million in 1903, and
20 million in 1906. The logs are mostly hewn square when im-
ported, and a very large proportion of them, especially of those that
are figured, are re-exported to America. It seems to have been
first imported about 1833, when fifty-eight logs sold in Liverpool
at 5d.—6d. a foot; but as a real business the trade dates from
1886, when some 94,000 ft. from Assinee sold at 4d.—6d. Of
the 20 million cubic feet which reached Liverpool in 1906, over
6 million came from Lagos, 4 million from Axim, nearly 2? million
from Benin, over 1} million from Assinee, 14 million from Grand
Bassam and a million from the Gaboon. In 1903 a log from
Assinee fetched the record price of 12s. 6d. per foot.

Mahogany, Australian. See Cedar, Pencil, and Jarrah.

Mahogany, Bastard (Hucalyptus botryoides Sm.: Order Myrtacee).
Known also as “Swamp” or “Gippsland Mahogany,” ‘* Blue
Gum,” “ Bastard Jarrah,” ‘‘ Woolly Butt,” and ‘‘ Bangalay.”
South-Eastern Australia. Height 40—100 or 160 ft. ; diam. 2—4 or
8 ft. S.G. 891. W 55-59. Light dull red to warm rich brown,
heavy, hard, tough, close, even and straight in grain, easy to work,
but somewhat subject to gum-veins and shakes, durable. Valuable
for ship- and waggon-building, yielding compass-timber suitable
for ships’ knees. The name is also applied to Jarrah.

Mahogany, Bay (Cercocarpus ledifélius Nutt.: Order Rosccee).
California. Dark-coloured, hard, and heavy.

Mahogany, Borneo or Penagah, is probably Calophgjllum ino-
phyllum. See Poon.

Mahogany, East India (Soymida febrifiga A. Juss.: Order Melia-
cee). “ Bastard Cedar, Indian,” or ‘‘ Coromandel Redwood.’’
Hind. “ Rohuna.” Telug. ‘“‘Somida.” Central and Southern
India. A large tree, yielding logs 17—20 ft. long and 1—14 ft. diam.
$.G. 378. W 548. Dark blood-red, heavier than water when
fresh, very hard, close and straight-grained, easily worked, durable
underground, termite-proof, but splitting on exposure, and becoming
very brittle when seasoned. Used in boat-building, well-work,
plough-shares, tables, and carved work in temples.

14

210 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Mahogany, Forest or Red (Hucalyptus resinifera Sm.: Order
Myrtacee). North-East Australia. Also known as “ Red, Grey,”
or “‘ Botany Bay Gum, Hickory, Red Stringybark,” and “ Jimmy
Low.” Height 80—130 ft. ; diam. 13—5 ft. W 61—72.5. Light
brown or dark or very dark red, very heavy, close and smooth in
grain, very strong, not shrinking, affected with gum-veins, but very
durable in air, water, or soil, teredo- and termite-proof. Used for
ships’ knees, piles, fence-posts, paving, rafters, and shingles. The
name “‘ Forest Mahogany ”’ is locally applied also to H. microcorys.
[See Tallow-wood. |

Mahcgany, Horseflesh (Cesalpinia sp.: Order Leguminose).
Bahamas. Very strong and durable. Used for ships’ knees.
This name, or that of Horseflesh-wood, is also applied to the allied
species Swartzia tomentosa DC., which has 8.G. 1,020, and is known
in Venezuela as ** Naranjillo.” Horseflesh Mahogany is exported
from the Bahamas to England as “ Sabicu.”’

Mahogany, Indian. See Cedar, Moulmein.

Mahogany, Madeira (Pérsea indica Spreng.: Order Laurinee).
Teneriffe. Known also as ‘‘ Venatico ”’ or ‘* Vinacito.”’

Mahogany, Mountain (Bétula lénta [See Bireh, Cherry] and
Cercocarpus parvifélius Nutt. (Order Rosacee).

Mahogany, Natal (Kiggelaria Dregeana Turez.: Order Bixacee).
South Africa. W 48. Light yellowish Mahogany-coloured, soft,
fine-grained.

Mahogany, Swamp, a name applied in Australia to (i) Hucalyptus
botryoides [See Mahogany, Bastard], (ii) Vristania laurina [See
Box, Bastard], (iii) 7’. swavéolens [See Gum, Bread-leaved Water],
and (iv) Eucalyptus robusta Sm. (Order Myrtdcee). This last
species, a native of New South Wales, is known also as ‘“ White
Mahogany”? and ‘“ Brown Gum.” Height 100—150 ft.; diam.
2—4 ft. S.G. 1,098—889. W 58-5. Light-brown to dark-red,
generally containing some gum-veins, often cross-grained, difficult
to split, seasoning well, but with some warping, and becoming
rather brittle, durable in damp situations, and obnoxious to insects,
probably owing to its containing no less than 19 per cent. of kino-
red, the astringent gum-resin so characteristic of this genus, a
higher percentage than in any other species. It is valued for ship-
building, shingles, inside work, wheelwrights’ work, mallets, rough
furniture, and fuel.

Mahogany, White. See also Stringybark (vi).

Mahwa (Jllipé latifolia Eng. and I. Malabrérum Konig =Bassia
latifolia Roxb. and B. longifolia L. : Order Sapotacee). The former
in Northern India, the latter in the south and Ceylon. ‘“ Butter-
tree.” Hind. “‘Mahwa’” or ‘‘ Mahua.” Zam. “Illupa.” Sink.

MAIRE—MANGEAO 211

“Mee.” These trees are rarely felled, being valued for their edible
flowers. In Central India the wood is pinkish, weak, invariably
rotten at the heart, so as only to square 4—6 in., though approach-
ing 2 ft. in diam. ; but in the Upper Provinces it is Mahogany-like
in colour, harder, strong and tough, and is used for the naves of
wheels, furniture, and sleepers. The southern species is light-
reddish, hard, close-grained, flexible, and durable. W 61. It is
apt to split on exposure to wind and sun; but is used for spars,
keels, tree-nails, bridges, house-building, etc.

Maire, Black (Olea Cunninghamii Hook. fil.: Order Oledcee).
New Zealand. Height 40 ft. S.G. 1,159. W 745—60. p 314-2.
Light-brown, very heavy and hard, dense and durable, averaging
eleven fairly even rings to the inch, with vessels in flamboyant
groups, somewhat as in Buckthorn. Used for wheels and mill
machinery. The strongest wood in the Dominion.

Maire-tawhake (Hugénia mairé A. Cunn.: Order Myrtdcee).
New Zealand. S.G. 790. W 49-24. p 179-7.

Maire, White (Olea lanceolita Hook. : Order Oledcee). New Zea-
land. W 53. Sapwood pink, heart brown, streaky, hard, fine-
grained. A substitute for Ash.

Makita (Parindrium laurinum A. Gray: Order Rosdcee). Fiji
Islands. Height 50 ft. Very hard, durable, and tough. Used
for spars for canoes.

Make (Aristotélia racemosa Hook. fil.: Order Tilidcee). New
Zealand. “‘Currant-tree.”’ §.G. 593. W 33-62. p 122. An
ornamental wood.

Mammee-apple (Wammea americana L.: Order Guttifere). West
Indies. Also known as “ Wild” or “St. Domingo Apricot.”
Height 50 ft. W59—61. E763—857 tons. f 6-°95—7:4. fe 2-2—
3°5. fs -36—55. White or reddish, light, durable under ground
or water. Used in building and carpentry.

Mammeth-tree. See Big-tree.

Manchineel (Hippomdané Manchinélla L.: Order Euphorbidcee).
Sandy shores in Central America and the West Indies. Tawny
yellow, variegated with brown, with odour of lavender, and yield-
ing a poisonous milk. W 50. Furniture.

Mangachapui (Shorea Mangichapot Blum.: Order Diptero-
carpacee). Philippines. S.G. 671. W 42. Used in ship-building
at Manilla, and classed in the third-line in Lloyd’s Register.

Mangeao (ZJ'etranthera calicdris Hook. fil.:=Litsea calicdris
Benth. & Hook.: Order Laurinee). New Zealand. Height not
exceeding 40 ft. S.G. 621. W 38—48. p 137. Light-brown,
tough, close-grained. Used for ships’ blocks.

14—2

212 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Mango (Mangifera indica L.: Order Anacardiacee). 'Tropical
and sub-tropical Asia. Introduced in the West Indies. Hind.
“Am.” Telug. “‘Mamidi.” §8S.G. 597. Dull grey, porous, be-
coming a light chocclate colour, harder, closer-grained, and more
durable in the centre of very large old trees, holding a nail faster
than any other wood, and standing exposure to salt-water, but
not to fresh. It could readily be creosoted. Used for solid cart-
wheels, canoes, rough furniture, planking in the interior of houses,
for packing-cases, as blind-wood and as ground for veneers, being
the cheapest light wood obtainable in Madras.

Mangosteen, False or Wild (Sandoricum indicum Cav.: Order
Meliacee). Southern India, Burma, Philippines, and Moluccas.
‘** Indian sandalwood.’ Burm. ‘‘ Theit-to.” A large tree, yielding
a timber with white or grey sapwood ; heart reddish, dense, hard,
susceptible of a high polish. Used in cart- and boat-building.

Mangrove (Rhizophora mucronata Lam.: Order Rhizophoracee).
Maritime tropical swamps from Zanzibar to the Fiji Islands.
East Africa ‘‘ Mkonko.” Fiji “‘ Dogo.” Telug. ““ Ponna.” Malay
‘* Mangi-mangi,” “‘ Api-api.”” Height 15—25 ft. W 70-5. Light-
coloured, red or brown-red at the centre, with darker zones, often
nearly black, very heavy, hard, close-grained, tough and durable.

Manoao. See Pine, Silver.

Manuka (Leptospérmum scoparium Forst.) and Manuka rauriki
(L. ericioides A. Rich.: Order Myrtacew). New Zealand. ‘‘ White
Tea-tree.” S.G. 9438. W 59. p 239. Dark, maple-like, hard.
Used for piles, fences, wheels, or furniture.

Manzanita (Arctostaphylos pingens H.B.K.: Order FHricdcee).
United States. W 59-5. Small, sapwood white, heart reddish-
purple, with lighter streaks, fine-grained. Used in turnery.

Mapau (Myrsiné Urvillei A.DC.: Order Myrsinacee). New
Zealand. ‘‘ Matipo,’’ “‘ Red Birch,”’ or “‘ Red Maple.” S.G. 991.
W 61:82. p 192-4. Used for furniture and fuel.

Mapau, Black (Pittospérum tenuifolium Banks and Sol.: Order
Pittosporee). New Zealand. ‘“‘ Matipo-tarata,” ‘‘ Black Maple.”
S.G. 955. W 60-14. p 243.

Maple, originally Acer campéstré L. (Order Acerinee). England,
Central Europe, Northern Asia. ‘‘Common” or “ Field Maple.”
French “* Erable champétre.” Germ. ‘*Gemeiner, Feld” or
** Kleiner Ahorn.”” Welsh ‘“ Masaran.” Height 10—20 or 40 ft. ;
diam. 9—12 in. S.G. 750. W 61-5 when green, 52 when dry.
Light-brown or reddish-white, hard, fine-grained, compact, tough,
with a beautiful satin-like lustre, sometimes containing dark pith-
flecks, and not uncommonly curled or speckled (‘* Bird’s-eye
Maple ’’) ; annual rings slightly wavy ; pith-rays fine but distinct ;

MAPLE 213

vessels minute. Curled or mottled specimens were prized in former
days for “‘ mazer-bowls,’’ which were mounted in silver. These
when cut into veneers, as by the rotary knife, are equal to American
Bird’s-eye Maple. In France the wood is sought after by turners and
cabinet-makers. It makes excellent fuel and the very best charcoal.

In Australia the name “‘ Maple” is applied to Villarésia Moéorei
F. v. M. (Order Olacinee) of New South Wales, also known as
“Serub Silky Oak.” <Aborig. ‘ Belbil.”” Height 80—120 ft. ;
diam. 3—6 ft. W 41:36. White, close-grained, prettily figured,
durable. Suitable for bedroom furniture. The name is also applied
in Queensland to Flindérsia Chatawaiana. [See Beech, Red. |

Maple, Ash-leaved (Negundo aceroides Mcench. : Order Acerinee).
South Central United States, California, and Manitoba. Also
known as “ Box-Elder” or ** Black Ash.’ ‘“‘ Negundo.” French
** Erable a giguieres.”” Height 50 ft. or more ; diam. 2 ft. or more.
8.G. 438. W 27. R529 kilos. White or yellowish, light, soft, not
strong or durable. Of inferior quality, used to some extent for
interior finish and cooperage, and for fuel, but chiefly for paper-pulp.

Maple, Bird’s-eye or Pin. See Maple, Rock.

Maple, Black. See Maple, Rock.

Maple, Blister. See Maple, Rock.

Maple, Broad-leaved. See Maple, Oregon.

Maple, California. See Maple, Oregon.

Maple, Great or Sycamore. See Sycamore.

Maple, Hard. See Maple, Rock.

Maple, Himalayan. Several species of Acer are of some impor-
tance in thisregion; viz. (i) A. Campbélli Hook. fil. & Thbg.,
in the Eastern Himalayas, a greyish-white, hard, and dense wood,
used for tea-boxes and planking ; (ii) A. obléngum Wall., in Nepal
and Kumaon, a reddish-brown, hard and dense wood, used for
agricultural implements ; (iii) A. Lobeli Tenore, growing from the
Eastern Mediterranean to the Himalayas, a brownish-white, hard,
dense, elastic wood ; (iv) A. levigdtum Wall., in Nepal, reaching
30—40 ft. in height and 3—4 ft. in diam., and used for beams,
rafters, etc.

Maple, Japanese (A. pictum Thunb., A. polymodrphun, etc.).
“ Itaya-Kayede.” Several ornamental species in Japan yield
timber similar to that of the European species.

Maple, Norway (A. platandides L.). Norway to Central Europe.
“Plane Maple.” French ‘“‘ Erable plane.”’ Germ. ‘“‘ Spitz Ahorn.”’
Height 60—70 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft. W 43. White, but inclining
to grey, when mature, easily worked, and taking a fine polish,
with the satin-like lustre of the pith-rays characteristic of the
group, and slightly wavy annual rings, hard, heavy, tough, cracking

214 WOODS OF COMMERCE

and warping, but durable if kept dry. Used in turnery, for musical
instruments, gun-stocks, etc., being practically identical with the
wood of the Sycamore.

Maple, Oregon (A. macrophyllum Pursh.). Pacific slope of North
America. Also known as “ California” or “‘ Broad-leaved Maple.”
Height 90 ft. or more; diam. 4 ft. or more. W 40-5. Rather
light, hard, and strong. Used in Oregon for axe- and broom-handles,
snowshoe-frames, and furniture, and on radial sections exhibiting
oceasional curly figure, which is highly prized for cabinet-work.
This figure is produced by an unexplained waviness or spiral twist
in the elements of the wood, which is rarely recognizable in the
growing tree, but produces transverse corrugations on the surface
of the log when the bark is removed, these curls or corrugations
varying in number in different trees from one, or less than one, to
several to the inch. Though scarcely visible in a transverse section,
this beautiful figuring is seen on all longitudinal or cblique sections,
appearing on the planed surface so like the light and shadow on
an undulating surface that it is difficult to believe it smooth. It is
sometimes called ‘* Fiddle-backed Maple ”’ from its resemblance to
a variety of Sycamore used for the backs of violins.

Maple, Red (A. rubrum L.). Canada and Eastern United States.
Known also as “Soft, Swamp” or ‘‘ Water Maple.” Height
70—90 ft.; diam. 3—4 ft. 8.G. 618. W 38:5. R 811 kilos.
Sapwood brownish-white, with a small, irregular brown or reddish-
brown heart, moderately heavy, hard and elastic, close-grained,
compact, taking a very smooth polish, not strong or durable. Used
in turnery, chair-making, for wooden dishes, shovels, and other
small ware. Occasionally curled, when it is valued for gunstocks
and for veneers. The bird’s-eye figure is rare in this species. This
wood does not enter into American export trade.

Maple, Rock (A. barbdtum, Michx.). Eastern North America.
Also known as “ Hard” or “Sugar Maple,” and a variety as
‘“* Black Maple.” Height 50—100 ft. or more; diam. 1—4 ft.
8.G. 691. W 43. R 1,149 kilos. White when first cut, becoming
rosy on exposure and when seasoned ; sapwood light yellowish ;
heart brown, heavy, very hard, fine and close in grain, compact,
strong, tough, taking a fine polish, with a satiny lustre. The most
valuable species, but not durable if exposed, requiring two or three
years’ seasoning. Used in New England as an Oak substitute,
in preference to Beech, Birch, or Elm, for house-frames, ships”
keels, axles, spokes, chairs and other furniture, flooring and interior
finish, wooden bowls, considered the best in the market, shoe-lasts,
pegs, saddle-trees, etc., and also for fuel. It is but little imported,
except when figured. ‘ Blister” or ‘‘ Landscape,” ‘‘ Bird’s-eye ”
or * Pin,” and ‘‘ Curly ” or “‘ Fiddle-back ”’ figures all occur in this

MAPLE—MARGOSA 215

species, the first two being almost confined to it. The Blister
figure is produced by wart-like prominences on the wood beneath
the bark, and is cut tangentially by a rotary lathe in a veneer the
length of the log, and running spirally inwards to the centre of the
tree. The name “ Landscape Maple” is appropriate in that this
figure much resembles a contoured map. The Bird’s-eye or Pin
figure, which is more common, is produced by pittings, which are
visible on the bark. These appear in transverse section as “‘ pins,”
and in tangential section as “ eyes.” This figuring does not extend
more than 6—8 in. from the surface, the centre being invariably
plain wood. Veneers of these varieties are imported at Liverpool,
and three-ply wood, faced on one side with Bird’s-eye Maple, is in
request for the panels of railway-carriages.

Maple, Silver (A. saccharinum, Wang.). Eastern North America.
Otherwise known as “Soft”? or “‘ White Maple.” Height 90—
100 ft.; diam. 4—5 ft. S.G. 527. W 32:8—54. R 1,019 kilos.
Sapwood delicate creamy white ; heart reddish-brown, lighter and
softer than Rock Maple, brittle, not very strong or durable if
exposed, shrinking moderately, seasoning and working well, taking
a fine polish, wearing smoothly. Used for flooring, cheap furniture,
interior finish, turnery, wooden ware, and fuel. Sometimes curled.

Maple, Striped (A. Pennsylvanicum, L.). Eastern North America.
** Moose-wood, Whistle-wood, Striped Dog-wood.” Height 30—
40 ft.; diam. 8—10 ins. 8.G. 530. W 33. Sapwood wide, light
brown ; heart rather darker, light, soft, close-grained. Not used
as timber.

Maple, Sycamore. See Sycamore.

Marblewood (Olea paniculdéta R. Br.: Order Oledcee). New
South Wales and Queensland. Known also as “ Ironwood” and
“Native Olive.” Height 50—70 ft.; diam. 14—2 ft. Whitish,
darkening towards the centre, prettily mottled, hard, tough, close-
grained, durable. Used for staves, and suitable for turning or
engraving.

Marblewood, Andaman (Diospyros Kurzii Hiern : Order Ebendcee).
Andaman Islands. “‘ Zabra-wood.”’ Sapwood light yellow-brown,
heart handsomely streaked with black and grey, very heavy, hard,
close-grained and durable. Used for handles and furniture, and
valuable as a substitute for the scarce Calamander wood of Ceylon.

Margosa (Azadirachta indica A. Juss., Mélia Azadirachta L. =
M. indica Brandis: Order Melidcee). India, Burma, Ceylon, Java.
Planted in East Africa, Jamaica, etc. Hind. “Neem.” Sinh.
“ Kohomba.”’ ‘‘ Hoop-tree”’ in Jamaica. S.G. 739. W 35—50.
Light reddish-brown, beautifully mottled when old, heavy, hard,
compact, and durable, resembling Mahogany, aromatic. Used for
furniture, images, flooring, carts, etc.

216 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Marrara (Weinmannia rubifolia F. v. M.: Order Saxifragacee).
North-East Australia. ‘‘ Corkwood.” Height 80—150 ft. ; diam.
2—3 ft. Close-grained, tough, easily wrought. Not much used.

Massaranduba (Mimusops eldta Fr. Allem.: Order Sapotdcee).
Brazil. Height 80 ft.; diam. 10 ft. Very hard. Used in con-
struction and in joinery.

Matai. See Pine, Black.
Mee. See Mahwa.
Me-matsu. See Pine, Japanese Red.

Meranti (Hopea Mardnti Miq.: Order Dipterocarpacee). Malay
peninsula. Over 100 ft. high ; 3 ft. in diam. W 55. Resembling
Bay-wood, red, heavy, but soft. Used for planks, furniture, and
boxes, and yielding a dammar resin.

Mesquite (Prosépis julifl6ra DC.: Order Leguminése). Southern
United States and Northern Mexico. Height 30 ft. Dark brown
to red, very heavy and hard, durable. Used in house-building and
for furniture.

Messmate, a name applied in Australia (i) to Hucalyptus amygda-
lina [See Ash, Mountain], (ii) to #. obliqua [See Stringybark],
(iii) to EB. piperita [See Peppermint], from their association with the
Stringybarks.

Milkweed. See Ironwoed (xvii).

Milkwood, Red (Mimusops obovdta Sond.: Order Sapotacee).
South Africa. Height 15—20 ft.; diam. 13—2 ft. W 52-4.

E 876 tons. f 9:52. Moderately heavy, close-grained and tough.
Used for felloes of wheels and other parts of waggons.

Milla or Mililla (Vitex altissima L. fil.: Order Verbendcee). Ceylon
and Southern India. Sinh. “‘ Milla,” “ Mililla.”?> W 60-9. E 721
tons. f 6:59. fc 3-12. fs -448. A large tree yielding a grey
or yellowish, heavy, very hard, fine and close-grained wood, which
in Ceylon is one of the most valuable fer building purposes.

Mirabow (Afzelia palembanica Baker in Hook.: Order Legumi-
nose). Andaman Islands, Malay Islands, Borneo. ‘* Meraban ”’
or “ Merban.” A large tree, 100—150 ft. high, yielding timber
30—40 ft. long, and 143—23 ft. in diam. W 52—55. Dark yellow
or brown, darkening and reddening with age, prettily figured,
hard, moderately heavy, of fine even grain, very tough, durable,
termite-proof, working freely and taking a fine polish, thus re-
sembling Mahogany. The most important timber in the Malay
peninsula, suitable for sleepers, building, or furniture.

Miro. See Pine, Black.

MIVA—MOUTOUCHI 217

Miva (Luctima galactéxylon F. Muell.: Order Sapotdicew). Queens-
land. “‘ Pencil Cedar.’’ 12—16 in. wide. Used for veneers and
cabinet-work.

Molavé (Vitex altissima [See Milla] and V. geniculdta Blanco:
Order Verbendcee). Philippines. 8.G. 819. W 51-2. e’ 1-87.
p’ 1-54. c¢ 7,812. c’ 1-032. Straw-coloured, heavy, hard, close-
grained, strong, with a figure resembling Satin-wood, not shrinking
or splitting in seasoning, very durable even when exposed. Used
extensively for all kinds of work, and, considered almost equal to
Teak in building, while it might prove useful in cabinet-work.

Monkey-pot (Lécythis grandiflora Aubl.: Order Myrtacee).
Guiana. ‘‘ Wadadura.” French ‘‘Canari Macaque.” Height
100 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft., yielding logs 20—50 ft. long, and squaring
16—28 in. S.G. 1,032. Light brown, very heavy, hard, close-
grained, tough, working easily, taking a fine polish, and very
durable. Used for staves and furniture.

Moose-wood. See Maple, Striped.

Mopane (Copaifera (Colophospérmum) Mopané Kirk: Order
Leguminose). Guinea — Mozambique. “ Iron-wood.” Height
50—75 ft., straight, dark-coloured, heavy, very durable, but difficult
to work. Suitable for furniture.

Mora (Dimorphandra excelsa Baill.=D. Mora Benth., Mora
excélsa Baill. & Benth.: Order Leguminése). Guiana and
Trinidad. Height 100—150 ft., frequently 60—70 ft. to the first
branch ; diam. 2—2% ft., yielding logs 18—35 ft. long, squaring
12—20in. S.G. 1,075—1,094. W 57—72°3. E 1,068—1,465 tons.
e’ 1,05. p’ 1-64. f 6-87—9-42. c 9,240. c’ 1-220. fe 3-14—
5°34. v’ 1:117. fs -456—-655. Chestnut-brown or red, very
heavy, hard, straight-grained, tough, strong, sometimes with a
beautiful curled figure, taking a good polish, durable, but very
liable to star-shake. Suitable for keelsons, beams, and planking
in ship-building, classed in line 2 of Lloyd’s Register, and also
fitted for house-building and as a substitute for Rosewood or
Mahogany for furniture and cabinet-work, especially when figured.

Moricypre (Byrsonima spicata Rich.: Order Malpighiacee).
Brazil and West Indies. Height 30—40 ft.; diam. 2 ft. Used
in building and cabinet-work.

Morrel (Hucalyptus macrocarpa Hook.: Order Myrtacee). West
Australia. Very hard. Used for spokes, shafts, and furniture.
[See also Gum, Morrell. |

Morung Sal. See Sal.

Moutouchi (Pterocarpus Draco L.= Moutouchi suberdsa Aubl. :
Order Leguminése). Guiana. Introduced into India in 1812.

218 WOODS OF COMMERCE

S.G. 1,018—875. R 255 kilos. With long streaks of pale violet,
light brown and white, easily sawn or worked.

Mountain Ash. See Rowan and Ash, Mountain.
Mulato-wood. See Bois Mulatre.

Mulberry (Morus dlba L.: Order Mordcee). Said to be a native
of China introduced into Europe in the fifteenth century. French
‘“Miirier.”” Germ. ‘* Maulbeerbaum.” Span. “Moral.” Height
20—30 ft.; diam. 1—2 ft. Sapwood narrow, yellowish-white ;
heart yellowish-brown, becoming reddish, like old Mahogany,
on exposure, heavy, hard, lustrous, difficult to split; vessels in
the spring-wood very large, forming a very broad and distinct
pore-circle, most of them open, but a few filled with a white secre-
tion ; those in the autumn-wood regularly distributed, very minute ;
pith-rays fine, but very distinct. A durable wood, similar to
that of the Black Locust (Robinia). Used chiefly in veneers and
inlaying.

Mulberry, Indian (i) 1. indica L., a native of the Himalayas,
India, China, and Japan, has a wood very similar to that of M. alba,
used for tea-boxes and furniture, (ii) more generally used of Morinda
citrifolia L. {See Canary-wood. |

Mulberry, Native. See Holly, Smooth.

Mulberry, Red (Morus ribra L.). Eastern United States. Height
60—70 ft.; diam. 3—4 ft. S.G. 589. W 36-76. R 775 kilos.
Sapwood very narrow, whitish ; heart, orange-yellow, of moderate
weight and hardness, tough, coarse-grained, strong, taking a satiny
polish, and very durable in contact with the soil. Largely used
for fence-posts and cooperage, and to some extent for agricultural
implements and in boat-building.

Mulga (Acdcia anetira F. v. M. and A. doratoxylon A. Cunn.:
Order Leguminose). Australia. “ Myall.” Height 20—30 ft. ;
diam. 9—12 in. Dark brown, very hard. Used for fence-posts,
bullock-yokes, boomerangs, spears and “‘ mulgas,” narrow wooden
shields.

Musk-tree (Mdrlea vitiénsis Benth.: Order Corndcee). Fiji
Islands, introduced in Australia. Height 20—30 ft.; diam. 6—
12 in. Bright yellow, with black centre, pretty curl, musk-like
odour, and close grain. An excellent cabinet-wood.

Musk-wood (Oledria argophijlla F. v. M.: Order Composite).
South-East Australasia. Height 20—30 ft.; diam. 14—3 ft.
S.G. 642. W 40. Brownish-yellow, beautifully mottled at the
butt-end, hard, working well, taking a good polish, and fragrant.
Highly prized for cabinet-work and turnery, burrs at the butt-end
giving fine veneers.

MUTTON-WOOD—MYALL 219

Mutton-wood (Myrsiné varidbilis R. Br.: Order Myrsinee).
East Australia. Also known as ‘“‘Jemmy Donnelly,” a name
also applied to the totally dissimilar Luroschinus falcdtus. Height
45—50 ft.; diam. 12—15 in. S.G. 714. Yellowish or pinkish,
hard, tough, somewhat resembling Oak in figure, easily worked,
durable.

Myall, a name applied in Australia to various species of Acdcia
(Order Leguminése), especially (i) A. péndula A. Cunn. ‘‘ True”
or “‘ Weeping Myall,”’ ‘‘ Violet-wood.” Aborig. “‘ Boree.” North-
East Australia. Height 20—30 ft.; diam. 6—12 in. W 76.
Rich dark brown, beautifully marked, heavy, hard, close-grained,
violet-scented as long as it is unpolished. Used for boomerangs,
veneers, fancy boxes, and especially for tobacco-pipes, and often
imitated by artificially scenting the wood of other species, a per-
fume which does not last. Suggested for parquetry.

(ii) A. homalophylla A. Cunn. Also known as ‘‘ Spear-wood.”’
Aborig. “‘ Gidya.”” South-East Australia. A similar tree, similarly
employed. Used also for briar pipes and in turnery, and formerly
for spears. S.G. 1,124. W 66—76-75.

(iii) A. acumindta Benth. West Australia. Known also from
its fragrance as ‘“‘ Raspberry Jam” or “Jamwood.’ Height
38—40 ft. W 54—78. Similar, reddish-brown, but with a per-
fume resembling raspberries. Used for weapons and fence-posts ;
but suited for ornamental work and now coming into use for
furniture.

(iv) A. anetra. See Mulga.

(v) A. glaucéscens Willd. Also known as “‘ Mountain Brigalow ”’
and ‘* Rosewood.” South-East Australia. Height 30—45 ft. ;
diam. 1—13 ft. W 54. Resembling Walnut or Rosewood, prettily
marked, slightly fragrant, hard, close-grained, tough. Used for
spears and handles, and suitable for turnery or veneers.

Myall, Bastard (i) (A. falcata Willd.). Also known as “ Hickory,
Lignum-vite ” and “‘ Salee.”” East Australia. Height 20—30 ft. ;
diam. 6—12 in. Sapwood yellow ; heart light-brown, heavy, hard,
tough. Used for whip-handles and coach-building.

(ii) A. Cunninghamii Hook. East Australia. Height 20—30 ft.
diam. 9—12 in. W 46-75. Dark, resembling the wood of Red
Cedar (Cedréla Toona), but heavier, close-grained, and taking a
good polish. A useful cabinet wood.

Myall, Brigalow (A. harpophylla F. v. M.). Also known as
“ Brigalow.” South Queensland. Brown, strongly violet-scented,
very heavy, very hard, elastic, durable, splitting freely. Used for
turnery, tobacco-pipes, vine-stakes, spears, and boomerangs.

Myall, Dalby. See Ironwood (ii).

220 WOODS OF COMMERCE

My Lady, a West Indian wood, perhaps Nectandra sanguinea
Rottb. [See Laurier, Madame. |

Myrobalan-wood (V'ermindlia belérica Roxb.: Order Combre-
tacee). India, Ceylon, Burma. “ Babela.” Sansk. “ Bahira.”’
Pers. “ Beleyleh.”” Tam. “ Tandi.” Height 50—80 ft.; diam.
2—4 ft. W 40. Yellowish-grey, hard, improved by steeping, but
is lable to become worm-eaten, and does not appear durable.
Used for packing-cases, coffee-boxes, grain-measures, canoes,
and planking. [For allied species see Arjun, Harra, Lein, and
Saj.]

Myrtle, a name not applied to any useful wood in the Northern
Hemisphere. In Tasmania and Victoria it refers generally to
Fagus Cunninghami [See Beech, Evergreen]; but in New South
Wales and Queensland to Syncdrpia leptopétala F. v. M. (Order
Myrtacee) and to Backhotsia scadiophora F. v. M.; belonging to
the same Order. Syncarpia leptopétala (= Metrosidéros leptopétala
F. v. M.), which is known also as *‘ Ironwood ”’ or “* Brush Turpen-
tine,’ reaches a height of 50—60 ft., with a diameter of 2 ft., is
heavy, hard, and durable, and is used in turnery. Backhousia
scadidphora, 80—90 ft. high, with a diameter of 2 ft., is hard, close-
grained, and prettily marked; but, though possibly useful for
engraving, is not yet in use.

Myrtle, Black (Cargillia pentiamera F. v. M.: Order Hbendcee).
North-East Australia. Known also as “Grey Plum.” Height
80—100 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. Reddish, close-grained, tough, durable.
Used occasionally for tool-handles and for flooring.

Myrtle, Brush. See Barranduna.

Myrtle, Drooping (Hugénia Ventendtii Benth.: Order Myrtacee).
North-East Australia. Height 40—60 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft. Grey
or pinkish, beautifully marked, heavy, hard, close-grained, tough.
Used for handles, ribs of boats, and floors of verandas.

Myrtle, Grey: See Myrtle, Scrub.

Myrtle, Native or Red (Hugénia myrtifolia Sims : Order Myrtacez).
North-East Australia. Known also as ‘“‘ Brush Cherry.” Height
50—80 or 100 ft.; diam. 1—2 ft. W 47-75. Light reddish or
yellowish, strong, elastic, seasoning and working well. Used for
boomerangs, shields, staves, oars, boat-building, and tool-handles.
[See also Myrtle, Scrub, and Juniper. |

Myrtle, Ridge. See Ironwood (iv).

Myrtle, Serub (Backhotisia myrtifolia Hook & Harv.: Order
Myrtacee). North-East Australia. Known also as “Grey” or
“Native Myrtle” and as ‘“‘ Lancewood.” Height 20—40 ft. ;
diam. 9—12 in. Light yellow, often prettily marked with dark

MYRTLE—NUT 221

brown, walnut-like stains, hard, close-grained, tough, durable.
Used for mallets, handles, bows, and suitable for turnery and
perhaps engraving.

Myrtle, Three-veined. See Turpentine, Brush.

Myrtle, Water. See Gum, Water.

Myrtle, White (i) (Myrtus acmenioides F. v. M.: Order Myrtaceae).
North-East Australia. Height 60—70 ft. ; diam. 1—14 ft. W 61.
Light-coloured, close-grained, very hard, tough and durable.
Used by coachbuilders.

(ii) (Rhodémnia argéntea Benth., in the same Order). North-
East Australia. Aborig. ‘‘ Muggle-muggle.”’ Height 80—100 ft. ;
diam. 2—3 ft. Close-grained, hard, and durable ; but seldom used.

Nagesar or Nahor. See Ironwood (xvii).

Nani. See Ironwood (xx).

Narango, Palo. See Fustic.

Narra. See Sanders, Red.

Neem. See Margosa.

Needle-bush. See Pin-bush.

Nettle-tree (Céltis australis L.: Order Ulmdcee). Mediter-
ranean. French ‘‘ Micocoulier.” Germ. “ Ziirgelbaum.” Height
30—50 or 70 ft.; diam. 6—12 in. Yellowish, heavy, hard, com-
pact, elastic, taking a high polish ; vessels in spring-wood few, but
large, the smaller, later ones arranged dendritically ; pith-rays
fine but distinct. When cut obliquely it resembles Satinwood.
Used for furniture, carving, turnery, whip-handles, walking-sticks,
flutes, ete. [See Hackberry. |

Nettle-tree, Giant (Lapdrtea gigas Wedd.: Order Urticdcee)
North-East Australia. Height 80—100 or 160 ft. ; diam. 2—8 ft.
W 16—17. Brownish, soft, spongy. Useless.

Nettle-tree, Small-leaved (L. photiniphylla Wedd.). A smaller
tree, from the same region, yields an even lighter wood. W 13:8.
It might be used for floats for fishing-nets.

Niaouli. See Cajeput.

Nicaragua-wood. See Peachwood.

Nispero. See Sapodilla.

Nogal (Juglans australis Griseb.: Order Juglandacee). Northern
Argentina. Height 20—25 ft., yielding timber squaring 13 ft.
In colour resembling European Walnut, straight-grained, and easy
to work. Much used for beams, door- and window-frames, furni-
ture, and railway-carriage fittings.

Nut. See Hazel.

222 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Nut, Queensland (Macadamia ternifolia F. v. M.: Order Pro-
tedcee). North-east Australia. Aborig. “* Kindal-kindal.” Height
30—50 ft.; diam. small. Reddish, firm, fine-grained, prettily
figured. Used for staves, bullock-yokes, shingles, cabinet-work,
and veneers.

Oak, originally Quércus Robur L. (Order Cupulifere), the principal
hardwood of Europe, afterwards extended to other species of
the genus in Southern Europe, North America, the Himalayas,
and Japan, and to various other entirely unrelated timber-trees,
chiefly species of Casuarina, in Australia. It will be convenient
to depart from the strictly alphabetical arrangement of the many
kinds of “‘ Oak’ in use, in favour of a geographical enumeration.
Beginning, therefore, with the Common Oak of Europe, we will
then describe the other European and North African forms, taking
those of North America next, and then those of the Himalayas and
of Japan, and relegating the so-called Oaks of Africa and Australia
to the last.

Oak, Common, British or European (Q. Robur L.). Syria, Mount
Taurus and Mount Atlas to 60° N. lat. French “‘ Chéne.” Germ.
‘“*Kiche.” Span. ‘“‘Roble.” Japan. ‘“Gashi.” Height 60—
100 ft.; diam. 1—22 ft., often with a straight stem 30—40 ft.
high, and 2—4 ft. in diam. §8.G. 1,280 when fresh cut, to 780 or
597 when seasoned. ‘‘It must be borne in mind, however, that
these weights refer to the wood as a structure, and do not give
the specific gravity of the wood-substance itself. This latter may
be obtained by driving off all the air and water from the wood,
and is found to be 1,560 ”’ (Marshall Ward). W 62—43. E 535—
800 tons. e’ Mr. Laslett takes the mean elasticity of British Oak
as unity for the comparison of other woods. Other specimens
of the species range from :64—1:41. p 6,500—11,300. p’ Here,
too, Oak is unity, its range being -6—1:06. f 5:27. ft 1:9—8°8.
e 7,571—8,102. c’ English Oak being taken as unity, French-
grown Oak is 1-071. fe 2:7.—4:5. v’ English Oak unity, Dantzic
Oak, probably the same species, -99, French 1:04. fs -4—1-03.
R_ 10,000—13,600 lbs. Sapwood narrow, yellowish; heart of
various shades, from greyish or yellow-brown (fawn-colour) to
reddish or very dark brown, darkening on exposure. “ Oak is
neither the hardest and heaviest, nor the most supple and toughest
of woods, but it combines in a useful manner the average of these
qualities. Good Oak is hard, firm, and compact, and with a glossy
surface, and varies much ; young Oak is often tougher, more cross-
grained, and harder to work than older wood ” (Marshall Ward).
A stress of 1,900 Ibs. per square inch is stated as the average
requisite to indent Oak ,\, in. transversely to its fibres. Oak
timber is apt to be affected by star- and cup-shakes, especially in

OAK 223

certain districts ; and, though it can be readily seasoned, it is very
liable to warp and shrink during the process.

When Oak was largely in use in our royal dockyards the rules
as to specifications were that only logs would be accepted 10 ft.
or more in length that would side 9 in. and upwards in proportion
to their length ; and that each piece was measured for contents
by calliper measurement as far as its spire (or top-end) * will hold
12 in. in diameter.”’ Thirty inches calliper will yield sided timber of
about 21 in., 24 in. calliper 184 in the side, or on an average a
‘“‘ siding’ of about seven-tenths of the calliper measurement, or
more precisely 70 in. from 99. For fencing or staves Oak splits
easily, with a moderately smooth surface; and, for ornamental
purposes, it is susceptible of a high polish.

The sapwood is very liable to insect attack, and cannot be termed
durable ; »but the heart, whether under ground, under water, or
exposed to alternations of drought and damp, is remarkably so,
few woods changing so little when once seasoned. The “life ”’
of a railway-sleeper of young Oak is stated to be from seven to ten
years if not treated with any preservative, or sixteen years if treated
with zine chloride. The piles of Old London Bridge, taken up in
1827, sound after six and a half centuries’ use, are a striking instance
of these lasting qualities ; whilst the ‘‘ Bog-oak ”’ blackened by the
action of the iron salts in peat-mosses on the tannin it contains—
a natural ink—remains sound after far longer periods. The
durability of Oak timber is undoubtedly affected by the time of
year at which it is felled, the best season being winter, when there
is least water and sap or fermentable matter in the wood. The
greater amount of tannin in the bark and the greater ease in stripping
it in the spring have, however, often led to the trees being felled at
that time. Incipient decay often shows itself in the heartwood
of ancient Oak-trees as “‘ foxiness,” a warm deepening of the colour
that actually enhances the value of the wood for some ornamental
purposes. It is then known as Brown Oak, and is often cut into
veneers, sometimes fetching very high prices for this purpose.
A tree felled at Welbeck, for instance, realized £100, and one from
Lord Fitzwilliam’s seat, Wentworth Woodhouse, £110; while
six at Burghley House averaged £75 apiece.

The minute structure of Oak has already been to some extent
described and fully illustrated in Part I. The pith, at first white,
then brown, is pentangular, and from 1—4 millimetres across:
the pith-rays are of two kinds, very broad, lustrous, light-coloured
ones—the “ silver-grain ’’— sometimes 2 in. apart, and others,
far more numerous—about 300 to the inch—very fine and less
straight. The annual rings undulate slightly, bending outwards
between the broad pith-rays: they vary in width from 1—8 or
more millimetres, and they are conspicuous owing to the pore-

224 WOODS OF COMMERCE

circle of very large vessels in the spring-wood, which is only a single
row when the rings are narrow, or four rows when they are wide.
Into the autumn-wood there radiate outwards straight or bifurcating
bands of finer vessels, tracheids, and cells. Numerous, very
narrow, wavy, peripheral lines (“‘ false rings ’?) of wood-parenchyma,
recognizable by their contents, but seldom more than a single row
of elements each, are generally visible, especially when the annual
rings are broad.

Owing to the large proportion that the pores bear to the fibre
when the annual rings are narrow, such slow-growing unthrifty
Oak, growing on poor soil or in severe climatic conditions, is,
though often beautifully marked, softer than the broad-ringed,
thrifty, quick-grown wood of good soils and a favourable climate.
They may differ to the extent of their specific gravities—a fair
criterion of their hardness and strength—varying from 691 to 827
respectively.

Quércus Rébur is a somewhat variable species, three somewhat
inconstant types being recognized as British—viz., pedunculdta,
sessiflora, and intermédia. @Q. Robur pedunculata derives its
scientific name from the long stalks to its acorns, for which reason
also the Germans call it ‘‘ Stieleiche,’? whilst from the situations
in which it grows they call it “valley Oak” (Thaleiche), and
from its early production and shedding of its leaves it is called
“Early Oak” (Fritheiche) and “ Sommereiche.” It is generally
quick-growing, but does not, perhaps, produce so great a length of
clear stem as sessifléra. Its wood may be lighter in colour, whence,
apparently, it gets its French name, “Chéne blanc”; but it is
generally more compact, denser, and tougher, and therefore better
for purposes where strength is a primary consideration.

Q. Rébur sessiliflora, known, from a supposedly greater resemblance
in its wood, as ‘‘ Chestnut Oak,” by the French as ‘“‘ Chéne rouge,”’
and by the Germans as “ Traubeneiche ” “‘ Red (Rotheiche), Hill
(Bergeiche), Late ” (Spateiche), or “‘ Winter Oak,” has long stalks
to its leaves, but not to its acorns, and is apparently generally less
dense in its timber. It is also, perhaps, more liable to shakes ;
but it must be admitted that, in the absence of any record as to
the source of the logs or of any exact measurement of specific
gravity, timber-dealers cannot discriminate the wood of these two
varieties. Stunted specimens, grown on rocky hill-sides, produce
crooked, hard, knotty wood, difficult to split, formerly of consider-
able value in ship-building ; and Coppice Oak is of a similar char-
acter.

Q. Rébur intermédia, the Durmast Oak, is not common. It has
short stalks to both leaves and acorns, and its leaves are downy
on their under-surfaces. It has a broad sapwood and a dark-brown
heart, and is considered of inferior quality.

OAK 225

There is, perhaps, greater difference between the woods of
Q. Robur imported from various parts of the Continent than there
is between these home-grown varieties. French Oak, largely
Q. Robur pedunculdta grown in Brittany and Normandy, is generally
smaller, shorter, and more tapering than English ; but with 8.G.
992—720, e’ 1:39—1-41, p’ 1-01—1-06, ¢ 8,102, c’ 1-071, v’ 1-04,
and shrinking and splitting less in seasoning than English, it
would appear, in spite of some former prejudice, to be better all
round, always presuming that a good sample be selected. Dantzic
Oak, shipped partly from Memel and Stettin, mostly brought
down the Vistula from Poland, but also from Odessa, which comes
to market as staves, in logs 18—30 ft. long and 10—22 in. square,
or in planks about 32 ft. long, 9—15 in. wide, and 2—8 in. thick,
is brown, straight, and clean-grained, and free from knots. It
would seem to be largely Q. Rébur sessiliflora, and is sometimes so
figured as to be classed as “‘ wainscot-oak,” this term being the
equivalent of the American “ quartered.” It has 8.G. 897—768.
e -43. p’:59. c4,214. c’-556. v’-99, and is, therefore, decidedly
inferior in strength to good English-grown Oak. It is carefully
sorted or “ bracked ” for market, the planks of best, or ‘‘ crown,”
quality being marked W, those of second-best, or “‘ crown brack,”’
quality WW. Riga Oak, a very similar wood, also probably
sessiliflora, only comes to market in ‘“‘ wainscot logs ”’ of moderate
dimensions, for furniture or veneers, for which purposes it is the
finest quality in the trade.

Oak, Holm. From Italy and Spain a variety of Oak timbers
were formerly imported to our dockyards, partly the produce of
varieties of Q. Robur, but partly apparently from the evergreen
Cork and Holm Oaks (Q. Suber L., and Q. [lea L.). Most of this
wood was comparatively small, curved, brown, hard, horny, tough,
difficult to saw or work, and very liable to shakes, and, therefore,
unsuitable for boards. The Holm Oak abounds in Algeria, where it
is much used in joinery and carriage-building and for fuel. Its
wood, which has a density of 900—1,180, becomes with age a
deep brown or jet-black.

Oak, Kermes (Quércus coccifera L.). South Europe and North
Africa. Heavy, hard, and compact. Used for building and for
charcoal.

Oak, Turkey (Quércus Cérris L.). Middle and Southern Europe
and South-West Asia. Known also as “‘ Adriatic, Iron, Wainscot,”
or “‘Mossy-cupped Oak.” Germ. “ Zerreiche.” A tall species,
with straight, clean stems, hard-wooded in the south and in plains,
softer in the north or on hills, very liable to ring- and star-shakes.
Sapwood broader than in Q. Robur ; heart a redder brown ; broad
pith-rays more numerous. On the whole inferior, not standing

15

226 WOODS OF COMMERCE

exposure, and being more liable to ““ worm” attack than British
Oak.

Throughout Europe, and more specially in Britain, Oak was
employed for every purpose both of naval and civil architecture
until about the beginning of the eighteenth century, when Pine
was first largely imported from the Baltic and North America.
In our dockyards Oak continued to be in large demand until about
1865, all other hard and heavy woods used in shipbuilding being
compared with it as a standard, and described as “* Oak-substi-
tutes.” Oak has, however, one serious drawback in this con-
nexion—viz., the presence of a powerful wood acid, which exerts
a rapidly corrosive action upon any iron in contact with it, this
rusting being apt in turn to react upon the timber, producing rot.
With the introduction of armour-plating and steel ships, wood of
any kind has become far less important in ship-building, and Teak
has largely superseded Oak. In Lloyd’s Register, however, English,
French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and Adriatic Oak, and Live
Oak, QY. virens of the United States, are classed together on line 2.
Though the greater cheapness and lightness of coniferous wood have
led to its being now generally preferred in building, Oak is still
in request where strength and durability are objects. Large
quantities are used for palings, shingles, staves, parquet-floors,
wheelwright’s work, wainscot, furniture, and carving. For these
last three purposes the softer, more figured, wood is preferred,
whilst for gate-posts, doors, stair-treads, door-sills, etc., the harder
sorts are employed. The ancient Romans are said to have used
the evergreen Holm Oak (Q. Ilex) for axles, and hard Oak is still
used for this purpose on the Continent. Walking-sticks are also
made of Oak, and it furnishes an excellent charcoal. Excellent
Oak is imported from Roumania.

Oak, Zeen (Quércus Mibéckii Durien). North-West Africa.
Height 100—110 ft.; diam. up to 6 ft. S.G. when green 924.
Breaking-weight per square millimetre 7-4 kilos, as against 4:7—7-2
kilos for European Oak. Yellowish or rose-coloured ; pith-rays
numerous, broad, close; heavy, horny, straight-grained, very
durable, but liable to shakes and warping. Used for sleepers,
bridge-girders, piles, and wine-barrels ; and, when winter-felled
and seasoned for six or twelve months, is one of the most valuable
timbers of Tunis, where it covers about 26,500 acres.

Oaks in America are somewhat numerous, three well-marked
kinds—White, Red or Black, and Live Oak—being distinguished
in commerce. The evergreen or Live Oak (Q. virens) of the
Southern United States, formerly much employed in ship-building,
though smaller than White Oak, is one of the heaviest, hardest,
and most durable timbers of the country. White Oak is more
compact, tougher, stronger, and more durable than Red Oak.

OAK 227

We will, however, briefly describe the various species alphabeti-
cally.

Oak, Baltimore. See Oak, White.

Oak, Basket (Q. Michauixii Nutt.). South-Eastern States.
Known also as “‘Cow” or “Swamp Chestnut Oak.” French
““Chéne de panier.” Germ. ‘“‘ Korb-EHiche.” Span. “‘ Roble de
canasto.” Height 100 ft. or more; diam. 3 ft. or more. Sap-
wood white ; heart fawn-colour ; rings fairly broad ; pores in about
two rows in spring-wood ; very heavy, hard, tough, very strong,
very durable in contact with soil. Largely used for agricultural
implements, cooperage, fencing, baskets, and fuel.

Oak, Black. See Oak, Red, and Oak, Yellow.

Oak, Burr (Q. macrocdrpa Michaux). Canada and the North-
Kastern and Central States, westward to the Rocky Mountains.
Known also as ‘“‘ Mossy-cup ”’ or “‘ Over-cup Oak.” French “‘ Chéne
& gros gland.” Germ. “ Grossfriichtige Eiche.” Span. “ Roble
con bellotas musgosas.” Height 100 ft. or more ; diam. 4—7 ft.
S.G. 745. W 46-45. R 982 kilos. Sapwood pale buff, heart rich
brown ; rings fairly broad ; pores in about three rows in spring-wood ;
heavy, hard, strong, tough, rather more porous than White Oak,
more durable, in contact with soil, than any other American Oak.
Classed with and used as White Oak.

Oak, Chestnut (Q. Prinus L.). Southern Ontario and North-
Eastern United States. Known also as “ Rock Oak.” French
““Chéne de roche.” Germ. ‘‘ Gerbereiche,’ ‘Felsen LEiche.”’
Height 80 ft. or more ; diam. 3—4 ft. or more. 8.G. 750. W 46-7.
R 1,031 kilos. Sapwood brownish white ; heart rich brown ; rings
narrow ; pores hardly more than a single row ; heavy, hard, rather
tough, strong, durable in contact with the soil. Chiefly valued for
its bark, but used for fencing, railroad-ties, and fuel. The name
is also applied to Q. Muhlenbérgii [See Oak, Chinquapin]. The
Californian Chestnut Oak is Q. densiflora [See Oak, Tan-bark], and
the Swamp Chestnut Oak, Q. Michatixii [See Basket-Oak].

Oak, Chinquapin (Q. Muhlenbérgii Engelm.). Eastern United
States. Known also as ‘“‘ Chestnut Oak’ and ‘“ Yellow Oak.”’
French “‘ Chéne jaune.”” Germ. “‘ Kastanien Hiche.” Height 80 ft. ;
diam. 3—4 ft. S.G. 860. W 53-6. R 1,238 kilos. Sapwood
brownish white ; heart rich brown ; rings of moderate width ; pores
in 1—2 rows; heavy, hard, strong, durable in contact with soil.
Valued for railway-ties, cooperage, furniture, fencing, and fuel.

Oak, Cow. See Oak, Basket.
Oak, Duck. See Oak, Water.

Oak, Iron. See Oak, Post.
15—2

228 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Oak, Live (Q. virens Ait.). Southern States. French ‘ Chéne
vert.” Germ. ‘‘ Lebenseiche, Immergriine EHiche.”” Height 60 ft.
or more ; diam. 5 ft.or more. Sapwood light-brown ; heart dark-
brown ; rings of moderate width ; pores very few and small ; pith-
rays distinct and bright ; very heavy, compact, hard, tough, strong,
fine, and close, but somewhat twisted in grain, and consequently
very difficult to work, durable. Seldom yielding large straight
timber, but with many crooked pieces, it was formerly much used
for knees in shipbuilding. It is, perhaps, stronger than any known
Oak, and is now used by wheelwrights, millwrights, and tool-
makers.

Oak, California Live (Q. chrysolépis Liehm.). Pacific States at
altitudes of 3,000—8,000 ft. Known also as ‘“ Thick-cup Live
Oak, Maul Oak,” and ‘“‘ Valparaiso Oak.’ Height 80 ft. or more ;
diam. 5 ft. or more. Very heavy, hard, tough, very strong. Con-
siderably used in waggon-building, and for agricultural implements.

Oak, Mossy-cup. See Oak, Burr.
Oak, Peach. See Oak, Tan-bark and Oak, Willow.

Oak, Pin (Q. palustris Du Roi.). South-Central States. Known
also as “‘Swamp Spanish ”’ and ‘‘ Water Oak.” French “ Chéne
marécageaux.”” Germ. ““Sumpf EHiche.” No distinct heart ; rings
wide, very wavy ; pores very numerous, forming a wide zone ; light
brown.

Oak, Possum. See Oak, Water.

Oak, Post (Q. obtusildba Michaux). Eastern and Southern
States. Known also as “Iron Oak.” French ‘“‘ Chéne poteau.”
Germ. ‘‘ Pfahl Eiche, Posteiche, Hiseneiche.” Height 60 ft. or
more ; diam. 3 ft. or more. Sapwood light brownish ; heart sharply
defined, dark brown ; rings rather narrow ; pores small, in about
three rows ; very heavy and hard, very durable in contact with soil.
Used chiefly for railroad-ties, fencing, and fuel ; but occasionally
for cooperage and carriage-building.

Oak, Punk. See Oak, Water.
Oak, Quebee. See Oak, White.
Oak, Quercitron. See Oak, Yellow.

Oak, Red (Q. rubra L.). Canada and North-Eastern States.
Known in commerce as ‘“‘ Canadian Red” and as “ Black Oak.”
French “‘ Chéne rouge.” Germ. “‘ Rotheiche.”? Height 80—100 ft.
or more; diam. 4—6 or 7 ft. S.G. 654. W 40—49-25. R 990
kilos. Sapwood almost white ; heart light-brown or reddish ; rings
wide ; pores numerous, in a wide zone ; pith-rays indistinct ; heavy,
hard, strong, but inferior to White Oak, coarse-grained, and so

OAK 229

porous as to be unfit for staves for liquor casks, shrinking moderately
without splitting, easy to work. Used for flour- and sugar-barrels,
elapboards, chairs, and interior finish, and imported from Canada
to London and still more to Liverpool for furniture-making. It is
valued for its bark. [See also Oak, Spanish. |

Oak, Rock. See Oak, Chestnut.

Oak, Scarlet (Q. coccinea Wang.). Eastern United States.
Height 100 ft. or more ; diam. 3—4 ft. 8.G. 740. W 46. R 1,054
kilos. Sapwood whitish ; heart ill-defined, pinkish-brown, heavy
hard, strong ; rings narrow, wavy ; pores in 3—4 rows, making a
rather broad zone; pith-rays prominent. Used in cooperage,
chair-making, and interior finish, being treated in trade.as Red Oak,
and of small value.

Oak, Spanish (Q. falcata Michx.). Eastern and Southern States.
Known also as “ Red Oak.” Height 70 ft. or more; diam. 4 ft. or
more. Heavy, very hard and strong, but not durable. Valued for
its bark ; but used in building and cooperage, and as fuel.

Qak, Swamp Spanish. See Oak, Pin.

Oak, Tan-bark (Q. densifl6ra Hook and Arn.). Pacific coast.
Known also as “ Peach” or “‘ California Chestnut Oak.’ Height
60—70 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft. Heavy, hard, strong. Classed as an
inferior White Oak ; but valued chiefly for its bark.

Oak, Water (Q. aquatica Walt.). Central, Southern, and South-
Eastern States. Known also as ‘‘ Duck, Possum” or ‘‘ Punk
Oak.” Height 50—80 ft.; diam. 3—4 ft.; heavy, hard, strong.
Sapwood whitish ; heart ill-defined, light brown ; rings of moderate
width, wavy ; pores in 1—2 rows, graduating into those of the
autumn-wood ; pith-rays numerous and prominent, but not very
wide. Used in cooperage, but chiefly as fuel. The name is also
applied to Q. palisiris. [See Oak, Pin.]

Oak, White (Q. dlba L.). South-Eastern Canada, Eastern
United States. Height 70—130 ft.; diam. 6—8 ft. S.G. 1,054—
695. W 46:°35—65°75. fe 1:5—2°3. e’ 1:19—1:58. p’ 1—9.
ce 7,021—3,832. c’ -927—:506. v’ -912—771. R 905 kilos.
Sapwood whitish ; heart defined, reddish-brown ; heavy, hara, tough,
straight-grained, strong, durable in contact with soil ; rings narrow,
slightly wavy ; pores in spring-wood in 1—2 rows, those in summer-
wood very fine ; pith-rays numerous and prominent ; wide radial
groups of dense woody fibre extending across the summer-wood
crossed by several concentric lines of fine pores. One of the most
generally useful of American hard-woods, being so elastic that
“planks cut from it may, when steamed, be bent into almost any
form,” shrinking and splitting very little in seasoning, but liable to
some twisting, free from knots, and shipped in logs from 25—50 ft.

230 WOODS OF COMMERCE

long and 11—28 in. square, or in thick-stuff or planks. Largely
used in ship-building, house-frames, interior finish, door-sills, staves
for wine-casks, railway and other carriage-building, agricultural
implements, fence-posts, sleepers, piles, furniture, and fuel. Though
beautifully marked when quarter-sawn, it is inferior to the best
European Oak. ‘‘ Quebec Oak ”’ is the trade name of an excellent
quality, and ‘‘ Baltimore Oak” that of a somewhat inferior one,
both named from their port of shipment, and realizing from 2s. 6d.
to 2s. 9d. per cubic foot in London. The name ‘‘ White Oak ”’ is
applied in the Southern States to Q. Durdndii Buckley, and in the
West to Q. Garrydna Dougl.

Oak, Swamp White (Q. bicolor Willd.). Eastern Canada and
United States. French ‘‘Chéne de marais.”? Germ. ‘“‘ Sumpf
Weisseiche, Zweifarbige Kiche.” Height 75—100 ft.; diam. 5 ft.
S.G. 766. W 47-75. R909kilos. Sapwood whitish ; heart defined,
pinkish brown, heavy, hard, tough, and strong, resembling Q. aqud-
tica, but with more defined heart and wide rings and pith-rays.
Classed in trade as “‘ White Oak ”’; but appearing inferior.

Oak, Weeping or Western (Q. lobdta Née). California. Germ.
‘ Westliche Weisseiche.” The largest-growing species on the
Pacific coast. Classed as ‘‘ White Oak.”

Oak, Willow (Q. Phéllos L.). Eastern States. Known also as
* Peach Oak.” Heavy, hard, very elastic, but small.

Oak, Yellow (Q. tinctoria Bartram). Eastern United States.
Known also as “ Black” or “‘ Quercitron Oak.” French “‘ Chéne
jaune.” Germ. “ Farber Eiche.”’ Height 80 ft. or more; diam.
3 ft. or more. Sapwood white ; heart reddish-brown, heavy, hard,
coarse-grained, porous, strong, but not tough ; rings narrow, wavy ;
pith-rays numerous ; pores in spring-wood in 3—5 rows. Valued
for its bark for tanning and dyeing yellow, and used as a substi-
tute for White Oak in building, cooperage, etc., and for fuel. [See
also Oak, Chinquapin. |

In the Himalayas there is a considerable variety of species of
Oak, most of which are evergreen. The wood of these species is
often hard, durable, and valuable, resembling English Oak, but
not having distinct annual rings, these being replaced by partial
zones of wood-parenchyma or “ false rings.” Among them are :

Oak, Brown (Q. semecarpifolia Sm.). Afghanistan to Bhotan, at
altitudes of 8,000—10,000 ft. Wood large, reddish-grey, very hard.
Used for all kinds of building and for charcoal.

Oak, Green (Q. dilatdéta Lindl.). Afghanistan and the North-
West. Wood large, hard, seasoning well without warping, durable.
Used for building. The name is also applied to Q. glatica Thunb.,
which grows from Kashmir to Bhotan and in Japan, and yields

OAK 231

a brownish-grey, very hard wood, used in house- and _bridge-
building.

Oak, Grey (Q. incdna Roxb.). From the Indus to Nepal, at
altitudes of 8,000—3,000 ft. Known also as ‘“‘ Himalayan Ilex”
or ‘ Ban,” and in Kumaon as “ Munroo.”? Heartwood reddish-
brown, very hard, but warping and splitting considerably in build-
ing. Used in building.

Oak, Holm (Q. {lex L.), the same species that occurs in Southern
Europe, occurs also in the North-West.

Oak, Ring-cupped (Q. annuldta Sm.). Sikkim, up to altitudes
of 10,000 ft. A well-marked, handsome, but not durable wood.

Q. fenestrata Roxb., of the Eastern Himalaya, from Sylhet to
Burmah, and of the Khasia Hills, growing down to 50 ft. above the
sea, yields a red, very hard, good and durable heartwood, somewhat
inferior to English Oak.

Q. Griffithii Hook. fil. & Throm., of Bhotan, Sikkim and the
Khasia Hills, yields a brown, very hard, strong wood, much re-
sembling English Oak, used in building.

Q. lamellésa Sm., occurring from Nepal to Bhotan, has a grey-
brown wood with a beautiful silver grain, used in building, but not
very durable if exposed.

Q. lanceeefolia Roxb., of the Garrow Hills and Assam, yields a
light-coloured wood, resembling English Oak, but harder and very
durable.

Q. lappdcea Roxb., of the Khasia Hills, has a strong wood, re-
sembling English Oak, but hard and more close-grained.

Q. pachyphylla Kurz, of the Eastern part of the range, at altitudes
of 8,000—10,000 ft., yields a greyish, very durable, damp-resisting
timber, used for fencing, shingles, and planks.

Q serrdta Thunb., which ranges from the Himalaya into China
and Japan, yields a brown, very hard, building wood, resembling
that of Q. Griffithit.

Q. spicita Sm., the range of which extends from the Himalayas
to Malacca and the Sunda Islands, yields a reddish, very hard and
durable wood, used in India for builaing.

In Southern Japan several species of evergreen Oak occur,
including Q. actéita Thunb., “ Aka-gashi,” with a dark red-brown,
very hard and heavy heartwood, used in waggon-building ; the
lighter-coloured Q. gilva Bl. ‘‘ Ichii-gashi ’’; and the greyish-white
Q. vibrayeina Tr. & Tav., ‘ Shira-gashi,” and Q. myrsinefolia
BL, “ Urajiro-gashi,” used in ship-building and waggon-building.
In Northern Japan occurs Q. grosserdta Bl., “‘O-nara,” the wood of
which is employed for building and furniture.

Oak, African (Lophira aldta Banks: Order Dipterocarpdcee).
Lagos and the Gold Coast. W 67—72. Deep-red, heavy, very

232 WOODS OF COMMERCE

hard, coarse-grained. A very showy wood for turnery and fur-
niture.

In Australia, where there are no true Oaks, many very diverse
species are so named ; but the name is chiefly applied to species
of Casuarina (Order Casuarine), from a fancied resemblance in
the colour and broad pith-rays of their wood to that of true Oak.
These woods have been known in English trade as “‘ Botany Oak,”’
and used in veneer and inlaying.

Oak, Bull (Casuarina glauca Sieb.). Also known as “‘ Swamp-
Oak, Desert”? or ‘“ River She Oak.” <Aborig. “ Billa.” Height
40—50 ft.; diam. 1—2 ft. Red with small darker veins, some-
what resembling Quércus Ilex, the Holm Oak, close-grained, strong.
Used for staves, shingles, and fence-rails, but not suited for
posts. The name is also applied to C. equisetifélia [See Oak,
Swamp. |

Oak, Forest (C. tortulosa Ait.). North-East Australia. Known
also as “‘ Beefwood,” “‘She Oak,” “‘ Botany-bay,” “‘ River,” and
“Mountain Oak.” Height 60—80 ft. ; diam. 1} —2 ft. W 48:-5—64.
Heart well defined, prettily marked, close-grained. Much used for
shingles and fuel, and also used for furniture, either solid or in
veneer. The name is also applied to C. equisetifolia [See Oak,
Swamp] and to C. suberdsa [See Oak, Erect She].

Oak, River, a name applied to Callistémon salignus (See Bottle-
brush, White], Casuarina Cunninghamidna [See Oak, Serub, She]
C. distyla [See Oak, Stunted Shel, C. stricta [See Oak, Shingle], and
C. torulosa [See Oak, Forest].

Oak, She, a usefully distinctive name for the species of Casuarina,
viz.: C. Fraseriana, C. stricta [See Oak, Shingle], C. glauca [See
Oak, Bull], C. suberosa, Cunninghamidna and distyjla. OC. Frasert-
dna Miq. West Australia. W 45—60. Sapwood light-brown,
heart light-red, hard, fine-grained, beautifully figured, easily
worked, but liable to heart-shake, durable. Used for furniture
and roof-shingles.

Oak, Erect She (C. suberdsa Ott. and Dietr.). Central and
Eastern Australasia. Known also as ‘‘ Beefwood, Forest, Swamp,”
or “Shingle Oak.” Height 30—50 ft.; diam. 1—2 ft. W 59-6.
Reddish, beautifully marked, very apt to split in drying. Used for
shingles, handles, mallets, etc., and formerly for boomerangs ; but
would be valuable for veneers.

Oak, Serub She (C. Cunninghamidna Miq.). North-East Aus-
tralia. Known also as “ River Oak.’ Height 60—70 ft. ; diam.
2 ft. Prettily marked, hard, close-grained. Used for shingles,
staves, and fuel.

OAK 233

Oak, Stunted She (C. distyla Vent.). Southern and Western
Australasia. Known also as ‘“ River Oak.” Height 40—60 ft. ;
diam. 13—2 ft. Brown to deep-red, light, tough, strong. Used
for bullock-yokes.

Oak, Shingle (C. stricta Ait.). South-East Australasia. Known
also as ‘“‘ Coast She Oak,” “ Salt-water Swamp Oak,” and “ River
Oak.” Height 20—30 ft.; diam. 9—15 in. S.G. 1,037—935.
W 57—63. Reddish, with dark longitudinal bands, giving a
beautifully mottled appearance to the outer part of the heart,
the darker centre being less handsome, heavy, close-grained, very
hard, tough, working up splendidly, but not durable. Used for
shingles, staves, spokes, axe-handles, turnery, and furniture.

Oak, Silky (i) (Stenocdrpus salignus R. Br.: Order Protedcee).
North-East Australia. Known also as “‘ Silvery Oak” and “‘ Beef-
wood.” Aborig. ‘‘Melyn.” Height 30—50 or 80 ft.; diam.
1—3 ft. W 32—59:5. Red-brown, sometimes dark, with a beauti-
ful wavy figure, hard, close-grained, splitting and working readily,
durable. A most beautiful wood, used for furniture, veneers, and
walking-sticks ; but becoming scarce. (ii) (Grevillea robusta
A. Cunn.: Order Protedcee). North-East Australia, and suc-
cessfully introduced into Ceylon. ‘‘ Tuggan-tuggan.” Height
70—80 or 100 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. W 35:25—388:8. Light-ccloured,
but prettily marked, especially where knots are present, moderately
hard, elastic, working well, durable. Largely used for staves for
tallow-casks, and now becoming scarce, suitable for veneers.
(ii1) (Orites excélsa R. Br.: Order Protedcee). North-East Aus-
tralia. Known also as “Red Ash.” Height 40—70 or 80 ft. ;
diam. 2—3 ft. Grey, prettily marked, hard, susceptible of a good
polish, durable. Used for cask-staves, shingles, and farm imple-
ments. (iv) (Cardwéllia sublimis F. v. M.: Order Proteccee).
Known also as “Gold Spangle-wood.” Large, light-coloured,
figured cabinet-wood.

Oak, Swamp (Casuarina equisetifolia Forst.). North-East Aus-
tralia; introduced near Madras. Known also as ‘‘ Beefwood,”’
*“* Forest,”’ and “‘ Bull Oak,”’ and in the South Seas as ‘“‘ Ironwood.”’
Anglo-Indian “‘ Fir,” rom an external resemblance to Larch.
Madagascar and Mauritius “‘ Filaof.” Dekhan “ Sarv”’ (cypress).
Indian Archipelago ‘‘ Aroo.”” Tam. “‘ Chouk.’? Height 50—70 it. ;
diam. 1—1} ft. W 55—63. Reddish, coarse-grained, beautifully
marked, hard, tough, strong, straight in growth, and very durable.
Used for fencing and shingles, and largely for fuel, for which it is
excellent. The name is also applied to C. glatica [See Oak, Bull]
and C’. suberdsa [See Oak, Erect She].

Oak, White (Lagundria Paterséni). See Tulip-tree.

In addition to these the name ‘‘ Oak” is applied in Ceylon to

234 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Schléichera trijuga [See Kosum], and in New Zealand to Aléctryon
excélsum Gaertn. (Order Sapinddcee), the ‘* Titoki”’ of the Maoris,
which is used in building. S.G. 916. W 57-1. p 248.

Oak, African. See African.

Oak, Indian, a name sometimes applied to Barringténia acutangula
Gaertn. (Order Myrtacee), a species ranging from the Seychelles to
Queensland and Northern India. Hind. ‘‘ Samandar-phal, Hijjul.”’
Tam. “‘Radami.” Telug. “‘Kanapa” or “ Kanigi.” Burm.
“ Kyai-tha.”’ A large tree, yielding red, fine-grained, hard
timber, said to be equal to Mahogany, and used in boat- and cart-
building, well-work, and cabinet-making. W 46.

Olive (Olea europea L.: Order Oledcee). Mediterranean region ;
introduced into California, India, and other countries. French
‘** Olivier.” Germ. ‘‘ Oelbaum,”’ ‘‘ Olivenholz.”’ Hebr. ‘* Zaith.”’
Greek ékaia. S.G. 940. W 57—69-5. Height seldom more than
20 ft. Very close- and fine-grained, light yellowish-brown, with
irregularly wavy dark lines and mottlings, especially near the root,
resembling Box in texture, but not so hard, and rather brittle,
taking an excellent polish, with no distinguishable rings or pith-
rays, and minute, evenly distributed vessels. Used chiefly in
turnery and carving fcr small articles, fancy boxes, paper-knives, etc.

Olive or Wild Olive in Cape Colony (Olea verrucésa Link.). Boer
‘** Olivenhout.’’ Also known as ** Olina-wood.” Zulu “* Umguna.’
Height 14—16 ft. ; diam. 8—15 in. W 68-95. E669tons. / 6°65.
fe 3°90. fs -8. Dark, very hard, heavy, dense, taking a good
polish. Used in waggon-building and for furniture.

Olive, Indian (Olea didica Roxb.). Silhet and Assam southward.
White, compact, strong. Used in building, and might be creosoted.
Other Indian species are O. glandulifera Wall., light-brown, dense,
hard, susceptible of a good polish, and durable, used in building ;
and O. cuspidata Wall., resembling the Common Olive.

Olive, Mock. See Axe-breaker.

Olive, Native, in Australia (Noteléa ovata R. Br. : Order Oleacee).
Eastern Australia. Aborig. ‘‘ Dunga-runga.’”? Small and crooked
in growth, light-coloured, with irregular dark-brown blotches, fine,
close and even in grain, hard, firm, working easily, and taking a
good polish, but requiring careful seasoning. W 60:3. Used for
tool-handles. [See also Marblewood. |

Olive, Native, in North America (Osmdanthus americanus Gray :
Order Oledcee). Also known as “ Devilwood.” French “‘ Olivier
d’Amerique.” Germ. ‘‘ Amerikanischer Oelbaum.” Span. “ Ma-
dera del diablo.”” Resembling Box, very hard and durable, with
evenly circular rings and fine vessels in dendritic lines across the
entire ring, resembling those of Rhamnus.

OLIVE—ORANGE 235

Olive, Spurious. See Ironwood (vi), and for other allied species,
Ironwood (vii), (xi-xv), and (xxiv).

Olivier (Lermindlia Buiceras Wright: Order Combretdcee). West
Indies. Known also as ‘‘ Black Olive ”’ and “ Olive-bark.” Height
30—50 ft.; diam. 2—4 ft. Not flammable, durable in water,
insect-proof, between Olivewood and Satinwood in character.

Omatsu. See Pine, Japanese Black.

Opepe (Termindlia sp.: Order Combretdcee). West Africa,
especially Lagos and Toruba. W 47:5—50°7. R_ 14,347—
17,907 lbs. A beautiful reddish-yellow or golden-red, moderately
hard, and heavy, coarse and open in grain, planing well, and taking
an excellent polish. Mr. Stone describes it as “a splendid cabinet
wood,” and Mr. Weale is of opinion that it has a future in the Liver-
pool timber market.

Orange (Citrus Aurdntium L.: Order Aurantidcee). Probably
a native of India, cultivated for its fruit in most tropical and sub-
tropical countries. Sansk. ‘‘Nagranga.” Arab. and Pers.
“Naranj.” Hind. ‘‘Naringi.” Span. “ Naranja.” French
“Oranges.” Germ. ‘‘ Pomeranzen.” §.G. 700. W 58. Small,
light yellow, close-grained, hard. Imported from Algeria for
walking-sticks, and used in the West Indies in cabinet-work.
Lemon-wood (C. médica, var. Limoénum) seems very similar.

Orange, Black. See Broom.

Orange, Mock. See Cheesewood.

Orange, Native, in Australia (i) (Citrus australis Planch.).
Height 30—40 ft.; diam. 9—12 in. Resembling the Common
Orange ; (ii) from the shape of the fruit (Capparis Mitchelli Lindl. :
Order Capparidee), known also as ‘‘ Small Native Pomegranate.”
Height 14—20 ft.; diam. 1 ft. Whitish, hard, close-grained,
closely resembling Lancewood. Suitable for engraving ; (ili) Hndi-
dndra virens F. v. M.: Order Laurdcee). North-East Australia.
Known also as ‘“ Bat and Ball,” “ Native Pomegranate,” and
* Ullagal Mabbie.”” A tall shrub, with grey, close-grained, firm,
apparently useful wood.

Orange, Osage (Maclira aurantiaca Nutt.: Order Mordcee).
Arkansas and Texas. Known also as ‘‘ Boxwood.” French
“ Bois dare.” Height 50 ft. or more; diam. 2 ft. Sapwood
yellow, heart brown transversely, yellow longitudinally, soon
turning greyish on exposure, very heavy, hard and strong, not tough,
flexible, of moderately coarse texture, shrinking considerably in
drying, very durable in contact with soil. Formerly used for
bows and wheelwrights’ work, now for fence-posts, railway-ties,
waggon-building, and paving-blocks ; but suitable for turnery and
carving.

236 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Orham-wood (Ulmus sp.?: Order Ulmdcee). Canada. W 32.
Brownish, soft, coarse-grained, twists badly, and is not durable,
but is cheap, fetching 1s. 10d. per cubic foot for prime quality in
Liverpool. Now considerably used as a cabinet-wood.

Paeara (Enteroldbium Timboiiva Mart.: Order Leguminése).
Northern Argentina. Yielding logs 15 ft. long and 14 ft. square.
Light-brown, loose-grained, not strong. Used for door-frames,
furniture, ete.

Pader or Padri (Stereospérmum chelonoides DC: Order Bignonia-
cee). India and Burma, Ceylon and Sunda Islands. Height to
first branch 30 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. Grey, reddish-brown or orange,
wood hard, elastic, easy to work, moderately durable. Used in
house-building, and for canoes, furniture, and tea-chests.

Padouk (Pterocarpus indicus Willd. : Order Legumindse). Burma,
Sunda and Philippine Islands and Southern China. Known also
as ‘“‘ Burmese Rosewood,” or “Tenasserim Mahogany.” F2j7
‘ Cibicibi.”” Height to first branch 35 ft. ; diam. 2—5 ft., yielding
timber 15—30 ft. long. W 56—81. R 1,000 Ibs. Dark-red,
beautifully variegated and darker near the root, resembling Ma-
hogany, but heavier, slightly aromatic, very heavy, moderately
hard, coarse but close-grained, working fairly well, taking two
years to season, termite-proof, and susceptible of a high polish, but
fading in colour on exposure, and will not take glue. It is used by
the Burmese for musical instruments and cart-wheels ; in India for
eun-carriages and furniture ; and is reeommended as a Teak-substi-
tute for railway-carriages and for counter-tops and ball-room floors.

Padouk, African. See Rosewood, African.

Padouk, Andaman (Pterocdrpus dalbergioides Roxb.). Andaman
Islands. Squaring 60 ft. and 2 ft. in the side. W 40—60. Hand-
somer than P. indicus, being comparable to the best Spanish
Mahogany, but browner. Used for furniture, parquet, etc. The
root gives a closer-grained, darker, and more beautifully figured :
wood “than the stem. Good samples of the wood fetch £10 per ton
in London, or 4s.—4s. 6d. per cubic foot.

Pahautea. See Cedar, New Zealand.

Pai’cha (Hudnymus europeus, var. Hamiltonidnus Wall.: Order
Celastrinee). Ning-po. Perhaps also known as “Tu chung mu.”
Yellowish-white, very hard, close- and fine-grained. . Inferior to”
Box ; but one of the best substitutes yet found for it as an engraver’s
wood. Used by the Chinese for carving and typography.

Palisander-wood (i) Jacaranda brasilidna Pers. : Order Bignonid-
cee). Brazil. Sapwood very narrow, grey ; heart dark chocolate-
brown, marked by deep black veins and bands, very heavy, hard,
difficult to split, almost brittle ; rings scarcely visible; pith-rays

PALO BLANCO—PAPAW 237

invisible ; vessels large, appearing like strings of pearls on longi-
tudinal, and as light-red spots on transverse, sections. A valuable
wood, chiefly used in pianofortes. (ii) Possibly Dalbérgia nigra
Allem., or some species of the allied genus Macheériwm (Order
Leguminose) may be the source, in whole or in part, of this wood.
Dalbérgia nigra, sometimes apparently known as ‘“‘ Jacaranda
cabiuna,” is dark-coloured, porous, and open-grained. S.G. 768
841. It is a valuable furniture-wood. Probably most of the
Palisander-wood of commerce is Dalbérgia or Macherium [See
Rosewood], and not Bignoniaceous. The best in figure, and there-
fore the most valuable, comes from Bahia, but is a very wasteful
wood, as the tree rots at the heart before reaching maturity, so that
the roughly-hewn, semi-cylindrical billets of half a log each, in which
form it is imported, are never sound. The wood from Rio Janeiro,
though in less unsound round logs, is less figured.

Palo Blanco (Calycophyjllum multiflorum Griseb.: Order Rubid-
cee). Northern Argentina. Height 25—30 ft.; diam. 2—23 ft.
Almost white, fine- and close-grained. Used for beams and
planks.

Palo Cruz (Zabebuia nodosa Griseb.: Order Bignonidcee).
Northern Argentina. Yielding timber 114 ft. long and 1 ft. square.
Light yellow, loose-grained, but of good quality. Used for waggon-
frames, axe-handles, etc.

Palo Maria. See Poon.
Palo Mulato. See Bois Mulatre.
Palo Narango. See Fustic.

_ Palu (Mimusops hexandra Roxb.: Order Sapotdcee). Ceylon.
W 68. Large, very heavy, hard, red-brown, Walnut-like in tint ;
but monotonous, valuable for purposes of construction.

Panacoco (Robinia Panacoco Aubl. = Swartzia tomentésa DC. :
Order Leguminoése). French Guiana. Height up to 50 ft. ; diam.
_ § ft., imported in logs squaring 17 in. and upwards of 32 ft. long.
_8.G. °1,231—1,181. R 400 kilos. Sapwood white; heart black,
more lustrous than ordinary Ebony, very compact and durable.
Used in fencing ; but most valuable for cabinet-work.

Pao d’areo (Z'ecdma specidsa DC.: Order Bignonidcee). Brazil.

Height 100 ft.; diam. 10 ft. or more. Very hard, compact, and
elastic.

Pao precioso (Mespiledaphné pretidsa Nees: Order Laurinee).
Brazil. Very hard, compact, with beautiful grain, fragrant. Used
in building and in perfumery.

Papaw (Asimina triloba Dunal: Order Anondcee). Middle,
Southern, and Western United States. Also known as “‘ Custard-

238 WOODS OF COMMERCE

apple’? and ‘“‘Cucumber-tree.” French “ Asiminier.” Germ.
‘* Dreilappiger Flachenbaum.” Span. “ Anona.” Height 15—
30 ft. S.G. 397. W 24:74. Sapwood narrow, heart dark-green,
light, soft, weak, coarse-grained.

Papri. See Elm, Indian.

Parcouri (Clisia insignis Mart.: Order Clusidcew). Guiana.
Known in Demerara as ‘“* Wild Mammee, Coopa,” and ‘* Cowassa.”’
S.G. 816 for the black, 784 for the yellow variety. Fine, compact,
and even in grain.

Partridge-wood in South America may be Andira inérmis [See
Angelin], or A. Aublétii [See Wacapou]. In Northern Australia
it is the outer part of the Palm Livisténa inérmis R.Br., also known
as “‘ Cabbage-palm.”? Height 14—40 ft.; diam. 1 ft. Light grey,
streaked with a darker colour, the fibro-vascular bundles, producing
a beautiful effect, very hard, and taking a good polish.

Patawa (@nocarpus Batata Mart.: Order Palmdcee). French
Guiana. With parallel veins of black and white. Suitable for
walking-sticks, umbrella-handles, and inlay.

Peach-wood (Cesalpinia echindta Lam.: Order Legumindése):
Central and South America. Known also as “‘ Lima, Nicaragua,”
or ‘‘ Pernambuco-wood,” or ‘‘ Bresil de St. Martha.” Small and
little known, hard, heavy, and susceptible of a good polish. Valu-
able as a red, orange, or peach-coloured dye ; but inferior to Brazil-
wood.

Pear (Pyrus communis L.: Order Rosdcew). Europe and Western
Asia ; cultivated as a fruit-tree in other temperate climates. French
‘* Poirier.” Germ. “ Birnbaum.” Span. “ Peral.” Height 20—
50 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. S.G. 680. W 44—52. No true heart, but
sometimes a darker, more chocolate-brown in the centre, light
pinkish-brown, moderately heavy, hard, close-grained, tough, firm,
difficult to split, but easily cut in any direction, taking a satiny
polish, and very durable, if kept dry. Rings recognizable by the
dark zone of the autumn-wood ; pith-rays and vessels not visible
to the naked eye. Highly esteemed for turnery, cabinet-work,
T-squares, and other drawing instruments, calico-printing blocks,
coarse wood-engraving and, when ‘“‘ebonized”’ or stained black,
for picture-frames.

Pear, Hard (Olinia cymésa Thunb., var. intermédia: Order
Oliniée). Cape Colony. Zulu “*Umnonono.” Height 14—16 or
55 ft.; diam. 1—23 ft. W 543. Yellowish, very heavy, hard,
compact and tough. Valuable for axles and carriage-poles, and
suitable for musical instruments and turnery.

Pear, Native, in Australia (i) (Xylomelum pyriformé Knight:
Order Protedceew). New South Wales and West Australia. Known

PEAR—PEPPERMINT 239

also as ‘“‘ Wooden Pear.” Height 20—40 ft.; diam. 6—8 in.
W 40—56. Sapwood narrow, light ; heart a rich dark reddish, with
a beautiful rich figuring on tangential sections, taking an excellent
polish. Occasionally used for picture-frames, veneers, and walking-
sticks. (ii) (Hdkea sericea Schrad. (=acicularis BR. Br.) var.
lissospérma: Order Protedcee). South-East Australasia. Height
20—30 ft. ; diam. S—10 in. Hard, and used in turnery.

Pear, Red (Scolépia Ecklénii Benth. and Hook. fil.: ‘Order
Flacourtidcee). South Africa. Height 30—35 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft.
Heavy, hard, close-grained. Used chiefly by wheelwrights and in
mill-work.

Pear, Thorn or Wolf (Scolépia Zéyhert Benth. and Hook. fil.).
Cape Colony. ‘“‘ Klipdoorn.” Zulu“ Igumzaelinameva.” Height
60—70 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. Straight-growing, very hard and close-
grained, very difficult to saw. Used for cogs.

Pear, Wooden. See Pear, Native.

Pear-wood, White (Pterocelistrus rostratus Walp.: Order Celas-
trdcee). South Africa. Zulu ‘‘Umdogan.” ‘‘ Umdakane.”’
Height 20—25 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. W 42°84. E 635 tons. f 6-95.
fe 3°04. Moderately heavy, strong, and durable. Much used for
felloes and other waggon-work. The name is also applied in Natal
to Apodijtes dimidiata E. Mey.: Order Olacinee). Height 70 ft. ;
diam. 2—3 ft. W 49—61-5. Greyish-brown, hard, very fine-
and close-grained, tough, working well, and excellent for turnery.
This tree occurs from Guinea to the Nile.

Penagah. See Poon.

Pencil Cedar. See Cedar, Pencil.

Pencil-wood (Panax Murrayi F. v. M.: Order Araliacee). North-
East Australia. Height 50—60 ft. S.G. 348. Light-coloured,
the lightest in weight of any wood in the district, soft. Pith large.
The wood hardens externally in drying, so that the outside is often
harder than the centre. Cuts well, and is recommended for lining-
boards.

Pepperidge. See Gum, Black.

Peppermint, a name applied in Australia to various species of
Eucalyptus, including (i) EZ. amygdalina, which is known as “* Brown,
Dandenong, Narrow-leaved,” or “‘ White Peppermint” [See Ash,
Mountain] ; (ii) #. eat ies Stringybark, White] ; (iii) H. mzcro-
corys [See Tallow-wood] ; ) E. pauciflora [See rae Mountain
White]; (v) #. Stuartidna oe ae Apple-scented |; (vi) #. piperita;
and (vii) #. odorata E. piperita Sm. (Order Murtdcee). Eastern
Australia. Known also as ‘“‘ Blackbutt, Redwood, Messmate,
White,” or ‘“‘ Almond-leaved Stringybark.” Height 80—100 ft. ;
diam. 2—3 ft. S.G. 1,109—922. W 69-22. Red, very heavy,

240 WOODS OF COMMERCE

but works with difficulty, and is very subject to shakes, durable.
Used for posts, shingles, and rough house-building.

EH. odorata Behr. South-East Australia. Also known as “ Red
Gum, Box,” and ‘‘ White Box.” Small. W 60—70. Yellowish-
white or light-brown, heavy, very hard, tough, close- and straight-
grained, generally hollow. Used for fencing, wheels, and fuel.

Peppermint, Bastard. See Gum, Broad-leaved Water.
Pernambuco-wood. See Peach-wood.

Peroba branca or Peroba de campos (Sapdta gonocarpa
Mart.: Order Sapotdcee). Brazil. <A large tree, yielding straight
timber, 60—70 ft. long, siding 24—40 in. S.G. 868—739. W 50.
Yellow, moderately heavy, stronger than Teak, but not so heavy,
close and fine-grained, easily worked, taking a high polish, very
durable, even when in contact with iron. Used in building Bra-
zilian ironclads, and is suitable for engineering or building-work, or
for furniture.

Peroba vermelha (Aspidospérma sp.: Order Apocynacee). Brazil.
Red, moderately heavy, smooth, close and fine in grain, somewhat
resembling Pencil Cedar. Used in ship-building.

Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana L.: Order Ebendcew). Eastern
United States. Known also as “ Date-plum.” French “ Plaque-
minier de Virginie.”’ Germ. ‘‘ Virginische Dattelpflaume.” Span.
‘*Persimon.” Height 80 ft.; diam. 2 ft. 8.G. 790. W 49-28.
R 879 kilos. Sapwood very broad, sometimes 60 rings, cream-
colour; heart dark-brown or black, heavy, hard, close-grained,
strong and tough, resembling Hickory, but finer in grain. Used
for shuttles, shoe-lasts, plane-stocks, etc.

Pimento (Piménta officindlis Lindl. : Order Myrtdcee). Jamaica.
Tmported as walking-sticks.

Pin-bush (Hdkea leucoptera R. Br.: Order Protedcece). Central
and Eastern Australia. Known also as “ Beefwood,” ‘‘ Water-
tree,’ and ‘‘ Needle-bush.”” Height 15—25 ft.; diam. 4—6 in.
S.G. 818. Heavy, coarse-grained, soft, taking a good polish. Used
for tobacco-pipes, cigarette-holders, and veneers.

Pine is the general name originally applied in the Northern
Hemisphere to the trees and wood of the coniferous genus Pinus,
and subsequently extended—mainly in Australasia—to the allied
genera Agathis, Frenéla, Araucdria, Dacryjdium, Podocdrpus, and
Pseudotstiga. Curiously enough, however, the wood of the various
local varieties of the Northern Pine (Pinus sylvéstris) imported
from Baltic ports, especially Dantzic, Memel, and Riga, is known
in commerce as “ Fir,” or “‘ Red ”’ and ‘‘ Yellow Deals,” the name
** Pine’ being used for the timber of other species of the same

PINE 241

genus imported from North America. The pines, often called
firs, are known in French as “pin,” in German as “ Kiefer,
Fohre,” or “‘ Pynbaum,” in Italian and Spanish as “ Pino,” in
Swedish as ‘“‘ Fura,” in Danish as “ Fyr,’ and in Russian as
“* Sosna.”’

The wood of Pines, as also of those other trees that are so-called
and of all Conifers, is of the simple structure described in our first
chapter, consisting only of tracheids, with the pith-rays, and, in
most cases, resin-canals. That of the true Pines—the genus Pinus
—has numerous resin-canals, uniformly scattered through the annual
rings, and has a distinct dark-coloured heart, though when the wood
is freshly cut this last is often not recognizable. The pith-rays are
rarely more than one cell thick, and are, therefore, invisible to the
naked eye, but vary in depth, having generally from three to
eight radial rows of elements, of which the central rows are paren-
chyma or cellulose-walled cells, with simple pits on their radial
walls—7.e., on those in contact with the tracheids of the xylem,
whilst the upper and lower row or two consist of tracheids with
bordered pits. The rings are rendered distinct by the darker and
firmer zone of autumn-wood in each, consisting of more compressed,
thicker-walled elements. This simplicity of structure and resinous
character renders the wood uniform and even in texture, easy to
work, and of considerable durability. It is also, on the whole,
soft, light, elastic, stiff, and strong, characters which, coupled with
its abundance in pure forests—forests, that is, mainly made up of
a single species—combine to render the Pines the most generally
useful and among the cheapest of woods.

The wood even of a single species of Pine varies very much,
according to the condition under which it is grown; but, though
connected by intermediate cases, most of the species fall into two
fairly well-marked groups, known in America as the ‘‘ Hard”
and ‘‘ Soft’? Pines. The Hard Pines are harder, heavier, and
darker-coloured, ranging from yellow to deep orange or brown ;
their autumn-wood forms a much broader proportion of the ring, and
is somewhat abruptly marked off from the spring-wood ; and the
tracheids of their pith-rays have their walls very unevenly thickened
with tooth-like projections. This group includes the Northern
(Pinus sylvéstris), Austrian (P. austriaca), and Mountain (P. mon-
tana) of Europe, and the majority of the North American species.
The Soft Pines are softer and lighter ; range in colour from light-red
to white ; have a narrow autumn zone gradually merging into the
spring-wood on its inner surface ; and have smooth walls to the
tracheids of their pith-rays, with no tooth-like projections. The
group includes the Cembra Pine (P. Cémbra) of Europe, and the
Yellow, or, as it is there called, White (P. Strdbus), Sugar (P. Lam-
bertiana), and a few other species in America.

16

242 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Pine seasons rapidly and with but little shrmkage, this being,
however, greater in the harder kinds. It is never too hard to nail,
and when once well seasoned, is not subject to the attacks of
boring insects. It is not, therefore, to be wondered at that Pine
has become by far the most extensively used of all woods. The
straight-growing, tapering stem fits it for masts and spars; its
strength and lightness recommend it for ships’ timbers, planking,
bridges, and carriage-building, its durability for sleepers, its resinous
character for torches or fuel, the refuse yielding charcoal and lamp-
black, and its cheapness for street-paving, general carpentry,
common furniture and boxes and paper-pulp.

Pine, Adventure Bay. See Pine, Celery-topped.

Pine, Aleppo (P. halepénsis Mill.). Mediterraneanr egion ; intro-
duced in Australia. Height 50—80 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. Yellowish-
white, fine-grained. Valued locally for telegraph-poles, turnery,
joinery, or fuel, and as a source of turpentine. This was probably
the Oren, wiérus, or “‘ Ash ”’ of Isaiah xliv. 14 ; and also the Berosh,
xuTrapicoos, or “ Fir” of Isaiah xxxvii. 24. It was used for flooring,
ceiling, and doors in the Temple, for harps, and for ships’ decks.

Pine, Austrian (Pinus austriaca Hoss.=P. Laricio in part).
Lower Austria and the north of the Balkan Peninsula. Known
also as ‘“‘ Black Austrian Pine.” Germ. *‘ Schwarzkiefer.” French
‘Pin noir d’Autriche.” Height S80—120 ft., relatively slender.
Wood very similar to that of the Northern Pine (P. sylvéstris) ; but,
when grown in poor soil, apt to be knotty. Suitable for fencing
or fuel.

Pine, Bastard. See Pine, Cuban.

Pine, Bhotan (P. excélsa Wall.). At altitudes of 6,000 to 12,000 ft.,
from Bhotan to the Kuram Pass in Afghanistan. Also known as
‘“Indian Blue, Five-leaved,’ or ‘‘ Himalayan Pine.” French
“Pin pleureur.”” Germ. “Thranen Kiefer.” Chinese “'Tong-
schi.”” Height 50—150 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft. Reddish, compact,
close-grained, very resinous, durable. Used for torches ; but the
most valuable wood of its district for building or engineering work,
and second only in durability to the Deodar.

Pine, Big-cone (P. Codltert Don.= P. macrocarpa Lind.). Coast-
range of California. Reported to be of small value as timber.

Pine, Bishops’. See Pine, Obispo.

Pine, Black, in North America (P. Jéffreyi Balf.). California
and Oregon, above 6,000 ft. Known also as ‘“ Bull Pine.” Height
100 ft. or more, up to 300 ft.; diam. 4 ft. or more, up to 10 or
12 ft. Light, hard, strong, very resinous. One of the “ Hard
Pines,”’ closely allied to the Bull Pine (P. ponderdsa). Used locally.
chiefly as coarse lumber. See also Pine, Lodge-pole.

PINE 243

Pine, Black, in New Zealand (i) (Prumnoépitys spicata Masters :
Order Taxinee). Maori ‘‘ Matai.’ Height 80 ft. ; diam. 2—4 ft
S.G. 787. W 35—49-25. p 197-2. Cinnamon-brown, heavy,
close, smooth, and even in grain, strong, easily worked, very
durable. Used for piles, sleepers, house-building, mill-wrights’
work, etc. (ii) (Podocdrpus ferruginea Don.: Order Tazxinee).
Maori ‘‘ Miro.” Germ. ‘‘ Mirobaum.” Height 50—80 ft. ; diam.
1—3 ft. §S.G. 1,214 when green, 752—658 when seasoned. W 52—
40. p 190. Light to dark reddish-brown, sometimes nicely
figured, moderately heavy and hard, close, straight, and even in
grain, strong, elastic, planing up well, and taking a good polish,
durable in contact with sea-water, but not in contact with the
soil. Used for piles, and suited for house-building, cabinet-work,
or turnery.

Pine, Black, in Australia. See Cypress Pine.
Pine, Brown. See Cedar, Pencil (iii).

Pine, Bull (P. ponderdsa Dougl.). Western North America.
Known also as “ Yellow” or “‘ Heavy-wooded Pine.” Germ.
““Westliche Gelbkiefer.”” Height 100—150 ft. or up to 300 ft. ;
diam. 5—6 or 15 ft. Sapwood wide ; heart very variable in weight,
strength, and durability, generally hard, brittle, strong, resinous,
but not durable in contact with the soil. Furnishing most of
the hard Pine of the West, being largely used for lumber, railway-
ties, mining-timber, and fuel. See also Pine, Black, and Pine,
Nut.

Pine, Bunya. See Bunya-bunya.

Pine, Canadian Red (P. resindsa Sol.= P. riébra Michx.). Michigan
and Minnesota to Newfoundland. Known in Canada as ‘“‘ Norway
Pine” and in Nova Scotia as “ Yellow Pine.” French “ Pin
rouge d’Amerique.” Germ. “‘ Rothkiefer”’ or ‘‘ Harzige Fichte.”’
Height 60—100 ft. or more; diam. 2—2} ft. 8S.G. 578—485.
W 30—44. E 650—850 tons. e’ 1:32. p’ ‘81. f 3°71. fé 51—
6:3. ¢ 2,705. c’ -357. fc 2-4—2-76. v’ -62. fs -22—-35. R 800
kilos. Sapwood yellowish-white ; heart slightly reddish, light,
harder than Yellow Pine (P. Strdbus), tough, elastic, moderately
strong, fine-grained, working up well, with a silky lustre, very
resinous, durable, not shrinking or warping much in seasoning.
Used for spars, ship-building, and piles; but chiefly for flooring,
for which it is preferable to Yellow Pine, with which it grows, it
being, in fact, a hard Pine, resembling resinous examples of Scots
Fir.

Pine, Canadian Yellow. See Pine, White.

Pine, Carolina. See Pine, Short-leaf.

Pine, Cedar. See Pine, Lowland-Spruce.

16—2

244 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Pine, Celery-topped (Phylloclidus rhomboidalis Rich: Order
Taxinee=Podocdrpus asplenifolia Labill.). Tasmania. Known
also as ‘‘ Adventure Bay Pine.” Height up to 60 ft., usually too
slender to be useful. Even-grained, and easily worked, strong,
durable. Occasionally used for spars, flooring, and railway-cars.
See also Tanekaha.

Pine, Cembra (P. Cémbra L.). From Kamtschatka to the
Urals, Carpathians, and Alps. Known also as ‘“‘ Swiss Stone Pine.”
French ‘‘ Cembrot, Tinier.” Germ. “ Zirbelkiefer, Zirbe, Arve.”
Swiss “* Alvier, Arolla.”? Height 60—70 or 90 ft. Sapwood broad,
yellowish-white ; heart, when dry, white or yellowish-brown, light,
soft, fine-grained, easily split, shrinking little, susceptible of a fine
polish, fragrant, and obnoxious to insects ; annual rings regularly
circular ; narrow autumn wood scarcely distinguishable ; resin-ducts
numerous and very large ; pith-rays with one row of smooth-walled
tracheids above and below, with small bordered pits, and generally
three rows of parenchyma in the middle, with large simple pits.
A soft pine, in request for wainscoting, carved work, lining clothes’-
chests, turnery, etc.

Pine, Chile (Araucdria imbricata Pavon: Order Araucarinee).
Southern Chile. Known also as ‘‘ Pehuen, Pinon,” and “‘ Monkey
Puzzle.”’ Germ. “ Chilitanne, Schmucktanne.” Height 70—100 ft. ;
diam. 5—7 ft. at base. Wood in English-grown specimens cross-
erained, and not seemingly of value ; but in Chile yellowish, beauti-
fully veined, and susceptible of a fine polish. Used in Chile for
masts.

Pine, Cluster (P. Pindster Sol.=P. maritima Lam.). Mediter-
ranean region; naturalized in South Africa, Northern India,
Australia, ete. French ‘* Pin de Bordeaux, Pin maritime, Pin des
Landes.” Germ. ‘“ Sternkiefer, Strandkiefer.” Height 50—60 ft.
W 33—48. Reddish, soft, coarse-grained, not durable. Used ,
mainly for coarse carpentry, packing-cases, and fuel; but of great
value as a source of turpentine, charcoal, and lamp-black being
manufactured from the refuse. Large numbers of pit-props of
this species are imported into South Wales from Bordeaux.

Pine, Colonial. See Pine, Moreton Bay.
Pine, Common, of Australia. See Cypress-Pine.

Pine, Corsican (P. Laricic Poir.). Corsica and the Maritime
Alps. Known also as ‘“ Larch Pine.” Germ. ‘“‘ Schwarzkiefer.”
Height 80—100 ft. Creamy white when freshly cut, brownish-
yellow when seasoned, tough, elastic, long, but rather coarse in
grain, very resinous, easily worked, susceptible of a fair polish,
very durable, obnoxious to insects. Resembling Northern Pine
(P. sylvéstris) of good quality in its structure and uses.

PINE 245

Pine, Cuban (P. cubénsis Griseb.). Southern United States.
Known also as ‘“‘ Bastard, Meadow, Slash, or Swamp Pine,” and in
British Honduras as ‘“‘ Yellow,” or ‘‘ Pitch Pine.” Height 75 ft.
or more; diam. 2 ft. or more. Heavy, exceedingly hard, very
strong, tough, and durable, little inferior to Long-leaf Pine (P.
palustris), with which it is classed in Florida, but with wider sap-
wood and coarser grain. Used in carpentry.

Pine, Cypress. See Cypress-Pine.

Pine, Dantzic. See Pine, Northern.

Pine, Dark. See Cypress Pine.

Pine, Digger. See Pine, Nut.

Pine, Dundatha (Agathis robista Salisb.= Dammara robista
C. Moore, and A. Palmersténit F. von Muell.: Order Conifere).
Queensland. Known also as ‘‘ Queensland Kauri.” Height 80—
130 ft. ; diam. 3—6 ft. Light yellow, soft, close-grained, free from
knots, and easily worked. Largely used by joiners and. cabinet-
makers, for pattern-making and in house-building.

Pine, Flexible (P. flézilis James). Rocky Mountains at altitudes
of 4,000—12,000 ft. Height 40—50 ft.; diam. 2—4 ft. Light,
clear yellow, turning red on exposure, light, close-grained, compact,
very pliable, but very knotty and coarse-grained. Known and used
locally as “‘ White Pine.”

Pine, Fox-tail (P. Balfouridna Murray). California at altitudes
over 5,000 ft. Known also as “ Hickory” or ‘‘ Awned Pine.”
Height 30—S0 ft. ; diam. 1—5 ft. Light, and apparently soft, and
not strong ; but used in Nevada for mine-timbers.

Pine, Frankincense. See Pine, Loblolly.

Pine, Georgia. See Pine, Long-leaf.

Pine, Grey (P. Banksidna Lambert). Canada and Labrador
from the Arctic Circle to Michigan and Maine. Known also as
“Scrub, Jack, Yellow,” or ‘‘ Prince’s Pine.” Germ. ‘‘ Strauch-
kiefer.” Height 25—60 or 70 ft.; diam. 1—2 ft. Light, soft,
not strong. Used chiefly for fuel and railway-ties, but recom-
mended for planting in swampy or arid soils.

Pine, Hazel. See Gum, Sweet.

Pine, Hickory (P. piingens Michx.). Alleghany Mountains.
Known also as “Table Mountain Pine.” Germ. ‘‘ Stechende
Kiefer.” Height 25—40 ft. Light, soft, coarse-grained, not
strong. Chiefly used for charcoal. [See also Pine, Fox-tail. |

Pine, Himalaya. See Pine, Bhotan.

Pine, Hoop. See Pine, Moreton Bay.

Pine, Huon. See Huon Pine.

Pine, Jack. See Pine, Grey.

246 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Pine, Japanese Black (P. Thunbérgii Parl.=P. Massoniana
S. and Z.). Japan and Korea. Japan ‘“ Omatsu, Kuro-matsu.”’
Height 80—90 or 120 ft. ; diam. 2—4 ft. Used in house-building
and for fuel.

Pine, Japanese Red (P. densiflora S. and Z.). Japan “ Me-
matsu, Aka-matsu.” Height 50—70 or 100 ft. Slender, coarse-
grained, moderately strong, more ornamental than that of the pre-
ceding. Used for all kinds of carpentry, and a favourite species in
a dwarfed condition.

Pine, Jersey (P. wirginiana Mill.=P. inops Sol.). Eastern
United States. Known also as “Scrub Pine.” French “ Pin
chétif.”” Height up to 75—100 ft.; diam. up to 2—3 ft. Hast
of the Alleghanies used only as fuel; to the west, where it reaches
timber size, used in carpentry, especially in contact with water.

Pine, Kauri. See Kauri.

Pine, King William. See Cedar, Tasmanian.

Pine, Lachlan. See Cypress Pine.

Pine, Light. See Cypress Pine.

Pine, Loblolly (P. T'@da L.). Southern United States. Known
also as “Torch, Frankincense, Slash, Rosemary, Sap, Short-
straw,” or ‘‘ Old Field Pine.” French ‘‘ Pin & Vencens.” Germ.
** Weihrauchkiefer.”” Height 80—100 or 175 ft.; diam. 2—5 ft.
Sapwood wide ; heart hard, though less so than in the Long-leaf
Pine (P. palustris), with which it is generally confounded, lighter,
coarser in grain, and with wider rings than that species, not strong
or durable. Used for common lumber ; but suited rather for fuel ;
rich in resin.

Pine, Lodge-pole (P. Murrayana Balf.). Mountains of Western
North America. Known also as ‘“‘ Tamarack Pine, Black Pine,”
or, in the smaller form (P. contério Dougl.) as “‘ Oregon Scrub Pine.”
Height 70—80 or 150 ft.; diam. 4—6 ft. Light, hard, straight-
erained, easily worked, but not strong or durable. Used locally
for railway-ties and carpentry, and more generally for fuel.

Pine, Long-leaf, in America (P. palustris Mill.=P. australis
Michx.). Southern pine-barrens from North Carolina to Texas.
Known also in the Northern States as ‘“‘ Southern, Georgia,” or
“Red Pine”; in the Southern States as ‘‘ Turpentine - tree,”
** Yellow, Broom,” or ‘‘ Long-straw Pine ”’; and generally, especially
in foreign trade, as ‘‘ Pitch Pine,” associated with the name of the
port of origin, such as Darien, Pensacola, Savannah, etc. Height
50—100 ft. ; diam. 14—4 ft. 8.G. 932—498. W 37—44. E 950
tons. e’ 1:93—-1:53. p’ -91—1-3. f 3-57. ft 45:09. c 4,666.
c’ 616. fc 3:99. v’ -847. Imported in logs and planks, 20—45 ft.
long, squaring 11—18 in., or 3—5 in. thick, and 10—15 in. wide.

PINE 247

Reddish, resembling the Northern Pine (P. sylvéstris), but heavier
and more resinous, owing to which latter character the broad zone
of autumn-wood appears greasy, tough, compact, clean, regular,
straight, and sometimes fine and sometimes rather coarse in grain,
susceptible of a high polish, rigid, rather difficult to work, but
harder and stronger than other American Pine, liable to heart and
cup-shake ; but, I believe, very durable. ‘‘ There are,” says
Mr. Stevenson, “numerous architects and civil engineers who
rigidly adhere to the use of Memel and Dantzic Fir, and who will
not allow the use of Pitch Pine, whilst there are others who rank
it almost with the Oak, and state that in piling, and in jetties,
exposed to the tides and weather, it will last double and treble
the time allotted to Memel and Dantzic Fir.” It is still the most
abundant, and by far the most valuable, Pine in the Atlantic
States, occupying a belt from 80 to 125 miles wide, once covering
130,000 square miles. ‘‘ Invaded from every direction by the
axe, a prey to fires, which weaken the mature trees and destroy
the tender saplings, wasted by the pasturage of domestic animals,
and destroyed for the doubtful profits of the turpentine industry,
the forests . . . appear hopelessly doomed to lose their commercial
importance at no distant day” (Sargent). Millions of feet of
marketable timber are constantly destroyed by the carelessness of
the turpentine-workers. As a source of turpentine it is the most
important species in the world. Its timber 1s used in ship-building
for spars, beams, and planking, the redder wood (‘* Red Pine ”
of the dockyards in the Northern States) being specially valued for
durability and a greater power of resisting the ship-worm than that
possessed by Oak. In English shipbuilding it has almost extin-
guished the use of Baltic timber for spars, England importing, in
all, over 500 million feet, or nearly 870,000 loads—more than a third
of the entire export. In America it is largely used for fencing,
railway-ties, mine-timbers, wood-paving, house-building, and fuel ;
whilst in this country it is largely used for wainscoting and church
and school fittings, and to some extent in cabinet-making.

Pine, Long-leaf, of the Himalayas (P. longifolia Roxb.). From
Bhotan to Afghanistan at altitudes of 1,500 to 7,500 ft. Hind.
* Chir.” Height 100 ft. or more. Soft, not durable, easily worked.
Used for tea-boxes, shingles, and building ; but chiefly valuable for
its resin, one tree yielding 10—20 lbs. the first year. The wood
is also used for torches and for charcoal, so that this is, on the
whole, the most valuable Himalayan species.

Pine, Lowland Spruce (P. glabra Walt.). South-Eastern United
States. Known also as “‘ Cedar ”’ or ‘‘ White Pine,”’ and in Florida
as “Old Field Pine.” Height 80 ft. or more ; diam. 3 ft. or more.
Light, soft, brittle, easily worked, not strong or durable, resembling

248 WOODS OF COMMERCE

the Loblolly Pine (P. 7’@da), not resinous. Employed chiefly for
inside work.

Pine, Maritime. See Pine, Cluster.

Pine, Meadow. See Pine, Cuban.

Pine, Monterey (P. insignis Dougl.=P. radidta Don.). South
California. Height 80—100 ft.; diam. 2—5 ft. Light, soft,
brittle, not strong. Used only for fuel.

Pine, Moreton-Bay (Araucaria Cunnighami Lamb.: Order Arau-
carinee). North-East Australia and New Guinea. Known also
as ‘Colonial’ or *‘ Hoop Pine, Coonam,” Cumburtu. Height
150—200 ft.; diam. 3—5} ft. S.G. 763—500. W 30—33-75.
Yielding spars 80—100 ft. long, light-coloured, light, straight-
grained, hard and strong, the sapwood liable to rot, but the heart
durable if kept constantly dry or wet, working very easily, some-
times exhibiting a peculiar figure from groups of small knots. In
request for flooring-boards, carpentry, punt-bottoms, and to some
extent for cabinet-work and spars, mountain-grown timber being
preferred. The chief scftwood of Queensland; but far inferior
to European or American Pine.

Pine, Mountain (P. montana Mill., including P. Pumilio Haenke,
of Thuringia and the Carpathians, P. Mughus Wild. of the Tyrol,
and P. uncindta Ram. of the Pyrenees). Central and Southern
Europe, at altitudes of 500—8,000 ft. French *‘ Pin nain.” Germ.
‘“ Bergkiefer, Krummbolzkiefer, Zwergkiefer.” Resembling the
Northern Pine (P. sylvéstris), but small, often eccentric in growth,
narrow-ringed, harder, and heavier.

Pine, Murray, and Pine, Murrumbidgee. See Cypress Pine.
Pine, New York. See Pine, Short-leaf.

Pine, Norfolk Island (Araucdria excélsa R. Br.). Germ. “‘ Nor-
folktanne.” Height 150—200 ft. ; diam. 5—7 ft., yielding excellent
timber, but now scarce.

Pine, Northern (P. sylvéstris L.). Europe and Northern Asia,
up to 700 ft. above sea-level in Northern Norway and 6,500 ft. on
the Sierra Nevada of Southern Spain. Known in Scotland as the
** Scots,” in England as the “‘ Scotch Fir,” and in the timber trade
by various names, according to its origin, such as “‘ White Sea,”
“* Baltic,” “St. Petersburg,” ‘‘ Riga,’ ‘‘ Memel,” ‘“* Dantzic,”
“* Gefle,”’ ‘‘ Soderhamn,” ‘‘ Eliasberg,” ‘‘ Saldowitz,’ “‘ Swedish,”
or “* Norway Fir,” ‘‘ Redwood,” “‘ Red ”’ or “‘ Yellow Deal.” French
** Pin sauvage.” Germ. ‘‘Gemeine Kiefer, Foéhre,” or “‘ Weiss-
fohre.” Dutch “ Pynboom.” Danish “* Fyrre.” Russ. “ Sosna.”
Height 80—100 ft.; diam. 2—4 ft. S.G. 774478. W 19—47.
e’ 1:3—1:69. p’ -74—1-087. ft 2:5—5-5. fe 2-5—3. c 4,051—

PINE 249

3,231. c’ -5385—-427. v’ -93—618. The characters,and quality
of the wood vary much, according to climate and soil. Conversely
to what is the case with Oaks, the more slowly grown Pines of high
latitudes or mountains, having narrower annual rings, with a pro-
portionally smaller amount of spring-wood, are heavier, denser.
and stronger than those of the South, or of plains, or from rich soils.
English-grown Pine is thick-baited, carrying a great amount—
often 4 inches—of sapwood, and is generally only used locally, not
being nearly as durable as Larch. Scotch-grown wood is of better
quality, and is imported into the North of England, chiefly as
mine-timber. The Pine from Prussia and Central Russia is large,
heavy, hard, resinous, and of excellent quality for sleepers, paving-
blocks, masts, beams, and planks ; that from Archangel being the
strongest and most durable imported, though subject to heart-
shakes and surface-checks, and that from St. Petersburg sounder,
but more sappy ; whilst from farther North—as from Gefle and
Soderhamn in Central Sweden—a wood of high quality is shipped,
and from the White Sea a closer-grown, less resinous kind, more
suitable for joimery.

The sapwood is yellowish to reddish-white, the heart only be-
coming distinct as brownish-red in drying, and the wood being on
the whole whiter when grown on plains, redder when on hills. The
annual rings are very distinct, owing to the broad, sharply defined
zone of dark autumn-wood that characterizes the ‘‘ hard Pines,”’
and they are slightly wavy. The resin-ducts are numerous, very
large and distinct, and mostly in peripheral zones near the outer
margin of the rings. The pith-rays consist of two or three rows of
thin-walled parenchyma, with large oval pits on their radial walls,
each almost as wide as a tracheid, and two or three rows of tracheids
above and below, with very unevenly thickened walls and small
bordered pits. As the branches are in whorls, the knots serve to
distinguish Pine from Larch, in which they are scattered. In
Northern Europe the Pine is the chief timber used in house-building,
both for framework of hewn logs, walls of logs in the round, and clap-
boards ; in Russia Pine-logs are used for corduroy roads, and the
use of the wood for fuel is universal. Baltic Pine was imported to
and used in our east-coast towns for flooring, wainscoting, and
joinery in the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries, when
Oak was the chief building timber employed in England. Not till
the beginning of the eighteenth was it recognized that the Scots
Fir was the same species ; the high price of foreign timber during
the Napoleonic wars led to the clearing of the indigenous pine-
forests of Northern Scotland ; and the excellence, easy working,
and great durability of the timber obtained from them broke down
the prejudice in favour of Oak, and resulted in the great consumption
of Baltic, White Sea, and Canadian Pine during the nineteenth

250 WOODS OF COMMERCE

century. Dantzic Fir, floated in rafts down the Vistula to that
port, comes into the market in lengths from 18—650 ft., squaring
from 11—20 in., in deals 2—5 in. thick, and as irregularly grown
logs for sleepers. The longest and straightest logs most free from
knots are selected at Dantzic as ‘‘ inch-masts,” ‘‘ hand-masts,”’ and
“spars,” or “‘ poles’; “‘ inch-masts being over 6 ft. in circum-
ference, and dressed octagonally or square ; “* hand-masts,”’ from
ae ft. round, their length being measured in hands ; and “ spars ”

** poles,” less than 2 ft. round. This wood is valued for deck-
panne beams, joists, scaffolding, railway-work, etc. Its average
specific gravity is given by Mr. Laslett as 582, and it is described
by him as light, moderately hard, even and straight in grain, tough,
elastic, and easily worked. Riga Fir, with fewer knots, but a slight
tendency to heart-shake, which makes it more wasteful in conver-
sion into plank, averages about 541 in specific gravity, and so is,
on the whole, inferior to Dantzic. Swedish Fir is yellowish-white,
liable to heart-, star-, and cup-shakes, and does not exceed 35 ft. in
length, or 16 in. square. It furnishes cheap building material,
deals for rough carpentry, and much wood for matches and fire-
wood. Norway Fir comes over in cheap prepared flooring and
matchboarding, and as firewood.

Pine, Norway. See Pine, Canadian Red.

Pine, Nut (P. Sabinidna Dougl.). California, up to 4,000 ft.
Known also as “ Digger” or ‘“‘ Bull Pine.” Germ. ‘“ Nusskiefer,
Weisskiefer.”” Height 40—50 or 80 ft.; diam. 1—4 ft. Light,
very soft, resinous, cross-grained, not durable. Valuable only as
fuel.

Pine, Obispo (P. muricdta Don.). Californian coast. Known
also, by a corruption, as ‘‘ Bishop’s Pine” and as “ Prickle-coned
Pine.” Germ. “ Bischofs Kiefer.” Height 25—50 ft.; diam.
1—2 ft. Light, resinous, coarse-grained. Used almost exclusively
for fuel, except in the North, where it is employed in rough ecar-
pentry.

Pine, Old Field. See Pine, Loblolly and Short-leaf.

Pine, Oregon (Pseudotstiga Douglasii Carr.). Western North
America from lat. 55° N. southward to lat. 234° N. ee i il ,000 ft.
Known also from its discoverer as é Deagies Fir ” ** Douglas
Spruce,’ or as ‘‘ Yellow” or “Red Fir Peon z: Sapin de
Douglas.”” Germ. ‘‘ Douglas-Tanne, Douglas-Fichte.” Height
100—300 ft.; diam. 4—6 or 12 ft. S.G. 605. Though more
nearly allied to the Firs and Spruces, resembling Larch or hard
Pine in the general appearance, quality, and character of its wood.
Sapwood narrow, yellowish, heart variable, usually reddish-white,
heavy, hard, strong, coarse-grained, with well-defined summer
wood, but sometimes yellowish, lighter and finer in grain ; close,

PINE 251

straight and regular in grain, with few knots scattered as in Larch,
firm, tough, elastic, not in the least liable to warp, more nearly
resembling Canadian Red Pine (P. resindsa) than any other wood,
rapid in growth, averaging 2 ft. in diam. at 100 years of age,
very durable ; annual rings well defined ; resin-ducts small, often
in groups of 8—30; pith-rays with tracheids with bordered pits
as upper and under rows and parenchyma with simple pits in the
centre ; tracheids in the xylem with a spiral thickening, which
distinguishes it from all allied wood. Coming to market in clean,
straight spars 40—110 ft. in length, and 9—32 in. in diam., this
timber is excellent for lower masts, yards, bowsprits, etc., though
less adapted for top-masts, where there is much friction, than Riga,
Dantzic, or Kauri timber. Used in its native country also for
house-building, engineering work and fuel, its freedom from fungoid
disease and durability, even when grown rapidly in Scotland, suggests
that Douglas Fir may well supersede Larch for sleepers, etc. It is
25 per cent. cheaper than Archangel wood of the same quality.
Of the two varieties var. macrocdrpa, the Californian, is better
worth growing than the slower var. glauca of Colorado.

Pine, Oyster-bay. See Cypress Pine.

Pine, Pitch (P. rigida Miller). Ontario and New Brunswick to
Florida. Height 40—80 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft. S.G. 515. W_ 32.
R 739 kilos. Small, coarse-grained, resinous, knotty, light, soft,
brittle. Used chiefly for fuel, for which it is unsurpassed in the
North, and for charcoal ; but formerly much used in New England
for building. The name in trade outside the United States belongs
to the Long-leaf Pine (P. palustris).

Pine, Pond (P. serotina Michx.), little more than a southern
variety of the last-named.

Pine, Port Macquarie (Frenéla Macleaydna Parlat. : Order Cupres-
sinee). North-East Australia. Height 20—30 ft. ; diam. 6—12 in.
Light, useful, and probably termite-proof, like other Cypress Pines.
Used in house-building.

Pine, Prince’s. See Pine, Grey.

Pine, Pumpkin. See Pine, White.

Pine, Red, of America. See Pine, Canadian Red.
Pine, Red, of Australia. See Cypress Pine.

Pine, Red, of New Zealand. See Rimu.

Pine, Rock. See Cypress Pine.

Pine, Rosemary. See Pine, Loblolly.

Pine, Sand (P. clausa Vasey). South-East United States.
Known also as ‘“‘ Upland Spruce” or “Scrub Pine.” Height
15—20 or 80 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft: S.G. 557. W 34:75. Sapwood

252 WOODS OF COMMERCE

broad, nearly white ; heart light orange, light, soft, brittle, not
strong. Sometimes used for small masts.

Pine, Sandarac. See Cypress Pine.

Pine, Sap. See Pine, Loblolly.

Pine, Serub, of Australia. See Cypress Pine.

Pine, Scrub, of California or Oregon. See Pine, Lodge-pole.

Pine, Scrub, of North-Eastern America. See Pine, Grey. [See
also Pine, Jersey, and Sand. |

Pine, She. See Cedar, Pencil.

Pine, Short-leaf (P. echindta Mill=P. mitis Michx.). Eastern
United States. Known also as ‘‘ Carolina, Bull, Soft-leaved,
Yellow, Slash, Old field,’ or ‘‘ Spruce Pine,” ‘‘ Carolina Pine”
being its best-known name in Liverpool. French ‘‘ Pin-Sapin.”
Germ. “‘Glatte-Kiefer, Fichten-Kiefer.’ Height 80—120 ft.
diam. 3—4 ft. S.G. 610. W 34-38. f 3°68. fe 1-5—2-46.
R_ 1,038 kilos. Sapwood variable in amount, yellowish ; heart
light-orange, rather heavy, hard, coarse-grained, compact, strong,
not difficult to work, durable, much resembling Long-leaf Pine
(P. palustris), and but little inferior to it as timber. Used in house-
building, flooring, and interior finish.

Pine, Short-straw. See Pine, Loblolly.

Pine, Silver. See Pine, Westland.

Pine, Slash. See Pine, Loblolly, Cuban, and Short-leaf.
Pine, Southern. See Pine, Long-leaf.

Pine, Spruce. See Pine, Short-leaf.

Pine, Stone, or Umbrella (P. Pinea L.). Mediterranean region.
French ‘Pin de parasol.” Germ. “ Italienische Steinkiefer.”
Ital. ‘“‘ Pino a pinocchi.”” Span. ‘‘ Pino real, Pino de comer.”
Height 40—80 ft. ; 1—2 ft. W 26—48-5. Whitish, very light,
moderately resinous. Used in Southern France and Italy for
building and carpentry ; but chiefly valued for its nuts. [See also
Pine, Cembra. |

Pine, Stringybark. See Cypress Pine, Mountain.

Pine, Sugar (P. Lambertidna Dougl.). Oregon and California,
at 2,500—8,000 ft. Known also as ‘‘ White, Soft,” or ‘* Pumpkin
Pine.” French “ Pin gigantesque.” Germ. ‘‘ Riesen - Kiefer,
Zucker-Kiefer.”” Height 150—300 ft. ; diam. 10—20 ft. W 23—
51. ‘The loftiest of all Pines. Wood very light, soft, coarse, but
straight-grained, compact, very fragrant, easily worked, not
cracking or warping. Used for indoor carpentry, cabinet-work,
cooperage, and wooden ware.

Pine, Swamp. See Pine, Cuban.

PINE

bo
Or
(SY)

Pine, Swiss. See Spruce and Pine, Cembra.
Pine, Table Mountain. See Pine, Hickory.
Pine, Torch. See Pine, Loblolly.

Pine, Umbrella (Sciadépitys verticilldta S. and Z.: Order Taxo-
dinee). Japan. French “ Sapin a Parasol.” Germ. “ Japanische
Schirmtanne.” Japan ‘‘ Koya-maki.” Height 100 ft.; diam.
2—3 ft. Wood nearly white, yellowish, or reddish-white, strong,
straight-grained. Used at Osaka, to which port it is floated down
the Kisiogaiva.

Pine, Upland Spruce. See Pine, Sand.

Pine, Westland (Dacrjdium Westlandicum T. Kirk: Order
Conifere). New Zealand. ‘Silver Pine.” ‘‘ Manao.” Yielding
timber 50 ft. long and 24 ft. diam. W 41. Light-coloured, very
fine- and even-grained, working well, heavier, harder, stronger,
tougher and more durable than Kahikatea. Excellent for sleepers
or piles.

Pine, Weymouth. Pine, White, of America.

Pine, White, of Australia. See Cypress-Pine.

Pine, White, of America (P. Strébus L.). Newfoundland and
Quebec to Georgia. Known also as “Soft, Apple, Sapling, New
England,” or ‘‘ Pumpkin Pine,” and in England as “* Weymouth
Pine,”’ having been largely planted by Lord Weymouth at Longleat,
or in the English timber-trade as ‘‘ Yellow Pine.” Germ. ‘ Wey-
mouths-Kiefer, Strobe,” French “‘ Pin du Lord, Pin blanc.” Height
140—-180 ft., sometimes 100 ft. to first branch ; diam. 3—4 or 8 ft.
8.G. 385—600. W 20—30. E 600 tons. e’ 1:46—6-94, averaging
3°48. p’ 6—78. f 3. fi 15—5-1. c 2,027. c’ -267. fe 2-24—
25. R 626 kilos. Straight-growing ; sapwood yellowish-white ;
heart pinkish-yellow to pinkish-brown, light, very soft, straight-
grained, compact, not strong, free from resin, easily worked, sus-
ceptible of a fine polish, but not durable in contact with soil, subject
to cup and heart-shake, and in old trees to a slight sponginess at
the centre, very closely resembling the Cembra Pine (P. Cémbra),
the narrow zone of autumn-wood merging into the spring-wood,
the tracheids of the pith-rays having smooth walls, and the cells
one or two large simple pits on their radial walls to each tracheid
of the xylem. This is the most useful of American timbers, being
very valuable for every description of joinery, doors, sashes, blinds,
interior finish, laths, shingles, clap-boards, cabinet-work, and
spars, and used also for fuel. Masts of this timber are much
inferior to Baltic or Douglas Pine in strength, and cannot be relied
upon for more than eight or ten years, especially if in the tropics.
They should be very thoroughly seasoned before being painted,
and the paint then renewed almost annually. Trees of a size

254 WOODS OF COMMERCE

suitable for masts were protected in our American colonies at the
beginning of the eighteenth century ; but a century later seven-
tenths of the houses in North America, except in the large towns,
were built of wood, and of these about 75 per cent. were of this
species. Reference has already been made to its reckless destruc-
tion by the axe and by fire.

Pine, White, of Western North America (P. monticola Don.).
British Columbia te California, at altitudes of 2,000—10,000 ft.
Height 80—100 ft. ; diam. 4—5 or 7 ft. Nearly white, very light,
soft, close- and straight-grained, but inferior to P. Strébus, which
it much resembles.

Pine, White, of New Zealand (Podocarpus dacrydioides A. Rich.=
Dacrydium excélsum D. Dox and D. ferrugineum Van Houtte :
Order Taxinee). Maori ** Kahikatea.” Height 80—150 or 180 ft. ;
diam. 4—5 ft., sometimes 60 ft. to the lowest branch. §8.G. 488—
428. W 26-75—35. p 106. Yielding timber 20—60 ft. long,
squaring 1—22 ft., white, light, soft, straight and even in grain,
tough, easily worked, not durable when exposed cr in contact with
soil. Used in house-building and occasionally for canoes, but
better adapted for indoor use, cheap furniture, packing-cases, or
paper-pulp. This valuable timber, comparable in many respects
to Yellow Pine (Pinus Stroébus), is likely to have a great future
on the European market. It has only come into notice with
the great Australasian demand for butter-boxes; but it can be
imported at a cheap rate in baulks of great lengths and widths,
and is likely, therefore, to compete with the better qualities of
Canary Whitewood. P. latifolia Wall. of Burma is finer in grain
and darker in colour, and P. Milanjidna Rendle, of British East
Africa, is very similar to this last.

Pine, Yellow. See Pine, White, Bull, Grey, and Short-leaf. The
Yellow Pine of the English trade is the American White Pine
(Pinus Strébus).

Piney-tree. See Poon.

Piney Varnish (Vatéria indica L.: Order Dipterocarpdcee).
Southern India and Ceylon. Known also as “‘ Indian Copal” or
“White Dammar.” Canarese ““Dupa maram.” Tamil “ Piney-
maram.”” Sinh. “ Hal.” Height 30—60 ft.; diam. 2—5 ft.
W 26. Sapwood reddish-white; heart grey, tough, moderately
hard, porous, said to be termite-proof. Used on the West Coast
of India for boat- and house-building and masts, and in Ceylon
for coffins, packing-cases, etc. It yields a fine copal or gum anime,
used in Ceylon as incense, the finest specimens being sold as amber.
Of allied species V. acuminata Hayne, of Ceylon, is used for tea-
chests.

PINK IVORY—PLANE 255

Pink Ivory, Zulu ‘“‘ Mnini” (Order Leguminése). A beautiful,
but as yet undetermined, wood, of an Acacia-like tree of moderate
dimensions, growing in kloofs in South-Western Natal, with
yellowish broad sapwood and rose-pink heart, compact, fine-grained,
moderately heavy and hard, and with indistinct rings.

Plane, Eastern, or Oriental (Pldtanus orientdlis L.: Order Plata-
nicee). Kashmir to Greece. French * Platane de VOrient.”’
Germ. ‘‘Morgenlandischer Platanus.” Arab. “ Doolb.” Pers.
“‘Chinar.” Probably the Hebrew “ Armon” in Gen. xxx. 37,
correctly rendered wAdtavos in the Septuagint and Platanus in.
the Vulgate ; but “ Chestnut ” in the Authorized Version. Height
70 ft. ; diam. 3—5 ft. W 30-5—42. Pale yellow or slightly reddish,
resembling Beech, but softer, in very old trees becoming brown
with black lines so as to resemble Walnut, fine, close, and smooth-
grained, capable of a high polish, but very apt to warp and split,
frequently worm-eaten and not durable, but improved by soaking
for several years ; annual rings finely but distinctly marked, bending
outward at the pith-rays ; pith-rays numerous and broad, occupying
nearly half the surface, and producing a pretty figure ; vessels
scarcely recognizable. Formerly used for “dug-out’’ boats at
Mount Athos, and by the Turks for ship-building ; in Persia and
the Levant employed for cabinet-work, turnery, and carpentry, and
in France as a substitute for Beech or Hornbeam.

Plane, Western or Occidental (Plitanus occidentalis L.) Eastern
North America. Known also as “‘ Sycamore, Button-wood, Water-
Beech, Button-ball Tree,” or when cut radially as ‘‘ Lace-wood ”
or “ Honeysuckle Wood.” French ‘‘ Platane Americain, Platane
de Virginie.” Height 120 ft. ; diam. 10—14 ft. or more. 8.G. 568.
W 51-5—28. BR 6385 kilos. Sapwood wider than in the Beech,
yellowish ; heart reddish-white, resembling Beech, except that the
broad pith-rays are far more prominent ; rather heavy, rather hard,
compact, stiff, tough, not very strong, usually cross-grained, difficult
to split, but, when dry, easy to cut in every direction, liable to warp,
not durable if exposed ; rings marked by a fine line bending slightly
outward at the pith-rays ; vessels evenly distributed. Used con-
siderably for cigar- and tobacco-boxes, wooden bowls, butchers’
blocks, cooperage and blind-wood in cabinet-work. The cabinet-
makers of Philadelphia object to the wood when in plank from its
tendency to warp; but when well seasoned it stands well, and is
imported into England for furniture. It is also cut radially as
veneers, the “felt” or “silver grain” produced by the pith-rays
being darker than the ground colour, which is just the converse of
the arrangement of tint in Oak. Plane makes good fuel when dry,
but the difficulty of splitting it hinders its use. The Californian
species (P. racemésa Nutt.) has very similar wood.

256 WOODS OF COMMERCE

By a tiresome confusion the name “ Plane” is given in Southern
Scotland to the wood of the Sycamore or Great Maple (Acer Psetdo-
platanus L.). See Syeamcre.

Plum (Prinus doméstica L.: Order Rosdcew). Western Asia,
cultivated elsewhere. French ‘‘ Prunier.” Germ. ‘“‘ Zwetschken-
baum.”? A small tree. §.G. 780. Sapwood narrow, yellowish ;
heart deep brownish-red, resembling Mahogany, heavy, hard, not
very durable ; vessels much more numerous in the spring-wood,
so making a lighter-coloured zone ; pith-rays numerous and very
distinct. Used by cabinet-makers, turners, and instrument-
makers.

Plum, in Australia. See Acacia.

Plum, Black (Cargillia australis R. Br. : Order Ebendceew). North-
East Australia. Height 60—80 ft. ; diam. 1}—2 ft. W 52. Close,
very tough, firm, apt to split and discolour in seasoning and very
liable to insect attacks. Used for whip-handles.

Plum, Burdekin (Spéndias pleidgyna F. v. M.: Order Anacar-
didcee). Queensland. Known also as ‘‘Sweet Plum.” Dark
brown with red markings, resembling Walnut, hard, close and
straight in grain. Suitable for turnery or cabinet-work.

Plum, Grey (Capparis nobilis F. v. M.: Order Cappariddcee).
North-East Australia. Known also as ‘‘ Caper-tree ’’ and ‘“‘ Native
Pomegranate.”’? Height 20—25 ft.; diam. 6—14 in. Light
coloured, hard, close-grained. Used for whip-handles, and suitable
for carving. [See also Myrtle, Black. |

Plum, Hog (Spdéndias mangifera Pers.: Order . Anacardiicee).
India and Burma. Known also as “ Wild Mango.” WSansk.
“* Amrataca.”” Hind. ‘‘Amra.” Beng. “‘Ambalam.” Telug.
‘*Ambara.” Height 30 ft. ; diam. 1 ft. Light grey, soft, valueless
except as fuel. Yields a gum resembling Gum Arabic.

Plum, Kafir. See Date, Kafir.
Plum, Native or Wild. See Apple, Black or Brush.

Plum, Sebestan (Cordia Myxa L.=Sebestana officindlis Gaertn. :
Order Boragindcee). Egypt, Persia, Arabia, India, and the
Malay Peninsula. Known also as “‘ Nakkeru wood.” Sansk.
‘“*Bukampadaruka.” Hind. ‘“‘ Lesura.” Arab. “ Lebuk.” Tam.
“Vidi.” Telug. ‘‘ Nakkeru.” Height 8—15 ft.; diam. 1—2 ft.
W 28—42. Olive-ccloured, greyish or light-brown, soft, coarse-
grained, easy to work, strong, seasoning well, but liable to insect
attack. One of the best woods for kindling fire by friction, used
for boat-building, gun-stocks, ete., excellent for fuel, and perhaps
suitable for tea-chests, being said to have been used for Egyptian
mummy-cases.

PLUM—POPLAR 257

Plum, Sour (Owénia vendsa F. v. M.: Order Melidcee). Queens-
land. Known also as ‘“ Tulip-wood.” Height 30—40 ft.; diam.
1—3 ft. W 62. Highly coloured, with handsome figure and
different shades from yellow to black, very heavy, very hard, very
strong, easily worked, taking a good polish, and durable. A
valuable wood for cabinet-work. The allied O. actdula F. v. M.,
known by the same name, and also as “ Native Peach ” and “‘ Emu”
or “Mooley Apple,” which grows to about the same size, and
occurs also farther to the south and west, is reddish, but similar
in texture, and would be suitable for furniture.

Plum, Sweet. See Plum, Burdekin.

Plum, White. See Ironwood (vi).

Pohutukawa. See Ironwood (xxviii).

Pomegranate, Native. See Orange, Native and Plum, Grey.

Poon, an Indian commercial name, seemingly applied to the
timber of several species used for masts and spars, especially species
of Calophyllum (Order Guttifere). Of these the more important
would seem to be (i) C. inophyllum, (ii) C. tomentédsum, and (iii) C.
angustifolium, C. inophyllum L. native to Madagascar, Mauritius,
Ceylon, Southern India, Burma, Queensland, and the Fiji Islands.
Known also as ‘‘ Alexandrian Laurel,” ‘‘ Tatamaka,”’ ‘‘ Dilo.’’
Hind. “Undi.” Telug. “‘ Punnaga”’ or “‘ Penaga.” Apparently
also the ‘“‘ Palo Maria ”’ of the Philippines. The name “ Bintangor ”’
applies equally to twenty species of Calophyllum in the Malay
area. Height 20—80 ft. or more ; diam. 13—5 ft. S.G. 579—647.
W 63—35. E 755 tons. c 10,000—14,700. c’ 1-3—1-9. Red-
brown, with a pretty wavy figure, fairly hard, close- but coarse-
grained, very strong, durable. Used in India for sleepers, and
suited for joinery and cabinet-work. C. tomentdsum Wight, a
native of Ceylon and of Queensland, is similar, and is used in the
former country for tea-chests. C. angustifoliwm Roxb., the “‘ Piney-
tree ’’ of Penang, which also attains large dimensions in the southern
Ghats, and is apparently partly the source of ‘‘ Poon-spars.”’
(iv) Dilléna pentagyna Roxb. (Order Dillenidcee), a native of
India and Burma, in no way related to the species just mentioned,
Telugu ‘*‘ Ravudana,’” seems also to be a source of these spars.
It is a large tree, sometimes 20 it. to its lowest branch, and 2 ft. in
diam. W 69. Reddish-grey, heavy, very hard, strong, and
durable in contact with the soil. Used for rice-mills, canoes,
deck-planks, and house-building, and yielding a good charcoal.

Poplar, a name applied, with few exceptions, to the woods of
species of Populus (Order Salicinee), which are known in the
United States, from their hairy seeds, as ‘‘ Cottonwoods.” French
““ Peuplier.”” Germ. “ Pappel.” Span. ‘‘ Alamo.” Like those of

17)

258 WOODS OF COMMERCE

their allies the Willows, these woods are white or pale grey, yellowish,
or brown, very soft, and light, with neither pith-rays nor vessels
distinctly visible. They are used mainly for paper-pulp and
cellulose ; but to some extent for packing-cases, blind-wood, sabots,
and other purposes, especially in France, at Ivry and elsewhere.

Poplar, Aspen. See Aspen.

Poplar, Balm of Gilead or Balsam (Populus balsamifera L.). North
America. Known also as “‘Tacamahac.” Height 70—80 ft. ;
diam. 5—7 ft. 8.G. 368. W 22-6. R 550 kilos. Sapwood wide,
nearly white; heart light reddish-brown, not strong or durable.
Used only for paper-pulp, for which it is excellent ; but as suitable
for wooden-ware, etc., as other species.

Poplar, Black (P. nigra L.). Europe and Northern Asia. Height
50—60 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. W 60-5 when green, 36—25 when dry.
Sapwood wide, nearly white ; heart light reddish-brown, shrinking
more than one-sixth of its bulk in drying, not strong or durable.
From its non-liability to splinter useful for the bottoms of waggons,
sabots, clogs, and turnery, and used also for carving and for
charcoal.

Poplar, Black Italian (P. monilifera Ait.=P. deltotdea Marsh).
Eastern United States, but now common in Italy, Switzerland, and
other parts of Europe. Known also as “ Carolina” or ‘‘ Necklace
Poplar,” “ Big Cottonwood” or ‘‘ Whitewood,” or, in Europe, as
‘Swiss Poplar.” Germ. ‘* Wollpappel, Rosenkranz-Pappel.”’ The
timber is imported into Liverpool from the United States under its
American name ‘ Cottonwood.” Height 150—200 ft.; diam.
6—7 ft. S.G. 389. W 24:25. R770 kilos. The quickest growing
of Poplars. Sapwood very wide, nearly white, heart brownish,
tough, not durable if exposed to moisture, but of larger dimensions
than, and equal in quality to, any other Poplar. It does not
splinter, holds nails well, and does not readily ignite. Used for
flooring, clapboards, the sides and bottoms of brick-carts and
waggons, carcase-work, sabots, packing-cases, inferior fuel, and
extensively for paper-pulp, for which purpose it is now largely and
remuneratively planted in Britain. ‘“‘ Were every cottager to grow
his own fuel... perhaps no tree would succeed so well” (Loudon).
The polishing-wheels used by glass-grinders are made of horizontal
sections across the entire tree of this species, or preferably of Willow.

Poplar, Carolina. See Poplar, Black Italian.

Poplar, Grey (P. canéscens Sm.). Kashmir, Persia, Northern
Africa, and Europe. Height 60—100 ft.; diam. 2—4 ft. W 58
when green, 38:5 when dry. White, shrinking a quarter of its
bulk in drying, and cracking ; but not splitting when nailed. Said
to be superior to White Poplar, and used on the Continent for
packing-cases, rollers and boards for winding ribbon, silk, cloth, etc.

POPLAR—PURPLE-HEART 259

Poplar, Large-toothed (P. grandidentdta Michx.). Eastern Canada
and the North-Eastern United States. Known also as “ Large
Aspen” or “‘ Whitewood.” Height 60—75 ft.; diam. 2 ft. S.G.
463. W 29. R 721 kilos. Takes a smooth finish with a satiny
lustre, and shrinks but little. Used for clothes-pegs, turned
ware, and formerly for ladies’ high heels ; but chiefly for paper-
pulp.

Poplar, Lombardy (P. dilatdta Ait.). Kashmir, Persia, and
Mediterranean area. French ‘‘ Peuplier pyramidal.” Germ.
““ Pyramiden-Pappel.” Span. ‘‘ Alamo de Italia.” Height 100—
150 ft.; diam. 3—4 ft. Sapwood wide, nearly white ; heart light
reddish-brown, easily worked. Little used, chiefly for packing-
cases; but, after some years’ seasoning, also for churns and
coach-panels.

Poplar, Necklace. See Poplar, Black Italian.

Poplar, Swiss. See Poplar, Black Italian.

Poplar, White (P. diba L.). Central Europe, Northern Africa,
Northern and Western Asia. Known also as “ Abele.” Height
60—100 ft.; diam. 2—4 ft. Sapwood white; heart at first
yellowish, becoming browner, and sometimes with reddish dis-
colorations. Light, soft, and of little value. The Hebrew
**Libneh ” of Gen. xxx. 37, the Xeven of the Septuagint, is
probably P. euphratica.

Poplar, Yellow. See Tulip-tree.

Poreupine-wood (Cécos nucifera L.: Order Palmdcexe). Shores
of India and throughout the tropics. Height 60—100 ft. ; diam.
2ft. W 70. The wood near the outside of this monocotyledonous
stem, being crowded with dense, dark-coloured fibro-vascular
bundles resembling the quills of the porcupine, is very hard, strong,
and durable. It is used in India for rafters, beams, spear-handles,
and other purposes; but in England for walking-sticks, or as a
veneer for work-boxes and other fancy articles.

Portia-tree. See Umbrella-tree.

Prince-wood. See Cypre, Bois de.

Puriri (Vitex littordlis A. Cunn.: Order Verbendcee). New
Zealand. ‘‘ New Zealand Teak.” Height 60 ft.; diam. 3—5 ft.
S.G. 1,100 when green, 1,000—959 when dry. W 76—59. p 223.
Yielding timber 9—18 ft. long, squaring 10—18 in.; sapwood
2—3 in. wide, yellowish; heart dark-brown, very heavy, very
hard, close-grained, very strong and durable. Much used for
posts, piles, sleepers, etc., being the strongest and most durable
of New Zealand timbers.

Purple-heart of Guiana (Copaifera pubiflora Benth., C. bracteata
Benth., and Peltégyné vendsa Benth.: Order Leguminése). French

17—2

260 WOODS OF COMMERCE

‘* Amaranthe, Bois violet.” Dutch ‘* Purpuurhart.” Aborig.
** Kooroobovilli.”” Germ. ‘‘ Amarantholz.” Large trees yielding
timber 20—120 ft. long, squaring 1}—2% ft., brownish to blackish
purple, especially when freshly cut, or when heated, close-grained,
very heavy, hard, strong, elastic, working easily, taking a fine
polish, durable. S.G. 967—-721. W 49—62. R 231 kilos. Used
for furniture, gun-carriages, house-frames, and works of con-
struction. Though several species are confused commercially,
those derived from Brazil, the Guianas, and Trinidad appear closely
related, and of nearly equal value.

Purple-heart of Trinidad (Peltégyné paniculata Benth.: Order
Leguminése). Known also as “ Zapateri.” Yielding timber
20—25 ft. long and 12—15 in. wide, of a beautiful purple when
freshly cut, but blackening with age, very durable. Sometimes
used for furniture. The allied species P. confertiflora Benth., the
‘* Pao roxo ”’ or *‘ Guarabu ” of Brazil, is similar.

Pyingadu and Pynkado. See Acle.

Quar (Kitclea undulata Thunbg.: Order EHbendcew). Cape
Colony. Height 20—30 ft.; diam. 12—15 in. Sapwood light-
brown; heart dark-brown, heavy, very hard, close-grained, with
beautiful transverse wavy figure. Suitable for furniture.

Quassia (Picréna excélsa Lindl.: Order Simartibee). Tropical
America. “‘ Bitterwood.” W 33—35. Yielding logs 6—10 ft.
long, 6—10 in. diam., yellowish, soft, fine-grained, intensely bitter.
Used medicinally as a tonic, often by being turned into cups, which
impart their taste to water.

Quebracho, meaning “ axe-breaker,” is mainly applied in Argen-
tina and Bolivia to Aspidospérma Quebracho-blanco Schlecht.
(Order Apocyndacee), ‘‘Quebracho-blanco,” and to Quebrachia
Loréntzii Griseb. (=Loxopterygium Loréntzii Griseb. = Schindpsis
Loréntzii Engler: Order Anacardidcee), *‘ Quebracho colorado.”
The former yields timber 20 ft. long and 13 ft. in diam., whitish-
yellow, liable to warp and twist, not durable if exposed to moisture
or insects ; but largely used for wheel-hubs, fence-droppers, bottoms
of railway-trucks, etc. The latter, a much more valuable wood,
reaching 60 ft. in height and over 1 ft. in diam., yielding logs for
sleepers 9 ft. long and 10 in. by 5 in. W 65—70. S.G. 1,250.
Dark red, turning almost black with age, probably the hardest
wood, in Argentina, equalling Ebony in this respect, and appar-
ently imperishable, containing, as it does, up to 26 per cent. of
tannin. It is largely employed for sleepers, fence-posts, beams,
piles, and telegraph arms, over 250,000 tons being exported in
1206, in addition to 55,000 tons of the tannin extract.

Quina-quina (Myroxylon sp.?: Order Leguminése). Northern
Argentina. Yielding timber 18 ft. long and 1 ft. square. Light

>

QUEEN-WOOD—REDWOOD 261

Mahogany-colour, smooth, and close - grained. Used for furni-
ture.

Queen-wood (Daviésia arborea W. Hill.: Order Leguminose).
North-Eastern Australia. Height 15—30 ft.; diam. 6—12 in.
Streaked with pink, hard, close-grained, susceptible of a fine
polish. An excellent cabinet-wood. The name is also applied to
Piptadénia rigida. See Angico.

Ranai (Alseodiphné semicarpifélia Nees: Order Laurdcee).
Ceylon. W 63. Large and heavy. Useful for beams, house- and
boat-building.

Raspberry Jam. See Myall (iii).

Rassak or Russoeck (Vdtica Rdassak Blume: Order Diptero-
carpacee). Borneo. W 54. Light yellowish, becoming dark-
red on exposure, heavy, coarse-grained, durable. Used for piles,
house-building, ete.

Rata (Metrosidéros robista, A. Cunn: Order Myrtacee). New
Zealand. ‘‘ Northern Rata.” Height 60—100 ft. ; diam. 3—4 ft.
S.G. 1,228 when fresh, 786 when seasoned. Often 30—40 ft. to
lowest branch, and yielding timber 20—50 ft. long, squaring
1—23 ft. Red, very heavy, hard, close-grained, strong, easy to
work, durable. Used in ship-building and for railway-waggons.

Rata, Southern (Metrosidéros licida A. Rich.). New Zealand.
“Tronwood.” Yielding timber 20—50 ft. long, and 1—4 ft. diam.
8.G. 1,045. W 63—71. p 196. Red, very hard, strong, and
durable. Used for ship-building, bridges, sleepers, and wheel-
wrights’ work.

Redwood, a name variously applied: (i) in the English timber
trade to Dantzic Fir (Pinus sylvéstris) [See Northern Pine] ; (ii) in
Australia to Eucalyptus piperita [See Peppermint (vi)|; (ili) in
Cape Colony to Ochna arborea Burch. (Order Ochnacee). Known
also as “‘ Cape Plane.’ Boer ‘“‘ Roodhout.” Zulu “‘ Umtensema.”’
Height 20—30 ft.; diam. 13—2 ft. Red, hard, strong, durable.
Used for waggon-building and furniture, and suitable for engraving.

Redwood, Andaman. See Padouk.

Redwood, Californian (Sequoia sempervirens Endl.: Order Taxo-
dine). Californian coast. Germ. “‘ Immergriin Sequoie.” ‘‘ Hiben
Cypresse.” Ital. “Il Legno rosso di California.” Height 180—
250 or 300 ft. ; often 75—100 ft. to lowest branch ; diam. 12—20
ft. $.G.421. W 24-:25—29. Sapwood light orange to dark amber,
very soft and light, scentless ; heart maroon to terra-cotta or deep
brownish-red, darkening on exposure, light, soft, brittle, close-
but short-grained, not strong, without resin-ducts, very easily
split, so that planks can be made from it without the use of the

262 WOODS OF COMMERCE

saw, in structure resembling Bald Cypress, very durable in contact
with the soil; pith-rays very distinct. The most valuable of
Californian timber-trees, and the most used material for building
and carpentry in the State ; used also for sleepers, fencing, telegraph-
poles, shingles, and furniture, corresponding in quality and uses
to White Cedar. The wood is so soft and porous that it dries
quickly, losing its vitality entirely. Being thus absolutely dead
wood, it keeps its shape in spite of all exposure, and is probably the
most reliable known wood for such a purpose as a jointed sign-
board exposed to the elements. The joints of such a board, if
made of Redwood once dry, will never open. Though suited for
drawers or lining, it is somewhat too monotonous for ornamental
furniture. In the London cabinet trade it is now known as
‘“* Sequoia.”” Though sending up vigorous coppice-shoots when
felled, ‘‘at the present rate of destruction not an unprotected
Sequoia of timber-producing size will be left standing twenty
years hence ” (J. G. Lemmon in 1895).

Redwood, Coromandel or Indian. See Mahogany, East Indian.

Redwood, in Jamaica. See Ironwood (xxiii).

Rewa-rewa (Rymdndra excélsa Knight= Knightia excélsa R. Br. :
Order Protedcew). New Zealand. Known also as ‘‘ Honeysuckle-
wood.” Height 100 ft. S.G. 785. W 46—50. p 161. On a
radial section lustrous golden-yellow with pretty wavy warm
red-brown silver-grain, perishable on exposure, and becoming
“foxy” unless thoroughly seasoned. Valued for inlaying and
cabinet-work.

Rimu (Dacrjdium cupressinum Soland.: Order Taxinee). New
Zealand. Known also as ‘‘New Zealand Red Pine.” Height
40—80 or 100 ft.; diam. 2—5 ft.; sometimes 40—50 ft. to the
lowest branch. 8.G. 678—563 when seasoned. W 33—45.
p 140-2. Yielding timber 20—80 ft. long, squaring 10—30 in.
Chestnut-brown near centre, lighter outwards, figured with light-
red or yellow streaks, moderately heavy and hard, very strong,
fine, uniform and straight in grain, working well and taking a good
polish, but not durable in contact with soil. Extensively used in
building for beams, girders, etc., for panelling, fencing, railway-
ties, paving, native canoes and furniture. This species, the most
widely distributed timber-tree in the Dominion, and the most exten-
sively used in local carpentry, has a certain future before it in the
English market. Working as readily as Birch, and comparable
in strength with Oak, it is likely to replace Satin Walnut, which it
somewhat resembles, as a cabinet wood, being far more reliable
than that timber.

Roble, the Spanish for Oak, used in Trinidad for Platymiscium
platystachyum Benth. (Order Leguminése), a hard, tough wood

ROSE-CHESTNUT—ROSEWOOD 263

with an ornamental silvery transparent grain, used locally in ship-
building ; in Chile for Fdgus obliqua. Height 100 ft. Sound in
contact with water. Largely used for sleepers in Argentina. In
Argentina the name is used for F. betuloides Mirb., an evergreen
Beech growing from Tierra del Fuego northwards, reaching 26 ft.
in height and 3—4 ft. in diam., and yielding a straight, very fine-
grained, handsome wood, resembling American Oak, and very easy
to work, which is extensively used for panelling in railway-carriages.

Rose-chestnut, Indian. See Ironwood xviii.

Rosewood. French ‘Bois du_ rose.” Germ. ‘“ Rozenholz.”
Tial. “‘ Legno rodie.” Span. “Leno de rosa.’ Port. “ Pao de
rosada.”’ The name of a number of different species in various
parts of the world, mostly heavy, dense, dark-coloured woods,
many of which belong to the Order Leguminése, such as the genera
Dalbérgia, Machérium, and Pterocadrpus, and one or two of which
contain a fragrant resin or oil, from which the name has originated.
They have nothing more to do with the Rose.

Rosewood, African (Pterocirpus erindceus Poir. : Order Leguminése).
Tropical West Africa. ‘‘Gambia Rosewood.” ‘‘ African Padouk.”’
French “‘Santal rouge d’Afrique.” ‘“‘Véne,” ‘‘Wene”’ in Jolof,
“Kaayno” in Mandingo, ‘“‘Irosun,” ‘Osun.’ Height 40—70 ft.;
diam. 4—5 ft. Sapwood white; heart red-brown, moderately hard,
fine-grained, very elastic. Valuable as timber and as yielding an
astringent resin or Kino. It is imported in round logs ; but having
a spongy heart, is wasteful to convert, and its colour fades on
exposure to light. Value £5—£8 per ton. Pterocdrpus angolénsis
is similar.

Rosewood, Australian (i) Acacia glaucéscens [See Myall (v)];
(ii) Dyséxylon Fraseridnum [See Cedar, Peneil]; (iii) Hremophila
Mitchélli [See Sandalwood, Bastard]; and (iv) Synédum glandul6sum
A. Juss. (Order Melidcew). North-Eastern Australia. Known
also as ‘‘ Dogwood,” “* Bastard Rosewood,” and “* Brush Blood-
wood.” Height 40—60 ft. ; diam. 13—2 ft. W 41—45. Deep red
and rose-scented when fresh, resembling Cedar, but heavier and
deader in colour, taking a fine polish, firm, and easily worked.
Used for ship-building, the inside of houses and cabinet-work, for
which it has long been valued. An allied form, S. Lardneri, without
scent, and with more open grain, is known as “‘ Pencil Cedar,” or,
from the smell of its bark, as ‘‘ Turnipwood.”

Rosewood, Bombay. See Blackwood, Indian.

Rosewood, Brazilian, including that of Bahia, the best, Rio, the
second best, and San Francisco, is probably Dalbérgia nigra Allem.
(Order Leguminése), Brazil. ‘‘ Jacaranda cabiuna,’” or in part
also species of the allied genus Machérium, such as M. sclerdxylon
Tul., known as ‘“‘ Pao Ferro,” M. firmum Benth., “ Jacaranda

264 WOODS OF COMMERCE

roxa,’ and WM. legdlé Benth., “‘ Jacarando preto.” §S.G. 768—
841. W 53—65. In half-round logs 10—20 ft. long, seldom over
14in.indiam. Dark chestnut or ruddy brown, richly streaked and
grained with black, resinous layers, with the perfume of rose-water,
porous, open-grained, heavy, taking a fine polish, liable to heart-
shake, fading with age, and frequently hollow, and sold, therefore,
by weight. Valuable, both solid and in veneers, for furniture
and ornamental cabinet-work, especially pianoforte-cases, and for
turnery, realizing £10—£12 per ton for inferior, £20—£30 for
good, and even up to £90 for the best qualities.

Rosewood, Bastard. See Rosewood, Australian.
Rosewood, Burmese. See Padouk.

Rosewood, Canary (Convdlvulus Scoparius L., C. virgatus Webb,
and C. floridus L.: Order Convolvuldicee). Canary Islands.
“ Lignum Rhodii.”” French “‘ Bois des Rhodes des Parfumeurs.”’
Derived from the rhizome and bases of the aerial stems, whence
these species have been separated as a genus Rhodorrhiza. Rose-
scented and distilled for the powerfully scented oil ‘‘ Oleum ligni
Rhodii «thereum,” used to adulterate attar of roses. Not other-
wise used.

Rosewood, Dominica. See Cypre, Bois de.

Rosewood, Honduras (Dalbérgia sp. ?). W 68—77. Nut-brown,
streaked with narrow black lines, very hard, even-grained. Valu-
able for furniture, turnery, and inlaying.

Rosewood, Indian. See Blackwood, Indian.

Resewood, Jamaica (Linociéra ligustrina Swartz. : Order Oledacee).
See also Granadilio.

Rosewood, Moulmein, probably a species of Milléttia (Order
Leguminose), possibly M. péndula Benth., a dense, hard, dark-
coloured wood.

Rosewood, Nicaragua (Dalbérgia sp. ?). Central America. W 70.
Reddish-orange, slightly streaked with black, very heavy and
hard, coarse-grained, slightly fragrant.

Rosewood, Rosetta. See Blackwood, Indian.

Rosewood, Seychelles. See Umbrella-tree.

Rosewood, West Indian. See Granadillo.

Rowan (Pyrus Aucupdria Gaertn.: Order Rosdceew). Europe,
Northern and Western Asia. Known also as ‘‘ Mountain Ash.”
Germ. “ Eberesche.” Height 10—40 ft.; diam. 6—10 in. W
35—48. Sapwood reddish-white; heart reddish-brown, hard,
tough, difficult to split, fine-grained, readily worked or polished ;

RUBY-WOOD—SAL 265

pith-flecks frequent; vessels and pith-rays indistinct ; autumn-
wood slightly darker. Used to a small extent on the Continent in
cabinet-work, carving, and turnery.

Ruby-wood (Butyrospérmum Parki Kotschy: Order Sapotdcee).
Tropical Africa, from Guinea to the Nile. Height 30—40 ft. ;
diam. 5—6 ft. Red, Cedar-like, very hard, close-grained. The
seeds yield Shea butter, imported for soap-making.

Sabicu (Lysiléma Sdbicw Benth.: Order Legumindse). West
Indies, especially Cuba. Somewhat crooked in growth, but yield-
ing timber 20—35 ft. long, squaring 11—24 in. 8&.G. 899—957.
W 6243. e¢’ 2-21. p’ 1:6. c¢ 5,558. c’ -734. v’ 1-161.
R 435 lbs. Dark chestnut-brown, heavy, hard, strong, elastic,
close-grained, free from shakes, though sometimes exhibiting on
conversion a cross fracture of part of the inner wood, snapped,
perhaps, by West Indian hurricanes, seasoning slowly, but shrinking
but little, and not splitting in the process, working up well, sus-
ceptible of a high polish, durable when exposed, and sometimes
with such a curled figure as to be mistaken for Rosewood. Used
in ship-building, especially for beams, keelsons, engine-bearers, etc.,
and for furniture. The staircases of the Exhibition of 1851 were
of this wood, and wore well. The allied species, L. latisidiqua
Benth., native to the Bahamas and Florida, is similar.

Saffron-wood (Hlcodéndron créceum DC.: Order Celastracee).
South Africa. Known also as ‘‘ Safforan-wood.” ‘‘ Crocus-tree.”’
Boer ‘‘Saffranhout,’” Zulu ‘“‘ Umbomoana.” French “ Olivetier
jaune, Bois d’or du Cap.” Height 20—40 or 60 ft. ; diam. 2—4 ft.
W 47-5—55:74. E 510 tons. f 4:4. fe 3-18. Reddish-brown,
heavy, hard, close, fine-grained, tough, handsome. Used for
beams, planks, waggon-building, furniture, etc.

Saj (Termindlic toment6sa W. and A.: Order Combretdacee).
India and Burma. Hind. “ Asan.” Tamil ‘“ Maradu.” Mahrat.
“yn.” A large tree yielding timber 18—28 ft. long and 1—2 ft.
in diam. §S.G. 892. R 462—602 lbs. Sapwood white, narrow ;
heart dark brown, finely variegated, with darker streaks producing
a wavy figure, heavy, hard, elastic, strong, difficult to work, but
seasoning well, and taking a high polish, liable to split on exposure
and to dry-rot if not steeped. Its power of resisting termite-
attack is doubtful. Largely used for joists and rafters, and in
waggon- and boat-building, and recommended for paving. Re-
sembling the next.

Sal (Shorea robista Gaertn.: Order Dipterocarpacee). Northern
and Central India. Known also as “Saul,” and formerly as
“Morung Sal.’ Sansk. “Sala.” Philippine “‘ Guijo.” <A large
tree, 100—-150 ft. high, 7—8 ft. diam., vielding timber 20—60 ft.

266 WOODS OF COMMERCE

long and 1—2 ft. in diam. 8.G. 458—842. W 28-6—52-6.
R 1,043 lbs. Sapwood whitish, narrow ; heart light to deep brown,
finely streaked with dark lines, very heavy, hard, coarse and cross-
grained, elastic, tough, comparing favourably as to strength with
Teak, warping and splitting considerably in seasoning, but almost
unrivalled for durability, its abundant whitish aromatic resin
protecting it from termites. The most extensively used timber
of Northern India for sleepers, piles, beams, bridges, planks, gun-
carriages, wedges, tool-handles, blocks, cogs, ete., but too heavy
to float, and, therefore, expensive.

Saliewood (Buddléia salvifolia Lam.: Order Loganidacee). Cape
Colony. ‘‘Salie-hout.”” Zulu ** Unkaza.” Height 15—20 ft. ;
diam. 10O—15 in. W 54. Hard, tough, with a beautiful wavy
grain. Used for carriage-building, agricultural implements, and
cabinet-work, yielding veneers equal in appearance to Walnut,
and for cogs; but recommended for wooden type and coarse en-
graving.

Sallow, in England, chiefly Sdlix Capréa L. (Order Salicinee).
Europe, Northern and Western Asia. Known also as “ Goat
Willow.” Germ. ‘‘Sahlweide.” <A small tree. W 27—39. Sap-
wood reddish-white ; heartwood a beautiful light red, light, very
soft, easily split, lustrous, with wide annual rings, pith-rays in-
distinguishable, vessels minute and equally distributed, pith-flecks
often present. Used chiefly for crate- and hoop-making ; but in
France one of the most useful Willows. [See Willow. ]

Sallow, in Australia, or Sally, or White Sally, names applied to
some species of Acdcia, especially A. longifolia Willd., var. flori-
binda, a brown, black-streaked, light, tough, and hard wood, used
for tool-handles ; and to Eucryphia Moorei. [See Acacia. |

Sandalwood, a name applied to the generally fragrant woods
of Sdntalum dlbum and other species of the genus, to those of the
other genera of the Order Santalacee—viz., Fusdnus, Exocarpus,
and Osyris, to some members of the Order Myoporinee, and a few
other unrelated trees. True Sandalwood is Sdntalum album L.
(Order Santalacee). India, chiefly in the south, and perhaps also
in the Malay Archipelago. Known also as ‘‘ White” or “ Yellow
Sandalwood.”’ Sanskr. ‘‘ Chandana.”’ Hind. ‘‘ Chandana, Sandal.”’
Telugu *“‘Chandanam.”” Burm. “ Sanda-ku.”’ Chinese ‘“‘ Tan-mu.”’
Height 30 ft., 8 ft. to lowest branch ; diam. up to 2 ft. W 56—71.
Sold in crooked billets weighing 50—90 lbs. each. Yellowish-
brown, very hard, heavy, close-grained and fragrant, the heart-
wood yielding on distillation about 2 drams of oil per pound, and
increasing in fragrance with age, very liable to heart-shake. Used
for carving, ornamental boxes, Chinese coffins, walking-sticks,
fans, burnt as a perfume, ground into powder as a cosmetic, and

SANDALWOOD 267

distilled for its fragrant oil. Realizing from 600—850 rupees per
ton, the chips fetching 300.

Sandalwood, Australian (i) Fusdnus spicdtus R. Br.= F. cygnorum
Benth.: Order Santaldcee. Southern and Western Australia.
Known also as ‘‘ Fragrant Sandalwood.” Height 30 ft. ; diam. up
to 1 ft. W 46-5. Not very fragrant and scarce, yellow-brown,
with darker streaks, very fine-grained. Exported to Singapore
and China at about £10 per ton. (ii) Sdntaluwm lanceoldtum R. Br.
Height 15—25 ft.; diam. 3—6 in. Yellowish, firm, close-grained,
taking a good polish. (iii) S. obtusifélium R.Br. Eastern Aus-
tralia.

Sandalwood, Bastard, of Australia. (i) (Hremdphila Mitchell
Benth. : Order Myoporinee). Eastern Australia. Known also as
“Rosewood.” Height 20—30 ft.; diam. 9—12 in. Brown,
beautifully grained, very fragrant, very hard. Yielding handsome
veneers. (ii) (Myopérum platycérpum R. Br.). [See Dogwood (iv) ].

Sandalwood, Bastard, of India (Erythréxylon monégynum Roxb. :
Order Erythroxylacee). A small tree of Southern India and Ceylon.
Sansk. “‘ Devadara.” Arab. “ Shajr-ul-jin.”” Hind. “‘ Deo dhari.”
Tamil. ‘‘ Devatharam.” Telug. ‘“‘ Devadari.”’? Dark-brown, very
hard, taking a fine polish, very fragrant. Used as a substitute for
Sandalwood.

Sandalwood, Bastard, of the Sandwich Islands (Myoporwm tenut-
folium).

Sandalwood, East African (Osyris tenuifolia Engl.: Order
Santaldcee). Portuguese East Africa. ‘‘ Mucumite.’? Length 6—
8 ft.; diam. 8 in. Brown, with darker shades, heavy, crooked in
growth.

Sandalwood, Fiji (Sdntalum Yasi Seem.).
Sandalwood, Fragrant. See Sandalwood, Australian.
Sandalwood, Indian. See Mangosteen, False.

Sandalwood, Native (Fusdnus persicarius F. v. M.: Order Santala-
cee). Australia. Small and inferior.

Sandalwood, New Caledonia (Sdntalum austro-caledénicum Vieill.).
Sandalwood, Red. See Sanderswood, Red.

Sandalwood, Sandwich Islands(Sdntalum freycinetidnum Gaud. and
S. paniculdtum Hook. and Arn.).

Sandalwood, Scentless (Hreméophila Sturtii R.-Br.: Order Myo-
porinee). South-East Australia. Merely a shrub, with grey,
nicely marked, close-grained, hard wood.

Sandalwood, Scrub (Hxocarpus latifolia R. Br. : Order Santaldcee).
North-East Australia. Known also as ‘“‘ Broad-leaved Cherry.”

268 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Height 10—16 ft.; diam. 6—9 in. Dark-coloured, fragrant, very
hard, coarse-grained, taking an excellent polish. Used in cabinet-
work.

Sandalwood, White. See Sandalwood.

Sandalwood, Yellow. See Sandalwood.

Sandan (Ougeinia dalbergioides Benth.: Order Leguminése).
Northern India. Mottled brown and red, hard, tough, close-
grained, taking a good polish, durable. Used for furniture, carriage-
poles, wheels, agricultural implements, etc.

Sanderswood, Red (i) (Pterocarpus santalinus L. fil.: Order
Leguminése). Southern and Further India, Ceylon, China, Java,
etc. Known also as “ Red Sandalwood.” French “‘ Santale rouge.”’
Germ. “‘ Ostindisches Santelholz, Caliaturholz.” Sansk. ‘ Rakta
chandana.” Pers. ‘Sandal surkh.” Hind. ‘“‘ Chandana.” Tam.
“Chandanum.” Sinh. ‘‘ Rakt-chandan.” Believed to be the
Hebrew “ Almug” of 1 Kings x. 11, 12, the €dXa@ qredexnra of the
Septuagint. Height 20—25 ft.; diam. 1 ft. S.G. 750. W 46-84.
Deep orange-red, with lighter zones, turning to claret-colour or
black, heavy, very hard, fine-grained, taking a beautiful polish.
Used for images, carving, furniture, turnery, and occasionally
building ; but chiefly as a red dye, soluble in alcohol, but not in
water. (ii) Adendnthera pavonina L.: Order Leguminése). India,
Burma, Moluccas, North Queensland, and cultivated in Tropical
Africa and America. Known also as ‘‘ Redwood ” or “‘ Red Sandal-
wood.” Germ. ‘* Condoriholz.” Sansk. ‘‘ Cambhoji.” Hind.
* Ranjana, Ku-chandana.” Beng. ‘‘ Ratka-chandan.” Tam.
““Gandamani.” <A large tree. W 56. Yellowish-grey or light-
brown, or in older trees a beautiful coral-red, sometimes with darker
stripes when fresh cut, turning dark-brown, or purple like Rosewood,
on exposure, rather heavy, hard, coarse- but close-grained, durable,
but apt to be worm-eaten. Used in house-building and for cabinet-
work ; or, ground into a paste, by rubbing the wood against a stone
with some water, as a dye.

Sanders, Yellow (Ximénia americina L.: Order Olacinee).
Tropical America, Pacific, Australia, Asia, and Africa. Brazil
“ Ameixero,” “ Espinha de meicha.” Guiana “ Heymassoli.”
San Domingo “ Croc.” W 57:3. E72ltons. {45. fe4. fs 368
Yellow, fragrant, very hard, tough, close- and even - grained.
Employed in India as a substitute for Sandalwood, in the Fiji
Islands for the peculiar pillows (‘‘ kali’’) used by the natives, and
suggested for engraving.

Santa Maria (Calophyllum Cdlaba Jacq.: Order CGuttifere).
Tropical America. Known also as ‘‘ Galba,” ‘‘ Galaba,”’ “ Accite
de Maria,” and in Cuba as “ Ocuje.” Height 60—90 ft. ; diam.

SAPPAN-WOOD—SASSAFRAS 269

2—3 ft.; yielding logs 25—50 ft. long, squaring 12—22 in. S.G.
842, W 53. E 790 tons. f 5°14. fc 2°6. fs -215. R 354 lbs.
Pale-red to orange-yellow, moderately heavy and hard, clean, fine
and straight in grain, flexible, with few knots, shrinking and splitting
very little in seasoning, easily worked, durable. Has been used
in our dockyards for beams and planks, and is equal to plain
Mahogany for interior finish.

Sappan-wood (Cesalpinia Sdappan L.: Order Legumindse).
India and South-East Asia. Known also as *“‘ Redwood, Brazil,”
or “ Brasiletto-wood. Sansk. ‘“ Patanga.” Hind. ‘“‘ Bakam.”’
Malay ‘“‘Sapang.” Height 30—36 ft.; diam. 8 in. W 60—61.
Brownish-red. Used almost exclusively as a red dye for cotton
goods, or with copper sulphate for violet, the roots, known as
‘** Yellow-wood’”’ or “Sappan Root,” yielding an orange-yellow
one.

Sapodilla (Achras Sapota L.: Order Sapotdcee). Tropical
America. Known also as “ Nispero,”’ “‘ Bully,” or ‘‘ Bullet-wood.”’
Reddish-brown, very heavy, hard, and durable. Used for furniture,
cabinet-work, and occasionally building.

Saquisaqui (Bombax mompoxensé H. B.: Order Bombdcee).
Venezuela. Known also as “‘ Cedro dulce.” §8.G. 529. Rose-red,
of better quality than other species of the genus, similar to the
wood of the Cedar (Cedréla odorata).

Sassafras in North America (Sdssafras officindlé Nees: Order
Laurdcee). Known as “Sassafras” in Latin, Arabic, French,
German, and Spanish, in German also as ‘“ Fenchelholz,”’ and by
the French in America as “‘ Laurier des Iroquois.’ Canada to
Florida and Texas. Height 50—90 ft. ; diam. 3—74 ft. S.G. 504.
W 31:4. R 602 kilos. Sapwood yellow, narrow ; heart orange-
brown, with a slight characteristic aroma, light, soft, rather brittle,
coarse-grained, very durable when exposed, and partially insect-
proof ; with broad distinct annual rings, a marked pore-zone of
spring-wood with 4—5 rows of vessels arranged radially in pairs,
and very fine pith-rays, distinguished from the Red Mulberry
(Morus ribra) by its lightness. Used for fencing, buckets, etc.
The essential oil which brought the tree into notice in the sixteenth
century is distilled from the bark of the roots. The name is applied
in various parts of the world to other species of the Order Laurdcee
and the closely allied Monimidcee exhibiting the same characteristic
smell.

Sassafras, Assam (Cinnamomum glanduliferum Meissn.). See
Camphor, Nepal.

Sassafras, Australian (i) Atherospérma moschdta Labill.: Order
Monimidacee). South-East Australasia. Height 100—150 ft.

270 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Dark-coloured, often well figured, close-grained, very tough, easily
worked, taking a fine polish. Used for lasts, bench-screws, and
cabinet-work, and suggested for sounding-boards and doors.
(ii) (Daphnandra micrantha Benth.: Order Monimidcee). North-
east Australia. Known also as “‘ Satinwood ” and “ Light-yellow
Wood.” Height 50—80 ft.; diam. 13—2 ft. W 43-5. Yellow
when fresh, fragrant, soft, weak. Used for packing-cases and
perhaps fit for cabinet-drawers. (iii) (Doryphora sassafras Endl. :
Order Monimiacee). North-East Australia. Height 50—100 ft. ;
diam. 2—3 ft. Light-coloured, sometimes neatly figured, light,
fragrant, soft, weak, insect-proof, but probably not durable. Used
like the last-mentioned. (iv) (Nesodaphné obtusifolia Benth. :
Order Laurdcee). North-East Australia. A large tree, yielding
light-coloured, close-grained wood, easy to work, and suitable for
joinery.

Sassafras, Black. See Beech, She.

Sassafras, Brazil (Mespilodaphné Sassafras C.: Order Lauracee).

Sassafras, Burmese. See Camphor, Nepal.

Sassafras, Cayenne (Dicypéllium caryophyllatum Nees= Licaria
gquianénsis Aubl.: Order Laurdcee). Known also as “ Cayenne
Rosewood,” ‘‘ Licari,” ‘‘ Pepper-wood,” ‘‘ Bois canelle,” “ Rose
male.’ Brazil and Guiana. An excellent wood. 8.G. 1,226—
1,108. R 360 kilos. Pale yellow, slightly fragrant, moderately
hard, compact, and straight in grain, very easily worked, durable.
The name “ Sassafras”’ or “‘ Rose femelle’ is applied in French
Guiana to Acrodiclidium chrysophyllum Meissn. (Order Lauracee).
S.G. 806—688. R 184 kilos. Yellow, very durable, readily
worked, yielding on distillation the essential oil known as “‘ essence
de roses.”” Excellent for ship-building or furniture.

Sassafras, Grey. See Laurel.

Sassafras, Indian. See Camphor, Nepal.

Sassafras, Nepal. See Camphor, Nepal.

Sassafras, Tasmanian. See Sassafras, Australian (i).

Satiné or Bois de féroles, of which there are two varieties—‘“* Satiné
rouge,” a beautiful red-brown, and ‘“‘Satiné rubanné,” lighter-
coloured, veined and lustrous—is apparently Ferolia guianénsis Aubl.
and, perhaps, F. variegdta Lam., and probably species of Parind-
rium (Order Rosdcee). Guiana and Guadeloupe. Known also as
‘‘ Bois marbré,” and, in Demerara, as ‘‘ Washiba.”? German
‘* Feroliaholz.”” §.G. 877—825. W 55. Exported in logs 14—
28 ft., or more, long, squaring 13—15 in., red, splashed with yellow,
hard, solid, and of good quality, tough, elastic, working well, and
susceptible of a beautiful polish. Used for furniture and cabinet-
work, bows, and fishing-rods.

SATIN WALNUT—SEQUOIA 271

Satin Walnut. See Gum, Sweet.

Satinwood (Chlordxylon Swieténia DC.: Order Melidcee).
Central and Southern India and Ceylon. Hind. ‘‘ Dhoura.” Tam.
*Mutirai, Porasham.” Sinh. ‘“ Buruta.” Height 30—60 ft.;
diam. 12—30 in. W 643—49. E 699 tons. f 6:15. fe 3-37.
fs ‘85. R 329—510 lbs. Light orange, beautifully figured, heavy,
hard, close-grained, taking an excellent polish, durable, but liable
to darken unless varnished, somewhat apt to split. Used in India for
oil-mills, agricultural implements, and furniture, the beautiful figured
variety being imported into England for the backs of hair-brushes,
turnery, and cabinet-work. There is a magnificent specimen from
Ceylon at the Imperial Institute, to which the Grand Prix of the
Paris Exhibition of 1900 was awarded.

Satinwood, in Australia (Zanthoxylum brachyacanthum F. v. M.:
Order Rutdcee). North-East Australia. Known also as ‘‘ Thorny
Yellow-wood.” Height 40—50 ft.; diam. 12—15 in. Bright
yellow, silky, soft, close-grained, easily worked. Used in cabinet-
work, and said to be superior to scme Satinwood in the English
market. See also Sassafras, Australian (ii).

Satinwood, North American (Zanthoxylum floridum Nutt.).
Florida. Yields only small wood.

Satinwood, West Indian (Fdgara (Zanthdxylum) flava Krug.
and Urb.: Order Rutdcee). Span. “ Aceitillo.” This appears to
be the species imported in considerable quantities into England in
logs 10 ft. long and 8 in. in width and thickness for ornamental
purposes from the Bahamas and Porto-Rico, fetching from £3 to
£10 per ton ; but the name seems to be applied in Dominica also to
Bicida capitata Dow. (Order Combretacee), which is also known as
* Yellow Sanders,”’ and in Brazil and the Guianas may be applied
to other unascertained species. The Zanthdxylum is known as
* Yellow-wood ” in the Bahamas. It is imported from Nassau and
New Providence, Bermuda, Jamaica, and St. Domingo, the last-
named being the best, ranging in value from Is. per superficial foot
up to almost any price, according to the beauty of its figure. It
occurs in logs up to 12 in. in diam., is hard, close and even in grain
like Box, and has a smell like that of Coco-nut oil. It is very largely
used for panels in ships’ cabins, for the highest class of bedroom
furniture, brush-backs, etc.

Savicu. See Sabicu.

Schaapdrolletje (Plectronia ventdsa L.: Order Rubidcee). Cape
Colony. Height 15—20 ft. ; diam. 6—10 in. Heavy, hard, close-
grained, tough, susceptible of a good polish, and then handsome.
Suitable for fancy work.

Sequoia. See Redwood, Californian.

272 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Securipa, an undetermined Brazilian wood, of considerable
dimensions, straight growth, moderate weight and fair quality,
brown in colour. Used for beams and planks in ship-building.

Serayah, probably a species of Hopea (Order Dipterocarpdcee).
Malay Peninsula and Borneo. Known also as “ White Cedar,”
** Borneo Cedar,” ‘‘ Majow,” “Selangan.” W 43. Reddish, re-
sembling soft Mahogany, easily worked. Used for house-building,
and recommended for the inside linings of furniture, but incapable
of taking a finish, the grain turning up woolly and ragged from the
tools.

Service (Pyrus tormindlis Ehrh.: Order Rosacew). Europe, West
Asia, and North Africa. Germ. “‘ Elsbeerbaum.” A small tree,
sometimes 30 ft. in height, with wood practically identical in
character and uses with that of the Rowan. The Service-tree of the
Continent, the French ‘‘ Cormier,’ or ‘‘Sorbier,” is a distinct
but allied species (Sérbus doméstica L.), yielding a fawn-coloured,
very hard, fine-grained wood, susceptible of a fine polish, and
often beautifully figured, which is in request for cabinet-work,
turnery, cogs, planes, screws, and engraving.

Shad-bush (Ameldnchier canadénsis Torr. & Gray). Eastern
North America. Known also as ‘“‘Shad-blow, Juneberry ” and
“‘ Service-tree.”” French ‘‘ Grand Amelanchier.” Germ. “ Trau-
benbirne.” Span. ‘‘ Nispero.” Height 40 ft.; diam. 15 in. S.G.
784. W 48°85. R 1,182 kilos. Sapwood thick, light brown, with
red spots ; heart reddish-brown, heavy, hard, strong, close-grained,
taking a satiny finish. Little used, except for tool-handles, and,
under the name of ‘‘ American Lancewood,”’ for fishing-rods.

She Oak. See Oak, She.
Shiragashi. See Akagashi.

Shittim-wood of Exodus xxvi. 15, the £JXev donor of the
Septuagint, may have been Sissoo (Dalbergia Sissoo) or Acacia
seyal.

Shoondul (Intsia bijuga O.K.= Afzelia bijuga A. Gray = Intsia
amboinénsis Thouars (?)= Hpérua decindra Blanco: Order Legu-
minose). Seychelles, India, the Malay archipelago, and the Pacific.
Known also as ‘“ Pynkado.” Fiji “ Vest.” A moderate-sized
tree. Reddish-brown, very hard, close-grained. Used in the
Pacific for war-clubs and in India for bridge- and house-building,
and exported as a furniture wood.

Silk Cotton-tree (Céiba pentindra Gaertn.= Hriodéndron anfractu-
édsum P. DC.: Order Bombdcee). The Tropics generally. Known
also as ‘‘ Cotton ” or ‘‘ White Cotton-tree.”” Hind. “‘ Safed Simal.”’
Tam. ‘ Elava.” Sinh. ‘Imbool.” Malay ‘“ Paniala.” French

SILK BARK—SISSOO 273

Arbre & coton.” Germ. ‘“‘ Baumwollenbaum.” Ouba “ Ceiba.’’
West African “ Benten.” Height 150 ft. or more. S.G. 287.
Straight growing, white, light, soft. Used for canoes, boats, rafts,
floats, toys, and packing-cases.

Silkbark (Celastrus acumindius L.: Order Celastrdcee). Cape
Colony. “Zybast.” Height 20 ft.; diam. 1 ft. W 63. Prettily
shaded, heavy, hard, even- and close-grained, taking a good polish.
Used in turnery and furniture, and recommended for umbrella-
handles.

Silverballi, Brown, Siruaballi, or Cirouaballi. See Cedar, Black.
Silver-top. See Gum, Cabbage.

Silver-tree (Tarriétia argyrodéndron Benth.: Order Sterculidcee).
North-East Australia. Known also as “ Ironwood, Stonewood,
Black Stavewood, Crow’s-foot Elm.” Adborig. “‘ Boyung.”’ Height
70—90 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft. White, hard, close-grained, tough,
firm, a substitute for Beech. Extensively used for staves, and
suitable for piles.

Simarouba (Simaruba amara Aubl.=S. officindlis DC.: Order
Simarubacee). Northern Brazil, Guiana, and the West Indies.
“ Maruba.” “* Acajou blanc ” of Guadeloupe. A lofty tree, yield-
ing logs 13 or 14 ft. long, squaring 14 to 16 in. W 23—30. E 473
tons. { 3°36. fe 1-78. fs -224. Closely similar to Quassia, white,
bitter, resembling Pine in quality, moderately hard, splitting in
seasoning, easily worked, insect-proof. Used for constructive work
in Brazil.

Siris, Pink (Albizzia Julibrissin Durazz.: Order Leguminése).
Tropical and sub-tropical Africa and Asia from Afghanistan to
China and Japan. Known also as “‘ Sirsa ” or “‘ Sirissa.’’ ‘* Cotton-
varay”’ of Coromandel. Moderate-sized tree. Dark-brown to
almost black, mottled, very heavy and hard, capable of a good
polish. Valued for furniture, and for house- and boat-building.

Sissoo (Dalbérgia Sissdo Roxb.: Order Leguminése). Northern
India. A large tree, 15 ft. to its lowest branch, 14 ft. in diam.,
yielding logs 10—15 ft. long. Dark red-brown to light-brown,
being at least as variable in colour as Mahogany, with dark longi-
tudinal veins, very heavy, hard, close and even in grain, strong,
elastic, seasoning well without warping or splitting, durable. One
of the most valuable of Indian timbers, rapid in growth, sometimes
almost as beautiful as Rosewood. Unrivalled for the naves and
felloes of wheels, frames of carriages, boat-building, agricultural
implements, and furniture. Once extensively used for the wheels
of gun-carriages ; but not now plentiful. The sapwood rots so
quickly that it invariably powders away from the log before it

18

274 WOODS OF COMMERCE

arrives in this country. The heartwood is, however, sound, and
darkens in colour and hardens with age. Wheels of gun-carriages
made of this wood went through the last Afghan war when the best
which Woolwich could build of other materials very soon went to
pieces, and it proved perfectly satisfactory for the spokes of heavy
motor-waggons and artillery-carts during the South African War.
Some Indian artillery wheels are now made with naves and felloes
of Sissoo and spokes of Sundri.

Snakewood in English commerce is Brosimum Aubletii of Guiana ~
[See Leopard or Letter-wood]; but in India the wood of Strychnos
colubrina L. and S. nux-vomica L. (Order Loganiacee), the former
of which is a climbing-plant 8—12 in. in diam. ; light grey, hard,
and intensely bitter ; the latter a tree reaching 15 ft. or 20 ft. to its
lowest branch, and 3 ft. in diam. §8.G. 706. W 52. White, or
ash-colour, hard, close-grained, strong, very bitter. Used for
ploughshares and cart-wheels in Travancore. Hind. “ Kuchila.”
Telugu “*Nagamusada.” Portuguese ‘‘ Pao-de-cobra.” French
‘“ Bois de couleuvre.” The crooked and intensely bitter roots of
Ophiorrhiza Mingos L. (Order Cinchondcee), a native of the Sunda
Islands, and the twisted climbing stems of Rauwélfia serpentina
Benth.= Ophidxylon serpentinum L.: Order Apocyndcee), a native
of the Malay archipelago, have also the same name. In the West
Indies Colubrina reclindta Brongn. and C. ferruginésa Brongn.
(Order Rhamndacee), from their twisted roots bear also the same
English and French names, though known also as “‘ West Indian
Greenheart ” or ‘“ Ironwood.” Whilst all these woods get their
names from their form or taste suggesting their use as remedies
for snake-bite, the beautifully mottled Snakewood of British
Guiana is Brésimum Aublétii. See Leopard or Letter-wood.

Sneeze-wood (Pterdxylon utile Eck. and Z.: Order Sapinddcee).
South Africa. Boer ** Neishout.”” Zulu ‘* Umtati.” Height 20—
30 ft. ; diam. 2—4 ft. W 65—67-5. E 782 tons. /f 8-62. fc 5-96.
Handsome, heavy, very hard, irregular in growth, difficult to con-
vert, its dust producing violent sneezing, taking a fine polish, with
a beautiful grain resembling Satinwood, and contaiming a gum-
resin which renders it very inflammable, and one of the most durable
woods in the world, ranking with Jarrah and Greenheart, termite-
and teredo-proof, very slightly affected by water, and for bearings
superior to brass, iron, or Lignum-vite. Perhaps the most valuable
of South African timbers. Used for engineering work, bridges,
furniture, agricultural implements, and carpentry.

Souari or Schawari (Caryécar glabrum Pers., C. butyrosum Willd.,
C’. tomentésum Willd. : Order Rhizobolacew). Guiana. Known also
as ‘‘Peki” or ‘ Tatajuba.” S.G. 932—820. R 211 kilos.
Yellowish-red, moderately heavy and hard, and very cross-grained.

SPEARWOOD—SPRUCE 275

Excellent for carriage-building, but used chiefly in ship-building and
cabinet-work.

Spearwood in Australia (i) Acacia homalophiylla [See Myall (ii)],
(ii) A. doratéxylon and (iii) Hucalyptus doratoxylon. Acacia dora-
toxylon A. Cunn. (Order Leguminose) is known also as “* Hickory,
Brigalow,” or ‘“‘ Caariwan.” Height 20—35 ft.; diam. 6—12 in.
8.G. 1,215. Sapwood narrow, yellow; heart dark-brown, very
heavy, hard, tough, close-grained, durable. Used for furniture,
carriage-poles, gates, etc., and, by the natives, for spears and
boomerangs. Hucalyptus doratoxylon F. v. M. (Order Myrtacee).
South-West Australia. Height 60—80 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. Straight-
growing, hard, and elastic, for which qualities its saplings are much
valued by the aborigines for spears.

Spindle-tree (Huonymus europeus L. : Order Celastracee). Europe
North Africa, and Western Siberia. Height 5—20 ft. ; diam. small.
Clear yellowish-white, with distinct annual rings, but indistinguish-
able vessels or pith-rays, light, hard, tough, fine-grained, difficult to
split, but easily cut. Used in turnery for spindles, shoe-pegs, etc.,
and yielding a fine crayon or gunpowder charcoal.

Spruce, a name applied originally to the Common or Norway
Spruce (Picéa excélsa Link.= Pinus Abies L.=P. Picéa Duroi=
Abies excélsa DC.: Order Conifere) from Pruce or Prussia, whence
it was obtained, and then extended to all the species of the genus
Picéa and to a few other trees. Besides the fact of their cones
falling off whole, and other botanical characters, by which the
Spruces are distinguished as a genus from the Firs (Abies), their
wood, though varying in durabuity according to the soil on which
it is grown, has most of its characters common to all the species.
There is no distinct heartwood, the whcle being of a whitish colour ;
the resin-ducts are few and small ; and the pith-rays have tracheids
with bordered pits for their upper and lower rows of cells, with four
rows of parenchyma having simple pits in the middle. The wood
is less resinous than Pine, though equal to some soft Pines, and
superior to Silver Fir as timber, superior to Pine for paper-pulp,
and much valued as a “‘ resonance wood ” for violins and sounding-
boards. So similar are the Baltic and Canadian Spruce that in
England each is used on that side of the country nearest to its
origin, and the price of one affects that of the other.

The principal Spruces are as follows :

European—
Common - - - - Picéa excélsa Link.
Northern or Baltic var. - septentriondlis.
Polar var. - - - borealis.
Servian or Omorikan - - P.Omérica Pancic.
Oriental = - 2 - P. orientalis Carriére.

18—2

276 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Asiatic—

Siberian - - - - P.obovdta Ledebour.

Himalayan - - . - P. Morinda Link.

Yezo - - . . - P.ajanénsis Fischer.
P. Alcockiana Carriere.
P. Gléhni Fr. Schmidt.

Japanese - . - - P. Hondoénsis Mayr.

Tiger’s-tail - - - - P. polita Carriere.

North American—

White or Canadian - - P.dlba Link.

Black (“‘ American ’’) - - P. nigra Link.

Red - - - - - P.rtbra Link.

Blue or Colorado - - - P. pingens Engelmann.
Engelmann’s : - - P. Engelmanni Engelmann.
Sitka or Menzies’s - - P. sitchénsis Trautw.

Spruce, American, See Spruce, Black.
Spruce, Bastard. See Pine, Oregon.
Spruce, Baltic. See Spruce, Common.

Spruce, Black (Picéa nigra Link). Alaska, Canada, Newfound-
land and North-Eastern United States. Known also as ‘“‘ American,
Canadian, New Brunswick, St. John’s, Double,” or ‘“ Muskeag
Spruce.” French ‘‘Sapinette noir, Epinette noir, Epinette a la
biére.”” Germ. “‘ Schwarzfichte.”” Height 25—80 ft. ; diam. 1—3 ft.
S.G. 451—510. W 28-5. e’ 1:74. p’ -83. R 747 kilos. Sap-
wood nearly white ; heart slightly reddish, light, soft, elastic, strong,
compact, with satiny lustre, being tougher, stronger, more elastic,
and more durable than Yellow Pine, only slightly resinous, and,
therefore, not good as fuel. Trees with wide rings are known to
lumbermen as “‘ White Spruce.’’ Canadian Spruce is inferior in
strength and durability to the Baltic White. The best shipments
are those from Quebec and St. John’s, the Lower Ports Deals being
of less value. Canadian Spruce is used as “‘ lumber,” especially
for flooring ; for spars and other purposes in ship-building ; for piles,
paddles, and oars ; when “* quarter-sawn ’’—7.e., cut radially—in the
manufacture of sounding-boards for pianos, violins, etc. ; and very
largely for paper-pulp. The “‘ Canadian deals ”’ largely imported
to the West Indies and England are used, among other purposes, in
Manchester and Birmingham for packing-cases. The tree yields
a chewing-gum, and its shoots are brewed into Spruce beer.

Spruce, Blue (P. ptngens Engelm.). Rocky Mountains at
altitudes of 6,000—9,000 ft. Known also as ‘‘ Colorado” or
‘* Rocky Mountain Spruce.” Height 80—100 ft. ; diam. 1—3 ft.
Coarse, strong, useful lumber.

SPRUCE 277

Spruce, Californian Coast. See Spruce, Sitka.
Spruce, Canadian. See Spruce, Black.
Spruce, Colorado. See Spruce, Blue.

Spruce, Common (P. excélsa Link). From the Urals and Lap-
land to the Pyrenees and Alps. Known also as ‘“‘ Spruce Fir,
Norway Spruce,” or ‘‘ White Fir,” and its wood as “‘ White Deal.”
**Swiss Pine, Violin-wood.” French ‘‘ Faux sapin, sapin-pesse,
sapin gentil, serente, pinesse, bois de resonnance.” Germ. “* Fichte
Rothanne, Pechtanne.” Height 125—150 ft.; diam. 3—5 ft.
W 64.7 when green, 28—32 when dry. E715tons. [3:77. ft 5:5.
fc 2—2-86. fs -27. Stress requisite to indent it J, in. transversely
to the fibres, 500 lbs. per sq. in. Straight-growing, white, reddish
or yellowish, light, straight and even in grain, tough, elastic, easy
to work except for the small hard knots, warping and shrinking
slightly in seasoning, durable. Mostly imported from Norway
with the bark on, in logs 30—60 ft. long, and 6—8 in. in diam.,
that from St. Petersburg being the best, that from the White Sea
excellent, and that from Riga, Memel, and Dantzig large, but
coarser. Very great quantities of White Deals are now arriving
from Galatz, of greater average length and coarser grain than Baltic
timber, probably the product of the form Picéa montana Schur. of
Transsylvania and Moldavia. This timber is competing with
Canadian Spruce. Spruce poles are used for scaffolding, telegraph-
posts, ladders, roofs, fences, spars, and oars. The largest wood is
converted into deals and planking, chiefly for Central and Southern
Kurope, for flooring, for toys, for which wide-ringed wood is pre-
ferred, for packing-case¥, for sounding-boards, dressers, and kitchen-
tables, on account of its whiteness, and to a very large extent for
paper-pulp. Spruce is also largely used for charcoal and for fuel,
while its resin is used in the preparation of Burgundy pitch.

Spruce, Double. See Spruce, Black.
Spruce, Douglas. See Pine, Oregon.
Spruce, Engelmann’s. See Spruce, White.
Spruce, Hemlock. See Hemlock Spruce.

Spruce, Himalayan (P. Morinda Link= Pinus Smithiana Wall. =
Abies Smithiina Forbes= A. Khiitrow Loud.=Picéa Smithiana
Boiss.). Bhotan to Afghanistan at 6,000—11,000 ft. Known also
as ‘‘ Indian Spruce,” “‘ Morinda,”’ or “‘ Khutrow.” Height 120—
150 ft.; diam. 5—7 ft. White or nearly so, non-resinous, soft,
straight-grained, easily worked, not durable, turning red and
decaying rapidly on exposure. Used largely in Simla and its dis-
trict of growth for packing-cases, rough and indoor carpentry,
planking, and fuel.

278 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Spruce, Hondo (P. hondoénsis Mayr). Mountains of Central
Japan. Japanese ‘“Tohi.” Perhaps identical with the Yesso
Spruce. Very light and soft. Used in building and carpentry.

Spruce, Indian. See Spruce, Himalayan.
Spruce, Menzies’. See Spruce, Sitka.
Spruce, New Brunswick. See Spruce, Black.
Spruce, Norway. See Spruce, Common.

Spruce, Red (P. rubra Link.). South-Eastern Canada and
Eastern United States. French ‘‘ Sapinette rouge.”’ Germ. “‘ Roch-
fichte.”” Height 70—80 or 100 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft., being larger
than the Black Spruce, with which it was confused. The most
valuable timber of the district. Used for carpentry and paper-
pulp.

Spruce, Rocky Mountain. See Spruce, Blue, and Spruce,
White (ii).

Spruce, St. John’s. See Spruce, Black.

Spruce, Servian (P. Omérica Pancic). Mountains of Servia,
Bosnia, and Montenegro, at 2,000—4,000 ft. Servian ‘‘ Omorica,
Morica.”’ Said to have bean largely externa’ for the sake of
its timber, which resembles that of Pinus Pinaster.

Spruce, Single. See Spruce, White,

Spruce, Sitka (P. sitchénsis Carr.= Abies Menziesti). Western
North America from Alaska to California. Known also as
““ Menzies’, Tideland,” or ‘Californian Coast Spruce.” Height
100—250 ft. ; diam. 6—12 or 15 ft. W %3-75. Light yellowish-
brown, tinged with red, light, soft, straigl t-grained, compact, not
strong, resembling the Western Hemlock. Said to be the best of
American Spruces. Used for liouse- and boat-building, carpentry,
cooperage, wooden-ware, fencing, etc.

Spruce, Tideland. See Spruce, Sitka.

Spruce, White (i) (P. dlba Link). Alaska to Newfoundland and
the Northern United States. Known also as ‘‘ Single Spruce.”
W 25-5—32-5. Light, soft, straight- and even-grained, with a
satiny lustre, compact, but not strong. Confused with wide-
ringed examples of the Black Spruce. (ii). (P. Engelmanni Engelm.).
Rocky Mountains from Alberta to Arizona and New Mexico a
3,000—11,500 ft. Known also as ‘* Rocky Mountain Spruce.”
Height 100—150 ft. ; diam. 3—5 ft. Very light, soft, straight, and
close-grained, not strong. Used locally for lumber, and, being free
from knots, is suitable for masts.

Spruce, Yesso (P. ajanénsis Fischer=P. Jezoénsis 8S. & Z.).
Northern Japan, Yessc, Saghalien, the Kurile Islands, and Amur-

STAVEWOOD—STRINGY BARK 279

land. Japanese “‘ Yezo-matsu, Kuro-matsu.” Height 120—-130 ft.
Very light and soft. Much used in Yeso for carpentry.

Stavewood (Stercula fetida L.: Order Sterculidcee). Deccan,
Ceylon, Burma, East Tropical Africa, Moluccas, and, though doubt-
fully native, North Australia, and cultivated in Tropical America.
Known also as ‘*‘ Horse Almond, Bastard Poon,” or ‘‘ Fetid Ster-
culia.”” Beng. ‘*‘Jangli badam.” Tamil “ Pinnari.” Exported
from Cayenne as “‘ Bois puant.” Height to first branch 50 ft. ;
diam. 3—4 ft. W 26—33. Whitish, grey, or reddish-brown,
generally soft, open-grained, and of little use ; but said to be used
for spars for small vessels. The name is also applied in Australia
to other little-used woods.

Stinkwood (Ocotéa bulldta Benth.=Lairus bulldta Burch=
Oreodaphné bullata Nees: Order Laurdcee). South Africa. Known
also as ‘* Hard-black Stinkwood, Cape Walnut,” or ‘* Laurel-
wood.” Height 50—70 ft.;. diam. 3—4 ft. W 50-8—51-75.
Golden-brown, often mottled and resembling Walnut, sometimes
iridescent, giving off a strong peculiar odour when worked, very
tough, and considered little inferior to Teak in strength and dura-
bility. Used in house- and waggon-building, for gun-stocks, and
furniture ; but now very scarce.

Stinkwood, Camdeboo (Célits Kraussiana Bernh.: Order Ulma-
cee). South Africa. Known also as ‘Soft Grey Stinkwood.”
Zulu *“‘Umounari.” Height 20 ft.; diam. 2 ft. W 49-25—53.
Dark greenish, beautifully veined, very heavy, close-grained, liable
to warp. Used in waggon-building and furniture.

Stinkwood, Red. See Almond, Wild.

Stringybark, a name, obviously descriptive, applied in various
districts of Australia to a good many different species of Hucalyptus
(Order Myrtacece), especially (i) #. robusta [See Mahogany, Swamp],
(i) H. Sieberiana [See Gum, Cabbage], (iii) H. Stuarvidna [See Gum,
Apple-scented]|, (iv) H. macrorrhyncha, (v) E. obliqua, and (vi) LE.
acmenioides.

(iv) H#. macrorrhyncha F. v. M. South-Mast Australia. Known
also as Ironbark. <Aborig. *‘ Yangoora.’” Height 50—100 ft. ;
diam. 2—4i ft. S.G. 1,060—809. W 63-5. Tensile strength
11,700—23,400 Ibs. per sq. in. Light-brown, generally tinged with
deeper red-brown, sometimes figured with yellow and brown stripes,
hard, strong, close-grained, tough, easily split, tearing under the
plane, capable of a good polish, durable, furnishing a fair fuel.
Used for fencing, flooring, wheelwright’s work, and house-carpentry,
but suitable for furniture. .

(v) H. obliqua L’Her. Tasmania and South-East Australia.
Known also as “ Black ”’ or “‘ Ironbark Box,” and in Victoria, from
its resemblance to, and association with, H. macrorrhyncha, as

280 WOODS OF COMMERCE

‘“Messmate.” Height 100—150, or even 250—300 ft.; diam.
3—4, or even 15 ft. S.G. 1,045—783. W 50—64. E 1,202 tons.
f 4:72. fe 2-9. fs -476. Tensile strength 8,200—8,500 lbs. per
inch. Straight-growing, light to dark-brown, with a wavy figure
near the base, heavy, hard, straight, close, and even, but rather
coarse in grain, strong, tough; splitting very freely, somewhat
liable to shakes and gum-veins, durable ; but, from its tendency to
warp, requires seasoning. Probably the most generally used of
all Eucalypts, being employed ter fencing, agricultural implements,
joists, flooring, shingles, for ships’ beams and keels, mine-timbers,
paving, and piles. It has been successfully introduced into India,
especially in the Nilgiri hills.

(vi) #. acmenioides Schauer. South-East Australia. Known
also as ‘‘ White Mahogany” and “‘ Broad-leaved Box.” Height
40—60 ft. ; diam. 1}—243 ft. 8.G. 1,066. W 67-25. Pale-coloured,
heavier, and more durable than the preceding, sometimes prettily
figured, strong, tough, easily split, with a satiny lustre when planed.
Used like the last-mentioned.

Stringybark, Red. See Mahogany, Forest.

Stringybark, Yellow (Z. Muéllert J. B. Moore). Strong, tough,
and suitable for harbour-works.

Stringybark, White (i) Hucalyptus piperita [see Peppermint],
(ii) #. capitellata, and (iii) H. eugenioides.

EL. capitellata Sm. Eastern Australia. Known also as “ Spotted
Gum” and “ Peppermint.” Aborig. ‘‘ Yangoora.”” Height 80—
120 or 200 ft. ; diam. 3—5 ft. S.G. 838. W 52:26. Moderately
heavy, tough, strong, easily split, durable. Used for fencing,
house-carpentry, and fuel.

EH. eugenioides Sieb. South-East Australia. Known also as
Broad-leaved Stringybark.” Height said to reach 200 ft. Light-
coloured, said. co be less easily split, but more durable than the
other Stringybarks, but inferior as fuel. Used for fencing, shingles,
and flooring.

Sugar-berry. See Hackberry.

Sugi (Cryptoméria japonica Don: Order Taxodinee). China
and Japan ; introduced into England in 1843. Growing at altitudes
of 500—1,200 or 3,000 ft. Known also as “ Japanese Cedar.”
Height 60—125 ft.; diam. 4—5 ft., tapering. Brownish-red, re-
sembling Sequoia in texture. Used for common lacquer-ware.
One of the most abundant and useful of Japanese forest-trees.

Sumach, Staghorn (Rhus typhina L.: Order Terebinthacee).
Canada and North-Eastern United States. Known also as ‘ Vir-
ginian Sumach.” Germ. ** Hirschkolben Sumach.” Height seldom
20 ft.; diam. seldom 10 in. S.G. 436. W 27. Sapwood very

SUMACH—SYCAMORE 281

narrow, dingy yellowish-white ; heart golden-orange to greenish,
the autumn zones much darker, handsome, somewhat aromatic,
light, soft, brittle, rather close-grained, difficult to split, lustrous,
vessels larger and much more numerous in the spring-wood, slightly
dendritic, 1—7 together, pith-rays not visible. Used in dyeing,
and occasionally in small pieces for inlaying in cabinet-work.

Sumach, Venetian (Rhis Cotinus L.). Southern Europe.
Known also as “‘ Wig-tree,”’ “‘ Wild Olive,” ‘‘ Young,” or “ Zante
Fustic.”” A shrub, yielding crooked sticks 4—5 ft. long and
2—3 in. in diam. Sapwood narrow, white ; heart golden-yellow
or greenish, hard, easily split, lustrous ; rings not distinct ; vessels
and pith-rays as in the preceding. Imported from Greece as a
yellow dye for wool and leather.

Sundri (Heritiéra fémes Buch.: Order Sterculidcee). Sunder-
bunds of Bengal, Malay Peninsula, and Borneo. Beng. “* Sundri.”
Burm. ‘“ Ka-na-zo.” Germ. ‘“ Brettbaum.” Not large, yielding
timber 15 ft. long and 1 ft. in diam. S.G. 927—799. W 58—50.
Brown, very hard, tougher than any other Indian wood, elastic,
strong, and durable. Used for boat- and bridge-building, handles,
naves and felloes, and especially spokes of gun-carriages, and in
Calcutta largely as firewood, and yielding gunpowder charcoal of
the best quality. The close-allied H. littordlis Dryand. is a native
of East Africa, the Mauritius, Burma, and Queensland, where it is
known as ‘‘ Red Mangrove.” It is the ‘“‘ Bois de Table” of the
Seychelles and the ‘‘ Looking-glass-tree ’’ of English gardeners.
It yields timber 30 ft. long and 2 ft. in diam. W 102 when wet,
65 when dry. Dark-coloured, scented, firm, very tough, durable.
Used in boat-building, for handles, gunstocks, planking, and
packing-cases.

Sweetwood, Timber (Nectandra exaltdta Gris.: Order Laurdcee).
West Indies. Cuba ‘‘ Boniato amarillo.” W 53. Brownish,
tinged with green, very heavy and hard, fine-grained, resembling
Greenheart. Used for interior work.

Sycamore, a name that has been singularly and variously mis-
applied. Belonging originally to the Fig-mulberry of the Levant
(Ficus Sykomorus L.: Order Mordcee), a shade-tree yielding a very
strong wood, used for Egyptian mummy-cases; it is applied in
England to the Great Maple (Acer Psetido-plitanus L.: Order
Acerinee). Central Europe and Western Asia, almost naturalized
in Britain. Known in the South of Scotland as ‘“‘ Plane.” French
“Grand Erable, Erable blanc de montagne, Fausse platane.”’
Germ. “‘ Bergahorn.” Height 40—60 ft.; diam. 1—3 ft. W 64
when newly cut, 48—29 when dry. Without distinct heartwood,
white, when young, becoming yellowish with age, or slightly brown
in the centre, often beautifully figured, the fine but distinct pith-

282 WOODS OF COMMERCE

rays having a satiny lustre, which distinguishes it from Linden-
wood, compact, firm, neither very heavy nor hard, fine-grained,
tough, splitting evenly, but with difficulty, easily worked, sus-
ceptible of a high polish, cracking and warping somewhat in season-
ing, and shrinking one-twelfth of its bulk, very durable if kept dry,
and generally free from insect-attack ; rigs marked by fine, evenly
circular lines; vessels indistinct, evenly distributed. Highly
esteemed on the Continent by turners, cabinet-makers, carvers,
and toymakers, the figured wood being used for violins. Formerly
much used for platters and spoons, it is still largely manufactured at
Glasgow and elsewhere into bread-platters, butter-dishes, and moulds,
and is also in demand for bobbins, ree!s, coach-panels, cutting-boards
for shoemakers, shop-boards for butchers, and wooden type. Large
wood is sought after for calico-printing rollers, and, when quartered,
for those of washing-machines. It is superior to Beech both as
fuel and for charcoal ; but is by no means plentiful or cheap.

In America the name is applied to Pldatanus occidentalis [See
Plane|; in Australia to Panax elegans [See Laurel], and to Ster-
cilia lirida F. v. M. (Order Sterculidcee), in the north-east, also
known as “* Hat-tree,”? a white wood occasionally used for shingles.

Sycamore, White (Cryptocarya obovata R. Br.: Order Lauracee).
Queensland and New South Wales. Known also as “ Bastard
Sycamore, She-beech, Flindosa.” <Aborig. ** Myndee.” Height
70—100 ft. ; diam. 2—5 ft. W 35. White, light, soft, fairly dur-
able if kept protected, working well, and darkening with age.

Taaibosch (Rhis lucida L.: Order Anacardidcee). Natal.
W 38-75. Brown with dark bands, fine-grained, easily worked.
Used in turnery. The name is also applied in Cape Colony to
R. levigata L.

Tacamahae. See Poplar, Balm of Gilead.

Tallow-wood (Hucaliyptus microcorys F. v. M.: Order Myrtacee).
Eastern Australia. Known also as “‘ Tee, Peppermint, Turpentine-
tree,’ and ‘‘ Forest Mahogany.” Height 100—120 ft.; diam.
6—8 ft. S.G. 952. W 7459-43. E 896 tons. f 5:48. fe 4.
fs 618. Light or dark yellow, or yellowish-brown, close, straight,
or wavy in grain, strong, durable under or above ground, very
greasy when freshly cut, liable to shakes, and generally hollow when
large. Used by wheelwrights for naves, felloes, and spokes, and
for piles, girders, and ballroom floors. One of the best woods for
paving, and much used in Sydney. In Tasmania the name is
sometimes applied to Pittospdrum bicolor. [See Cheesewood. |

Talura (Shorea Taliva Roxb. : Order Dipterocarpacee). Southern
India. A large tree. Grey, very hard, smooth-grained. Used for
house-building.

TAMARACK—TANEKAHA 283

Tamarack (Larix péndula Salisb.= L. americana Michx.: Order
Conifere). Canada and North-East United States. Known also
as *‘ Hackmatack, American,” or “‘ Black Larch.’ French Canadian
“‘Epinette rouge.” Height 80, or rarely 100 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft.
S.G. 263. W 35—42-5. R 901 kilos. Sapwood light ; heart light-
brown or reddish-grey, moderately heavy, hard, rather coarse-
grained, compact, very strong and durable in contact with soil, in
microscopic structure resembling European Larch. One of the best
American timbers for sleepers, valuable from its straight growth
for telegraph-poles and fence-posts, while naturally crooked pieces
are used for knees in ship-building. Resembling Hard Pine in
appearance, quality, and uses, equal in durability to Oak and in
strength to European Larch.

Tamarack, Western (L. occidenidlis Nutt). North-Western
United States. Known also as “ Western Larch.”? Height 100—
250 ft. ; diam. 2—3 or 4—8 ft. Beautifully coloured, heavy, very
hard, free from knots, strong and durable. The largest of Larches,
harder and stronger than all other American conifers. Suitable
for furniture or lumber ; but used chiefly for sleepers, posts, and
fuel.

Tamarind (T'amarindus indica L.: Order Leguminose). Through-
out the Tropics. Pers. ‘‘ Tamar-i-hindi.”” Hind. ** Amli ka jhar.”
Malay “Asam, Kranji.” Sansk. “ Amlika.” Tam. “ Pulia.”
Senegal “* Diakar.”? Slow-growing, but large. Height 60=80 ft. ;
diam. 5—8 ft. W 80. S.G. 1,323. Yellowish-white, with an
irregular heart of dark purplish-brown blotches in old trees, re-
sembling Ebony or Tulip-wood, but apt to be hollow, very heavy
and hard, difficult to work, durable and free from insect-attack.
Used for blocks, mallets, rice-pounders, oil- and sugar-mills, turnery,
fuel, and gunpowder-charcoal. There is a very handsome table of
this wood in the Kew Timber Museum.

Tamarind Plum. See Kraniji.
Tamboti. See Ironwood (xi-xv).

Tampinnis or Tampenis (Sloétia Sideroxylon Teijsm. and Binn. :
Order Mordcee). Straits Settlements and Sundra Islands. Known
also as “Ironwood.” A large tree, 60—80 ft. high. Sapwood
yellowish, heart dark red-brown, hard, durable timber, resinous,
termite- and teredo-proof. W 67. Used in making the large
implements employed in stirring gambir, and for engineering
purposes.

Tanekaha (Phyllocladus trichomanoides Don.: Order Taxinee).
New Zealand. Known also as ‘‘Celery-topped Pine.” Height
' 50—80 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft., 30-40 ft. to lowest branch, yielding
timber 18—70 ft. long, squaring 10—16 in. S.G. 1,000—600.

284 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Yellowish-white, heavy, close- and straight-grained, tough, very
strong, working up well, very durable, especially in moist situations.
Used for sleepers, piles, bridges, mine-props, masts, decks, and
building.

Tapang (Koompdssia excélsa Taub. : Order Leguminése). Borneo.
A dense dark-red wood, reaching very large dimensions, a section,
from Sarawak, in the Timber Museum at Kew, representing only
part of the diameter, being fully 10 ft. square.

Taraire (Beilschmiedia T'ardiri Benth. and Hook. fil.=Neso-
daphne Tarairi Hook. fil. : Order Laurinee). New Zealand. Height
60—80 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. S.G. 888. W 55:34. p 112-3. Hard,
compact, susceptible of a good polish, but not durable, if exposed.
Suitable for cabinet-work.

Tareo (Thouinia weinmannifolia Griseb.: Order Sapindacee).
Northern Argentina. ‘‘ White Ebony.” Yielding timber 13 ft.
long and 1 ft. square. Of a fine white, ivory-like appearance, and
beautifully figured. In request for ornamental cabinet-work and
panelling.

Tatamaka. See Poon.

Tawa (Beilschmiedia Tawa Benth. and Hook. fil.= Latirus Tawa
A. Cunn.= Nesodaphné Tawa Hook. fil.). New Zealand. Height
60—70 ft.; diam. 1—2 ft. S.G. 761. W 47—43. p 205-5.
White, compact, even-grained, but, like the allied Taraire, not
durable if exposed. Suitable for furniture.

Tawhai (Fagus Menziésii Hook. fil.: Order Cupulifere). New
Zealand. ‘Silver’ or ‘“‘ Red Birch.” S.G. 626. W _ 38-99
p 258-2.

Tawhai raunui (Fagus fusca Hook. fil.). New Zealand. Known
also as “‘ Black”? or “‘ Red Birch.” Height 100 ft.; diam. 10 ft.
8.G. 780. W 48—53. p 202:3. Brown, very strong, tough, easily
worked and durable. Used for sleepers, piles, bridges, and fences.

Tawhai rauriki. See Birch, Black or White.

Tea, a name transferred in Australia, from the varieties of
Théa assimica (Order Camellidcee) cultivated in China and now in
India, to various species of Melaléuca and the allied genera Kuinzea
and Leptospérmum (Order Myrtacee) the leaves having been used
as a substitute for tea by Captain Cook’s sailors. The name is
applied unqualified (i) to Leptospérmum lanigerum Sm., seldom
larger than a tall shrub, with light-coloured, heavy, hard, tough,
even-grained, and durable wood, used for tool-handles and fishing-
rods, and by the aborigines for spears; (ii) to L. flavéscens Sm.
similar, but reaching a height of 15—20 ft., and a diameter of
5—8 in.; and (iii) to Melaletica,uncinata R. Br., which reaches -
70—90 ft. in height and 2—3 ft. in diameter.

TEA-TREE—TEAK 285

Tea-tree, Black (Melaleuca styphelioides Sm.). Eastern Aus-
tralia. Known also as “ Prickly-leaved Tea-tree.” Height 20—
30 or 80 ft.; diam. 1—3 ft. W 66-75—73-35 when seasoned.
Heavy, hard, close-grained, difficult to work, splitting in seasoning,
very durable even in damp situations. Used for posts.

Tea-tree, Broad-leaved (Melalevica leucadéndron L.). Australia.
Known also as “ White ”’ or “Swamp Tea-tree, Paper-bark Tree,”’
or “ Milkwood.” Height 40—50 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. W 47—54.
Beautifully figured with ripple-like darker markings, heavy, hard,
close-grained, termite-proof, very durable underground. Excellent
for posts or boat-building.

Tea-tree, Mountain (Kunzea peduncularis F. v. M.). South-
East Australia. Aborig. “ Burgan.” Used for spears and
boomerangs.

Tea-tree, Prickly-leaved (Melaletica armilldris Sm.). Eastern
Australia. Height 20—30 ft. Hard and durable under ground
or water, but decaying on exposure. [See also Tea-tree, Black. |

Tea-tree, Soft-leaved (M. linariifolia Sm.). North-East Aus-
tralia. Height 40—50 or 80 ft.; diam. 1—3 ft. Very heavy,
hard, close-grained and imperishable under water, but splitting
in seasoning. Used for piles, turnery, and fuel.

Tea-tree, Swamp (i) (M. ericifolia Sm.). Eastern Australia and
Tasmania. Small, very hard and durable. Used for hurdles or
rafters, and, in Tasmania, for turnery. (ii) (WM. squarrésa Sm.).
South-Eastern Australia and Tasmania. Height 6—10 ft. S.G.
713. Heavy, very hard, difficult to work, durable under water
or when exposed. [See also Tea-tree, Broad-leaved. |

Tea-tree, White, in New Zealand, apparently (Leptospérmum
ertcoides A. Rich.). Height 40—50 ft.; diam. 1—2 ft. Heavy
and hard. Much valued for piles, and used also in fencing and
house-building. [See also Tea-tree, Broad-leaved. |

Teak (Tectona grandis L.: Order Verbendcee). Central and
Southern India, Burma, the Shan States, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra,
Java, and Celebes, extensively planted by the Dutch in Ceylon.
Hind. “Sagun.” Burm. “ Kuyon.” Malay “ Jati” or ‘ Djati.”’
Tamil “Teak.” Height 80—100 ft. or more; diam. 2—8 ft.,
yielding logs 23—50 ft. long, squaring 10—30 in. S.G. over 1,000
when green; but, being generally ‘ girdled’ three years before
felling, 910—635 when seasoned. W 57 when green—37. E 1,071
—950 tons. e’ 1:19. p’ 1:08. f 6-92. ft 4—9, averaging 6:7.
c 3,301. c’ -436 or more. fc 4—5-4. v’ -832 or more. R 322—
406 lbs. Straight-growing, light straw-colour to a brownish red,
when fresh, but darkening on exposure. Some of the Teak of the
Deccan is beautifully veined, streaked and mottled, whilst some

286 WOODS OF COMMERCE

old trees have burrs the wood of which resembles Amboyna-wood.
It is very fragrant when fresh, so as to resemble Rosewood, owing
to an oleo-resin which also renders the wood probably the most
durable of known timbers, making it obnoxious to termites and
keeping off rust from iron in contact with it. Seasoned Teak has,
however, a very unpleasant smell, which has been compared to
that of old shoe-leather. It is the general practice to “girdle”
the trees—i.e., to cut a complete ring through both bark and sap-
wood, so killing the tree and rendering it light enough to float to
the port of shipment ; and, as usually a year elapses between the
felling and its delivery in England, it arrives sufficiently seasoned,
heavy, moderately hard, clean, even, and straight in grain, but
little shrunken, split or warped in the process. The rapid drying,
however, induced by girdling is said to render the wood inelastic,
brittle, and less durable, so that it splits too readily for use in gun-
carriages. Teak varies very much according to locality and soil,
that of Malabar being darker, heavier, and rather stronger than,
though not so large as, that of Burma. Though without shakes on
its outer surface, Teak nearly always has a heart-shake, which, owing
to a twist in the growth, may often at the top be at right angles to
what it is at the butt, thus seriously interfering with conversion,
though often little affecting the use of the timber in bulk. In the
large Rangoon or Irrawaddy Teak there is also scmetimes a close,
fine star-shake. In these shakes an excretion of apatite or phosphate
of lime consolidates in white masses, which will turn the edge of most
tools. After girdling, the dead trees are often attacked by burrow-
ing insects, which may penetrate beyond the sapwood and so render
the timber unfit for reduction to plank. Being a deciduous tree,
Teak has distinct annual rings, with large and distinct vessels which
are rather larger and more numerous in the spring-wood and are
sometimes filled with the apatite. The pith-rays are distinct and
light-coloured, as in Oak, but fine, the vessels in the spring-wood
being 2—3 together between every two rays. Teak splits readily
and is easily worked, somewhat like Oak, but it owes its superiority
for ship-building over both Pine and Oak in part to its freedom from
any change of form or warping, when once seasoned, even under
the extreme climatic variations of the monsoons. In India, Teak is
used for railway sleepers, bridge-building, and furniture. As the
Indian Forest Department plant several thousand acres annually,
there is little fear of the exhaustion of the supply, whilst the timber
from cultivated trees is said to be better than that grown in the
natural forests. Teak is very largely exported, especially from
Moulmein and Rangoon, that from the former port, drawn from the
valleys of the Salwén and Thungyén Rivers being rather shorter but
less shaky than that shipped at Rangoon from the Irrawaddy valley.
Teak from Java is gritty and too hard. Whilst it is the best timber

TEAK 287

known to us for shipbuilding, especially for the backing of armour-
plates, deck-planks, etc., Teak is also considerably used in England
in the building of railway-waggons, greenhouses, etc., but is com-
paratively little used in foreign dockyards. In the London market
it is sorted into A, B, and C classes, according to size, and has varied
in price from £10 per load of 50 cubic feet, in 1859, to £14—£20 at the
present time. Whilst prime Moulmein Teak planks now fetch £26
a load, Java Teak, which is shorter in length and inferior in quality,
ranges in value from £14 to £15 per load.

Teak, African (Oldfiéldia africana, Benth. and Hook.: Order
Euphorbiacee). Western Tropical Africa ; but only found recently
in Sherbro’, Sierra Leone. In no way related to the true Teak.
Height upwards of 30 or 40 ft.; girth 7—8 ft. S.G. 934—1,086.
IW 58—68. c¢ 7,052. fe 4:9. c’ -931. v’ 1-341. p 15,000. R
855 lbs. Dark red, very hard, strong, rigid, fine, close, and straight
in grain, free from shakes, shrinking and warping little, very durable ;
but difficult to work. It was shipped from Sierra Leone in logs so
badly hewn as to yield little more than 50 per cent. of well-squared
timber. It was used in ship-building for keelsons, beams, etc., and
classed in the second line in Lloyd’s Register ; but has ceased to
be imported since the general use of iron in ship-building. Beams
that have been fifty years in old warships have been satisfactorily
used up in artillery waggons and the spokes of motor-car wheels.
The Forestry Department of South Nigeria reports that the wood
cannot now be obtained, which, considering its valuable charac-
teristics, is much to be regretted.

Teak, Bastard (Pterocarpus Marsipiwm Roxb.: Order Legu-
minose). Central and Southern India. Hind. ‘* Bibla.”’? Beng.
* Bija,” “* Bija Sal.” A large tree, yielding timber 18—30 ft.
long, and 1—2 ft. in diam. S.G. 820. R 518—878 lbs. Sapwood
narrow, white, soft, heart reddish-brown, handsomely streaked with
a darker shade, very hard, requiring thorough seasoning, susceptible
of a fine polish, and very durable. Darker-coloured and harder
than the allied Padouk, it is heavier than most Teak, equally strong,
and less liable to split, but more expensive to work, and not durable
if exposed to wet. It is largely used for door- and window-frames,
posts, beams, agricultural implements, cart- and boat-building,
and furniture.

Teak, Johore (Parindrium oblongifolium Hook. fil. : Order
Rosdcee). Malay “ Balau.” Height 60—100 ft.. W 65. Yellow,
becoming orange and dark-brown with age, very heavy, close-
grained, termite-proof. Formerly largely exported, used for beams,
and employed for the Colombo breakwater ; but now rare.

Teak, New Zealand. See Puriri.

288 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Teazle, the name in the walking-stick trade for Vibirnum Opulus
L. (Order Caprifoliacee). A native of Europe, Northern and
Western Asia, and North America, known also as “‘ Guelder Rose ”
or ‘‘ Balkan Rose,” reaching a height of 6—12 ft., and imported as
walking-sticks from the Balkans.

Tendu. See Ebony, Bombay.

T’eng-li-mu (Pyrus betulefolia Bunge: Order Rosdcew). China.
The best wood in Wuchang for engraving purposes, being a tolerable
substitute for Box, occurring in the market in planks 6 in. wide and
11 in. thick, costing 150 cash, or 53d.

Terebinth (Pistdcia Terebinthus L.: Order Terebinthacee). Medi-
terranean. This is probably the Hebrew “ Elah,” the repéGivOos
of the Septuagint, variously mistranslated Oak and Elm in the
Authorized Version. A tree of 20—40 ft. high, yielding the medi-
cinal Chian turpentine and galls used in tanning ; but of no impor-
tance as a wood.

Tewart or Touart (Lucalyptus gomphocéephala DC.: Order Myr-
tice). Western Australia, where it is stated it covers 500 square
miles. Known sometimes as “ White Gum.” Height 100—150 ft.,
yielding timber 20—45 ft. long, squaring 11—28 in. S8.G. 1,194—
1,000. W60—78. ft41. p 2,552. ¢10,284. c’ 1-398. vu 1-229.
R 257-25 lbs. Straight-growing, pale yellow, or light brown, very
heavy, hard, tough, strong and rigid, close, twisted, or even curled
in grain, so as to be difficult to cleave or work, and with no liability
to split, with a slight heart- and star-shake militating against its
reduction into planks, shrinking very little in seasoning, and
apparently imperishable under any climatic changes. Used in
ship-building for beams, keelsons, capstans, and windlasses, strongly
recommended for the woodwork in engine-rooms, where it is exposed
to great heat, and for piles and dock-gates, and well suited also
for naves and spokes of wheels, but, though one of the strongest
and toughest of known woods, too heavy for general use, and not
plentiful.

Thingan (Hépea odordta Roxb. : Order Dipterocarpdacee). Further
India. Burm. ‘‘ Thingan.” Anam “Sao.” Height up to 250 ft.,
80 ft. to lowest branch ; diam. 3—4 ft. S.G. 652—608. W 64—38.
R 800 lbs. Yellowish-brown, heavy, hard, close- and even-grained,
not liable to insect-attack, and very durable under water, but liable
to split in the sun. Used for house-building, canoes, and cart-
wheels, being one of the most valuable woods of its district.

Thitka (Pentdcé burmanica Kurz.: Order Tilidcee). Burma,
Pegu, Malacca, and Java. Known also as ‘“‘ Kathitka.” Very
large. W 42. White or yellowish-red, light, soft, even-grained,
taking a good polish, and having sometimes a lustre resembling

THITKADO—TONKA-BEAN 289

Satinwood ; pith-rays moderately broad, wavy, red, equidistant ;
rings visible. Used in Burma for boat-building and tea-chests, and
exported in considerable quantities to Europe for furniture, resemb-
ling inferior Mahogany.

Thitkado. See Cedar, Moulmein.

Thitya (Shorea obtusa Wall.: Order Dipterocarpacee). Further
India. Burm. “ Thitya,” ‘“Theya.” <A large tree, 50 ft. to its
lowest branch ; diam. 2 ft. W 75. Dark-coloured, handsome, very
hard and durable wood. Used in house- and canoe-building, and
for handles.

Thorn. See Blackthorn and Hawthorn.

Thorn, in Cape Colony (Acacia horrida Willd.: Order Legumi-
nose). Known also as ** Mimosa.” oer *‘ Doorn-boom, Kamul-
boom.” Height 20—25 ft.; diam. 1—13 ft. Hard, tough. Used
for building, agricultural implements, wheels, etc.

Thumbagum (Shorea Tumbuggdia Roxb.: Order Dipterocarpa-
cee). Madras, Burma, etc. Dark-red, harder even than Sal.
Used for gun-carriages.

Thuya (Vetraclinis articuldta Masters: Order Cupressinee).
Morocco and Algeria. “‘’Arar.” The ‘“‘ Lignum-vite” of the
French, the “ alerce ” of the roof of Cordova Cathedral, and prob-
ably the “* Citron-wood ”’ of the Romans, for tables made of which
wood thousands of pounds were paid, and the ‘“‘ Thyine-wood ”’ of
the Apocalypse (xviii. 12). Also named Thiya articuldta Vahl, and
Callitris quadrivdlvis Vent. Height 30 ft. Only the burrs come
into the English market, in which the name is pronounced
“ 'Thoo’ee.”” They are reddish-brown, and fragrant ; and, having
a figure very similar to the more valuable Amboyna-wood, are
frequently substituted for it; but can be distinguished by their
distinctively coniferous structure. The root of Juniperus phe-
nicea L., the “‘ Génévrier ”’ of Algeria, is similar.

Tipa, Colorado or Palo Mortero (Machérium Pseudotipé Griseb. :
Order Leguminése). Northern Argentina. Yielding timber 10 ft.
long and 1 ft. square, light red-brown, fine and even in grain, and
easy to work. Used for beams, scantlings, spokes, etc. A better
wood than Tipa blanco or White Tipa (Zpudna specidsa Benth. =
Machérium Tipu), which is used as a tanning material.

Titoki. See Oak, White.

Tochi (Zsculus turbindta Bl.: Order Sapinddcee). Japan.
Height 20 ft.; diam. 2 ft. Used in house-building, box-making,
and lacquer-work.

Tonka-bean (Cowmaroina odorata Aubl.= Dipteryx odorata Willd. :

Order Leguminése). Brazil and Guiana. Known sometimes as
19

290 WOODS OF COMMERCE

‘* Tonquin-bean,”’ “* Gaiac,” “‘ Cuamara.”” Height 60—70 or 90 ft. ;
diam. 1—24 ft. 8.G. 1,213—1,032. R 385 kilos. Dark yellow
or reddish-brown, very heavy, hard, tough, cross-grained, difficult
to work, taking a fine polish, very durable, and said to bear a greater
strain than any wood in the Colony. Used for cogs, shafts, mill-
wheels, and to a small extent for turnery and furniture, and medi-
cinally as a substitute for Guaiacum.

Toon. See Cedar, Moulmein.
Torreya, Japanese. See Kaya.

Totara (Podocarpus Totdra A. Cunn.: Order Taxinee). New
Zealand. ‘‘ New Zealand Yew.” Height 40—70 or 120 ft., 35—
40 ft. to the lowest branch ; diam. 2—6 or 10—12 ft., yielding timber
20—45 ft. or more long, squaring 10—22 in. §8%.G. 1,230 when fresh
cut, 559 when seasoned. W 28—37. p 133-6. Sapwood 2—3 in.
wide, light-reddish ; heart deep red, heavy, moderately hard, close,
straight, very fine and even in grain, strong, very easily worked, not
warping or twisting, very durable, teredo-proof. With the excep-
tion of Kauri, the most valuable timber in New Zealand, and far
more abundant than Kauri. Used for piles in the sea, sleepers,
wood-paving, telegraph-poles, fencing, shingles, bridges, canoes,
and general building purposes, but is suitable for interior fittings
and furniture, and has a future in the English market ; sometimes
presenting Amboyna-like burrs.

Trincomalee-wood (Bérrya Ammonilla Roxb.: Order Tilidcee).
Ceylon, Philippines, and Tropical Australia ; introduced in India.
Sinh. “‘ Halmilla.”” Tam. ‘‘ Katamanakku.” Germ. ‘‘ Halmalille-
holz.”” Height 20—40 ft. ; diam. 1—2} ft. W 48—65. Straight-
growing, dark red, light, very hard, straight- and fine-grained,
tough, very strong, durable. Imported from Trincomalee to
Madras. Specially valued in Ceylon for staves for oil-casks, and
in Madras for boat- and carriage-building. Used for gun-carriages,
spokes and shafts, for handles, capstan-bars, etc.

Trumpet-tree (Cecrépia pelidta L. and C. palmdta Willd. : Order
Mordcee). The former in Jamaica, the latter in Brazil and Guiana.
Height 50 ft.; diam. 1 ft. Very light and resonant. Used for
floats for fishing-nets, razor-strops, for producing fire by friction,
for trumpets and drums made from the hollow branches or stems.

Tsuga (T'stiga Siebdldi Carr.= Abies Tstga S. & Z.: Order
Conifere). Japan. Known also as “Japanese Hemlock Fir.”
Jap. “ Tsuga Araragi.” Height 80—90 ft. ; diam. 3—6 ft. Reddish-
white, durable. Little used, owing to its inaccessibility.

Tulip -tree (Liriodéndron tulipifera L.: Order Magnolidcee).
Eastern North America. Known also as “Saddle-tree, Poplar,
Yellow, White,” or “ Virginian Poplar, Whitewood, Canary White-

TULIP-TREE—TULIP-WOOD 291

wood, Canary-wood,” or ‘‘Canoe-wood.” French “ Tulipier.”
Germ. “‘Tulpenbaum.” Height 100—150 ft.; diam. 3—10 ft.
8.G. 423. W 26°36. R 657 kilos. Sapwood of moderate width,
nearly white ; heart light lemon-yellow or brownish, light, soft,
close and straight in grain, tougher than many woods equally soft,
compact, not very strong or durable, easily worked, shrinking and
warping somewhat in seasoning, taking a satiny polish. Vessels
minute, evenly distributed ; pith-rays fine, but distinct. Usually
heavier, and more valuable as timber, than the true Poplars.
Excellent for shingles and clapboards, as it does not split under
heat or frost ; used for rafters and joists, and generally as a substi-
tute for Yellow Pine (Pinus Strobus) or Cedar in building, especially
for doors, panels, and wainscot, the seats of American Windsor
chairs, box-making, turnery, and boat-building ; and formerly for
Indian “‘ dug-out ” canoes. Imported from New York to Liverpool
as ““ American ”’ or “ Canary Whitewood ” in large planks, boards,
and waney logs at a price equal to that of the best Quebec Yellow
Pine, this wood is valued, as easily worked, firm when fully dried,
and taking polish, stain, or paint very well, by carriage-builders,
shop-fitters, cabinet-makers, etc. The planks and boards, which
are in 16 ft. lengths, are often the wood of the allied Cucumber-
tree (Magnolia acuminata), which has a wider white sapwood, and
is somewhat harder and coarser. The boards are often planed
on both sides, the saving in freight being greater than the cost of
planing.

Tulip-tree, in Australia (i) (Lagundaria Paterséni Don: Order
Malvacee). Known also as ‘“ White Oak” or ‘* Whitewood.’
Height 40—60 ft.; diam. 1}—23 ft. White, close-grained, easily
worked. Used for building. (ii) (Stenocdrpus sinudtus). See
Fire-tree.

Tulip-tree, in India. See Umbrella-tree.

Tulip-wood (Physocalymma scabérrimum Pohl.: Order Lythra-
cee). Brazil. Portug. ‘“‘ Pao de rosa.” French “ Bois de rose.”
Germ. “* Roséenholz.” A rose-coloured, beautifully striped wood.
Considerably used for inlaying and small turned ware.

Tulip-wood, in Australia (i) (Harpiullia péndula Planch.: Order
Sapinddcee). North-East Australia. Aborig. ‘“‘ Mogum-mogum.”’
Height 50—60 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. The outer wood light-coloured,
very tough, easily worked, the best wood in Australia for litho-
graphers’ scrapers, and suggested for engraving. The innerwood
beautifully marked with black and yellow, close-grained, strong,
and much valued for cabinet-work ; (i1) the similar wood of Owénia
venosa [See Plum, Sour]; (iii) the very different light-coloured wood
of Aphandnthe phillippinénsis. [See Elm. |

19—2

292 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Tupelo (Nyssa uniflora Wangenh.=N. tomentosa Michx.: Order
Corndcee). Southern United States. Known also in America as
‘* Black,” ‘‘ Cotton,’ ‘Sour,’ ‘“* Yellow,” or “‘ Tupelo Gum,” or
‘* Pepperidge.” Span. “‘ Tupelo.” Height up to 120 ft.; diam.
4 ft. S.G. 635. W 39-6. R 830 kilos. Sapwood light yellow ;
heart light-brown, free from knots, moderately heavy, strong, and
tough, cross-grained, hard to split, planing well, but warping, not
durable or constant in character. Used in America for waggon-
hubs, rollers, handles, sabots, and turnery. Imported in sawn
boards, and used for inside linings in cheap cabinet-work.

Turnip-wood (Synéum glandulosum A. Juss.: Order Melidcee).
New South Wales and Queensland. Known also as ‘*‘ Dogwood,
Brush Bloodwood,” and ‘‘ Bastard Rosewood.” Height 40—60 ft.
diam. 14—2 ft. W 41—45. Deep red when fresh, with a scent
like that of roses, afterwards resembling Cedar, firm, easily worked,
but apt to tear under the plane, taking a good polish. Used for
cabinet-work, interior finish, etc. The bark has a turnip-like
smell. [See also Cedar, Pencil. |

Turpentine-tree, American. See Pine, Long-leaf.

Turpentine-tree, in Australia (i) Hucalyptus mucrocorys [See
Tallow-wood]; (ii) H. Stuartidna. [See Gum, Apple-scented] ;
(iii) Syncarpia laurifoia Ten. (Order Myrtdcee). North-East
Australia. Height 100—150 ft. ; diam. 4—5 ft. W 57—69. Sap-
wood light-coloured ; heart dark-brown, hard, apt to shrink and
warp unless well seasoned, very durable underground in damp,
or in sea-water, termite- and teredo-proof, owing to the resin it
contains, taking a high polish, very uninflammable. Much used in
Sydney for piles, excellent for sleepers, fence-posts, and uprights in
buildings. (iv) S. Hillai Bailey, of North Queensland, a dark pink,
close-grained, tough wood, appears to be also useful.

Turpentine, Brush (i) (Syncarpia leptopétala) [See Myrtle] ;
(ii) (Rhodamnia trinérvia Blume: Order Myrtacee) New South
Wales and Queensland. Sometimes known as ‘“ Black-eye.”
Height 70—80 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. W 50—852:6. Reddish-brown,
moderately hard, close-grained, firm, not easy to seascn, and almost
always hollow when large. Not much used.

Umbrella-tree (Thespésia popitilnea Corr.: Order Malvdcee).
Western Tropical Africa, Seychelles, Ceylon, Southern India,
Burma, Tropical Australia, Fiji, and other Pacific islands, and
Tropical America. Known also as “ Tulip-tree, Portia-tree, Rose-
wood of Seychelles.” Sinh. ‘Suriya.” Telugu ‘ Gangaravi.”
Tamil ‘“ Poris.” Bengali “* Parish-pippul.” Hindi “ Parsipu.”’
Mahratti ‘‘ Bendi.”” French “‘ Faux bois de rose, Bois de rose de
VOcéanie.” Height 40—50 ft. W 48—53. Sapwood light red ;

UMZIMBIT—WA 293

heart small, dark-red, a deep claret colour when hollow, resembling
Mahogany, hard, very strong, said to be durable in Cochin-China,
but apparently variable in this respect. Used in India for furni-
ture, spokes, and carriage-building, in Ceylon for gunstocks, and
also in boat-building, and in the Pacific Islands for carving.

Umzimbit (Zoddalia lanceolata Lam.: Order Xanthoxylacee).
South Africa. Known also as “‘ White Ironwood.” Height 20 ft.;
diam. 2 ft. W 60°37. E772 tons. 8-56. fc 4:33. White, hard,
tough, elastic, resembling Ash or Hickory. Used chiefly for ploughs,
axles, and waggon-building. The name is also applied to Milléttia
caffra Meissn. (Order Leguminése), which has a white sapwood, and
the heart purplish-pink, greasy, intensely hard, and seven times
as durable as Lignum-vite. Used for walking-sticks, and excellent
for machine-bearings.

Uroobie (Nephélium toment6sum F. v. M.: Order Sapindacce).
North-East Australia. Height 20—30 or 80 ft.; diam. reaching
3 ft. Yellow, close-grained, hard. Occasionally used for building.

Vaivai (Seridnthes vitiensis A. Gray: Order Leguminose). Fiji.
Light, tough. Valued for planks in boat-building.

Venatico. See Mahogany, Madeira.

Vau, in Fiji. See Corkwood-tree.

Varnish, Black or Burmese (Melanorrhéa usitdta Wall.: Order
Anacardiacee). Further India. Known also as “ Lignum-vite
of Pegu.” Burm. “ Thit-si.” Manipuri “ Kheu.” Height 30—
40 ft. to lowest branch ; diam. 2—4 ft. W 54. Dark-red or brown,
with yellowish streaks, heavy, very hard, fine- and close-grained,
tough, durable, the black gum which exudes from it repelling
termites. Used for anchors and tool-handles, and recommended
for blocks, gun-stocks, or sleepers. The varnish is largely used in
lacquering and gilding.

Vesi. See Shoondul.

Vesi-vesi. See Beech, Indian.

Vine (Vitis vinifera L.: Order Vitdcee). Originally a native of
Armenia. Small. Sapwood narrow, reddish-white ; heart reddish-
brown ; pith large ; autumn-wood narrow ; spring-wood full of large
vessels. Light, pliable, and elastic. Suitable for walking-sticks.

Violet-wood. See Purple-heart. In England the name _ is
applied, on account of perfume, to Acdcia péndula. See Myall.

Viier (Nuxia floribinda Benth.: Order Loganidcee). Cape
Colony. “Elder.” Height 40—50 ft.; diam. 1—2 ft. W 44.
Light-coloured, hard. Used in waggon-building, and excellent for
turnery, resembling Box.

Wa. See Beati. °

294 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Waeapou (Andira Aubletii Benth. : Order Leguminose). Guiana.
** Acapu, Backheart.” French “* Epi de blé.”” Dutch * Bruinhart.”
In logs 14—21 ft. long, squaring 13—16 im. S.G. 1,113—900.
R304 kilos. Dark-coloured, straight-grained, strong, easily worked,
very durable, and not liable to insect attack, one of the best of the
hard-woods of the country ; but subject to serious heart-shake.
Excellent for ship-building, railway-sleepers, or cabinet-work.

Waibaima (Nectindra sp.?: Order. Laurdcee). British Guiana.
Apparently also known as “ Cirouaballi.” W 57. Abundant,
green, shading to brown, close, but coarse in grain, heavy, working
well. Superior in most respects to Greenheart, and suitable for the
same purposes.

Wallaba (Eperua falcata Aubl.: Order Leguminose). Guiana,
Brazil, ete. French “‘Wapa gras.” Height 40—80 ft.; diam.
1—2 ft. S.G. 945—930. W 52—65°5. E 1,171 tons. f 81.
fe 4:28. fs -424. R 224 kilos. Deep red, with whitish streaks,
heavy, hard, and, owing to a resinous oil, very durable, but rather
coarse-grained. Used for vat-staves, shingles, palings, and, to
a small extent, for furniture. The Ituri Wallaba (HZ. Jénmani
Oliver) is finer in grain.

Wallang-unda (Mondétoca elliptica R. Br.: Order Epacridacee).
Eastern Australia. Known also as “‘ Beech.” Height 20—30 ft. ;
diam. small. W 37—44:5. Resembling Beech, sometimes with a
beautiful silvery grain, working well across the grain, and taking a
polish. Excellent for planes, etc., but not answering for en-
graving.

Walnut (Juglans régia L.: Order Juglanddcee). A native of
Northern China and Persia, introduced into Greece and Italy in
early times from Persia, and thence into the rest of Europe. Known
also as ‘‘ European,” ‘“‘ English,” ‘‘ Italian,” ‘“ Ancona,” “ Au-
vergne,” or “‘ Circassian Walnut.” Pers. “‘ Jaoz, Charmagz, Akrot.”’
Greek ‘‘Carua, Persicon, Basilikon.” Latin “ Juglans.” French
““Noyer.” Germ. “‘ Walnuss.” Height 30—50 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft.
W 58:5 when green, 47—28 when dry. Sapwood broad, greyish-
white, very liable to become worm-eaten ; heart brown to black-
brown, often ‘‘ watered ”’—7.e., showing dark, wavy lines and
zones—-moderately heavy, hard, fine and close in grain, splitting
very little in seasoning, but readily split artificially, taking a beauti- ,
ful polish, and durable, if kept dry, especially when dark in colour
and figured; pith large, chambered ; pith-rays fine, indistinct ;
rings distinct ; vessels uniformly distributed, few, very large and
open, single or in pairs. Burrs, often 2—3 ft. across, and a foot or
more in thickness, weighing 5—6 cwt., occur, and, being generally
beautifully mottled, are highly valued for veneers. The sapwood

WALNUT 295

may be rendered more durable by smoking over a fire of Beech, or
by boiling in the juice of the green fruit ; but the liability to worm-
attack prevents Walnut being used in building. English-grown
Walnut, coming mostly from rich plains, is pale, coarse, little figured,
and perishable ; French is better ; that from the Black Sea, some-
times known as Austrian and Turkish, but grown partly in Servia,
which is imported in waney logs 6—9 ft. long, squaring 10O—18 in.,
is still more valuable ; whilst that from Italy, which comes in planks
4—9 in. thick, 10—16 in. wide, and 5—12 ft. long, is the best.
At the beginning of the eighteenth century Walnut became very
fashionable as a furniture wood, marking the first departure from
the previous universal use of Oak. The severe winter of 1709
killed most of the Walnut-trees in Central Europe, the dead trees
being bought up by the Dutch, who thus secured a “corner” in
this wood. So scarce was it in France that its exportation was
prohibited in 1720, and Mahogany, imported by the Dutch and
Spaniards, largely replaced it for furniture. No wood, however,
equals it for the manufacture of gunstocks, so that the wars of the
eighteenth century created a great dearth of this timber, and we
read of France consuming 12,000 trees a year in 1806, and of as
much as £600 being paid for a single tree. HKuropean Walnut is
still in use for the best gunstocks. The burrs have realized £50
—£60 per ton, and veneers, some of which are of a beauty unsur-
passed by any other wood, as much as two or three shillings per
square foot. These are used in the pianoforte and furniture trades.
Swiss carvings are mostly in Walnut, and the wood is also used in
turnery, for screws for presses, musical instruments, sabots, etc.
Kuropean Walnut is now, however, so scarce that it is being largely
replaced in all its uses by the American.

Walnut, American or Black (Jiéglans nigra L.). Eastern North
America. Height 60—150 ft. ; diam. 3—8 ft. 8.G. 611. W 30—
55. R 856 kilos. Sapwood narrow ; heart violet-brown or choco-
late-brown, blackening with age, heavy, hard, tough, strong, rather
coarse In grain, checking if not carefully seasoned, easily + worked,
susceptible of a high polish, very durable in contact with the soil.
More uniform in Colour. darker, duller, less liable to insect-attack,
and thus more durable than European Walnut. Formerly used on
the Wabash for “ dug-outs,” 40 ft. long and about 27 in. wide,
and also largely for fence-posts, shingles, building, naves of wheels,
etc., this wood has now become too valuable as a cabinet and veneer
wood to be used for these purposes. Before the middle of the
nineteenth century it was only used in England for carcase ends,
frames for veneering, and other inferior purposes ; it has now in-
creased four-fold in price, and is more used than European wood,
its uniform colour recommending it to shop-fitters and as a basis
for painted or other ornamentation in the cabinet-trade. It is

296 WOODS OF COMMERCE

imported in logs 10—21 ft. long, squaring 15—30 in., in planks,
and in boards ; and, besides its use in cabinet-making, is employed
for the stocks of our army rifles. It fetches from 3s. to 8s. per cubic
foot in the Liverpool market, and can be profitably grown in good
soil in the South of England.

Walnut, Belgaum (Aleurites triloba Forst.: Order Huphorbiacee).
Moluccas, New Caledonia, etc. Height 60 ft.; diam. 1—2 ft.
Used for packing-cases and joinery; and, when seasoned, for
building.

Walnut, East Indian (Albizzia Lébbek Benth. : Order Legumindse).
India and Tropical Africa. W 41—56. Dark brown, heavy, hard,
coarse-grained, working and polishing well, durable. Used for
house- and boat-building, furniture, mill-rollers, and wheels. See
also Lasrin.

Walnut, Grey (Juglans cinérea L.).

Walnut, Japanese (Juiglans Sieboldiana Maxim.).

Walnut, Manchurian (J. mandschirica Maxim.).

Walnut, Queensland (Cryptocarya Palmerstoni F. M. Bailey : Order
Laurdcee). Resembling American Walnut.

Walnut, Satin. See Gum, Sweet.

Walnut, White. See Butternut.

Wandoo (Hucalyptus redinca Schau.: Order Myrtdcee). West
Australia. Known also as ‘““ White Gum.” Height up to 120 ft. ;
diam. up to 17 ft. W 63—79. Light-coloured, brownish-red,
heavy, very hard, tough, and durable. Valued for building, and
especially for wheelwrights’ work, being superior to Tewart for
spokes and felloes, and supplying the best naves and cogs ; used
also for furniture, and recommended for sleepers.

Water-tree. See Pin-bush.

Waterwood (Chimarrhis cymosa Jacq.: Order Rubidcee). West
Indies. Known also as “Bois Riviere.” Height 50—60 ft.
Valued for furniture and joinery.

Wattle, the general name in Australia for species of Acdcia
(Order Leguminése), from their use by the early colonists in
‘“‘ wattling ’ their huts. French “ Bois tressé.”

Wattle, Black (i) (A. binervata DC.), North-East Australia.
Sometimes known as ‘“ Hickory.” Height up to 30—40 ft. ;
diam. 8—18 in. W 50-5—56-6. Dirty white to pinkish, close-
grained, tough, light. Valued for axe-handles and bullock-yokes.
(ii) (A. decurrens) [See Wattle, Feathery]. (iii) (A. mollissima
Willd.). South-Eastern Australia and Tasmania. Known also as
“Silver Wattle.” Aborig. ‘“‘Garrong” or “Currong.” Height
20—30 ft.; diam. 6—9 in. S.G. 804—727. W 50-2. Light,

WATTLE—WILLOW 297

tough, strong, liable to insect attack. Formerly used for boome-
rangs, mulgas and spears, and nowadays in Tasmania for cask-staves,
tree-nails, etc.

Wattle, Feathery (A. decirrens Willd.). New South Wales and
Tasmania. Known also as “ Black” or “‘ Green Wattle.”’ Aborig.
** Wat-tah.” Height 40—50 ft.; diam. 1—14 ft. 8.G. 773—727.
W 62:8—45. Sapwood white, heart pinkish, light, tough, strong,
easily worked, very liable to the attacks of boring beetles. Good for
fuel or staves.

Wattle, Golden (i) (A. pycnantha Benth.). South-East Australia.
Known also as “Green” or “‘ Broad-leaved Wattle.” S8.G. 830.
W 51-5. Tough, close-grained. (ii) (A. longifolia) [See Sallow].

Wattle, Green. See Wattle, Feathery, and Wattle, Golden.

Wattle, Hickory (A. aulacocarpa A. Cunn.). Queensland. Dark-
red, heavy, hard, tough. Useful for cabinet-work.

Wattle, Prickly (A. juniperina Willd.). South-East Australia
and Tasmania. Height 8—12 ft.; diam. small. White, light,
tough. Used for mallet-handles.

Wattle, Silver (i) (A. dealbata Link.). Eastern Australia and
Tasmania ; established in India since 1840. Height 60—120 ft. ;
diam. 1—2 ft. Light-brown, moderately hard, warping consider-
ably. Used for cask-staves, tree-nails, turnery, and fuel. (i) [See
Wattle, Black (iii)|. (iii) [See Blackwood].

Wellingtonia. See Big Tree.
Whitethorn. See Hawthorn.

Whitewood, a name sometimes applied in the English timber-
trade to the Norway Spruce. [See Spruce.] In the United States
it refers mainly to Liriodéndron [See Tulip-tree]. In Australia it is
either (i) Lagundria [See Tulip-tree (i)], or Pittospdrum bicolor
[See Cheesewood ].

Whitewood, American or Canary (Liriodéndron). See Tulip-tree.
Whitewood, Mowbulan. See Laurel (i).

Willow, a name restricted in Europe and North America to the
numerous and variable species of the genus Sdliz ; but extended in
Australia to several trees in no way related to the true Willows or
to one another. These will be dealt with after the true Willows.
Some species of Salix are herbaceous and others mere prostrate
undershrubs of no value. Several other species and their numerous
hybrids are cultivated as coppice, in river eyots or wet ground,
under the name of “ Osiers,”’ for the manufacture of wicker-work.
Until about a hundred years ago all our osiers were imported from
Holland. Of these the chief are S. vimindlis L., the Common Osier
(Germ. ** Korbweide”’), with silky hairs on its young branches ;

298 WOODS OF COMMERCE

S. purpurea L., the Purple Osier, with red or purple bark ; and
S. vitellina L., the Golden Osier, with yellow bark. Other species
are treated as pollards, the top being valuable for hurdles, clothes-
props, hoops, handles for hay-rakes, etc. Those most important
as timber-trees are the White Willow (S. dlba) and the Redwood
Willow (S. fragilis). S. Capréa has been already described. [See
Sallow. |

Willow, Black (S. nigra Marshall). North America. French
“Saule noir.” Germ. ‘‘ Schwarze Weide.” Height up to 50 ft. ;
diam. up to 14 ft., but generally a shrub. S.G. 446. W 27-77.
R 424 kilos. Branches yellow, brittle at base; sapwood nearly
white ; heart reddish-brown, very light, soft, close-grained, easily
worked. Used mainly for fuel and charcoal.

Willow, Crack (S. fragilis L.). Europe, Northern and Western
Asia ; introduced in America. Known also as ‘‘ Withy,” ‘‘ Bed-
ford,” or ‘‘ Redwood Willow,” or ‘‘Stag’s-head Osier.” Germ.
‘* Bruchweide.”” Height sometimes 50—90 ft.; diam. 4—7 ft
Branches green, yellow-brown, orange or crimson, smooth, polished,
brittle at the base ; wood, when dry, salmon-coloured, light, pliable,
tough, and elastic. Said to be used in Scotland for boat-building ;
used also in cabinet-work, and for sabots and toys. Said to be
superior to other Willow.

Willow, White (S. diba L.). Europe, North Africa, North and
West Asia to the North-West of India. Height up to 80 ft. ;
diam. 7 ft. §8.G. 785 when fresh, 461 when dry. W 35—24.
Branches olive, silky, not easily detached ; sapwood white ; heart
brownish, light, soft, smooth in grain, not splintering, shrinking
more than one-sixth of its bulk in drying, very durable in water ;
vessels uniformly distributed, indistinguishable ; pith-rays indis-
tinct. Used in Pliny’s time, on account of its lightness, for shields,
and formerly for flooring ; nowadays for break-blocks on railway-
waggons, since, owing to the absence of oil or resin, it will not take
fire on friction ; for wheelbarrows, especially at iron-furnaces, as
it will not split or warp when heated ; for the paddles of steam-
boats and strouds of water-wheels; for shoemakers’ lasts and
cutting - boards; for whetting fine cutlery, and for toys; but
especially for cricket-bats, for which purpose large sound trees
fetch exceptional prices. Cricket-bats sold at five shillings or any
higher price are all made of White Willow. The polishing-wheels
used by glass-grinders are made of horizontal sections across the
entire tree. The smaller wood is used for clothes-props, the handles
of hay-rakes, hurdles, fencing, and hoops, for druggists’ boxes, for
paper-pulp, and for fuel.

Willow, Yellow (S. vitellina L.). Europe; introduced into
North America. _Height up to 60 ft.; diam. 3—4 ft. Sapwood

WILLOW—YELLOW-WOOD 299

wide, nearly white ; heart irregular, reddish-brown, light, soft, not
strong, easily worked, and taking a beautiful polish. Its yellow
twigs, known as “ Golden Osiers,”’ are used for basket-work, and
larger wood for fencing, fuel, and charcoal.

In Australia the name ‘“‘ Willow” is applied (i) to Lucalyptus
piluldris [See Blackbutt]; (ii) to Getjera parviflora ; and (iii) to
Pittospérum phillyreoides, which is sometimes termed ‘“ Native
Willow,” a name also given to (iv) Acdcia salicina. (ii) Getjera
parviflora Lindl. (Order Rutdcee). Known also as “ Dogwood.”
Aborig. ‘“‘ Wilga.” Height 20—30 ft.; diam. 6—12 in. Light-
coloured, fragrant, hard, close-grained, apt to split in seasoning,
and liable to gum-veins. Used for naves of wheels. (iii) Putto-
sporum phillyreeoides DC. (Order Pittosporee). Known also as
‘“‘ Butter-bush ” and ‘‘ Poison-berry.” Height 20—25 ft.; diam.
46 in. S.G. 767. Light-coloured, very hard, close-grained.
Useful for turnery. (iv) Acdcia salicina Lindl. (Order Legumindse).
Height 30—50 ft.; diam. 1—1} ft. S.G. 763. W 47-5. Dark-
brown, prettily figured, heavy, close-grained, tough, taking a high
polish. Used for boomerangs and furniture.

Wood-oil tree. See Gurjun.

Woolly-butt (i) (Eucalyptus longifolia Link.: Order Myrtdcee).
South-East Australia. Sometimes known as “ Bastard Box.”
Height 100—150 ft. ; diam. 3—6 ft. 8.G. 1,187. W 68-5. Dark-
red, heavy, hard, straight and close in grain, strong and tough,
liable to gum - veins and shakes, durable, especially underground.
When sound, much prized for the felloes and spokes of wheels, and
suitable for paving ; but on account of its gum-veins more used as
fuel. [See also (ii) Gum, Apple-seented, (iii) Mahogany, Bastard,
and (iv) Gum, Manna. |

Yacea (Podocdrpus coridcea Rich.‘and P. Purdiedna Hook. : Order
Conifere). West Indies. Small, pale brown. W 38:6—46°9.
E 456—596 tons. f 4:3—5-25. fc 2:-49—2-55. fs -346—-486.

Yarrah (Hucalyptus rostrata). See Gum, Red.

Yate-tree (Eucalyptus cornita Labill.: Order Myrtdcew). South-
West Australia. Height 100 ft. S.G. 1,235. W 64—79. The
heaviest West Australian wood, hard, elastic, somewhat of the
character of Ash. Valued for shafts, boat-ribs, and agricultural
implements.

Yellow-wood, a name applied in South Africa to various species
of Podocdrpus (Order Coniferw), and in Australia to four or five
woods in no way related to these or to one another. [See also
Fustic. |

Yellow-wood,} Bastard (Podocarpus pruindsus E.M., or perhaps
also P. elongata L’Hérit. and P. Thunbdérgit Hook.). P. pruindsus,

300 WOODS OF COMMERCE

a native of Natal, is a tree of considerable size, yielding a pale-
yellow, tough, and durable wood, much used for building. [See
Yellow-wood, Natal, and Yellow-wood, Real. |

Yellow-wood, Dark or Deep (Rhus rhodanthéma F. v. M.: Order
Anacardidcee). North-East Australia. Known also as “ Yellow
Cedar,” or inappropriately as ‘‘ Light Yellow-wood.” <Aborig.
** Jango-jango.” Height 60—80 ft.; diam. 14—2 ft. W 47.
Rich brownish or yellowish-bronze colour, darkening with age,
often beautifully marked, soft, fine and close in grain, taking a
fine polish, with a silky lustre, durable. A handsome and valued
cabinet-wood, but not plentiful.

Yellow-wood, Light (i) inappropriately (Rhus rhodanthéma) [See
Yellow-wood, Dark]; (ii) (Daphnandra micrantha) [See Sassafras,
Australian (ii)|; and (iii) and most appropriately (Flindérsia Oxley-
dana) [See Jack, Long].

Yellow-wood, Natal or Outeniqua (Podocarpus elongata L’ Hérit.).
South and Tropical Africa. Known also as ‘‘ White ”’ or “ Bastard
Yellow-wood.” Boer ‘‘Geel Hout.” Zulu ‘‘ Umkoba.” Height
30—120 ft.; diam. 3—5 ft. W 30—45. Pale yellow, soft, light,
close-grained, easily split and worked. Neither so common nor so
hard as the Real Yellow-wood (P. Thunbérgii) ; but used indis-
criminately with it for roofs, beams, planks, flooring, and furniture,
and, when creosoted, for sleepers.

Yellow-wood, Real or Upright (Podocarpus Thunbérgii Hook. =
P. latifolia R. Br.). South Africa. Boer ‘‘ Geel Hout.” Zulu
‘““Umeeya.”? Height 75—120 ft.; diam. 2—8 ft. W 33—38.
Light yellow, straight-growing, light, soft, even-grained, fairly
elastic and strong, easily worked, but somewhat liable to split or
warp. Excellent for shingles, and used also for furniture, and, like
the last mentioned, in building, and, when creosoted, for sleepers.

Yellow-wood, Thorny (Zanthoxylum brachyacanthum). See Satin-
wood in Australia.

Yellow - wood or Yellow Cedar, in Guiana (Aniba guianénsis
Aubl.: Order Laurineew). French ‘“‘ Cédre jaune.” S.G. 606—489.
R 145 kilos. Very strong, easily worked and durable. Used for
planks in building.

Yen-dike (Dalbérgia cultrdta Grah.: Order Leguminése). Burma.
Apparently sometimes known as ‘“‘ Blackwood” and confused with
some species of Ebony. Height 35 ft. to the lowest branch ; diam.
1—3 ft. W 64. Black, sometimes with white and red streaks,
straight-grown, very heavy and hard, tough, not brittle, elastic,
but full of shakes, very durable, not cracking any more after con-
version, and resisting sun or rain. Excellent for spokes, bows,
handles of ploughs, tools, planes, and spears, and largely used for
carving.

YEN-JU—YEW 301

Yen-ju (Sdéphora japonica L.: Order Legumindse). China and
Japan. Height 40 ft. or more ; diam. 2—4 ft. Hard, fine-grained,
ornamental. Used for turnery, furniture, and interior finish ; but
valued as a shade tree and for its buds, the Chinese ‘* Wai-hwa,”’
which are used as a yellow or green dye.

Yew (Tdxus baccata L.: Order Taxinee). Europe, up to altitudes
of 6,000 ft. in Southern Spain ; Northern and Western Asia, up to
11,000 ft. in the Himalayas ; and Northern Africa. French “ If.”
Germ. ‘‘ Hibe,” ‘“‘ Kibenbaum.” Welsh ‘‘ Yw.” Ancient Greek
“‘Taxos, Melos.”? Modern Greek ‘‘ Maurelatos.” Latin ‘ Taxus.”
Ital. “‘ Tasso.” Span. “‘Texo, Tejo.” Height 15—20 or even
50 ft., and in the Himalayas 100 ft. ; diam. 1—5 ft. or more, up to
19 ft. W 40—57. Reddish-brown, resembling Mahogany, irregular
in its growth, heavy, very hard, close-grained, tough, very elastic
and flexible, susceptible of a high polish, insect-proof, and more
durable than any other European wood, especially in contact with
soil, it being an old saying that “a post of yew will outlast a post
of iron.”’ On old trees burrs occur, figured and mottled like Am-
boyna-wood. Sapwood very narrow, yellowish-white ; annual
rings very narrow, wavy, well-marked by the broad dark zone of
autumn-wood ; pith-rays indistinguishable and without tracheids ;
wood without resin-ducts, entirely composed of spirally thickened
tracheids. ‘‘ The eugh obedient to the bender’s will,” as Spenser
calls it, seems to have been used, owing to its combined toughness
and elasticity, for bows from very early times. In England, though
home-grown wood was used, that imported by Venetian traders from
Italy, Turkey, and Spain, was of better quality. At the close of the
sixteenth century the practice of “backing” bows with some
other kind of wood was introduced, and at the present day they are
largely made of Lancewood and Hickory. At the present day Yew
is employed to some extent at High Wycombe and Worksop in
chair-making, and on the Continent in turnery. When stained black
it is one of the woods known as German Ebony. Small branches
are valued for walking-sticks and whip-handles. In the latter
part of the eighteenth century veneers of Yew burrs were largely
used for tea-caddies and other small articles. There is in the library
of the India Office a Persian illuminated manuscript on thin sheets
of Yew.

Yew, Californian, Pacific, or Western (T'dxus brevifolia Nutt.).
Pacific slope from British Columbia to South California, up to
altitudes of 8,000 ft. Height 40—50 or 80 ft.; diam. 1—2 ft.
W 40. Sapwood pale yellow ; heart orange-red, heavy, hard, fine-
grained, extremely stiff and strong, seasoning well, and durable.

Yew, Japanese (J'dxus cuspidata 8. & Z.). Yesso, and long
cultivated throughout Japan. Japan. “ Ichii, Momi-noki, Araragi.’’

302 WOODS OF COMMERCE

Height 40—50 ft.; diam. 2 ft. Dark reddish, handsome, close-
erained, tough. Used by the aboriginal Ainu for bows, and by
wealthy Japanese for cabinet-work and interior finish. Used also
for pencils.

Yoke (Piptadénia peregrina Benth. : Order Legumindse). Tropical
South and Central America. A large tree. W 70:48. E 286 tons.
{ 3. fe 2. fs +317. Reddish-brown, heavy, hard, close-grained.

In Trinidad the name is also applied to Catalpa longissima Sims
(Order Bignoniacee). Height 80 ft.; diam. 3 ft. W 70. Light
reddish-brown, heavy, very durable.

Zebra-wood, a beautifully marked furniture-wood, chiefly ob-
tained from Connarus guianénsis Lam. (= Omphalobium Lambértii
DC.: Order Connardcee). British Guiana. ‘‘ Hyawaballi.”’
Height 90 ft., squaring 10—12 in. 8.G. 1,032. Reddish-brown,
beautifully marked, working well, and taking a good polish ; but
very rare. The name is also applied to the woods of Hugénia
fragrans Willd., var. cunedta (Order Myrtdcee), Guettarda speciosa
L. (Order Rubidcee), the ‘‘ Ron-ron’’ of Honduras, and Centro-
lobium robistum Mart. (Order Legumindse), the “‘ Arariba’’ or
‘“* Araroba ”’ of Brazil, exported from Rio, in lengths of 30—40 ft. ;
and to Diospyros Kurzii (Order Hbendcew) from the Andaman
Islands. °,

Zelkova (Zelkova¥ crenata Spach.=Planera Richardt Michx. :
Order Ulmdcee). Caucasus. Height 70—80 ft. Sapwood broad,
light-coloured, very elastic, used for the same purposes as Ash or
Elm ; heart reddish, heavy, very hard, taking a good polish. Used
for furniture.

Zwartbast. See Blackwood, in Cape Colony.

APPENDIX I

EXPLANATION OF SOME TERMS USED WITH REFERENCE TO
CONVERTED TIMBER, ETC.

Ir may be useful to give here the following definitions of terms used in the
English timber trades. (See also p. 76 supra.)

A balk is a log roughly squared.

A plank is 11 in. broad, from 2 to 6 in. thick, and generally from 8 to 21 ft.
in length.

A deal is 9 in. broad and not more than 4 in. thick.

A batten is not more than 7 in. broad.

A square is 100 ft. superficial.

A hundred of deals is 120.

A load is 50 cubic feet of squared timber, or 40 cubic feet of unhewn, or
600 superficial feet of inch planking.

The simplest formula for measuring timber is :

at eae ey

where C= the cubic contents in cubic feet ; L= the length of the log in feet ;
G=one-fourth of the girth of the tree midway in its length, in feet ; g=one-
fourth of the girth at one end, in feet; g’= one-fourth of the girth at the
other end, in feet ; a deduction for bark being made from each quarter-girth.

The ratio of calliper measurement of the diameter of a tree to “siding”
is as 99: 70, or, roughly, as 10: 7—e.g., 10 in. diam. gives 7 in. in the side;
15 in. give 104; 20 gives 14; etc.

Water weighs 62°321 lbs. per cubic foot; therefore wood, of which W—.e.,
the weight per cubic foot—is 62, has the specific gravity which is stated as 1,
or sometimes (dropping decimal points) as 1,000. As we use W to express
the weight in lbs. per cubic foot, and 8.G. to represent the density or specific
gravity—.e., the weight as compared with water—we find the 8.G. by
dividing 62 32 into W. Woods have specific gravities between ‘26 and 1°3,
or 260 and 1,300—~.e., W ranges from 13 to 85 (see p. 35).

In comparison with the Metric system it is convenient to reckon a decimetre
as=4 in., a metre as =3} ft., a kilogram as =2! lbs., and a ton as=1,016 kilos.

A cubic centimetre of water, at the standard temperature and pressure,

303

304 APPENDIX

being the unit of weight or gram, a cubic decimetre (1,000 cubic centimetres)
or litre, weighs a kilogram ; and a cubic metre (354 cubic feet) of water weighs
1,000 kilos.

Several kinds of wood are sold by special measures. Teak is sold by the
load of 50 cubic feet. Wainscot Oak logs, although they have three square
sides and one round, are sold by calliper measure, which entails a loss to
the buyer on conversion. Hewn Oak logs from Odessa and Libau, although
eight-sided, are also invariably sold by calliper measure. Birch logs, on the
other hand, are sold by string measure—.e., actual girth—although the
price is based on their calliper depth.

Sawn Pitch-Pine logs are sold in some ports by string measure, and in others
by calliper—the former giving an advantage of 5 per cent. to the buyer. Pine
and Spruce deals are sold by the St. Petersburg standard, which contains
165 cubic feet.

Mahogany, and Mahogany alone, is sold by what is called Brokers’ measure,
a custom dating from the time when it was usual to allow a hand’s-breadth in
every yard to the buyer to compensate him for loss in conversion. A “ broker’s
rule ” is 133 inches to the foot, and this broker’s measure gives the buyer an
advantage of from 25 to 40 per cent. over the calliper measure, or extreme
contents of a log.

In France wood, especially firewood, is measured by the stére, or cubic
metre, =35°32 cubic feet, or 1°31 cubic yards.

Deal considered by builders dry enough for use weighs 34 lbs. per cubic
foot—i.e., 66 cubic feet or 792 superficial feet to the ton. When wood weighs
30 Ibs. per cubic foot, 72 cubic feet or 864 superficial feet go to the ton;
when 45 lbs. per cubic foot, 50 cubic feet or 600 superficial feet make the ton.

APPENDIX It

THE MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF WOODS

Ir is generally recognized that much more trustworthy evidence as to the
identity of out-of-the-way woods can be obtained by a microscopic examina-
tion than from reports of native opinion or rule-of-thumb tests applied by
lumbermen or unscientific traders. Such microscopic examination, it is
true, will not always enable us to refer an undetermined wood even to its
Natural Order, and will in many cases fail to discriminate between the species
of one genus ; but, on the other hand, it will often afford, in addition to the
evidence of identity, much valuable information as to strength, durability,
or other reasons for suitability or unsuitability.

No one need be deterred from having recourse to this method of examination
by any alarm as to its technical difficulties or expense. Though even an
examination of a planed surface of wood with a pocket lens may give useful
suggestions, a thin transverse section examined under the slightly higher
powers of a compound microscope will afford vastly greater information. Any
ordinary microscope will suffice, Leitz’s dissecting instrument, costing £2 10s.,
answering admirably ; but it is desirable to have a wide, simple stage and a
triple or double nose-piece carrying, preferably, objectives of 13 in., 3 in., and
1 in. focus, though it is seldom that any objective higher than | in. is required.

The preparation of the sections is not difficult. It is quite unnecessary for
the ordinary purposes of study to make them of anything like the superficial
dimensions of the beautiful preparations of Herr Burkart or Mr. Hough. All
that is requisite is to get a transparent section, across the grain, embracing
a few annual rings, though it is well to have, either in one or in more than
one section, the pith or structural centre and some of the sapwood as well as
the heartwood. Good results can be obtained with well-seasoned wood ;
but it is easier to work with green wood, full of sap. It should be borne in
mind that if a transverse section is not cut precisely at right angles to the
vertical axis of the tree the round sections of the vessels will become oval.
The end of the specimen having been roughly smoothed with a plane or chisel,
a shaving can be easily cut with a well-sharpened plane which, though not
equally thin all over, will serve all the purposes of study. The iron of the
plane should cut in a radial direction. The wood should, before being cut,

305 20

206 APPENDIX II

be well moistened with glycerine if it is to be mounted in glycerine-jelly ; but.
if not, it must, directly after being cut, be dehydrated by being soaked in
methylated spirit and dried between blotting-paper. It is best to drop the
curling shaving at once into some liquid dye, as this renders the structure far
more readily visible under the microscope. An alcoholic solution of methyl
violet does very well; but, perhaps, erythrosin, which can be obtained in
tabloids, is the best all-round stain for microscopic work. For micro-photo-
graphy fuchsin gives sharper contrasts. After dyeing, the thinner part of
the shaving can be cut square with scissors and mounted, for which purpose
we personally prefer an extra wide glass slip and a square cover-glass. If
carefully dried with blotting-paper under moderate pressure the sections can
be preserved unmounted, or mounted, as permanent microscopic objects in
Canada balsam or in glycerine-jelly under thin glass cover-slips, or on paper,
like the series prepared by Herr Nordlinger.

Another method we have found efficacious is to immerse a small squared
specimen in a basin of water—such as a deep photographic basin—by means of
metal weights, and then to slice off thin shavings with a broad chisel. The
sections floating to the surface may then be dyed, or may be simply floated
on to slips of glass, lightly covered with thin cover-slips and then dried slowly
and cemented down. Though most students of minute structure use thin
cover-slips, excellent results are attainable with thick ones, such as the glass
ordinarily used for photographic negatives.

Though the transverse section is most important, longitudinal ones, either
radial or tangential, are often also of use—the latter, for instance, affording
the readiest means of distinguishing Alder from Birch.

Such microscopic sections can be most readily studied by being used with
a lantern ; but when so used they should always be protected from the heat
of the burner by an alum bath.

Nothing is more likely to impress the facts of structure upon the student’s
mind than the fixing of the image of that structure as projected by the lens
of a lantern by means of photography. This can be carried out without
costly apparatus—that used by Mr. Weale in the preparation of the photo-
graphs for Appendix IV. not costing five shillings, in addition to the price of
the lens.

APPENDIX III

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

[The works of other authors to which I am most indebted are marked with ar
asterisk. |

ANDERSON, Str Joun.—The Strength of Materials and Structures. 11th
edition. 1892.

Battery, F. M.—Queensland Woods. 1899.

Batrour, Epwarp.—The Timber Trees of India. 1862.

BaUSCHINGER, JoH.—Mittheilungen aus dem Mech. Tech. Laboratorium in
Miinchen. 1883 and 1887.

Beare, T. Hupson.—Timber: its Strength, and how to Test It. Trans. Roy.
Scot. Abor. Soc. xix. 1906.

Boutcer, G. S.—Economic Forestry, Trans. Scottish Abor. Soc. xi. 1887.

Bouncer, G. S.—The Uses of Plants. 1889.

Bouuarr, G. S.—The Scientific Study of Timber, Trans. Surveyors’ Instit.
xxiv. 1892.

BrRANopis, Str DistricH.—Indian Trees. 1906.

CHARPENTIER, Paut.—Timber. Translated by Joseph Kennell. 1902.

Cross, C. F., E. J. Bevan, and R. W. Stnpatt.—Wood Pulp and its Applica-
tions. 1906.

Darwin, Francts.—The Elements of Botany. 1895.

Ewes, H. J.—British Timber and its Uses. Trans. Surveyors’ Instit. xxxvi.
1903-1904.

Frrnow, B. E.—Report of the Division of Forestry, U.S. Department of
Agriculture, for 1886. What Forestry means to Representative Men.
1905.

Fiercuer, Banister F. and H. P.—Carpentry and Joinery. 1898.

GAMBLE, J. S.—Manual of Indian Timbers. 1881. 2nd edition, 1902.

*Hartic, RoBerT.—Timbers and how to know them. ‘Translated, from the
3rd German edition, by Dr. William Somerville. 1890.

HoLrzaPFreL, CHARLES and Joun JacosB.—Turnery and Mechanical Manipula-
tion. 1843-1844.

*HouGcu, RomEyN B.—American Woods. 1888.

Juxius, G. A.—Notes re Timbers of Western Australia, and The Physica)
Characteristics of the Hardwoods of Western Australia. 1906.

307 20—2

308 APPENDIX III

Kent, Apotpnus H.—Veitch’s Manual of the Conifer. 2nd edition. 1900.

*Kew, Royat GarpDENS.—Official Guide to the Museums of Economic
Botany. No. 3.—Timbers. 2nd edition. 1893.

Kirx«, T.—The Forest Flora of New Zealand. 1889.

*LASLETT, THoMAs.—Timber and Timber Trees, Native and Foreign. 2nd
edition, revised by Prof. H. Marshall Ward, D.Sc., F.R.S. 1894.

*MAIDEN, J. H.—Useful Native Plants of Australia. 1889.

Masters, Dr. Maxwett T.—List of Conifers . . . in Cultivation. Journ.
Royal Hort. Soc. xiv.

NORDLINGER, H.—Les bois employés dans lindustrie. 1872.

N6RDLINGER, H.—Holzquerschnitte. 1862-1882.

Rocers, Juttan.—Analysis of Returns . . . relating to Colonial Timber,
presented to Parliament. 1878.

*Roru, Firipert.—Timber. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Division of
Forestry. Bulletin No. 10. 1895.

SaRGENT, Pror. C. 8.—Sylva of North America. 1891-1898.

SARGENT, Pror. C. 8.—Report on the Forest Trees of North America. Ninth
Census of the United States, vol. ix. 1880.

SaRGENT, Pror. C. 8.—Manual of the Trees of North America. 1906.

ScamMELt, E. T. The Timber Resources of the Australian Commonwealth.
Jour. Soc. of Arts. 1902.

ScamME Lt, E. T.—The Preservation of Timber. Trans. Surveyors’ Instit. 1903.

Scuticu, Dr. W.—Outlook of the World’s Timber Supply. Journ. Soc. of
Arts, 1901, and Trans. Roy. Scot. Arbor. Soc. xvi.

Scuiicu, Dr. W.—The Forestry Problem in the United Kingdom. 1904.

Scuiicu, Dr. W.—A Manual of Forestry.

ScHRENK, Dr. H. von.—Seasoning of Timber. U.S. Bureau of Forestry. 1903.

SHARPLES, STEPHEN P.—In Prof. Sargent’s Ninth Census Report.

Stevenson, W.—The Trees of Commerce. 1888.

Stone, HerBert.—Identification of Wood by Anatomical Characters. Journ.
Soc. of Arts. 1901.

*STONE, HerBeRT.—The Timbers of Commerce. 1904.

Truper TRADES JOURNAL.—1876-1901 (in progress).

TrEDGOLD, THomas.—Elementary Principles of Carpentry. 7th edition,
edited by E. W. Tarn. 1886.

*Unwin, Pror. W. C.—The Testing of Materials of Construction. 2nd
edition. 1899.

*Warp, Pror. H. MarsHaty.—Timber and some of its Diseases. 1889.

*WarpD, Pror. H. MarsHaty.—The Oak. 1892.

*Woop, Pror. H. MarsHatyt.—Disease in Plants. 1901.

WIESNER, JuLIusS.—Die Rohstoffe des Pflanzenreiche. 1902.

Woop, H. T.—Colonial and Indian Exhibition Reports. 1887.

APPENDIX IV

THE DISTINCTIVE MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURES OF WOODS

A GENERAL description of the microscopic structure of wood has been given
in Chapter I., and an outline classification of woods based upon this micro-
scopic structure has been attempted in Chapter II. The object of the present
appendix is to give further details of the distinctive microscopic characters
of a series of typical woods, arranged in accordance with that classification
and illustrated by plates taken from Mr. J. A. Weale’s admirable series of
photo-micrographs. These last are uniformly magnified 30 diameters.

As was explained in Chapter I., the wood of broad-leaved trees (“* hard-
woods,” “ porous woods,” or “ leaf-woods,” as they are variously termed,
see p. 44) is far more complex in structure than that of Conifers (‘‘ soft-woods,”’
“non-porous woods,” or ‘needle-leaved woods’). For convenience,
however, the more complex hard-woods will here be dealt with first
(Plates I to XL.).

To realize fully the structure of wood, it is necessary to examine it not only
in transverse section—cut, that is, “‘ across the grain,” or at right angles to
the axis of the stem—but also in longitudinal sections—cut, that is, “‘ with
the grain,” either tangentially, not passing through the centre, or radially —
i.e., “ quartered,’ or cut through the centre. At the same time the dis-
tinctive characters of woods are seen better in transverse than in longitudinal
sections.

For the purposes of the practical examination of transverse microscopic
sections of hard-woods, we use for convenience the terms “large pores ”’
and “small pores,” signifying mainly trachez (p. 16) and tracheids respec-
tively, the “ ground-tissue”’ of the xylem—generally its hardest portion—
being mostly wood-fibres, and the “soft-tissue ’’—often only relatively soft —
being the “‘ wood-parenchyma ”’ (p. 28). This last term we have borrowed
from Mr. Gamble. When this soft tissue forms a patch round a large pore we
term it an “ areola.”

As the structure of Oak—a fairly typical example of complex hard-wood—
has been already fully illustrated by magnified views of sections in all three
directions (Figs. 18 to 24 and 27), we have here taken another hard-wood, a
typical Australian representative of the Order Protedcew, cut in all three
directions (Plates I. to III.), as our starting-point.

309

>

310 APPENDIX IV

The Protedcew have mostly moderately hard, reddish woods, distinctly
*‘ying-porous,” having the “ pores,” or transverse sections of their tracheal
tissue, confined to the earlier-formed wood of each ring. Like the Oaks, they
are remarkable for their conspicuous broad pith-rays. In a transverse
section of the wood (Plate I.) these appear as broad lines of parallel cells,
occasionally widening out, as seen near the bottom of the plate. Ina tangential
section (Plate III.) they appear as prominent spindle-shaped masses of cells
in the irregular mesh-work of the wood, suggesting, as Mr. Stone says, when
speaking of one species, “the fibres of a Loofah.” In a radial section
(Plate II.) they form a “silver grain” of broad dark plates. Unlike the
Oaks, the Protedcee generally have the pores of nearly uniform size, and they
are seldom large. They vary considerably in their arrangement, forming,
for example, regular rings in Hdkea, the “‘ Pin-bush” of Eastern Australia,
but a series of curves between the rays in Banksia (Plate I.). These curves
are convex in their outer margins, or, as they have been termed, “ dentate.”

Banksia serrata, from which species our photo-micrographs are taken, is
one of the ‘“‘ Honeysuckles ”’ of Eastern Australia, trees of moderate size,
yielding a handsome Mahogany-coloured wood, coarse and open in grain,
and rendered ornamental by its silver grain. The curves or “loops” of
pores are from two to five pores wide, and the pores are somewhat crowded
together, whilst the width of the porous and that of the non-porous part of
each “ring” are about equal. The rays are not generally more than twelve
cells in width ; but the tangential section (Plate III.) shows them to be more
than four times as deep as their width. In the radial section (Plate II.) the
rings are clearly indicated by the lines of pores, and the “mirrors” of the
silver grain are lustrous.

Hard-woods may well be divided into two groups, according to whether
annual rings are distinctly discernible, as in Banksia and in Plates XIII. to XL.»
or not, as in Plates IV. to XII. Most of this latter group are tropical woods,
and in many of them (Plates IV. to VII.) annual rings are more or less dis-
tinctly simulated by wavy concentric or excentric partial or complete zones
of soft tissue, chiefly wood-parenchyma, known as “ false rings.” These often
run into one another, which true annual rings never do. No European woods
belong to the group characterized by the presence of these “‘ false rings,”
unless, perhaps, the Olive may be so described. Among the woods of this
group are some having both broad and narrow pith-rays, such as the Indian
Oaks Quércus lamellosa and Q. incana ;* but usually all the rays are narrow.

Plate IV. represents the wood of the Moreton Bay, or Large-leaved, Fig of
North-East Australia (Ficus macrophiglla). The alternating bands of hard and
soft tissue—thick-walled and thin-walled parenchyma—of which the latter
is generally slightly the wider, closely simulate annual rings. The pith-rays
are of two thicknesses, but none of them broad, and they have a wavy course,
being displaced by the large pores. The pores are not numerous, are irregu-
larly scattered in both hard and soft wood, and are often divided into two or

1 Gamble, Manual of Indian Timbers, Plate XIV., Figs. 3 and 4.

APPENDIX IV 311

three by tangential walls. This type of wood, of a grey or light-brown colour,
is characteristic of the genus Ficus ; and the pith-rays, neither very numerous
nor very broad, though distinctly visible under a lens, are characteristic of
the whole Order Urticdcee, considered in a wide sense—i.e., including the
Bread-fruits (Artocdrpus), Mulberries (Mérus), and Elms (Ulmus). (See
Plate XVI.). To this so-called “ Fig type’’ belong many tropical Legumi-
nose, such as the Ponga (Pongamia glabra), figured by the late Professor
Marshall Ward! and the Jhand (Prosépis spicigera), figured by Mr. Gamble.”

Very similar is that of the Bastard Bullet-wood (Humiria floribunda),
figured on p. 46. This wood, which belongs to a distinct Order, the Hwmiri-
dcee, is characterized—in addition to its distinct false rings of darker wood,
which sometimes run into one another, and sometimes die out laterally—by
fine, concentric, ‘‘ dentate’ rings of soft tissue; by numerous, equidistant
and uniformly fine pith-rays, with an undulating course bending round the
pores, and forming a regular rectangular mesh-work, with the rings of soft
tissue ; and by its comparatively few, uniformly distributed, medium-sized,
white pores, which are sometimes in radial groups of two to five, and are filled
with thyloses.

Passing to those timbers in which the false rings are more obscure or less
regular, a group of dense, heavy, dark-coloured woods from India and other
tropical countries, including the Ebonies (Diospgros), in the Order Ebendcee ,
many Leguminose, and other series, we have selected three types (Plates V.
to VIL.). Padouk (Péterocdrpus marsipium (Plate V.) is a yellowish-brown,
leguminous wood from Southern India, P. indicus and P. macrocdrpus, from
Burma, and P. dalbergioides, from the Andamans, being a rich Mahogany-
like red. Our plate shows irregular zones of darker wood, with more or less
concentric bands of soft tissue, varying very much in width, but completed
by fine wavy lines, and made up of elements of rather larger transverse
diameter than those in the rest of the wood. The pith-rays are very fine,
numerous, uniform, and equidistant ; and the large pores are not numerous,
but are uniformly scattered, varying somewhat in size, though mostly con-
siderably wider than the space between two pith-rays, often subdivided
radially into groups of two or three, or even as many as eight, and without
thyloses.

Plate VI.—Cassia Fistula, the Indian Laburnum, is in many respects a
similar wood. It is very hard, heavy, and dark-coloured, with numerous
very fine, uniform, slightly bent pith-rays, appearing light against the dark
hard tissue ; and white, irregularly concentric, but anastomosing, bands of
soft tissue surrounding the pores. These pores are not numerous, are uni-
formly distributed, varying somewhat in size, but never very large, often
radially subdivided, and often filled with resin.

Plate VII.—Gudiacum officindlé, the Lignum-vite of Tropical America,
represents another Natural Order, the Zygophyllacee. It appears to have

1 Timber and some of its Diseases, Fig. 7.
2 Op. cit., Plate VI., Fig. 6.

312 APPENDIX IV

true concentric rings of lighter and darker wood, the pores in the former
being more numerous and larger; but it is not likely that these rings con-
stitute the spring- and summer-wood of a year’s growth. The pith-rays are
very numerous, very fine, uniform, equidistant, and wavy, about the width
of a pore apart ; and the pores are small, but variable in size, sometimes in
groups of two or three, and appearing green from the resin which they exude.
The narrow yellow sapwood is sharply contrasted with the dark-brown
heart.

Plates VIII. to XII. represent types of tropical timbers in which there
are neither true annual rings nor false rings. Albizzia procera (Plate VIII.),
the White Siris of India, belonging to the same genus as the so-called East
Indian Walnuts (A. Lébbek, ete.), is a leguminous wood, closely allied to
Mimosa, hard, though quick-grown. The sapwood is wide and yellowish-
white, the heart brown, with ill-defined alternating lighter and darker bands.
The pith-rays are few, fine, and, except where diverging round the pores, straight.
The pores are large, uniformly distributed, sometimes divided radially into
two, and always surrounded by an “ areola,” or round patch, of soft tissue.

Plate IX.—Nectdndra Rodig@i, the Greenheart of Demerara—is a repre-
sentative of the Laurdcee. It is a very heavy, very hard, dark greenish-
brown wood, almost black, with few, fine, uniform, gently undulating, equi-
distant pith-rays, and a moderate number of large, uniformly distributed,
yellowish-green pores. These pores are mostly subdivided or grouped together
in threes or fours, filled with yellowish-green resin, and surrounded by small
patches of soft tissue, so that—but for the pith-rays—the transverse section
has, as Laslett says, “‘ the appearance of cane.”

Hopea odorata, the Thingan of India (Plate X.), is a member of the Order
Dipterocarpdcece, which comprises several of the largest and finest of Indian
forest-trees. They are generally hard, brown, and resinous, with fine or
moderately broad pith-rays, producing a good silver grain, and large resin-
filled pores, each surrounded or “ringed” by a narrow band of loose tissue
made up of large wood-cells. In the genus Hépea the wood is yellowish-
brown and even-grained, and there is some slight variety in the size of the
pores. In our plate it will be noticed that the pith-rays vary in width,
though none of them are wide, and that there are delicate little transverse
lines or bars of small elements joining them at right angles. In one place
these transverse bars are represented by a decided band.

The wood of Léphira alata, the African Oak (Fig. 33, p. 47), is another
representative of this Order. Here the soft tissue forms fine, undulating,
concentric lines, and there are very numerous, excessively fine, wavy pith-
rays. The pores are not numerous, but mostly large, in groups from two to
five together, many filled with a whitish chalky substance, conspicuous
against the blood-red colour of the wood.

The Order Sapotdcee, of which Siderdxylon borbénicum (Plate XI.) is an
example, is one of considerable importance not only as containing timber-
trees, but also as that to which the Guttaperchas belong. The woods in this
Order resemble those of the Hbendcee in structure, but differ in being usually

APPENDIX IV 313

red or yellow, whilst the Ebénaceew are black or grey. The pith-rays are
numerous, fine, and equidistant; but the characteristic features are the
somewhat irregularly concentric and wavy, narrow bands of soft tissue, with
crowded small pores, and—still more so—the radial rows of moderately large
pores arranged in echelon between the pith-rays.

The Guttifere are another large Order of tropical trees, including that
yielding Gamboge, and having wood with that absence of rings so charac-
teristic of the tropics. Their timbers are usually reddish, with fine, but
clearly defined, pith-rays; large pores irregularly distributed, singly or in
more or less radial groups; and fine broken transverse lines of darker cells.
The genus Calophgllum, a species of which is represented in Plate XII., in-
cludes most kinds of Poon.

Passing on to woods having distinct annual rings (Plates XIII. to XL.),
in which category are most of the broad-leaved trees of Temperate latitudes,
we find that they fall readily into the two groups known as “ ring-porous ”’
and “‘ diffuse-porous.” The former (Plates XIII. to XXV.) have large or
numerous pores in the spring-wood, with smaller, fewer, or more scattered
ones in the summer-wood. They may be again subdivided (see pp. 45-49)
into those having the pores in the spring-wood larger than those in the summer-
wood, and those in which they are only more numerous and crowded. The
former sub-group includes Ashes, Locusts, Elms, Oaks, Hickories, Teak,
and Mahogany, ete. In the Ashes, one of which—Frdzinus americdna—is
represented in Plate XIII., the annual rings are defined by a very narrow
line of dense autumn-wood in contact with the conspicuous ring of large
pores in that formed in the succeeding spring. These large spring-pores are
oval, and form a loose ring of three to five rows, the pores diminishing radially.
The pores in the summer-wood are small, often two or three together, and
often connected by soft tissue, forming short peripheral lines, as seen in the
upper half of the plate. The pith-rays are not distinct to the naked eye, or
even to a low-power lens: they are straight, except where they bend round
the large spring pores.

Robinia Pseudacdcia, commonly known as “ Acacia’ in England, and as
“ Locust ” in America (Plate XIV.), is a hard and heavy leguminous wood.
Its annual rings—in correlation, probably, with its deciduous character—are
well defined by a line of dense autumn-wood, followed by an irregular “* pore-
ring” of small, followed by larger, pores; these latter being followed by
others gradually diminishing in size and number into the autumn-wood.
The pores are oval, solitary, or in radial groups of two to ten together, and
filled with thyloses, so that they appear as yellow-brown dots. The numerous
light-coloured pith-rays vary a good deal in width, and are very undulating,
bending to avoid the pores.

The Laburnum, Cytisus Labirnum (Plate XV.), is another representative
of the deciduous Leguminose of Temperate regions. Its wood is dense, often
very regularly concentric, the yellow sapwood contrasting markedly with the
dark-brown heart. The large irregularly formed pores in the spring-wood
are crowded together in crescentic groups of six to eight between the pith-

?

314 APPENDIX IV

rays, as are also the smaller vessels of the autumn-wood. The pith-rays are
rather broad and, under the microscope, distinct. The pale patches of large
wood-cells (wood-parenchyma) surrounding the pores and, with them, con-
stituting these crescent-shaped areas, are very characteristic of the Sub-Order
Papilionacee, to which nearly all European Legumindse belong.

Considering that they belong to a very distantly related Order, the Elms
have woods which in much of their microscopic appearance, especially in the
autumn-wood, much resemble the Laburnum. The rings are well defined by
the zone of large pores, which consists of several rows in our English Elms,
but of little more than a single row in Ulmus americana (Plate XVI.). The
pores are oval, but irregular, in form. The small pores of the autumn-wood
are grouped three to fifteen together, surrounded by soft tissue, in festoons,
which form almost continuous wavy concentric bands. The numerous pith-
rays, which are brown in colour, are not very conspicuous under a low power.
They do not avoid the pores in this species.

The wood of the Chestnut, Castanea (Plate XVII.), has its annual rings
very sharply defined by the wide ring of large pores ; and the wood itself is
more spongy in the spring half of the year’s growth than in the other. The
large pores are oval, are somewhat loosely arranged in the zone, and decrease
in size outwards. They are followed in the autumn-wood by very charac-
teristic, oblique, branching, or ‘“‘ dendritic”? groups of small vessels surrounded
by soft tissue. The pith-rays are numerous, so fine as to be hardly dis-
tinguishable, and bending round the large pores.

The Oaks, of which the American White Oak (Quércus alba) is represented
in Plate XVIIL, belong, like the Chestnut, to the Order Cupulifere ; and,
though readily distinguished from the latter wood, have many points of
structure in common with it. The annual rings are similarly defined by the
zone of large spring pores. These pores are somewhat irregular in size and
form, and are more crowded than those of Castanea. The small pores of the
autumn-wood are grouped in dendritic lines, and surrounded by wood-paren-
chyma, much as in the other tree, but are often blocked by thyloses. The
distinctive character of Oak wood, however, is the presence, in addition to
numerous fine pith-rays, of the very broad compound rays which are readily
visible to the naked eye. (Compare Figs. 19 and 27, pp. 24-31, and the descrip-
tion there given.)

The Hickories (Hicéria), one of which is figured in Plate XIX., are American
trees belonging to the Order Juglanddcew, the Walnut group. Their annua]
rings are well defined by a single, loose, undulating row of large, round, or
slightly oval pores in the spring-wood. The pores are not numerous, and
diminish in size in the outer spring-wood, and still more in the autumn-wood.
The pith-rays are very numerous and very fine, and avoid the large pores.
The autumn-wood is traversed by very fine wavy white lines of soft tissue.

The wood of the Persimmon (Diospiyros virginiana), the North American
representative of the Ebonies (Plate XX.), though not related to the last-
mentioned wood, has many structural points in common with it; but in old
trees becomes much darker—nearly black, in fact. The rings are well marked

APPENDIX IV 315

by the larger pores in the spring zone ; but these are not shown in our plate,
which only represents part of a ring. The pores are nearly uniformly dis-
tributed, are mostly small, and are sometimes grouped radially two to five
together. The very numerous fine pith-rays bend to avoid the larger pores,
and there is an obscure arrangement of transverse lines of soft tissue.

Teak (Tecténa grdndis), 2 member of the Order Verbendcee, presents
(Plate X XI.) a somewhat similar structure. Its rings are well defined, both
by the ring of large pores, forming about two rows, in the spring-wood, and
by the greater density of the later-formed part of each year’s growth. There
are rather fewer pores in the later-formed wood, and they are sometimes
grouped three or four together. A white secretion of calcium-phosphate is
frequent in them. The numerous, moderately broad, equidistant pith-rays
are rather lighter in colour than the ground tissue. They produce a hand-
some silver-grain of elongated plates on a radial section.

Including as it does the Neem-tree, the Crabwoods, Chittagong-wood, Satin-
wood, and Toon, as well as the Mahoganies both of the West Indies and of
Africa, and the so-called ‘“‘ Cedars’? (Cedréla) of the New World, the Order
Melidcee is among the most important of tropical groups. Though in some
cases yellow—e.g., Chlorédxylon—or even white, their woods are mostly red,
and are hard and heavy. The rings are sometimes clearly marked both by a
zone of large pores and by alternating lighter and softer spring-wood and
darker autumn-wood, as in Cedréla (Plate X XIV.) ; but the pores are generally
rather scanty, of moderate size, and evenly distributed ; and in many cases
there is no pore-circle, and the colour-zones may be only “ false rings.” The
pith-rays are not conspicuous. African Mahogany, as now in commerce
(Plate XXII.) is, perhaps, Khaya grandifdlia. It has its rings obscurely
marked by dark zones, but not by a pore-ring ; its pores evenly distributed,
of moderate size, solitary or in small groups, often radially subdivided, and
with dark contents, but with no marked areola of soft tissue; and its pith-
rays with black contents to some of their cells, which, however, are best seen
in a tangential section.

Cuban Mahogany (Plate XXIII.), which may be a Cedréla, and resembles
the woods from Panama and St. Domingo, has its rings marked by a narrow
zone destitute of pores. Its evenly-distributed, moderate-sized pores are often
subdivided or radially grouped two to four together, and are rendered more
conspicuous by accompanying soft tissue. Soft tissue also occurs in con-
spicuous, fine, light-coloured, transverse lines. The pith-rays are numerous,
very fine, uniform in width, seldom noticeably displaced by the pores, but
sinuous in long waves, which Mr. Stone says! is not the case in Panama
Mahogany. Crabwood (Cdrapa guianénsis), which he figures, has numerous
short undulations.

The Cigar-box Cedar, Cedréla odordta, of the West Indies (Plate XXIV.),
has sharply defined rings, with a pore-zone of two or more interrupted rows
of large round pores. These are sometimes partly filled with brown resin.

1 Timbers of Commerce, p. 35.

316 APPENDIX IV

In the autumn-wood there are a few, widely scattered, much smaller pores,
with sma'l areol of soft tissue. The fine, uniform pith-rays are of a brick-
red against the cinnamon-brown wood, and are distinctly seen as they bend
round the large pores in the spring-wood. The East Indian Cedréla Toéna
is a very similar wood.

Passing on to woods in which the vessels or pores, though not equally dis-
tributed throughout the rings, are not larger in the spring-wood than in the
autumn-wood, we come to those of the genus Prénus (the Plums and Cherries),
in which the pith-rays are distinctly visible, and the Buckthorns and Sumachs
(Rhamnus and Rhus), in which they are not so. The wood of Rhdmnus
catharticus, the Buckthorn (Plate XXV.), presents a striking object under the
microscope, on account of the flame-like branching groups of pores, often
fifty together, which extend from broad bases on the inner margin of each
ring to its outer limit. This structure does not occur in other species of the
genus, such as the British R. Frdngula, the so-called “‘ Berry-bearing Alder,”
or the Canadian R. Purshidna, which is figured by Mr. Stone. The heart-
wood is orange and the sapwood yellow.

The Venetian Sumach, or Wig-tree of our gardens (Rhus Cotinus), figured
on p. 50 (Fig. 35), has a hard, greenish or golden heart-wood, which is used as
a yellow dye. The rings are well marked under a lens, the large pores of the
spring-wood gradually diminishing in number and size outward, and being
grouped two to seven together.

The “ diffuse - porous’? woods comprise most of our European broad-
leaved trees. Their annual rings are very generally distinct ; but they owe
this distinctness, not to any predominance in number of size or the pores in
the spring-wood, but to the closer texture of the elements of the autumn-
wood (Plates X XVI. to XL.).

If we divide this large group into those with large and those with minute
vessels, the Walnuts, Sal, and, perhaps, most of the Hucal/pti, constitute the
former division, though possibly these last may be better placed with the
“ false-ring ”’ types.

Jiglans nigra, the American Walnut (Plate XXVI.), the species now most
in use, has its rings bounded by a fine line just traceable with a lens, but not
noticeable in solid specimens of the dark wood. There is an ill-defined pore-
ring of an interrupted row of moderately large, open, oval pores; and those
scattered, fairly evenly, through the later-formed wood, somewhat in echelon,
are smaller. They are often subdivided radially into two to five. The
numerous pith-rays are not visible to the naked eye, are slightly undulating,
and bent round the larger pores. Fine, short, transverse lines of soft tissue
occur, but are very inconspicuous. Jtglans cinérea, the Butternut or White
Walnut of the United States (Fig. 36, p. 351), is a softer, lighter wood, with
practically identical structure.

Karri, Eucalyptus versicolor (Plate XXVIIL.), is a dark-red, hard, and
heavy wood. Its rings are sometimes marked by a dense zone in contact
with one having crowded pores. The pith-rays are very numerous, uniform in
width, equidistant, waved, and avoiding the pores ; but not recognizable by

APPENDIX IV 317

the naked eye. The pores, though not very numerous, are conspicuous ;
they are very irregularly distributed, singly for the most part, but also in
groups or rows; and often contain resin, and have irregular areole of soft
tissue. On the surface of a solid section they appear pinkish.

Diffuse-porous woods with minute vessels are further subdivided according
to the presence or absence of broad pith-rays, Plane, Beech, Hornbeam,
Hazel, and Alder exemplifying the former subdivision. The wood of the
Plane (Plate XXVIII.) differs from the other four examples in having all its
pith-rays broad. It is light-brown, and in the American species here repre-
sented (Platanus occidentalis) the rings are seen well defined in the section by
a narrow zone of dense autumn-wood. The boundary-line bends slightly
outwards at the pith-rays—+.e., forms a series of shallow loops between every
two rays, with their concavities towards the circumference of the stem.
The pith-rays are numerous, straight, and uniformly broad, except at the
boundaries of the rings, where they widen. They are lighter than the
ground-tissue, and shine, so as to yield a pretty figure, sometimes known as
‘“* Honeysuckle,” when quartered. The pores are crowded; but those in
the autumn-wood are less so, and are much more minute.

The wood of the Beech (Plate X XIX.) is very similar, but has numerous
excessively fine pith-rays between the numerous broad ones. The undula-
tions of the ring-boundaries are generally stated to curve in the reverse
direction to those of the Plane—i.e., with their coneavities towards the
centre of the stem—but this does not appear to be so in our section of Fagus
ferruginea. The crowded pores decrease gradually in number and in size
towards the narrow autumn zone, the abrupt outer margin of which clearly
indicates the ring-boundary.+*

The heavy, hard, and exceptionally tough, yellowish-white wood of the
Hornbeam (Carpinus Bétulus) is readily recognizable by the naked eye. Its
rings are remarkably sinuous, and it has a small number of very broad “‘ false ”’
or compound pith-rays made up by the union of numerous narrow ones, and
having ill-defined lateral boundaries. They have not the shining lustre of
those of Beech or Plane. The pores are so far massed in the first-formed
spring-wood and absent in the latest autumn-wood as to mark the rings.
They are largely arranged in short radial lines (Plate XX X.).

The much lighter, soft wood of the Alder (Alnus glutindsa), (Plate XX XT.)
which, from white, dries to a light brown, is recognized by the few broad,
nearly straight compound pith-rays, with very numerous fine simple ones
between them, and the slight undulations of the faint ring-boundaries, which
bend inward at the broad rays. The pores are somewhat fewer in the autumn-
wood, and show a slightly radial grouping. The general occurrence of brown
pith-flecks, which are sometimes concentric, is another discriminating feature.

The diffuse-porous woods with minute pores and with no broad pith-rays
may be subdivided into those in which the pith-rays, though narrow, are
quite distinct to the naked eye, as in Maples, Hollies, Magnoliacee, Lindens, etc.,

1 For further detail see G. S. Boulger, Life-History of the Beech, Quarterly Journal
of Forestry, vol. i. (1907), pp. 230-279.

318 APPENDIX IV

and those in which they are not sc distinct, such as Hawthorn, Pyrus,
Birch, Box, Willows, Poplars, etc. The Maples are hard woods, varying in
colour, in the regularity of their rings, and in the presence or absence of pith-
flecks: they seldom have a distinct heart ; and their pith-rays have a satin-
like lustre which imparts a distinctive shine to the whole surface. The
Sycamore (Acer Pseudoplatanus), (Plate XX XII.), has a moderately hard and
heavy, white wood, with regularly circular annual rings defined by a narrow
line of autumn-wood. Its pith-rays are straight, tapering out at both ends,
white and lustrous. Its pores are numerous, but not crowded, and are often
grouped two to five together.

The Hollies, represented (Plate XX XIII.) here by Ilex opdca, an American
species, have greenish-white, white, or grey wood, generally hard, and fine,
and close in grain. The rings, though often indistinct, are mostly regularly
circular, and are marked by a slight pore-ring. The pith-rays are straight,
sometimes tapering, not markedly satiny, and far more conspicuous in longi-
tudinal sections than in transverse ones. The pores are mostly in long radial
TOWS.

The wood of Liriodéndron tulipifera, the Tulip-tree (Plate XX XIV.), and
that of the closely allied American Cucumber-tree, Magnolia acuminata, dis-
tinguished by broader sapwood, come to market as “ Canary Whitewood.”
It is white, canary-yellow, or grey, and, being a quick-growing species, has
often wide rings, so that the confusion of its wood with that of the Poplars
was excusable. A slight diminution in the number and size of its pores
characterizes the narrow zone of autumn-wood by which the rings are defined,
The rings are for the most part evenly circular. The pith-rays are numerous,
straight, colourless, and hardly visible to the naked eye; and the pores are
numerous, crowding almost all the space between the rays, and varying
slightly in size.

Though not in any way systematically related to the Magnolidcee or the
Linden, between which it stands in our classification, the wood of Laquid-
dmbar styraciflua, variously known as Bilsted, Sweet Gum, Californian Red
Gum, Satin Walnut, and Hazel Pine (Plate XXXV.), has many points of
structural resemblance to that of the former. Its wide rings are clearly
marked by a fine line of autumn-wood ; its numerous pith-rays are fine and
straight ; and its numerous pores are nearly uniform in size, and crowded
throughout the spaces between the rays. Some of these pores contain the
hygroscopic gum or balsam, known as “ styrax,”’ which produces both warp-
ing and twisting of the wood. ‘The soft tissue is represented by small isolated
patches. Satin Walnut, when grown on high ground, is marked by dark-
brown or smoky false-rings.

Tilia americana, the Basswood (Plate XX XVI.), does not differ much from
our European Lindens. Its rings are not very clearly defined, and have a
wavy contour. Its pith-rays are numerous, but not equidistant, fine, straight,
and less lustrous than those of the Maples ; and its pores form a ring of variable
width in the spring-wood, and are also uniformly distributed, often three to six
together, but not crowded, in the rest of the ring. There are very narrow

APPENDIX IV 319

areola of soft tissue round the pores. The wood as a whole has not the silky
lustre of the Maples.

Diffuse-porous woods in which the pith-rays are not distinguishable by the
naked eye, comprise a hard and a soft series, the former including the Haw-
thorn, Pyrus, Birch, and Box.

Oratégus Oxyacdntha, the Hawthorn (Plate XX XVII.), is a very hard and
heavy, but lustreless, wood, which has been recommended as a substitute for
Box, but seldom comes to market. Its rings are indistinct and wavy ; its
pith-rays very numerous ; and its pores very numerous, minute, and evenly
distributed, and sometimes grouped two or three together. Pith-flecks are
numerous in this wood.

Whilst the genus Primus and the rest of the Amygddlew have visible pith-
rays and a spring pore-zone, the Pomdcee, another Tribe of the Rosdcew, to
which the Hawthorn and the genus Pyrus (Plate XX XVIII.) belong, have
invisible rays, and are diffuse-porous. The wood of the Pear (P. communis)
and the very similar wood of the Apple (P. Malus) are destitute of pith-flecks,
but are liable to warp and crack. Their rings are clearly marked by a greater
crowding of the minute pores in the spring-wood and their absence in the fine
line of dense autumn-wood. The pith-rays are numerous, not quite equi-
distant, fine, and undulating ; and the pores are often grouped two to five
together, or in loose “‘ worm-like ”’ lines. The generally similar wood of the
sub-genus Sérbus, including the Rowan, ete., in which pith-flecks do occur, is
stated to season better than Apple or Pear wood.

The tough, close-grained and moderately hard woods of the Birches have a
fairly uniform type, of which we may take Bétula lénta, the Canadian Birch
(Plate XX XIX.), as a representative. The rings are tolerably clearly marked
by a fine line of autumn-wood : the pith-rays are numerous, not equidistant,
undulating, fine, and uniform in thickness; and the pores are of medium
size, so as to be visible “ like fine white flour sprinkled over the surface of a
solid section,” evenly distributed, but not very numerous, and mostly sub-
divided into groups of two to five or more together. Pith-flecks occur mostly
near the centre—7.e., in the older wood.

Among the soft-wooded broad-leaved trees few are of much importance as
timber ; but Sdlix dlba, the White Willow (Plate XL.), or, perhaps, rather
S. fragilis, the Crack Willow, is exceptionally valuable for cricket-bats.
Apart from colour and physical tests, there is nothing in the microscopic
structure of Willow-wood that will suffice to enable us to discriminate species
or qualities.1 The wide rings are clearly defined, with a somewhat undulating
contour, where the fewer and smaller pores of the denser autumn-wood con-
trast with the numerous larger ones of the spongy spring-wood. The pith-
rays are very numerous, very fine, and nearly equidistant, being rather more
than the width of one large pore apart and undulating slightly to avoid these
pores. The pores are very numerous, small, oval, occasionally subdivided,

1 Stone, Timbers of Commerce, p. 236; and an admirable, fully illustrated paper
on “The Variations of Sdlix alba,’ by E. R. Pratt, Quarterly Journal of Forestry,
vol. i. (1907), pp. 320-337.

320 APPENDIX IV

and sometimes form a pattern of oblique lines. Pith-flecks, usually abundant
in the Sallow or Goat-willow (Sdlix Caprea), are present in S. dlba, but appar-
ently absent in S. fragilis.

The wood of the Conifer, the Needle-leaved trees, known commercially as
“soft wood,” is far simpler in structure than that of the trees of which we
have been speaking, as may be seen by a glance at Plates XLI. to XLVIII.
Its annual rings are generally well defined by the contrast of harder, heavier,
and darker autumn-wood against the softer and lighter spring-wood. The
pith-rays are so fine as to be hardly noticeable even in our highly magnified
plates ; and there are no trachez or pores, the wood—with the exception of
the pith-rays and sometimes of resin-ducts—being entirely made up of
tracheids. The very general presence of bordered pits on the side-walls of
these tracheids (see Fig. 15) renders longitudinal sections of value in the dis-
crimination of this group. The presence or absence of resin-ducts (Figs. 13
and 14) forms a useful character by which to subdivide these woods. They
are absent, or nearly so, in the Silver Firs (Abies), Hemlock Spruces (7'stiga),
Yews (Tdxus), Junipers (Juniperus), Redwoods (Sequoia), Cedars (Cédrus),
and Cypresses (Cupréssus) ; while they are present in the Spruces (Picéa),
Larches (Larix), and Pines (Pinus).

The Yew (Zdxus baccdta), (Plate XLI.), has a narrow, yellowish sapwood,
contrasting with its brownish-red, Mahogany-like heart. The narrow annual
rings are sharply defined by a dark zone of autumn-wood. The pith-rays,
which are only one row of cells in width, contain some resin. In longitudinal
section this wood is readily recognized by the presence of spiral thickening
bands in the tracheids, as well as pits.

Sequoia sempervirens, the Californian Redwood, (Plate XLII.) has a narrow
light amber-coloured sapwood and a uniform light red, very soft and very
light heart. It is usually slowly grown, the annual rings, though varying
considerably, being narrow. They are clearly defined by a line of thicker-
walled autumn tracheids. The pith-rays are very distinct with a lens, not
eguidistant, fine, uniform, and fairly straight. Resin occurs in isolated cells,
resembling ruby beads. The tracheids, forming the bulk of the wood, are
jJarge and thin-walled. The wood has no fragrance.

Cédrus Libani, the Cedar of Lebanon (Plate XLIII.), is light, soft, or
moderately hard, yellowish or reddish-brown, and fragrant. The rings are
well marked by a dense autumn zone. Pith-rays are fine, not equidistant,
uniform, and fairly straight. True resin-ducts do not occur ; but occasionally
rows of large resin-cells appear.

In structure Picéa alba, the White Spruce of North America (Plate XLIV.),
resembles the Common or Norwegian Spruce (P. excélsa), represented in
Figs. 12 and 13. The heartwood and sapwood are alike of a yellowish white,
and hardly distinguishable. The broad rings, however, are very clearly
defined by the darker and harder zone of autt mn-wood made up of radially
compressed tracheids (Fig. 13), and they are slightly undulating in contour ;
whilst in the European species this contrast of colour and hardness is not so
marked. The pith-rays are numerous, straight, and one cell broad. The

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APPENDIX IV 321

vertical resin-ducts are few, but distinctly visible (Fig. 13), whilst the hori-
zontal ones are less easily seen. Two are probably visible on the right-hand
side of our plate.

The Larch (Ldrix européa), (Plate XLV.), has a reddish-brown heart-
wood, well defined from the yellowish sapwood which may extend through
from six to twenty years’ growth. The rings are fairly broad, slightly undu-
lating in contour, and very sharply defined by the broad dark autumn zone.
The pith-rays resemble those of the Spruces. The resin-ducts are few in
number, and are often grouped in twos and threes.

Pseudotsiga Douglasii, variously, but not quite accurately, known as
Oregon Pine, Douglas Spruce, or Douglas Fir (Plate XLVI.), in many char-
acters, such as colour, definition of rings, and resin-ducts, much resembles
Larch. It is, however, usually of a rather more rosy red ; its vertical resin-
ducts are sometimes more clustered together, sometimes in lines of from eight
to thirty ; and horizontal ones are frequent. In a longitudinal section it can
be seen that the tracheids of the spring-wood are spirally thickened, whilst
those of the Larch are not. .

Whilst the highly resinous woods of the true Pines (Pinus) resemble those
of the Larch and Douglas in their well-defined heart and spring and autumn
zones, they are distinguished by the greater number and size of their resin-
ducts, which are distributed with considerable uniformity throughout the
rings. The knots in Pine wood, moreover, are generally approximately in
whorls, whilst those of Larch are irregularly distributed. As already stated
(p. 241), the Pines fall into two series, known as “ hard” and * soft.” The
former includes the Scots Fir, or Northern Pine (Pinus sylvéstris), Corsican
(P. Laricio), and Cluster (P. Pindster) Pines of Europe, and most of the North
American species, of which Pinus palistris, the Pitch Pine of English com-
merce (Plate XLVII.), may be taken as a type. ‘Their greater hardness
and weight is generally indicated by a darker colour, ranging from yellow to
deep orange or brown, while their autumn-wood generally forms a considerable
proportion of the width of each ring, and is somewhat sharply marked off from
the spring-wood. Their resin-canals are chiefly in the autumn-wood. When
seen in radial section (Fig. 30), the tracheids of their pith-rays are seen to
have irregular tooth-like (‘‘ dentate’) projections. In the Pitch Pine—the
Long-leaved Pine, or Pensacola Pitch Pine of the United States—the resin-
ducts are comparatively few, and with such delicate or imperfect epithelium
that they are commonly torn in section-cutting. Its rings are narrower
than those of most European Pines.

The Soft Pines, on the other hand, of which Pinus Strdbus, the Yellow Pine
of English commerce, the White Pine of its native North America, and the
Weymouth Pine of gardens (Plate XLVIII.), may be taken as a type, have
their greater softness indicated by their lighter colours, which range from
light-red to white. The zone of autumn-wood is narrow, and merges gradually
into the spring-wood on its inner margin. The resin-ducts occur alike in—
spring- and autumn-wood ; and in the radial section no dentate projections
occur on the sides of the tracheids.

21

322 NOTES

NOTE A.
CELLULOSE (p. 5).

Though in the text cellulose is treated as a single substance, it is there
suggested that the term belongs rather to a group of allied substances. These
differ, perhaps, rather in chemical constitution or structure than in percentage
composition. Among them have been distinguished “ pectocelluloses ” in
fleshy roots, fruits, etc., ‘‘ muco -celluloses”’ in certain seeds and fruits,
‘* adipocelluloses’’ in cork, ‘‘ cutocelluloses”? in epidermis, and “ ligno-
celluloses ’’ in the cell-walls of woody tissues. These last are original con-
stituents of these cell-walls, and not the result of chemical changes during the
process of thickening the walls. They apparently contain rather more
oxygen than pure cellulose, being compounded with certain other substances
which modify their chemical reactions. For example, while the purer
cellulose of cotton-wool turns blue when treated with chlor-zinc-iodine, the
lignocelluloses become yellow.

NOTE B.
THE RECENT APPRECIATION OF TIMBER (p. 111).

At the Conference on Afforestation held in a committee-room of the House
of Lords on June 25, 1907, Dr. Schlich brought forward statistics showing
that from 1890 to 1906 the average price of all imported timber had risen
17 per cent., while that of coniferous timber had risen 30 per cent.

NOTE C.
NEw AFRICAN TIMBERS (p. 101).

A variety of new tropical hardwoods have recently reached the Liverpool
market from Southern Nigeria, and specimens of them were exhibited in the
Tropical Products Exhibition of September, 1907, in that city. As full
mention has been made in the text of the African Mahoganies and of Iroko,
it is mainly necessary to refer here to several Walnut-substitutes. Of these
the wood of which the Benin name is “‘ Apopo Enwiwa,” a species of T'richilia
(Natural Order Melidcee), and, therefore, in reality a Mahogany, but sold in
Liverpool as ‘“‘ African Walnut,” is one of the best. It is brown to dark-
brown, having numerous dark veins, but no figure, works easily, and is alto-
gether a very good furniture wood. ‘‘Owowe” (Albizzia sp.; Natural
Order Leguminése), very similar to the allied “‘ East Indian Walnut,” or
“Koko ” of the Andaman Islands (A. Lébbek), is dark-brown, lustrous, rather
coarse-grained, moderately strong, and obtainable in large dimensions. It
should prove valuable now that true Walnut is becoming scarce. “* Odono-
mokyuku ” (Boswéllia Klainei ; Natural Order Burserdcee), which has also

NOTES 323

been sold as “ African Walnut,” is, however, very inferior, lihgt in weight,
coarse-grained, and taking a poor finish.

In addition to these the “ African Satinwood,” “‘ Ainyassan-gwe,”’ a species
of Cassia (Natural Order Legumindse), is a large tree, yielding a bright
eanary-yellow wood, which is firm and close in texture, and should prove
valuable for panelling or cabinet-work.

The so-called ‘“ African Greenheart,” ‘‘ Okan” (Piptadénia sp.; Natural
Order Legumindse), proved not to be durable, and is, therefore, valueless as
a substitute for the Demerara wood.

Among a series of timbers from Uganda recently described by Mr. Stone,
the most important is, perhaps, ‘‘ Muvube” (Chloréphora rustica Benth. ;
Natural Order Mordce), allied to the Iroko of the West Coast, and a yellowish-
brown, extremely hard and durable wood.

1 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. v. (1907), No. 2.

INDEX

The scientific (Latin) names are in

ABBREVIATIONS employed,
120-1

Abele, 259

Abies, 41, 175

amabilis, 41, 175

balsamea, 41, 174

concolor, 41, 175

excélsa, 275

grandis, 41, 175

homolépis, 99

Khitrow, 277

magnifica, 41, 175

nobilis, 175

pectindta, 20, 41, 82,
89, 98, 175

sachalinénsis, 100

Smithiana, 277

Tsuga, 290

—— Webbidana, 41,175

Abnoos, 169

Actcia, 44, 64, 80, 103,
104, 123, 313

acuminata, 219

aneura, 218

Angico, 127

aulacocarpa, 297
binervata, 296
Catechu, 197
catechuoides, 197
Cedar, 123
Cunninghamii, 219
dealbata, 79, 297
dectirrens, 296-7
doratoxylon, 218, 275
excélsa, 191
falcata, 203, 219
False, 13
floribunda, 266
glaucéscens, 219, 263
glaucophylia, 170
harpophylla, 219
homalophylla, 44, 89,
101, 219
horrida, 289
juniperina, 297
longifolia, 266

arabica, 44, 87, 135-6 |

| Acle, 79, 100, 123-4

Acacia melandxylon, 83. |
86, 102, 144
microbotrys, 183
mollissima, 89, 296-7
péndula, 219,293 |
Plum, 123 |
pycnantha, 297
salicina, 299 |
seyal, 272
Sundra, 197
stenophylla, 190
Three-thorned, 205
ecu 123, 154, 206-7
Acapu, 294
Aceitillo, 271
Acer, 52, 212-215
—— barbdtum, 52, 63, 78, |

|
|
|
|
|

83, 85, 88, 109, |
214-215
—— Campbéllii, 90, 213
—— campéstré, 52, 84,
212-3

levigatum, 213
Lobeli, 213
macrophyllum, 214
Negiundo, 52, 213
oblongum, 213
opulifolium, 52
pennsylvanicum, 52,
215
pictum, 39, 90, 213
platanoides, 52, 97,
213-4
polymorphum, 213
Pseudo-platanus, 5
88, 255, 281-2, 318
rubrum, 52, 214
saccharinum, 52, 215
Acetic acid, 92
Acha maram, 127
Achras Sap ota, 86,151,269

Acrocarpus fraxinifolius,
159

italics.

Adina cordifolia, 39, 184
Aisculus, 89
—— flava, 150

| —— glabra, 150

—— hippocastanum, 89,

189

| —— indica, 150
| —_— turbindta, 289

African timbers, 103-4,
322-3
Afzélia bijuga, 78, 81, 100,
272

—— palembanica, 86, 216
Agallocha, Black, 169
Agallochum, 169

Agaricus mélleus, 60-1

Agathis australis, 59, 78,
79, 86, 103, 196
—— Palmerstoni, 101, 245:

| —— robusta, 101, 245

Agilawood, 169

Aguacate, 135

Ah-pill, 124

Ailantus, 29, 47, 124

Ailanthus glandulosa, 124

Aini, 127

Ainyassan-gwe, 323

Akagashi, 124, 231

Aka-matsu, 246

Akashide, 124

Akrot, 294-5

Al, 154

Alano, 125

Alaska, 106, 110

Albero di paradiso, 124

Albizzia, 85, 322

Julibrissin, 273

Lébbek, 39, 45, 200,
296, 312, 322

odoratissima, 200

pr cera, 312

Tobna, 123

Alder, 4, 24, 29, 52, 62, 80,

88, 89, 90, 91, 92,

Acronychia Bateri, 132
Adendnthera pavonina, 81,
85, 93, 268

324

98, 125, 317
—— American, or Hoary,.
125

Alder, Berry-bearing, 51,

—— Red, 125

—— White, 125

Aléctryon excélsum, 234

Alerce, 84, 126, 289

Aleurites triléba, 296

Alexandrian laurel, 79

Algarrobo, 126, 204

—— de miel, 205

Algerian woods, 103

Almez Americano, 184

Almond, Horse, 279

——— Indian, 126

= — jail, UPS

Almug, 268

Alnus, 52

—— glutinosa, 89,125,317

—— wncana, 125

—— maritima, 184

—=— rubra, 125

—— rhombifolia, 125-6

Aloes-wood, 169

Alphitonia excélsa,
164, 202

Alseodaphné
folia, 261

Alsténia scholaris, 85, 90,
161

Altingia excélsa, 4

Aludel, 167

Alvier, 244

Am, 212

Amanoa guianénsis, 202

Amaranthe, 126, 260

Amarantholz, 260

Amarello Pao, 126

Ambalam, 256

Ambara, 256

Amboyna-wood, 87, 126

Ameixero, 126, 268

Ameldnchier canadénsis,

D2,

—— Grand, 272

American timbers,
110 .

Amerimnon Ebenus, 169

Amla ka, 126

Amlika, 283

Amli ka jhar, 283

Amoreira de espinho, 176

Amra, 256

Amrataca, 256

Amygddlee, 319

Amyris balsamifera, 176

Anacardium occidentale,
154

Anan, 79, 80, 126-7

Ancona, 127

Anderson, Sir John, 117

Andira Aubletii, 238, 294

—— fraxinifolia, 79,127

133,

104-

semicarpi- |

INDEX

| Andira inérmas, 88, 106,
| 127, 238
Andiroba, 127, 164-5
Angelim vermelho, 79, 127
Angelin, 106, 127
Angelique, 77, 82, 105,
127
Angelly, 77, 127
Angico, 127
Angica vermelho, 127
Angiosperms, Wood of, 2,3 |
Angdphora intermédia, 128
—— lanceolata, 128, 181
—— subvelutina, 128
Aniba guianénsis, 300
Animals, Injurious, 63-4
Anisoptera thurifera, 201
Anjan, 35, 44, 87, 100, 127
Annual rings, 2, 3
Anédbium, 64
Anogeissus latifolia, 87,167 |
| Anona, 238 |
| Anonaceee, 39
| Ants, White, 63-4
| Apa, 173
| Aphanathé phillip pi- |
nénsis, 173, 291
| Api-api, 212
Apodytes dimididta, 239
Apopo Enwiwa, 322
| Apple, 53, 127-8, 319 |
| —— Black (or Brush), 128
| Emu, 128 |
| —— Mooley, 257 |
Oregon Crab, 128
tree, 128, 178, 181
tree. Broad-leaved, |
| 128 |
tree, Narrow-leaved,
128
| Apricot. St. Domingo, 211
| —— Wild, 211
| Aquildria Agdllocha, 169
Arang-mill, 145
| Aqulugin, 169
| Arar, 83, 128, 289
| Araragi, 301-2
| Arariba, 302
| Araroba, 302
Araucaria Bidwilli, 152
—— Cunninghami, 79,
83, 86, 101 |
| —— imbricata, 244
| Arbor-vitz, 40, 128, 160 |
= Lobb’s, 156 |
| Arbutus Menziésii, 201
| Arctostdphylos piingens,
| 212
| Argan, 128
Argania Siderdxylon, 103, |
| 128
_ Aristotélia racemosa, 211

joes

|
|
|
|
|

325

Arjun, 128-9

Armillaria, 60-1

Arolla, 244

Aroo, 233

Artocarpus Chaplasha, 90,
161

hirsuta, 77, 127

integrifolia, 85, 193

nobilis, 167

pubéscens, 167

Arve, 244

Asada, 129

Asam, 283

| Asan, 265

Asenga Mopani, 103

| Ash, 4, 24, 29, 30, 35, 45,

64, 70, 78, 80, 82,
83, 84, 87, 88, 89,
90, 98, 117, 129-
130, 242
American, 79, 87,
130-1, 313
Arkansas, 134
Bee-sucken, 87, 129
Black, 46, 110, 131-2
213
Black Mountain, 134
Blue, 132
Blueberry, 132
Brown-barked, 134
Brush, 132
Cabinet, 132
Cape, 86, 104, 132
Common,45,129-130
Elder-berry, 132
English, 45-6, 78,
129-130
European, 79, 129-
130
Green, 45, 132-3
Grey. 134
Ground, 130, 131
Hoop, 131
Hungarian, 84, 129
Kabyle, 103
Maiden, 130
Moreton Bay, 133
Mountain, 133-4,
178, 179
Nova Scotia, 131
Oregon, 134
percentage, 114
Prickly, 134
Pyrenean, 129
Quebec, 130-1
Red, 46, 133,134,233
White, 45, 130-1
Rock, 134
Swamp, 134
Water, 134

| Asiatic forests, 99-100

Asimina trildba, 237-8

326

Aspen, 88, 89, 92, 97, 98, | Bassia latifolia, 39,

134-5

—— American, 135
—— Large, 259
—-— Large-tooth, 135
Aspidospéerma, 240, 260
Asp, Quaking, 135
Assegai-wood, 86, 104, 135
Astrocadryum

177
Atchoourgo, 152
Atherosperma

269-70
Athrotaxis

160
selaginotdes, 160

cupressoides,

sclerocarpa, |

Australian timbers, 101-2 |

Austrian forests, 98-9
Avocado pear, 135
Axe-breaker, 135
Aydéndron canélla, 154
Azadirachta indica, 215

Babela, 81, 135, 220
Babla, 135-6

INDEX

210-1

_—— longifolia, 81, 210-1
| Basswood, 53, 85, 137,
318-9

ae 3 |
moschata,

Bast, 9-10, 13

Bastard faces, 66-7

Bat and ball, 235

Batitinan, 78

Bauhinia Carr oénii, 170

—— Hodkeri, 170

Bauschinger, 114, 116-17-
18-19

| Bavarian forests, 98

Bay, Bull, 206

| Bay-wood, 86, 207

Bead-tree, 137
Bean, Red, 158

| —— tree, 162

Babul, 44, 87, 100, 135-6 |

Backhotsia myrtifolia, 220-1

—— scadidphora, 220

Badjong, 183

Baden torests, 98

Bagassa guianénsis, 136

Bagasse, 136

Bahira, 220

Bakam, 269

Bakula, 136

Balan, 287

Balata, 105, 151

Balkan rose, 88

Ballow, 136

Balm of Gilead fir, 174

Baloghia licida, 145

Balsam fir, 175

Ban, 231

Banaba. 78, 100, 136

Bandara, 44, 136

Bangalay, 209

Banksia, 136, 140, 187

Banksia littoralis, 136

—— margindta, 86, 187

—— integrifolia, 188

—— serrata, 188, 310

Banyan, 44

Baobab, 104

Baphia nitida, 93, 153

Barberry, 29, 31, 36, 48,
136

Barniz falso de Japan, 124

Barranduna, 136

Barringtonia acutangula,
234

Barwood, 137

Basilikon, 294.

Beati, 137

| Bearberry, 151

Becaim, 134

Ledfordia salicina, 168

Beech, 4, 24, 30, 31, 35,
395 152; 515, 09.605
62, 78, 80, 82, 84,
87, 89, 92, 97, 98,
SOS TOM Mie os
37-95 M48a0 163:
294, 317

American, 139

Australian White,
133

Black, 140

Blue, 52, 87

Cape, 139

Evergreen, 139, 220

Indian, 139

Negro-head, 139

Red, 139

She, 140, 282

Water, 255

White, 52, 79, 133,
138, 140 —

Beefwood, 82, 86,
Idi 232235240

Beetles, Wood-boring, 64

Bee-tree, 137

Beilschmiedia Tardiri, 284

—— Nawa, 284

Belbil, 213

Beleyleh, 220

Bell, Dr. Robert, 110

Bendi, 292-3

Benten, 273

Berberis, 29, 36, 48

Bereza, 141

Berosh, 242

Bérrya Ammonilla, 290

Betis, 78, 100, 140

Bétula alba, 89, 141-2

140,

| —— Bhojpatra, 143

—— excelsa, 109

Beétula lénta, 78, 85, 142-5,
210, 319
lutea, 142, 143
papyrifera, 89, 142
populifolia, 143
pubéscens, 142
—— verrucosa, 142
Beukenhout, 139
Beuke, Rood, 137-8
Bharjapatri, 143
Bhurjama, 143
Bibiru, 177
Bibla, 287
Bibliography,Select, 307-5
Big-tree, 140
Bija, 287
—— Sal, 85, 287
Billa, 232
Billian, 77, 100, 141
Billy Web, 169
Bilsted, 53, 182-3, 318
Binburra, 138
Bintangor, 257
Birch, 4, 24, 29, 30, 35, 70,
82, 83, 84, 88, 89,
90, 92, 96, 97, 98,
99, 109, 41-2,
304, 319
—— American, 142
Black, 78, 142, 284
Canadian, 319
Canoe, 89, 110, 142
Cherry, 142
Common, 141-2
European, 141-2
Grey, 143
Indian paper, 145
Mahogany, 142
Old Field, 143
Paper, 142
Poplar-leaved, 145
Red, 212, 284
River, 143
Silver, 141-2, 284
Sweet, 142-3
Tall, 143
White, 141-2
Yellow, 109. 143
Bird-Cherry, 110
Bird’s-eye grain, 32
—— Maple, 63
Biti, 145
Bitterwood, 260
Biwa, 205
Bjork, 141
Blackbutt, 78,82, 101, 102,
133, 144, 179, 181, 239
Blackeye, 292
Blackthorn, 51, 88, 144
Blackwood, 40, 80, 85. 86,
100, 101, 102, 144-5,
300

Blackwood, African, 145
= Australian, $3, LO,
144
—— Bombay, 137, 145
—— Malabar, 145
Bladdernut, 53
Blauholz, 205
Bleistift-holz, 159
Bloodwood, 82, 101, 145,
190
Brush, 145, 263, 292
Mountain, 145-6
Scrub, 145
Smooth-barked,
145-6 |
—— Yellow, 145-6
Blueberry, 195
Blue Gum, 196
Blutholz, 205
Boco, 146
Bocéa prouacénsis, 146
Bog onion, 158
Bois beni, 147
canelle, 270
chaire, 146
commun, 147
d’Aigle, 169
dare, 235
de cotelet, 173
de couleuvre, 274
de féroles, 270
de natte, 146
d’Orange, 176 |
-de resonnance, 38,
Patt Th
de Rhodes, 165
de rose, 263, 291
de IlOcéanie,
292-3
SS —— Haux, 292-3
de Table, 281
des Rhodes des Par-
fumeurs, 264
dor du Cap, 265
dur, 189
fidéle, 173
graine bleu, 146
lezard, 146
marbre, 270
mulatre, 146
puant, 279
Riviere, 106, 296
rouge, 59
Shavanon, 154
tressé, 296
Bolongnita, 100, 146, 169
Bombax, 45
—— Céiba, 164
—— malabaricum, 4, 36,
90
—— mompoxénsé, 269
Boniato amarillo, 281

INDEX

Boona, 145

Boot-lasts, 96

Boree, 219

—— White, 132

Borneo woods, 100

Bostrychida, 64

Boswéllia Klainei, 323

Bottle-brush, Red, 146

—— White, 146

Boucherie’s process, 73

Boule, 84

BOX; (325309, 28, 80; 84,
88, 97, 147, 153,
178, 180, 240

BairnsdaleGrey,102,
149

Bastard, 148, 149,
180, 181-2, 299

Bembil, 180

Black,181-2, 279-280

Brisbane, 101, 148

Broad-leaved, 280

Brown, 149

Brush, 148

Cape, 88, 104, 148

China, 148

Cooburn, 181-2

Dwarf, 148-9

Elder, 52, 213

Flooded, 148-9

Grey, 102, 149, 153,
179, 181-2

Gum - topped, 101,

153-4

—— Tronbark, 149, 279-
280

——— Jamaica, 88) 05;
149

Knysna, 149
Narrow-leaved,
148-9
Native, 150
Poplar, 149, 180
Red, 148, 149, 180
Stanthorpe, 79
Yellow, 102, 149-
150, 153-4, 181-2
Boxthorn, 150
—— White, 78, 149, 153-4
180, 240
Boxwood, 168, 235
Boyung, 273
Brabéejum
126
Braziletto, 86, 93, 150
Brazilian timbers, 104-5
Brazil wood, 93, 105, 150
Break-axe, 192
Bresil de St. Marthe, 238
Brettbaum, 281
Briar, 89, 134, 150
—— root, 150

stellatifolium,

327

| Bridge timbers, 107
| Brigalow, 219, 275

| Brosimum

—— Mountain, 219
Brimstone-tree, 154
British Columbia, 109
Broom, 88, 150
Aublétii,
88, 202, 274
Bruchweide, 298
Bruinhart, 294
Brush, 136
Bruyére, 89
Brya Ebenus, 86, 88, 105,
163, 169, 170, 176
Bucida angustifolia, V7
Buckeye, 89, 90
== Ohio; 150
—— Sweet, 150
Buckthorn, 29, 32, 51, 91,
92, 150-1, 167
—— Canadian, 151
Bud, structure of, 5, 7
Buddleia salviefolia, 86,
266
Buffelsbal, 87, 151
Building timbers, 81-2
Bukampadaruka, 256
Bullet-wood, 39, 87, 105,
106, 151, 269
—— Andaman, 151
=== Bastards46, lolol:
Bully, 151, 269 =
—— Naseberry, 151
Bumélia obtusifolia, 188
Bundles, Fibro - vascular,
OP eZ
Bunya-bunya, 152
Burgan, 285
Burnettizing, 73
Buro-koro, 202
Burrs, 33, 63
Bursdria spinosa, 150
Bursera gummifera, 142
Buruch, 151
Buruta, 271
Butter-bush, 299
Butternut, 51, 152, 316
Butter-tree, 210-1
Button-ball tree, 255
Buttonwood, 51, 152, 255
Butyrospérmum Parki, 265
Bixus longifolia, 147
—— Macowdnii, 88, 104,
148
—— sempervirens, 88, 147
Byrsénima spicita, 217

15,

Caariwan, 275
Cabbage-bark, 152
Cabbage, Jersey, 87
—— palm, 238
—— tree, 127

328 INDEX

Ee: 210

bijuga, 93, 150

brasiliénsis, 86, 93,
150

Canelle, 154

Canes, 87
Cannon-ball tree, 154
Canoe-wood, 291

—— crista, 93, 150 Caoba, 206-7
—— echindta,93,105.238 Cape Gelbeae Timbers ae
—— melanocarpa, 177-8 104

Sappan, 93, 269
tinctoria, 93, 150
Cagueyran, 82, 152
Cailcedra, 152, 208-9
Cajeput, 152

Cape Plane, 261
Caper-tree, 256
Capparis Mitchélli, 235
—— nobilis, 256
Caraba, 164-5

Calabash, 152 /Carana, 136
Calamander maram, 152 | Carapa grandiflora, 165
—— wood, 87, 152 —— guianénsis, 105, 164,

Caliaturholz, 268

Californian Redwood for-
ests, 106

Calliper measurement, 303

Callistémon lanceolatus,146 |

—— salignus, 146-7

Callitris, 42

—— arborea, 156

—— quadrivalvis, 289

—— rhombdidea, 79

—— robusta, 79, 81, 101,

165, 315
guineénsis, 165
guyanénsis, 165
moluccénsis, 154
procera, 165
| Carapo, 164-5

/Carbeen, 133

_Carbonizing, 72

Cardwéllia siblimis, 176,

| 233

| Cargillla australis, 256
166 [—— pentamera, 220

—— verrucosa, 102 Carob, 88, 154

Calodendron capénsé, 162 | Carpentry woods, 82

Calophyllum, 32, 257, 313 | CEs 52

—— angustifolium, 257 bétulus, 83, 188, 317,

—— Calaba, 86, 105, 106, | —— carolinidna, 87, 192
268 —— laxiflora, 124

—— Inophyllum,78-9,80, | Carriage-building woods,

86, 100, 209, 257 83
—— tomentdosum,183, 257 Carua, 294
Calshum, 152-3 Carya, 185
Calycophyllum candidis- Cdrya alba, 186
simum, 166-7 —— amara. 186

—— multiflorum, 237
Camara, 79, 153
Cambhoji, 268
Cambium, 9, 30
Campbell, F. A.,
Campeche, 205
Camphor, Borneo, 153
—— Nepal. 153
—— tree, 37, 153
—— wood, 166
———— Australian, 153
———— Martaban, 153
Camwood, 153
Canadian forests, 110

aquatica, 186
glabra, 186
porcina, 186
sulcata, 186
tomentosa, 186

| —— glabrum, 274-5
'—— tomentosum, 274-5
Cashew-nut, 154
Cassia, 323

—— Fistula, 311
|—— sidmea, 137
Castanea, 48, 80,
—— pumila, 163

314

—— Oak, 110 —— sativa, 78, 88, 162
—— timber export, 109- —— vulgaris, var. ameri-
110 cana, 81, 162

Canari macaque, 217

Canary Whitewood, 37, 163

290-1, 318 —Castanospérmum australé,
—— wood, 153-4, 291 101, 162
Canella, 154 Casuarina, 4, 32, 104,
—— preta, 79, 82 232-234

Caryocar butyrésum, 274-5

Castanépsis chrysophylla, |

Casuarina Cunninghamit,
232
distyla, 233
equisetifolia, 79, 82,
140, 190, 232, 233
— Fraseriana, 232
| —— glauca, 232
quadrivilwis, 102
stricta, 86, 232, 233
suberosa, 140, Bee
toruldsa, 140, 2
| Catélpa, 46, 154
_—— longissima, 302
| —— speciosa, 154
Catha édulis, 197
| Ceanbthus Chloréxylon, 164
| Cecrdpia palmdata, 290
| —— peltdta, 290 ~
Cedar, 36, 37, 70, 82, 83,
| 100, 101, 105, 106,
| 154-5, 247
| Barbadoes, 155
Bastard, 155, 209
| == ena 155-6,163
Bermuda, 79, 89,
156
| —— Black, 156
| —— Boom, 83
Borneo, 272
Canoe, 40, 156
Cigar-box,156, 315-6
Clanwilliam, 156
Deodar, 156-7
Florida, 159
Guiana, 157
Honduras, 50
Incense, 42, 157
Indian, 156-7, 209
Japanese, 280
Lebanon, 83, 154-5,
320
Mackay, 123
Mexican, 160
Moulmein, 85, 157-8

==

—— Mount Atlas, 983,
1038, 155

—— New Zealand, 158

—— Oregon, 158

Pencil, 86, 89, 101,
104, 140, 158-9,
217

Philippine Islands,
78

Pink, 159

| —— Port Orford, 158

| Postalio

Red, 40, 42, 78, 86,
89, 101, 156, 159

Rock, 159

Sitka, 159-160

Sleepers of, 109

Tasmanian, 160

Cedar, West Indian, 123,
160

—— Western red, 160

—— White, 40, 42, 82,
110, 132, 137, 149,
156, 157, 160, 272

—— Yellow,156, 159-161,
300

Cedre acajou, 123, 160

—— bagasse, 157

—— de Singapore, 157-8

—— de Virginie, 159

Cedréla, 207, 315-6

—— brasiliénsis, 156

—— fissilis, 160

—— guianénsis, 123, 156

—— odorata, 50, 105,
13s) 555 156;
269, 315-6

—— dona, 4, 78, 85, 9
HOO ONE 5 7= :
163, 316

Cedrus, 42

—— atlantica, 83, 103,
155

—— Deodara, 80, 156-7

—— libani, 83, 154-5,
320

Ceiba, 273

Celastrus acumindtus, 87,
Piles

Cells, 5

Cellulose, 5, 90, 322

Céltis, 47

—— qustralis, 84, 221

—— Kraussidna, 279

—— occidentalis, 183-4

Cembrot, 244

Centrol obium robistum,302

Ceratonia Siliqua, 88, 154

Ceratopétalum apétalum,
101, 163, 202

Cercidiphyllum japonicum,
96

Cercis Siliquastrum, 194
Cercocarpus ledifolius, 209
—— parvifolius, 210
Cerillo, 164
Certosina work, 84
Ceylon oak, 198
Chamecy paris
tana, 158
—— nutkaénsis, 159-160
Champa, 81, 161
Champak, 161
Champaka, 161
Chandana, 266, 268
Chandanam, 266, 268
Chaplash, 90, 161
Chaplasha, 161
Charcoal, 91, 106
Charmagz, 294

Lawson-

INDEX

| Chatwan, 85, 90, 161
Cheesewood, 161
Chereen, 130
Cherry, 51, 84,
136, 161
American, 162
Bird, 50
Broad-leaved, 267
Brush, 161, 220
Canadian, 162
Mahaleb, 50
Native, 162
Wild, 151
Wild Black, 162
a VWVINIte ss Loo:
Chestnut, Moreton-Bay,
101, 162
—— Spanish, 24, 32,
36, 39, 48,
81, 82,
314
——— Wir l, IPXGs
Chichipate, 169
Chickrassia tabularis, 85
Chicot, 163
Chikrassi, 163
Chilauni, 80, 163.
Chimarrhis cymosa, 106,
296
China, 107
—— berry, 163
Chinar, 255
Chinquapin, 163
Chippendale, Thomas, 85
Chir, 90, 163, 247
Chittagong-wood, 85,
157-8, 163
Chittim, 84

Sisoos

35,
78, 80,
88, 162,

162

Chloréphora excélsa, 86,
189

—— rustica, 323

—— tinctoria, 93, 105,

176
Chloréxylon Swieténia, 87,
271
Chouk, 233
Chow, 79, 80
Chow-way, 140
Christdorn, 187
Chukrasia tabuldris, 163
Cibicibi, 236
Cinnamémum Camphora,
153
—— glanduliferum,
269
Cipriani, 83
Cirouaballi, 294
= Drowns LOG
Citharéxylum, 83
—— melanocardium, 173

153,

| Citrus, 29

Citron-wood, 83. 103, 289 |

329

Citrus Aurantium, 235
—— australis, 235
—— médica, 235
Citrus-wood, 83
Cleavability, 112
Clématis Vitalba, 8
Clusia insignis, 238
Coachwood, 101, 163
Cobra, 64
Coccoloba uvifera, 176
Cockatoo-bush, 195
Cocoa-nut, 3, 154
Cocobola-wood, 163
| Cocus, 163, 169
Cocos nucifera, 3, 259
Coco-wood, 146
Cocus-wood, 88, 105
Coffee-tree, 47, 163-4
Cogwood, 149, 164
Cola acuminata, 198
Colophospérmum Mopané,
217
Colubrina ferruginésa, 274
—— reclinata, 274
Compass, 100, 164
Combrétum truncatum, 203
| Condalia férrea, 35, 192
Condoriholz, 268
Conducting tissue, 12
Congoholz, 145
Coniferous wood, 2, 16-23,
33, 320-321
Connarus guianénsis, 86,
302
Conversion, 66
Convolvulus floridus, 264
a Scoparius, 264
—— wtrrigatus, 264
Coobagum, 135
Coonam, 248
Coopa, 238
Cooperage woods, 89
Cooper’s wood, 164
Coorung-coorung, 166
Copatfera bractedta,
259-60
—— hymeneifolia, 82,152
Mopané, 191, 217
—— pubiflora, 85, 259
Copalm, 182-3
Corang, 133
Cordia Gerascanthus, 165
—— Myza, 256
Cord of wood, 96
Cork-tree, 164
Cork-wood, 163, 164,
Corkwood-tree, 164
Cormier, 272
Cornel, 164, 167
Cornelian, 168
Cornus, 25
(—— florida, 88, 147, 168

87,

216

3380

Cornus Nuttalli, 168
—— sanguinea, 53, 167
Coromandel- wood, 152,
164
Corylus, 52
Avellana, 184-5
—— Colurna, 184-5
Cossus lignipérda, 64
Cotton-tree, 36, Sues 272
—— White, 272
Cottonwood, 89, 164, 168,
257-8
—— Big, 258
Cree 105, 164, 204
Coumarotna odorata, 105,
289-290
Couaie, 177
Couraivo, 132
Cowassa, 238
Cowdie-pine, 164, 196
Crab-apple, 88
Crab-wood, 105, 164, 315
Cratégus Oxyacintha,
184, 319
Crates, 90
Creosoting, 73-4, 92
Crescéntia Cujété, 152
Cricket-bats, 298
Croc, 268
Crocus-tree, 265
Crow’s-ash, 82
Crushing force, 112
Cryptocarya australis, 201
—— glaucéscens, 138, 140
—— Meissnérii, 202
—— obovata, 282
—— Palmerstoni, 296
Cryptoméria japonica, 280
Cuamara, 105, 290
Cucumber-tree, 53,
165, 238, 291, 318
Cudgerie, 136
Cullonen, 138
Cumbertu, 248
Cunonia capénsis, 86, 159
Cupdania semiglauca, 132
Cupréssus Lawsonidna, 40,
42, 82, 158, 160
nootkaténsis, 109,
159-160
obtusa, 100, 187
sempervirens, 84, 165
thyoides, 40, 42, 82,
LO9, 160
torulosa, 81,
Cup-shake, 55-6
Cupuliferre, 39
Curly grain, 32
Currant-tree, 211
Currong, 296-7

j= hook

Curtisia Vonaitie 86, 104,
135

89,

166

53, |

INDEX

| Curupay, 165

Custard-apple, 39, 238
Cutch, 197

Cypre, Bois de, 165
Cypress, 70, 84, 88, 165
—— Atlas, 103

Bald, 165-6

Black, 165-6
Deciduous, 165-6
Desert, 166
Himalayan, 81, 166

| ——— Indian, 166

Cypress-pines, 42, 81, 101,
102, 166
Cypress-pine, Mountain,

166
—— Red, 156, 165-6
—— Swamp, 165-6
—— White, 165-6
—— Yellow, 159-160
Citisus, 36, 88, 150
—— Labirnum, 170,
313-4
—— scopdrius, 150

Dabi, 154
Dacrydium, 42
—— cupressinum, 86, 262
—— excélsum, 254
—— ferrugineum, 254
—— Franklinii, 78,
86, 102, 189
—— Westlindicum, 253
Dagame, 166-7
Dalbérgia, 44, 170, 264
cultrata, 145, 300
lanceolaria, 40
latifolia, 40, 80, 85,

U8),

145

—— latifolia, var. sis-
soides, 145

—— melanoxylon, 145,
170

—— nigra, 105, 193, 237,
263

Sissoo, 40, 80, 84,
85, 273-4

Dalby Myall, 191

Daminiya, 167

Dammar, White, 254

Dammara australis, 196

—— robusta, 245

Daphnandra, micrantha,
270

Daphne, Native, 168

Dargan, 150

Date-palm, 87

Date, Kafir, 167

Date-plum, 167, 240

Daviésia arborea, 86, 261

Deal, 37, 80, 85, 89, 97,
98, 167, 276, 303-4

| Deal, Dantzic, 167

—— Native, 158
| Prussian, 98
Red, 80, 167, 240
Spruce, 167, 276
White, 89, 97, 167,

Zila
—— Yellow, 167, 240
Deals, Canadian, 276 |
—— Lower Ports, 276
Decay, 37, 58-9
Degame, 166-7
Del, 167
De Lapparent’s process,

1

Den, 149

Density of wood, 113-4
Deodar, 80, 100, 163
Deodhari, 267
Dermatogen, 6
Desmogen, 8-9
Deva-dara, 267
Devadari, 267
Devaderu, 156-7
Devil-wood, 234
Dhaura, 87, 167
Dhoura, 271

Diakar, 283

Didlium indicum, 100,

Indum, 198
laurinum, 198
Maingayt, 198
platysepalum, 198
Dicorynia paraénsis, 105,
—— guianénsis, 77
Dicotyledons, Wood of, 3
Dicypéllium caryophylla-
tum, 154, 270
Diffuse-porous woods, 316
Dillénia indica, 48
—— pentagyna, 39,
Dilo, 257
Di Mora, 78,
105, 217
Does, 44, 85, 311
rahe. 170
Déndo, \70
ebenaster, 169, 170
ébenum, 169
haplostylis, 170
hirsuta, 152
Kurzii, 215, 302
Malacapai, 171
Melanoxylon, 39,
169
mespiliformis, 170
microrhombus, 170
philippénsis, 170
pilosanthera, 100,

257

146, 169

Diospyros questa, 87,
152

rubra, 170
tesselaria, 170
tetraspérma, 105, 170
virginiana, 36, 49,
$7, 240, 314-5
Dipterocarpacee, 47, 171,

Dipterocarpus alatus, 183
—— thurifer, 79, 100,
201

—— tuberculatus, 45, 173

—— turbindtus, 183

Dipteryx odorata, 289-290

Disafforesting, 94

Djati, 285-6

Dodonéa viscosa, 142, 203

Dogo, 212

Dogwood, 25,
51
292

—— Black, 167

—— Striped, 215

—— Western, 168

Domba, 79

Démbeya melan oxylon, 170

Dominica, 106

Dougon, 100, 168

Doolb, 255

Doornboom, 289

Doryphora Sassafras, 270

Douglas Fir, 109, 321

—— Spruce, 35, 36, 43, |°

81, 109, 321
Druxy knot, 59
Dryobalanops aroméatica,
80, 153
Dry-rot, 60, 62-3
Dubina, 208
Duboisia myoporoides,164,

Dudhi, 168
Duguétia quitarénsis, 105,
199

Dunga-runga, 234

Dungon, 78

Dupa-maram, 254

Durobbi, 193

Dye-woods, 93

Dyera costulata, 194

Dysoxylon Fraserianum,
77, 86, 101, 158,
263

—— Muélleri,
158

—— rufum, 155-6

Dysoxylum spectabile, 198

Ut WON:

Eagle-wood, 169
Ebano real, 170
Ebendacee, 39, 311-3

INDEX

Ebénier, Faux, 84, 170
Ebenus, 169

Eberesche, 264

Ebony, 28, 36, 39, 44, 71,

84, 85, 87, 88,
100, 104, 105, 169,
311

Acapulco, 169
American, 169
Bastard, 169
Bombay, 169
Camagoon, 169
Cape, 86, 169
Ceylon, 169
Coromandel, 169
Corsican, 84, 170
Cuba, 170
Cuernavaca, 169
False, 170
Flowered, 88
Gaboon, 170
German, 170
Godavery, 169
Green, 86, 88, 169
Jamaica, 169
Lagos, 170
Macassar, 170
Madagascar, 170
Manila, 170
Mauritius, 170
Mexican, 169
Mountain, 170
Orange River, 169
Purple, 170
Red, 170
Queensland, 170
St. Helena, 170
Senegal, 145
Siam, 169
West Indian, 169
White, 171, 284
Eckebérgia capénsis,
104, 132
Eda Kula, 161
Egolla, 149
Hibe, 301
Hibenbaum, 301
Eki, 171
Eleocarpus cydneus, 132
dentatus, 80, 187
grandis, 152-3
holopétalus, 132
Kirtoni, 133
longifolia, 133
—— oboviatus, 130
Elcodéndron australé, 132,
160
—— croceum, 86, ¢
Elah, 288
Elava, 272
Elder, 8, 24, 25,
171, 293

86,

331

| Elm-bark beetle, 64

| Elm, 18, 25, 32, 35, 36, 48,
63-4, 80, 82, 83,
SA Sie Leni:
314

American, 79, 171,
314

Canadian, 18, 171

Cedar, 48

Cork, 171-2

Crow’s-foot, 273

Dutch, or Sand, 172

English, 18, 48, 57,
W7l-2

European, 79

False, 183-4

Grey, 78

Indian, 172

Moose, 172

| —— Red, 48, 172

Rock, 48, 78
Scotch, 48, 172
Slippery, 48, 172
Spanish, 165, 172
Spreading, 173
White, 48
Winged, 48, 173
Els, Klip or Rock Ash,
173
Rood, 86, 159, 178
Elsbeerbaum, 272
Else, 125
Elzenhout, 159
Emmenospermum
toniotdes, 168
Endiandra virens, 235
Eng, 45, 100, 173, 183
Engraving woods, 88
Engyin, 173
Entandrophragma
lénsé, 207-9
—— Candolledna, 207-9
—— Cand odllei, 207-9
Enterolobium Timboitiva,
236
Epe, 127, 173
Epel, 173
Epidermis, 6
Epérua decandra, 272
—— falcdta, 294
—— Jénmani, 294
Epi de blé, 294
Eremophila Mitchelli, 263,
267
—= Sturtit, 267
Eriostémon squameus, 199
Erica arborea, 89, 150
Eriobétrya japonica, 205
Erith process, 72
Erythrina suberosa, 35, 39
Erythrophleum Labouch-
érit, 124

alphi-

Ango-

332

Erythréxylon areolatum,
192

—— monogynum, 267
Espinha de meicha, 268
Espinheiro branco, 176
Essen-boom, 86, 104, 132,
173
Eta-balli, 146
Eucalyptus, 4, 104, 178-
183, 190
acmentottes, 101, 280
amygdalina, 77, 82,
LOW, 1025 133;
144, 181, 239
Baileyana, 178

botryoides, 78, 101,
209
calophylla, 102, 181
capitéllata, 81, 102,
182, 239, 280
cornuta, 102, 299
corymbosa, 82, 101,
145
corynocalyx, 182
crébra, 77, 83, 180,
190
doratoxylon, 275
diversicolor, 77, 82,
102, 196
eugenioides, 280
eximia, 145-6
Jecinda, 183
Globulus, 78, 80, 82,
101, 102, 178-9
gomphocéphala,
78, 102, 288
goniocdlyx, 83, 102,

133, 148, 149,
180
—— Gunnii, 179, 182
—— hemédstoma, 335
144, 181,

hemiphloia, 78, 80,
101, 102, 147, 149,
150, 153-4

largiflorens, 147,180,
181-2, 190

leucéxylon, 77, 101,
133, 147, 179, 190

longicérnis, 180

longifolia, 101, 148,
299

loxophléba, 102, 183

maculata, 78, 101,
182

macrocar pa, 217

—— macrorhyncha, 102,
190, 279

—— margindta, 77, 79,
81, 82, 86, 102,
193

Bosistoana, 102, 149 |

57, |

INDEX

| Eucalyptus melliod ora, 102, |

149-150
microcorys, 78, 82,

101, 210, 239, 282
microthéca, 148-9
Muélleri, 280
Muelleriana, 102
obliqua, 78, 82, 101,

102, 148, 279-280

—— odorata, 147, 239-
40

—— paniculata, 77, 101,
145, 190

pdatens, 102, 144
pauciflora, 133, 179,

populifolia, 149, 180
| —— propinqua, 101
punctata, 148, 180,
202
reduinca, 102, 296
régnans, 102, 1338-4,
144
robusta, 210
resinifera, 180, 210
rostrata, 78, 79, 80,
82, 101, 179, 181
saligna, 78, 101,
149, 179, 180
salmonophloia, 181
salibris, 179-180
siderophloia, 77, 79,
101, 190
sider oxylon, 77, 101,
190
Sieberiana, 102, 133,
144, 179
stellulata, 147, 178
Stuartiana, 78, 79,
1333 Vai ais:
239
tereticornis, 101, 148,
179, 180,
terminalis, 145
tesselaris, 133
versicolor, 316-7
vimindlis, 78,
147, 179, 180
—— virgata, 102
Eucléa pseudébenus,
169
—— undulata, 260
Bucryphia Modrei, 1238,
266
Eugénia fragrans cunedta,
302

82,

86,

180, 239
—— pilularis, 78, 82, |
101, 133, 144
—— piperita, 102, 144,
239, 261
| —— polyanthema, 148,
203

Bugénia mairé, 211

—— myrtifolia, 161, 220

—— Smithii, 204

—— Ventenatii, 220

ELuonymus, 29, 53

—— européus,
236-275

—— lacerus, 39

Euroschinus faledtus, 219

Europe, Forest areas of, 96

Eusiderdxylon Zwagert, 77,

100, 141,
Exocarpus cupressiformis,
162

at

—— latifolia, 267

53, 88,

| Exogenous wood, 3, 9-10

Eyn, 265

Fagréa fragrans, 79, 80,
126-7

Fagus betuloides, 263

—— Cunninghamii, 102,

139, 220 ,

—— ferruginea, 87, 139,
Ay]

fusca, 142, 143, 284

Menziésti, 143, 284

obliqua, 80, 263

Solandri, 82, 142

sylvatica, 78, 117,
137-8

Featherwood, 173

Felsen Eiche, 227

Felt, 26

Fenchelholz, 269

| Fence-posts, 107
| Fencing-woods, 82, 106

Fernow, B. E., 106, 111

Ferolia Guianénsis, 270

—— variegata, 270

Fibres, 12. 28

Fibrous cells, 28

Ficus aurea, 35

—— bengalénsis, 44

—— macrophylla, 310-1

—— Sykomorus, 281-2

Fiddlewood, 83, 173

Fig, 32, 84, 174

—— Blue, 152-3

—— Illawarra (Port Jack-
son or Rusty), 174

—— Large-leaved, or
Moreton Bay, 174,
310-1

—— Leichardt’s
tered, 174

—— Maddagowrie, 132

—— Prickly, 132, 174

Figure, 206, 214-5

Filaof, 233

Fir, 41, 98, 117, 174, 233,

240, 242

Clus-

Fir, Balsam, 41, 110, 174

—— Colorado Silver, 175

== Wriniware, Sy7/5 75 tolls
98, 261

—— Douglas, 79, 81, 321

—— Great Silver, 175

—-— Indian Silver, 175

—— Japanese Hemlock,
290

——— Wier, IY

—— Oregon, 79

=——— Reds 175

—— Riga, 79, 98, 117

—— Saghalien, 100

——— Scots, 4; 78, 80, 117,
175

—— Silver, 4, 41, 92, 98,
175

—— Spruce, 78, 277

—— Swedish, 81, 117

—— Western (or Lovely)
Silver, 175

——— White, 277

Fire-tree, 175-6

Flachenbaum,

piger, 238
Flame-resisting wood, 75
Flatterriister, 173

Dreilap-

Flindérsia australis, 82,
138

—— Chatawaidna, 139,
213

—— Oxleydna, 138, 176,
193

Flindosa, 138, 282
Flintamentosa, 176
Flint-wood, 144
Forest-areas of Europe,

Forest-clearing, 94
Fowke, Captain, 118
Foxiness, 37, 223
France, Timber-supply of,
97-8, 111
Fraxinus, 45
acuminata, 130-1
americana, 45,
85, 130-1, 313
Berlandieriana, 134
canadénsis, 130-1
Caroliniana, 134
excélsior, 45-6, 78,
117, 129-130
lanceolata, 132-3
nigra, 131
Oregona, 134
Pennsylvanica, 132-
3, 134
pistaciefolia, 134
platycarpa, 134
pubescens, 46, 134
quadrangulata, 132

78,

INDEX

| Fraxinus sambucifolia, 46,

Tieis Uh
—— tomentosa, 134
—— velutina, 134
—— viridis, 45, 132-3
Frenéla, 166
—— Endlicheri, 166
—— Parlatorei, 166
—— rhomboidea, 166
—— robusta, 166
Fromage d’Hollande, 164
Fuchsia, 176
—— excorticata, 176
Fuel value, 115
—— wood, 91, 106
Fuji-matsu, 200
Funera, 176
Fungal attack, 59-63
Fura, 241
Furniture woods, 83-6
Furze, 88
Pusdnus cygnorum, 267
—— persicarius, 267
—— spicdtus, 102, 267
Fustic, 93, 105, 176
Fyr, 241

Gaiac, 290

Gabas, 161

Galaba, or
268-9

Galba, 86, 105, 106

Gamble, J. S., 38-9, 116,
309-311

Gandamani, 268

Gangaravi, 292

Gangaw, 192

Gardénia Thunbérgii, 87,
151

Garrong, 296-7

Garuga, 197

—— pinndata, 197

Gashi, 222-225

Geel Hout, 80, 300

Getjera parviflora, 299

Geissospérmum Vellosii,
79, 153

Genévrier, 195, 289

German forests, 98

Gibbons, Grinling, 84-5

Gidgee, LOL

Gidya, 219

Ginkgo biloba, 3

Gleditschia, 47

—— triacanthos, 205

Gmelina arborea, 79, 85

—— Leichhardtii, 79,101,

138

Goat-moth, 64

Gold-spangle wood, 176,
233

Galba, 176,

Gonioma Kamassi, 148,195

333

Goompana, 197

Grain, 32

Granadillo, 105, 169, 176

Grape, Seaside, 176

Greenheart, 35, 58, 77, 80,
94 Ody WiG=re
312

—— African, 323

—— West Indian, 274

Greentop, 179

Grenada, 106

Grevillea robusta, 101, 233

—— striata, 86, 140

Gréwia tiliefolia, 167

Grignon, 177

——. fou, 177

Growth, rates of, 4

Gru-gru, 177

Guatacum, 35, 36, 44,
177-8
—— officindlé, 79, 105,

202-3, 311-2

—— arboéreum, 204

—— sanctum, 203

Guarabu, 78, 177, 260

Guatteria virgata, 199

Guayacan, 177-8, 203

Guaziuma tomentosa, 155

Guelder-rose, 88

Guettarda speciosa,
302

Guiana, Timbers of, 105

Guijo, 78, 100, 265

Guira, 152

Gumbar, 79, 85

Gum, 178-183

Apple-scented, 178

Bailey, 178

Bally, 136

Bastard, 179

Bastard Blue, 179

Black, 178, 292

Blue, 78, 82, 101,
1025 W485 17829"
180, 181, 209

Botany Bay, 210

Broad-leaved Water.
183

Brown, 210

Cabbage, 133, 179

Californian Red,
182-3, 318

Cider, 179

Cotton, 292

Creek, 181

Drooping, 179, 180

Flooded, 78, 179,
180, 181

Fluted, 179-180

Forest, 181

Giant, 133, 179

Gimlet, 179-180

334

Green, 178, 180 |
Grey. 78, 101, 148,
179, 180, 190, 202,
210
Lead, 178, 180
Manna, 179, 180
Morrell, 180
Mountain. 179, 180
Mountain White,
179, 180
Murray Red, 181
Nankeen, 180
Orange, 128
Peppermint, 180-1
Poplar-leaved, 149
Red, 53, 78, 79, 82,
101, 102, 128, 150,
178, 181, 202, 210,
240
Ribbony, 180
River, 101
Rusty, 128,
181
Salmon, 181
Scribbly, 133, 181
Scribbly Blue, 179
Silky, 179
Slaty, 180-2
Sour, 292
Spotted, 78, 101,
102, 148, 182, 280
Sugar, 179, 182
Swamp, 102,
180, 182
Sweet, 53, 182-3,318
Tupelo, 292
Water, 146, 183
Wattle, 183
Weeping, 180
White, 101, 148,
149, 178, 179, 180,
181, 183, 283, 296 |
Yate, 102
Yellow, 179,
202, 292
York, 102, 183
Gunpowder-charcoal, 91
Gun-stocks, 70
Gurjun, 183
Guru-kina, 183
Gulttifere, 313
Gymnocladus, 47
—— canadénsis, 163
Gymnosperms, Wood of, 2

Gum,

145-6, |

179,

183,

Hackberry, 47, 183-4

Hackia, 203

Hackmatack, 78, 109, 283

—— American, 283

Hematoxylon campechi-
dnum, 36, 93

Hainbuche, 188

INDEX

Hakea leucéptera, 240
—— gericea, 239
Hal, 254
Haldu, 39, 184
Halmilla, 290
Hannoki, 184
Hardwickia bindta, 35, 44,
Si 127
—— pinnata, 198
Hardwoods, 4
Haritaka, 184

Harpephyllum Cdaffrum,
167
Harpillia péndula, 78,

101, 291
Harra, 81, 184
Hartogia capénsis, 87, 199
Haskinising, 72
Hasselman process, 73
Hat-tree, 282
Hawaii, 107

Hawthorn, 25, 29, 33, 53,

88, 184, 319
Haya, 138
| —— Americana, 139
Hazel, 25; 325 333.52)
88, 184-5

Hazel-pine, 182-3, 318
Heart-shake, 56-8
Heartwood, 17, 113, 191
Hedycarya angustifolia,
86, 187
Helianthus, 11, 12
Hemlock bark extract,
109
————t Hrs 85
—— Japanese, 290
—— Spruce, 35, 82-3, 185
—— Western, 185
Heppelwhite, 85
Heritiéra formes, 281
—— littordlis, 146 281
Heymassoli, 268
Hiba, 185
Hibiscus tilidceus, 164
Hickory. 35, 36, 49, 78,
835) (875) 6Sos ous
eV es alsin 7/6,
202, 210, 219, 275,
314
—— Australian, 187
Big (or Thick) Shell-
bark, 186
Bitter-nut, 186
Black, 186
Mocker-nut, 186
Pecan, 186
Pig-nut, 186
Shell-bark, 186
Water, 186
Hicoria, 49, 83, 87, 185,
314

| Hicéria alba, 78, 186

—— aquatica, 186

glabra, 78, 186

lacinidsa, 186

minima, 78, 186

—— ovata, 78, 186

Pécan, 78, 186

Hie, 208

Hijjul, 234

Hinau, 80, 187

Hinoki, 100, 187

Hippomané Manchinélla,

211

H’nau, 184

Hobnim, 169

Hoheria populnea, 199

Holly 24, 29, 32, 36, 53,
88, 187, 318

—— American, 187

—— Smooth, 187

Honey-combing, 70

Honey-locust, 47 ’

Honeysuckle, 86, 87, 187-
8, 310, 317

—— coast, 188

—— Silvery, 140, 187

—— wood, 187, 262

Honoki, 187

Hoobooballi, 188

Hooke’s law, 115-6

Hoop-tree, 215

Hopea, 272

—— WMerdnti, 216

—— odorata, 77, 78, 288,
312

Horco Cebil, 188

—— mollo, 188

Hornbeam, 29, 31, 32, 35,
39, 52, 57, 62; 83;
87, 88. 92, 187-8,

S17)
—— American, 189
—— Hop, 189
Horse-chestnut, 25, 30,
89, 188

Horseflesh-wood, 151, 210

Hulanhik, 163

Humbah, 146-7

Humbug, 133

Humiria floribinda, 46,
151, 311

Hungarian forests, 97-8

Huon Pine, 42, 86, 102,
189

Hurihi, 200

Hyawaballi, 302

Hymeneéa, 126

—— Cotrbaril, 80, 105,

204

Ichii, 301
Ichii-gashi, 231

Ictca altissima, 136, 157

Igumza elinameva, 239

Ikusi, 103

Ilex, 53

—— Aquifdlium, 187

—— Himalayan, 231

—— opdca, 187, 318

Illarega, 128

Illinois nut, 186

Illipé latifolia, 210-1

—— Malabrérum, 210-1

Illupi, 80, 210-1

Llumba, 133

Imbool, 272

Imports of timber, British,
95

Impregnation

Indian forests, 100

Inga xylocarpa, 123

Intsia amboinénsis, 272

—— bijuga, 272

Tpil, 78, 100

Troko, 86, 189-90

Ironbark, 77, 79, 101, 102,
179, 181-2, 190, 279

Bastard, 17%

Black, 190

Broad-leaved, 190

Grey, 190

Leguminous, 124

Narrow-leaved, 101,
190

Pale, 190

Red, 101, 199

She, 191

Silvertop, 102

Wroites 7/7, LOL; 179;
190

Ironwood, 35, 44, 77, 79,
80, 81, 82, 87, 100,
123, 189, 190, 197,
CNan2iin220;-233;
261, 273, 283

Black, 192

Borneo, 141

Morocco, 103

Martinique, 203

of India, 87

Waite, 104, 192, 293

West Indian, 203,
274

Trosun, 153, 192, 263

Italian forests, 99

Itaya-Kayede, 213

Iti, 145

Ivory wood, 192

Ivy, 29

Ixora férrea, 203

methods,

Jablon, 127
Jacaranda, 192-3

INDEX

Jacaranda brasiliana, 236

cabiuna, 193-237,
263

preto, 193, 264

roxa, 193, 264

Jack, 85, 193

Long, 193

Jackso.via scoparia, 168

Jallow, 203

Jam, 193

Jambolana, 193

Jambool, 193

Jambu, 123, 193

Jamoon, 193

Jam-wood, 219

Jangli badam, 279

Jango-jango, 300

Jaoz, 294

Japanese forests, 99-100

Jarrah, 35, 40; 77, 79, 80,

82, 86, 102, 193-4

—— Bastard, 209

Jarul, 77-8, 80, 193-4

Jasan, 129

Jati, 285-6

Jelutong, 194

Jemmy Donnelly, 219

Jhand, 44, 194, 311

Jimmy Low, 210

Johnson, Professor, 113

Judas-tree, 194-5

Juglans ausirdlis, 221

—— cinérea, 51, 296, 316

—— mandshirica, 198,
296
—— nijra, 51, 78, 85,

295-6, 316

—— régit, 51, 84, 127,
|

294-5
—— Sieboldiana, 296
June-berry, 272
Jungle Jack, 127
Juniper, 78, 100, 195
—— Indian, 195
Juniperus, 42
—— barbadénsis, 155
Bermudiana, 77, 79,
89, 156
communis, 42, 195
macropoda, 158, 195
Oxycédrus, 42, 67
sabinoiles, 159
virginiana, 42, 89,
90, 109, 155, 158

Kaayno, 263
Kaddam, 195
Kahikatea, 254
Kahua, 128
Kakarat, 146
Kakeralli, 195
Kala Kudu, 168

335

Kal-otthi, 163

Kalu-médirya, 152

Kaluwara, 169

Kamahi, 195

Kamassi, 195

Kamulboom, 289

Kanapa, 234

Ka-na-zo, 281

Kanigi, 234

Kanthal, 193

Kanyin, 183

Kapor, 80

Karamatsu, 200

Karri, 40, 77, 82, 102, 196,

316-7

Karung, 139

Katamanakku, 290

Kath, 197

Kathitka, 288-9

Katope, 104

Katsura, 196

Kauffmann, Angelica, 83

Kauri, 59, 78, 86, 101, 196

Queensland, 245

Kaya, 197

Kayu Kapor Barus, 153

Kayu-puti, 152

Keurboom, 197

Keyaki, 100, 197

Khair, 197

Kharpat, 197

Khat, 197

Khaya anthothéca, 208

—— grandifdlia, 207-9,
315

—— Purchii, 207-9

—— senegilénsis, 207-9

Kheir, 100, 293

Khutrow, 277

| Kiabocea-wood, 126

Kiamil, 197
Kidgi-kidgi, 158
Kiggelaria Dregedna, 210
Kikar, 135-6
Kiln-drying, 69-70
Kindal-kindal, 222
King-wood, 105
Kirai, 197
Kirton-wood, 133
Kiefer, 98

Kizi, 87, 198
Klipdoorn, 239
Kniuers, 63
Knightia excélsa, 86, 262
Knobhout, 198
Knobthorn, 198
Kohekohe, 1938
Kohomba, 215
Kohutuhutu, 176
Koko, 296, 322
Kola, 198

Kolavu, 198

336

Kon, 198

Koompassia excélsa, 284
—— malacénsis, 100, 164
Koon, 198
Kooroobovilli, 260
Kooruk, 197

Kos, 193

Kosum, 198

Kowah, 128

Kowhai, 198
Koya-maki, 253

Kranji, 100, 198, 283
Kranjisepan, 198
Kretti, 198

Kreuzdorn, 150-1
Ku-chandana, 268
Kuchila, 274

Kulu, 198

Kinza peduncularis, 285
Kura, 154

Kurana, 136, 157
Kuro-matsu, 246, 279
Kurumi, 198

Kurunja, 139
Kusoombh, 198
Kuyon, 285

Kyai-tha, 234
Kyanising, 73

Labouchéria chlorostachys,
124
Labourdonndisia calophyl-
loides, 146
—— glauca, 146
Laburnum, 25, 36, 47, 84,
85, 313-4
—— Indian, 31l
Lacebark, 199
Lacewood, 87
Ladlewood, 87, 199
Lagerstrémia Flos-regine,
77, 100, 194
—— parvifolia, 44, 136
Lagundria Paterson,
233-4, 291
Lalona, 104
Lancewood, 39, 88,
199, 220-1
—— Cape, 135
—— Degame, 166-7
—— American, 272
—— Red, 151
Lanumi, 202
Lanza, Professor, 116, 118
Lapacho, 199
Laplacea Hematoxylon,192
Laportea gigas, 221
—— photiniphylla, 221
Lapparent’s process, 72
Larch, 60-63, 78-80, 81,
82, 92, 98, 99, 110, 117,
199-200, 321

105,

INDEX

Larch, American, 283

—— Black, 283

Chinese, 200

disease, 60-63

fir, 175

Golden, 200

Himalayan, 200

Western, 200, 283

Larix americana, 78, 109,
283

européa, 78,
199-200, 321

Griff ithii, 200

leptolipis, 200

occidentalis, 283

péndula, 283

—— sibirica, 99

Laslett, Thomas, 76, 116,
118, 120, 129, 232, 312

Lasrin, 200

Lauan, 79, 100, 201

Laugoussi, 201

Lauracec, 312

Laurel, 201

—— Alexandrian,

201, 257

—— Big, 206

—— (California, 201

—— Madrona, 201

—— wood, 279

Laurier Cypre, 201 |

—— des Iroquois, 269

—— Grec; 137

—— Madame, 201

— Marbré, 202

Latrus bullata, 279

—— nobilis, 201

—— awa, 284

Leatherjacket, 133, 163,
202

Lebuk, 256

Lécythis grandiflora, 217

—— Ollaria, 195

Leguminose, 44, 311-4

Leichhardt’s tree, 154

Lein, 202

Leinben, 202

Leitneria Floridana, 164

Lemon-wood, 29, 202, 235

Leopard-wood, 88, 202

Leptospérmum ericioides,

212, 285

—— flavéscens, 284

—— lanigerum, 284

—— scoparium, 212

Lesura, 256

Letterwood, 15, 88, 202

——— Red, 202

—— Striped, 202

Lever-wood, 189 ,

Libneh, 259

Libocédrus, 42

MING

95

Inbocédrus Bidwillii, 158

—— decurrens, 82,157,160

—— tetragona, 126

Licari, 270

Lightwood, 144, 163

Lign-aloes, 169

Lignification, 12

Lignum Rhodium, 176

—— Ihodii, 264

—— vite, 35, 36, 44, 55-6.
79, 105, 140,

149, 202-3,
219, 289, 293,
311-2

African, 203
Bahama, 203
British Guiana,
203
Guayaquil, 203
Maracaibo, 204
New Zealand,
204
Lilac, 51, 204
—— Cape, 137
———_ Persian. lis741202
Lime (see Linden), 204
Linden, 24, 29, 35, 36, 40,
53; 62588451) 89>
318-9
—— American, 137
Lingoa-wood, 126
Tinocéria ligustrina, 264
Lipa, 204

Liquidambar — styractflua,
53, 82, 181, 182-3, 318
Liriodéndron tulipifera,

36-7, 53, 83, 85, 89, 165,
318
Litsea dealbata, 132
—— reticulata, 136
—— calicaris, 211
Lloyd’s Register, 77-8
Load, 303-4
Loblolly pine, 107
Locust, 14-15, 36, 46, 80,
105, 123, 204, 313
—— bean, 154
—— Black, 14-15, 36, 46,
205
—— Honey, 47
Logwood, 36, 93, 105, 205
Long-leafed Pine, 107
Looking-glass-tree, 281
Léphira alata, 47, 231-2,
312
Loquat, 205
Lotos-wood, 84
Love-tree, 194
Lucia galactéxylon, 158,
217

Lysil6ma Sabicu, 77, 79,
86, 105, 265

Macadamia ternifolia, 222

Macherium, 192

—— firmum, 193

—— legalé, 193

—— Pseudotipé, 289

—— scleroxylon, 263

—— Tipu, 289

Maclira, 46

—— aurantiaca, 235

—— tinctoria, 93, 176

Macquarie Pine, 189

Madagascar, Timber of,

104

Magnolia, 29, 53, 206

—— acumindta, 53, 89,
165, 291, 318

—— grandiflora, 206

—— hypoléuca, 188

—— Large-flowered, 206

—— Mountain, 165

Mahoe, 164

Mahogany, 4, 35, 37, 50,
57, 78, 85, 86, 88,
105, 117, 193, 206-
10, 304, 315
——— Airicane 10s, 207-9,
315
—— Australian, 158
Bastard, 193,209
Bay, 209
Borneo, 79, 209
Brisbane, 148
Ceylon, 85
—=— (Oil Has Sul
Forest, 101-210, 282
Gambia, 208
Gippsland, 209
Honduras, 207
Horse-flesh, 210
Indian, 85, 157-8
Madeira, 210
Mexican, 207
——— Vountaine 142, 210
= Wen BAKO)
=== TREC Pl)
St. Domingo, 206
Spanish, 206-7
Swamp, 101,
183, 209, 210
Tenasserim, 236
—— White, 210, 280
Mahua, 210-1
Mahwa, 39,
211
Maiden, J. H., 71
Maire, Black, 211
—— tawhake, 211
—— White, 211
Majow, 272
Makita, 211
Mako, 211

148,

100, 210-

INDEX

Makulai, 136

Malay woods, 100

Malombwa, 104

Mamidi, 212

Mammea americana, 211

Mammee-apple, 211

Mammoth-tree, 140

Manao, 253

Manchineel, 211

Mandania, 159

Madera del diabolo, 234

Mangachapuy, 78, 100,211

Mangeao, 211

Mangifera indica, 212

Mangi-mangi, 212

Mango, 212

—— Wild, 256

Mangosteen, False, 212

—— Wild, 212

Mangrove, 212

—— Red, 281

Manila woods, 100

Manil kara, 197

Manja Kadamba, 184

Manuka, 212

—— rauriki, 212

Manzana, 127

Manzanita, 212

Mapan, 212

—— Black, 212

Maple, 24, 29, 30, 32, 38,
52, 62-3, 70, 78,
83, 84, 85, 87, 88,
90, 97, 139, 212-
15, 318

Ash-leaved, 213

Bird’s-eye, 84, 212-3,
214

Black, 212, 214

Broad-leaved, 214

Californian, 214

Common, 212-3 ; id

Field, 52, 212-3} 4

Great, ae 2 way |

Hard, 88, 214-5 +

Himalayan, 213 ||

me 7 |

{

Japanese,
ney
Norway, 52, 213-4
Oregon, 214
Plane, 52, 213-4

—— Red, 52, 212, 214
—— ck “52, 183, 109;
214-5

Silver, 52, 215
Soft, 52, 96, 214-5
Striped, 215
Sugar, 52, 214-5
Swamp, 214
Water, 214

—— White, 215
Maradu, 265

337

Marblewood, 215

—— Andaman, 215

Margosa, 85, 137, 215

Marlea vitiénsis, 218

Marrara, 216

Maruba, 273

Marum, 146

Marung, 166

Masaran, 212-3

Massaranduba, 216

Matabeleland woods, 103

Matai, 243

Matches, 96

Matipo, 212

——tarata, 212

Maurelatos, 301

May, 184

Mbawa, 104

Mbundu, 189

Measure, Brokers’, 304

Measures, Timber, 303-4

—— String, 304

Medlar, 88

Medullary rays, 9-10

—— spots, 33, 37

Mee, 211

Melaletca armillaris,

ericifolia, 285

genistifolia, 191

Leucadéndron,
152, 285

linariifolia, 285

squarr dsa, 285

stypheliotdes, 285

—— uncindta, 284 «A

Melanorrhea usitdta, 293

Méleze, 199-200 i

Mélia, 85 E

Azadirachta, 215 | _|
— Azedardach, 137
—— composita, 137, 160,
163

285

101,

—— indica, 215
Meliacee, 315

Melos, 301

Melyn, 233

Mematsu, 246
Menkabang Penang, 79
Meraban, 216

Meranti, 216

Merban, 216

Meristem, 6, 21
Mertlius lacrymans, 62-3

Mespilodaphné pretidsa,
237
—— Sassafr as, 270

Méspilus germanica, 88
Mesquite, 216
Messmate, 101,
280
Mésua férrea, 35, 44, 80,
81, 87, 192
22

216, 239,

338

Metrosidéros floribinda,
128
leptopétala, 220
lucida, 77, 192, 261
robusta, 77, 192, 261
scandens, 204
tomentosa, 78;
192
véra, 192
Michélia Champaca, 81,
161
Micocoulier, 221
Microscopic examination.
305-6
Mililla, 216
Milkwood, 285
—— Red, 216
White, 152, 191
Milla, 216
Millétia Kafra, 87, 293
—— péndula, 264
Millingtonia horténsis, 164
Mimosa, 123, 289
—— Aclé, 123
—— guianénsis, 188
—— odoratissima, 200
Mimusops, 39
elata, 216
Balata, 105, 151
Eléngi, 136
glob 6sa, 105,106,151
hexandra, 237

Imbricaria, 146

79,

—-— Kauki, 197
—— littoralis, 87, 151
—— obovata, 216

Mine-props, 80
Mirabow, 86, 216
Miro, 86, 243
Mirrors, 26

Miva, 217

Mkonko, 212
M’Neile’s process, 71
Mogum-mogum, 291
Molavé, 78, 100, 217
Momi-noki, 301-2
Monkey-pot, 195, 217
—— puzzle, 244

Monocotyledons, | Wood
of, 3

Monotoca elliptica, 138,
294

Mooeyang, 144

Moorgum, 152-3

Moose-wood, 52, 215

Mootchong, 144

Mopané, 217

Mora, 35, 77, 78, 81, 105,
217

—— excélsa,

Moral, 218

Moreton Bay Laurel, 201

UUs Ths Pally

INDEX

| Morica, 278

| Mountain-Ash, 133-4, 144, |

| Moutouchi,

Moricypre, 217
Morinda, 277

—— citrifdlia, 150, 218
Morra. See Mora
Morrel, 217
Morung Saul, 77
———— Salee26o
Morus, 46, 218
ee (ifaer, DAK!
—— indica, 218
—— rubra, 218
—— tinctoria, 176

148, 152-3, 178-81, 264
217-8
—— suberosa, 217-8

Mowbulan Whitewood.201 |

Mozambiti, 203
Muamba-Camba, 190
Mucumite, 267
Muggle-muggle, 221
Mulberry, 46, 78, 84, 86,
134, 218
——_ sinadianeroe
—-—— Red, 218
Mulga, 218
Munamal, 136
Mungurra, 180

| Munroo, 231

is Bastards

Muouhe, 323
Murier, 218
Murraya exotica, 148
Murr-rung, 133

| Muruta, 194
| Musical instruments, 37-8,

88
Musk-tree, 218
——— wood, 87, 218
Mutirai, 271

| Mutton-wood, 219

Muwowa, 104
Myall, 44, 89, 218-9
219

| —— Brigalow, 219

|__ Dalby, 219

—— True, 219
—— Weeping, 219
My lady, 220
Myndee, 282

_Myoporum ~— montdnum,
168

—— platycarpum, 168,
267

—— serratum, 195
—— tenuifolium, 267
Myrobalans, 44, 81

| Myrobalan-wood, 220

Myréxylon, 260-1
Myrsiné melanophleos, 139
—— Urvillei, 212

—— varidbilis, 219

Myrtle, a 136, 139, 201,
Back, 220

Brush, 136
Drooping, 220
Grey, 220-1

—— Native, 220

Red, 220

Ridge, 191

Scrub, 220-1
Three-veined, 292
Water, 183

—— White, 221
Myrtus acmeniotdes, 221
—— gonoclada, 191
—— semenioides, 203

Na-bhay, 197
Nagamusada, 274
Nagesar, 80,192 |
Nagranga, 235
Nahor, 100, 192
Nakkeru, 256
—— wood, 256
Nalli, 172
Nani, 192
Naranj, 235
Naranja, 235
Naranjillo, 210
Narinji, 235
Narra, 78, 100
Narulgun, 153-4
Natal timbers, 104
Natclea cordifolia, 184
—— unduldta, 154
N’Dendo, 170
Nectandra, 198, 294
dtra, 79, 82, 154
exaltata, 281
mollis, 82, 154
Pisi, 156
porphyria, 201
Rodicei, 58, 77,
312
sanguinea, 201
Needle- bush, 240
—— leaved trees, 320-1
Neem, 85, 137, 215
Negundo, 213
—— acerotdes, 213

176,

| Neishout, 86, 274

Nella ulimera, 170

Nephélium — tomentosum,
293

Nesodiphné obtusifohia,

270

—— Taratri, 284

—— Tawa, 284

Nettle-tree, 84, 183-4, 221

——— Giant, 2er

—— Small-leaved, 221

_ Newfoundland, 108, 109

New Zealand timbers, 103
Nicaragua-wood, 93, 238
Nila-Pila, 168
Nim, 137
Nispero, 269, 272
Nodon-Bretonneau
cess, 74
Nogal, 221
Nonna maram, 154
Norway, 90
Notolea ligustrina, 79, 191
—— longifolia, 135
Norwegian forests, 97
Nut, Queensland, 222
Niucxia floribinda, 293
Nyssa multiflora, 183
—— sylvatica, 89
tomentosa, 178, 292
uniflora, 178, 292

pro-

Onloet=s Oem. 18, 23-33,
BONO, Gls oO, 49,
55; 59, 60-4, 70,
77, 80, 81, 82, 83,
84, 88, 89, 92, 97,
98, 99, 103, 110,
229-34, 304, 314

Adriatic, 77, 99,
117, 225-6

African, 47, 57, 77,
SOs LOS; 117,
Deol

American, 77, 226-

230

=————— White, 89, 314

Baltic, 98

Baltimore, 230

Basket, 227

Black, 49, 228-9, 230

Bog, 223

Botany, 232-3

———— Bay, 232

British, 222-5

Brown, 37, 223, 230

Bull, 232-3

Burr, 227

California Chestnut,

229
=— Canadian, 18; 117
aes Neil, flay, Eye
228

Chestnut, 224, 227
Chinquapin, 227
Common, 222-5
Congo, 150
= Corlc, 24. 84, 88, 220
—— Cow, 227
—— Dantzic,
225
== — IDjiielle, PRAY)
—— Durmast, 224
—— East Country, 98

117, 222

’

INDEX

Oak, English, 18,117, 222-5

—— European, 222-5

Evergreen, 103,226-7

Forest, 232-3

French, 77, 89, 222,
225

Green, 230-1

Grey, 231

Holm, 225, 231

Indian, 234, 310

Tron, 225, 228

Italian, 77, 99

Kermes, 225

Live, 49, 77, 80, 226,
228

Maul, 228

Modena, 99

Mossy-cupped, 225-
6, 227

Mountain, 232

Neapolitan, 99

Over-cup, 227

Peach, 229

Pin, 228

Portuguese, 77

Possum, 229

Post, 228

Punk, 229

Quebec, 229-30

Quercitron, 228, 230

Red, 49, 228-9

Riga, 224

Ring-cupped, 231

River, 146-7, 232-3

Rock, 227

Roman, 99

Salt-water Swamp,
233

Sardinian, 99

Scarlet, 229

Scrub Silky. 213

She, 102, 232-3

Shingle, 86, 232-3

Sicilian, 99

Silky, 86, 101, 233

Silvery, 233

Oaks, Indian, 44, 230-1,

310

—— Japanese, 231

Oak, Spanish, 77, 229

—— Swamp, 232-3

———— Spanish, 228

—— Tan-bark, 229

—— Turkey, 225-6

—— Tuscan, 99

Valparaiso, 228

Wainscot, 225-6, 304

Water, 229

Weeping, 230

Western, 230

White, 49, 78, 81,

229-30, 233, 291

339

Oaks, Willow, 230
—— Yellow, 227, 230
—— Zeen, 226
Ochna arborea, 261
Ocotéa bullata, 37, 77, 86,
104, 279
—— cérnua, 201
Ocuje, 105, 268
Odina Wodier, 197
Odonomokyuku, 322-3
Odours of woods, 37
Odum, 189
Oelbaum, 234
nocarpus Bataua, 238
Oganwo, 208
Okan, 323
Oldfiéldia africana, 57, 77,
80, 103, 117, 287
Olea, 36, 44, 87
Cunningham, 211
capensis, 191
cuspidata, 234
didica, 234
européa, 44, 234
exasperata, 191
laurifolia, 191-2
lanceolata, 211
glandulifera, 234
paniculata, 191
undulata, 191
verrucdsa, 191, 234
Oledria argophylla, 87, 218
Olina-wood, 234
Olinia cymosa, 238
Olive, 36, 44, 84, 88, 234,
310
—— Black, 235
—— hark, 235
—— Mock, 135, 234
—— Native,132, 150, 215
——— LATS Teas
234
——_-—\_— in North Amer-
ica, 234
—— Wild, 234
—— Indian, 234
Olneya Tesota, 192
Olse, 125
Olyvenhout, 191
Omatsu, 246
Omorica, 278
Onphalobium
302
Onara, 231
Onoore, 143
Ooday, 197
Opepe, 235
Ophiorrhiza Mungos, 274
Ophidxylon serpentinum,
274
Orange, 29, 88, 235
Oranges, 235
ey)

Lambértit,

340

Oranges, Black, 88, 150

—— Native, 235

—— Osage, 235

—— wood, 193

Ordnance woods, 76

Oregon Fir, 79, 321

—— Pine, 79, 321

Oren, 242

Oreodaphné bullata, 279

—— fétens, 37

Orham-wood, 236

Or ites excélsa, 233

Osier, Golden, 298-9

—— Purple, 298

—— Stag’s head, 298

Osiers, 297-8

Osmanthus
234

Osrin, 153

Ostrya carpinifélia, 189

Osun, 192, 263

Osyka, 134-5

Osyris tenuifdlia, 267

Ougeinia dalbergioides, 268

Owenia acidula, 257

—— vendsa, 257, 291

Owowe, 322

americanus,

Paardepram, 198

Pacara, 236

Packing-case woods, 89-90

Pader, 236

Padouk, 83, 85, 100, 236,
311

—— Andaman, 236, 311

Padri, 236

Pahautea, 236

Paicha, 88, 236

Pajasan, 124

Palisander-wood, 236-7

Palo Blanco, 237

—— Cruz, 237

—— Maria, 78, 100, 237,
257

—— Mulato, 146

—— narango, 237

Palu, 237

Panacoco, 237

Panagah, 79

Panax élegans, 201

—— Miurrayi, 239

—— sambucijolius, 132

Paniala, 272

Pao d’arco, 237

—— de cobra, 274

—— precioso, 237

—— roxo, 177, 260

Papaw, 237

Paper-bark-tree, 285

—— pulp, 90-1, 109, 110

Papri, 172, 238

Parconri, 238

INDEX

Parenchyma, 12, 28

Parinarium laurinum, 211

—— oblongifolium, 287

Parish-pippul, 292-3

Parrotia pérsica, 192

Parsipu, 292-3

Partridge-wood, 88, 238

Patanga, 269

Patawa, 238

Paulownia imperialis, 87,
198

Paving, Wood, 82

Payéna Bétis, 78, 100, 140

Peach, Native, 257

wood, 238

29, 53, 84, 85, 87,
88, 170, 238, 319

—— Hard, 238

Native, 238-9

Red, 239

Thorn, 239

Wolf, 239

wood, White, 239

Pehuen, 244

Peki, 274-5

Peltogyné confertiflora,177,

260

Pear,

—— macrolobium, 78,177
—— paniculata, 260
—— vendsa, 259
Penagah, 209, 257
Penago, 79
Pencil Cedar, 77, 86, 217,
263
=——— wood, 239
Pen-lay, 154
Pentacé burmanica, 288-9
Pentacléthra filamentosa,
146
Pepperidge, 292
Peppermint, 81, 101, 102,
133, 178, 239, 280,
282
—_— Bastard, 83, 318
Peral, 238
Periblem, 7
Pernambuco-wood, 238
Peroba branca, 79, 240
—— de campos, 240
—— vermelha, 240
Férsea gratissima, 135
—— indica, 210
Persicon, 294
Persimon, 240
Persimmon, 36, 49, 87,
240, 314-5
Peruche, 185
Peziza Willkémmiti, 60, 62,
200
Philippines, Timbers of
the, 100
—— Export to, 107

Phloem, 9-10, 13
Phung-nyet, 79
Phyllanthus emblica, 126
—— Ferdinandi, 140,158,
203
Phyllocladus rhomboidalis,
944
—— trichomanotdes,
283-4
Physocalymma
mum, 291
Picéa, 42, 275-9
ajanénsis, 276, 278-9
alba, 83, 109, 276,
278, 320-1
Alcockiana, 276
borealis, 275
cephalonica, 99
Engelmanni, 276,
278
excélsa, 18-19, 38,
78, 81, 82, 83, 88,
89;. 975 "987 167,
Wd; Qiievo20ak
Gléhni, 276
Hondoénsis, 276, 278
Jezoénsis, 278-9
Morinda, 276, 277
nigra, 81, 109, 167,
276
obovata, 276
Omorica, 275, 278
orientalis, 275
polita, 276
pungens, 276
rubra, 276, 278
septentriondlis, 275
sitchénsis, 276, 278
Smithiana, 90, 277
Picrena excélsa, 260
Pila Champa, 161
Piles, 80
Pilla marda, 184
—— murda wood, 184
Piménta officinalis, 88, 240
Pimento, 88, 240
Pin-bush, 240, 310
Pine, 16-23, 36, 43, 70, 81,
84, 96, 97, 99, 110,
240-54, 304, 321
—— Adventure Bay, 244
—— Aleppo, 44, 242
—— American, 82

81,

scabérri-

———— Red, 78, 110,
117

—— Apple, 253

—— Austrian, 24], 242

—— Awned, 245

—— Baltic, 82, 248
—— Banksian, 110
Bastard, 245
Bhotan, 81, 242

Pine, Big-cone, 242
—— Bishop’s, 250

—— Black, 79, 81. 166, |

249-3, 246
———— Austrian, 44
89, 242
—— Bordeaux, 82, 89
—— Broom, 246
—— Brown, 158
—— Bull, 242-3, 252
—— Canadian Yellow, 57
———— Red, 57, 110
—— Carolina, 252
—— Celery-topped, 244,
283-4
Cembra, 241, 244
Chile, 244
Cluster, 80, 89, 244
Colonial (or Hoop),
248
Common, 166
Corsican, 244
Cuban, 245
Cypress, 42, 79, 81,
101, 102
Dantzic, 78, 248
Dark, 166
Dundatha, 245
Dwarf, 44
Eliasberg, 248
Five-leaved, 242
Flexible, 245
Frankincense,
Fox-tail, 245
Gefle, 248
Georgia, 246
Ginger, 158
Grey, 245
Hazel, 318

246

Hickory, 245

Himalayan, 242

Hoop, 248

Huon, 78, 79, 102

Illawarra Mountain,
166

—— Indian Blue, 242

—— Italian stone, 89

—— Jack, 245

—— Japanese Black, 246

Red. 246

—— Jersey, 246

——— Kanuri, 78, 79, 101,

103

—— lachlan, 166

—— arch, 244

—— Light, 166

—— Loblolly, 43, 81, 246 |

—— Lodge-pole, 246

—— Long-leaf, 44, 81,
107, 108,
246-7, 321

|
Heavy-wooded, 243

INDEX

Long-leaf, of Hima-
layas, 247

Long straw, 246

| —— Lowland Spruce, 247

Maritime, 103, 104

Meadow, 245

Memel, 78, 248

Moreton Bay,
83, 101, 248

| —— Mountain, 241, 248

Murray, 166

Murrumbidgee, 166

New England, 108,
253

New York, 252

Norfolk Island, 248

Northern, 4, 22, 35,
36, 43, 167, 241,
248-50

Norway, 43, 78, 81,

| 84, 243

Nut, 250

Obispo, 250

Oldfield, 246-7

| —— Oregon, 78, 250, 321

———— scrub, 246

—— Oyster Bay, 79, 166

—— Pitch, 55-6, 57, 78,

79, 81, 245, 251,
304, 321
—— Pond, 251

—— Prickle-coned, 250
—— Pumpkin, 252, 253
—— Prince’s, 245

—— Red,79,110, 166,246
———— New Zealand,
262

Riga, 78

Rock, 166
Rosemary, 246
Saldowitz, 248
Sandarac, 166
Sand, 251

| —— Sap, 246

Sapling, 253
Scrub, 166, 245-6
She, 101, 158
Short-leaf, 43, 252
Silver, 253

Slash, 245-6
Soderhamm, 248
Soft, 253
Soft-leaved, 252
Southern, 246
Spruce, 252

Stone, 89, 252
Stringy bark, 166
Sugar, 44, 241, 252
Swamp, 245
Swedish, 248

| —_——_ Red, 78

79, | OZ
| —— White, 81, 94, 108,

| —— Port Macquarie, 251 |

341

Pine, Swiss, 38, 82, 88
———— Stone, 244
—— Table Mountain, 245
—— Tamarack, 246
Umbrella, 253
Westland, 253
Weymouth, 44, 253,

109, 110, 158,
DANE AT
253-4, 321
———— of Western
North Amer-
ica, 254
———— of New Zealand,
254
—— Yellow, 78, 79, 241,
242, 245, 253, 246,
254, 321
Pines, Hard, 43, 241, 321
—— Soft, 44, 89, 241, 321
Pinesse, 277
Piney-Maram, 254
—— tree, 257
—— varnish, 254
Pingow, 79
Pink ivory, 104, 255
Pinnair, 279
Pinus, 43, 81, 240-54, 321
Abies, 275
australis, 57, 246
austriaca, 89, 241,
242,
Balfouriana, 245
Banksiana, 245
Cémbra, 44, 241, 242
clausa, 251
Coitlteri, 242
contorta, 246
cubénsis, 245°
densiflora, 246
echindta, 43, 252
excélsa, 81, 262
fléxilis, 245
glabra, 247
halepénsis, 44, 242
inops, 246
insignis, 248
Jéffreyi, 242
Lambertiana, 44,
241, 252
Laricio, 44, 242, 244
longifolia, 90, 163
247
macrocar pa, 242
maritima, 244
Massoniana, 246
mitis, 252
montana,
248
monticola, 254

44, 241,

342

Pinus Murraydna, 246
—— Mighus, 248
muricata, 250

—— palustris, 44, 79,
81, 82, 107, 108,
246-7, 321 |
—— Picéa, 275

- Pinaster, 44, 80, 82,
89, 103, 104, 244
Pinea, 89, 252
ponder dsa, 243
pungens, 245
pumilio, 248
radiata, 248
resinosa, 43, 57,
79, 81, 243
rigida, 78, 251
rubra. 243
Sabiniana, 250
serotina, 251
Smithiana, 277
Strobus, 44, 57, 78.
79, 81, 82, 89, 94.
108, 241, 253-4, |
321
sylvéstris, 22, 43-44, |
57, 78-9, 80, 81, |
82, 90, 97, 98, 108, |
117, 167, 240, 241,
248-50, 261 |
Teda, 43, 81, 107. |
246
Thunbergri, 246
uncindta, 248
—— virginiana, 246
Piptadenia cébil, 165
—— communis, 188
—— peregrina, 302
—— rigida, 127, 261
Piratinéra guianénsis, 20
Piscidia Erythrina, 168
Pistacia Terebinthus, 84.
288
Pitch-pine, 35
Pith, 8, 10-11,
Pithecolobium, 77
Pith-flecks, 33, 37
—— rays, 9-10, 20, 25, 33
Pits, 13-15
Pittosporum bicolor, 282

-I
ie 2)

24-25

—— phillyreotdes, 299

—— tenuifolium, 212

—— undulatum, 161

Plagianthus betulinus, 199 |

Plane, 24, 29, 39, 51, 52, |
84, 255-6, 281, |
317

—— Eastern or Oriental,
255

—— Western or
dental, 255

Planera Richardi, 302

Occi- |

| Poon, 32,

INDEX

240

Platanus occidentalis, 51,

87, 188, 255, 317

—— orientalis, 39, 255

—— racemosa, 255

Platyléphus __ trifoliatus,
125-6

Platymiscium platystach-
yum, 262-3

Flectrénia ventosa, 271

Plerome, 6

Plum, 29, 50, 256

Black, 256

Burdekin, 256

Grey, 220

Hog, 256

Sebestan, 256

Sour, 257

Sweet, 256

Wild, 128

Podocarpus asplenifolius,
79, 244

coridcea, 299

| —— dacrydioides, 254

eldta, 86, 101, 158

elongata, 81, 299-300

jerruginea, 86, 243

latifolia, 80, 81, 800

pruinosus, 299-300

Purdiedna, 299

Thunbergit, 80, 299,
300

Totara, 79, 80, 81,
86

Pohutakawa. 79, 192

Folyosma Cunninghamii,
173

Poison-berry, 299

Polyporus sulphureus, 61

—— vaporarius, 62

Pomacee, 319

Pomadeérris apétala, 168

Pomegranate, Native, 256

—— Small Native, 235

Pomeranzen, 235

Pommier, 127

Poma d’Adzo, 197

Ponga, 311

Pongamia glabra, 139, 311

Ponna, 212

79, 80, 257, 313

279

—— Bastard,

Poonga, 139

Poplar, 18, 29, 33, 35, 36,
55-6, 61, 70, 83,

89, 109, 110,
257-9, 290-1
—— American Yellow,

36-7, 290-1

| —— Aspen, 89
| ——— Balsam, 110, 258

|

| Plaqueminier de Virginie, | Poplar, Balm of Gilead,

258
—— Black, 24, 258
———— Italian, 258
—— Blue, 36-7
—— Carolina, 258
Grey, 258
Large-toothed, 259
Lombardy, 89
—— Necklace, 258
—— Swiss, 258
—— Virginian, 290-1
—— White, 36-7, 89, 259.
290-1
—— Yellow,
290-1
Fopulus, 257-9
—— alba, 259
—— balsamifera, 258
—— canéscens, 89, 258
—— dilatata, 259
—— ewphratica, 259
—— fastigidta, 89

53, 259,

—— grandidentata, 135.
259

—— monilifera, 89, 258

—— nigra, 258

—— trémula, 89, 134-5
—— tremulotdes, 135
Porasham, 271
Porcupine-wood, 3, 259
Pores, 39, 309

Poris, 292-3

Porte-noix Torréya 197
Portia-tree 259, 292-3
Powellizing, 74

| Powhiwhi, 199
| Prickwood, 167

Pride of India, 137
Princewood, 165
Procambium, 8-9
Prosépis alba, 126
—— juliflora, 216
—— nigra, 126
—— spicwgera,
sili
Proteacee, 310
Protoplasm, 6
Protoxylem, 16
Prumnopitys spicata, 243
Prinus, 316
avium, 89 161
Cérasus, 51, 161
doméstica, 50, 256
emarginata, 162
laurocerasus, 201
Mahaleb, 50, 89, 161
Padus, 50, 161
serotina, 87, 161
spinosa, 51. \44
Prussian forests, 98

44, 194,

| Pseudocedréla excélsa, 209

Pseudolarix
200
Pseudotstiiga Douglasii, 43,
78, 79, 109, 321
Psychotria eckloniana, 202
Pterocarpus, 44, 87
angolénsis, 137, 263
dalbergio ides, 85,236,
311
Draco, 217-8
erindceus, 103, 263
indicus, 83, 100), 236,
311
macrocarpus, 311
Marstipium, 85, 287,
311
pallidus, 78, 100
santalinotdes, 137
santalinus, 78, 93,
100, 268
Pterocelastrus rostratus,
239
Pterdxylon utile,
104, 274
Puhutukawa, 78
Pulia, 283
Punnaga, 267
Puriri, 79, 80, 259
Purple-heart, 85
—— of Guiana, 259-60
—— of Trinidad, 260
Pyengadu, 79, 81, 83, 100,
123
Pym-mah, 194
Pynkado, 44, 79, 80, 100,
272
Pyroligneous acid, 92
Pyrus, 29, 33. 134, 319
—— Aria, 53
Aucuparia, 54, 264
betulefolia, 88, 288
communis, 53, 88,
238, 319
Malus, 53, 127, 319
rivularis, 128
tormindlis, 53, 272

Kempferi,

=
4d

86,

Qualea certlea, 177

Quandong, Brisbane,
152-3

Quar, 260

Quarter-sawing, 66

Quassia, 260

Quebrachia Loréntzii, 2€0

Quebracho, 93, 260

—— blanco, 260

—— Colorado, 260

Queensland timbers, 101

Queenw ood, 86, 261

Quéreus, 49, 222-31

—— acitia, 124, 231

—— Wsculus, 77, 99

INDEX

Quércus alba, 49, 78, 81.89,
109, 229-30, 314
annulata, 231
aquatica. 229
Lallota, 103
bicolor, 49, 230
Cérris,,77, 99, 225-6
chrysolépis, 228
coccifera, 225
coccinea, 229
densiflora, 229
dilatata, 81, 230-1
Durandii, 230
jaleata, 229
Jenestrata, 81, 231
Garryana, 230
gilva, 231
glauca, 230-1
Griffithi, 81, 231
grosserdta, 231
ites, 495 Tie
225-6. 231
incana, 231, 310
lamellosa, 44,
231, 310
lanceefolia, 231
lappacea, 231
lobata, 230
macrocarpa, 227
Mibéckii, 226
Michatxwi, 227
Muhlenbérgii, 227
myrsincefolia, 231
pachyphylla, 81, 231
obtusiloba, 49, 228
palustris, 49, 228
Phéllos, 230

103,

81,

—— Prinus; 227

—— pyrendica, 77, 99

—— Robur, 49, 55-6, 77,
CO, We C5 abee
9995
222

rubra, 49, 85, 228-9

semecarpifolia, 81,
220

serrata, 231

spicata, 231

Suber, 24, 49, 77, 88,
103, 225

tinctoria, 49, 230

vibrayeana, 231

virens, 49, 77,
226, 228

Quibaba

208

—— da Queta, 208

Quina-quina, 260

Quince, 32

Quirapaiba, 146, 170

80,

Radami, 234

| Railroad-ties, 106

da Musangue, |

343

Rakt-chandan, 268
Rakta chandana, 268
Ranai, 261

Ranjana, 268
Raspberry-jam, 102, 219
Rassak, 80, 100, 261
Rata, 77, 261

—— Northern, 261
—— Southern, 261
Ratka-chandan, 268
Ravudana, 257
Redheart, 198

Redwood, 42, 57, 81, 85.
106, 166, 192
239, 261

—— (Californian, 261-2;
320

—— Coromandel, 209,
261

Resin-ducts or passages,

19-20

Resonance of woods, 37-8

Rewa-rewa, 68, 262

Rhamnus catharticus, 51,
150-1, 167, 316

—— Frdangula, 51, 91,
151, 167, 316
—— Purshiana, 316
Rhizomorphs, 60
Rhizophora mucronata,
212

Rhodamnia argéntea, 221

—— trinérvia, 292

Rhododendron, 33

Rhopala montana, 140

Rhus Cotinus, 50, 51, 176,
316

—— levigata, 282

—— licida, 282

—— rhodanthéma, 300

—— Thunbérgii, 173

—— typhina, 51, 280-1

Rift-sawing, 66

Rimu, 86, 262

Rind-gall, 58

Ring-porous woods, 313

Rings, Annual, 2, 3, 28, 39

—— False, 28

Ring-shake, 55-6

Robinia panacoco, 237

—— Pseudacacia, 15, 29,
33, 36, 46, 83, 123,
205, 313

Roger Gough, 145

Rohuna, 209

Rolleston, Sir J. F. L.,

quoted, 95-6

Ron-ron, 302

Rood Els, 86

Rose, Balkan, 288

—— femelle, 270

—— Guelder, 288

344

Rosemale, 270
Rosewood, 44, 84, 85. 86,
88, 104, 145, 176,
219, 263-4, 267
African, 103, 263
Australian, 158, 263
Bastard, 263, 292
Bombay, 145
Burmese, 236
Brazilian, 263
Canary, 264
Dominica, 165
Gambia, 263
Honduras, 264
Jamaica, 264
Moulmein, 264
Nicaragua, 264
Rosetta, 145
Rowan, 25, 29, 88,
110, 264, 319
Royéna licida, 144
—— nitida, 145
Ruby wood, 265
Rudraksha chetta, 155
Russian forests, 97
Rymdandra excelsa, 188,262

92

“>

Sabicu, 57, 77, 79, 86,
105, 210, 265

Sadebaum, Virginischer,
159

Saddle-tree, 290-1

Safed Simal, 272

Saffron-wood, 86, 265

Sagun, 285

Sahlweide, 266

St. John’s bread,

Saj, 44, 100, 265

Sal, 51, 80, 81,
265-6

Sala, 265

Salee, 219

Saliewood, 86, 266

Salix, 297-8

—— dlba, 89, 298, 319-

154

85, LOO,

320
—— Capréa, 266, 320
—— fragilis, 298, 319-
20
—— nigra, 298

—— purpurea, 298
—— vitellina, 298-9
Sallow, 266, 320
—— in Australia, 266
Sally, 178, 266

—— Black, 144
—— White, 266
Salting timber, 71
Samandar-phal, 234
Samara robusta, 39
Sambucus, 51

—— nigra, 171

| Satiné, 270

INDEX

Sandaku, 266
Sandal, 266
—— Surkh, 268 |
Sandalwood, 37. 87, 100, |
168, 266
Australian, 267
Bastard, 168, 267
East African, 267
Fiji, 267
Fragrant, 267
Indian, 212
Native, 267
New Caledonia, 267
Red, 93, 268
Sandwich Islands,
267
Scentless, 267
Scrub, 267-8
—— Yellow, 266
Sandan, 268
Sanders, Red, 93, 100
—— wood, Red, 268
—— Yellow, 268, 271
Sandéricum indicum, 212 |
Sdntalum album, 87, 266
—— austro-caled 6nicum,
267
—— cygnorum, 102
—— freycinetianum, 267 |
—— lanceolatum, 267 |
|
|
|

—— obtusifolium, 267
—— paniculatum, 267
—— Yasi, 267
Santa Maria, 86, 268-9 |
Sao, 288 |
Sapang, 269
Sapodilla, 86,151,269
Sapotacee, 39, 312-3
Sapota gonocarpa, 79, 240 |
—— Mulléri, 151
—— Siderdxylon, 151
Sappan, 93
Sappan-wood, 269
Sapucaia-nut, 195
Sapwood, 17, 113
Saqui-saqui, 269
Sarcocéphalus — corddatus, |
154 |
Sargent, Professor, 108 |
Saro, 233
Sassafras, 46, 140, 153,
269-70
Sassafras,
269
—— Australian, 269-70
—— Brazil, 270
—— Burmese, 153
—— Cayenne, 270
Sassafras officinale, 269

Assam, 153,

—— rouge, 290

| ——— “North

| Schizoméria ovdta,

Satiné rubanné, 270
Satin Walnut, 182-3, 318
Satinwood, 83, 85, 87. 271
—— in Australia, 271
American,
ail

| —— West Indian, 271
| Saul, 265

Savin, 159

Saxony, Forests of, 98
Sawing, 66

Scandinavian timber-

supply, 97
Schaapdrolletje, 271
Schawari, 274-5

Schima Wallichii, 80, 163

Schinéopsis Loréntzii, 260

138,
163, 164

Schleichera trijuga, 198

Schlich, Dr., 90, 96-7

Sciadopitys _ verticilldta,
253

Scolopia Ecklonii, 239
—— Léyheri, 239
Scolytus destrictor, 64
Scots Fir, 4, 22
Seasoning, 67-75

| Sebestana officinalis, 256

Secondary tissues, 11
Securipa, 78, 272
Selangan, 272

| Sequoia, 42, 106, 166

—— gigantea, 140
—— sempervirens,
320

261,

| Serayah, 272
| Service, 53, 272

—— tree, 272

Sha, 197

Shad-blow, 272
Shad-bush, 272
Shajr-ul-jin, 267
Sharples, 8. P., 114, 120

| She-beech, 282

Shelf-fungi, 61

Shembal, 90, 164

She-oak, 32, 33, 86, 102,
232-3

——=—=" Qoastazad

——— _ Desert, Zor

—— Erect, 232

—— River, 232

SS Siouiloy CRY

—— Stunted, 233

| She-pine, 101

Sheraton, 85
Shingles, 82

| Shipbuilding woods, 76-9

Shiragashi, 124, 231
Shittim-wood, 151, 272

| Shoe-pegs, 96

Shoondul, 81, 272

Shorea Mangachapoi, 78,
100, 211

obtusa, 289

reticulata, 78, 100

robusta, 51, 77, 78,
80, 100, 265-6

—— siaménsis, 173

—— Talira, 282

Tumbuggdia, 289

Sideréxylon australé, 128

—— borbénicum, 312-3

—— inérmé, 191

Sieve-tubes, 13

Silk-bark, 87, 273

Silk-cotton-tree, 272

Silver Fir, 4, 20, 89, 99

—— Nikko, 99-100

Silver grain, 26

Silver-top, 179

Silver-tree, 273

Simarouba, 273

Simaruba, 123

—— amara, 123, 273

—— officinalis, 273

Siphonodon australé, 192

Sipiri, 177

Siris, 39, 85

—— Pink, 273

Sirissa, 273

Sirsa, 273

Siruaballi, Brown, 156

Sissoo, 80, 40, 84, 85, 273

Sit sal, 145

Sleepers, 80, 106

Sloanea jamaicénsis, 192

Sloe, 144

Sloétia siderdxylon,
283

Snakewood, 202, 274

Sneezewood, 77, 86,104, 274

Soft tissue, 309

Soft-woods, 4, 309, 320-1

Somida, 209

Sdphora japonica, 301

Sorbus, 319

—— domeéstica, 272

Sosna, 241

Sophora tetraptéra, 198

Souari, 274-5

Soymida febrifiga, 209

Spearwood, 219, 275

Specific gravity of wood,
34-5, 303

Spindle-tree, 53, 275

Spondias mangiféra, 256

—— pleidgyna, 256

Spring wood, 16

Spruce, 4, 18-19, 35, 42, 60,
67, 70, 81, 82, 88, 89,
Si Oey SOS UO, kee
275-9, 304

100,

INDEX

Spruce, American, 276

—— American Black, 8],
276

= Baltic Sle s

—— Black, 83, 109, 276

—— Blue, 276

—— Californian
278

——— Canadian, 276

—— Colorado, 276

—— Common, 275, 320-1

—— Double, 276

—— Douglas, 35, 36, 43.
109, 321

—— Engelmann’s, 276

Hondo, 278

Indian, 277

Coast,

—— Hemlock, 35, 41,
109

—— Himalayan, 276,
277

Japanese, 276

Menzies’s, 276, 278

Muskeag, 276

New Brunswick, 276

Northern, 275

Norway, 89,
320-1

Omorikan, 275

Oriental, 275

Polar, 275

Red, 276, 278

Rocky Mountain,
276, 278

St. John’s, 276

Servian, 275, 278

Siberian, 276,

Single, 278

Sitka, 276, 278

Tideland, 278

Tiger’s-tail, 276

White, 83, 117, 276,
278, 320-1

Yesso, 278-9

Yezo, 276, 278-9

Spurious Olive, 191

Stacking timber, 75

Stadmannia siderdxylon,
192

Standard, St. Petersburg,
304

Staphylea pinnata, 53

Star-shake, 56-7

Stave-wood, 279

—— JdbGke Ze

Stele, 6-7

Stem, Functions of 4, 22-3

—— Structure of, 8-10

Stendcarpus, 140

—— salignus, 86, 233

—— sinudtus, 175-6, 291

Stephégyné parvifolia, 195

277,

345

Sterctilia cymbiférmis, 78,
100, 168
—— fetida, 279
—— ltrida, 282
Stere, 304
Stereospérmum chelo-
noides, 236
Stinkwood, 37, 77, 86, 104,
279
—— Camdeboo, 279
—— Hard-black, 279
—— Red, 126
Soft Grey, 279
Stone, Mr. Herbert, 310,
315-6, 319, 323
Stone-wood, 146-7,
273
Storage, 75
Stotulari, 194
Strawberry-tree, 201
Strength timbers, 80, 115
Stringybark, 78, 82, 101,
133, 144, 279-280
Almond-leaved, 239
Broad-leaved, 280
Gum-top, 179, 181
Red, 210
White, 81, 239, 280
—— Yellow, 280
Strichnos colubrina, 274
—— nux-vomica, 274
Stryphnodéndron gquian-
énsé, 188
Submerged structures, 80
Sugarberry, 183-4
Sugar-tree, 168
Sugi, 280
Sumach, Stag’s-horn, 51,
280-1
—— Venetian,
281
—— Virginian, 280-1
Summer wood, 16
Sundri, 79, 281
Suriya, 292
Swartzia tomentosa,
237
Swedish forests, 97
Sweetwood, Timber, 281
Swieténia Mahdgoni, 50,
78, 117, 206-7
Swiss forests, 99
—— Pine, 175, 277
Sycamore, 36, 51, 52, 70,
84, 88, 255, 281-2,
318
—— Bastard, 282
—— White, 201, 282
—— Light, 201
Sykomore, 137
Symplocos martinicénsis,
146

189,

5) 0 a

210,

346

Syncarpia Hillii, 292
—— laurifolia, 78, 101,
292
—— leptopétala, 220, 292
Synoum glandulosum, 145,
168, 263, 292

Syringa vulgaris, 51
Syzygium Jambolana, 193

Taaibosch, 282

Tabebtia flavéscens, 199

—— nodosa, 237

—— pentaphylla, 149

Tacamahac, 258

Tallicoma, 165

Tallow-wood, 78, 82, 282

Talura, 282

Tamarack.
283

—— Western, 283

Tamatr-i-hindi, 283

Tamarind, 87, 283

Tamarindus indica, 87,283

Tamarind Plum, 198

Tamboti, 192

Tampanis, 283

Tampinnis, 100, 283

Tanderoo, 190

Tandi, 220

Tanekaha, 79, 81, 283

Tangent-sawing, 66

Tan-mu, 266

Tanning woods, 93

Tapang, 284

Tar, 92

Taraire, 284

Tarco, 284

Tarriétia

82, 273

Tasmanian timbers, 101-2

Tatajuba, 274-5

Tatamaka, 79, 86, 257

Tavola, 126

Tawa, 284

Tawhai, 284

—— raunui, 284

—— yauriki, 142

Taxédium, 42

—— distichum, 165-6 ~

Taxus baccata, 42, 301,320

—— brevifolia, 42, 301

—— cuspidata, 301-2

Tcheergun, 144

43, 78, 109,

argyrodéndron,

Tea, 284
Teak, 4, 30, 35, 50, 57,
67-8; | 10-15 moO,

84, 100, 117, 285-
Tae04, ol
African, 57, 103, 287
Bastard, 85, 287
Johore, 287
New Zealand, 259

INDEX

Teasshur, 147

Tea-tree, 178, 285

—— Black, 285

Broad-leaved, 146-7,
285

Mountain, 285

Paper-barked,
285

Prickly-leaved, 285

River, 146-7

Soft-leaved, 285

Swamp, 152, 285

White, 212, 285

Teazle, 88, 288

Tecoma Guayacan, 177

—— leucdxylon, 146, 170

—— pentaphylla, 88, 149

—— speciosa, 237

Tectona grandis, 50, 57,
VE 285-Tee ole

Tee, 282

Telegraph-poles, 81, 106,

Tendu, 169

T’eng-li-mu, 88, 288

Teng Mang, 153

Tensile strength, 112

Terebinth, 288

—— Syrian, 84

Terédo navilis, 63

Terminalia acuminata, 78,
WT

Arjuna, 128-9

bialata, 202

belérica, 44, 81

Buceras, 235

Catappa, 126

Chébula, 81, 184

Tanibotica, 201

—— tomentosa, 44, 265

Termites, 63-4

Terms used, 303

Tetraclinis articuldata, 83,
103, 126, 203, 289

Tetranthera calicadris, 211,

Tewart, 57, 78, 102, 288

Texo, 301

Thalai, 172

Théa assamica, 284

Theit-to, 212

Thespésia popilnea, 86,
292-3

Theya, 289

Thingan, 78, 100, 288, 312

Thitka, 288-9

Thitkado, 157-8

Thit-si, 293

Thitya, 289

Thorn, 289

Thouinia weinmanni} olia,
284

Thujopsis dolabrata, 185

Thumbagum, 289

101,

Thurston, Professor, 120
Thuya, 289 :
Thuya articulata, 289
—— gigantea, 40, 42, 67,
82, 156, 160
—— occidentilis, 40, 42,
82, 160
—— plicita, 82
Thyine wood, 83, 289
iil, 337/
Tilia americana, 85, 137,
318-9
—— argéntea, 204
—— corddta, 204
—— heterophylla, 137
—— platyphyllos, 204
Timber, 76, 81, 106, 303
—— Appreciation of,
95-6, 322
Converted, 303
European, 96-7
exports and
ports, 96-7
Seasoning of, 113
Tipa blanco, 289
—— Colorado, 289
—— White, 289
Tipuana speciosa, 289
Tipula, 33
Tirzah, 165
Tissues, 6
Titoki, 234
Tochi, 289
Toddalia lanceolata, 104,
191, 293
Toga, 200
Tohi, 278
Toi, 144
Tolmgah, 154
Tong-schi, 242
Tonka-bean, 105, 289-290
Tonquin-bean, 290
Toolookar, 128
Toon, 37, 85, 90, 100,
157-8
Toona, 157-8
Torreya nuciféra, 197
Tortrix viriddna, 55
Totara, 79, 80, 81, 290
Touloucouna, 165
Towhai, 195
Tow-war, 140
Trachez, 16, 26-28
Tracheids, 16, 27-28
Tramétes radicipérda, 56,
61
Trichilia, 322
—— Pricuridna, 207-9
Trincomalee-wood, 290
Tristania conférta, 101,
148, 149
—— laurina, 138, 148

im-

Tristania nervif lia, 183
—— suavéolens, 83, 101,
183
Trochocarpa laurina, 136,
138, 161
Trumpet-tree, 290
Tsuga, 41, 290
—— Araragi, 290
—— canadénsis,
109, 185
—— Mertensiana, 41,109,
185
—— Siebdldi, 290
Tubbil-pulla, 148
Tu chung mu, 236
Tuggan-tuggan, 233
Tulip-tree, 36-7, 89,
6, 206, 290-1, 292
Tulip-wood, 37, 78,
165, 291
Tulpenbaum, 291
Tupelo, 89, 292
—— Gum, 292
Turnery woods, 87
Turnip-wood, 158,
292
Turpentine, 101, 106, 178,
202
—— Brush, 220, 242
—— tree, 78-9, 101, 282,
292
Turraic, 140
Tyal-dyal, 132

41, 83,

175-
101,

263,

Ullagal Mabbie, 235
Ulmus, 48, 236
alata, 48, 173

—— americana, 48, 171,
314

—— campéstris, 48, 78,
117

—— crassifolia, 48

mas (ISTO NTI

fulva, 48, 172

glabra, 88

integrifolia, 172

montana, 48, 172

racemosa, 48, 171

Umbellularia Californica,
201

Umbomoana, 86, 265

Umbrella-tree, 292-3

Umeaza, 144-5

Umceya, 80, 300

Umdakane, 239

Umdogan, 239

Umguma, 191

Umguna, 86, 135, 234

Umegwenyuizinja, 86, 132

Umkoba, 300

Umnoiso, 135

Umnonono, 238

INDEX

Umounari, 279

Umtati, 86, 274

Umtensema, 261

Umzumbit, 87, 104, 293

United States forests, 106

Unkaza, 86, 266

Unoyic, 146-7

Unwin, Professor, 113-14,
117, 119

Urajiro-gashi, 231

Uroobie, 293

Urticacee, 311

Vaivai, 293

Vanatica, 77

Varnish, Black, 293

—— Burmese, 293

Vatéria acuminata, 254

—— indica, 254

Vatica Rassak, 80,
261

Vem-pu, 137

Veéne, 263

Venatico, 210

Veneers, 87

Vesi, 272

Vesivesi, 139

Vessels, 11, 26-28, 39

Vibirnum Opulus, 88, 288

Victoria, Timbers of, 101-2

Vidi, 256

Villarésia M 6orei, 213

Vinhacito, 210

Vine, 48, 293

Violet-wood, 87, 104, 105,
219, 293

Violin-wood, 38, 277

Virgilia capénsis, 197

Vitex altissima, 78, 100,
216-7

divaricata, 146

geniculatz, 78, 100,
Divi

lignum-viice, 203

littoralis, 79, 80, 259

umbrosa, 147

Vitis, 48

vinifera, 293

Vlier, 293

100,

Wa, 137

Wacapou, 294
Wadadura, 217
Wahoo, 173
Waibaima, 294
Wai-hwa, 301
Walking-sticks, 87-8
Wallaba, 294

—— Ituri, 294
Wallang-unda, 294
Wallundun-deyren, 161
Walnuss, 294

347

Walnut, 25, 29, 36, 51, 63,
84, 85, 87, 88, 97,
294-6

African, 322-3

American, 85, 295-6,
316

Ancona, 294

Austrian, 295

Auvergne, 294

Belgaum, 296

Black, 51, 78, 295-6

Cape, 279

Circassian, 294

Common, 51, 294-5

East Indian, 296

English, 294

European, 294

French, 295

Grey, 296

Italian, 84, 294-5

Japanese, 296

Manchurian, 296

Queensland, 296

Satin, 182-3, 318

substitutes, 322-3

Turkish, 295

White, 51, 316

Wandoo, 102, 296

Wane, 177

Wangara, 133

Wapa-gras, 294

Ward, Professor H. M.,
38, 222

Washiba, 270

Water-bush, 168

Water-tree, 240

—— wood, 106, 296

Wat-tah, 297

Wattle, 296-7

——— Black 296-7

—— Broad-leaved, 297

—— Feathery, 296-7

—— Golden, 297

—— Green, 297

—— Hickory, 296-7

—— Prickly, 297

—— Silver, 79, 144, 296-7

Weale, Mr. J. A., 306, 309

Weinmannia Benthamiti,

202

—— racemosa, 195

—— rubifolia, 164, 216

Wellenmispel, 205

Wellingtonia, 140

Wene (in Jolof), 263

West Indian timbers, 105-6

Whistle-wood, 215

Whitebeam, 53

Whitethorn, 88, 184

Whitetop, 144

Whitewood, 36-7, 53, 161,
258-9, 290-1, 297

348

Whitewood, American, 83,
85, 291
—— Canary, 83, 85, 89,
290-1, 318
—— Mowbulan, 201
Widdringtonia juniper-
oides, 83, 104, 158
—— White, 83, 158-9
Wig-tree, 51
Wilga, 299
Willow, 29, 33, 35, 61,
83, 84, 89, 90, 91,
144, 297-9, 319-
320
Bedford, 298
Black, 298
Crack, 298, 319-320
Goat, 320
—— Redwood, 298
—— White, 24, 298, 319-
320
—— Yellow, 298-9
Wineberry, 173
Withy, 298
Wood as fuel, 91-2
Brasiletto, 269
Brazil, 269
Cayenne Rose, 270
Colour of, 36-37
—— Defects of, 55-64
—— Distillation of, 91
Durability of, 66-7
Function of, 2
Hardness of, 35-36
Honeysuckle, 255
a NACE
leopard, 64
Microscopic Exami-
nation of,
305-6
————— §tructures of,
309-321
—— oil tree, 183
—— Our supplies of, 94-
TAL

—— parenchyma, 28
—— paving, 82
pepper, 270
—— Plants producing, |

2-3

INDEX

Wood, Prices of, 110-11,

322

—— Rate ofconsumption,
1, 94

—— Selection of, 65-6,
112

spirit, 92
Structure of, 9, 309-
321

Testing, 112, 121

Uses of, 1, 5, 76-93

vinegar, 91-92

Waste of, 94

—— Weight of, 34-5

Woods, Classification of,
38-54

—— Hard, 4

—— of commerce,
302

—— Odours of, 37

—— Recognition of, 34-
37

—— Resonance of, 37-8

—— Soft, 2

Woody fibres, 28

Woolal, 130

Woolly Butt, 101, 178,

180, 209, 299

Worms, 64

Wound-parasites, 60-1

Wrightia tinctoria, 168

Wyagerie, 176

Wych-hazel, 172

123-

Ximénia americana, 268

Xylem, 9-12, 15-20

Xylia dolabriférmis, 44,
79, 81, 83, 100, 123-4

Xylocarpus Grandtum, 154

Xylomélum pyriformé,
238-9

Xylosote process, 73

faba, 127

Yacal, 78, 100
Yacca, 299
Yangoura, 279, 280
Yaralla, 173
Yariyari, 199
Yarrah, 181

Yate, 102, 299

Yaya, 199

Yellow-jacket,
181

Yellow-wood, 53, 80, 81,

93, 299-300

—— Bastard, 299-300

—— Dark; 300

Deep, 300

—— Light, 300

Natal, 300

Outeniqua, 300

Prickly, 134

Real, 300

Thorny, 300

Upright, 300

White, 300

Yendike, 300

Yen-ju, 301

Yepi, 173

Yew, 3, 37, 42, 63, 85, 87,
88, 170, 301-2,
320

Californian, 301

—— Japanese, 301-2

—— New Zealand, 290

Pacific, 301

Western, 301

Yezo-matsu, 279

Yiel-yiel, 175-6

Yoke, 302

Ypil, 173

Yw, 301

149-150,

Zaith, 234

Zanthoxylum brachyacan-
thum, 271

—— Clava- Hérculis, 134

—— flava, 271

—— floridum, 271

Zapateri, 260

Zebra-wood, 105, 302

Zelkova, 302

Zelkowa acuminata,
197

—— crenata, 302

Zenzera, 64

Zizyphus Chlordxylon, 160

Zwartbast, 144-5

Zybast, 87, 273

100,

BILLING AND SONS, LTD,, PRINTERS, GUILDFORD

(’

Mr. Edward Arnold’s List of
Technical & Scientific Publications

Extract from the LIVERPOOL POST of Dec. 4, 1907 :—

“During recent years Mr. Edward Arnold has placed in the hands of
engineers and others interested in applied science a large number of
volumes which, independently altogether of their intrinsic merits as
scientific works, are very fine examples of the printers’ and engravers’
art, and from their appearance alone would be an ornament to any scien- ‘
tific student's library. Fortunately for the purchaser, the publisher has
shown a wise discrimination in the technical books he has added to his
list, with the result that the contents of the volumes are almost without
exception as worthy of perusal and study as their appearance is
attractive.”

Power Gas Producers.
Their Design and Application.
By PHILIP W. ROBSON,

Of the National Gas Engine Co., Ltd. ; sometime Vice-Principal of the Municipal School of
Technology, Manchester.

Demy $vo., cloth, 1os. 6d. net.

The recent enormous increase in the use of gas power is largely due to
the improvements in gas producers. This book, which is written
by a well-known expert, goes thoroughly into the theory, design,
and application of all kinds of plants, with chapters on working and
general management.

Electrical Traction.
BY ERNES?T WILSON, WHIT: ScH.,° M.I.E.E.,

Professor of Electrical Engineering in the Siemens Laboratory, King’s College, London,
ANDEGIWANGIS: IE DATE ESB TAN. B.Sc:
Two volumes, sold separately. Demy 8vo., cloth.

Vol. I., with about 300 Illustrations and Index. I5s. net.
Vol. II., with about 170 Illustrations and Index. 15s. net.

‘‘We are most decidedly of the opinion that both of these volumes will prove of
great value to engineers, and that the last volume, in view of the present great interest
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first time is published a great amount of data with reference to which, hitherto, the
manufacturing companies concerned have observed great secrecy."’—7he T7mes
(Engineering Supplement ),

A Text-Book of Electrical Engineering.
By Dr. ADOLF THOMALEN.
Translated by G. W. O. HOWE, M.Sc., WHIT. SCH., A.M.I.E.E.,
Lecturer in Electrical Engineering at the Central Technical College, South Kensington.
With 454 Illustrations. Royal 8vo., cloth, 15s. net.

This translation of the ‘ Kurze Lehrbuch der Electrotechnik ” is intended
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text-books and the specialized works on various branches of electrical
engineering.

LONDON: EDWARD ARNOLD, 41 & 43 MADDOX STREET, W.

No

Mr. Edward Arnold's List of

Alternating Currents.
A Text-Book for Students of Engineering.
BY*C"Gr LANB, MEAS Bsc.

Clare College, Cambridge ; Associate Member fag the Tactifution of Electrical Engineers ;
Associate of the City and Guilds of London Institute.
viii + 325 pages. With upwards of 230 Illustrations. Demy 8vo., cloth,
Ios. 6d. net.

The scope of this book is intended to be such as to cover approximately
the range of reading in alternating current machinery and apparatus
considered by the author as desirable for a student of general engi-
neering in his last year—as, for example, a candidate for the Mechanical
Sciences Tripos at Cambridge.

Electric and Magnetic Circuits.

By ELLIS H..CRAPPER, Male EE;
Head of the Electrical Engineering Department in the University Collezes Sheffield.

vilit+380 pages. Demy 8vo., cloth, Ios. 6d. net.

This, the introductory volume of a treatise on Electrical Engineering,
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Applied Electricity.
A Text-Book of Electrical Engineering for ‘‘ Second Year” Students.
BY J.) PALEY YORIGE:

Head of the Physics and Electrical Engineering Department at the London County Council
School of Engineering and Navigation, Poplar.

xli+ 420 pages. Crown 8vo., cloth, 7s. 6d.
This volume is a text-book of Electrical Engineering for those who have

already become acquainted with the fundamental phenomena and
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Hydraulics.

By) F.C. LEA BSc, AcMiINST Ga,

Senior Whitworth Scholar, A.R.C.S.; iodine in Applied Mechanics Fadl Engineering Design,
City and ‘Guilds of London Central Technical College, London.

With about 300 Illustrations. Demy 8vo., 18s. net.
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of London and other Universities, and of the Institution of Civil
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Hydraulics.
By RAYMOND BUSQUET,
Professeur 4 |’Ecole Industrielle de Lyon.

AUTHORIZED ENGLISH EDITION.
Translated by A. H. PEAKE, M.A.,

Demonstrator in Mechanism and Applied Mechanics in the University of Cambridge.
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Technical and Scientific Publications a

The Balancing of Engines.

BMW OAL BY. MA B.oC.eMAINST:C.E.. M.1.M.E.,
Professor of Engineering, City and Guilds of London Central Technical College.
SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED.
xii+ 283 pages. With upwards of 180 IIlustrations.

Demy 8vo., cloth, Ios. 6d. net.

CONTENTS.
CHAP, | CHAP.
I. The Addition and Subtraction of | V. Secondary Balancing.
Vector Quantities. | VI. Estimation of the Primary and
II. The Balancing of Revolving Secondary Unbalanced Forces
Masses. and Couples.

III. The Balancing of Reciprocating VII. The Vibration of the Supports.
Masses.—Long Connecting-rods. VIII. The Motionof the Connecting-rod,
IV. The Balancing of Locomotives. | APPENDIX. EXERCISES. INDEX,

Valves and Valve Gear Mechanisms.

By W. E. DALBY, M.A., B.Sc., M.INST.C.E., M.I.M.E.,
Professor of Engineering, City and Guilds of London Central Technical College.

xviii+ 366 pages. With upwards of 200 Illustrations.
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engines, and include, amongst others, a link motion of the Great
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Western Railway, the Walschaert gear of the Northern of France
Railway, the Joy gear of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway, the
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draughtsmen have been kept in view throughout.

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competent authority. The language is exact and clear, the illustrations are admirably
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The Strength and Elasticity of Structural
Members.
By R. J. WOODS, M.E., M.INST.C.E.,

Fellow and Assistant Professor of Engineering, Royal Indian Engineering College,
Cooper’s Hill.

SECOND EDITION, REVISED.
xii+310 pages. With 292 Illustrations. Demy 8vo., cloth, Ios. 6d. net.
‘To students for the final examination of the R.I.B.A. we can strongly
recommend such a practical and thorough text-book.” —Avitish Architect.
**This is a practical book, and, although written mainly for engineering

students, may be commended as one likely to prove equally useful to those
engaged in active practice.” —Mechanical Engineer.

Calculus for Engineers.
By JOHN PERRY, M.E., D.Sc., F.R.S.,

Professor of Mechanics and Mathematics in the Royal College of Science, London ;
Vice-President of the Physical Society; Vice-President of the Institution
of Electrical Engineers.

EIGHTH IMPRESSION.
vili+382 pages. With 106 IHustrations. Crown 8vo., cloth, 7s. 6d.

aS

Mr. Edward Arnold's List of

Mathematical Drawing.
Including the Graphic Solution of Equations.

By G. M. MINCHIN, M.A., F.R.S.,
Professor of Applied Mathematics at the Royal Indian Engineering College, Cooper’s Hill ;
Anp JOHN BORTHWICK DALE, M.A.,

Assistant Professor of Mathematics at King’s College, London.
Crown 8vo., cloth, 7s. 6d. net.

Graphic methods in Mathematics, which have attracted so much attention
within the last few years, may be said to have attained a greatly
increased importance by the decision of the University of London to
require a knowledge of Mathematical Drawing from all candidates ©
for the B:Sc. Degree.

The present work is largely an attempt to systematize somewhat vague
methods of solving the non-algebraic equations which so often contain
the solutions of physical problems.

Five-Figure Tables of Mathematical
Functions.

Comprising Tables of Logarithms, Powers of Numbers, Trigonometric,
Elliptic, and other Transcendental Functions.

By JOHN BORTHWICK DALE, M.A.,

Assistant Professor of Mathematics at King’s College, London
vi+92 pages. Demy 8vo., cloth, 3s. 6d. net.

This collection of Tables has been selected for use in the examinations
of the University of London.

“This is a most valuable contribution to the literature of Mathematical refer-
ence... . To anyone engaged in almost any form of higher physical research this
compilation will be an enormous boon in the way of saving time and labour and

collecting data. ... The five-figure tables of roots and powers are, perhaps, the
most useful features of the work.’’—J/ining Journal.

Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables (To

Five Places of Decimals). By JOHN BORTHWICK DALE, M.A.,
Assistant Professor of Mathematics at King’s College, London.
Demy 68vo., cloth, 2s. net.

Traverse Tables.
With an Introductory Chapter on Co-ordinate Surveying.
By HENRY LOUIS, M.A., AND G. W. CAUNT, M.A.,

Professor of Mining and Lecturer on Surveying, Lecturer in Mathematics,
Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

xxvilit+92 pages, Demy 8vo., flexible cloth, rounded corners, 4s. 6d. net.

‘«'The admirable, compact, and inexpensive tables compiled by Professor Henry
Louis and Mr. G. W. Caunt. ‘They are just what is required by the mining student
and by the practical mine surveyor. . . . Their publication at a low price renders this
convenient and rapid method of working out traverse surveys accessible to a class of
workers from whom it has hitherto been debarred.”’—Mining Journal,

5

Technical and Scientific Publications

Organic Chemistry for Advanced Students.
By JULIUS B. COHEN, Pu.D., B.Sc.,

Professor of Organic Chemistry in the University of Leeds, and Associate of Owens
College, Manchester.
Demy 8vo., cloth, 2Is. net.

The book is written for students who have already completed an
elementary course of Organic Chemistry, and is intended largely to
take the place of the advanced text-book. For it has long been the
opinion of the author that, when the principles of classification and
synthesis and the properties of fundamental groups have been
acquired, the object of the teacher should be, not to multiply
facts of a similar kind, but rather to present to the student a broad »
and general outline of the more important branches of the subject.
This method of treatment, whilst it avoids the dictionary arrange-
ment which the text-book requires, leaves the writer the free disposal
of his materials, so that he can bring together related substances,
irrespective of their nature, and deal thoroughly with important
theoretical questions which are often inadequately treated in the
text-book.

The Chemical Synthesis of Vital Products and
the Inter-relations between Organic
Compounds.

Byer HAE IMELDOLA, F:R:S:, V.P!C.S., F.LC., etc,
Professor of Chemistry in the City and Guilds of London Technical College, Finsbury.
Vol. I., xvi+ 338 pages. Super Royal 8vo., cloth, 21s. net.

The great achievements of modern Organic Chemistry in the domain of
the synthesis or artificial production of compounds which are known
to be formed as the result of the vital activities of plants and animals
have not of late years been systematically recorded. The object of
the present book is to set forth a statement, as complete as possible,

of the existing state of knowledge in this most important branch of
science.

The Chemistry of the Diazo-Compounds.
By JOHN CANNELL CAIN, D.Sc. (Manchester and Tiibingen),

Editor of the Publications of the Chemical Society.

Demy 8vo. Ios. 6d. net.

Lectures on Theoretical and Physical

Chemistry.
by Dr. J. H. VAN ’T HOFF,

Professor of Chemistry at the University of Berlin.

dranslated) by RhinAs LEHRELDTD:.Sc;
Professor of Physics at the Transvaal Technical Institute, Johannesburg.

In three volumes, demy 8vo., cloth, 28s. net, or separately as follows:
PART I. CHEMICAL DYNAMICS. 254 pages. 12s. net.
PART II]. CHEMICAL STATICS. 156 pages. 8s. 6d. net.

PART III. RELATIONS BETWEEN PROPERTIES AND
COMPOSITION. 143 pages, 7s. 6d. net.

6 Mr. Edward Arnold's List of

Experimental Researches with the Electric
Furnace.
By HENRI MOISSAN,

Membre de l'Institut ; Professor of Chemistry at the Sorbonne.
AUTHORIZED ENGLISH EDITION.
Translated by A. T. de MOUILPIED, M.Sc., Ph.D.,
Assistant Lecturer in Chemistry in the University of Liverpool.
xil+ 307 pages, with Illustrations. Demy 8vo., cloth, 10s. 6d. net.

“There is hardly a page of it which is not crowded with interest, and hardly a
section which does not teem with suggestion ; and if the coming of this English edition
of the book has been so long delayed, we may still be thankful that it has comeat last,
and come in a form which it is a pleasure to handle and a delight to read,” —Zlectrical

Review.

Electrolytic Preparations.

Exercises for use in the Laboratory by Chemists and
Electro-Chemists.
BY DR. KART SEE BS:
Professor of Organic and Physical Chemistry at the University of Giessen.

Translated by R. S. HUTTON, M.Sc.,

Demonstrator and Lecturer on Electro-Chemistry at the University of Manchester.
xll+100 pages. Demy 8vo., cloth, 4s. 6d. net.

The book contains a complete course of examples on the application of
electrolysis to the preparation of both inorganic and organic sub-
stances. It will be found useful as filling a distinct gap in the text-
book literature suitable for use in chemical laboratories, and should
enable the chemist to make use of the many valuable and elegant
methods of preparation which have been worked out during recent
years, the advantages and ease of application of which he cannot
appreciate without such a guide.

Introduction to Metallurgical Chemistry for
Technical Students.

By J: H. STANSBIE, B.Sc. (LOND) GhieGs

Associate of Mason University College, and Lecturer in the Birmingham University Technical
. School.

SECOND EDITION.
Xll+252 pages. Crown 8vo., cloth, 4s. 6d.

An Experimental Course of Chemistry for Agri-

cultural Students. By T. S. Dymonp, F.I.C., Lately Principal Lecturer
in the Agricultural Department, County Technical Laboratories, Chelmsford.
New Impression. 192 pages, with 50 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., cloth,

2s. 6d.

A History of Chemistry.
By Dr. HUGO BAUER,
Royal Technical Institute, Stuttgart.

Translated by R. V. STANFORD, B.Se. (LOND.),

Priestley Research Scholar in the University of Birmingham.
Crown $8vo., cloth, 3s. 6d. net.

Technical and Scientific Publications il

The Becquerel Rays and the Properties
of Radium.

BY THE HON] ik. eek RU LF oR.S.,
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.

SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED.
vill+ 222 pages, with Diagrams. Demy 8vo., cloth, 8s. 6d. net.

“Tf only a few more books of this type were written, there might be some hope of
a general appreciation of the methods, aims, and results of science, which would go
far to promote its study. . . . A book for which no praise can be excessive.”
Atheneum.

Astronomical Discovery.
By HERBERT HALL TURNER, D.Sc., F.R.S.,

Savilian Professor of Astronomy in the University of Oxford.

xli+225 pages, with Plates and Diagrams. Demy 8vo., cloth, tos. 6d. net.

An Introduction to the Theory of Optics.
By ARTHUR SCHUSTER, Ph.D., Sc.D., F.R.S.,

Recently Professor of Physics at the University of Manchester.
xvi+ 340 pages, with Illustrations. Demy 8vo., cloth, 15s. net.

““We know of no book written with a set purpose better adapted to serve the
purpose for which it was written, nor any that the earnest student of optics will find
more interesting and profitable. The work itself, without the confession of the preface,
shows that Professor Schuster is a teacher, and every page bears evidence that he is a
master of his subject ... We heartily recommend the book to our readers.’’-—
Ophthalmic Review.

Wood.

A Manual of the Natural History and Industrial Applications of the
Timbers of Commerce.
BGG Sa BOW EGiRS Hi less.. FG...) A. ool,

Professor of Botany and Lecturer on Forestry in the City of London College, and formerly in the
Royal Agricultural College.

NEW EDITION. Revised and Enlarged and profusely illustrated.
Demy 8vo., 12s. 6d. net.

‘Tt is just the book that has long been wanted by land agents, foresters, and wood-
men, and it should find a place in all technical school libraries.’’— Fed.

Manual of Alcoholic Fermentation and the
Allied Industries.

BYICHAREES G. MASUELEW'S, IR LG. F.C:S;,.Ere:

xvi+295 pages, with 8 Plates, and 4o Illustrations. Crown 8vo., cloth,
7s. 6d. net.
““This is a book worthy of its author, and well worth perusing by every student.
. . . The student, both old and young, as well as the practical brewer, will find this
book gives him some very useful information,’’—Brewers' Guardian,

8 Mr. Edward Arnold's Technical & wae Books

The Evolution Theory. By Dye. ee ere:
MANN, Professor of Zoology in the University of Freiburg in Breisgau.
paste ted with the Author’s co-operation, by J. ARTHUR THOMSON,
Regius Professor of Natural History in the University of Aberdeen; and
MARGARET THOMSON, Two vols., xvi+416 and vili+ 396 pages, with over
130 Illustrations. Royal 8vo., cloth, 32s. net.

““The subject has never been so fully and comprehensively expounded before ; and
it is not necessary to subscribe to all the author’s tenets in order to recognise the value
and the absorbing interest of his exposition, with its prodigious wealth of illustration,
its vast store of zoological knowledge, its ingenious interpretations and far-reaching
theories. English readers have reason to be grateful to Professor and Mrs. Thomson
for their admirable translation.’—7he 77mes.

The Chances of Death and Other Studies in

Evolution. By Kart Prarson, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Applied
Mathematics in University College, London, and formerly Fellow of King’s
College, Cambridge. 2 vols., xii + 388 and 460 pages, with numerous
Illustrations. Demy 8vo., cloth, 25s. net.

The Life of the Salmon. With reference more

especially to the Fish in Scotland. By W. L. CaLpERWwoop, F.R.S.E.,
Inspector of Salmon Fisheries for Scotland. Illustrated. Demy 8vo.,
7s. 6d. net.

‘We have no hesitation whatever in advising all persons interested in the salmon,
whether as fishermen, naturalists, or legislators, to add this book to their libraries.”’
—Nature.

Animal Behaviour. By Professor C. Ltoyp
Morean, LL.D., F.R.S., Principal of University College, Bristol.
vili+ 344 pages, with 26 Illustrations. Large crown $vo., cloth, 10s. 6d.

This important contribution to the fascinating subject of animal psycho-
logy covers the whole ground from the behaviour of cells up to that
of the most highly developed animals.

BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
Habit and Instinct. viii+ 352 pages, with Photo-

gravure Frontispiece. Demy 8vo., cloth, 16s.

Professor ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE :—‘“‘ An admirable introduction to the study
of a most important and fascinating branch of biology, now for the first time based
upon a substantial foundation of carefully observed facts and logical induction from
them.”’

BY THE SAME AUTHOR.

The Springs of Conduct. Cheaper Edition.

viii+ 317 pages. Large crown 8vo., cloth, 3s. 6d. This volume deals with
the Source and Limits of Knowledge, the Study of Nature, the Evolution of
Scientific Knowledge, Body, and Mind, Choice, Feeling, and Conduct.

BY THE SAME AUTHOR,
Psychology for Teachers. New Edition, entirely

rewritten. xii+308 pages. Crown 8vo., cloth, 4s. 6d.

An Introduction to Child Study. By Dr: Wises

DRUMMOND. Crown 8vo., cloth, 6s. net.

The Child’s Mind: Its Growth and Training. By

W. E. Urwick, University of Leeds. Crown 8vo., cloth, 4s. 6d. net.

LONDON: EDWARD ARNOLD, 41 & 43 MADDOX STREET, W.

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434 Wood 2d ed., rev. and
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