m-^

'viSrJ

:■-,..•,

'i;s;

lii'''".',"-!:

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION

OF

WASHINGTON

YEi^R BOOK

No. 5

1906

PUBLISHED BY THE INSTITUTION

WASHINGTON, U. S. A.

JANUARY, 1907

^

PRESS OF JUDD & DETWEILER, INC.
WASHINGTON, D. C.

33L

OFFICERS FOR THE YEAR 1907

President of the InstitiUion
Robert S. Woodward

John S. Billings
John L,. Cadwalader
Cleveland H. Dodge
William N. Frew
I/YMAN J. Gage
Daniel C. Oilman
Henry L. Higginson
E. A. Hitchcock

Trustees

John S. Billings, Chairman
Elihu Root, Vice-Chainnan
Cleveland H. Dodge, Secretary

Chas. L. Hutchinson

William Lindsay

Seth Low

D, O. Mills

S. Weir Mitchell

William W. Morrow

Henry S. Pritchett

Elihu Root
William H. Taft
Charles D. Walcott
William H. Welch
Andrew D. White
Robert S. Woodward
Carroll D. Wright

Exectdive Committee
Carroll D. Wright, Chairman
*JoHN S. Billings S. Weir Mitchell * Robert S. Woodward

* Cleveland H. Dodge Elihu Root Carroll D. Wright

Daniel C. Oilman Charles D. Walcott

D. O. Mills

Finance Coinviittee
Henry L. Higginson

Seth Low

* Ex-ofScio member.

CONTENTS.

Page

Articles of Incorporation I

By-Laws of the Institution 5

Minutes of the fourth meeting of the Board of Trustees 9-12

Memorial in regard to the death of Prof. Samuel P. Langley 13

Report of the President of the Institution 15-37

Resume of work of the year 21

Report of the Executive Committee 39-52

Cash and financial statements 42-43

Research Associates and Assistants 44

Bibliography of publications relating to work accomplished by Grantees and

Associates 45-52

Reports on Investigations and Projects 53-251

Anthropology :

Jones, William 55

Dorsey, George A 55

Archeology :

American School of Classical Studies at Athens 56

American School of Classical Studies in Rome 56

Brigham, William T 58

Miiller, W. Max 59

Pumpelly, Raphael . 59

Ward, William H 59

Astronomy :

Hale, George E 60-86

Campbell, W. M 86

Newcomb, Simon 88

Russell, Henry N 89

Bibliography :

Eames, Wilberf orce 90

Weeks, F. B 90

Fletcher, Robert 91

Biology, Experimental :

Davenport, Charles B 92-105

ShuU, George H 98

Lutz, F. E. . . , 100

Lutz, Anne M , loi

Johnson, Roswell H 102

Transeau, E.N 105

Moeukhaus, W. J 105

Stevens, N. M 105

Biology, Marine :

Mayer, A. G 106-118

Brooks, W. K 109

Kellner, Carl no

Dahlgren, Ulric m

Edmondson, C. H m

Linton, Edwin 112-117

V

VI CONTENTS.

Botanical Research (Department of) : Page

MacDougal, D. T Ii9-i35

Botany :

Burbank, Luther 136

Blakeslee, Albert F 136

Olive, Edgar W 138

Swingle, Walter T 138

Chemistry :

Acree, Solomon F 140

Bancroft, Wilder D . 141

Baskerville, Charles 141

Baxter, Gregory P 147

Jones, Harry C 149

Morse, H. N 150

Noyes, Arthur A 153

Richards, Theodore W 154

Economics and Sociology :

Wright, Carroll D 15S-163

Engineering :

Durand, F. W 164

Goss, W. F. M 164

Geology :

Chamberlin, T. C 166-172

Willis, Bailey 172

Washington, Henry S 172

Geophysical Research :

Adams, Frank D 1 74

Becker, George F 175

Day, Arthur L I77

Historical Research ( Department of) :

Jameson, J. Franklin 186-201

History :

Ferguson, W. S 202

Haskins, Charles H 202

Wright, James M . 202

Literature :

Sommer, H. Oskar. ... 203

Mathematics :

Lehmer, D.N , 203

Meridian Astrometry :

Boss, Lewis 204-2 r i

Meteorology :

Bjerknes, V., and J. W. Sandstrom 212

Nutrition :

Benedict, Francis G 212

Chittenden, Russell H 213

Mendel, Lafayette B 213

Osborne, Thomas B 214-219

Paleontology :

Hay, O. P 220

Philology :

Fliigel, Ewald 220

CONTENTS. VII

Phonetics : Page

Scripture, E. W 221

Physics :

Barnett, S. J 222

Barus, Carl 222

Burgess, Charles F 224

Campbell, William 226

Carhart, Henry S 226

Franklin, W. S., and 1,. A. Freudenberger 227

Lewis, E. Percival ....... 227

Nichols, Edward L, 228

Wood, Robert W 230

Zahm, Albert F 233

Psychology :

Farrar, Clarence B 234

Franz, Shepherd I 235

Terrestrial Magnetism :

Bauer, L,. A 236-242

Zoology :

Castle, W. E., and E. L. Mark 243

Crampton, Henry E 244

Duerden, James E 245

Howard, L,. O 245

Mark, E. L 246

Morse, Albert P 246

Naples Zoological Station 247

Pearl, Raymond 247

Tower, William L, 249

Wilson, Edmund B 250

Yatsu, N 251

VIII LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page
Pirate i. Spectroscopic Laboratory, MountWilson. Mount Wilson from Mount

Harvard 60

2. 60-inch Mirror Turned Down for Testing. Interior of Spectroscopic

Laboratory, 68

3. Pasadena Office and Erecting Building. Lower Part of Completed

Road 84

4. View across Cold Spring Valley looking Southeastward 96

5. Near View of Part of the West Experimental Gardens. View of ' ' North

Lot " 100

6. Interior View in Main Building. Interior of Propagating House 104

7. The Physalia at the Dock of the Tortugas Laboratory. View of the

Main Laboratory Building from the North 108

8. Reservation and Vicinity of the Desert Botanical Laboratory of Tucson,

Arizona 120

9. View of Desert Laboratory from West. Site of Austral Plantation on

Cathedral Rock, Santa Catalina Mountains 124

10. Area Denuded for the Purpose of Making Exact Observations on the

Movements of Desert Plants in its Reoccupation. Ancient Beach
Line of Salton Sea 128

11. Margin of Salton Sea near Travertine Point, May 22, 1906. . 128

12. Stages in Stomatal Action ... 132

13. View of Galilee, showing Special Observing Bridge and Instruments

used in Observations. The Galilee at San Diego, California, Feb-
ruary 22, 1906 236

ARTICLES OF INCORPORATION.

The Carnegie Institution was originally organized under the law governing"
the organization of corporations in the District of Columbia. Owing to cer-
tain limitations in the law, the Trustees deemed it desirable to obtain articles
of incorporation from the Congress. Accordingly, articles of incorporation
were prepared, submitted to the Congress, amended by the Congress, and
enacted into statute by the Congress and the signature of the President.

Organization under the new articles of incorporation was effected on May
1 8, 1904. Resolutions were passed electing the same Executive Committee
and officers as those of the Carnegie Institution organized in 1902 and con-
tinuing all instructions and authorizations given to the Executive Committee
bv the old orgranization.

Public No. 260. — An Act To incorporate the Carnegie Institution of Washington.

Be it enacted by the Senate and Honse of Representatives of the United
States of America in Congress assembled, That the persons following, being
persons who are now trustees of the Carnegie Institution, namely, Alexander
Agassiz, John S. Billings, John E. Cadwalader, Cleveland H. Dodge, William
N. Frew, Lyman J. Gage, Daniel C. Oilman, John Hay, Henry L. Higginson,
William Wirt Howe, Charles E. Hutchinson, Samuel P. Langley, William
Lindsay, Seth Low, Wayne MacVeagh, Darius O. Mills, S. Weir Mitchell,
William W. Morrow, Ethan A. Hitchcock, Elihu Root, John C. Spooner,
Andrew D. White, Charles D. Walcott, Carroll D. Wright, their associates
and successors, duly chosen, are hereby incorporated and declared to be a
body corporate by the name of the Carnegie Institution of Washington and
by that name shall be known and have perpetual succession, with the powers,
limitations, and restrictions herein contained.

Se;c. 2. That the objects of the corporation shall be to encourage, in the
broadest and most liberal manner, investigation, research, and discovery, and
the application of knowledge to the improvement of mankind; and in par-
ticular—

(a) To conduct, endow, and assist investigation in any department of
science, literature, or art, and to this end to cooperate with governments, uni-
versities, colleges, technical schools, learned societies, and individuals.

(b) To appoint committees of experts to direct special lines of research.

(c) To publish and distribute documents.

(d) To conduct lectures, hold meetings, and acquire and maintain a
librarv.

2 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

(e) To purchase such property, real or personal, and construct such build-
ing or buildings as may be necessary to carry on the work of the corporation.

(f) In general, to do and perform all things necessary to promote the
objects of the Institution, with full power, however, to the trustees herein-
after appointed and their successors from time to time to modify the condi-
tions and regulations under which the work shall be carried on, so as to
secure the application of the funds in the manner best adapted to the condi-
tions of the time, provided that the objects of the corporation shall at all
times be among the foregoing or kindred thereto.

Sec. 3. That the direction and management of the affairs of the corpora-
tion and the control and disposal of its property and funds shall be vested in
a board of trustees, twenty-two in number, to be composed of the following
individuals : Alexander Agassiz, John S. Billings, John L. Cadwalader,
Cleveland H. Dodge, William N. Frew, Lyman J. Gage, Daniel C. Oilman,
John Hay, Henry L. Higginson, William Wirt Howe, Charles L. Hutchinson,
Samuel P. Langley, William Lindsay, Seth Low, Wayne MacVeagh, Darius
O. Mills, S. Weir Mitchell, William W. Morrow, Ethan A. Hitchcock, Elihu
Root, John C. Spooner, Andrew D. White, Charles D. Walcott, Carroll D.
Wright, who shall constitute the first board of trustees. The board of trus-
tees shall have power from time to time to increase its membership to not
more than twenty-seven members. Vacancies occasioned by death, resig-
nation, or otherwise shall be filled by the remaining trustees in such manner
as the by-laws shall prescribe ; and the persons so elected shall thereupon
become trustees and also members of the said corporation. The principal
place of business of the said corporation shall be the city of Washington, in
the District of Columbia.

Sec 4. That such board of trustees shall be entitled to take, hold, and
administer the securities, funds, and property so transferred by said Andrew
Carnegie to the trustees of the Carnegie Institution and such other funds or
property as may at any time be given, devised, or bequeathed to them, or to
such corporation, for the purposes of the trust ; and with full power from
time to time to adopt a common seal, to appoint such officers, members of
the board of trustees or otherwise, and such employees as may be deemed
necessary in carrying on the business of the corporation, at such salaries or
with such remuneration as they may deem proper; and with full power to
adopt by-laws from time to time and such rules or regulations as may be
necessary to secure the safe and convenient transaction of the business of the
corporation ; and with full power and discretion to deal with and expend the
income of the corporation in such manner as in their judgment will best pro-
mote the objects herein set forth, and in general to have and use all powers
and authority necessary to promote such objects and carry out the purposes
of the donor. The said trustees shall have further power from time to time

ARTICLES OF INCORPORATION. 3

to hold as investments the securities hereinabove referred to so transferred
by Andrew Carnegie, and any property which has been or may be transferred
to them or such corporation by Andrew Carnegie or by any other person, per-
sons, or corporation, and to invest any sums or amounts from time to time
in such securities and in such form and manner as are permitted to trustees
or to charitable or literary corporations for investment, according to the laws
of the States of New York, Pennsylvania, or Massachusetts, or in such
securities as are authorized for investment by the said deed of trust so exe-
cuted by Andrew Carnegie, or by any deed of gift or last will and testament
to be hereafter made or executed.

Sec. 5. That the said corporation may take and hold any additional dona-
tions, grants, devises, or bequests which may be made in further support of
the purposes of the said corporation, and may include in the expenses thereof
the personal expenses which the trustees may incur in attending meetings or
otherwise in carrying out the business of the trust, but the services of the
trustees as such shall be gratuitous.

Sec. 6. That as soon as may be possible after the passage of this Act a
meeting of the trustees hereinbefore named shall be called by Daniel C. Gil-
man, John S. Billings, Charles D. Walcott, S. Weir Mitchell, John Hay, Elihu
Root, and Carroll D. Wright, or any four of them, at the city of Washington,
in the District of Columbia, by notice served in person or by mail addressed
to each trustee at his place of residence; and the said trustees, or a majority
thereof, being assembled, shall organize and proceed to adopt by-laws, to elect
officers and appoint committees, and generally to organize the said corpora-
tion; and said trustees herein named, on behalf of the corporation hereby
incorporated, shall thereupon receive, take over, and enter into possession,
custody, and management of all property, real or personal, of the corporation
heretofore known as the Carnegie Institution, incorporated, as hereinbefore
set forth under "An Act to establish a Code of Law for the District of Colum-
bia, January fourth, nineteen hundred and two," and to all its rights, con-
tracts, claims, and property of any kind or nature; and the several officers
of such corporation, or any other person having charge of any of the securi-
ties, funds, real or personal, books or property thereof, shall, on demand,
deliver the same to the said trustees appointed by this Act or to the persons
appointed by them to receive the same ; and the trustees of the existing cor-
poration and the trustees herein named shall and may take such other steps
as shall be necessary to carry out the purposes of this Act.

Sec. 7. That the rights of the creditors of the said existing corporation
known as the Carnegie Institution shall not in any manner be impaired by
the passage of this Act, or the transfer of the property hereinbefore men-
tioned, nor shall any liability or obligation for the payment of any sums due
or to become due, or any claim or demand, in any manner or for any cause

4 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

existing against the said existing corporation, be released or impaired ; but
such corporation hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obligations
and liabilities and to be held liable to pay and discharge all of the debts,
liabilities, and contracts of the said corporation so existing to the same efifect
as if such new corporation had itself incurred the obligation or liability to pay
such debt or damages, and no such action or proceeding before any court or
tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been discontinued by reason of the
passage of this Act.

Sec. 8. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or modify this
Act of incorporation, but no contract or individual right made or acquired
shall thereby be divested or impaired.

Sec. 9. That this Act shall take effect immediately.

Approved, April 28, 1904.

BY-LAWS OF THE INSTITUTION.

Adopted December 13, 1904.

Article I.

THE TRUSTEES.

1. The Board of Trustees shall consist of twenty-four members, with
power to increase its membership to not more than twenty-seven members.
The Trustees shall hold office continuously and not for a stated term.

2. In case any Trustee shall fail to attend three successive annual meetings
of the Board he shall thereupon cease to be a Trustee.

3. No Trustee shall receive any compensation for his services as such.

4. All vacancies in the Board of Trustees shall be filled by the Trustees
by ballot. No person shall be elected, however, who shall not have been
nominated at a preceding annual or special meeting, except by the unanimous
consent of the members present at a meeting.

Artici,e II.

MEETINGS.

1. The annual meeting of the Board of Trustees shall be held in the City
of Washington, in the District of Columbia, on the second Tuesday of Decem-
ber in each year.

2. Special meetings of the Board may be called by the Executive Commit-
tee by notice served personally upon, or mailed to the usual address of, each
Trustee twenty days prior to the meeting.

3. Special meetings shall, moreover, be called in the same manner by the
Chairman upon the written request of seven members of the Board.

Article III.

OFFICERS OF THE BOARD.

1. The officers of the Board shall be a Chairman of the Board, a Vice-
Chairman, and a Secretary, who shall be elected by the Trustees, from the
members of the Board, by ballot to serve for a term of three years. All
vacancies shall be filled by the Board for the unexpired term ; provided, how-
ever, that the Executive Committee shall have power to fill a vacancy in the
office of Secretary to serve until the next meeting of the Board of Trustees.

2. The Chairman shall preside at all meetings and shall have the usual
powers of a presiding officer.

3. The Vice-Chairman, in the absence or disability of the Chairman, shall
perform his duties.

5

6 CARNEGIi; INSTITUTION 01^ WASHINGTON.

4. The Secretary shall issue notices of meetings of the Board, record its
transactions, and conduct that part of the correspondence relating to the
Board and to his duties. He shall execute all deeds, contracts or other
instruments on behalf of the corporation, when duly authorized. He shall
have custody of the seal of the corporation and shall afifix the same whenever
authorized to do so by the Board of Trustees or by the Executive Committee
or the Finance Committee.

Article IV.

EXECUTIVE ADMINISTRATION,

The President.

1. There shall be a President, who shall be elected by ballot by, and hold
office during the pleasure of, the Board, who shall be the chief executive
officer of the Institution. The President, subject to the control of the Board
and the Executive Committee, shall have general charge of all matters of
administration and supervision of all arrangements for research and other
work undertaken by the Institution or with its funds. He shall devote his
entire time to the affairs of the Institution. He shall prepare and submit to
the Board of Trustees and to the Executive Committee plans and suggestions
for the work of the Institution, shall conduct its general correspondence and
the correspondence with applicants for grants and with the special advisers
of the committee, and shall present his recommendations in each case to the
Executive Committee for decision. All proposals and requests for grants
shall be referred to the President for consideration and report. He shall have
power to remove and appoint subordinate employees and shall be ex oMcio a
member of the Executive Committee.

2. He shall be the legal custodian of all property of the Institution whose
custody is not otherwise provided for. He shall be responsible for the ex-
penditure and disbursement of all funds of the Institution in accordance with
the directions of the Board and of the Executive Committee, and shall keep
accurate accounts of all receipts and disbursements. He shall submit to the
Board of Trustees at least one month before its annual meeting in December
a written report of the operations and business of the Institution for the pre-
ceding fiscal year with his recommendations for work and appropriations
for the succeeding fiscal year, which shall be forthwith transmitted to each,
member of the Board.

3. He shall attend all meetings of the Board of Trustees.

Artici,e V.

COMMITTEES.

1. There shall be the following standing committees, viz, an Executive
Committee and a Finance Committee.

2. The Executive Committee shall consist of the Chairman and Secretary
of the Board of Trustees and the President of the Institution ex oiUcio, and.

BY-LAWS. 7

in addition, five trustees to be elected by the Board by ballot for a term of
three years, who shall be eligible for re-election. Any member elected to fill
a vacancy shall serve for the remainder of his predecessor's term : Provided,
however, that of the Executive Committee first elected after the adoption of
these by-laws two shall serve for one year, two shall serve for two years, and
one shall serve for three years ; and such committee shall determine their
respective terms by lot.

3. The Executive Committee shall, when the Board is not in session and
has not given specific directions, have general control of the administration
of the affairs of the corporation and general supervision of all arrangements
for administration, research, and other matters undertaken or promoted by
the Institution ; shall appoint advisory committees for specific duties ; shall
determine all payments and salaries ; and keep a written record of all transac-
tions and expenditures, and submit the same to the Board of Trustees at each
meeting, and it shall also submit to the Board of Trustees a printed or type-
written report of each of its meetings, and at the annual meeting shall submit
to the Board a report for publication.

4. The Executive Committee shall have general charge and control of all
appropriations made by the Board.

5. The Finance Committee shall consist of three members to be elected by
the Board of Trustees by ballot for a term of three years.

6. The Finance Committee shall have general charge of the investments
and funds of the corporation, and shall care for and dispose of the same sub-
ject to the directions of the Board and of the Executive Committee. It shall
consider and recommend to the Board of Trustees such measures as in its
opinion will promote the financial interests of the Institution, and shall make
a report at each meeting of the Board.

7. All vacancies occurring in the Executive Committee and the Finance
Committee shall be filled by the Trustees at the next regular meeting.

8. The terms of all officers and of all members of comimittees shall continue
until their successors are elected or appointed.

Article VI.

FINANCIAI< ADMINISTRATION.

1. No expenditure shall be authorized or made except in pursuance of a
previous appropriation by the Board of Trustees.

2. The fiscal year of the Institution shall commence on the first day of
November in each year.

3. The Executive Committee, at least one month prior to the annual meet-
ing in each year, shall cause the accounts of the Institution to be audited by
a skilled accountant, to be appointed by the Chairman of the Board, and shall
submit to the annual meeting of the Board a full statement of the finances
and work of the Institution and a detailed estimate of the expenditures for
the succeeding year.

S CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

4. The Board of Trustees, at the annual meeting in each year, shall make
general appropriations for the ensuing fiscal year; but nothing contained
herein shall prevent the Board of Trustees from making special appropria-
tions at any meeting.

5. The securities of the Institution and evidences of property shall be
deposited in such safe deposit or other corporation and under such safeguards
as the Trustees and Executive Committee shall designate ; and the moneys
of the Institution shall be deposited in such banks or depositories as may
from time to time be designated by the Executive Committee.

Article VII.

AMENDMENT OF BY-LAWS.

I. These by-laws may be amended at any annual or special meeting of the
Board of Trustees by a two-thirds vote of the members present, provided
written notice of the proposed amendment shall have been served personally
upon, or mailed to the usual address of, each member of the Board twenty
days prior to the meeting.

MINUTES

OF THE

Fourth Meeting of the Board of Trustees

DECEMBER 11, 1906

MINUTES OF THE FOURTH MEETING OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES

[Abstract.]

The meeting was held in Washington, at the New Willard Hotel, on
Tuesday, December ii, 1906, at 10 o'clock a. m.

In the absence of the Chairman, the Vice-Chairman, Hon. Ehhu Root,
presided.

The following Trustees responded to a roll-call by the Secretary : John
Iv. Cadwalader, Cleveland H. Dodge, William N. Frew, Daniel C. Oilman,
Charles I^. Hutchinson, Seth Low, S. Weir Mitchell, Elihu Root, Charles D.
Walcott, Andrew D. White, Carroll D. Wright, and President Woodward.

Mr. Andrew Carnegie, the founder of the Institution, was also present.

The following Trustees were absent : John S. BiUings, Lyman J. Gage,
Henry L. Higginson, E. A. Hitchcock, William Wirt Howe, WiUiam Lind-
say, Wayne MacVeagh, D. O. Mills, William W. Morrow, and John C.
Spooner.

The minutes of the third meeting of the Board were presented and were
approved as printed in abstract.

The Reports of the President, of the Executive Committee, of the heads of
departments, and grantees of the Institution were received and considered.

The death of Professor Samuel Pierpont Langley, Trustee, was announced.

The resignations of Mr. William Wirt Howe and Mr. Wayne MacVeagh
were presented and accepted.

Hon. William H. Taft, Dr. Henry S. Pritchett, and Dr. WilHam H.
Welch were elected Trustees to fill three of the five vacancies in the Board.

Messrs. Oilman, Mitchell, and Wright were elected members of the
Executive Committee to succeed themselves for a term of three years.

Messrs. Mills, Higginson, and Low were elected members of the Finance
Committee for three years.

Balloting for officers of the Board for the three years ensuing resulted in
the reelection of Mr. Billings as Chairman, Mr. Root as Vice-Chairman, and
Mr. Dodge as Secretary.

The recommendations of the Executive Committee relative to plans for a
proposed administration building were accepted and approved.

The gift of Mr. John D. Hooker, of Los Angeles, California, of a sum
sufficient to purchase and figure a mirror 100 inches in diameter for the Solar
Observatory was accepted.

12 MINUTES OF MEETING OF TRUSTEES.

The question of publishing an edition of classic works on international
law was referred to the Executive Committee with power.

After discussion, the following general appropriations were made :

Publication fund, to be continuously available $70,000

Administration .... 50,000

Grants for departments and large projects 443,200

Grants for previously implied investigations, new minor investiga-
tions, and research associates and assistants 98,100

Total $661,300

At 2 p. m. the Board adjourned.

iH^mnrtal.

The Trustees of the Carnegie Institution of Washington direct
that the following Minute be made in the permanent records of
the Institution :

Samuel Pierpont Langley, Secretary of the Smithsonian In-
stitution since 1887, and Trustee of the Carnegie Institution of
Washington since its foundation, died at Aiken, South Carolina,
February 27, 1906.

Distinguished for his brilliant investigations in astronomy,
astrophysics, and aerodynamics especially, and keenly interested
in all enterprises for human advancement, he watched the devel-
opment of this Institution with an enthusiasm tempered by sound
judgment and sane expectations.

He was one of the first to suggest a combined observatory and
laboratory for the study of solar physics, and his advice and co-
operation have been of signal service in the inauguration of the
Solar Observatory on Mount Wilson.

Manifesting in an unusual degree the zeal, the industry, and
the comprehension essential to effective achievement in scientific
pursuits, his life and work present a conspicuous example to
his colleagues and successors who are charged with the duty of
promoting original research.

REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT

OF THE

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

15

REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT OF THE INSTITUTION.

In compliance with the provisions of Article IV of the By-L,aws of the
Carnegie Institution of Washington, I have the honor to submit the fol-
lowing report on the work of the Institution for the fiscal
Introductory State- year ending October 3 1 , 1906, along with recommendations
of appropriations for the following year, and with sundry
suggestions concerning pending and prospective questions presented by the
development of the Institution.

The year just ended has been one of great activity in all of the principal
branches of work carried on under the auspices of the Institution. This
is especially the case with all of the larger departments of work, which, in
spite of the fact that they are only fairly started, are already producing
noteworthy results.

The mode of administration of the work of the Institution, explained in
my report of the preceding year, has been followed essentially during the
past year, and hence needs no additional explanation here.

The research as distinguished from the administrational activities of the
Institution may be classified roughly under the four following heads, which
are the same as those used in my preceding report, namely :

1. lyarge projects carried on under the direct auspices of the Institution
by departments having corps of investigators.

2. Minor projects carried on by individuals temporarily affiliated with the
Institution.

3. Work of research associates and assistants.

4. Work of publication.

This classification may serve to indicate the lines of division for the details
of subsequent parts of this report.

The following table shows the unallotted balances brought forward from

appropriations of previous years ; the amounts appropriated for the year by

the Board of Trustees at their meeting of December

^7S:^Y^l"mtmt 12, 1905 ; the revertments during the year ; the totals

available for expenditure during the year; and the

unallotted balances at the end of the year for large grants, minor grants,

research associates, publication, and administration, respectively. To con-

2 — YB 17

1 8 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

nect the figures of this table with those of the corresponding table given in
my preceding report, it should be observed that of the unallotted balance of
$114,894.75 at the end of the previous year (October 31, 1905) an amount
of $102,176.79 was reverted to the unappropriated fund by action of the
Executive Committee November 6, 1905.

Large grants

Minor grants

Research associates

and assistants

Publication

Administration

Unallotted

Oct. 31,

1905-

|l, 750.00

Appro-

priatiou,

Dec. 12,

1905-

Revert-

ments

Oct. 31, 1905,

to Oct. 31,

1906.

Total.

565-00
10,402.96

12,717.96

1552,600
108,000 1 110,853.05

26,000 I.
50,000 I
50,000 1

5,21

5.12
•44

786,600

16,101.61

1552,600.00
120,603.05

Allotments.

1459,450.00
95,650.00

Balances

unallotted

Oct. 31,

1906.

j593. 150.00
24,953-05

26,000.00 5,600.00 20,400.00
55,813.12 47,297-59 j 8,515.53
60,403.40 42,534.90 17,868.50

815,419-57 650,532.49

164,887.08

The following list shows the departments of investigations to which the
arger grants were made by the Trustees and the amounts thus far allotted
during the year to those grants by the Executive Committee :

Department of Experimental Evolution $21,000

Department of Marine Biology 15,000

Department of Botanical Research 33,000

Horticultural Work (L. Burbank) 10,000

Department of Economics and Sociology 30,000

Department of Terrestrial Magnetism 54,000

Department of Historical Research 14,450

Solar Observatory 150,000

Geophysical Research :

A. L. Day i7,5oo

F. D. Adams 1,500

Bibliography ( G. F. Becker el al. ) i ,000

Geophysical Laboratory 85,500

Southern Observatory 10,000

Nutrition :

F. G. Benedict 10,000

R. H. Chittenden 1,500

T. B. Osborne 5, 000

459.450

REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, 1906.

19

The fields of investigation to which the minor grants were assigned, the
names of the grantees, and the amounts of the grants are shown in the
following list :

Anthropology :

Dorse)', G. A

Archeology :

American School of Classical
Studies :

Athens

Rome

Brigham, W. T

Miiller, W. Max

Ward, W. H

Astronomj' :

Boss, 1/

Campbell, W. W

Davis, H. S

Newcomb, S

Bibliography :

Index Medicus

Eames, W

Botany :

Cowles, H. C

Account of the work of Mr. Bur-
bank

Chemistry :

Acree, S. F

Jones, H. C

Bancroft, W. D

Baxter, G. P

Morse, H. N

Noyes, A. A

Richards, T. W

f3,ooo

2,500
2,600
2,500
2,000
250

8,000
4,000
1,500
5,000

10,000
3,600

300

3>5oo

300
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500

Geology :

California Earthquake Commis-
sion

Chamberlin, T. C

Willis, B

History :

Haskins, C H

Literature :

Sommer, H. O

Mathematics :

Lehmer, D. N

Meteorology :

Bjerknes and Sandstrom

Paleontology :

Wieland, G. R

Philology and Linguistics :

Fliigel, E

Scripture, E. W

Physics :

Burgess, C. F

Franklin and Freudenberger . . .
Phvsiology :

Chittenden, Russell H

Zoology :

Castle and Mark

Naples Zoological Station

Mark, E. L

Pearl, R

Wilson, E. B

|5,ooo
6,000
5,775

1,000

2,000

400

1,200

375

7,500
1,800

2,500
250

1,000

500
1,000
300
500
500

95,650

The following table shows the fields of investigation, the names of research
associates and assistants, and the amounts of their grants :

Field of investigation.

Anthropology .
Economics. . . .

History

Psychology. . .

Zoology

Total.

Names of research associates and assistants.

Jones, W

Rowe, L- S

Ferguson, W. S.

Farrar, C. B

Johnson, R. H. .
Blakeslee, A. F. .

Amount
of grants.

|i,ooo

300

1,200
1,000
1,100
1,000

5,600

20

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

The following grants for publication were authorized during the year

Adams and Coker |i3i-89

Banta, A. M 500.00

Barus, Carl 1,200.00

Benedict, F. G i30-9i

Burnham, S. W 3,713.44

Case, E. C 2,200.00

Castle, W. E 200.00

Coblentz, W. W 700.00

Davenport, C. B 1,048.09

Dean, Bashford 299.68

Dorsey, George A 1,500.00

Farlow, W. G 400.00

Goss, W. F. M 1,400.00

Jones, H. C 2,400.00

Livingston, B. E ['350.00

Morse, A. P 350.00

Miiller, W. Max 3,000.00

Newcomb, Simon. . . .

Noyes, A. A

Pearl, Raymond

Pearl and Clawson. . .

Perez, L. M

Pumpelly, Raphael . .
Richards and Forbes.

Sommer, H. O

Stevens, N. M

Stevens, N. M

Walcott, C. D

Washington, H. vS. . .

Willis, B

Wieland, G. R

Wood and Uhler

Reprint, No. 22

|i,5oo.oo

1,600.00

550.00

300.00

700.00

6,000.00

375-00

6,000.00

200.00

300.00

165.00

1,000.00

6,400.00

1,258.58

1,200.00

225.00

47,297.59

The sources and the amounts of the revertments during the year are as

follows :

Revertments from November i, 1905, to October 31, 1906.

Minor grants :

Herman S. Davis, grants Nos. 232 and 320 $2,625.00

V. M. Spalding, grant No. 287 600.00

O. F. Cook, grant No. 254 2,000.00

G. K. Gilbert, grant No. 126 9i9-3i

Arthur Gamgee, grant No. 62 3,040.00

A. C. McLaughlin, grant No. 186 175.00

F. J. Bliss, grant No. 99 1,250.00

W. F. M. Goss, grant No. 114 198.87

Bailey Willis, grant No. 116 44-87

110,853.05

Publication :

Historical research 1.48

George A. Dorsey 80.24

Bailey Willis, grant No. 261 20.00

Carl Barus 116.33

M. W. Whitney 38.55

N. M. Stevens 32.90

Reprint, Publication No. 22 10.78

W. E. Castle , 42.60

Erwin F. Smith 4,314.24

Bailey Willis, grant No. 280 76.85

B. E. Livingston 16.78

W. Max Miiller 497-37

5,248.12

Administration .44

16,101.61

REPORT OP THE PRESIDENT, 1906. 21

RESUME OF WORK OF THE YEAR.

In my preceding report attention was called to the desirability of confer-
ring personally with all investigators at work under the auspices of the

■D X tvT t f Institution and inspecting laboratories, observatories, and

Kange of Work of ^, . 1 i- 1 .1 , . ,

the Institution. Other establishments where work is under way. Much

progress in this regard has been made during the year,
altho much remains to be done. In the meantime the work of the Institu-
tion has undergone considerable expansion ; so that it may be stated that
we are now working in cooperation in one way or another with about one
hundred different institutions and establishments thru about four hundred
individuals. The range and ramifications of the work are thus very exten-
sive, making it difficult of comprehensive and summary explanation. Atten-
tion is therefore invited to the detailed reports of the heads of departments
of investigation and to the reports of individual investigators to be found on
pages 53-251.

In conformity with the authorization of the Board of Trustees voted at
their meeting of December 12, 1905, a new department of work has been

-,, , _, . added to the ten larger projects enumerated in my preced-

T he Larger Projects. . ^ ^1 • t .

mg report. This new department is occupied with meas-
urements of the positions and the motions of the so-called fixed stars, and
it contemplates, as one of the essential parts of its program, the temporary
establishment of an observatory in the southern hemisphere. Since the
work of this department is chiefly devoted to meridian measurements and
their applications, it may be conveniently designated as the Department of
Meridian Astrometry. This department has been placed in charge of Prof.
Lewis Boss, of the Dudley Observatory.

In conformity with a like authorization of the Board of Trustees, the
work of the Desert Botanical Laboratory, which was previously conducted
by a non-resident advisory committee, has been enlarged and placed under
the charge of Dr. Daniel T. MacDougal as resident director. Since the
scope of the work is chiefly botanical in this department, it has been con-
veniently designated as the Department of Botanical Research.

Applying departmental designations so far as practicable, the larger
projects now under way are enumerated alphabetically in the following
list, which gives also the names of the directors of the departments, or the
principal investigators, as the case may be, conducting the researches :

Botanical Research : D. T. MacDougal, director.
Economics and Sociology : Carroll D. Wright, director.
Experimental Evolution : Charles B. Davenport, director.
Historical Research : J. F. Jameson, director.
Horticulture : Luther Burbank.

22 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

Marine Biology : A. G. Mayer, director.

Meridian Astrometry : Lewis Boss, director.

Nutrition : F. G. Benedict. R. H. Chittenden, L,. B. Mendel, and T. B. Osborne.

Solar Physics : George E. Hale, director.

Terrestrial Magnetism : L. A. Bauer, director.

Work in Geophysics : F. D. Adams, G. F. Becker, A. I^. Day.

Referring to the individual reports of the directors and investigators just
named for matters of detail, the following summary remarks may serve to
indicate in a general way the present status and the prospective outcome of
departmental investigations.

Immediately after the authorization of this department by the Trustees at
their meeting of December 12, 1905, the nomination of Dr. D. T. MacDougal
for the position of Director was approved by the Execu-
Department of ^.^^^ Committee. Dr. MacDougal accepted the position
and proceeded at once to take up the work already well
started at the Desert I^aboratory at Tucson, Arizona. During the year he
has enlarged the laboratory by the addition of a wing, affording much-
needed room ; secured a good water supply for laboratory use ; fenced in
the reservation of 840 acres set apart by the Territory of Arizona for the
laboratory, and provided several stations on near-by mountains for the study
of conditions of plant life at alpine heights. To this equipment on the
material side he has added an adequate staff of three resident investigators
and an efficient engineer.

The provision thus made gives the department unrivaled opportunities
for the pursuit of research with respect to the flora of arid regions in par-
ticular, and this should contribute in an important degree to the progress
of botanical research in general. Attention is called to some noteworthy
papers, cited in the bibliography on pages 45-52, which have appeared
during the year from members of the departmental staff.

The President desires to express his appreciation of the hearty spirit of
cooperation shown by Director MacDougal in assenting to the temporary
transfer of his engineer, Mr. Godfrey Sykes, to the staff of the Solar Observ-
atory on Mount Wilson. In an emergency case of road-building on this
mountain the services of Mr. Sykes have been specially opportune and
efficient.

Under the energetic administration of Dr. Wright the large under-
taking of the Department of Economics and Sociology has made steady
progress during the year. About 130 collaborators are
Department of Econom- ^^ ^^^^ i^ ^^g ^ork, and many separate contributions
ics and Sociology. ° ° , ■, r ^ i- ^- t> • • c

are now nearly ready for publication. Provision tor

several volumes of reports and statistics prepared by the department has
already been considered by the Executive Committee. A noteworthy con-
tribution well under way is a bibliographic index to the public documents of

REPORT OF THE PRESIIJENT, 1906. 23

the States of the United States. The data for several States are now ready
for pubhcation, and the work of printing will doubtless be started during
the coming year.

One of the most promising as well as novel and interesting departments
of work started by the Institution is that devoted to experimental evolution
at Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, New York, under
Department of Experi- ^^^ direction of Prof. Charles B. Davenport. In this
mental Evolution. ^^^^^^^^^^ an attempt is being made to determine by
direct obser\'ation and experiment the characteristic relations, or laws, mani-
fested by the complicated process of evolution in plants and animals. Thus
the phenomena of heredity, hybridization, mutation, etc., are here studied
by substantially the same methods as those applied by the astronomer to the
stars or by the chemist to inorganic matter. And just as these methods
have yielded an abundant harvest of valuable results in the latter sciences,
so may we confidently anticipate at least equally valuable results from the
application of like methods to the problems of evolution. The intrinsic
difficulties of these problems are very great, however, and they demand, there-
fore, an ample allowance of time as well as a peculiar degree of patience for
their solution. For the work of this department especially, and for nearly all
of the departmental work of the Institution in fact, a decade is the smallest
convenient time unit for measuring the progress of the more important
investigations now under way.

As may be seen from the report of the Director (pages 92-104) and from
the bibliography (pages 45-52) several publications have issued from the
department during the year, the most noteworthy of which is a contribution
entitled " Inheritance in Poultry," by Professor Davenport.

Geophysical investigations have been carried on independently during the

year along three distinct lines by three investigators, namely, Prof. F. D.

Adams, of McGill University, Montreal, and by Dr. George

Work in Geophysics. ^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ ^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ U. S. Geological

Survey. As explained at length in my report of the preceding year, the
novel experimental work under the direction of Dr. Day requires unusual
laboratory facilities, especially in the way of high-temperature and high-
pressure equipment and ample space therefor. To meet this requirement,
the Trustees at their last meeting, in response to a recommendation of the
Executive Committee, voted an appropriation of $150,000 for the purchase
of a site and for the construction and equipment of a laboratory adequate
to this work. Accordingly a site of five acres of land, on- an isolated hill in
the subdivision known as Azadia, in the District of Columbia, was pur-
chased. Title was acquired to this site on March 17, 1906. Plans for the
proposed laboratory were prepared by Messrs. Wood, Donn and Deming,
architects, of Washington, D. C, and the contract for the construction was
let to Richardson and Burgess, Inc., of Washington, D. C, on July 6, 1906.

24 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

Work of construction is now moving rapidly forward, and it is expected that
the laboratory will be ready for occupancy not later than July i, 1907.

The researches of all three investigators in this field have been prosecuted
vigorously during the year, and many results have been announced, as shown
by the list of publications issued (page 31) and in the bibliography (pages
45-52). Amongst these important results it may suffice here to instance
two only, namely, the volume by Professor Adams and his associate, Pro-
fessor Coker, on the elastic properties of some of the principal rocks, of
interest and value alike to the geologist and the engineer ; and the process
developed by Dr. Day for the production of the remarkable substance known
as quartz glass, which promises to be of great practical value by reason of its
high melting point and its low rate of expansion under temperature changes.

Attention is specially invited to the full text of the first report of Prof.

J. F. Jameson, who succeeded Prof. Andrew C. McLaughlin as Director of

the Department of Historical Research in October, 1905.

todcaTlies^rch!^' ^^ ^^ unusual degree the field of this department presents

a somewhat bewildering array of opportunities for fruitful

research, whether carried on independently or by cooperation with other

agencies. There is thus room for the play of a great variety of opinions,

many of which must be conflicting, with respect to the proper functions of

such a department. Under these circumstances it is no easy task to fix on

a program which may command a consensus of approval from professional

historians and come within the limits of administrative necessities. In his

report for the year the Director outlines a program which appears to meet

these requirements and to demand only time, patience, and industry, along

with adequate support, for its successful execution.

Early in the year Professor Jameson visited several European countries,
inspecting similar departments of work there and searching especially for
the sources of American historical documents in foreign archives.

A bibliography of works on American History and a reprint of Professor
McLaughlin's Report on the Diplomatic Archives of the Department of
State, 1 789-1 840, have been issued by the department during the year.
Several reports on American historical materials in the archives of England,
Spain, Cuba, and the United States have been brought also to a forward
state of preparation for publication.

Mr. Burbank reports that the year just passed has proved very successful
for the extensive experiments and investigations in plant, fruit, and flower
development carried on by him thru aid granted by the
Mr. Luther Burbank. Institution. By great good fortune the earthquake
which proved so destructive to the city of Santa Rosa in
which he lives and to the surrounding country, did very little damage to
his property. In one respect, doubtless, the earthquake was advantageous

REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, I906. 25

to him and to his work, namely, in preventing visitors from encroaching too
freely on his time and attention.

Thru the agency of a committee, consisting of the President, as chair-
man, and of Messrs. Davenport, MacDougal, and Mayer, heads of the
departments of biological research, the task of preparing a scientific account
of the ways, means, and methods employed by Mr. Burbank in his unri-
valed work has been undertaken during the year. In May last all mem-
bers of this committee except Dr. Mayer visited Santa Rosa and conferred
with Mr. Burbank in order to develop a program for this undertaking. In
accordance with this program, the details of which need not be stated here,
Dr. George H. Shull, of the staif of the Department of Kxperimental Evolu-
tion, spent a portion of the summer in work at Santa Rosa, and he has
recently returned thither to resume his labors. It is contemplated to have
Dr. Shull spend parts of two or three years at work with Mr. Burbank,
and to call to our aid also the services of other specialists of the departments
of biological research.

Altho space forbids a further account of this work here, the President
desires to record his warm esteem of the scientific spirit of cooperation shown
in this enterprise by Mr. Burbank, by the members of the committee,
by Dr. Shull, and by numerous colleagues whose counsel has been sought.
By means of the cooperation thus secured it is confidently believed that
the diverse scientific and economic ends in view may be achieved in ways
which will commend themselves alike to the Institution and to the general
public.

The location of the laboratory of the Department of Marine Biology at
Dry Tortugas, Florida, has required a development along
^^^B^Sgy! '^"^' somewhat different lines from those followed by other
departments. Altho this location is uniquely favorable
in respect to abundance of marine fauna available, it is so isolated and so
subject to tropical storms that the laboratory may not be safely kept open
for investigation thruout the year. Thus far, therefore, the Director, Dr.
Mayer, has not sought to attach to his department a permanent scientific
staff. Instead of doing so he has invited, during each of the past two
summer seasons, a number of trained investigators to become guests of and
to pursue investigations at the laboratory. For this purpose the Executive
Committee has allotted to the department a sufficient sum to cover the costs
of the traveling expenses and the subsistence, while at the laboratory, of
these guests. Under the administration of Dr. Mayer this tentative plan
has worked so promisingly that it appears to me well worthy of considera-
tion with a view to its application to some other departments. By a proper
selection of associate investigators and by limiting eligibility to men and
women of proved capacity for research, an extension of this plan to other
departments may b2 expected not only to stimulate fruitful activity amongst

26 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

competent investigators but also to mitigate the difficulties which beset the
administration of minor grants to miscellaneous applicants. The attention
of the Trustees is therefore especially invited to the aspects of this subject
explained in reference to his department by Dr. Mayer in his reports of the
past and preceding years. That the work of the department will prove
adequately productive in spite of the climatic obstacles in its way is suffi-
ciently indicated by the reports cited and by the accompanying bibliographic
lists.

The same investigators engaged in research along three distinct lines in
this field under the auspices of the Institution during the preceding year have
_j , . continued their work during the past year. Thus Prof.

F. G. Benedict has extended and perfected his experiments
with the respiration calorimeter at Wesleyan University ; Professors R. H.
Chittenden and h. B. Mendel have carried forward their fundamental inves-
tigations in physiological chemistry at Yale University, while Dr. T. B.
Osborne, of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station at New Haven,
has made excellent progress in his capital researches on the chemistry of
the vegetable proteid foodstuffs.

All three of these lines of research are of great practical and theoretical
importance, whether considered independently or collectively. They are
closely related, however, and when considered as parts of a whole they give
promise not only of extensive additions to our knowledge of the physics and
chemistry of normal nutrition, but also of extensive additions to our knowl-
edge of the conditions of and the remedies for abnormal nutrition. All three
lines of work appear to me, therefore, well worthy of continuous support
for such periods of time as may be essential to secure the anticipated results.

The branch of this work carried on by Professor Benedict calls for a special
equipment and for a laboratory of unusual character. It appears particu-
larly desirable, also, to apply the calorimetric method to pathological as
well as to normal subjects of investigation. Hence some additional recom-
mendations in reference to this work will be submitted to the Trustees for
consideration at their next meeting.

In accordance with a recommendation of the Executive Committee the

Trustees voted at their meeting of December 12, 1905, an appropriation of

$200,000, to be distributed over a decade, for the purpose
Department of Me- ^ . ^ , . . . . r n

ridian Astrometry. 0^ preparing a catalog giving precise positions of all

stars from the brightest down to those of the seventh
magnitude, inclusive. One of the essential features of this work is the
establishment for a few years of a meridian observatory in the southern
hemisphere in order to supplement by additional observations existing data
for the positions of stars in that hemisphere. The execution of this enter-
prise has been intrusted to Prof. lycwis Boss, the director of the Dudley

REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, 1906. 27

Observatory of Albany, New York. An outline of the preliminary arrange-
ments required for the work is given by Professor Boss in his report,
on pages 204-211. Hence it may suffice here to state that all essential
plans are perfected for a rapid and effective consummation of this arduous
undertaking.

The varied and extensive operations of this department, under the direc-
tion of Prof. George E. Hale, on Mount Wilson and at Pasadena, California,
have made gratifying progress during the year. While

Department of Solar ^^le artificers have been busily engaged, at the Union Iron
Physics. o » >

Works at San Francisco and at the shops of the depart-
ment at Pasadena, in perfecting the mountings and equipment of the 60-inch
reflecting telescope, the staff at the Solar Observatory on Mount Wilson has
been equally active with the present limited equipment in the work of obser-
vation and in the more difficult work of interpreting the observed data.

The great telescope just mentioned is now being mounted in a testing
laboratory at Pasadena, and its parts are expected to be ready for transpor-
tation to the summit of Mount Wilson early next spring. An indispensable
adjunct to the observatory on Mount Wilson is a physical laboratory, which
has been completed, equipped, and put in operation during the year. By
means of this laboratory many of the phenomena observed in the sun may
be reproduced artificially and studied thus deliberately and repeatedly.

As explained in detail by Professor Hale, in his report on pages 60-86,
important results from the preliminary observations and studies at the observ-
atory have been already attained. Additional results are also forthcoming,
and there is no reason to doubt that these and other direct results which
may be expected to accrue rapidly will more than justify the cost of this
formidable enterprise.

The signal success achieved by Prof. G. W. Ritchey, of the observatory
staff, in figuring and mounting reflecting telescopes has justly won the
admiration of the astronomical world and led other establishments to seek
his aid in telescopic construction. More gratifying still to him, to his
colleagues, and to the Institution is the enlightened appreciation of his skill
and the work of the Solar Observatory shown by Mr. John D. Hooker, a
citizen of lyos Angeles, California, who has offered to place at the disposal
of the observatory a sum sufficient to purchase and to figure a mirror 100
inches in diameter for a reflecting telescope. This generous offer of Mr.
Hooker has been recommended to the Trustees for acceptance b)- the Execu-
tive Committee. It is appropriate to state, also, in this connection, that
the Solar Observatory is indebted to Mr. Hooker for a cottage on Mount
Wilson, presented to the observatory before it became formally one of the
permanent establishments of the Institution. This cottage is now known
as "The Hooker Cottage," and is used chiefly for the accommodation of
transient guests.

28 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

An auxiliary matter of great moment to the Solar Observatory is that of
a roadway from the foot to the summit of Mount Wilson. By the terms of
the ninety-nine year lease of the observatory site secured by the Institution
the privilege was granted not only to use but to repair and improve an
existing road or trail controlled by the lessors. The approaching comple-
tion of the 6o-inch telescope referred to above made it essential to decide
early in the year how the parts of this telescope could be most advantage-
ously transported to the observatory site. Accordingly, at the request of
Professor Hale, the President visited Pasadena during May and June last,
and, after several conferences on the matter and after a careful study of its
various aspects, a decision was reached to undertake widening and improving
the existing trail to the extent required for safe transport of apparatus,
materials, etc., up and down the mountain. Since an estimate of |i5,ooo
for this work in the budget of the department for the year had been approved
by the Executive Committee, it was possible to start the work at once.
Thru the courtesy of the Director of the Department of Botanical Research
a member of his staff, Mr. Godfrey Sykes, was temporarily transferred to
the staff of the observatory and placed in charge of this work. Under his
direction the road is now well advanced and it is expected to be ready for
use early next year.

The extensive field and office researches of this department have secured
during the year large additions to magnetic data from widely separated parts

of the earth. I<and observations for magnetic elements
restriaHVlagnetismr ^^"^'^ ^^^^ made at numerous stations in the United States,

Canada, the Pacific islands, and China, while the observing
ship Galilee has been continued during the j^ear in the magnetic survey of
the Pacific Ocean started during the preceding year.

During her first voyage, beginning August 5, 1905, and ending December 9,
1905, this ship traversed circuits aggregating 11, 000 nautical miles. During
her second voyage, beginning March 2, 1906, and ending October 13, 1906,
she traversed circuits aggregating 1 5 , 000 nautical miles. The success attend-
ing these expeditions has been highly satisfactory from the points of view
jointly of quantity and quality of the ob.servations obtained. From the
extensive additions to existing knowledge of the magnetic elements of the
Pacific thus gained it will soon be practicable to produce greatly improved
magnetic charts for the benefit of the rapidly growing commerce of this ocean.
Only one serious mishap has occurred to the Galilee during her two
voyages for the department. This took place on August 24, 1906, when she
was blown ashore and sunk during a typhoon while at anchor in the harbor
of Yokohama, Japan. Thanks to the prompt action of her owner, Mr. Mat-
thew Turner, of San Francisco, she was speedily raised, repaired, and made
ready to proceed by September 5, 1906.

REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, 1906. 29

Office computations of the department have proceeded simultaneously
with the progress of field work, and many results will be ready soon for
publication. Amongst the latter attention may be called to a magnetic chart
of the United States which Director Bauer is now able to found on trust-
worthy data from about three thousand well-distributed stations. Most of
these data, it should be stated, have been collected by Dr. Bauer and his
colleagues of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, but they have been
supplemented recently to a noteworthy degree by work in Canada especially
under the auspices of the Institution .

One of the interesting incidental contributions from the work of the
department during the year, illustrating the close interrelations of the
geophysical sciences, is a complete set of records of the earth tremors
generated by the San Francisco earthquake of April 18, 1906, obtained
from magnetographs and seismographs at the widely separated magnetic
stations of Cheltenham, Maryland ; Baldwin, Kansas ; Sitka, Alaska, and
Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands.

On the ist of July, 1906, Director Bauer severed his connection with the
U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, of whose magnetic work he has had
charge for some years, in order that he might devote his entire time to the
larger field of magnetic work undertaken by his department.

The great practical and theoretical importance of the work carried on by
this department not only commends its maintenance at the present rate of
annual appropriations, but calls also for some additional support when funds
are available. Altho the yacht Galilee has proved quite satisfactory, she
could be replaced very advantageously by a ship having less iron in the
make-up and an auxiliary screw propulsion, which latter would be of great
aid in "swinging ship " for the elimination of the effects of the vessel's own
magnetism. It may become essential also to establish for a series of years,
in some hitherto unoccupied parts of the world, a few stations where
continuous records may be observed. The need is already felt likewise
for a specially equipped laboratory, located in a position isolated from the
disturbing influence of electric circuits, where instruments may be tested
and standardized.

Altho a smaller number of new grants in aid of projects carried on by
individuals has been made during the past year than during preceding
years in the history of the Institution, many such projects
Minor Projects. ^^^^ under way. By reference to lists on pages 19 and 20

it will be seen that 45 such grants were subject to payments during the
year. A considerable number of researches under former grants were also
under way, and some of these have resulted in publications under the auspices
of the Institution or in current journals, A bibliography of the latter,
obtained by aid of the authors themselves, is given on pages 45-52. It

30 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

should be stated also that several grantees engaged in individual researches
have joined the staffs of the departments to which their work was closely-
related.

The extent and variety of these researches forbid anything like an ade-
quate account of them here. Most of those cited in my preceding report as
specially worthy of mention were continued during the year, and nearly all
of these have produced publications already issued or in press.

Three new projects under this head may be alluded to, namely :

1. The preparation for publication of a critical edition of the Vulgate
Version of the Arthurian Romances, by Dr. H. Oskar Sommer, of London,
England. The manuscript of the first two parts of this work has already-
been received from Dr. Sommer, and preparations are now being made for
printing them in appropriate form.

2. The preparation of an advanced treatise on meteorology, together with
suitable numerical tables to facilitate practical applications, by Prof. V.
Bjerknes and Mr. J. W. Sandstrom, of the University of Stockholm. The
first part of this work is expected to be ready for publication before the end
of this calendar year.

3. Soon after the occurrence of the San Francisco earthquake of April 18,
1906, a commission, known as the California Earthquake Commission, was
formed to examine and report upon the remarkable and v/ide-spread effects
of the shock. This commission consists of Prof. Andrew C. Lawson, chair-
man ; Prof. J. C. Branner, Prof. Charles Burckhalter, Prof. W. W. Camp-
bell, Prof. George Davidson, Dr. G. K. Gilbert, Prof. A. O. Leuschner, and
Prof. H. F. Reid. In response to an application from this commission a grant
of $5,000 was made to aid in the collection of data on the causes and effects
of the earthquake. Probably few, if any, earthquakes have been carefully-
studied by such competent observers as the members of this commission, most
of whom happened to be, fortunately, where they were awakened by the first
marked tremors of the shock.

With regard to minor projects in general and with regard to the relative
merits of major and minor projects, some extended observations will be found
in a subsequent part of this report. It may be remarked here, however,
that the experience of the Institution thus far with minor grants appears to
me to have been on the whole quite unfavorable to them, altho the knowl-
edge thus gained of this commonly approved sj'-stem of awards is doubtless
worth all it has cost. Briefly stated, this experience seems to show that the
probability of getting anything more than an educational return from mis-
cellaneous applicants who come highly recommended to the Institution is
not more than one-half. On the other hand, this experience seems to
show very clearly that if awards were limited more closely to applicants of
proved capacity for and of proved opportunity for research the probability

REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, I906. 3I

of adequate returns would rise to practical certaintJ^ In almost every case,
in fact, in which aid has been given to investigators of such proved capacity
and opportunity good returns have been realized. Thus are we confronted
by the stubborn realities that there is no royal road to learning, and that of
the many who feel drawn toward the high calling of investigation few may
be chosen with the expectation that they will prove fertile in resources and
fruitful in results.

This field of work is one of the most promising of those entered by the

Institution. It is a field from which good results may be gleaned readily

and made available speedily to the world at large. Thus

Publications and their £^j. ;.„ volumes have been issued by the Institution and 31
Distnbution. ^' ■' "^

volumes are now in press.

The following is a list of the 19 volumes issued during the past fiscal year :

Year Book No. 4, 1905. Octavo, viil + 303 pages, 7 plates.

Index Medicus, vol. 3. Octavo, 1449 pages.

No. 9. The Collected Mathematical Works of G. W. Hill. Quarto, 4 vols. Vol. 2,
VII + 339 pages ; vol. 3, 577 pages.

No. 22. Report on the Diplomatic Archives of the Department of State, 1789-1840. By
A. C. McLaughlin. Octavo, 73 pages. Revised edition.

No. 34. American Fossil Cycads. By G. R. Wieland. Quarto, vii + 296 pages, 51 plates,
141 figures.

No. 36. Studies in Spermatogenesis, part II. By N. M. Stevens. Octavo, 44 pages, 8
plates.

No. 38. Writings on American History, 1903. Prepared under direction of A. C.
McLaughlin. Octavo, 172 pages.

No. 40. The Nucleation of the Uncontaminated Atmosphere. By Carl Barus. Octavo,
XII + 152 pages, 104 figures.

No. 41. Traditions of the Caddo. By G. A. Dorsey. Octavo, 136 pages.

No. 42. A Respiration Calorimeter with Appliances for the Direct Determination of
Oxygen. By W. O. Atwater and F. G. Benedict. Octavo, 193 pages, 49
figures.

No. 45. Catalogue of Stars within two degrees of the North Pole, deduced from Photo-
graphic Measures. By Caroline E. Furness. Octavo, 85 pages.

No. 46. An Investigation into the Elastic Constants of Rocks, more especially with refer-
ence to Cubic Compressibility. By F. D. Adams and E. G. Coker. Octavo,
69 pages, 26 figures, 16 plates.

No. 49. Heredity of Hair-length in Guinea-pigs, and its Bearing on the Theory of Pure
Gametes. By W. E. Castle and Alexander Forbes. (Paper No. 5, Station for
Experimental Evolution.) The Origin of a Polydactylous Race of Guinea-
pigs. (Paper No. 6, Station for Experimental Evolution.) By W. E. Castle.
Octavo, 29 pages.

No. 50. The Relation of Desert Plants to Soil Moisture and to Evaporation. By Burton
E. Livingston. Octavo, 78 pages, 16 text cuts.

No. 51. Studies on the Germ Cells of Aphids. By N. M. Stevens. Octavo, 28 pages, 4
plates.

No. 52. Inheritance in Poultry. (Paper No. 7, Station for Experimental Evolution.)
By C. B. Davenport. Octavo, 136 pages, 17 plates.

No. 53. Egyptological Researches. By W. Max Miiller. Quarto, 62 pages, 106 plates.

No. 57. The Roman Comagmatic Region. By H. S. Washington. Octavo, 199 pages.

These publications aggregate 3,166 octavo pages and 1,288 quarto pages,
making a total of 4,454 pages.

32 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

The total amount of funds spent by the Institution for publications up to
date is $77, 123.53. The total amount spent for publications during the past
fiscal year is $42,431.19.

It is an obvious requirement in this work to maintain a high standard of
excellence, especially in point of the subject-matter published, altho it is
equally obvious that the attainment of this end is no easy task. Moreover,
a limited income is incompatible with unlimited publications, however
abundant worthy contributions may appear to be. Hence follows the neces-
sity of declining much of the large amount of material offered for publica-
tion. Plainly, also, the Institution may not undertake, in general, the
publication of certain classes of works, like text-books, fiction, literary
essays, doctorate dissertations, etc. Neither may the Institution appropri-
ately provide funds for the publication of such works by commercial estab-
lishments. Nor is it practicable for the Institution to enter into partnership
relations with authors and publishers, or with other institutions, under
copyright privileges and restrictions.

The tentative rules for the distribution of publications approved by the
Executive Committee January 9, 1905, and printed in my previous report,
have worked fairly well thus far. A few important libraries for the gra-
tuitous receipt of the publications of the In.stitution have been added during
the year to the Omnia List, which now includes about 300 of the principal
libraries of the world.

In response to a strong public demand for information concerning the
publications of the Institution, an index of carefully selected addresses to
which lists of these publications may be sent semi-annually, or quarterly,
has been prepared during the j^ear. This index now includes nearly 10,000
names of individuals and institutions and it will doubtless need enlarge-
ment in the near future. The first issue of the lists was made during the
early part of October of this year.

The question is often asked, "Why does not the Institution publish larger
editions of its works and distribute them more freely ? ' ' Probably the time
has not arrived when a completely satisfactory an.swer to this question can
be given. But in the absence of adequate precedent to guide us it appears
to be the part of wisdom to proceed conservatively and let experience point
the way. In the meantime it may be stated that nothing short of an edition
of 5,000 copies will meet the demand for a gratuitous distribution, while
there is thus far no evidence to indicate that our standard edition of i,goo
copies will not in general meet all legitimate demands. It should be stated
also that there is an actual necessity for reserving a part of these publica-
tions for sale, since some institutions and more individuals decline to receive
publications gratuitously.

REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, I906. 33

Since the trend of development of the Institution still hinges to some
extent on the relative merits of large projects carried on under the direct
supervision of the Institution itself and of small projects
Large versus Small committed to individuals whose afl&liation with the Insti-
^°^^^ ^' tution may be only temporary, a large amount of atten-

tion has been given to this question during the year ; much more in fact
than to any other. It is a matter of daily correspondence, of daily inter-
views, and of daily importunities. With a desire to see all sides of this
question and to hear all arguments thereon, the President has solicited much
of this correspondence and many of these interviews. He has received a
wealth of highly esteemed advice and suggestion along with much more that
must be characterized either as impracticable of application or as fraught
with grave danger if applied.

A considerable portion of this advice and suggestion would make instruct-
ive reading if printed, altho they are in large degree conflicting and need,
obviously enough, here and there, correction for personal equation ; but,
aside from greater concentration on matters of detail, they do not differ
essentially in the aggregate from the advice and suggestion given by mem-
bers of the advisory committees whose reports are printed in the earlier Year
Books of the Institution. Hence it does not seem worth while to add to the
bulk of printed discussion along this line, even in the cases of correspond-
ence whose authors would doubtless approve publication of their views.
The President desires here, however, to express his warm appreciation of
the counsel on this question given him confidentially by many colleagues in
the academic and scientific world. Whether this counsel has been pro or
con as regards his own views an effort has been made to weigh it fairly.

In the meantime there have been some opportunities for reflection on the
various aspects of the question, while the Institution is accumulating experi-
ence which, tho not as yet conclusive in its bearings, furnishes important
indications of the lines along which development may be expected to be
effective or ineffective. It seems desirable, therefore, to state here some of
the provisional conclusions to which observation, experience, and reflection
have forced me, not without opposition, in some cases, to preconceived notions.

Categorically these conclusions are the following :

First, that the Institution may not advantageously enter the fields now
occupied by colleges and universities. It should be no part of the function
of the Institution to endow scholarships and fellowships for indigent stu-
dents, nor to supply helpers, assistants, apparatus, libraries, museum collec-
tions, etc. , for purely educational work, nor to supplement meager salaries
of college and university professors whose work is primarily educational.
This conclusion and the specifications enumerated seem so axiomatic that
their statement would be quite superfluous here if the Institution were not
daily importuned for aid in one or more of these and many similar ways.

3— YB

34 CARNEGIB INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

Some eminent minds maintain, indeed, that since the object of the Institu-
tion is, in the last analysis at any rate, educational, these numerous ways
of promoting education should not be overlooked, for the sphere of effective
influence of the Institution, it is argued, may be thus widely extended. The
experience of the Institution thus far, however, appears to be in direct
opposition to this view. We are learning how the giving of aid by one
institution to another, even indirectly, tends to sap the independence and
to diminish the available income of both. Moreover, we encounter by this
method the endless difl&culties arising from diverse interests and divided
responsibilities, along with the inevitable bitterness of disappointment from
those who feel that the distribution of funds has not been equitable amongst
the fields of research or amongst the institutions supplying the investigators.

Secondly, that the Institution may not advantageously seek to scatter its
resources simultaneously over all available fields of research. It should
rather choose a limited number of fields of activity at any epoch and con-
centrate its energies on these until they are brought to a satisfactory degree
of completion. This conclusion seems likewise almost axiomatic, since it
is determined essentially by a limited income. Many, if not a majority,
however, of highly esteemed colleagues oppose this conclusion, and argue
that a distribution of income in small grants to widely scattered investigators
will be more productive in immediate results and of more ultimate benefit
to society. But this argument does not appear to be supported by the
experience of the Institution. It is impossible, of course, to draw precise
inferences from this limited experience; but after a careful examination of
the facts at hand I think it safe to state that no direct return may be antici-
pated from more than half of the small grants made up to the present time
for minor researches and for research assistantships. Moreover, it appears
to me that this is as high a percentage of efficiency as may be reasonably
expected from miscellaneous applicants for aid, since a majority of them
will be men and women of enthusiasm and promise merely rather than of
demonstrated ability to carry researches to successful conclusions.

In weighing this matter the educational value of such widely scattered
aid should not be overlooked. Many a meagerly equipped laboratory or
library may be thus strengthened and many young men and women may be
thus trained for work of research. The possession of a piece of apparatus,
or a rare volume, or the opportunity to pursue early in life a year or two
of uninterrupted scientific investigation, is, doubtless, of inestimable value
to a few individuals. But the obvious objection to such a disposition of
resources is that it serves only to supplement the educational work of col-
leges and universities. They already occupy this field, and it appears unwise
as well as unfair to encroach on their domain even in a supplementary way.
A less obvious objection is that arising from the diverse interests and the
divided responsibilities which such a course entails. It may be observed

REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, 1906. 35

also that as regards themselves the experience of colleges and universities
appears to be inimical to such a course, for we have not heard of any of
them proposing to use its income, or any considerable share thereof, in
building up departments of educational work in other institutions. But the
fundamental objection to such a disposition of funds is that it promotes
research only indirectly, whereas the primary object of a research institution
should be to promote research directly. A research institution should aim
to take up investigations which, by reason of their expense or magnitude,
are not likely to be carried to completion in other ways. And in the pursuit
of this work it should be free to choose the best ways and means; it should
not be hampered by a host of applicants backed by endless recommendations
of doubtful validity.

Thirdly, that the Institution may advantageously limit much more nar-
rowly than hitherto the award of minor grants. It should seek to eliminate
the amateur, the dilettante, and the tyro as far as possible from the list of
eligible applicants, and concentrate attention chiefly on those who have
already demonstrated ability to produce results. This policy will restrict
the range of operations of the Institution to some extent, but it will diminish
the hazard to a greater extent, and will permit a degree of thoroness of
work not otherwise attainable.

One of the most serious objections to giving aid to numerous small
projects lies in the fact, amply shown by experience, that the estimates of
the cost thereof are generally vague and almost always too small for the
accomplishment of good work. Many, if not most, authors of such projects
proceed without plans and specifications, often ignoring somewhat con-
temptuously such estimates of cost and probable outcome as may be supplied
in most cases by judicious forethought. The projects are so small that it
does not appear essential to individual investigators to consider carefully
their cost and bearing. Indeed, only investigators of considerable experi-
ence are able to use adequate forethought in this respect. But when one
contemplates not a single small project, but the aggregate of a large num-
ber of them, the need for carefully drawn plans, specifications, and estimates
is seen to be as important as in the case of any large project.

By limiting the fields of activity in this direction it will be possible for
the Institution not only to make a choice amongst promising investigations,
but likewise to make a choice amongst tried investigators. This appears
to me to afford a workable compromise also between the extremes of a
limited number of large projects and an unlimited number of small projects—
a compromise whereby the essential advantages of both extremes may be
secured and their inherent disadvantages avoided.

But while it appears desirable to limit the range of activity of the Institu-
tion at any epoch, it appears still more desirable to insist on a high standard
of efficiency determined by the quality and the quantity jointly of results

36 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

attained. To secure this end the Institution must not only seek to aid
mainly eminent investigators, but it must seek to aid them for such periods
and to such an extent that their best efforts may be enlisted. The grantee
should be able to feel that his connection, tho temporary, with the Institu-
tion is creditable, and, reciprocally, that the aid he accepts implies higher
obligations than those attaching to an educational scholarship or fellowship.
In many cases within the experience of the Institution grantees appear to
have regarded the system of small grants as a sort of lottery, involving
neither credit to nor responsibility from either party to an award. Expe-
rience of this and similar kinds is inevitable, however, in the formative
stages of the Institution ; for the distinction between a research institution
and an educational institution is not yet so clearly defined that contem-
porary society can avoid attributing to the former the eleemosynary function
which is being slowly eliminated from the latter.

In conformity with the views here set forth the President is disposed to
recommend that in general minor projects be aided only when thej^ can be
carried on by investigators of known competence ; that such investigators
become for the time being affiliated to and advisers of the Institution, and
that they be designated as Research Associates of the Institution. The
periods of afl&liation of such associates must be determined, of course, by the
circumstances of individual cases. But it may be observed that as a rule
these periods will be from two to five years, or more, since few investigations
well worth undertaking by the Institution can be brought to satisfactory
conclusions in shorter intervals of time.

It appears worthy of note, from the point of view of evolution, that the

Institution finds itself occupied with two principal divisions of activities,

namely, those arising from its internal affairs and

Mode of Development ^hose arising from its external affairs. On the one

of Institution. '^

hand, we are busily engaged with many investiga-
tions, in many diverse fields, carried on under widely varying conditions.
On the other hand, we are equally busily engaged with a multitude of exter-
nal relations which are usually more or less conflicting and often incom-
patible. Thus the development of the Institution may be likened to the
struggle of an organism which is trying at once to discover its proper func-
tions and to adjust itself to the conditions of its environment.

It is worthy of note, also, from the same point of view, that this struggle
is inevitable to a great degree, and that it is only out of the resulting chaos
of opinions as to ways, means, and methods, and out of the experience of
the Institution itself, that definite and approved lines of action and policy
may be attained.

In view of these circumstances, it seems essential to warn our allies of the
academic world and the public at large against the danger of expecting
more from the Institution than is possible of accomplishment in a limited

REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, I906. 37

time and with a limited income. Altho the work of the Institution is in a
pecuHar degree novel and untrammeled, it is yet subject, properly enough,
to the restrictions set by human experience and by contemporary society.
Hence, if the reviewer of the Year Books finds reason to complain of a
bewildering array of technical details, he should reflect that this array is far
less than a host of investigators would like to have it. If the humanist or
the scientist finds reason to complain that little or no aid has been given to
him or to his special field of research by the Institution, he may derive com-
fort from the fact that he is one of an overwhelming majority necessitated
by the limitations of available resources. And if the bibliophile has found
reason for dissatisfaction in the distribution of the publications of the Insti-
tution, he may be disposed to be lenient with the latter on learning that he
is one of many thousands soliciting favors.

Out of this plexus of internal and external relations and interrelations it
is the duty of the administrative branch of the Institution to evolve, so
far as practicable, such a degree of order and system as will best promote
productive and thoro work of research, and at the same time to restrict, so
far as practicable, an unproductive or wasteful expenditure of energy and
resources. Altho progress towards an adequate fulfilment of this duty must
be of necessity slow in order to be sure, it is believed that distinct advances
are accumulating, and that the obvious difficulties and dangers which beset
the development of so novel an institution are only such as may be overcome
by a reasonable application of time and patience.

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

39

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 4I

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

To the Trustees of the Carnegie Institution of Washington:

In accordance with the by-laws of the Carnegie Institution of Washington,
Article V, Section 3, and Article VI, Section 3, the Executive Committee
herewith respectfully submits its report for the year 1905-1906.

During the fiscal year ending October 31, 1906, the Executive Committee
held eight meetings. Printed reports of these meetings have been sent to the
members of the Board of Trustees.

Immediately on the adjournment of the Board of Trustees, December 12,
1905, the members of the Executive Committee met and organized by elect-
ing Mr. Wright temporary chairman, and Mr. Walcott temporary secretary.
At the meeting of the committee on the 9th of January, 1906, Mr. Wright
was made chairman for the current year, and it was voted that Mr. Walter
M. Gilbert, Assistant Secretary of the Institution, act henceforth as secretary
of the committee.

The President's report gives in detail the results of the work of the Insti-
tution for the fiscal year 1905-1906, together with various recommendations
and suggestions. The interpretation of the by-laws, as stated in the last
annual report of the Executive Committee relative to such report and the
President's report, and to which no objection has been made, is again adopted,
and the committee hereby presents the President's report as its own and with
its approval.

There is also submitted, on the following pages, a cash and financial
statement.

Carroll D. Wright, Chairman.

John S. Billings.

Cleveland H. Dodge.

Daniel C. Oilman.

S. Weir Mitchell.

Elihu Root.

Charles D. Walcott.

Robert S. Woodward.

Washington, D. C, November, ipo6.

42

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

^

W:

t5 o

g r^ j'5 tH o en

On 0\

00 M
■^ CO

M Ta-

ttoo t^(X) Ol t-^ O O fOVO M

t^M P400 CM O lOOCO^ OS

t^ CT\\0 vOMMOOCOMt^'*

o
2 «

(U

01 >-, ,

1^ 3 o il

0)

a

>^

cB

(U

u

CI

n3

IH

n

C

m

U^

;-i

H

a

T)c^

tn 4>
a; u

0 eta o iU
itiHOP-(PM

^5

00 cc o
vo o^co

CO t^ "^

><>^
;^^

• Q

••tj cC, •

tfl +j pqf-i

^
•§
a

r^

CO 10 ■^

-*

N

\o

■>*

\D N 'S-

00

CT\

t^

Tt

own <j\

CO

vc

•4

0

Tl- OmH

VD

OS

VO

CO

fO CO

0

N

CO

' tC

■* M

■*

«S

N

N

CO

k£)

0

>o

10

'd-

q_

««*

M

O O O O O O '^

8000000
O 0_ 0_ 0_^ 0__ CO
d^ "^ "* CH pT Cs' CO

to

o- - -
o

Jh " O

'CO

^ jO

n • o

g !D <i ;^" l^' a 4 Q

S5

o

M

S 1J o o

6^ ^, u o
O

o

O tfl

? «

8^

t:

o

CASH AND FINANCIAL STATe:mi;NT. 43

Financial Statement.

ASSETS. LABILITIES.

Endowment |io, 000,000.00

Reserve fund and accrued interest 280,876.80

Bonds (original cost) :

U. S. Steel Corporation bonds, 5 % f 10,000,000.00

|ioo,ooo A., T. & S. Fe Ry. Co. Genls. Mtg. 4% 100-
year gold bonds, Oct. i, 1995 100,112.50

|ioo,ooo N. P. Ry. Co. Prior L,ien Ry. and Land Grant

gold bonds, Jan. i, 1997 101,800.00

150,000 N. P. G. N. 4% Joint Bonds Chic, B. and Q.

Collateral, July, 1921 46,500.00

^50,000 Iv. S. & Mich. S. Ry. 4% debenture bonds 48,222.22

1^50,000 C. Pacific First Refunding gold 4% bonds. . . . 5i,937.50

Real Estate and Equipments :

Furniture (75% of cost) 4,342.24

Department of Botanical Research :

Office — Library.. $831.45

Apparatus , i ,656. 15

Buildings 5,710.44

Grounds and fencing 3, 104.52

11,302.56

23,201.81

Department of Experimental Evolution :

Buildings 121,347.31

Equipment, apparatus, &c 1,854.50

Department of Geophysical Research : •

Office 12,242.06

Laboratory 14,385.64

Shop 1,365.01

Site 17,500.00

Department of Marine Biology :

Vessels 19)832.63

Buildings and docks 7,375-78

Apparatus 519-36

Furniture 827.72

Solar Observatory :

Buildings I38, 159.00

Instruments and equipments 99,367.63

Department of Terrestrial Magnetism :

Office equipment $1,742.79

Instruments 8, 166. 13

Vessel equipment 2,093.99

35,492.71

18,555-49
137,526.63

12,002.91

Site for administration building 63,015.09

Property investment (aggregate cost) 242,424.35

Grants :

Large 248,520.37

Minor 78,716.67

Research assistants and associates 22,283.34

Publication , 54,262.42

Administration 17,868.50

Cash 379,147-96

Unappropriated fund 88,207.17

11,033,159-62 11,033,159.62

44 REPORT OF the; executive; committee.

RESEARCH ASSOCIATES AND ASSISTANTS.

The policy in relation to research assistants, as outlined in Year Book
No. 2, pp. xlvii-xlviii, was continued, and the persons named below pursued
investigations during the year, or for a portion of the year, in the branches
of science indicated. The total amount allotted to date for each investigation
is appended.

♦Agree, Solomon F., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Grants Nos.

204 and 372. Studies of pinacone-pinacolin rearrangement and of urazales. $1,300

BlakEslEE, Albert F., Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Grants Nos. 160

and 340. Investigation of sexuality in lower fungi 2,000

Farrar, Clarence B., Sheppard and Enoch Pratt Hospital, Baltimore, Md.
Grants Nos. 163 and 350. Experimental studies on structure and functions
of the cerebral cortex, its histopathology and physiological psychology 2,000

Ferguson, William S., University of California, Berkeley, Cal. Grant No. 338.

Completion of "A History of Athens from Demosthenes to Plutarch" 1,200

Franz, Shephard I., Hanover, N. H. Grant No. 80. Functions of the cerebrum

with special reference to the functions of the association areas 1,000

Johnson, RoswEll H., State Normal School, Cheney, Wash. Grants Nos. 274
and 339. Researches upon Hippodamia and other lady-beetles as a member
of staif of Department for Experimental Evolution 2,100

Jones, William, American Museum of Natural History, New York, N. Y.
Grants Nos. 173, 283, and 316. Religion of central group of Algonkin
Indians 3,000

LoudERback, George D., Reno, Nev. Grants Nos. 66 and 67. Basin Range struc-
ture and glaucophane and associated schists of California and Nevada 2,300

Morse, Albert P., Wellesley, Mass. Grants Nos. 84 and 284. Research on North
American Acridiidse, with especial reference to biology, distribution, and
variation 2,000

t Olive, Edgar W., University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Grants Nos. 32, 132,
and 271. Researches on the life histories and cytology of certain lower
plants 3,000

RowE, Leo S., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. Grant No. 144.

Study of the political system of the Argentine Republic i,Soo

Russell, Henry N., Princeton University, Princeton, N. J. Grants Nos. 88 and

207. Determination of stellar parallaxes by photographs 2,000

ScoTT, George W., Cosmos Club, Washington, D. C. Grants Nos. 60, 141, and 275.
The history and law of private pecuniary claims against the state (prin-
cipally foreign nations to which the United States has been a party) 3.900

Zahm, Albert F., Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C. Grant No.

272. Determination of resistance of air to moving bodies 1,000

ZERban, Fritz, College of the City of New York, New York, N. Y. Grants Nos.

169 and 273. Investigation of rare earths. Assistant to Prof. Baskerville. . 2,000

* Grant 372 was not designated as a "research assistantship."

t Grants 32 and 132 were not designated as "research assistantships."

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PUBLICATIONS. 45

BIBLIOGFIAPHY OF PUBLICATIONS RELATING TO WORK ACCOMPLISHED BY
GRANTEES AND ASSOCIATES.

Under this heading it is sought to indude the titles of all publications bear-
ing upon the work done under the grants from the Carnegie Institution of
Washington. In the list for the past year, as shown below, there may be
some omissions, although it has been the endeavor to make it as complete as
possible, and in some cases titles may be included which have only an indirect
connection with such work. A list of works published by the Institution
during the year will be found in the President's report on page 31.

Agree, S. F., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. On a formaldehyde color test
for proteids. (American Chemical Journal.)

, and HiNKiNS, J. E. On abnormally acid saliva. (Journal of Biological Chem-
istry.)

, . On the composition of human teeth. (Journal of Biological Chemistry.)

Adams, F. D., and CokER, E. G., McGill University, Montreal, Canada. An investiga-
tion into the elastic constants of rocks, more especially with reference to cubic com-
pressibility. (American Journal of Science. Aug., 1906.)

Adams, Walter S., Solar Observatory Office, Pasadena, Cal. Some notes on the H and
K lines and the motion of the calcium vapor in the sun. Contributions from the
Solar Observatory No. 6. (Astrophysical Journal, v. xxni. Jan., 1906.)

. Sunspot lines in the spectrum of Arcturus. Contributions from the Solar

Observatory No. 12. (Astrophysical Journal, v. xxiv. Sept., 1906.)
See also Hale, G. E.

Allen, E. T., White, W. P., and Wright, F. E. On wollastonite and pseudo-wollas-
tonite polj-morphic forms of calcium metasilicate. (American Journal of Science,
v. XXI, No. 122, pp. 89-108. Feb., 1906.)

, Wright, F. E., and Clement, J. K. Minerals of the composition MgSiOa. A

case of tetramorphism. (American Journal of Science. Nov., 1906.)
See also Day, A. L.

AyErs, S. a. See Duerden, J. E.

Banks, Enoch M., Newnan, Ga. The economics of land tenure in Georgia. (Colum-
bia University Press, Macmillan Co. 1905.)

Barrows, W. N. See Castle, W. E.

Barus, Carl, Brown University, Providence, R. L Condensation nuclei. Presidential
address. (Physical Review, v. xxii, pp. 82-110. Feb., 1906.)

. Condensation nuclei in alcohol vapor. (Amer. Jour, of Science. Aug., 1906.)

. Condensation nuclei in carbon dioxide and in coal gas. (Physical Review.

Aug., 1906.)

. Corpuscular radiation from cosmical sources. (Science, v. xxiii, p. 952. _ 1906.)

. Eigenschaften von Kondensationskernen, etc. (Physikalische Zeitschrift, No.

21, pp. 718-726. 1905.)

. Translation by E. Bloch. Les noyaux de condensation. (Le Radium, pp. 18-20.

Jan., 1906.) . / A .

Note on the computed drop in pressure in adiabatic expansion. (American

Journal of Science, v. Xxii, p. 81. 1906.)
Bateson, William, and Gregory, R. P. On the inheritance of heterostylism in Primula.

(Proc. Royal Soc. B., v. 76, pp. 581-586. 1905.)
, Saunders, E. R., and Punnett, R. C. Further experiments in sweet peas and

stocks; preliminary account. (Proc. Roy. Soc. B., v. 77, pp. 236-238.)

Experimental studies in the physiology of heredity. (Report 3

to the evolution committee of the Royal Society. 53 pp. London, 1906.)
Bauer, L. A. Cheltenham Magnetic Observatory registration of effects from electric
cars over 12 miles or 20 kilometers distant. (Terrestrial Magnetism, v. xi, No. I,
Mar., 1906, pp. 53-56.)

. Inauguration of the magnetic survey of the North Pacific Ocean. (Science, v.

XXII, No. 562, Oct. 6, 1905, p. 443.)
• . Magnetic survey of the North Pacific Ocean : Instruments, methods, and pre-
liminary results. (Terrestrial Magnetism, v. xi. No. 2, June, 1906, pp. 65-92.)

Magnetic survey of the Pacific Ocean. Route of second cruise. (Terrestrial

Magnetism, v. xi. No. i, Mar., 1906, p. 52.)

46 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE; COMMITTEE.

Bauer, L. A. On the present shrinkage of the earth's magnetism. (Physical Review,

V. XX, 1905, p. 126.)
. Report of Department of Research in Terrestrial Magnetism. (Year Book

Carnegie Institution of Washington No. 4, 1905, pp. 264-274, pi. 7.)
. Results of Magnetic observations made by the Coast and Geodetic Survey

between July i, 1904, and June 30, 1905. (Report of the Superintendent, U. S.

Coast and Geodetic Survey. Apr. 3, 1905.)
. Seismograph and magnetograph records of the San Francisco earthquake, April

18, 1906. (Summary of two addresses. Paper published in full in Popular Science

Monthly, Aug., 1906; Terrestrial Magnetism, v. xi. No. 3, Sept., 1906, pp. 135-144.)
. The present problems of terrestrial magnetism. (Repr. Congress Arts and

Science, Universal Exposition, St. Louis, v. iv. 1904.)
-, and BuRBANK, J. E. The San Francisco earthquake of April 18, 1906, as recorded

by the Coast and Geodetic Survey magnetic observatories. (Illus. National Geo-
graphic Magazine, v. xvii. No. 5, May, 1906, pp. 298-300.)

Baxter, G. P., Boylston Hall, Cambridge, Mass. A revision of the atomic weight of
bromine. (Proc. Amer. Acad, of Arts and Sciences, v. 42, pp. 201-214. Aug., 1906.)

;, Haines, M. A., and FrEvErT, H. L. A revision of the atomic weight of cad-
mium. (Journal Amer. Chem. Soc, v. 28, pp. 770-786; Zeitschrift fiir anorganische
Chemie, v. 49, pp. 415-431. 1906.)

Benedict, F. G., Middletown, Conn. The nutritive requirements of the body. (Amer.
Jour, of Physiology, v. 16, pp. 409-437. Aug. i, 1906.)

Blackmar, Frank W., Lawrence, Kans. The economics and politics of the Reclama-
tion Service. (The Forum. July, 1906.)

. The Salton Sea. (The World To-Day. July, 1906.)

BlakEslEE, a. F., Cambridge, Mass. Differentiation of sex in Thallus, Gametophyte,
and Sporophyte. (Botanical Gaz., v. xlii, pp. 161-178, pi. vi, 3 text-figs. Sept., 1906.)

. Zygospore germinations in the Mucorinese. (Annales Mycologici, v. iv, pp.

1-28, pi. I. 1906.)

. Zygospores and sexual strains in the common bread mold, Rhisopus nigricans.

(Science, n. s., v. xxiv, pp. 118-122. July 27, 1906.)

BuRBANK, J. E., Cheltenham Magnetic Observatory, Cheltenham, Md. Recent papers in
atmospheric electricity. (Abstracts. Terrestrial Magnetism, v. xi. No. i. Mar,,
1906, pp. 57-61; V. XI, No. 2, June, 1906, pp. 108-112; v. xi, No. 3, Sept., 1906, pp.
157-162.)

. Some atmospheric radioactivity observations made at Washington, D. C, show-
ing presence of thorium in the air. (Terrestrial Magnetism, v. xi, No. 2, June, 1906,
pp. 105-107.)

, and Bauer, L. A. The San Francisco earthquake of April 18, 1906, as recorded

by the Coast and Geodetic Survey magnetic observatories. (Illus. National Geo-
graphic Magazine, v. xvii, No. 5, May, 1906, pp. 298-300.)

Burgess, C. F., and EnglE, S. G., Madison, Wis. Observations on the corrosion of iron
by acids. (Trans. American Electrochemical Society, v. ix. 1906. Paper read at
meeting in Ithaca, May, 1906.)

, and Taylor, A. H. Magnetic properties of electrolytic iron. (Trans. American

Institute of Electrical Engineers, v. xxv. July, 1906. Paper read at meeting in
Milwaukee, June, 1906.)

and Watts, O. P. Structure of electro-deposits. (Trans. American Electro-

chemical Society, v. ix. 1906. Paper read at meeting in Ithaca, May, 1906.)
Byall, J. Bruce, Cincinnati, Ohio. The American system of improving and adminis-
tering commercial facilities. (Annals American Academy of Pol. and Soc. Sc
Nov., 1904.)
Cady, W. G., 100 High street, Middletown, Conn. A direct recording declinograph.
(Terrestrial Magnetism, v. xi. No. 3, pp. 145-152. Sept., 1906.)

. A machine for compounding sine curves. (Science, n. s., v. xxiii. No. 597, pp.

877-881. June 8, 1906.)

The iron arc. (Letter to the editor. Nature, v. 74, No. 1922, pp. 443-444. Aug.

30, 1906.)
Campbell, William, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Changement de structure

produit par le laminage et le recuit. (Congres International des Mines, etc., Liege,

Section de Metallurgie. 1905.)
• . On the heat treatment of some high-carbon steels. (Journal American Chem.

Society, Oct.. 1906; Proc. Amer. Society for Testing Materials, v. vl Nov., 1906.)
The application of metallography to opaque minerals. (School of Mines

Quarterly, v. xxvii. No. 4. July, 1906.)

BIBI^IOGRAPHY OF PUBLICATIONS. aj

Cli^e W^^F^'In A'^hl'?'^^ri"'"^;^'^T''>^".^r^^ (The Plant World. Mar., 1906.)

LASTLE, W. E., 10 Ash Street place, Cambridge, Mass. Yellow mice and gametic puritv

(Science, n s., v. xxiv. No. 609, pp. 275-281. Aug. 31, 1906 ) " ^ ^"

"~^o. SAP 15? J^Tt'r^e')' '"' '^"'"^" '" Drosophila. (Science, n. s., v. xxnx,

-, Carpenter, F. W. Clark, A. H., Mast, S. O., and Barrows, W. M The effects

D.n??I/,?; "^''^''^^'''^'i'^'J^"? '"^"'*'°" "P°" the fertility and variability of
C^Aptr'a Vc'osbor'ITt.^b":'- ''''' "^' '^'"^"■^' " ""^ PP- 73-768. May, 1J06.)
^"■"^nf™ I ^- ^"^-^ ^"t'-oductory note by Raymond Pearl). Some results of a study

Scierrprfo3-io8" SoT.?'- ^'^^^"^' '^"""^^ ^^P^'-^ ^^^'^^^^" ^^^^^-^ °^
Clement, J. K. See Allen, E. T
CoKER, E. G. See Adams, F. D.
CoPELAND, M. See Mark, E. L.
■CORRENS C. (i) liber Vererbungsgesetze. (Borntraeger, Berlin, 1905. [Erweitertl)

^ x.^- A,7^'^''-"""'^f'-f^^r(y^';''.^"^'""^"^ d- Gesellsch. Deutsch. Naturf. Aerzte,
1905, Allgememer Theil. [Erschienen, 1906.])

(3) Sulle Leggi della Eredita. (Italienische Ubersetzung von 2, von Professor Dr.
P. Baccarini-Pasquale (Florence), 1906. Unione Tipografico-Editrice, Torino)

(4) Weitere Untersuchungen iiber die Gynodioecie. (Berichte d. Deutschen Botan-
ischen Gesellschaft, v. 23, pp. 452-463.)

^5) Ein Vererbungsversuch mit Dimorphotheca pluvialis. (Berichte d. Deutschen

(jesellscnaft, v. 24, pp. 162-174.)
(6) Das Keimen der beiderlei Friichte der Dimorphotheca pluvialis. (Berichte d
Deutschen Botamschen Gesellschaft, v. 24, pp. 174-176.)
■CUENOT, L. (i) Sur une sole a deux faces colorees. (Bulletin de la Station biologique
d Arcachon, 8 annee, 1904-1905, pp. 82-89. 2 planches )
(2) L'heredite. (Revue Scientifique (5), t. v, No. 17, avril, 1906, pp. 513-521.)
(.3) Rapport sur 1 heredite, presente a la Societe de Zoologie de I'Association frangaise
pour 1 Avancement des Sciences. (Congres de Lyon, aout, 1906 )
Darbishire, A. D. Professor Lang's breeding experiments with Helix hortensis and H
nemoralts; an abstract and review. (Jour, of Conchology, v. 11, p. 193 )

.On the difference between physiological and statistical laws of heredity. (Mem.

and Proc. Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, v. 50, No. 11. July 6,

Davenport, C. B., Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y. Imperfection of Mendelian
dominance in poultry hybrids. (In report of proceedings Society for Experimental
Biology and Medicine, American Medicine, v. xi, pp. 105-110. Jan. 20, 1906 )

— . Report on the work of the Station for Experimental Evolution. (Year Book

No. 4, of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, D. C, pp. 87-107 1905 )

Day, Arthur L., and Allen, E. T. Der Isomorphismus und die thermischen eigen-
schaften der Feldspate. (Zeitsch. fiir physikalische Chemie, v. Liv, p. i. Jan , 1906 )

— , and Shepherd, E. S. Quartz glass. (Science, n. s., v. xxiii. No. 591, pp. 670-

672. Apr. 27, 1906.) ov ^ ff ^

~— — T- The lime-silica series of minerals. (Extract. Journal American Chem-
ical Society, V. 28, pp. 1089-1114. Sept., 1906.)

' ~Z7~:- The phase rule and igneous magmas. (Economic Geology, v. i, No. 3,

pp. 286-288. Jan., 1906.)

-' 7~' ^"<i Wright, Fred Eugene. The lime-silica series of minerals. Full text.

(American Journal of Science. Oct., 1906.)

Dike, p. H. The diurnal variation of the amount of radioactive emanation in the
atmosphere. (Terrestrial Magnetism, v. xi, No. 3, pp. 125-129. Sept., 1906.)

DuerdEn, J. E., Rhodes University College, Grahamstown, Cape Colony. The mor-
phology of the Madreporaria. vn. Intrapolypal tentacles. (Annals and Magazine
of Natural History, 7th sen, v. xvn. May, 1906.)

— • The morphology of the Madreporaria. vin. The primary septa of the Rugosa.

(Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 7th sen, v. xvin. Sept., 1906.)

. On the habits and reactions of crabs bearing Actinians in their claws. (Pro-
ceedings Zoological Society of London, v. 11, 1905.)

The primary septa in rugose corals. (Science, v. xxiv. Aug. 24, 1906.)

The role of mucus in corals. (Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, v.

49, Pt. IV. Feb., 1906.)

48 REPORT OF the; e;xe;cutive; committh;e;,

DuErdEn, J. E. The nerve-layer in the coral Coenopsammia. (Michigan Academy of
Science, 7th rpt. 1905.)

Dunbar, F. J. See Pearl, R.

DuRAND, W. F., Stanford University, Cal. Experimental researches on the performance
of screw propellers. (Transactions Society of Naval Architects and Marine
Engineers, 1905-06.)

EllErman, Ferdinand. See HalE, G. E.

ElstEr, J., Geitel, J., and Harms, F., Wolfenbuttel, Germany. Lnftelektrische und
photometrisclie Beobachtungen wahrend der totalen Sonnenfinsterniss vom 30 Aug.,
190S in Palma (Mallorca). (Terrestrial Magnetism, v. xi. No. i, pp. 1-44. Mar.,
1906.)

Engle, S. G. See Burgess, C. F.

pAiRCHaD, Fred R., Yale University, New Haven, Conn. History of labor legislation in
New York. (Publication American Economic Association. 1905.)

Earrar, C. B., Sheppard and Enoch Pratt Hospital, Baltimore, Md. Clinical demon-
strations in psychiatry, i. Dementia pracox. (Amer. Jour, of Insanity. April, 1906.)

. Clinical demonstrations in psychiatry. 11. Depressio afifectus. (American

Journal of Insanity. July, 1906.)

. Clinical demonstrations in psychiatry, iii. Depressio psychomotoria. Ameri-
can Journal of Insanity. Oct., 1906.)

. Cerebral topography at the section table. (American Journal of Insanity. July,

1906.)

. On the observation of symptoms in mental cases. (The Trained Nurse. Sept.

and Oct., 1906.)

. The making of psychiatric records. (American Journal of Insanity. Jan., 1906.)

Types of the devolutional psychoses, presented at British Medical Association,

Toronto, Aug., 1906. (Review of Neurology and Psychiatry; also British Medical
Journal, Oct. and Nov., 1906.)

Ferguson, W. S., Berkeley, Cal. The priests of Asklepios : a new method of dating
Athenian archons. (University of California Publications, Classical Philology, i, 5.
April, 1906.)

. The premature deification of Eumenes II. (Classical Philology, v. i, p. 3. July,

1906.)

Franz, S. I., McLean Hospital, Waverley, Mass. Observations on the functions of the
association areas (cerebrum) in monkeys. (Journal American Medical Association.
1906.)

FrazER, J. C. W. See MorsE, H. N.

FrEvErt, H. L. See Baxter, G. P.

FrolEy, J. W. See Liti'eEhales, G. W.

Gale, Henry G. See HalE, G. E.

Geitel, J. See Fester, J.

Gilbert, Ralph D. See Osborne, J. B.

Goss, W. F. M., Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind. Topical discussion before the
annual convention of the Master Mechanics' Association, Atlantic City. Is not a
boiler pressure of 185 pounds better than 200 pounds for locomotives? (Repub-
lished in most of the American railway journals. June, 1906.)

Groat, George G., Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Trade unions and the law in
New York. (Columbia University Studies in History, Econ. and Pub. Law. 1905.)

Hale, George E., Solar Observatory Office, Pasadena, Cal. A program of solar research.
(Contributions from the Solar Observatory, No. 3. Astrophysical Journal, v. xxiil.
Jan., 1906.)

. Some tests of the Snow telescope. (Contributions from the Solar Observatory,

No. 4. Astrophysical Journal, v. xxiii. Jan., 1906.)

. Latitude and longitude of the Solar Observatory. (Contributions from the

Solar Observatory, No. 9. Astrophysical Journal, v. xxiv. Sept., 1906.)

. The spectroscopic laboratory of the Solar Observatory. (Contributions from

the Solar Observatory, No. 10. Astrophysical Journal, v. xxiv. Sept., 1906.)

. A lOO-inch mirror for the Solar Observatory. (Contributions from the Solar

Observatory, No. 13. Astrophysical Journal, v. xxiv. Oct., 1906.)

, and Adams, Walter S. Photographic observations of the spectra of sun-spots.

(Contributions from the Solar Observatory, No. 5. Astrophysical Journal, v. xxiiI.
Jan., 1906.)

, . Sun-spot lines in the spectra of red stars. (Contributions from the

Solar Observatory, No. 8. Astrophysical Journal, v. xxiii. June, 1906.)

, , and Gale, Henry G. Preliminary paper on the cause of the character-
istic phenomena of sun-spot spectra. (Contributions from the Solar Observatory,
No. II. Astrophysical Journal, v. xxiv. Nov., 1906.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PUBLICATIONS. 49

Hale, George E., and EllErman, Ferdinand. The five-foot spectroheliograph of the
Solar Observatory. (Contributions from the Solar Observatory, No. 7. Astrophys-
ical Journal, v. xxiii. Jan., 1906.)

Harms, F. See Elster, J.

Harris, J. F. See Osborne, T. B.

Hay, O. p., American Museum of Natural History, New York, N. Y. Descriptions of
two new genera (Bchmatemys and Xenochelys) and two new species (Xenochelys
formosa and Terrapene putnami) of fossil turtles. (Bulletin American Museum of
Natural History, v. xxii, pp. 27-31. Feb. 3, 1906.)

■ . On two interesting genera of Eocene turtles, Chistermon Leidy and Anostetra

Leidy. (Bulletin American Museum of Natural History, v. xxii, pp. 155-160. June
2, 1906.)

HiNEs, M. A. See Baxter, G. P.

HiNKiNS, J. E. See Agree, S. F.

HiNKS, A. R., and Russell, H. N., Cambridge Observatory, Cambridge, England.
Determinations of stellar parallax from photographs made at the Cambridge
Observatory. (Introductory paper. Monthly Notices Royal Astronomical Society,
V. Lxv, No. 8. June, 1905.)

HoEFMANN, E. J. See Morse, H. N.

Hollander, Jacob H. Studies in American trade unionism. (Henry Holt & Co. 1906.)

Hopkins, B. S. See Morse, H. N.

HuEBNER, S., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. Federal supervision and
regulation of insurance. (Annals American Academy of Political and Social Sci-
ence. Nov., 1905.)

. Relation of the Government in Germany to the promotion of commerce.

(Annals American Academy of Political and Social Science. Nov., 1904.)

The development and present status of marine insurance in the United States.

(Annals American Academy of Political and Social Science. Sept., 1905-)

Hurst, C. C. Notes on the proceedings of the international conference on plant breeding
and hybridization, 1902. (Journal Royal Horticultural Society, xxix, part 4, pp. 17.)

■ . On the inheritance of coat color in horses. (Proc. Royal Society B., v. 77,

pp. 388-394-)

Ives, H. E., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Improvement in the diffraction
process of color photography. (Physical Review. July, 1906.)

Jennings, H. S., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. Modifiability in
behavior. L Behavior of sea-anemones. (Journal Experimental Zodlogy, v. 11, No.
4. Nov., 1905.)

Johnson, Emory R., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. Ocean and inland
water transportation. (D. Appleton & Co., New York. 1906.)

Jones, Chester L., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. The Consular Service
of the United States, its history and activities. (University of Pennsylvania Pub-
lication. June, 1906.)

Jones, H. C, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Die annahernde Zusammen-
setzung der Hydrate, welche von verschiedenen Elektrolyten in Wasseriger Losung
gebildet werden. (Zeitschrift fur physikalische Chemie, v. 55, pp. 385-434- May
18, 1906.)

. The bearing of hydrates on the temperature coefficients of conductivity of

aqueous solutions. (American Chemical Journal, v. 35, pp. 445-450. May, 1906.)

JoSLiN, Lulu B., Brown University, Providence, R. I. The availability of celluloid in
illustrating chromatic polarization. (Science, v. xxiii, pp. 706-707. May 4, 1906.)

. Note on the falling to pieces of the ions. (Science, v. xxii, pp. 762-764. Dec.

8, 1905- )

Kennon, W. L. See Morse, H. N.

Lang, A. Ueber die Mendelschen Gesetze, Art- und Varietatenbildung, Mutation und
Variation, imbesondere bei unsern Hain- und Gartenschnecken. Vortrag gehalten
an der Versammlung der schweizereichen Naturforschenden Gess. (Verhandl. der
Schweiz. Naturf. Ges., 1905. Luzern, 1906.)

Lewis, [E.] Percfval, University of California, Berkeley, Cal. A large quartz spectro-
graph. (Astrophysical Journal, v. xxiii, pp. 390-395. June, 1906.)

LiTTLEHALES, G. W., Washington, D. C. A new and abridged method of finding the
locus of geographical position and the compass error. (Bulletin Philosophical
Society of Washington, v. xiv, pp. 233-246, 3 pi. 1903.) See also summary of Mr.
Littlehales's method entitled "Improved methods for finding altitude and azimuth,
geographical position, and the variation of the compass." (I^Ionthly Weather
Report. June, 1905.)
4 — YB

50 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

LiTTLEHALES, G. W. Altitude, azimuth, and geographical position. (J. B. Lippincott
Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 1906.)

. The progress of science as exemplified in terrestrial magnetism. (Annual

presidential address before Philosophical Society of Washington, Dec, 1905. Bulle-
tin Philosophical Society of Washington, v. xiv, pp. Z'^l-ZZl- I905-)
-, and Froley, J. W. A discussion of the results of observations for the variation

of the compass made by navigators of the mercantile marine along the routes from

the United States to Europe in the year 1894. (U. S. Hydrographic Office, Pilot

Chart of the North Atlantic Ocean. Feb., 1905.)
Livingston, B. E. Desert Botanical Laboratory. Tucson, Ariz. A simple method for

experiments with water cultures. (Plant World, v. 9, pp. 13-16. Jan., 1906.)
. Note on the relation between growth of roots and of tops in wheat. (Botanical

Gazette, v. 41, pp. 139-143. Feb., 1906.)

Paraffined wire pots for soil cultures. (Plant World, v. 9, pp. 62-66. Mar., 1906.)

Lloyd, F. E., Desert Botanical Laboratory, Tucson, Ariz. Isolation and the origin of

species. (Science, n. s., v. 22, pp. 710-712. Dec. i, 1905.)

. Palo verde, the evergreen tree of the desert. (Torreya, v. 9, p. 165. July, 1906.)

. The artificial induction of leaf formation in the Ocotillo. (Torreya, v. 5, pp.

175-179- Oct., 1905.) . . , „, , .
. The Desert Botanical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington.

(Biologisches Centralblatt. In press.)
-, and Underwood, L. M. The species of Cyco podium in North America. (Bulle-

tin Torrey Botanical Club, v. z?)^ pp. 101-124. 1906.)
LuTz, F. E., Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y. Preserving spiders' webs. (Science, n. s., v.

XXIII, p. 391. Mar. 9, 1906.)
. The tegminal position in Gryllus. (Canadian Entomologist, v. xxxviii, pp.

207-209. June, 1906.)
McClung, C. E., Lawrence, Kans. The chromosome complex of Orthopteran sperma-
tocytes. (Biological Bulletin. Oct., 1905-)
MacDougal, D. T., Desert Botanical Laboratory, Tucson, Ariz. The delta of the Colo-
rado River. (Bulletin American Geographical Society. Jan., 1906.)

. Heredity and the origin of species. (Monist. Jan., 1906.)

. Discontinuous variation. (Science, n. s., v. xxiv, p. 730. Dec. 7, 1906.)

■ . Discontinuous variation in pedigree cultures. (Popular Science Monthly, v. 69,

pp. 207-225. Sept., 1906.)
Mark, E. L., and Copeland, M., Cambridge, Mass. Some stages in the spermatogenesis

of the honey bee. (Proceedings American Academy of Arts and Sciences, v. 42,

pp. 101-112, I pi. June, 1906.)
Mast, S. O. See Castle, W. E.
Mayer, A. G., Tortugas, Florida. Medusae of the Hawaiian Islands collected by the

steamer "Albatross" in 1902. (Bulletin U. S. Fish Commission. 1903-)
, and SouLE, Caroline G. Some reactions of caterpillars and moths. (Journal

of Experimental Zoology, v. iii. No. 3.)
Mendel, L. B., Sheffield Scientific School, New Haven, Conn. Chemical studies on

growth. (Proceedings British Medical Association, Toronto meeting, 1906, and

British Medical Journal.)
. The alimentary enzymes of the embryo. (American Journal of Physiology,

Proc. Physiol. Society, i8th annual meeting. Feb., 1906.)
Morse, H. N., Frazer, J. C. W., Hoffman, E. J., and Kennon, W. L., Johns Hopkins

University, Baltimore, Md. A redetermination of the osmotic pressure and of the

depression of the freezing-points of cane-sugar solutions. (American Chemical

Journal. July, 1906.)
, Frazer, J. C. W., and Hopkins, B. S. The osmotic pressure and the depression

of the freezing-points of solutions of glucose. (Amer. Chemical Jour. July, 1906.)
Nichols, E. L., and Merritt, E., Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Further experiments

on the decay of phosphorescence in Sidot blende. (Physical Review, v. xxiii, p. 27 •

July, 1906.)
, . The decay of phosphorescence in Sidot blende. (Physical Review, v.

xxii, p. 279. May, 1906.)

The luminescence of Sidot blende. (Physical Review, v. xxi, p. 247.

Oct., 1905.)

Olive, E. W., University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Cytological studies on the
Entomophthorese. I. The morpholog}^ and development of Empusa. (Botanical
Gazette, v. 41, pp. 192-208. Mar., 1906.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PUBLICATIONS. 5 1

Olive, E. W. Cytological studies on the Entomophthorese. II. Nuclear and cell divi-
sion of Empiisa. (Botanical Gazette, v. 41, pp. 229-261. Apr., 1906.)

. Notes on the occurrence of Oscillatoria proliftca (Greville) Gomont in the ice

of Pine Lake, Waukesha County, Wisconsin. (Trans. Wisconsin Academy of
Sciences, v. 15, pt. i, pp. 127-134. Dec, 1905.)

Osborne, T. B., and Ci.app, L. H., New Haven, Conn. The chemistry of the protein
bodies of the wheat kernel. Part III. Hydrolysis of the wheat proteins. (Ameri-
can Journal of Physiology. In press.)

, and Gilbert, R. D. The proportion of glutaminic acid yielded by various vege-
table proteins when decomposed by boiling with hydrochloric acid. (American
Journal of Physiology. Mar., 1906.)

and Harris, I. F. The chemistry of the protein bodies of the wheat kernel.

Part II. Preparation of the proteins in quantity for hydrolysis. (American Journal

of Physiology. In press.)
Palazzo, L., Washington, D. C. Magnetic elements determined at Tripoli, Barbary.

(Terrestrial Magnetism, v. xi. No. 2, pp. 93-96. June, 1906.)
Pearl, R., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. A biometrical study of conju-
gation in Paramecium. (Abst. Proc. Royal Society B., v. 77, pp. 377-383- 1906.)
. A note on the calculation of certain probable errors. (Science, n. s., v. xxii,

pp. 802-803. Dec. 15, 1905.)
. On the correlation between intelligence and the size of the head. (Journal

Comp. Neurology and Psychology, v. xvi. No. 3, pp. 189-199. 1906.)
. On the mean duration of life of individuals dying within a year after birth.

(Biometrika, v. iv, pp. 510-516. 1906.)
. Some results of a study of variation and correlation in brain-weight. (Journal

Comp. Neurology and Psychology, v. xv, pp. 467-481. 1905.)
-, and Dunbar, F. J. Some results of a study of variation in Paramecium. (Seventh

Ann. Rpt. Mich. Academy of Science, pp. 77-86. 1905.)
Phillips, U. B., University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Railway development in

southern territory. (Quarterly Journal of Economics. May, 1906.)
Ripley, W. Z., Cambridge, Mass. Rate systems of trunk line and southern territory.

(Quarterly Journal of Economics. Feb., 1906.)
Russell, H. N., Princeton, N. J. The parallax of Balande 21 185 and } Virginis from

photographs taken at the Cambridge Observatory. (Monthly Notices Royal

Astronomical Society, v. lxv, No. 8. June, 1905.)

. See also Hinks, A. R.

Schmidt, A. D., Potsdam, Germany. Ergebnisse der magnetischen beobachtungen in

Potsdam im jahre 1901. (Veroff. K. Preuss. Meteor. Inst. Berlin, 1905.) _
. Johannes Edler und Verzeichniss seiner wissenschaftlichen Veroffentlichungen.

(Terrestrial Magnetism, v. x. No. 4, pp. 191-193. Dec, 1905.)
Shepherd, E. S. Errors in pyrometry. (Trans. Amer. Electrochem. Soc May 3, 1906.)

. See also Day, A. L.

Smith, J. R., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. The British systeni of

improving and administering ports and terminal facilities. (Annals American

Academy of Political and Social Science. Nov., 1904.)
. The organization of ocean commerce. (University of Pennsylvania publication.

May, 1905.)
SouLE, Caroline G. See Mayer, A. G.
Spalding, V. M., Desert Botanical Laboratory, Tucson, Ariz. Economy in irrigation.

(Popular Science Monthly. Dec, 1905.)
. Absorption of atmospheric moisture by desert shrubs. (Bulletin Torrey Botan-
ical Club, V. Z2, pp. ?,^7-o7S- 1906.)

Biological relations of desert shrubs. II. Absorption of water by leaves.

(Botanical Gazette, v. 41, pp. 262-282. 1906.)

Taylor, A. H., Madison, Wis. Limitation of the ballistic method for magnetic induc-
tion. (Physical Review, v. xxiii. No. 2. Aug., 1906.)

. See also Burgess, C. F.

TscHERMAK, E., Die Kreuzung im Dienste der Pflanzenzuchtung. (Jahrb. v. d.
Landwirth. Ges., v. xx, pp. 325-338. 1905.)

. Die Mendel'sche Lehre und die Galton'sche Theorie von Ahnenerbe. (Arch. f.

Rassen- und Gesellschaft Biologie Ju., 6 Heft. 1905.)

Die Bliih- und Fruchbarkeitsverhaltnisse bei Roggen und Gerste. (Fiihlings

Landw. Zeif mg, Hft. 6. 1906.)

52 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

TschErmak, E. Uber einige Bliih- und Fruchbarkeitsverhaltnisse bei Roggen und

Gerste. (Wiener Landw. Ztg. No. 54, 7. Jul}', 1906.)
. uber Bildung neuer Forrnen durch Kreuzung. (Resultats scientifiques de

Congres international de Botanique, Wien. 1905.)

Uber Ziichtung neuer Getreiderassen mittels kunstlicher Kreuzung. II. Th.

Kreuzungsstudien am Roggen. (Zeiter. f. d. Landw. Versuchsw. in Oesterreich.

Heft 6, 1906.)
Underwood, L. M. See Lloyd, F. E.
Washington, H. S., Locust, N. J. The Plauenal monzonose (syenite) of the Plauen-

scher Grund. (American Journal of Science, v. xxii, pp. 129-135. Aug., 1906.)
. The titaniferous basalts of the Western Mediterranean. (Quarterly Journal of

the Geological Society of London. In press. Paper read Nov. 7, 1906.)
Watts, O. P., Madison, Wis. An electric furnace for heating crucibles. (Electro-
chemical and Metallurgical Industry, p. 273. July, 1906.)
. Iron and calcium. (Journal of American Chemical Society, Sept., 1906. Paper

presented at meeting of the American Association for Advancement of Science.

July, 1906.)

See also Burgess, C. F.

Wells, G. F., Madison, N. J. Church federation as a practical proposition. (New
York Christian Advocate. Mar. 29, 1906, and Apr. 5, 1906.)

. The country church and its social problem. (The Outlook. Aug., 1906.)

. The need of church federation in Vermont. (The Congregationalist and Chris-
tian World. Apr. 7, 1906.)
White, W. P. Every-day problems of the moving-coil galvanometer. (Physical
Review. Nov., 1906.)

. The constancy of thermoelements. (Physical Review. Dec, 1906.)

. See also Allen, E. T.

Wood, R. W., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Abnormal polarization and
color of small particles of absorbing media. (Philosophical Magazine. Aug., 1906.)

. Cathode luminescence of sodium vapor. (Philosophical Magazine. 1906.)

. Fish-eye views and vision under water. (Philosophical Magazine. Aug., 1906.)

, Fluorescence and Lambert's law. (Philosophical Magazine. June, 1906.)

. Interference colors of chlorate of potash crystals. (Philosoph. Mag. July, 1906.)

. Magnetic rotation, temperature emission, and fluorescence of sodine and

bromine. (Philosophical Magazine. 1906.)

The complex fluorescence spectrum of sodium vapor and its analysis. (Proc

Amer. Acad., 1906; also Philosophical Magazine, Sept., 1906.)
Theory of fluorescence. (Philosophical Magazine. 1906.)

Wright, F. E., Washington. D. C. A modification of the Lasaulx method for observing
interference figures under the microscope. (Amer. Journal of Science, v. 22, pp.
19-20. July, 1906.)

. Schistosity by crystallization. A qualitative proof. (Amer. Journal of Science,

V. 22, pp. 224-230. Sept., 1906.)

The determination of the feldspars by means of their refractive indices.

(American Journal of Science, v. 21, pp. 361-363. May, 1906.)

REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

The following reports and abstracts of reports show
the progress of investigations carried on during the year,
including not only those authorized for 1905- 1906 but
others on which work has been continued from prior
years.

53

ANTHROPOLOGY — JONES, DORSEY. 55

ANTHROPOLOGY.

Jones, William, American Museum of Natural History, New York, N. Y.

Grant No. 316. Investigation of the religioji of the Central Algonkin

Indiajis. (For previous report see Year Book No. 4, p. 53.) $1,000.

The work of the past year has been among the Ojibwa, as it was during

the 3'ear before. Most of the time has been devoted to the translation of the

mass of native texts which had previously been obtained. The work of

translating has been slow ; but, now that it is drawing to a close, the main

results of the investigation should be ready for publication in a short time.

The paper will contain mj^th, tradition, an account of the leading religious

ceremonies, and a treatment of certain fundamental elements at the basis of

Ojibwa religious belief.

Dorsey, George A., Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, Illinois.
Grant No. 315. Investigation among the tribes of the Caddoan stock.
(For previous reports see Year Book No. 2, p. xv, Year Book No. 3,
p. 83, and Year Book No. 4, p. 53.) $3, 000,

Abstract of Report. — The work done during the year 1906, the fourth year
of the investigation, has been a continuation of that done in previous years
among the tribes of the Caddoan stock. The investigation of the mythology
of the tribes comprising this stock has been completed, and in June was
submitted the manuscript of the last volume bearing on this subject, the title
being ' ' Mythology of the Pawnee. ' ' This volume will soon be issued as one
of the publications of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. The volume
contains many tales of the Chaui, Kitkehahki, and Pitahauirat bands of the
Pawnee and certain tales of the Skidi which, for certain reasons, had not been
printed in the memoir on the " Traditions of the Skidi Pawnee." As a sup-
plement to the volume, forming indeed Part II, there is now being prepared the
texts of the songs which belong to the volume and the results of an exhaust-
ive account made of a comparative study of the mythology of the Caddoan
tribes with those of their neighbors. The preliminary work of this Part II
has been completed and will be ready for publication some time within the
coming year. The greater part of the year has been spent in preparing a
manuscript of an extensive account of the societ}^ and religion of the Skidi
Pawnee. The preparation of this manuscript is about three-fourths com-
pleted, the data for the remainder having been practicall}^ all secured. The
greater part of the volume will be devoted to as full an account as it has been
possible to obtain of the religious ceremonies of the Skidi, the obtaining of
the material for this work having been in progress for the last five 3'ears.
It is believed that practically all of the rituals now known among the Skidi
have been obtained. Many of the rituals, however, are upon phonographic
cylinders, upon which they were recorded, and will require translation and
much careful study. Some difficulty has been found in securing an investi-

56 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

gator competent to consider the question of the music of the ceremonies. To
look after this part of the investigation Dr. von Hornbostel, of the Univer-
sity of Berlin, has been invited to come to Chicago to make a careful exami-
nation of the music and report on it. He is at the present time in Chicago
engaged in this work, and some interesting results are looked for. A volume
of texts has been carefully planned. Much material has already been secured
for this volume, and its scope has been so planned as to make it of value not
only to ethnologists but especially to students of psychology and linguistics.

ARCHEOLOGY.

American School of Classical Studies at Athens. James R. Wheeler, Chair-
man of Managing Committee, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
Grant No. 317. {a) Maijitcnance of a fellowship in architecture at Athejis,
$1,000. {b) Excavation on the site of ancient Corinth and exploration,
$1,500. (For previous report see Year Book No. 4, p. 54.) $2,500.
(a) Mr. Gordon Allen, A. B., who held this fellowship during the past
year, has undertaken the careful preparation of drawings of the ancient
Sanctuary of ^sculapius, on the south slope of the Acropolis. In this work
he has been greatly assisted by Mr. O. M. Washburn, fellow at the school
of the Archeological Institute, and Mr. L. D. Caskey, secretary of the school.
The Aclepicum, though excavated a good many years ago, has never been
carefully studied from the architectural point of view, and no adequate draw-
ings of the sanctuary have ever been published. It therefore seemed a good
thing to the authorities of the school to have such drawings made, with the
idea that they should later be published in connection with descriptive text
and an account of the cult of ^sculapius at Athens. Mr. O. M. Washburn
has undertaken the preparation of such an account, and it is hoped that pub-
lication may follow in due course, though this unfortunately depends on the
rather limited financial resources of the school. Mr. Allen's drawings are
reported to be finished and to be of excellent character.

{b) The excavation work of the school has not been carried on during the
present year, owing to the recent death of the Director, which forced upon
the managers a temporary organization for the year. There is therefore no
report to make under this head.

Amefican School of Classical Studies in Rome. Andrew F. West, Chairman
of Managing Committee, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey.
Grant No. 318. (a) Maintenayice of two research fellowships in classical
archeology, $1,600. (3) Publication of results of scientific investigation,
$1,000. (For previous report see Year Book No. 4, p. 54.) $2,600.
(a) Mr. Albert William Van Buren, of Yale University, and Miss Susan

Helen Ballon, of the University of Chicago, held the fellowships for the

year i 905-1 906.

ARCHEOLOGY — AMERICAN SCHOOL OP CLASSICAL STUDIES IN ROME. 57

Abstracts of Reports. — Mr. Van Bureti's report relates particularly to his
studies in topography, epigraphy, and paleography. The results of inves-
tigations carried on by Mr. A. S. B. Wace and Mr. Van Buren at Demetrias
in Thessaly have been incorporated in an article which appeared in the Ath.
Mitteilungen for 1905. An account of the remainder of their Magnesian
journey has been prepared by Mr. Wace for publication in the Journal of
Hellenic Studies. Various periods of construction visible in the temples of
Castor and of Concord in the Roman Forum have been investigated, and a
preliminary statement of results was published in the Berliner Philologische
Wochenschrift for January 27, 1906. A fuller account will probably be pub-
lished in the Classical Review for February, 1907. Mr. Van Buren also
conducted six Campagna excursions of the American School, and lectured
informally on the sites and monuments visited. Work on a monograph on
Ostia was delayed and finally abandoned because the work was being under-
taken by other agencies.

An article on ' ' Stamps on Bricks and Tiles from the Aurelian Wall at
Rome, ' ' done in collaboration with Dr. Pfeiffer and Professor Armstrong in
1902-1903, and a paper on " The Text of Columella," written in 1903, have
appeared in volume I of the School Papers. An article on ' ' Greek Inscriptions
from Asia Minor, Cyprus, and the Cyrenaica ' ' has been submitted for pub-
lication among the Papers of the School, and some notes on " Inscriptions
from Sinope" will be published in the Journal of the Archeological Insti-
tute. Papers on the " Inscription of the Charioteer Menander," recently
obtained by Professor Norton; "A Bronze Statuette from Norba," and
"A Marble Frieze from Side" have been submitted for publication in vol-
ume II of the School Papers.

In the Classical Review for 1905 Mr. Van Buren published a " Note on
Pliny, Epp. III. 6, IX. 39," and now has in preparation an article on the
water supply of ancient Rome and a catalogue of all the inscriptions at the
American School.

Miss Ballou has been working upon a collection of the Scriptores Historise
Augustse. The first draft has been thoroughly revised with reference to the
Palatine and Bamberg manuscripts and by comparison with other manu-
scripts in Florence, Milan, and Paris. Surmises in regard to the extent to
which Plutarch worked over and emended the Palatine have been confirmed
by this second examination. Continual work in this field has postponed a
contemplated work on the palimpsest of Aulus Gellius. Two days were
spent at Monte Cassino in the collation of the ' ' Liber de Locis Sanctis ' ' of
Pietrus Diaconus, a manuscript of the 12th century, in very bad condition.

{b) No publications have yet been issued under these grants, but the
preparation of a new volume of School Papers is progressing under the edi-
torial supervision of Prof. John C. Rolfe, of the University of Pennsjdvania.
This volume will contain papers of original scientific interest, prepared by
members of the school.

58 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

Brigham, William T*, Bernice Paiiahi Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii.
Graut No. 341. Stcrveymg, photographing, and describing the hciau, or
ancient stone temples oj the HawaiiaJis, in connection ivith a treatise on
' ^Ancient Hawaiian Worship. " $2 , 500.

Abstract of Report. — Under the grant to aid in the exploration and study of
the ancient Hawaiian temples, or heiau, the available time of the grantee has
been devoted to compiling lists of all known remains, checking all that are
wholly destroyed, and selecting those in such condition as to give valuable
data as to construction or use. Mr. John F. G. Stokes, curator of Polyne-
sian ethnology in the Bishop Museum, has undertaken the careful survey
and location of these temples and has already done much work on the
island of Oahu and on Hawaii, where he is now surveying. He has largely
increased the list of known temples, but many of the new ones and not a
few of the earlier ones on the list are so far ruined that it is not desirable to
do more than make a mere statement of their former existence and the
kings or chiefs by whom erected. On the other hand, the process of clear-
ing away the vegetation which has protected many from destruction has
revealed interesting facts in the astonishing variety of plan and the great
variation in extent of Hawaiian temples.

It has been found that in some of the principal temples prayers are still
offered, and the last king, not more than a score of years ago, made a large
and formal offering to the war god of an ancient temple on Kauai. In
former years offerings in the apparently deserted place of ancient worship
were found. Dr. Brigham has, by the excavations and clearings already
made, found confirmation of his knowledge of the ancient ritual obtained
by him forty years ago from a priest who had offered human sacrifices and
conducted the worship in one of the more important of the temples of the
island of Molokai.

He has made or obtained photographs of all known existing idols of
Hawaiian origin, and with the additional information obtainable as this
exploration goes on he hopes to present a fairly clear picture of the worship
of this, the most religious people of the Pacific region.

The expenditures so far have been for travel and labor in clearing and
not for permanent instruments or apparatus, for the trustees of the Bernice
Pauahi Bishop Museum have kindly loaned instruments for the survey and
have arranged for the assistance of members of the museum staff ; among
these Mr. Stokes, who has camped with Dr. Brigham in such temples as
are best preserved, is giving invaluable aid. The grantee hopes to present
next year the finished results of his studies of the religious side of this
remarkable people, who, like the Hebrews, had places of refuge, public
temples of vast size, and also divinity schools, a powerful priesthood (still
existing), and oratories in every house. In their best estate the Hawaiians
kept their "forty thousand and four hundred thousand gods" fully
employed.

ARCHEOLOGY — MULLER, PUMPELLY, WARD. 59

MuIIer, W* Max, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Grant No. 355. Contin-

uation of Archeological Researches in Egypt. (For previous report see

Year Book No. 3, p. 84.) $2,000.

Dr. Miiller pursued archeological researches in Egypt during the summer

and fall of 1906. After working at the Cairo Museum for several weeks,

he copied and photographed in the temples of Eastern Thebes. A fuller

report will be forthcoming in 1907.

Pumpelly, Raphael, Newport, Rhode Island. Grant No. 229. Trans-

Caspiayi Archeological Expedition. (For previous reports see Year Book

No. 2, p. xxxiii; Year Book No. 3, pp. 75-79, and Year Book No. 4

p. 55.) $26,000.

Work upon the results of the expedition of 1904 has been pushed during

the past year and the report is in press.

"Ward, William H., 130 Fulton street, New York, N. Y. Grant No. 305.
Completion oj study of oriental art recorded on seals, etc., from western Asia
and Egypt. (For previous reports see Year Book No. 2, p. xvii; Year
Book No. 3, p. 85, and Year Book No. 4, p. 55.) $250.

Dr. Ward reports that he has met with unexpected delays in completing
his work on oriental seal cylinders, but that the text is all written in seventy
chapters, covering with great care the Babylonian, Persian, Assyrian, Syrian,
Hittite, and Phenician art of Asia, but not the Egyptian, which has been
provided for by other scholars. At present he is engaged, with the help of
two artists, in completing the drawings, many of them hitherto unpublished,
not only from his own collection of over a thousand cylinders, the majority
of which have gone to the Metropolitan Museum in New York, but from
the Eouvre, the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris, the British Museum, the
Museum in Berlin, and other public and private collections. It has been
his especial aim to study the mj'thological art of these cylinders and to
identify both the gods represented and their emblems. Accordingly the
cylinders are classified by their nationality, their period, and their subject,
particular attention being paid to the archaic period, when motives were
being developed and mythological ideas had not yet been conventionalized
and fossilized into fixed forms. It has been a further purpose to show
how the earliest forms in Chaldea, of more than 3,000 b. c. , have been
adopted and modified in Assyria, Persia, Syria, and Pheuicia, and to learn
what new elements have been successively introduced from Egypt or of
native local origin. In order to give completeness to the work, it has been
necessarj^ to multiply the illustrations in the rarer scenes depicted, if im-
portant, giving all that are known, and in other cases showing the variations
of type that were allowed.

60 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

ASTRONOMY.

REPORT ON THE SOLAR OBSERVATORY, MOUNT WILSON, CALIFORNIA.*

By George E. Hale, Director.

Two events of the past year, of special importance in their bearing
upon the future work of the Solar Observatory, call for mention at the
opening of this report.

The first of these is the gift of $45,000, by Mr. John D. Hooker, of Los
Angeles, to meet the cost of a mirror of 100 inches aperture and 50 feet
focal length, for a great reflecting telescope. Such an instrument, which
will collect about 2.7 times as much light as our 60-inch reflector, will
permit the work of the Solar Observatory to be very greatly extended.
Our plan of research, which is intended to provide for an effective attack
upon the problem of stellar evolution, requires varied apparatus and the
most powerful telescopes obtainable.

As stated in my previous report, the attack is along three converging
lines, involving the study of the sun as a typical star ; the study of stars
and nebulae and of their relationship to the sun and to one another ; and
the interpretation of both solar and stellar phenomena by means of care-
fully chosen laboratory experiments. In the laboratory work, our lumi-
nous sources are so far under control that we can usually adapt them to
the requirements of the particular investigation. In other words, if a light
source is only feebly luminous, we can ordinarily increase its brightness
to such a degree as to permit its analysis by the most powerful spectro-
graphs. In the case of the stars, however, we have no such means of
controlling the conditions. It too often happens that the very stars which
present the most interesting and important peculiarities — perhaps for the
reason that they resemble the "missing link" of the naturalist, in view
of their promise' of uniting some broken chain of evidence — are so faint
that an adequate analysis of their Hght is impossible. A loo-inch
reflector, with its immense light-collecting power, will obviously be of the
greatest advantage in just such cases. A similar illustration is afforded
by the spiral nebulae. Only a iew of these remarkable objects are large
enough, and bright enough, to lie well within the range of existing photo-
graphic telescopes. Even in these the changes in form are so slow that
none have ever been detected by existing means. Hundreds of thousands
of smaller nebulae of this type, although the remarkable fact of their exist-
ence and spiral form has been discovered with the Crossley reflector, are
so minute on the photographic plate that little can be learned of their true

* For the year ending September 30, 1906. Grant No. 314. $150,000 for construction
and maintenance. (For previous reports see Year Book No. 3, pp. 154-174, and Year
Book No. 4, pp. 56-77.)

SPECTROSCOPIC LABORATORY, MOUNT WILSON.

MOUNT WILSON FROM MOUNT HARVARD.

ASTRONOMY — HALE. 6l

nature. A loo-inch reflector, vv-ith a focal length of 50 feet, should be
capable of photographing an immense number of these objects to excel-
lent advantage. In view of the work of Chamberlin and Moulton on the
nebular hypothesis, and the theoretical study of spiral nebulae upon which
the latter is engaged, such observational evidence as the new instrument
may afford should prove of the greatest value. Mr. Hooker's gift is
especially opportune, in that it will permit the Solar Observatory to con-
tinue, after the completion of our 60-inch reflector, the employment of the
skilled opticians who have been trained by Mr. Ritchey for their difficult
and delicate work. The question as to the type of mounting to be em-
ployed, and the various details of its design, need not be considered until
the 60-inch reflector has been thoroughly tested in actual use on Mount
Wilson. The completion of the optical work can not be expected before
the end of four years, while only a year would be required by the Union
Iron Works Company to complete the mounting and dome. The liberal
terms of Mr. Hooker's letter of gift specifically free the Carnegie Institu-
tion from any obligation whatever in accepting the mirror. The source
from which the funds are to be obtained to mount and house it is not
known, but it may be anticipated with confidence that a donor can be
found when the proper time arrives. I have discussed elsewhere in this
report the various questions that naturally suggest themselves as to the
probability of obtaining success with so large a reflector.

The second event to which I wish to allude is the formulation and pre-
liminary test of the hypothesis that the characteristic phenomena of the
spectra of sun-spots may be accounted for on the assumption that the tem-
perature of the metallic vapors within sun-spots is below that of the cor-
responding vapors in the sun's reversing layer. The spectra of sun-spots
have for many years offered an interesting problem to solar physicists.
The fact that some of the lines of certain metals are greatly strengthened
in them, while others are weakened or obliterated, has given rise to much
speculation as to the probable cause of these phenomena. The strength-
ened and weakened lines have appeared to be set apart, in a most capri-
cious manner, from the unaffected lines of the elements in question, though
certain solar observers have been inclined to regard spot spectra as in-
dicating merely an increase in the absorptive phenomena visible at all
points upon the solar surface. While it can not be said that our hypoth-
esis has advanced beyond the first stage, it has nevertheless been dem-
onstrated in our laboratory work that the great majority of lines that
are strengthened in sun-spots are also strengthened in the laboratory
when the temperature of the vapor which gives rise to them is decreased,
while a similarly large proportion of the lines that are weakened in sun-
spots are weakened in the laboratory under the same conditions. The

62 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

possibility that agencies other than mere change of temperature are con-
cerned is not entirely excluded, but the present indications are favorable
to the view that the assumption of a low^er temperature will prove to be
the simplest means of accounting for the phenomena. This view is based
not merely upon an extensive series of laboratory experiments, but upon
various other criteria, one of the most important of which is the fact
discovered in the course of our recent investigations, that spectroscopic
phenomena resembling in the closest degree those observed in sun-spots
are apparently characteristic of certain stars which in all schemes of stel-
lar evolution are classified as cooler than the sun. This fact is of special
significance in its bearing upon the broader applications of our sun-spot
investigations. It illustrates the truth that the correlated study of solar,
stellar, and laboratory phenomena ofifers a most promising means of
attacking the problem of stellar evolution. It is now evident that the
investigations we have begun on the spectra of sun-spots, and partially
interpreted through laboratory experiments, are likely to serve as our
surest guide in those more general investigations of stellar phenomena
which it is our prime object to undertake.

Of the other events of the year, which are discussed more specifically
in the body of this report, certain ones call for general comment here.
The destructive earthquake of April i8, from which our colleagues of the
Lick Observatory so fortunately escaped, naturally raised apprehensions
as to the fate of the mounting of our 6o-inch reflector, then approaching
completion at the Union Iron Works in San Francisco. It was some time
before definite knowledge of the facts could be ascertained. It was then
learned that, although the Union Iron Works were outside of the great
fire zone, the direct efifects of the earthquake shock within their grounds
were very serious. Nevertheless, the reflector mounting wholly escaped
injury, though by the barest of margins. The heavy labors of reconstruc-
tion, together with subsequent strikes, interfered so seriously with the
completion of the mounting that it has only recently been delivered to
us in Pasadena. It is now being erected, and the extensive work to be
done upon it by our machinists will occupy them for fully a year. It is
our hope that this work may be completed in time to permit the telescope
to be set up on Mount Wilson in the autumn of 1907. The polishing
of the mirror, like all of the other important work of the optical and
instrument shops, has proceeded most satisfactorily under Mr. Ritchey's
direction. At the present time the figure of the mirror has reached a
high degree of perfection, but it will be still further improved before it is
regarded as satisfactory.

Thanks to the assistance and cooperation of President Woodward, the
long-standing problem of a road up Mount Wilson has at last been satis-

ASTRONOMY — HAI,l5. 63

factorily solved. A decision on this subject was necessarily long delayed,
in the hope that a project for the construction of a railway to the summit,
by the owners of the Mount Wilson Hotel, might permit us to avoid the
serious expenditure which the widening of the trail must involve. A
survey of the proposed railway was undertaken during the winter, but it
did not become clear until June that the hope that the railway might be
constructed within a reasonable time must be definitely abandoned. The
conclusion that it would be necessary to proceed independently has been
fully confirmed, as nothing appears to have been done on the railway
project since last spring. During President Woodward's visit to the
Solar Observatory in June it was decided, on his recommendation, to
employ Mr. Godfrey Sykes, of the Department of Botanical Research, as
superintendent of the work of widening the "New Trail," which we had
formerly used for "packing" with animals and for the operation of the
small carriage on which our heavy machinery and instruments had been
taken to the summit of the mountain. As stated elsewhere, the widening
of the trail has proceeded rapidly under Mr. Sykes's direction, and is now
nearly half completed. It is hoped that the road may be practically
finished before the rainy season seriously interferes with the work.

The work of investigation during the year has been done with the aid
of the Snow telescope, equipped with the large spectrohelograph and the
Littrow spectrograph mentioned in the last annual report, and in the
laboratory, which was finished and equipped early in the winter. Through
the friendly cooperation of the University of Chicago, and of Prof. E. B.
Frost, director of the Yerkes Observatory, the Solar Observatory was
permitted to continue its use of the Snow telescope. Later the possibility
of purchasing the instrument presented itself, and received the full ap-
proval of Miss Snow and of the university authorities. In announcing
the purchase of the Snow telescope and its accessory apparatus from the
Yerkes Observatory, at the original cost of construction, I wish to put on
record the thanks of the Solar Observatory to Miss Snow and to Pro-
fessor Frost, and to the acting president and trustees of the University
of Chicago, for their courteous consideration of the matter, and for their
acquiescence in the view that the transfer of the instrument would result
advantageously, on account of the excellent atmospheric conditions at
Mount Wilson and the facilities provided there for the adequate use of
the telescope.

The 5-foot spectroheliograph, constructed in our instrument shop, has
exceeded our expectations. During a considerable part of the rainy sea-
son, when the observations were necessarily much interrupted, it was
employed for experimental purposes, which were completed in time to
permit routine work to be undertaken on the return of good weather

64 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

in the spring. The sun is now photographed every clear morning and
afternoon with this spectroheHograph, the daily record comprising photo-
graphs taken with the calcium, hydrogen, and iron lines, together with
photographs of the chromosphere and prominences in calcium light. In
the computing division, organized during the latter part of the year and
placed under the direction of Mr. W. S. Adams, provision has been made
for the measurement and reduction of these plates. The globe-measuring
machine, with which the heliographic latitude and longitude of any point
on the sun's disk can be read off directly, thus avoiding the long computa-
tions ordinarily required in such work, has been tested and perfected and
is now in regular use. It proves to be capable of giving results of high
precision, and saves the services of several computers. Further studies
of spectroheHograph plates have been made with the aid of the stereo-
comparator. These studies have led to some conclusions regarding the
comparative level of the calcium and hydrogen flocculi which are described
elsewhere in this report.

Excellent photographs of sun-spot spectra have been obtained with the
aid of the Littrow spectrograph, and these have served, in connection
with our laboratory studies, in the investigation of the cause of the char-
acteristic phenomena of spot spectra. The same instrument has been
used by Mr. Adams in a spectrographic investigation of the solar rotation,
which has already yielded excellent results.

The work of our spectroscopic laboratory, of which Mr. Gale has been
placed in charge, has proved to be of the greatest value in the interpreta-
tion of our solar observations. The need developed in our sun-spot
investigations for a 50 K. W. electric furnace has made it necessary to fit
up such a furnace, as well as a simple but powerful Littrow spectrograph,
in our Pasadena building, because our present power plant on Mount
Wilson is not capable of giving so large a current.

A word should be said as to our further tests of the atmospheric con-
ditions on Mount Wilson. The experience derived in three successive
seasons has left no doubt of the remarkably high quality of the definition,
both for solar and stellar investigations. During the rainy season, as
might be anticipated, the definition on the clear days is similar to that
experienced under like conditions in the eastern part of the United
States. Soon after the close of the rainy season, however, when the
weather has settled down to that condition of serenity which is so char-
acteristic of California summers, the average definition is remarkably
high. The purity of the sky and the perfect calm of many of the nights
promise much for the performance of the 60-inch and lOO-inch reflectors.

The Solar Observatory is glad to take part in the work of the Inter-
national Union for Cooperation in Solar Research, which was definitely

ASTRONOMY — HAI^E. 65

organized last summer at Oxford. A plan of cooperation in work with the
spectroheliograph has been perfected, involving the use of instruments in
India, Sicily, Germany, France, Spain, England, Mexico, and the United
States. The wide distribution of these spectroheliographs in longitude
will permit the sun to be kept almost constantly under observation, so
that the record of the state of the calcium flocculi will be sufficiently con-
tinuous for most purposes. The location of the Solar Observatory, be-
cause of its atmospheric advantages and its western longitude, and also
because of its powerful instrumental equipment, should enable it to con-
tribute in an important way to this international undertaking. The
Observatory will also be able to assist in the observation of sun-spot
spectra, and probably in other particulars.

The acceptance by the late Secretary Langley of an invitation to con-
tinue on Mount Wilson the work inaugurated by the Smithsonian Institu-
tion in the spring of 1905 has resulted most successfully. The coopera-
tion we have thus been able to promote is proving advantageous to both
the institutions concerned, especially on account of the close relationship
between the Smithsonian studies of the solar constant and our own
investigations of other solar phenomena. The investigations of Prof.
E. F. Nichols on Mount Wilson, and the coming visit of Mr. John Ever-
shed, lately appointed assistant director of the Kodiakanal Solar Observa-
tory in India, afiford other instances of work which the Solar Observatory
hopes to continue and extend in the future. At this point I also wish to
speak of the visit of Messrs. Smith and McGrath, of the United States
Coast and Geodetic Survey, which is described more fully below. We
are heartily indebted to Superintendent Tittmann and the gentlemen
named for their cooperation in determining the astronomical latitude and
longitude of the Solar Observatory.

STAFF.
At the opening of the year, Messrs. W. S. Adams and F. Ellerman were
engaged in observational work with the Snow telescope. In February
Dr. Henry G. Gale arrived from the University of Chicago, where he held
the position of Instructor in Physics at the Ryerson Physical Laboratory.
Dr. Gale was placed in charge of the work of our spectroscopic labora-
tory, in which he has recently been assisted by Dr. Charles M. Olmsted,
who joined the Observatory stafif, on temporary appointment, in August.
Mr. Francis G. Pease has also assisted in some of the experimental work
with the electric furnace in the Pasadena laboratory. Dr. H. K. Palmer,
of the Lick Observatory, joined our staff in May, and has been engaged in
bolographic investigations with the Snow telescope. He has also assisted
Mr. Ellerman in the routine work with the spectroheliograph. On July i
Mr. Adams left Mount Wilson to take charge of the computing division

66 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

in Pasadena. Miss Louise Ware was appointed a computer on July i,
and Miss Ruth E. Smith joined the computing division in August. Pro-
fessor G. W. Ritchey has been in charge of all of the principal work of
construction during the year.

Dr. E. F. Nichols, Professor of Experimental Physics in Columbia Uni-
versity, was engaged in special investigations on IMount Wilson during
the summer.

The Smithsonian Expedition, which began its investigations on Mount
Wilson in the spring of 1905, has continued its work this year, under the
charge of Mr. Charles G. Abbot, Acting Director of the Smithsonian
Astrophysical Observatory. Mr. Abbot has been assisted by Mr. Leonard
R. Ingersoll, of the University of Wisconsin.

The astronomical latitude and longitude of the Solar Observatory were
determined by Messrs. Edwin Smith and John E. McGrath, assistants of
the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, in December and January.

INVESTIGATIONS IN PROGRESS.

The program of investigations undertaken last year, with the instru-
ments then available, has been continued and extended. It now com-
prises: (i) Daily photography of the sun with the photoheliograph ; (2)
daily photography of the sun with the spectroheliograph ; (3) photog-
raphy of the spectra of sun-spots ; (4) photography of the spectra of the
flocculi, for determination of radial velocity; (5) spectrographic investiga-
tions of the solar rotation ; (6) holographic investigations of the solar
absorption ; (7) certain special studies of stellar spectra, with a grating
and prism spectrograph of high dispersion; (8) laboratory investigations;
(9) studies of the correlation of solar and magnetic phenomena, made
with the aid of a recording variometer.

The Snow telescope has continued to give excellent results, though the
rapid deterioration of the mirror surfaces when constantly exposed to sun-
light requires that they be resilvered very frequently. When the mirrors
are even slightly tarnished, the change in focal length, during exposure
to the sun, is rapid. For this reason they are kept covered except when
the actual observations with the spectroheliograph, or with other instru-
ments, are in progress, and between exposures a strong draft of air is
blown upon them by electric fans. The use of an arc lamp, for setting the
slit of the spectroheliograph on the H line, materially reduces the time of
exposure of the mirrors to sunlight in this work. Experiments made in
the Pasadena laboratory have shown that the form of a mirror, after dis-
tortion produced by heating the front surface with an electric heater,
placed about a foot in front of the mirror, can be restored by heating the
rear surface with a similar electric heater. The figure of the mirror when
restored in this way is not perfect, but the advantages of the method have

ASTRONOMY — HALE.

^7

seemed sufficient to warrant the construction of electric heating coils,
which will be mounted behind the three mirrors of the Snow telescope. It
is obvious that the manipulation of such a device will not be easy, and it
has not seemed wise to attempt to use it during the fine summer weather,
since the necessary experiments might affect seriously the routine obser-
vations. The difficulties which are experienced from changes of focal
length do not interfere appreciably with work on spot spectra, the solar
rotation, or holographic investigations. Even in spectroheliographic
work, which is much more exacting, the difficulty is reduced to a mini-
mum by shortening the exposure time as much as possible.

The important results achieved by Dr. A. L. Day, in the manufacture
of fused quartz, are reported by him elsewhere. It seems probable that if
suitable graphite slabs can be obtained, the manufacture of fused quartz
disks for telescope mirrors will become feasible. The question at present
is whether sufficiently homogeneous graphite can be secured.

As it has been proven in our tests that the distortion of a mirror in
sunlight is due to an actual bending of the disk, the front surface becom-
ing convex and the rear surface concave, the idea of employing very thick
mirrors has naturally suggested itself. Accordingly, the mirrors of the
coelostat to be constructed for the new "tower telescope," though only i6
inches in diameter, will be made of glass 12 inches thick. It is hoped
that the resistance to bending of such thick disks will materially reduce
the difficulty.

Our experiments with speculum metal have indicated, as suggested in
the last annual report, that its distortion when exposed to sunlight is
somewhat less than in the case of glass. However, the low coefficient of
reflection of speculum metal is a serious objection to its use in an instru-
ment like the Snow telescope.

Direct Photography of the Sun.

Daily photographs of the sun, on a scale of (i.y inches to the diameter,
are taken by Mr. Ellerman with the Snow telescope. These plates are
used mainly for the purpose of comparison with spectroheliograph plates,
in studies of the spots and faculse. On account of the great pressure of
work with the Snow telescope, it is hoped that the direct photographs
may ultimately be made with another instrument, such as the tower tele-
scope.

Work with the Spectroheliograph.

The 5-foot spectroheliograph, mentioned in the last annual report, was
erected in the Snow telescope house in October, 1905. A general descrip-
tion of this instrument has been pubHshed in Contribution No. 7 of the
Solar Observatory, and a more detailed account, with scale drawings, will

68 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

appear later. In all respects this instrument has proved thoroughly satis-
factory, and reflects much credit on the w^ork of our Pasadena instrument
shop. The large aperture of the collimating and camera lenses gives per-
fect illumination at the hmb of the sun, thus obviating a difficulty encoun-
tered in our previous work with the Rumford spectroheliograph.

The driving mechanism, mercury flotation, methods of adjustment and
of setting on the spectral lines, and all other features of the design have
proved so satisfactory that no changes in the instrument have been
required. After a series of experiments, with from one to four prisms, we
finally decided to adopt two prisms for the daily work of the instrument,
since it was found that they would give admirable results with the lines
of calcium, hydrogen, and iron. The necessity of devoting this instru-
ment to routine work, and the heavy demands placed upon it by the
morning and afternoon program of observations, will prevent it from
being used for experimental purposes. However, this necessity was
foreseen ; in fact, it was hardly supposed that the 5-foot spectroheliograph
would serve so admirably for the routine work with hydrogen and iron
lines.

A spectroheliograph of 8 inches aperture and 30 feet focal length was
designed for experimental work on limited regions of the solar surface,
with dark lines too narrow for use with the 5-foot spectroheliograph. The
construction of this instrument has been indefinitely delayed, through
the difficulty of making large prisms of sufficient homogeneity. Of three
prisms ordered from the Carl Zeiss Company in February, 1905, only one
has been delivered, and this proved entirely unsuitable. Indeed, it seems
possible that sufficiently homogeneous glass can not be obtained for the
purpose. For this reason an experiment was tried by Brashear in build-
ing up a prism of horizontal slabs of glass, carefully selected from tele-
scope disks of the same melting and free, because of their small thick-
ness (about one inch), from the difficulties of annealing encountered in
large prisms. The resulting prism was much more successful than the
single solid prism made by the Zeiss Company. Indeed, its resolving
power was sufficient for the purposes of the spectroheliograph, but the
amount of light scattered vertically, of no consequence in most classes
of investigation, was sufficient to prevent it from meeting the extreme
demands in this particular of the spectroheliographic work. It is ac-
cordingly being used, with excellent results, in our holographic studies.
I have now decided, in view of the difficulties encountered with solid
glass prisms, to try some experiments with fluid prisms, in the hope that
means will thus be found of completing the 30-foot spectroheliograph.

My studies of the spectroheliograph plates, other than those made with
the globe-measuring machine (described in the work of the computing

GO-INCH iviii;r?oR turned down for testing

INTERIOR OF SPECTROSCOPIC LABORATOKY.

ASTRONOMY — HALK. 69

division), have related especially to a comparison of hydrogen and calcium
flocculi, and an examination of stereoscopic solar images. The Zeiss
stereocomparator has proved of the greatest value in this work.

Stereoscopic comparisons of two calcium photographs, made at intervals
of from one to ten hours, show the spherical surface of the sun in
relief, and are likely to prove of considerable service in our future work.
With the monocular micrometer of the stereocomparator, a comparison
of hydrogen and calcium photographs of the same date has shown a
relative displacement of the hydrogen flocculi towards the sun's limb,
presumably due to their greater height above the photosphere. This
result confirms my previous views, based upon other reasoning, as to
the level of the hydrogen flocculi. A further confirmation of these views
has been afforded by a study of the spectrum of the dark calcium floc-
culi, which are occasionally found at points on the solar surface occupied
by unusually dark hydrogen flocculi. It had previously been assumed
that these dark hydrogen flocculi were at a height above the photo-
sphere corresponding to the dark H3 and Kg lines ; in other words, in the
upper and cooler region of the chromosphere. It is now found that the
H3 and Kg lines are much strengthened and widened in these peculiar
dark flocculi, and are also accompanied by a marked strengthening of
the hydrogen lines. They are thus high-level phenomena and generally
occur, in all probability, above the region of the bright Hg and K2 flocculi.
Indeed, they sometimes appear, in the photographs, to overlie these
bright flocculi. It is a noteworthy fact that most of these singular dark
calcium flocculi are long and narrow in form ; the meaning of this is not
yet apparent.

I have devoted much time and attention to a consideration of the best
methods of measuring and interpreting spectroheliograph plates, with
results which will be published soon. The globe-measuring machine
seems to satisfy all requirements for the determination of heliographic
positions; for the comparison (when used as a stereocomparator) of
photographs of the same and different dates ; and for other related pur-
poses. I am now engaged in perfecting a method of securing a measure
of the solar activity in regions 10 degrees square upon the solar surface,
as defined by the area and brightness of the calcium flocculi. It is
obvious that some method of determining the solar activity of a given
date, which shall be more satisfactory than that afforded by the total
area of sun-spots, is greatly needed. The spots are so small that, even
at times of maxima, the determination of their total area may involve a
considerable percentage of error. Moreover, at sun-spot minima, they
are sometimes absent from the disk for months together. The flocculi,
however, are always present, in greater or lesser degree, upon the solar

yO REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

surface, and their total area is so great that the percentage error in
determining it should be less than in the case of sun-spots, in spite of the
fact that their boundaries are less sharply defined. I believe, however,
that the brightness of the flocculi, which varies greatly in different cases,
should be taken into account, as well as their area. For this reason I
have devised a photometric method of determining the total area and
brightness of the flocculi, in regions lo degrees square, and trust it will
prove suitable for routine investigations.

Spectra of Sun-spots.

In my last annual report, reference was made to the fact that photo-
graphs showing widened lines in the spectra of sun-spots had been
obtained, and that steps would be taken to interpret these phenomena
through experiments in the laboratory. The investigation which has
grown out of this work has been alluded to in the introduction to the
present report. The photographs of the spectra of sun-spots, made by
Mr. Adams and Mr. Ellerman, after the Littrow spectrograph of the
Snow telescope had been given its permanent form, proved so satisfactory
that they have served as the basis of our studies. It should be remem-
bered that the principal phenomena of spot spectra comprise: (i) Fraun-
hofer lines of the same intensity as those of the solar spectrum; (2)
lines that are widened or strengthened; (3) lines that are weakened or
replaced by bright lines. The photographs successfully register not only
the more conspicuous lines of these types, but also the multitude of fine
lines into which the spot spectrum was visually resolved by Professor
Young many years ago. In my photographic work on spot spectra at
the Yerkes Observatory, which was done wdth the assistance of Mr.
Ellerman, a few of the more conspicuous of these fine lines were recorded,
but the scale of the spectrum was so small that their identity could not
be determined with any certainty. The present photographs have a scale
five times as great, with the result that thousands of the fine lines appear
upon the plates, where their positions can be measured with precision.
Measurements of these lines, by Mr. Adams, have shown that most of
them are identical in position with the extremely faint lines recorded by
Rowland in the solar spectrum. In other words, this feature of the spot
spectrum is produced by a marked strengthening of the absorption of the
solar atmosphere. However, the conclusion drawn by Duner, from his
visual observations, "that there is no fundamental difference between the
general solar spectrum and that of the spots," is by no means warranted,
for the intensities of the lines which are strengthened are not increased,
in all cases, in the same proportion ; on the contrary, the changes show
the widest variations, some lines being unaffected, some enormously
increased in intensity, and others greath'- enfeebled.

ASTRONOMY — HALS. 71

The identification of the faint lines in the spot spectrum, although it
cleared up the uncertainty as to their origin, by no means solved the
problem regarding the cause of the characteristic spectral phenomena of
spots. It seemed evident that extensive laboratory investigations might
be needed for this purpose. The question was, however, to find some
logical basis for a plan of attack. I have long been impressed with
the following characteristic features of spot spectra: (i) The diverse
behavior of different lines of the same element; (2) the fact that all of
the strengthened lines lie in the visible spectrum, and that the most
conspicuous of them are in the red, yellow, and green ; and (3) the rela-
tively great intensity in the less refrangible region of the general back-
ground of the spot spectrum. In considering these peculiarities, I could
not fail to recall: (i) That in the spectra of the elements some lines
increase in intensity, while others decrease, when the temperature falls;
(2) that in spectra observed at low temperatures, the most prominent
lines are likely to appear in the less refrangible region ; and (3) that in
a continuous spectrum (as well as in a spectrum of bright lines) a reduc-
tion in temperature involves a shift of the maximum toward the red.
The similarity of these two groups of facts led to the belief that the most
characteristic phenomena could in all probability be accounted for on
the hypothesis that the temperature of the vapors within the spot is
below that of the corresponding vapors within the sun's reversing layer.
It was on this basis that the laboratory investigations, described on
another page of this report, were undertaken.

The results so far obtained in our study of spot spectra, while strongly
confirmatory of the hypothesis outlined above, of course constitute only
the first steps in the extended researches required to test it in a com-
plete manner. The use of an electric furnace, for the vaporization of
metals in a carbon tube, where no electrical phenomena, other than those
which result in the production of heat, can influence their radiation, is a
most important element in the general investigation. This work, which
is now in progress, will include all of the characteristic sun-spot metals
that can be volatilized in the furnace. The solar side of the investigation
will involve photographic and visual studies of spot spectra, carried on
through a period of several years. Further stellar spectroscopic investi-
gations must be delayed until the completion of the 60-inch reflector, as
the Snow telescope is not well adapted for this phase of the work.

It must not be supposed that our hypothesis is intended to account for
all of the phenomena of spot spectra. The bright lines occasionally
observed are probably due to the overlying reversing layer, or to the
chromosphere, especially in cases where eruptive action is concerned.
The hypothesis will serve a useful purpose if it provides a basis for the

72 REPORTS ON INVKSTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

interpretation of the principal phenomena of strengthened and weakened
lines, at the same time permitting an estimate of the approximate temper-
ature of the vapors within the spot. Our work also appears to throw
light on the much discussed question of the "enhanced" lines, favoring, as
it does, the view that temperature alone is sufficient, in most cases, to
account for these lines, though by no means precluding the view that high
electrical potential, or sudden change of potential, may be capable of pro-
ducing similar effects. Special attention will be given to these latter
questions in our laboratory investigations.

Radial Motion of the Calcium Vapor in the Floccuei.

In connection with the study of the spectra of sun-spots, the work of
Mr. Adams on the wave-length of the H and K lines in the flocculi, and
the motion of the calcium vapor in the sun,* is of great importance. As
the spectroheliograph so clearly shows, sun-spots are surrounded by ex-
tensive flocculi, consisting of cloudlike masses of calcium vapor, which
sometimes overhang the smaller spots, so as to hide them completely.
These calcium clouds rise from the faculse, and they are presumably the
effects of convection currents proceeding outward from the interior
of the sun. It is evident that the radial motion of the vapor should
be measurable from the displacements of the H, and K, lines, which
correspond to the lower and intermediate regions of the chromosphere,
and those of the H3 and K3 lines, which are produced by the absorption
of the cooler vapor at a somewhat higher level. Mr. Adams's investiga-
tion began with a redetermination of the wave-lengths of the H and K
lines in the electric arc, since the available determinations were not in
sufficiently close agreement to promise the necessary accuracy. The
large scale of the photographs, which were made with the Littrow spec-
trograph, permitted them to be measured with high precision, and the
resulting wave-lengths of the H and K Hues are probably very close to
the truth. Using the arc lines as standards, Mr. Adams determined the
wave-lengths of the Hj and K2 lines, and those of the H3 and K3 Hues,
at various points on the solar surface, and also (for the latter lines) over
sun-spots. The average displacement of H3 and K3, which amounted to
0.006 tenth-meter toward the violet, corresponds to a velocity of approach
of the calcium vapor amounting to 0.41 kilometer per second. The vary-
ing displacements obtained at different times, however, indicate that gen-
eral conclusions should be based only on a very extensive investigation.
The results given by the bright lines H, and K. also show a displacement
toward the violet, so that it is probable that the calcium vapor in the
flocculi may be regarded as moving upward. This would accord with
the conclusions as to the nature of these objects based upon work with

* Contributions from the Solar Observatory, No. 6.

ASTRONOMY — HALS. 73

the spectroheliograph. As already stated, however, much more work
along these lines must be undertaken, and special apparatus has accord-
ingly been prepared for this purpose.

Spectrographic Investigations of the Solar Rotation.
The exceptional opportunity for a photographic investigation of the
rotation of the sun afforded by the Snow telescope has been recognized
from the outset, since the two essentials for securing results of the
highest precision, namely, powerful spectroscopic apparatus and a large
image of the sun, are both available. After some consideration it seemed
desirable to employ an apparatus of the type first used by Langley for
bringing the opposite edges of the sun side by side on the slit of the
spectrograph, and in the spring of this year an attachment of this kind
for the large Littrow spectrograph was completed.

A number of plates have been secured with this instrument, by Mr.
Adams, and it has proved most satisfactory in its working. The excel-
lent quality of the grating hitherto employed (the Kenwood 4-inch) has
made it possible to use the fourth order of the spectrum, and so to obtain
the benefit of great linear scale and resolving power without impairment
of definition. Considerable attention has been given to methods for de-
riving heliocentric coordinates, and also to the question of the elimination
of errors arising from change of focal length of the telescope during a
series of exposures.

Preliminary measures made by Mr. Adams, on a few plates, indicate
that the probable error for a single line is slightly less than that obtained
by Halm for his series of visual observations. The possibility of com-
bining the results for a considerable number of lines should, accordingly,
result in a decided gain in the degree of accuracy. The measures so far
made also suggest some interesting differences in the values given by
the lines of different elements, but the work is as yet not sufficiently
advanced to speak with certainty on this point.

BoLOGRAPHic Investigations.
Bolographic observations with the Snow telescope were first made by
Mr. C. G. Abbot in the summer of 1905. The pressure of the work in
his observational program, however, prevented him from giving much
time to these experiments, and I accordingly planned to continue them m
connection with our solar investigations. We are indebted to Mr. Abbot,
not only for much valuable advice as to the arrangement and use of the
bolographic apparatus, but also for the loan of instruments without which
the work could not have been undertaken this summer. The daily pro-
gram of observations, which has been carried out by Mr. Palmer, has

74 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

comprised holographic records of the radiation from various parts of the
solar disk, together with special studies of the radiation of sun-spots and
faculae. In the w^ork on the solar absorption, the prism is set so as to
bring a given wave-length upon the bolometer strip, and the solar image
is then allowed to move across the slit of the spectroscope, while the
photographic plate upon which the galvanometer deflection is recorded
is caused to move downward at a uniform rate. Since the height of
the slit is only 3 mm., the record thus obtained is a measure, for all points
along a solar diameter, of the radiation corresponding to the wave-length
employed. On account of the well-known fact that the absorption of the
solar atmosphere varies for different wave-lengths, the corresponding
curves are of different forms. Their reduction, by a method previously
employed by Mr. Abbot, gives a measure of the solar absorption. His
previous investigations have led him to the belief that the solar absorption
may show variations corresponding with the variations he has detected
in the value of the solar constant. For this reason it will probably be
advisable to continue routine observations of the character described, so
that the results may be compared with his contemporaneous measures of
the solar constant.

The constant temperature room in the Snow telescope house, pre-
viously used for the large stellar spectrograph employed for long ex-
posures, has served admirably for the holographic work. The triangular
pier is large enough to carry all parts of the apparatus, for which it fur-
nishes a most suitable support.

The holographic studies of sun-spots made by Mr. Palmer, with the
advice and cooperation of Mr. Abbot, have confirmed the result obtained
by Mr. Abbot last year, namely, that the radiation of sun-spots falls off
much more rapidly in the more refrangible region than does that of the
photosphere. In other words, sun-spots emit a relatively large propor-
tion of the less refrangible rays. It is extremely probable that this will
serve to account, in whole or in part, for the fact that the total radiation
of a sun-spot falls off less rapidly than that of the neighboring photo-
sphere as the spot is carried toward the limb by the sun's rotation. It
will be remembered that this phenomenon was the source of much dis-
cussion several years ago, and led many to the belief that sun-spots lie
at a sufficient height above the photosphere to escape a considerable part
of the general absorption. An explanation based upon the different
quality of spot and photosphere radiation seems more plausible, and is
capable of a rigorous test. It will only be necessary to employ mono-
chromatic light in measurements of the comparative radiation of spot
and photosphere at different distances from the limb. It is hoped that
these experiments may be tried, with the aid of the Snow telescope,

ASTRONOMY — llAht. '5

within the near future. The work commenced on the radiation of the
7acul^, which are found to give large deflections when near the suns
limb, will also be continued and extended.

STELLAR SpECTROSCOPV.

The investigations undertaken last year, in collaboration with Mn
Adams wth ^he object of ascertaining whether very h,gh d.spers on
tuWbe^uccessfully used in photographing the spectra of br.ght stars,
have been ontnued with satisfactory results. It has been found as
win That there should be no serious difficulty in photographmg
S th t *ch efl t:' the spectra of several of the briglrtest stars on
Tscale qual to that employed by Rowland in his work on the solar spec-
rum Such spectra, if obtained of the desired sharpness. ^1'-" prov of
the^reatest service in our study of stellar evolution, smce all of the prm
laf stellar types, with a single exception, are represented among the
bright sta which are likely to fall within the range of this mvesuga-
tion The work with the Snow telescope has consisted mau.ly of a con -
parative study of the relative merits of gratings and pr.sn or t
Lrk with the advantages decidedly in favor of prisms. It ="'' ■•»;«•"
uncertain whether prisms of sufficiently large d.naensions, and o he
neces ary homogeneitv, can be obtained, but we have hopes that the
difficult es expeifenced in the case of our 30-foot spectroheUograph may
u" y be over ome.. The spectra of Arcturus. photographed with the
Xs Ld prisms have P-ed usefuUn a s^^<iy of t e su^^spot Jines

irs;:nrs'::g: io:: LT.-SworktTheUu^m oi « oHoms

which showed that the lines which are about equally prominent in the
Tprr;" Us and in that of A^rus are^ —^^^^^^

=tlV"vrcnbtl:d"r:rea2r ^ of - stars

wTth theT-inch Yerkes telescope, is strongly confirmatory of the view
rhtth: absorbing atmospheres of these stars are lower - tem^er'u e
than that of the sun. leading to the inference that they ^« J" ""

* See page 68.

] Contributions from the Solar Observatory, No. 12.

76 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

IvABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS.

A brief description of the spectroscopic laboratory, constructed last
summer on Mount Wilson, was given in the last annual report. A more
complete account may be found in Contributions from the Solar Observa-
tory, No. lo. The arrangement of the various light sources on an annular
pier, in such a way that the image of any one of them can be brought
upon the slit of the spectroscope, by setting a mirror at the center of the
pier at the proper angle, has proved very convenient in practice. The
study of spectra, which was begun by Mr. Gale immediately after he
joined our staff last spring, has necessarily involved a comparison of a
great number of light sources. As already explained, the hypothesis
which served as a guide in our attempt to account for the strengthened
lines and other phenomena of spot spectra assumes that their tempera-
ture is the principal variable concerned. As no electric furnace was
then available, the work was begun with the aid of the ingenious form of
synchronous arc used by Professor Crew, which permits the spectrum
of a low voltage alternating discharge to be photographed at any desired
phase from o to 90 degrees. The changes in the spectra recorded at de-
creasing phase angles correspond to those produced by decreasing tem-
peratures, so that the device affords a simple means of testing the effect
of temperature variations. The exposures corresponding to small phase
angles are necessarily very long with this apparatus, and it therefore
occurred to Mr. Gale that a reduction of the current in an ordinary
carbon arc might accomplish the same purpose, and give brighter spectra.
A comparison of the results given by a 30-ampere and a 2-ampere arc
justified this view, and served as the most practical means at our dis-
posal of producing a comparatively low temperature in the case of such
metals as titanium and vanadium. The results obtained, and their bear-
ing upon the spectra of sun-spots, have already been mentioned. The
important fact was also discovered that those lines which are "enhanced"
in the electric spark are very appreciably weakened in passing from the
30-ampere to the 2-ampere arc. The importance of this fact arises from
the diverse opinions which have been expressed regarding the cause of
the enhanced lines, and their production under different conditions.
Special investigations of this subject have led many spectroscopists to
believe that other variables may be quite as important as temperature
in their effect upon the intensity of the enhanced lines. Crew, for ex-
ample, has expressed the opinion that the essential cause of the produc-
tion of enhanced lines in arc spectra is a rapidly changing electromotive
force. Hartmann, on the other hand, in his work on the arc in water,
ascribed enhanced lines observed under these conditions to the effect of
hydrogen gas produced by the decomposition of the water. It accord-

ASTRONOMY — HALE. 'J'J

ingly became of great interest to determine whether the observed changes
in spectra could be accounted for by variations in temperature alone, as
distinguished from the direct effect of any electrical or other conditions.
Mr. Gale found the results of the work with the short arc to be entirely
confirmed, in a comparison of the cooler flame of the arc with the
core. Since that time all doubt has been set at rest, as regards the
sufficiency of an hypothesis based upon change of temperature, by ex-
periments made within an electric furnace, where the vapors are inclosed
in a carbon tube, the outer walls of which are heated by an electric arc.
In the case of iron, for example, the same lines that are strengthened in
the synchronous arc at low phase, in the 2-ampere arc, and in the flame,
are strengthened in the electric furnace under low temperature condi-
tions. This fact, of course, does not preclude the possibility that other
causes, such as rapidly changing electromotive force, may operate in the
sun and stars, but it surely affords a firm basis for an hypothesis which
regards temperature as the most important variable.

Relationship Between Soi.ar and Magnetic Phenomena.

The investigations described above relate, for the most part, to the
study of the sun as a typical star. Of equal importance, however, is
the conception of the sun as the central body of the solar system, with
special reference to its effect upon terrestrial phenomena. The possible
variation of the intensity of the solar radiation, and its influence upon
climate, is the work to which the Smithsonian Institution is devoting
its attention. The measurement of the absorption of the sun's atmos-
phere, as related to any such variations of the solar radiation, is also
receiving attention in our holographic work v/ith the Snow telescope.
The variation in the solar activity, as recorded on the spectroheliograph
plates, may also prove to have an important bearing on this question of
the solar radiation. There stills remains to be considered the relation-
ship of the solar activity to terrestrial magnetism. In this department of
our vv'Ork we are fortunate in having the cooperation of Dr. L. A. Bauer,
Director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie
Institution of Washington.

In previous studies of the relationship between solar and magnetic
phenomena, the total area of the sun-spots has been taken as the index
of the solar activity. As already remarked, however, this total area may
not prove to be the most satisfactory index, in view of the comparatively
small size of the spot images and their absence from the disk during
long periods near the time of minimum. It seems probable that the
photographs of the calcium flocculi will furnish admirable data for the
purposes of this research, because of the great total area of the flocculi,
the fact that they are never altogether absent from the disk, and the

78 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

facilities such photographs offer for detecting eruptive phenomena. Ac-
cordingly, our studies of the total area and brightness of the flocculi are
being made with special reference to their comparison with the records of
magnetic phenomena.

In order to have at hand a means of at once detecting magnetic storms,
a special instrument, devised for this purpose, has been installed on
Mount Wilson, with the kind advice and cooperation of Dr. Bauer. This
recording variometer gives a continuous record of the magnetic varia-
tions; it is also provided with an alarm, which notifies us in case the
deflections become at all marked. We are thus enabled to take special
photographs of the sun at times when the disturbed state of the earth's
magnetism might lead to the supposition that active solar phenomena
could perhaps be detected with the spectroheliograph. The variometer
has been in regular use, in the charge of Mr. Ellerman, since last spring.
It promises to be a most effective part of our equipment.

Special Investigations.

Two special investigations were carried on by Professor Nichols dur-
ing the summer. The first of these was a study of the effect of the
ionization produced by X-rays on the absorption or radiation of a gas or
vapor. NOo, for example, absorbs X-rays strongly. When a continu-
ous source is observed through this gas, a very characteristic absorption
spectrum is produced. The question was to determine whether the
degree of the absorption, or its character, is in any wise altered when
X-rays are sent through the gas. The effect was studied both visually
and photographically. If any change takes place, it is small and can
only be determined from a more complete study of the photographs than
Professor Nichols has yet had an opportunity to make. This, and other
related investigations, will be continued by him, in the hope that light
will be thrown on the nature of the radiation processes that obtain in
solar prominences and in other celestial phenomena.

The second investigation dealt with the question whether the "Rest-
strahlen," obtained after repeated reflections from rock-salt surfaces,
reach us in any appreciable amount from the sun. By the aid of repeated
reflections on rock-salt surfaces, the rays of other wave-length were
eliminated from the sunlight, which was then focused upon the vane of
a very sensitive radiometer. The purity of the observed beam was tested
by transmission through a rock-salt screen, and by comparative tests of
the light of an electric arc. The very small deflections observed indicate
that if any light of this wave-length reaches us from the sun, its intensity
is inconsiderable. The exact quantitative results, however, can not be
given until the reductions now in progress are completed.

ASTRONOMY — UAht. 79

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE OF THE SOLAR OBSERVATORY.

The results obtained by Messrs. Smith and McGrath, of the Coast
Survey, for the astronomical latitude and longitude of the Solar Observa-
tory, may be found in Contribution No. 9. They may be briefly sum-
marized as follows :

The latitude observations, v.hich were made on three nights, gave a
weighted mean value of 34° 12' 55.07''' + 0.06". The reduction to sea
level, to take account of the curvature to the vertical, is 0.28", giving
34° 12' 54.79''' as the reduced latitude of the point of observation.

The difference of longitude between Los Angeles and Mount Wilson
was determined, with the aid of the new transit micrometer, on six nights.
The mean difference is -|- o™ 47.571^ + o.oo8^ From the known longi-
tude of the transit at Los Angeles, determined from the observations of
1892, the longitude of the transit at Mount Wilson comes out 7^^ 52""
14.130^^=118° 3' 31.95". ^Ir. Smith determined by local triangulation
the position of the Snow telescope pier, with reference to his observing
station, and thus obtained the following results :

Mount Wilson triangulation station : o t n

Latitude 34 12 59-72

Longitude 1 18 3 45-54

Snow telescope pier :

Latiti'.de 34 12 59.53

Longitude 118 3 34-89

These vahies, as compared with the geodetic position of the Mount
Wilson triangulation station on the United States standard datum, show
that the astronomical latitude is 26.50" less than the geodetic, and the
astronomical longitude is 5.63" greater than the geodetic. The deflection
in the meridian is thus one of the largest yet observed in the United
States.

SMITHSONIAN EXPEDITION.

The large number of determinations of the solar constant made by the
Smithsonian Expedition during the summers of 1905 and 1906 should
be sufficient to settle beyond any doubt the important question whether
this quantity is actually a constant, or undergoes such variations as the
previous work in Washington led Secretary Langley and Mr. Abbot to
suspect. The summer weather in Washington is usually unfavorable
for work of this kind, but the spring and autumn furnish a greater num-
ber of opportunities for simultaneous observations. The very close agree-
ment of the measures made on the same date at the two stations indicates
that the method of correcting for absorption in the earth's atmosphere is
thoroughly sound. I heartily agree with Mr. Abbot's view that the most

80 REPORTS ON INVEiSTIGATlOXS AND PROJECTS.

effective means of continuing this work would be through the establish-
ment of a mountain station in the southern hemisphere. In this way a
continuous series of observations could be carried through that part of
the year which corresponds to our rain)^ season. The joint work of three
stations — one at Washington, one at Mount Wilson, and one in the
southern hemisphere — would undoubtedly permit the solution of the most
important problem involved in the comparative study of solar and ter-
restrial phenomena.

In undertaking cooperative observations on the solar constant, the
International Union for Cooperation in Solar Research will doubtless
devote special attention to the methods which Mr. Abbot is employing.
It would seem essential, if pyrheliometric observations are to be freed
from the effects of atmospheric absorption, that the holographic method,
or some analogous plan, should be adopted. The new forms of p3^rheliom-
eter which Mr. Abbot has devised and tested should also receive most
careful consideration by all who are interested in this field of research.

COMPUTING DIVISION.

Much attention has been devoted to the question of the best organiza-
tion of the computing division. While there would be certain advantages
in having photographs measured and reduced on Mount Wilson, the dis-
advantage of quartering a large force of computers there seems to out-
weigh them. With the completion of the Mount Wilson road and the
rapid means of communication thus afforded, there should be no prac-
tical difficulty in carrying on this work at our Pasadena offices. This
agrees with the general principle, adopted at the outset, that the work
on Mount Wilson should be confined, so far as possible, to observations.

Accordingly, our Pasadena building was enlarged last spring by a
brick addition, adjoining on the east side the long hall used for optical
testing purposes. The addition is divided into a series of rooms, includ-
ing a library, an office for the superintendent of the computing division,
Mr. Adams, and six small rooms, each serving as an office for one com-
puter. Cases for the storage of photographs are placed in the hall into
which the offices open. The optical testing hall, which is entered by a
door from the computing quarters, serves admirably for the globe-measur-
ing machine, or "heliomicrometer," which is installed there. The use of
the hall for this purpose, and also for the Littrow spectrograph of i8
feet focal length, and the transformer and electric furnace employed with
it, does not interfere in the least with its employment for testing mirrors
of great focal length.

The equipment of the computing division now includes a Toepfer
measuring machine, capable of measuring spectra 6 inches long; a
Gaertner measuring machine, for spectra i8 inches long, or for the meas-

ASTRONOMY — HAI,E. 8l

urement of rectangular or polar coordinates on lo by 12 plates ; a small
Gaertner machine for stellar spectra; the heliomicrometer ; a Hartmann
microphotometer by Toepfer; a special instrument for measuring the
area and intensity of the flocculi ; and two calculating machines. On
Mount Wilson there is also a Zeiss stereocomparator, with monocular
micrometer attachment, and a small measuring machine.

Reference has already been made (p. 69) to various methods which
have been employed in the measurement and discussion of spectro-
heliograph plates. In the study of the solar rotation, as indicated by
the motion in longitude of the flocculi, the important requirement is a
means of measuring heliographic positions. Photographs taken at inter-
vals ranging from ten hours to two or three days are compared with the
stereocomparator, and those points in the flocculi which show the smallest
changes in form are marked for measurement on the successive plates.
The method for obtaining heliographic positions at present in use at
Greenwich and elsewhere involves the measurement of the polar coordi-
nates of the points in question, followed by a computation which neces-
sarily occupies considerable time. In routine work requiring the meas-
urement of from 50 to 75 points on each one of several thousand plates,
the employment of some method which would eliminate all computa-
tions is evidently most desirable. The globe-measuring machine, recently
named the "heliomicrometer," was accordingly devised for this purpose.
The form of this machine, briefly described and figured in the last annual
report, required the use of two 4-inch telescopes, each of 60 inches focal
length. One of these telescopes was directed toward the photograph of
the sun, placed at a distance of 60 feet. The other was directed toward
a globe, at approximately the same distance. By means of suitable re-
flectors the images of the globe and plate given by the two telescopes
were united in a single eyepiece. The flocculi were then seen upon the
surface of the globe, which was ruled with meridians and parallels one
degree apart. By setting the axis of the globe parallel to the axis of the
sun for the date of the photograph, the heliographic latitude and longi-
tude of any point on the photograph could be read off directly, by estimat-
ing its position with reference to the neighboring meridians and parallels.

A measuring machine of this form was constructed in our Pasadena
instrument shop. In experimenting with it, it occurred to me that it
would be far better if a cross-hair were set on the point to be measured,
before the image of the globe had been thrown into the field of view. In
this way settings could be made on the most delicate details of the photo-
graph, which would be lost to view when observed in projection on the
illuminated surface of the globe. The method still involved, however,
the undesirable element of estimating the position of the cross-hairs with

6 — YB

82 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

respect to the rulings on the globe. In order to render the method of
the highest precision, it was evident that the substitution of divided
circles for the ruled surface of the globe should prove most advantageous.
The adoption of this conclusion led to the reconstruction of the machine.
In its present form, the two telescopes of the heliomicrometer are
mounted immediately above the globe and photographic plate. Two
plane mirrors, placed at a distance of 30 feet, receive light from the plate
and from the illuminated surface of the globe, and reflect it to the two
telescopes. All motions of adjustment, for centering the plate on the
globe, setting the cross-hairs on the object to be measured, rotating the
globe, etc., can be effected by the observer from his seat at the eye-end
of the telescope. In the operation of measurement, the cross-hairs are first
set on the flocculus and the globe is then illuminated. The surface of
this globe is not ruled with meridians and parallels, but simply bears a
small circular dot at the intersection of the equator and the central merid-
ian. By rotating the globe in longitude and in latitude, this dot is made
to coincide with the intersection of the cross-hairs. It is then only neces-
sary to read off, on circles provided for the purpose, the latitude of the
flocculus and its dift'erence in longitude from the center of the sun. It
has been found by comparative tests that the operation of measurement
with the heliomicrometer requires no more time than with an ordinary
measuring machine giving polar coordinates. The resulting precision is
equally great, and all computations are avoided. The heliomicrometer
is easily transformed into a type of stereocomparator, for comparing two
plates, by mounting a second photograph of the sun in front of the globe,
and illuminating it from behind. In this way the flocculi on successive
plates are selected for measurement and marked by means of an electric
pen, controlled from the eye-end of the telescope. The instrument also
has other useful applications in connection with the reduction of solar
photographs.

Three computers are now employed under the direction of Mr. Adams.
The routine work comprises :

(i) Measurements of heliographic positions of flocculi with the helio-
micrometer, for the determination of the solar rotation and other pur-
poses.

(2) Measurements of the area and brightness of the flocculi in regions
10 degrees square on the solar surface, for the determination of the solar
activity and its variation with the sun-spot period.

(3) Studies of the lines affected in photographs of the spectra of sun-
spots.

(4) Studies of the changes in relative intensity of lines in spectra
obtained at high and low temperatures.

ASTRONOMY — HALS. 83

The Study of laboratory photographs, referred to in paragraph 4, has
been done for the most part by Mr. Adams. He has also given much
attention to the study of the sun-spot lines and the measurement of
photographs taken in connection with his spectrographic investigation
of the solar rotation.

CONSTRUCTION DIVISION.

The work of the construction division, under the superintendence of
Mr, Ritchey, has been confined, for the most part, to the design and
building of instruments and the work of widening the New Trail. A very
large amount of work has been accomplished, however, and the comple-
tion of the Mount Wilson road will permit the resumption of building
construction on Mount Wilson in the spring of 1907. The heavy expense
of transportation over the present trail has made it seem advisable to
postpone such work until the new road becomes available.

60-lNCH Reflector.

The work of polishing and figuring the 60-inch mirror, which was
undertaken in the autumn of 1905, has progressed almost to completion.
As the greatest precautions were necessary in order to avoid danger from
scratches, changes of figure due to temperature variation, etc., much time
was devoted at the outset to the perfection of the machinery and ap-
pliances of the optical shop. The room in which the large grinding
machine stands is provided with double windows, sealed so as to prevent
the admission of dust. On account of the considerable fall of tempera-
ture at night during the cooler months, an automatic heater was installed
for the purpose of maintaining the air in the room at practically constant
temperature. The air is filtered before it enters the room, the walls and
ceiling are shellacked, canvas is suspended above the grinding machine,
the floor is kept wet during the polishing, and various other precautions
are taken to reduce the danger of scratches. They have proved most
successful, and the perfect polish of the glass surface leaves nothing to be
desired. An important development of the year has been the perfection
of a method of parabolizing, by Mr. Ritchey, which completely eliminates
the necessity of any hand work. Thanks to this method, the paraboliz-
ing has already been pushed so far that the completion of the work will
require but a short time.

In order to obtain a thoroughly satisfactory test of the figure, Mr.
Ritchey decided to make a plane and a concave mirror, each 36 inches
in diameter. By means of the parallel rays obtained with the aid of
such a plane mirror, the final tests of the paraboloid will be made. A
grinding machine for this work was built during the year, and the two
mirrors are already well advanced. The convex mirrors for the 60-inch

84 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

reflector are being made with the 24-inch grinding machine. The plane
mirrors must be given an elliptical form, and a special machine for grind-
ing their edges in this form has been designed and constructed.

Other w^ork of the optical shop has included the completion of a mirror
of 24 inches aperture and 143 feet focal length for the Snow telescope,
and a 20-inch plane mirror for testing purposes. Small plane mirrors for
the heliomicrometer, and concave mirrors for use in the laboratory, have
also been made.

Except for the delay occasioned by the San Francisco earthquake, the
progress of the work on the mounting for the 60-inch reflector has been
very satisfactory. An erecting house, 70 by 20 feet, and 25 feet high,
was constructed in the spring on our grounds in Pasadena. In this was
installed an electric traveling crane, capable of carrying loads of 15 tons.
This crane has proved most efficient in operation, permitting the heavy
parts of the mounting to be handled with the greatest ease.

The mounting, as constructed by the Union Iron Works Company, and
delivered at our shop early in September, comprises the following parts :

Triangular base, 15 feet long and 9 feet wide at the widest part. This is divided

longitudinally into two parts, each of them weighing 3^/2 tons.
Upper bearing, or column, for polar axis, weighing about 4^4 tons.
Lower bearing for polar axis.

Hollow nickel steel polar axis, 15 feet long, weighing 4J/2 tons.
Hollow steel float, 10 feet in diameter, weighing 4 tons.
Mercury trough, bolted to upper bearing and carrying the mercury in which the moving

parts of the telescope are floated.
Cast-iron fork, weighing 5 tons, to be bolted to upper end of polar axis.
Worm-gear, 10 feet in diameter, weighing nearly 2 tons. The teeth of this worm-gear

will be cut by our own machinists.
Bevel-gear, 7J4 feet in diameter, weighing 1%. tons, fitting with the worm-gear on the

polar axis, and connected with electric motor for quick motion in right ascension.

The skeleton steel tube of the telescope is not yet completed by the
Union Iron Works Company. The work on the instrument to be done
in our own shop comprises the cutting of the worm-gear ; the construction
and fitting of the driving-clock (now nearly completed) ; the attachment
of electric motors for quick and slow motions; the construction of a
support system for the 60-inch mirror; supports for the small mirrors,
etc. The entire instrument will be completed and tested by actual obser-
vations in Pasadena before it is taken to Mount Wilson.

The electric truck, on which the parts of the mounting are to be carried
over the Mount Wilson road, is nearing completion at the shops of the
Couple-Gear Freight-Wheel Company in Grand Rapids, Michigan. This
truck, which was specially designed for the present work, will be capable
of carrying loads of 5 tons. It is fitted with steering gear at both ends,
and in other respects is adapted for the difficult work of transportation
over a steep and narrow road.

A OKrIOE AND ERECTING BUILDING.

LOWER PART OF COIViPLETED ROAD.

ASTRONOMY — HALS. 85

Other Construction.

Apart from the large amount of work done on the 60-inch mounting,
and the construction of the grinding and polishing machines for the
optical shop, the instrument shop has accomplished a great deal during
the year. The globe-measuring machine, after construction in its original
form, was completely remodeled, as already described. A large circular
dividing engine was also built and provided with a 36-inch circle by
Warner & Swasey, which is guaranteed to have no error greater than 2
seconds of arc. This engine will be used for dividing the fine circles of the
60-inch reflector. It has already been of service in dividing the circles of
the heliomicrometer, and for other purposes. The completion of the
5-foot spectroheliograph, and of the 18-foot Littrow spectrograph, used
with the Snow telescope, should also be mentioned. Electric heating
apparatus has also been made for the mirrors of the Snow telescope, and
a large amount of special apparatus for the spectroscopic laboratory on
Mount Wilson. The erecting house for the mounting of the 60-inch
reflector ; the wooden frame of the electric crane ; and the carpentry in
the rooms of the computing division, including the shelves and tables,
were the work of our men. A very large number of patterns have been
made in the pattern shop.

The small amount of construction done by our workmen on Mount
Wilson includes the addition of a wing to the Monastery and the erection
of a concrete storehouse, adjoining the spectroscopic laboratory. A large
amount of brush was cut on the mountain as a further safeguard against
forest fires.

Mount Wilson Road.

Through the kind cooperation of Director D. T. MacDougal, of the
Department of Botanical Research, it has been possible to entrust the
superintendence of the important work of widening the new trail to Mr.
Godfrey Sykes, who is acting under the general direction and with the
active cooperation of Mr. Ritchey. At present about 120 men are em-
ployed, working in three gangs. Every effort is being made to hasten the
work, so as to avoid the delays and serious expense which might result if
it were greatly prolonged after the opening of the rainy season. It now
appears probable that the only work which will remain uncompleted at
that time will be the rock-blasting on the sides of Mount Harvard. It
is hoped that the repairs to the road that will undoubtedly be neces-
sitated by the winter rains can be completed within a short time in the
early spring, so that the heavy program of construction on Mount Wilson
planned for the summer of 1907 can be carried out.

86 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

100-Inch Reflector.

In Contribution No. 13 I have outlined the difficulties that must be
overcome in the construction and use of a lOO-inch mirror. These include :

(i) The manufacture of a suitable glass disk. In view of their long
experience and full understanding of the requirements, it seems probable
that the St. Gobain Company will be able to make a satisfactory disk,
although the amount of glass to be cast in a single piece will weigh over
45^ tons.

(2) The production of a perfect paraboloidal figure. After his success-
ful work with the 60-inch reflector, Mr. Ritchey will undoubtedly be able
to accomplish this difficult task.

(3) The design and construction of a mounting capable of carrying the
mirror with the necessary accuracy. There seems no reason to doubt that
the experience gained from the use of the 60-inch reflector will render it
possible to design a satisfactory mounting which the Union Iron Works
Company will be able to construct in such a way as to meet all require-
ments.

(4) Serious changes of focal length, due to variations in the tempera-
ture of the mirrors. The fact that the night temperature on Mount Wil-
son is nearly constant after 9 p. m., during the best observing season, and
the possibility of maintaining the mirrors during the day at the average
night temperature by means of a refrigerating plant, seem to indicate that
no insuperable difficulties will arise from this cause.

(5) Imperfect seeing. Our tests of the definition at night on Mount
Wilson, made with the Snow telescope and smaller instruments, lead us
to believe that the occasions on which the full aperture of the mirror can
be used for the most exacting photographic work will not be very infre-
quent. The average conditions will undoubtedly permit the loo-inch
reflector to be used advantageously in the various classes of work in
which large light-gathering power, rather than the most perfect defini-
tion, is essential.

Campbell, W* "W*, lyick Observatory, Mount Hamilton, California. Grants
Nos. 231 and 342. (a) Pay of assistants to take part in researches at the
Lick Observatory and iji) measurement and reduction of photographic plates
of Eros, (For previous reports see Year Book No. 2, p. xix ; Year Book
No. 3, p. 86, and Year Book No. 4, pp. 82-83.) $7,000.

Report. — («) In the spectrographic determination of stellar velocities there
have been employed, as Carnegie Institution assistants, in the past year :

Dr. Joseph H. Moore, October i, 1905, to July i, 1906.
Mr. Keivin Burns, October i, 1905, to October i, 1906.
Dr. B. Iv. Newkirk, September i, 1906, to October i, 1906.

During ten months of work Dr. Moore secured 185 spectrograms with the
Mills spectrograph attached to the 36-inch refractor, made first measure-

ASTRONOMY — CAMPBEI,!/. 87

ments and reductions of 156 spectrograms, made definite measures and
reductions of 40 spectrograms, and prepared seven short papers for publi-
cation.

Mr. Burns secured 43 spectrograms with the Mills spectrograph, made first
measures and reductions of 100 spectrograms, and definitive measures and
reductions of 313 spectrograms. He also completed an extensive study of
the orbit of the spectroscopic binary I Andromedae, and his manuscript is
now in the printer's hands.

The one mouth of Dr. Newkirk's service has been devoted to the meas-
urement of planetary, lunar, and standard-star plates in order to train his
judgment in selecting suitable lines and to acquire fairly constant habits of
measurement.

Experience has demonstrated that this preliminary training can not be
neglected. In measuring ordinary and isolated stellar images we have a
simple problem in comparison with that of measuring spectral absorption
lines whose appearances differ for the various lines in the same star and for
the same lines in different stars. There is an embarrassing scarcity of well-
trained men and women available for service in this work. At no time has it
been possible to secure as many assistants as desired. Good progress has
been made, but relatively to the needs of the case it should be more rapid.

Mr. R. F. Sanford has been engaged since June 18, 1906, as assistant to
Professor Tucker in meridian-circle work. He has taken part in computa-
tions upon observations of a long list of latitude stars made for the use of
Prof. C. Iv. Doolittle, and after acquiring consistent habits of measurement
is assisting Professor Tucker in observing his carefully prepared program
of stars by fundamental methods.

(Jj) A grant of $3,000, made in December, 1904, was available for the meas-
urement and reduction of Eros photographs, secured by Dr. Perrine with
the Crossley reflector, for the purpose of improving our knowledge of the
sun's distance from the earth. Miss Fredrica Chase, formerly of Vassar
College, and Miss A. M. Hobe, formerly of the Students' Observatory,
University of California, have been engaged on this work since December i ,
1905, under the supervision of Dr. Perrine. Five hundred and twenty-five
photographs have been selected as suitable for the investigation. Of these,
487 have been measured definitively, and 38 remain to be measured as soon
as the comparison stars for them shall have been selected. Half the work
of taking differences, forming means, and checking for the plates measured
has been done. Extensive auxiliary tables to facilitate the final reductions
have been completed and are ready for use. The progress made has been
more rapid than was anticipated. The methods employed in this investi-
gation are designed primarily for a differential determination of the sun's
distance, based upon the Mount Hamilton observations alone ; but second-
arily, the measures obtained will be available for combining the Crossley obser-
vations with those made at other stations. Mr. A. R. Hinks, chief assistant

88 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

in the University Observatory, Cambridge, England, is planning to combine
them with the Cambridge observations. With that purpose in view, he is
supplying the lists of comparison stars, and is deducing their accurate
positions.

Newcomb, Simon, Washington, District of Columbia. Grant No. 233.
Investigation of the mean motion of the moon from observations from the
earliest historic times to the present, $2 , 500. Grant No. 321, To aid inves-
tigations ill matheynatical astronomy , statistical methods , and economic scietice ,
$5,000. (For previous reports see Year Book No. 2, p, xxi ; Year Book
No. 3, p. 90, and Year Book No. 4, pp. 83-84). $7, 500.

Professor Newcomb submits the following list of researches which he has
carried on with the aid of the above grants :

DiscussioJi of the Mean Motion and other Elements of the Moon from Eclipses
and Occiiltatio7is from the Earliest Babylonian Records to the Present Time. — So
far as can be determined at the moment, the computations for this work,
bringing it up to the end of 1904, are completed. The last stage, that of
the final discussion, will be entered upon as soon as practicable.

Investigatio7i of the Actioyi of the Planets o?i the Moon. — This work was under-
taken as a necessary adjunct of the preceding one, because definite conclu-
sions from observations can not be drawn until the question of the action of
the planets on the moon is settled. As the work was pursued, its ramifica-
tions became vastly more intricate than was anticipated, and the method of
pursuing it had to be frequently amended and improved. The number of
inequalities in the longitude which it is desirable to take account of was
found to be nearly 200. It was only in September that the work could be
brought into final shape, and it is now in the hands of the printer.

Discussions of Observatio7is op the Satellite op Ncpttine with a Determination
of the Mass of that Planet. — This work was commenced several years ago
with the aid of a grant from Miss Bruce. Not being urgent, it is only now
approaching completion. Its most important purpose is to determine whether
the motions of the planet Uranus indicate the action of any unknown body.

Investigatio?i of Terrestrial Temperatures to Determine whether they are
A^ected by Variations in the Su7i' s Radiation of Energy. — This work, like
some others, has proved much more laborious than was anticipated. The
heavy computations are, however, believed to be complete, and it only
awaits the final discussion of results. This I hope to enter upon at an
early date.

Besides these four works preparations have been made for another con-
siderable one, the construction of new tables of Mars. This work will require
several years for its completion, and will not be seriously undertaken until
the four works above mentioned are finished.

The Compendium of Spherical Astronomy mentioned in the last report
was published by the Messrs. Maemillan in May.

ASTRONOMY — RUSSELL. 89

Rttssell, Henry N», Princeton, New Jersey. Grant No. 207. Photographic
determinations of stellar parallaxes. (For previous report see Year Book
No. 3, pp. 92-93.) $1,000.

Abstract op Report. — Dr. Russell's work was interrupted by illness in the
autumn of 1904, and this and its attendant effects with other unavoidable
delays prevented him from continuing his work until the spring of 1906.
His researches are now in active progress, however, and the present state
of the work is as follows :

The color-screen (consisting of a patch of colored gelatin film upon a
plane-glass plate), which was used in photographing bright stars, became
useless in the spring of 1905, owing to the contraction of the gelatin, which
tore it loose from the glass. This unavoidable accident put an end to the
observations of 25 stars, as photographs taken with a new screen would not
be strictly comparable with the old ones. Of these stars, 5 had been
observed at three parallactic epochs, so that their parallaxes can be deduced
in the ordinary way. The photographs of 10 more, which were observed
at two epochs only, can be used to give approximate values of their parallax.
The remaining 10 stars, observed at one epoch only, are lost to the present
work. It may also be necessary to reject one or two others, for which
observations at the critical dates were prevented by persistent bad weather.

Excluding these stars, the total number of available plates obtained up
to the date of this report is 252, of 40 different fields. Of these, 226 have
either been measured by the writer or are now available for measurement.
The remaining 26 have been taken at Cambridge during the past winter by
the great kindness of Mr. A. R. Hinks, chief assistant at the Cambridge
Observatory, England, and will be forwarded to the writer after some 8 more
plates, which are still needed for the full completion of the work, have been
obtained ; 122 of these plates, belonging to 32 series, have been measured,
and all these have been completely reduced. Under the present circum-
stances it is hoped that the larger part of the remaining plates may be
measured during the present academic year.

Six series (for the stars Lalande 21 185, y Virginis, Lalande 25372, Berlin
B 5072 and 5073, o Ceti, and /5 Cassiopeiae) have been completed, and least-
square solutions made for the parallax. The results are in general highly
satisfactory, and show the photographic method to be one of the highest
accuracy.

The results for the first two stars were published in the Monthly Notices
of the Royal Astronomical Society for June, 1905. At the same time a
brief account of the methods used in the stellar parallax researches at Cam-
bridge was published jointly by Mr. Hinks and the writer.

This work, interrupted by many vicissitudes, has now, through the liber-
ality of the observatories at Cambridge and Princeton, every prospect of com-
pletion in as satisfactory manner as if no interruptions had occurred.

90 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND TROJECTS.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Eames, Wilbcrforce, Lenox lyibrary, New York, N. Y. Grant No. 343.

Completion of Sab hi' s " Dictionary of Books Relating to America,'" from.

Smith {^Henry H.) to Z. $3,600.

The research work required to prepare the proof for the printer was begun
on June 15, 1906, by Leonhard Felix Fuld, under the immediate adminis-
trative supervision of the grantee. The research work is being carried on
in the Lenox Library, Astor Library, Library of the New York Historical
Society, and Library of Columbia University in New York City, and every
endeavor is made to locate and personally inspect a copy of each book entered
in the Dictionary in one of these libraries. If no copy can be located in New
York City, recourse is had to correspondence with the Boston Public Library,
the Library of Harvard University, the Library of the Boston Athenaeum,
the Library of the American Antiquarian Society at Worcester, Mass. , the
Library of Congress, and other libraries whose collections are particularly
rich in Americana. No title is included in the Dictionary unless a copy has
been located in some library, and .such library is indicated by an appropriate
initial in the entry or unless the title is one which though obtained from a
reliable bibliographical authority can not be located in any library, in which
case the bibliography from which it is taken will be mentioned in a note.
The original plan of Sabin's Dictionary is being followed in all material
respects.

Weeks, F» B. (under direction of Dr. G. F. Becker), U. S. Geological Sur-
vey, Washington, D. C. Bibliography of geophysics. Grant No. 336.
(For previous reports see Year Book No. 3, p. 81, and Year Book
No. 4, p. 86.) $1,000.

Mr. Weeks reports that during the year 3,104 volumes have been
examined, and 11,737 author cards and 6,094 index cards have been
written.

Adding to the above the work previously completed gives —

Total uumber of volumes examined to date 4,090

Total number of author cards written 18,797

Total uumber of index cards written 7,871

The work of typewriting the cards necessarily has been somewhat behind

that of the examination of the literature. About 1,000 author cards are yet

to be written, and approximately one-third of the index cards have been

written. Below is tabulated the material by languages :

Volumes in English 1,586

Volumes in French 635

Volumes in German 1,381

Volumes in Scandinavian and Dutch 434

Miscellaneous 54

Total 4)090

BIBLIOGRAPHY — WEEKS, FLETCHER. 9I

Fuhirc Work. — The greater part of the Italian and Spanish literature is
yet to be examined. It is thought not desirable to include papers printed
only in Russian, Polish, Hungarian, and Japanese languages, as few persons
could make use of this material. To properly treat it would require the title
of each paper in the original language and a translation into English, French,
or German, which would add greatly to the amount of printed matter and
to the cost of the work. Abstracts of such papers printed in one of the
commonly used languages will be included. A considerable amount of
English literature also remains to be examined.

It is believed that the publication of this work will make 3,000 double-
column pages, making four volumes of approximately 750 pages each.

Fletcher, Robert, Army Medical Museum, Washington, District of Columbia.
Grant No. 322, Preparatio7i and publication of the Index Mcdiais. (For
previous reports see Year Book No. 2, p. 23 ; Year Book No. 3, p. 95,
and Year Book No. 4, p. 85.) $10,000.

The Index Medicus for 1905 was duly completed after the publication of
the report in the last Year Book. It formed a volume of 1,241 pages, the
annual index of authors and subjects occupying 208 pages in addition.
Besides the usual sources from announcements and examination of new books,
the unrivaled collection of current medical periodicals and transactions of
societies and congresses, medical and scientific, in the Eibrary of the Surgeon-
General's Ofl&ce, has been made available through the courtesy of the Surgeon-
General of the Army. The title of every original article in these publica-
tions appears under its proper subject-heading month by month in the Index
Medicus. Of the volume for 1906, the numbers to September, inclusive, have
been issued.

92 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

BIOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL.

DEPARTMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL EVOLUTION. COLD SPRING HARBOR.

NEW YORK.*

By Chari,es B. Davenport, Director.

Two years of work at the station have been accomplished and that for
the immediate future has been planned. It may now be advantageous to
consider in general fashion what are the present aims of work in experi-
mental evolution.

Man is philosophic. He looks for general principles and on the whole
he acts on general principles. So his general theory of the world is of im-
portance. It makes a real difference in his conduct whether he regards
the world events as cataclysmic or as ever continuous and lawful. Conse-
quently the work of Lyell in establishing the law of continuity in geology
and the work of Darwin in establishing that law in organisms have revo-
lutionized not only human thought but human action. This law of con-
tinuity, moreover, is necessarily applicable to human evolution. Neither
physically nor psychologically is there a sharp break in the animal series
where it culminates in man. Consequently the discovery of the laws of
organic evolution is, at the same time, a study of human evolution. Since
when we know the law we may control the process, the principles of evo-
lution will show the way to an improvement of the human race.

A knowledge of the principles of evolution is advantageous in still
another way. It shows how organisms may be best modified to meet our
requirements of beauty, food, materials, and power. The carnation can
be made not only crimson, but white, yellow, and blue ; it can be made
as large as a chrysanthemum or dwarfed. So the bantam fowl may be
made of a red color, or black, or white ; with a ruff or without ; with a long
tail or with no tail. Likewise the yield of wheat per acre may be doubled
and the northern limit of wheat cultivation pushed poleward many miles
each year. The egg yield of the hen may be raised from 150 to over 200
per year. The strength of cotton fiber may be improved and its length
increased. The hardiness of fruits may be changed so that subtropical
plants bear in temperate climates. The strength of the horse may be
increased as that of the Percheron exceeds that of the Norwegian pony.
In fact, by using the already known principles of evolution great practical
advances have been made in the past. We are consequently justified in
expecting that an extension of evolutionary principles will result in fur-
ther advances in the future.

* Report for the year ending September 30, 1906. Grant No. 307. $21,000 for investi-
gations and maintenance. (For previous reports see Year Book No. 3, pp. 23-32, and
Year Book No. 4, pp. 87-107.)

BIOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL — DAVENPORT. 93

While there can be no doubt of the practical importance of applying the
known laws of evolution it would seem to be unwise for this station to
devote its time to such work. There is no lack of practical workers.
There are 56 State agricultural experiment stations where they may be
found. Also the Federal Department of Agriculture maintains many
practical breeders in the bureaus of Animal Industry and Plant Industry.
Congress appropriates about $25,000 a year for the experimental gardens
of the Department of Agriculture and $20,000 for the Arlington Experi-
mental Farm. Finally there are thousands of plant and animal breeders
in this country who are applying with more or less intelligence the estab-
lished principles of the improvement of races. But all of these experiment
stations and the individual breeders are held closely to work yielding
immediate practical results. They apply known laws ; they have no time
or facilities for investigating in a calm and extended way those subjects
that shall best reveal new laws. The work even of our experiment sta-
tions stands at the plane where it has been put by the workers in pure
science. Their work in plant hybridization depends on the discovery of
the sexual nature of the floral organs made over a century ago by the
botanist Kolreuter and on the method and principles of crossing investi-
gated by the plant physiologist Knight. Mendel, working in his cloister
garden, was not concerned with making plants more beautiful or useful.
But he established a new principle which is of inestimable value to breed-
ers. He discovered the principle forty years ago ; but it was overlooked
by the practical breeder, and through thirty-five years of practical work
was never rediscovered by the thousands of breeders or the scores of
experiment stations. Now that attention has been directed to it it is
being constantly used by practical men to get useful results. Had Mendel
spent his time in improving some plant he would doubtless have suc-
ceeded, but he would have failed to discover his law. Mendel failed to
accomplish the commonplace, but succeeded in discovering the new guid-
ing principle.

So in the case of this Department. We could easily produce new and
valuable races. We could do all these things with certainty by the appli-
cation of well-known and constantly employed principles. But we prefer
to risk certain results for the uncertainty of attaining new principles. A
new theory may well be of much greater value than any improved race of
plants or animals. It may affect the whole live-stock business whose cash
value in America is very great. This commercial aspect is, however,
rarely to be thought of. We propose to leave the question of application
to others, bending our whole energy to our main work— the discovery of
general principles or laws.

Our first two summers were largely spent in preparation for our work.
Methods, many of them new, had to be perfected. Results are now com-

94 REPORTS ON INVEISTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

ing, but they must be tested repeatedly and many of them followed up
for several years before they are reported upon fully. It may be well to
consider in a general way the subjects we are investigating.

Inheritance of Characteristics. — One kind of organism differs from
another, and the newly evolved species differs from its progenitor, in one
or more characteristics. We have not reached the point where new char-
acteristics can be produced at will, but we can learn the laws of inherit-
ance of characteristics, and such knowledge will enable us to predict how
a new variation will behave when crossed with the parental species and to
classify variations according to their origin and behavior in heredity.

We find that when two varieties that differ in some characteristic are
crossed it frequently happens that one only of the two forms will reappear
in the offspring (viz, the dominant characteristic, of Mendel), and it will
be little modified by the presence, in that offspring, of the germ of the
opposite characteristic. This is in accordance with the theory that most
characteristics are, or may be resolved into, elementary units. Similarly,
when a variety that has some new feature not possessed by the ancestor
is crossed with that ancestor the offspring usually have the character fully
developed (dominant). If these offspring are crossed together the char-
acter is absent in a small proportion only, on the average one-quarter, of
their offspring. The consequence of this law is that a newly evolved
characteristic is not at once swamped by intercrossing, as has often been
assumed, but may even spread at the expense of the parental type. Thus
the new species is nurtured in its infancy.

Unit Characteristics. — The fact that in crossing varieties their dissimilar
characters do not blend is important, since it supports the theory that such
characters first appear as they now are, fully formed. It indicates that
since evolution has advanced by the addition of new characteristics it had
advanced by steps or jumps. A new species has not gradually arisen from
an old one, but suddenly, by mutation. Our breeding experience, conse-
quently, supports, in part, the mutation theory of de Vries. The practical
consequence of this theory is that it is more important to look for sports
or new combinations of characteristics than to work by selection.

On the other hand, it is becoming clear that unit characters are not
immutable ; for, in hybridizing, the dominant form often shows traces of
its antagonist ; and if the dominant form is repeatedly infected by con-
tinued hybridization it may become much changed.

R6/e of Selection. — Breeders attribute their success in improving races
chiefly to the selection, for breeding stock, of the best-appearing individ-
uals. Recently, a school has arisen which maintains that, within narrow
limits, selection is impotent. Our results are giving us an exact insight
into the truth of the matter and justify to a certain extent the breeder's
operations while offering a new explanation for them.

BIOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAI, — DAVEjNPGRT. 95

Origin of Nezv Characteristics. — This is the most important work in
hand. If by any means new, inheritable characteristics can be brought
out, then new races can be created. If characteristics can be induced of a
desired sort, then evolution can be directed at will. Some of the new
characteristics that we get are of the order of mutations and can not, at
present, be predicted nor controlled. Others result from hybridization.
Others still are induced by subjecting the parent to new conditions. As
is well known, in the abnormal environment new characteristics arise ; we
are studying the method of inheritance of such new characteristics. There
is reason for thinking that various agents ma}^ permanently modify the
germ plasm ; at least we are testing the matter.

Identity of Evolutionary Processes in Plants and Animals. — From its
inception we have studied equally plants and animals in the conviction
that evolutionary processes are similar in all organisms. Our experience
so far has justified our conviction. It has been stimulating, in our weekly
conferences, to note the parallelism of the results reported by those work-
ing with plants, insects, birds, and mammals.

WORK OF DEPARTMENTS.

The work with plants has hitherto been conducted solely by Dr. George
H. Shull. Owing to his temporary assignment to study the work of Mr.
Luther Burbank, Dr. E. N. Transeau, formerly of Alma College, Michi-
gan, and earlier of the University of Michigan and of the University of
Chicago, has been appointed to the resident staff. Dr. Transeau will con-
tinue many of the experiments started by Dr. Shull and will undertake in
addition the study of adaptation in plants. For this work a set of instru-
ments capable of analyzing the environmental factors will be required.
The expansion of the botanical work has made it necessary to rent a
parcel of land situated about a mile distant from the Station.

The investigations upon insects have made more rapid progress as the
technical difficulties of breeding them have been overcome. They have
proved excellent material for experiments on the influence of changed con-
ditions of life. Valuable results have been gained on the inheritance of
different types of variations. As the experiments have far outgrown the
space available in the laboratory, a new vivarium is being built for them.
Since the addition of an inexpensive helper has increased by several fold
the scientific output of other departments, it is proposed to employ, next
season, a vivarium boy to assist in the mechanical part of the insect work.

The work with domesticated races was five times as extensive this year
as last, owing to the employment of a poultryman and the construction of
fifty new breeding pens. Sixty distinct sets of experiments were made
with poultry. Approximately 10,000 eggs were recorded, with few excep-
tions from exactly known mother and father. The number of chicks

96 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

hatched was 2,985 ; and more or less complete records were obtained also
from about 3,000 chicks that developed but did not hatch. All of these
have been described and the records tabulated to be used for immediate
publication of results or to be held awaiting further information. The
canary birds and finches have done well, 92 offspring having been reared.
The births of the year include 6 goats, 6 sheep, and 20 cats. An additional
step has been made toward the attainment of the particular combination
in one cat of the characteristics named in my last report. Work with
pigeons has been continued.

The cytological investigations have continued under the charge of Miss
L,utz. Early in the year she was relieved of the work of secretary, which
threatened to absorb her entire time, so that now she devotes herself
wholly to investigation. She has gained results bearing on the infertility
in buckwheat when like flowers are bred together.

COOPERATION WITH OTHER INVESTIGATORS.

The number of investigators working experimentally on topics in evolu-
tion continues to grow. We have been visited by workers from different
parts of the country who have wished to inspect our work or consult on
particular points and we have profited by visits to consult with and exam-
ine the work of others.

Our facilities have been extended to the following investigators who
are not on the staff of the Station :

Dr. N. M. Stevens, of Bryn Mawr College, worked during the summer
upon the germ-cells of Coleoptera and continued her experimental work
on breeding plant-lice aphids. She was accompanied by Miss Alice M.
Boring, of Bryn Mawr College, who worked on the germ-cells of hemip-
terous insects belonging to the family Membracidse.

Prof. W. J. Moenkhaus, of Indiana University, continued his work on
the breeding of flies to determine if the sex ratio can be modified by
selective breeding and if there is a reduction in fertility and vigor in suc-
cessive generations as a result of close in-breeding.

Prof. H. E. Crampton, of Columbia University, continued at the Biolog-
ical Laboratory and the Station his work on selective breeding of the
large Saturnid moths.

During the summer several of the investigators at the Biological
Laboratory made use of the library and other facilities of the Station.

The following have been added to our correspondents :

Dr. Francis Galton, F. R. S., the well-known student of human heredity,
to whom is due the introduction into biology of statistical methods.

Dr. Alfred Giard, professor at the University of Paris and director of
the Laboratoire d'evolution des etres organisees. To Professor Giard is
due the conception in recent times of the establishment of an "Institut

BIOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL — DAVENPORT. 97

transformiste," an idea taken up in turn by the late George J. Romanes in
England, and which has fruited in the present Station for Experimental
Evolution.

Geheimrath Dr. August Weismann, professor of zoology at Freiburg.
His v^ell-known theories of evolution are guiding experimental investiga-
tions not only in his own laboratory but wherever such work is done.

Dr. Vernon L. Kellogg, professor of entomology at Stanford Univer-
sity, who has made extensive studies on variability in insects and has
instigated a number of important investigations on inheritance in this
group.

WORK OF SUBSIDIARY DEPARTMENTS.

The library remains an important adjunct of our work. The current
journals are reviewed frequently and many of the ideas gleaned from
them have been the starting points of new investigations or improved
methods. The total number of bound volumes and pamphlets is 981, an
increase during the year of 406. The hbrary has been kept in fair shape
by the attention during a few minutes of each day of one of the staff,
supplemented by certain assistance paid for by the hour.

CARE AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE PLANT.

The main building proves to be highly satisfactory for our work. A
smart blaze in the basement, due to the carelessness of a workman, oc-
curred in the middle of the night, but was confined to the room in which it
started by the fire-resisting nature of the construction. The small size of
the building necessitates that it be used in the future almost exclusively
for making, storing, and working over the records (including photo-
graphs) for the library and for the cytological and administration depart-
ments. The carpenter shop will be removed to a commodious building
which we obtained at the cost of removal to its present site on our
grounds. The plant cultures were transferred during the early winter to
the new propagating house, which has proved of the greatest assistance
in enabling us to hasten the succession of plant generations. The insect
experiments at present occupy two large rooms in the main building.
These experiments will be transferred to the vivarium, which is now
being roofed in and will be ready for use in the spring. One of the rooms
thus set free will be partitioned oiT into investigators' rooms. As soon as
the bird house can be built the canaries now in the main building will be
moved from it. Additional greenhouse room is demanded and will be
provided as soon as feasible. The brooder-house was equipped in the
spring with a heating plant and has been of the greatest assistance in
rearing the young chicks. Forty colony houses for laying stock were
erected on a lot near the Station grounds. They were made portable, so

7— YB

98 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

as to be removable to another field if eventually acquired. An accessory
water supply was equipped and has been used during the season for irri-
gation of the greenhouse and gardens.

As the work develops it becomes clearer that additional land will be
needed in the near future.

The Station has this year as hitherto been the recipient of many gifts
of interesting Hving plants and animals to be used for breeding and of use
of land and materials to facilitate our investigations.

REPORT OF DR. GEORGE H. SHULL.

The studies on variation and heredity in plants have been continued
along the lines indicated in my report for last year. The addition to our
garden equipment of a greenhouse and an efficient gardener, both of
which were available December i, 1905, have increased by several fold
the amount and value of the work accomplished during the year.

As compared with last year, there have been few failures in getting
seeds to germinate, and the number of pedigrees which have come to
fruition since October i, 1905, is 291, belonging to the following 46
species. The number preceding each specific name in this list is the num-
ber of distinct pedigreed families studied in that species and the number
following the name is the total number of individuals considered.

No. of Indi- No of Indi-

families. viduals. families. viduals.

3. Commelina nudiflora L 563 I. Gentiana crinita Froel 2

5. Lychnis alba Mill 1,521 i. Solanum aflf. lanceolatum 6

2. Ranunculus sp 97 3. Solanum aff. nigrum L 162

2. Chelidonium majus L 354 I. Lycopersicon lycopersicon (L-)

2. Eschscholtzia maritima Hort. . . 25 Karst _. . 25

3. Eschscholtzia rosea Hort 81 I. Lycopersicon solanopsis White 25

163. Bursa bursa-pastoris (L.) I. Lycopersicon sp 25

Britton 17,532 i. Verbascum thapsus L "SJ

1. Bursa heegeri (Solms) 23 i. Mimulus ringens L 367

2. Fragaria sp 50 i. Digitalis sp 161

I. Lathyrus maritimus (L.) Bigel. 13 4. Plantago lanceolata L 266

I. Polygala polygama Walt 3 2. Plantago major L 180

3. Viola arvensis L 47 i. Dipsacus sylvestris Huds 114

I. Viola papilionacea Pursh 12 15. Ambrosia artemisiaefolia L 902

4. Viola spp 29 I. Chrysopsis argentea Small 9

1. Oenothera biennis L 83 i. Chrysopsis graminifolia 52

6. Oenothera cruciata Nutt 87 2. Erigeron ramosus (Walt)

3. Oenothera gigas De Vries 439 B. S. P 180

16. Oenothera lamarckiana Ser. .. . 2,172 7. Rudbeckia hirta L 382

2. Oenothera lata De Vries 355 13. Helianthus annuus L 929

2. Oenothera nanella De Vries... 244 i. Helianthus debilis 93

4. Oenothera rubrinervis De Vries 1,038 i. Helianthus petiolaris 5

I. Oenothera sp 11 i. Gaillardia pulchella pieta Gray. 115

I. Clarkia pulchella Pursh 8l 2. Erechtites hieracifolia (L.) Raf. 180

In the continuation of my investigations into the fluctuations of
Oenothera lamarckiana and those of its mutants, about 18,000 measure-
ments have been made on the buds from fifteen different pedigreed fami-
lies of Oenothera, representing particularly different treatment as regards

BIOLOGY^ e;XPERIME;nTAL — DAVENPORT. 99

cross- and self-fertilization. In the cross-fertilized series care is being
taken to introduce newly arisen mutants wherever possible.

The second generation of hybrid beans is being harvested, and enough
have been examined to show that the latency of a mottled color pattern
and a pigment darkener in the white variety used in these crosses was
correctly assumed. This allowed the prediction that in the second gener-
ation between white and yellow beans, for instance, there would be
found some individuals which would produce only plain black beans, and
some only yellow mottled ones, though neither form probably occurred
in the recent ancestry on either side of the pedigree. The prediction
has been realized, but whether the proportions will approximate those
expected can be seen only when the investigation of the several thousand
hybrid individuals has been completed. In addition to these expected
results there are a few individuals which belong to none of the predicted
classes, and these may indicate the presence of other latent characters not
detected in the first generation because they were recessive. Owing to
the lack of facilities for guarding against cross-fertilization, this point
can not be satisfactorily determined.

Besides these hybrid beans, the following hybrids have been under
observation during the year: Lychnis alba Mill, (purple X white and
reciprocal), Bschscholtzia rosea X maritima Hort., Bursa bursa-pastoris (L,.)
Britton (several elementary species). Bursa bursa-pastoris X heegeri and
reciprocal, Verbascum blattaria L. (white X yellow), Verbascuin thapsus
X blattaria, Helianthus annuus L. ("Russian" X Western native). With
exception of the last, the results of these hybridizations generally agree
with what might be expected upon the basis of certain theoretical con-
siderations. Arrangements have been made to continue these hybrid
combinations and in addition an apparently successful attempt has been
made to secure hybrid seeds of Lycopersicon lycopersicon (L.) Karst and
L. solanopsis White.

From May 15 until July 15 I was absent from the Station for the pur-
pose of studying the valuable horticultural work of Mr. Luther Burbank.
Notwithstanding the devotion of those left in charge of the cultures dur-
ing this time, several of them suffered irreparable injury. The most
unfortunate of these involved the "pure line" beans, and as I am likely to
be absent for considerable intervals during the next several years, it
seems best to abandon this experiment until such time as satisfactory
conditions for control may be attainable.

Most of the specimens collected during 1905 for the herbarium have
been mounted. These are distributed as follows : The flora of Cold
Spring Harbor, Long Island, 480 specimens ; pedigreed plants, 452 speci-
mens; seedling and juvenile forms, 12 specimens; abnormalities, 22 speci-
mens ; total, 966 specimens.

lOO REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

REPORT OF MR. F. E. LUTZ.

The work outlined in the last report has been conducted on as large
a scale as circumstances permitted. The principal insects used have
been Hyphantria cumea (fall webworm), Gryllus sp. (cricket), and
Crioceria asparagii (asparagus beetles). As in former years, trials have
been made of other species to determine their fitness for the work in
hand, especially their adaptability to laboratory conditions. In arranging
these conditions the aim has been to devise schemes which will, as nearl)'-
as possible, make the pedigree insects take care of themselves.

The chief point in the work with Hyphantria cumea was originally to
test the inheritance of the dichromism of the larvse which is so generally
figured. The two forms, however, were not found distinct. The facts
of the case seem to be that the larvse reach their full pigmentation very
slowly after each molt, and the presence of a large number of newly
molted, partly pigmented larvse in a nest containing also fully pigmented
individuals has given rise to the notion of light and dark forms. Only
one individual, out of several hundred that were watched, pupated before
the full pigmentation after the last larval molt was reached. This was
probably a pathological case. It died as a pupa. Individuals may be
found, however, which are normally light throughout larval life. This
phase of the experiment has not been abandoned. Meanwhile attention
is being paid to the color variations of the adult which are considered by
some to constitute differences of specific rank.

The biometric studies of Gryllus have been continued. It is hoped
that they may be valuable in themselves, but more so as a basis for
experimental work on the inheritance of fluctuating variants, provided
the technique of breeding Gryllus can be mastered. The pedigree strain
was all but lost this season through ignorance of the fact that the over-
wintering eggs almost require freezing for their proper development.
No time was gained by "forcing" the hatching and much material was
lost. Those individuals which did mature, of the lot hatched in January,
matured only several days earlier than their cousins which had passed
the egg state out of doors and hatched in June. Selection and different
methods of forcing will, nevertheless, be tried, both for their theoretical
interest and the practical importance of getting a rapidly breeding strain;
but the majority of the eggs will be kept this winter under perfectly
normal conditions lest the strain developed during the past several sum-
mers be entirely lost. The above remarks apply to the native Gryllus.
Gryllus donicsticus has also been experimented with and has multiplied
very satisfactorily under severe laboratory conditions. Pedigree cultures
have been started. Crosses between Gryllus domesticus and our native
crickets proved sterile, as expected.

The main work of the summer months has been with Crioceris asparagii.
They hibernate as adults and become active at Cold Spring Harbor

NEAR VIEW OF PART OF THE WEST EXPERIMENTAL GARDEN,
PROPAGATING HOUSE IN THE BACKGROUND.

VIEW OF •• NORTH LOT " WITH ITS 62 POULTRY RUNS AND TWO SHEEP AND GOAT PASTURES.

BIOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL — DAVENPORT. Id

about the middle of May. The grandchildren of these hibernating adults
mature in late August and early September and then hibernate, although
a few lay eggs which give rise to a weak additional generation. With-
out much doubt, then, a three-generation-a-year strain can be developed.
The beetles are fairly easy to rear. The chief difficulty has been the
danger of introducing wild eggs or larvae with the food. It is planned
to grow the food next summer under glass and also inside of a large
netting tent in the garden. A study of the inheritance of the 3-brooded
vs. the 2-brooded condition may prove interesting; also the inheritance
of various physiological characters. The main objects of the experiment,
however, are to test the inheritance of the color pattern and to attempt
to find out the cause of the variation which ranges from light spots on a
dark ground to dark spots on light ground. The range already worked
with is shown in the accompanying figures.

Pattern a acts as a Mendelian dominant to patterns c, d, and e. A
special study of the variable recessive group and an analysis of pattern
b will be attempted next season. The lighter forms are southern. This
fact would point to a relation between temperature and color pattern. A
little work was done along this line this summer and more will probably
be done next. The possibility of changing at will definitely inherited color
patterns by slightly altering temperature conditions is worth investi-
gating.

During the winter certain biometric work will be carried on; also a
study of the color pattern of Crioceris asparagii from morphological and
phylogenetic viewpoints. Material for these investigations is being pro-
cured.

REPORT OF MISS ANNE M. LUTZ.

In order to repeat under more favorable conditions the experiments
undertaken last year with the buckwheat {Fagopyruni fagopyrum), a
new lot of 52 plants was grown in the greenhouse, blossoming in April
and May. It was possible here to guard securely against pollination by
insects and to be certain of results. This first lot produced such an
excess of abnormal blossoms that it was considered unreliable material
for preservation and was abandoned ; the second potting of 1 10 plants
came to bloom in June. The primary object was to fix material for
histological study which would throw light upon the sterility of long-

I02 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

Styled plants to pollen from long-styled, and of short-styled to short-
styled. Before proceeding, however, it was thought advisable to ascertain
whether this sterility was an infallible rule. Previous to the opening of
the first blossom, all plants were securely bagged against stray insects
or flying pollen, and in every case possible blossoms were castrated before
anthers opened, with the exception of such as were to be used for pollinat-
ing purposes.

In this manner 22 long-styled plants were operated upon, pollinated
in each case with its own or, in a few cases, with pollen from another
long-styled plant. Of this number (ranging from i to 30 blossoms each),
12 plants set seed, varying in number from i to 5 each and in degrees of
maturity to which the seed attained. In all 218 long-styled blossoms
were self-pollinated, and 21 of these produced seed; 17 short-styled plants
were similarly operated upon, and 7 of these set seed in numbers ranging
from I to 13. Of the 73 short-styled blossoms self-pollinated, 12 came to
seed. All seeds so produced were planted in sterilized soil, and, with the
exception of a small percentage which sprouted before planting, all grew.
The experiment will be repeated on a much larger scale this autumn
in order to have larger numbers from which to obtain percentages of suc-
cessful self-pollinations ; to obtain seed of self-pollinated material to plant
for study of inheritance; to experiment with possible parthenogenetic
development, and, primarily, to obtain material for the study of the
histological problems in connection with these experiments.

The attempt to hybridize the two species of Gastroidea cyanea and
polygoni reported upon last year was repeated this spring. No off-
spring were produced, although hundreds of supposed hybrid eggs were
obtained which developed quite normally for about three-fourths of the
incubation period. Upon examination of eggs of virgin females, how-
ever, they were found to have developed parthenogenetically in the same
manner, a number showing eyes, body segments, and appendages quite
distinctly. Material has been fixed for the cytological problems in con-
nection with this experiment.

A study of the cytological phenomena to be observed in connection
with the sterility of certain selected insects has not yet progressed suffi-
ciently to report upon.

REPORT OF MR. ROSWELL H. JOHNSON.
The past year has shown that it is possible to provide lady-beetles with
their food (plant-lice) and to breed them the year around. The necessary
experience has been acquired concerning the best species of plant-lice
to raise indoors and in the garden, and the hosts, seasons, and availability
of those found wild. The death rate of the lady-beetles in confinement
has been rather high, the progeny were sometimes sterile, and egg-laying
has been interrupted at times. These adverse conditions will be some-

BIOIvOGY^ EXPEJRIMENTAI. — DAVENPORT. I03

what mitigated in the future by the experience which has been gained
and the more favorable temperature and arrangement in the new
vivarium. Although the difficulties are such that it is generally necessary
to start several pairs to rear progeny to maturity from one, the especial
advantages of this material as shown in the last report have led to satis-
factory results.

In addition to lady-beetles, I have undertaken similar work in another
section of the Coccinellidse, viz, the squash-beetles. Although less favor-
able from the fact that there are but three species in the United States,
the ease with which large series are raised and the variation of its color
pattern make it desirable for some lines of work.

In order to ascertain if the laboratory conditions would in themselves
produce modifications, pedigrees were started from normal specimens
of our local species of lady-beetles. With one exception, to be pursued
further, there has been no change.

Normal specimens of other species from distant localities have been
bred, in one case for several generations. No modification has resulted.
Adalia frigida var. ophthahnica, from Springfield, Mass., produced some
progeny of the varieties disjuncta, ornatella, and annectans, but these were
probably predetermined.

Attempts have been made to modify most of the species available by
increased dryness, moisture, heat, and cold. In contrast to the usual
negative results is the effect of cold applied intermittently to Hippodamia
convergens. The effect is an increase of the black markings along definite
lines, particular spots being prolonged in definite directions in a definite
order. Heat was effective only in the case of the squash-beetle, in which
the pattern of the wing-cover remains normal; but the black markings
of the thorax are all reduced, producing the conditions found in specimens
from Texas.

Hybrid pedigrees have been started in the following cases : Hippodamia
convergens X H. c. var. amhigua;'^ Hippodamia convergens X H. c. var.
exterisa;"^ Hippodamia convergens X H. c. var. juncta;* Adalia frigida
var. ophthalmica* yi A. f. var. disjuncta;* Coccinella novemnotata X C. n.
var. confluens; and between various unnamed forms of Bpilachna borealis
and Hippodamia convergens. In general it may be said that the inheritance
is alternative in some cases, and in other cases some of the progeny are
intermediate. A Mendelian segregation is found in subsequent genera-
tions in some cases, but so far these have shown some individuals with
the parental characteristics modified.

The following closely allied species and others less allied were inter-
sterile : Hippodamia convergens X H. glacialis; Coccinella calif ornica X C.
monticola.

* Considered species by Casey.

I04 REPORTS ON INVKSTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

When time was available from the breeding work, the variation and
geographical distribution of the genera used were investigated and my
own collection much enlarged. The collections in New York, Philadel-
phia, and Washington vvere studied. A lot of 15,415 Hippodamise from
the top of Kamiack Butte, Washington, was classified into categories
and the intermediates arranged. The distances between spots, the thick-
ness of the connections between spots when joined, and correlations of
a lot of 334 Hippodamias from Fairfield, Washington, were studied statis-
tically. These results, which were to have been published this pa,st
spring, I have decided to publish later with the experimental work. The
lady-beetles when disturbed exude from some joints of the legs a fluid
tasting like aloes. That this is really distasteful to birds I have found
by experiment. The spots upon the lady-beetles have been supposed to
be association marks by which the birds may avoid lady-beetles and the
beetles thus profit. But if this were true, variations from the pattern in
the directions of loss or fusion would be eliminated. Yet in most parts
of the United States the spotted Hippodamia convcrgens occurs along
with some of its forms or closely related species which show fusion of
spots, and in parts of California and Oregon with a form that is spotless.
In California, where the spotted and spotless forms are together, a num-
ber of mated pairs which I collected showed no evidence of preferential
or assortative mating. It would seem, therefore, that the evolution of
the color-pattern in these beetles is not the result of selection, but that
here we deal with evolution resulting from progressive variation or from
mutation associated with dominance and imperfect segregation. The
fact that Coccinella fransvcrso-guttata, C. trifasciata, and Hippodamia con-
vergens all have their spotless forms in the same locality would make it
appear that the origin of the new forms is the result of direct alteration
of the germ-plasm by the environment in these cases. These beetles there-
fore seem to be in the very condition which most needs investigation.

An incidental result of my hunt for aphids has been the discovery of
some on plants which do not seem to be recorded as hosts. This with
information as to the preferences shown by some lady-beetles for some
aphids and distaste for others and as to the parasites of lady-beetles may
be of use to economic entomologists and will be published separately
where accessible to them.

The following statistics give some idea of the extent of work done:

Controlled inatings 205

Of these, fertile eggs obtained from 22

Number of females isolated (from the field) 74

Fertile eggs obtained from 49

Progeny reared successfully 49°

Pupae brought in from field for modification experiments and emerged. 74

Pupae collected in field for observation, emerged ii7

Larvae now developing 72>

INTERIOR VIEW IN MAIN aj;LDING. SHOWIT^iG ROOM DEVOTED TO BREEDING; CANARlEi
AND OTHER CAGE BIRDS. THERE ARE ABOUT 175 BIRDS IN THE ROOM.

INTERIOR OF PROPAGATiNG HOUSE, SHOWING PEDIGREED CULTURES OF PLANTS.

BIOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL — DAVENPORT. I05

REPORT OF DR. E. N. TRANSEAU.

Since coming to the Station in July most of my time has been spent
in the study of the local plant societies. Especial attention has been
given to those species which occur in more than one habitat, as they will
probably furnish the material for future experimentation. Herbarium
and alcoholic specimens of these plants have been collected for a further
study of their structural variations. It is hoped that this work will point
the way to field experiments on habitat modifications and selection.

On the other hand, several species are being cultivated in order to
determine the range of their variability in a single habitat. When the
habitat experiments are begun, it is hoped that they may be conducted
with pedigreed seeds of plants whose variation in a single habitat is
known.

In order to differentiate the effects of the various soil and meteorolog-
ical factors, measurements by means of recording instruments should
be made throughout the growing season. When the habitat character-
istics and their united effects on plants are known, control experiments
in the plant-house will aid in the separation of the individual factors.

REPORT OF DR. W. J. MOENKHAUS.

During the past two years my work has been principally on the sex
ratio in Drosophila, with especial reference to its control by selection.
Data on over 10,000 individuals have been obtained ; most of this is pedi-
greed. I consider the results sufficiently definite to warrant publication
and they are about ready for the press.

REPORT OF DR. N. M. STEVENS.

My work at Cold Spring Harbor was a study of the germ-cells of
Coleoptera, with reference to the problem of sex determination; also
some observations on aphids with reference to correlation of color with
sex. I also began studying the banana-fly in connection with the same
problem — sex determination.

Miss Boring, who was with me for six weeks, was makmg a compara-
tive study of the germ-cells of several families of the Hemiptera-Homop-
tera, especially the Membracidas, Fulgoridse, and Jassidse.

I06 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

BIOLOGY, MARINE.

DEPARTMENT OF MARINE BIOLOGY. TORTUGAS. FLORIDA.*
By a. G. Mayer, Director.

The laboratory yacht Physalia remained moored in the Miami River
throughout the hurricane season of 1905, and in February she was thor-
oughly overhauled and refitted. An awning was constructed to extend
from stem to stern, thus shielding the decks from the intense heat of the
tropical sun. The decks were recalked and varnished. The engine was
placed in the best possible condition, and the exhaust pipes were renewed
where corrosion had attacked them. The vessel was also provided with
large hood ventilators which are a necessity in the tropics, in order to
permit of microscopic studies being carried out in the cabin. The yacht
was also hauled out and her hull found to be free from the attacks of
Teredo ; and in order to better insure her safety in this respect the brass
sheathing was made to entirely incase her keel, and a false keel was placed
on for protection in the event of her going aground.

In addition to these extensive repairs and alterations in the Physalia
a new launch, the Sea Horse, was constructed for the Department by
Stearns & McKay, of Marblehead, Massachusetts, and shipped to Key
West early in March. This launch is designed to withstand heavy
weather in the open sea in order to transport investigators to and fro
between Key West and Tortugas. She is 27 feet long, and is furnished
with two 6-horsepower naphtha engines, and with twin screws, thus
insuring her against the probability of a total breakdown of her machin-
ery while at sea. This launch is provided with a comfortable cabin,
and can travel more than 400 miles with her supply of naphtha. She
develops a speed of 8 knots in average weather, and owing to lack of
spars and top hamper she is but little retarded by head winds.

The Department is thus provided with five boats, the 58-foot 20-horse-
power ketch Physalia; the 27-foot twin-screw 12-horsepower cabin launch
Sea Horse; a 22-foot 4-horsepower dory; a small i-horsepower launch,
and a rowboat.

With these vessels it is possible to cruise anywhere within 150 miles
of the laboratory ; the Physalia being a thoroughly seaworthy vessel de-
signed especially to withstand West Indian hurricanes.

Prof. William K. Brooks and his assistant, Mr. Carl Kellner, of Johns
Hopkins University, joined the Physalia at Miami, Florida, in March,
and a few days were spent in a study of the pelagic fauna of the Gulf

* Report for the year ending September 30, 1906. Grant No. 308. $15,000 for investi-
gations and maintenance. (For previous reports see Year Book No. 3, pp. 50-54, and
Year Book No. 4, pp. 108-124.)

BIOLOGY, MARINE — MAYER. 10/

Stream in the neighborhood of Miami. Professor Brooks also collected
specimens in the Everglades which have enabled him and his assistant,
Mr. B. McGlone, to determine that the lung of Ampullaria is secondarily
acquired, and not derived from the lung of terrestrial pulmonates. The
details of this discovery are recorded in Professor Brooks's preliminary
report, here published.

After about one week's exploration at Miami, the Physalia sailed for
the Tortugas, where she was employed throughout the season in making
surface hauls and dredges. Mr. Kellner discovered a remarkable "calm
streak" extending along the 6-fathom line on the westward side of Log-
gerhead Key, and examinations of this region on calm days yielded a
wonderful variety of new and rare Siphonophorae, Ctenophorse, pelagic,
and Medusae, as well as a good collection of pelagic Tunicates.

Early in the calm mornings, when the ocean was unrippled, hosts of
graceful Siphonophorae and delicate Ctenophorse came up out of the
depths to the quiet surface, and in fifteen years of study the writer has
never seen such opportunities for the collection of these remarkable
marine animals.

Five heavy gales were encountered during the season. The first of
these came suddenly without barometric warning on the first day of our
arrival at Tortugas, before we could lay our ocean mooring, which is
necessary to secure the Physalia, as she must lie at anchor throughout the
season in an open roadstead with no protection save that afforded by a
deep-lying coral reef. The storm came with almost unprecedented sud-
denness, and the wind blew for more than six hours at the rate of over
60 miles an hour. Our kedged anchors were powerless to hold the
Physalia, and she slowly dragged until her stern touched the shore, while
our 22-foot dory launch was dashed open in the breakers. Fortunately
the wind then abated for a few minutes, and the Physalia was hauled off
without damage. The launch was repaired in the course of a few weeks
and is now a stronger and a better seaboat than ever before. Other
storms came later, one of them of such severity that nearly all of the
beacons in the lower part of the Hawk Channel were washed away, but
our strong moorings and opportune retreats into Bird Key Harbor
enabled us to ride safely through every gale.

Eight investigators studied at the laboratory during the season, and
every one returned north with health improved. Our facilities for trans-
portation afforded by the many boats in the service of the Department
now permit us to transport students at once from Key West to Tortugas ;
and thus they are not subjected to the menace occasioned by the de-
plorable sanitary condition of Key West. In the pure dustle'ss air of the
Tortugas, with its freedom from dangerous mosquitoes, nothing need be
feared, and it is significant that no infectious disease has ever developed

Io8 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

among the lighthouse keepers or their famihes during the many years
that the Hghthouse has been maintained on Loggerhead Key. In order,
however, to insure against the possible introduction of tropical fevers our
cisterns are rendered mosquito-proof, modern plumbing is introduced,
and all refuse from the kitchen is daily towed out to sea. No mosquitoes
breed upon Loggerhead Key, but in order to afford protection against
those Vv'hich are carried upon the island by the wind, mosquito nets of
the best pattern are provided, so that investigators may enjoy all possible
protection. Whenever the wind blows from the direction of the Florida
Keys a few Culex mosquitoes appear, although these must be blown at
least 4o miles from the Marquesas Keys in order to reach the Tortugas.
After arriving at Tortugas there is practically no danger of contracting
any tropical disease, but in order to warn students of the dangers one
may expect to encounter in hot, crowded, tropical cities, the following
circular was issued to each investigator who purposed to visit Florida
in summer:

SUGGESTIONS FOR CARE OF HEALTH IN THE TROPICS.

These suggestions apply especially to life in tropical cities such as Key West, Tampa,
Miami, New Orleans, or Havana. At Tortugas, Florida, no unusual precautions are
necessary, for the islands are securely isolated from infectious diseases, and no
mosquitoes breed upon Loggerhead Key.

1. Go to bed as soon after sunset as possible, and always sleep under a mosquito
bar. Examine the mosquito net before nightfall, and kill all mosquitoes entrapped
under it. Then tuck the net in all around the mattress.

2. Drink only boiled or imported waters. If you can not obtain these, put lime or
lemon juice into the water. Do not drink too much ice-water.

3. Rest for a few days when you first arrive in the tropics. Do not exercise too
actively or remain too long in the hot sun.

4. Eat peeled or cooked fruits, but avoid raw, unpeeled fruit.

5. Any excess in the tropics is attended by more serious consequences than in tem-
perate regions.

The following investigators pursued researches at the laboratory dur-
ing the season :

Prof. W. K. Brooks, of Johns Hopkins University, March 15 to April 2.

Dr. Leon J. Cole, of Harvard University, May 31 to June 20.

Dr. R. P. Cowles, of Johns Hopkins University, June 22 to July 20.

Prof. Ulric Dahlgren, of Princeton University, June 22 to July 20.

Dr. C. H. Edmondson, of Iowa University, June 19 to July 20.

Mr. Carl Kellner, of Johns Hopkins University, March 15 to July 20.

Prof. Edwin Linton, of Washington and Jefferson College, June 28 to July 20.

Dr. Charles Zeleny, of Indiana University, June 12 to August i.

The duration of the average visit to the laboratory was forty days.
Hitherto it has been necessary to close the laboratory before August i,
for by the terms of her insurance the Physalia must be laid up in a safe

PLATE 7

THE " PHYc

,T THE DOCK OF THE TOR i UUAo uABUkaIURV. JULY, lyt

VIEW OF THE MAIN LABORATORY BUILDING FROM THE NORTH. JULY. 1906.

BIOLOGY, MARINE — MAYER. IO9

harbor before this date. In 1907, however, it wih be possible to maintain
the laboratory open after August i, making use of the Sea Horse, after
the Physalia has been laid up, and thus the season may be very profitably
lengthened ; for very few students can arrive at Tortugas before the third
week in June, and the working period is too short for extended researches
such as the laboratory purposes to encourage.

THE WORK OF THE LABORATORY.

During the season of 1906 the following researches were carried out:
Prof. William K. Brooks and his assistant, Mr. Carl Kellner, devoted
much time to collecting Salpje and Appendicularia for the extensive
memoir upon which Professor Brooks has for some years been engaged.
Mr. Kellner spent four months in making surface hauls, and obtained
many excellent specimens of Salpa;, which he preserved in the best possi-
ble manner for future study. It is hoped that this collection will be of
material aid to Professor Brooks in the preparation of his important
work upon the relationships of these animals. Mr. Kellner also made a
special study of the structure of the house of Oikopleura. While visiting
the Everglades near Miami, Professor Brooks collected the eggs of Am-
pullaria the study of which forms the topic of his preliminary report, here
published.

The Origin of the Lung in AmpuUaria, hy W. K. Brooks.

Through the courtesy of Dr. Alfred G. Mayer I was able to visit and partially explore
the Everglades of Florida in March, 1906. As we pushed our way through the tall
reeds and grasses that cover the shallow water of the Everglades, we found great
numbers of small eggs, attached to the stems of the reeds and grasses, above the sur-
face of the water but close to it.

The eggs were arranged in vertical rows, and were inclosed in calcareous shells,
resembling, in these respects, the eggs of terrestrial pulmonate gasteropods.

We also found in the water in great abundance the prosobranchiate gasteropod
AmpuUaria, and when some of the older eggs were opened, they were found to contain
young specimens of this genus.

The Paludinidee, which are closely related to the Ampullaridae, are aquatic, viviparous,
and breathe by gills ; and their structure indicates that the}' are true prosobranchs,
descended from and closely related to the marine prosobranchs. AmpuUaria has gills,
is partially aquatic, and seems to be a true prosobranch, so far as its general structure
is in question ; but as it has a lung, and is able to breathe air and live out of the water,
and as it also lays, in the air, eggs in calcareous shells, like those of the terrestrial pul-
monates, the question whether it is primarily a pulmonate, with secondary resemblance
to the prosobranchs, or primarily a prosobranch with secondary resemblance to the
pulmonates, suggests itself.

As the embryonic history of the breathing organs may be expected to throw light
upon this question, a quantity of the eggs was collected and taken to the Marine
Laboratory in the Dry Tortugas. There the eggs were opened, the embryos removed
and sketched, and then hardened and preserved for embryological examination.

no REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

On my return to Baltimore, I placed the material in the hands of Mr. B. McGlone,
who has studied the development of the respiratory organs under my supervision, and
has nearly completed his work, which will soon be ready for publication. He has
shown that the lung of AmpuUaria is a member of the series of gill-filaments and
that it must be regarded as a modified gill, homologous with a ctenidium, or with more
than one. It is, therefore, an organ which has been secondarily acquired, and not de-
rived from the lung of the terrestrial pulmonates.

Both lung and gill arise very early in the embryonic history of AmpuUaria, and at
about the same time. In a very young embryo, soon after the mantle makes its ap-
pearance, a ridge or thickening of the epithelium of the inner surface of the mantle
indicates the region from which the gill-filaments, the lung, and the osphradium are
to arise. The osphradium is developed from one end of this ridge, the gill-filaments
from the other, and, between the two, the ridge becomes infolded into the substance
of the mantle to give rise to the lung, which may be regarded as a modified and
invaginated gill-filament.

The similarity between the lung of the pulmonates and that of AmpuUaria is, there-
fore, nothing more than a new illustration of a resemblance between organs that have
been acquired independently imder like physiological conditions.

Mr. Kellner presents the following report of his work :

The Appendicularias of the Dry Tortugas, by Carl Kellner.

In May, 1906, I captured a number of appendicularias, and their houses, near the
surface of the water in the Dry Tortugas, and I am informed that similar ones were
found at Miami in March by Dr. Mayer and Professor Brooks. They vary in size
from 5 to 8 mm., and they occur in great swarms at a depth of from 5 to 8 fathoms.
Since returning to Baltimore, I have been studying them under the guidance of Pro-
fessor Brooks, with special attention to the structure of the house and the anatomy
and histology of the animal. My notes and drawings will be ready for publication
within a month. All my large specimens belong to the genus Oikopleura and are very
similar to, but different from Oikopleura longicaiida and Oikopleura intermedia of
Lohmann.

The house is large, about 20 mm. in diameter, and nearly spherical. In its internal
structure it resembles the houses that have been described in other species of the genus.

Some of the houses contained small appendicularias at various stages of develop-
ment, and there is no doubt that the development of this species may be studied by one
who is able to collect and study the young larvae and embryos from the houses of
living adults, but those that I have found in preserved houses are not in good condition.

All the houses that I examined contained small elongated unicellular parasites; and
others, of a somewhat different shape, were found on the tails of some of my speci-
mens, and still others in the muscles of the tail. These three forms may prove to be
stages in a single life history The parasites that are found on the tail are very similar
to, and seem to be identical with, the bodies that are described by Lohmann as gland
cells.

Dr. Leon J. Cole studied the reactions of ants and of Salpa democratica,
but his work is not far enough advanced for publication.

Dr. R. P. Cowles continued his studies of the habits of the ghost crab
(Ocypoda arenaria) and also of the reactions of Ophiuridse. His results
are important and interesting and will soon be published.

BIOLOGY, marine; — MAYER. Ill

Prof. Ulric Dahlgreii presents the following report of his studies :

Report of Work Accomplished by Ulric Dahlgren in the Laboratory of the

Carnegie Institution at the Dry Tortiigas, Florida, during the Summer

of 1906.

On June 20 of this year I arrived at Key West. My object in visiting the laboratory
was to procure material from Pterophrync histrio and other pediculate fishes to con-
tinue my studies of the giant ganglion cell apparatus found in this and other fishes.
Also I wished to secure living specimens of Astroscopus to study the electric organs
with the Golgi method and the intra-vitam method with methylene blue.

On the second day we proceeded to the Tortugas and were soon collecting on the
reef. I found an abundance of Pterophryne, and secured a splendid series of these
fishes prepared in all ways necessary for my work.

Of Astroscopus, however, I did not succeed in getting a single specimen. Liberal
rewards offered in Key West to the fishermen, expeditions in the Physalia to the neigh-
boring keys, and as unremitting a search as the climate permitted alike failed to procure
a single individual of this fish. The fish has been reported from Key West, but the
native fishermen there agree that it is not often found on the Florida Keys, and is
more abundant on the west coast of Florida than anywhere else that they know of.
Mr. C. F. Silvester, who is working in collaboration with me on the electric organs of
Astroscopus, has, however, secured three specimens of the fish this summer at Beau-
fort, North Carolina.

Reef-collecting on the Tortugas affords a wonderful opportunity. No one who has
not waded on a coral reef can imagine the wealth of life found there. This is not
apparent from a surface view, however, as the coral reef fauna, with a few exceptions,
is hidden in the many crevices of the rock. In general the fauna was of two distinct
kinds. On the reef south of Garden Key an outer fauna was to be found on the
south side, where the exposure was toward the ocean, while on the northwest side a
different assortment of animals was to be found on the reef in the quieter and shallower
waters of the lagoon and channel.

The pelagic surface collecting was grand, and more can be learned of this from
the report of Dr. Mayer and those who followed it up. Pterophryne was the one form
that I sought and I secured many specimens in person and from the other collectors
who brought them in.

Among other features of interest were the swarming of the Atlantic Palolo worm
on July II and 12, and of which many of us got series of eggs and embryos, and the
frequent nesting of the turtles on the beach at night. For one working on the em-
bryology of the reptilia this would be an ideal place to spend the time from May until
September.

Dr. C. H. Edmondson presents the following preliminary report upon
his extensive collection of Protozoa :

Preliminary Report by C. H. Bdmondson.

From June 20 to July 20, 1906, it was my privilege to pursue a systematic study of
the marine protozoa which inhabit the waters in the vicinity of the Biological Laboratory
of the Carnegie Institution at the Tortugas. This region is very rich in fauna of the
unicellular type. All classes and subclasses of protozoa are well represented, the habitats
being quite varied and the natural conditions favorable for their existence.

It would be difficult to find a more favorable environment for certain forms of marine
protozoa than that which is furnished by the moat which surrounds the ruins of Fort

112

REPORTS ON INV£;STIGATI0NS AND PROJECTS.

Jefferson. The ooze at the bottom of the moat and the algae and other plants of low
order which thickly cover the wall below the water line are the habitats of many inter-
esting species, Rhizopods and Flagellates being especially abundant.

Surface tows were frequently made in the vicinity of Loggerhead Key by means of
which many pelagic forms such as Noctiluca and various species of Radiolaria were
obtained in great numbers. Experience taught me, however, that these forms must be
placed under the microscope as quickly as possible after being taken from the surface of
the sea if one desires to study them in the active condition.

Naturally, in the latitude of the Tortugas, Foraminifera are perhaps more abundant
than any other group of protozoa. The beach rocks of Loggerhead Key which are
exposed at low tide are covered in many places by algae, inclosed in the matted growth
of which may be found myriads of beautifully sculptured, shell-bearing Foraminifera,
including many species. The gulf-weed which floats at the surface of the sea carried
with it a number of species, while not a few stalk-bearing forms were found attached
to Sertularian hydroids which were borne by the gulf-weed. By means of the dredge
with which the Physalia is fitted, some species, mostly Foraminifera, were obtained
from a muddy bottom at a depth of about 20 fathoms, which were not found elsewhere.

In the five weeks' work over 90 species were studied and identified, besides several
forms which are apparently undescribed and may represent new species. The species
identified at the Tortugas are included in the following genera :

Acanthometra.

Acineta.

Actinophrys.

Amphidinium.

Amphisa.

Anisonema.

Articulina.

Aspidisca.

Astasia.

Bolivina.

Bulimina.

Ceratium.

Chilodon.

Coleps.

Collozoum.

Cond3dostoma.

Cothurnia.

Cornuspira.

Cympalophora.

Diophrys.

Discorbina.

Dysteria.

Euplotes.

Exuvisella.

Frontonia.

Glenodinium.

Globigerina.

Gromia.

Gymnodinium.

Haplophragmium.

Kerona.

Lacrymaria.

Lagena.

Lembus.

Lichnophora.

Lionotus.

Loxodes.

Loxophyllum.

Mesodinium.

Miliola.

Nassula.

Noctiluca.

Nonionina.

Orbiculina.

Orbitolites.

Orbulina.

Oxytricha.

Pntellina.

Peneroplis.

Peridinium.

Planorbulina.

Pleuronema.

Polystomella.

Spirillina.

Spiroloculina.

Trachelocerca.

Truncatulina.

Uroleptus.

Uronema.

Uronychia.

Vertebralina.

Vorticella.

Prof. Edwin Linton presents the following report of his work upon the
animal parasites of fishes and other animals :

Preliminary Report on Animal Parasites collected at Tortugas, Florida,
June 30 to July 18, 1906, by Edzvin Linton.

In the table on pages 114-115 will be found a list of the hosts which were examined
for parasites, and a summary of the results of that examination, together with a few food
notes. Where no food is recorded it is to be understood that either the alimentary canal
was empty or the nature of its contents could not readily be identified.

While a more comprehensive search, extending over not only a greater range of
species than is included in the foregoing list of hosts but also over a larger number of
individuals under each species, is desirable, and would doubtless add very many species

BIOLOGY, MARINE — MAYER. II3

of parasites, enough, I think, may be learned from the table to warrant the following
general remarks on the helminth fauna of the Tortugas.

I shall record also in this connection a few extracts from notes made at the time the
material was collected.

Acanthocephala. — Representatives of this order appear to be rare at the Tortugas.
The species found in the frigate mackerel was Echinorhynchtis fristis, which seems to be
eminently a southern form, since it was found to be the most frequently recurring
species at Beaufort, while a closely related species has a similar distribution in the fishes
of Bermuda.

Neither in the fishes of Beaufort, Bermuda, nor Tortugas have I found Echinorhynchi
as abundant as in the fishes of northern waters. There thus appears to be the same
contrast between tropical and northern forms shown in the distribution of the Echino-
rhynchi as in many other groups of organic forms. In this case, however, there does
not appear to be a multiplication of species along with relative paucity of individuals, a
condition which is characteristic of many tropical forms.

Nematodes. — But few nematodes were found. Those found in the nurse shark, a
species of Ascaris, were firmly attached to the stomach-wall, their heads penetrating at
least as far as the muscular layer.

Representatives of the genus Heterakis were found sparingly in the green moray, gray
snapper, spot, and hogfish. Some of those from the gray snapper and one from the
spot agree closely with H. foveolata.

A species of Ichthyonema was found on three different dates in the ovaries of the gray
snapper; one was also found in the gar.

Immature nematodes were found, usually encysted on the viscera, in the following
fishes : Barracuda, yellow-grunt, yellow-tail, grouper, cabezote, French grunt, striped
grunt, black grouper, yellow-finned grouper. In all cases the number of these immature
nematodes was few. The most common type was characterized by having an elongated
basal bulb on the esophagus, and a diverticulum from the anterior end of the intestine.

One very singular form was found in Iridio kirshii, which had a subglobular, chitinous
pharynx which was marked with spiral ribs running from left to right anteriorly, thus
crossing in optical section.

Cestodes. — The larval forms usually referred to by the name Scolex polymorphus are
not so abundant as they would be in an equal list of northern fishes. Only a few were
seen and only in the gray snapper, yellow-tail, grouper, and frigate mackerel.

Encysted stages, belonging for the most part to the genus Rhynchobothrium were
found in eight of tlie species of fishes examined. R. speciostim was recognized in a num-
ber of instances. Encysted cestodes were found only on the viscera. No cases of flesh
parasites comparable with that of the butter-fish (Poronotus triacanthus) of the northern
coast, or of the hound-fish (Tylosurus acus) of Bermuda, were met. The selachians
here as elsewhere are bearers of many species of adult cestodes, whose favorite place of
lodgment is in the spiral valve.

I had the opportunity of examining but one sting-ray and that a small specimen. It
yielded, however, a list of nine species of cestodes belonging to seven genera. This list,
as identified at the time of collecting, is as follows : Acanthobothrium paidtim, Antho-
cephalum gracile, Phyllohothrium foliatum, Spongiobothriiim variahile, Synhothrium
aUcalle, and two species of Rhinebothrium and two species of Rhynchobothrium not
yet identified. It may be inferred therefore that the sting-ray, if a sufficient number
were to be examined, would yield as long a list of entozoa as it does at Beaufort or
Woods Hole.

Some interest may attach to the fact that one lot of parasites is credited to the tiger-
shark in the table, although the shark from which they were obtained was not identified.

8— YB

114

UBPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

:^ a! y-O
fl -a . - ce •

aS-S^-'Sg

jj £ a g ca s

_ 3 i; g « a

g o5 a o o

a ij^rj"

g^-^a

P 11 W tJ)

•S o -^ p M
g^ o ^2

■:ii-i^ -

2 w ,Q -g s

-^

a «* a<«
o o « rt o

a 1)

pa-giD s

2g

i-j a

P-rt

a-°

CCC

a 5^

-*-*

n1

a^

«

tt

o

<;

o

tn

■O

O

u

■a

a

(U ID
1) S

a

<U o

a -^^
o

fca.2

S<u ^

do

a - "
" a CO

Ro

g-a

1-. 12.2 Cu

tn D g a £3

.-^ j3 <L» '^ "^ 4;

i! ^ a bi2 >

^ "'•^

I- 3 >

S o-

^ V. c«

•' <u.i:
P-a a

w a w

i) ^

.S-a

■ c«

m a

S^3

II CO .

CO CO <u

aa3

a o ^

CO

iico'

^a.i2
rt I' >

CO >.

S3

6 «

g-t: (0

a-^

llo
O (/]
S i

As ^

O

CO

<n

t>

a a

O CO

a

CO

3

j2

a**^

a >^

OU)

O CO

O CO

a^

co-r-

'tJ u

73 i-

>»>•

O 0

O O

P.S

O

CO t<

^a

^a

5"

>^

A

n

*A

Hi

y

H

<

CO
M

la

a u

«; p,
0 3

a< o

o

CO

a
o

CO

■O

3

cot*

CO

N

^

o "

(J

J3

0.

p.

l\

a

P

V g

3 V

a

fc

I.&

<!

«

S

s

BIOLOGY, MARINE — MAYER.

115

41 -r! (-"O X V

a.2 lu a -■ M

•j: i- n (s ■> t

H S aj ^ u 11 ._

W C r- ^ ^^ - ^

;= o
fa

»

B 0

0 ? g

tu

0 «

•a

CS

2g

eg

i^s-s

a

'"c^^

1* h/1

^

^ «

a,«S

^ SX2

fa

m

H

>>ii 2 a

V) ^

fa

t) a ;|;|

a ^-0 o •
-^a-a

S-C o ® '^

0-3

a «J

ui > to
w^ a]

da

n »j '^ ^

O r oj r- '

° "O a-

-aiiiJ

da ° a-

J3>< "

n fa

g .
g&

d^

Ola

u ^

o a

S«

;.g- s-c

3 a

Kfa

^ 0.

.. a.

Ota

a wj
•= 2

5x

;:; u

.^"? 5 3

wa >>>;

io

V

l; 3

— - u 9 <«

g <"

Il6 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

On June 2, before my arrival at the laboratory, a 9-foot shark was captured. Its
spiral valve was opened and placed in 5 per cent formaldehyde. Upon examining this
material I decided that it had come from a tiger-shark. As this is an unusual method
of identifying a fish it may be worth while to record my reasons for having confidence
in this identification. In the first place, the valve itself is of the same type as that of
the tiger-shark. This fact, however, does not exclude the cub-shark, which is common
in these waters. In the second place, the varied contents of the stomach (see table)
agree with what has been recorded for this species (U. S. Fish Commission Bulletin for
1899, PP- 270, 271, 425).

Again, there were a large number of both adult and young and free ripe joints of the
singular cestode Thysanocephalmn crispum. In all the tiger-sharks which I have
examined in the Woods Hole region I have found this parasite abundant and varying
from young specimens a few millimeters in length to adults with ripe segments and
measuring as much as a meter in length. There were also large numbers of ripe pro-
glottides free in the chyle of the intestines. Furthermore, I have never seen this ces-
tode, in its adult stage, in any other host than the tiger-shark.

Since tiger-sharks are rather common in the waters about the Tortugas this vicarious
identification is probably correct.

In like manner the finding of the cestode Discocephalmn pileatum in the cub-shark,
while probably not justifying a change in any record of habitat, at least calls in ques-
tion the validity of a former identification.

This species was based on four specimens obtained from material brought to the
laboratory of the United States Fish Commission at Woods Hole, Massachusetts, July
19, 1886, and taken from what was reported to me to be a dusky shark (Carcharhinus
ohscurus). The viscera only were brought to the laboratory. C. ohscurus is common
in the waters about Woods Hole, but C. platyodon has not been recorded from any point
so far north.

The following reasons are given for thinking that the host of the type specimens of
D. aieatum may not have been C. ohscurus.

The first and only find of this species at Woods Hole was the one upon which the
genus and species were founded. No other entozoa were found associated with them.
In all other specimens of dusky shark which I have examined at Woods Hole I have
found numerous cestode parasites. As a rule there were several different species,
usually represented by numerous examples, in each shark. The same conditions were
found to prevail in the dusky sharks which I examined in 1901 and 1902 at Beaufort,
North Carolina.

The second find of D. pileatum was made in 1903 when I collected seven specimens
from a cub-shark (C platyodon) in Bermuda. In that case also the worms were not
associated with any other cestodes, and the heads, as in the first instance, were firmly
attached to the walls of the intestine. These conditions were repeated very closely in
the cub-shark which was examined at Tortugas. The single specimen of D. pileatum
was firmly attached to the intestinal wall, the disk-like head being embedded in the sub-
mucosa. There were, however, associated with this specimen, five other minute cestodes,
representing four species and as many genera. They were Anthohothrium laciniatum,
Phoreibothrium lasiuni, Otobothrium crenacolle, and another which was not identified
at the time of collecting and concerning whose systematic position I am not yet certain.

Leaving the species D. pileatum out of the account, it will be observed that two of
the above species, viz, A. laciniatum and P. lasium, have been found in the dusky shark,
both at Woods Hole and at Beaufort, and one other (O. crenacolle) at the latter place.
While there is hence established a close resemblance between the cestode parasites of
C. obscurus and C. platyodon, I am still of the opinion from the data thus far at hand
that some doubt must rest on the dusky shark's being a host of D. pileatum.

BIOLOGY, marine; — MAYER. 117

Trematodes. — Beyond the preliminary examination made at the time of collecting, and
often of necessity hastily given, the collection has not been studied.

From notes made during the preliminary examination it would appear that there are
about 33 species, many of which are new. Of these, all but nine could be referred to the
old genus Distomum. Three species of Gasteristomum were noted. Appendiculate dis-
tomes were seen in but two instances, one in the green moray and the other in the
Spanish sardine. Those from the moray were numerous and resembled the form which
I have been recording under the name D. monticellii; those from tlie sardine were few
and agree with D. appendiculatuni.

Ivlany of the species are represented in the collection by but one or at most few
specimens, and it may be advisable to refrain from giving them names until more
material is secured.

A distome, probably represented by more than one species, found in most of the lots
of gray snappers, grunts, and groupers, is unique in that the ova, as they lie in the
folds of the uterus, present a wreath-like appearance, and each ovum has a long, slender
filament, such as is common on the ova of monogenetic trematodes.

Trematodes were found in large numbers in only two instances, a spade-fish, exam-
ined July i8, and a loggerhead turtle, examined July i.

In general it may be said that the trematode fauna of Tortugas is rich in species.

Ectozon. — Parasitic Isopods were found on the sting-ray, cabezote, yellow-finned
grouper, and a small shrimp common in the gulf-weed.

Parasitic Copepods were found on only one fish, the Spanish sardine.

One leech, colored vivid green and red-brown with blotches of white, was found on
the tongue of a nurse-shark.

General Observations. — The groupers of the Tortugas like those of Bermuda, espe-
cially the older specimens, are characterized by having more or less abundant cysts on
the viscera and often in the walls of the stomach and intestine. These cysts are, as a
rule, dark brown, often nearly black. The color is due to the abundant pigment which
is deposited in the cyst. While these cysts are more often than otherwise due to ces-
todes, accumulations of pigment and degenerate connective tissue were also found
associated with other entozoa, viz, nematodes and acanthocephala in Bermuda, and
nematodes in Tortugas.

It is perhaps worthy of remark that the great barracuda, which is a very voracious and
predatory fish, appears to harbor but few parasites, either as a final or intermediate host.
This conclusion is warranted also from the results of the examination of 5 barracuda in
Bermuda in 1903. The largest Tortugas specimen measured about 1.5 meters in length;
the Bermuda specimens were about one-half that length.

It would be of interest to know whether the apparent immunity from parasites of the
barracuda and other fish is correlated in any way with the digestive ferments.

Dr. Charles Zeleny carried out an extensive series of observations upon
regeneration, in order to determine the effect of successive injuries upon
the rate and character of regeneration in Crustacea. He also studied
regeneration in Cassiopea, and found that except in cases where all or
nearly all of the arms are removed there is an increase in the rate of
regeneration of each arm coordinate with an increase in the number of
removed arms. This confirms Zeleny's law that the animal with the
greater number of removed parts regenerates each and every part at a
more rapid rate than does the animal with the lesser number of removed
parts. Dr. Zeleny is now at work upon his observations, and hopes soon
to publish an account of his results.

Il8 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

Alfred G. Mayer studied rhythmical pulsation in the medusa Cassiopea,
the branchial arms of the stalked barnacle Lcpas, the heart of Salpa demo-
cratica, and of the embryo loggerhead turtle. More than i,ooo experiments
were carried out. It appears that the stimulus which produces rhythmical
pulsations in Cassiopea is conducted by the diffuse nervous network or
epithelium of the subumbrella, not directly by the muscles themselves.
Pieces of subumbrella tissue cut so as to form a complete circuit can be set
into sustained pulsation. The waves of pulsation may cross, or trend with,
the muscle fibers and pulsation will be sustained provided the circuit be
unbroken. Any cut which breaks the circuit instantly interrupts the
pulsation and sustained pulsation can not be restarted. This sort of pulsa-
tion is maintained by a single originally stimulated point, and whenever
the contraction waves return through the circuit to this point they are
restimulated and again sent forth through the circuit.

It is the general role of magnesium to inhibit or restrain pulsation,
while sodium chloride, potassium, and calcium unite to form a powerful
stimulant producing abnormally energetic, but not long-sustained, pulsa-
tion. It is the office of magnesium to restrain this powerful stimulant,
and thus to prolong its action indefinitely. Thus a Ringer's solution is
only a stimulant; and a certain amount of magnesium is necessary in
order to restrain and at the same time permanently sustain pulsation.

The Atlantic palolo worm {Eunice fiicata) swarmed on the mornings of
July II and 12, and the last quarter of the moon fell on July 13, 1906.
Experiments to determine the nature of the reaction which causes the
swarm were unsuccessful, but will be repeated under better conditions.
We now know that the worm may swarm when there is no rise and fall
of tide.

About 150 colored drawings were made of new or rare Siphonophorje,
Ctenophor^e, and Medusas.

On July 24, 1906, the Physalia, Sea Horse, and other Department vessels
were safely laid up in the Miami River, and the yacht's license was surren-
dered to the custom house.

I take pleasure in reporting that the property intrusted to my care is
in good condition.

BOTANICAL RESEARCH — MACDOUGAI,. 1 19

BOTANICAL RESEARCH.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANICAL RESEARCH, TUCSON. ARIZONA *
By D. T. MacDougal, Director.

Upon the organization of the Department at the beginning of the present
year, attention was turned to the extension and development of the investiga-
tion of problems which might be attacked to greatest advantage in connection
with the Desert Botanical Laboratory at Tucson, Arizona. The Desert Labo-
ratory was established in 1903, and in the period of two years during which
its facilities were actually available its effectiveness was amply demonstrated
by the results secured by the resident investigator and visiting naturalists.
Additional facilities and equipment have been provided as described below,
and the staff has been enlarged to include workers on some of the more
important questions in the physiology of plant life.

In this expansion an attempt was made to secure a correlation of effort, not
only among the members of the Laboratory staff, but also to include the
work of other scientists receiving subsidies from the Institution. Beyond
this it was taken as a matter of course that the researches taken up should
not duplicate the activities of other institutions any farther than might be
necessary and justifiable by the peculiar local conditions offered by the region
in which the Laboratory is located.

As a natural outcome of the principles noted above, questions arise which
require the more or less combined and organized effort of the entire Labora-
torv extending over a term of years, with participation on the part of the
entire staff at various times. Work of this character demands the utmost
exactness in making records of observations and experimental results, as well
as definiteness of methods, in order to be of a value commensurate with the
effort expended.

THE VEGETATION OF THE SALTON BASIN.
It seems to be fairly apparent that the greater portion of the more pro-
nounced arid areas in North America has been in submersion during
comparatively recent geological periods, and consequently that the highly
specialized flora which now inhabits such regions is of fairly recent origin.
In seeking to interpret the striking adaptations which are so profusely exem-
plified in the desert flora and in securing evidence upon problems of the
physiology of plant life, it would appear that anything that would give sug-
gestions as to the movements and behavior of such plants in the occupation
of new areas might be of great value. The Salton Basin in southern
California offers opportunities of this character.

* Report for the year ending September 30, 1906. Grant No. 309. $33,000 for investi-
gations and maintenance. (For previous reports see Year Book No. 2, p. xxvi, Year
Book No. 3, pp. 98-100, Year Book No. 4, pp. 126-127.)

120 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

The Salton Basin is an irregular oblong depression, with an area of 2,000
square miles, having its long axis lying northwest and southeast, extending
from the angle formed by the San Jacinto Mountains and San Bernardino
foothills in California to a point across the international boundary line
between the United States and Mexico, being cut off from the Gulf of Cali-
fornia by the alluvial deposits in the delta of the Colorado River. The lowest
portion of this depression is 287 feet below sea-level, and the presence of an
old beach line 22 feet above sea-level shows that comparatively recently it
has been the site of a lake, which emptied southwardly into the Gulf of
California. Within historic times, however, the basin has been empty, and
this great bowl is one of the marked features of the Colorado Desert. The
rainfall is exceedingly scanty and the soil is highly charged wath salts of
various kinds, consequently the vegetation is of a pronounced spinose or
halophytic type.

Several times within the last century the flood waters of the Rio Colorado
have been diverted to such an extent as to flow into the basin and form a
small lake, and the presence of several minor beach lines on the slopes of the
basin suggests that such inflows have taken place many times within the last
few thousand years, and also that the level of the ancient lake was not lowered
uniformly.

During the last three years some faulty engineering operations have opened
a channel leading into the basin, with the result that the main flow of the
Colorado River has run into the depression for the greater part of the last
year, forming a lake with an area of nealy 500 square miles, accompanied,
of course, by the entire destruction of the desert flora on the submerged
lands. As a result of the engineering efforts of the Southern Pacific Railway
the channel leading from the main course of the river to the Basin was closed
early in October. The gradual shrinkage of the lake may now confidently
be expected, and the desert vegetation will probably reoccupy the areas left
bare by the recession of the water. As a fortunate prelude or beginning of
this study, Dr. D. T. MacDougal and Mr. Frederick V. Coville visited the
basin in 1903 and made some observations upon the vegetation, together with
some photographs of the manner of occurrence and habit. The evaporation
and seepage in the region are such that seven or eight years will be necessary
to empty the basin, which will thus afford experimental conditions on a large
scale of the re-vegetation by xerophytic plants of a submerged area. A sim-
ilar depression on the western side of the Cucopa Mountains, in Baja Cali-
fornia, is expected to offer corroborative evidence, while the altered condi-
tions offered by the diversion of the water in the delta lands will yield results
of great value as to distribution.

An examination of the effect of the advancing water line upon the vegeta-
tion of the contiguous desert was made by Dr. D. T. MacDougal and Mr.

BOTAXICAL RESEARCH — MACDOUGAI,. 121

Godfrey Sykes in the spring- and summer, and Prof, and Mrs. A'. M.
Spalding- also beg-an some observations near the shore at Mecca, California,
early in October, at the maximum height of the water.

INFLUENCE OF ALTITUDE AND CLIMATIC FACTORS UPON
VEGETATION: ACCLIMATIZATION.

As a result of the activities of horticulturists and botanical gardens a large
number of species have been transferred from one country to another, and
some observations as to alterations in habit and form are recorded, resulting
from such removals. A few experimental tests have been made in the culti-
vation of species through a range of altitudes, and some of the morphological
changes induced have been described. It is known that the color, time of
bloom, habit, structure of the root and shoot, general aspect of plants, and
economic value may be greatly altered by cultures at various altitudes, but
no systematic tests have been made to determine to what factors in the
climates concerned these differences are due. The solution of the problems
involved would settle some of the most important problems in general
physiology, and would also go far in enabling us to account for the structure
and form of the species of which the vegetation of the earth is composed.

It is by means of experimental observations of this kind that it also may be
hoped to obtain evidence as to the inheritance of acquired characters, a ques-
tion which has been a much vexed one for many years. No adequate tests
have yet been made to ascertain whether or not the marked changes induced
in plants by cultivations at higher or low^er altitudes than the normal are
fully transmissible to succeeding generations grown under other conditions.

The practical problems of acclimatization offer some highly peculiar condi-
tions. Thus two separated localities may offer meteorological conditions
apparently similar, so far as ordinary methods of weather records show, yet
the exchange of plants between the two places will be attended with but
indifferent success, even when differences in composition of the soil are
accounted for. It seems unnecessary to point out that when the factors in
climate have been accurately analyzed as to their effect upon vegetation a
much more rational basis will be afforded for efforts at acclimatization.

The entire plan for investigations in connection with the above entails the
establishment of small plantations, each embracing a fraction of an acre at
an elevation of 2,300 feet in the alluvial valley of the Santa Cruz River, at
the well-site of the Desert Laboratory, near Tucson; at the Laboratory, in
an arid situation, with a rainfall averaging 12 inches ; at Castle Rock, a spur
of the Santa Catalina Mountains, with a limited rainfall, upon which observa-
tions are being taken, and at an elevation of 8,000 feet, near the summit of
the Santa Catalina Mountains, in a locality where the rainfall is probably
greater than the possible evaporation. Steps are being taken to secure
thermometric data in all of the localities, and to otherwise ascertain the cli-

122

REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

matic factors to be dealt with. In addition to the above, Dr. G. E. Hale,
director of the Solar Observatory on Mount Wilson, near Pasadena, in
southern California, has placed at the disposal of the Desert Laboratory facil-
ities by which a plantation may be established on the summit, at an elevation
of 5,500 feet, in a climate quite different from that offered by any of the
above localities. A comparative culture has also been established at the trop-
ical station at Cinchona, Jamaica, in which a few species are under observa-
tion. The completion of the plan entails the establishment of a culture at
11,000-12,000 feet in the San Francisco Mountains, in northern Arizona.

As an illustration of the method of experimentation the following plants
have been taken from the desert locality of the Desert Laboratory at 2.300
feet, to the austral plantation on Castle Rock, at an elevation of 6,000 feet.

Sphcrralcca pcdata, roots and seeds, peren-
nial.

Jasmine gracilis, stocks, perennial.

Kramcria canesccns, stocks, perennial.

Bigclovia hartzvegii, clumps, perennial.

Mcnodora scabra, stocks, perennial.

Hilaria mutica, roots and seeds, peren-
nial.

Cassia covcsii, stocks, perennial.

Encclia farinosa, stocks and seeds, peren-
nial.

Verbena ciliata, stocks and seeds, peren-
nial.
Covillea tridentata, seeds, perennial.
Franscria deltoidea, seeds, perennial.
Plantago aristata, seeds, annual.
Plantago fastigiaia, seeds, annual.
LcsqucrcUa gordonii, seeds, annual.
Daucus pusillus, seeds, annual.
HarpagoncJla pahiieri, seeds, annual.
Xanthium canadcnse, seeds, annual.

The following species from near sea-level, in a moist climate, were placed
in a culture in the alpine station on the Santa Catalina Mountains, at an ele-
vation of 8,000 feet:

Phytolacca decandra, roots, perennial.
Polygonatum biflorum, rhizomes, peren-
nial.
Antcnnaria biAorum, rhizomes, perennial.
Antennaria neglecta, rhizomes, perennial.
Aquilegia canadensis, rhizomes, perennial.
Bicitculla cucullata, bulbs, perennial.
Selaginella rupestris, rhizomes, perennial.
Hepatica hepaiica, roots, perennial.
Ariscema triphyllum, corms, perennial.

Sequoia gigantea, seeds, perennial, from

California.
Roripa aincricana, roots, perennial, Lake

Champlain.
Quercus, a dwarf species from the Sierra

de Pachuca, Mexico.
Sanguisorba canadensis, roots, perennial.
Gcnm canadensis, roots, perennial.
Aletris farinosa, roots, perennial.
Lilinm siipcrbuni, bulbs, perennial.
Trillium undulatum, rhizomes, perennial.

Roripa auiericaiia, the American water-cress, which Dr. MacDougal
secured from its habitat in Lake Champlain in 3 feet of water, in 1902, was
transferred to ordinary soil cultures in 1902, in w^iich it has since grown,
having undergone the most sweeping changes in structure and habit, some
cultures of this plant being carried on at Cinchona, Jamaica, in a tropical
climate, and, as noted above, it has been placed in three of the plantations
in connection with the Desert Laboratory. Several years must elapse in the

BOTANICAL RESEARCH — MACDOUGAL. 1 23

course of such experiments before definite results may be expected ; but with
this species the progress of four years is already available, and it may be
expected to furnish data of importance within a short time.

The Movements and Distribution of Desert Vegetation, by Prof. V. M.
Spalding. — During the past year a comprehensive ecological study of the
plant associations and their habitats on the reservation of the Desert Botan-
ical Laboratory and adjacent territory has been undertaken. This study has
been greatly facilitated by a topographical surv^ey, which has been completed,
and a geological survey, now in progress, under the direction of the geological
department of the University of Arizona. It is based, primarily, upon deter-
minations of habital factors by several members of the staff of the Desert
Laboratory, and upon definite observations and records of the occurrence,
habits, structure, and physiological activities of characteristic plants of this
district. Twelve well-defined habitats, each with its own association of
plants, have been studied, and, at the several stations located for this purpose,
some progress has been made in an attempt to correlate plant behavior with
known factors of environment, particularly as regards relation to water sup-
ply, alkalinity of soil, exposure, and drainage. Curves have been constructed
showing relative frequency of some of the m.ost characteristic species of
typical localities. Areas of uniform size have been permanently located, and
their vegetation charted and photographed. The invasion of a number of
species has been watched and their present position indicated on charts. By
these and other means data are accumulating for a rational study of compe-
tition, succession, and adaptation as they are exhibited in this region. An
analysis of the flora has been made and certain relations to floras of other
regions established, thus preparing for a more comprehensive study of histor-
ical factors than has hitherto been made in this territory. Up to this time
only limited districts in southern Arizona and New ^Mexico have been worked
over critically, but preparations are being made for the necessan,' extension
of the area in which comparative observations are carried on.

Seasonal and Other Variations in Volume of Succulents, by Mrs. B. S.
Spalding. — Measurements of the bodies of several succulents in which the
water-storage function is well developed have been continued from last year,
and a great amount of well-authenticated data showing rapid and relative
great alterations has been obtained. Evidence has been accumulated that
the changes in the shape and volume of the saguaro (Cereus giganteus) are
controlled not only by its water content but in a minor degree by temperature
and illumination. It is hoped to continue these measuremicnts and determine
the parts played by the separate factors, and at the same tim.e differentiate
the changes in question from growth accretions. JNIeasurements have also
been taken of a number of individuals of bisnaga (Echinocactus) and of
Opuntia engelmannii.

124 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

Topographical and Geological Survey of the Laboratory Tract, by Prof.
C. F. Tolnian. — In the investigation of the movements and distribution of
desert vegetation by Professor Spalding it was found necessary to secure a
map of the tract on which experiments are being carried out, and this was
undertaken by Professor Tohnan, assisted by some of his students from the
University of Arizona.

Studies in Transpiration, by Dr. B. B. Livingston. — During the year the
investigation of the relations of plants to soil, moisture conditions of the soil,
and air, described in the Year Book for 1905 (4, p. 128), have been repeated
as to certain details to obtain confirmatory evidence while reading proof of the
completed paper upon the subject which has appeared as Publication No. 50
of the Institution.

Dr. Livingston's researches have the ultimate purpose of determining in
a comprehensive way the entire water-relations of desert vegetation. In
this work it is of the greatest importance to secure a continuous record of
the evaporation of water from some adopted standard of surface, and an
evaporimeter, the initial design of which was made in 1905, has been devel-
oped until now a complete and continuous tracing may be obtained which
will be of the greatest importance in researches of many kinds in progress at
the Desert Laboratory.

In the further unification of results it becomes necessary to ascertain to
what extent the available records of transpiration obtained from separated
branches are comparable with those obtained from entire plants under fairly
normal conditions. The accomplishment of this result will do much to
standardize results and reduce much apparent incongruity as to existing
conclusions.

The study of the rate of transpiration displayed by various species shows
that much diflference exists among separate forms as to the physiological
regulation of transpiration. The detection of these differences becomes
possible by the use of the curves obtained from the recording evaporimeter
noted above. It is proposed to extend these observations to include repre-
sentatives of the more prominent types of xerophytic and other vegetation.

Annotated Bibliography of Literature Relating to Evaporation, by Mrs.
Grace J. Livingston. — ^The fragmentary condition of the literature on evap-
oration rendered a bibliography of the subject necessary before much advance
could be made in a comparative study of the subject, or a development of
new methods, and the results at hand now include nearly seven hundred
legitimate titles.

Physiology of Stomata, by Prof. P. B. Lloyd. — The experiments of the
previous summer (1905) have been repeated, as have also the observations on
the normal behavior of stomata and the changes in the content of the guard

VIEW OF DESERT LABORATORY F

SITE OF AUSTRAL PLANTATION ON CATHEDRAL ROOK,
SANTA CATALINA MOUNTAINS.

BOTANICAL RESEARCH — MACDOUGAL. 12$

cells (described in the previous report), and confirmatory results have been
obtained. In addition to the earlier experiments on the effect of darkness
and air deprived of carbon dioxid, others have been done on the effect of the
different parts of the spectrum, from which the following briefly summarized
conclusions have been derived.

In all parts of the spectrum the movements of stomata are the same
qualitatively, such quantitative differences as have been observed being easily
and properly explained on the grounds of general starvation. This is
apparent from the fact that in the blue-violet end of the spectrum the ampli-
tude of movement grows gradually less after the third day, as compared with
the amplitude of movement in the red end of the spectrum. In view of the
persistence of starch in the stomata under both these conditions, and in view
of other contributory evidence, it appears clear that the food content of the
guard cells is derived, in large part at least, from the adjacent chlorenchyma,
and upon the continual starvation of this latter, the effect is to make it impos-
sible for the stomata at length to obtain material from which energy may be
obtained. Little if any movement occurs in the darkness, and a persistent
exposure to this condition results in the starvation of the guard cells, but not
for three or more days. In general the data obtained are in confirmation of
the truth of the theory first suggested by Kohl, that the phenomena of
stomatal action are explicable only by an understanding of the behavior of
the enzymes resident in the guard cells, for which theory, however. Kohl
failed to offer convincing evidence.

Experiments have also been done to test the theory of induced rhythm
as applied to stomatal action. Evidence had been previously obtained in
1905 that such rhythm occurs in transpiration. Francis Darwin had also
held this view for stomatal action, but experiments of the same general
character as those of Darwin done on the Virginia creeper (Ampelopsis
quinqnefolia) are distinctly inconclusive if not inimical to Darwin's view.
Also on the matter of stomatal action during wilting, during which Darwin
holds there occurs a preliminary opening, the data as recent!}^ obtained are
unequivocal, showing that a continual closure, concomitant with, and due to,
wilting, occurs.

Topography of Chlorophyll-masses, by Dr. W. A. Cannon. — The highly
adaptive relations sustained by desert plants to light and humidity as evi-
denced by the aspect and structure of their shoots necessitates concomitant
modifications of the disposition of the tissues bearing chlorophyll, which is
usually present in large quantity in xerophytic forms. When the species
bears only the rudimentary leaves, or none at all, the chlorophyll in twigs,
branches, and stem is particularly well marked. Certain desert trees, as
Parkinsonia microphylla and the other species of this genus, owe their
characteristic color almost wholly to the chlorophyll present in the cortex of

126 REPORTS ON INVKSTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

the branches. There appears to be a constant correlation between the foHar
habit of the desert plant and the character of the cortical chlorenchyma. For
example, in forms with rudimentary leaves, or with none, as Krameria
canescens, Aster sp., Koeherlinia spinosa, the cortical chlorenchyma of the
branches is palisaded ; but in leafy plants the chlorenchyma is composed of
cuboidal cells. Also in plants in which the leaves are rudimentary, the
palisade of the branches is very like that of the rudimentary leaves of the
same plant. As regards the distribution of the chlorophyll in the branches
it was observed in pith, medullary rays, in wood parenchyma and in paren-
chyma of cortex, and it occurs in the secondary cortex of older stems.
Chloroph3dl was noted in the pith of stems of so j^reat diameter as 3 cm.

The persistence of the chlorophyll so deeply in the branches may be asso-
ciated with the great intensity of light in the desert which tests on the refrac-
tion of light from the plant surface indicate is absorbed by the plants in
remarkably high percentages. The recession of the chlorophyll, which occurs
nearly pari passu with the increase in diameter of the stem, takes place
centrifugally. To this there is the single exception of the lingering of the
chlorophyll in wood-parenchyma in the neighborhood of the larger ducts
after that in the adjacent medullary rays has disappeared.

Root-habits, by Dr. IV. A. Cannon. — A survey has been begun which is
meant to include the principal types of desert vegetation with a view to
bringing to light information concerning the general form and habit of the
root-systems of desert plants and determine in what manner the peculiar
conditions of absorption, and the requirements of anchorage are met. Seed-
hngs as well as mature individuals are examined by means of methods of
sluicing which allows the examination of the finest ramifications in situ.
One of the interesting discoveries resulting from this work is the fact that
such seedlings as those of some opuntias develop storage organs in the roots
which function for the accumulation of a reserve water supply until the
succulent stems reach a size when they may hold a comparatively large
amount. Then the embryonic root storage organs atrophy.

Soil and Air Temperatures. — The dififerences between the temperature of
the soil in which the absorbing organs of a plant are functionating and of
the air into which transpiration is taking place form an important element in
many of the primary physiological processes, and the results of the earlier
studies upon the subject seemed to warrant a continuation of this work.
To this end a series of recording apparatus is installed at the Desert Labora-
tory, a second at the New York Botanical Garden, while data extending over
several months were obtained at Cinchona, Jamaica, during 1905 and 1906.
A comparison of the results reveals many dififerences yet to be explained.

Origin, Distribution, and Physiographic Development of the Flora of the
Everglades, by Dr. H. C. Cozvles. — Dr. Cowles had previously made one visit

BOTANICAL RESEARCH — MACDOUGAE. I27

to the Everglades, the results of which have appeared in print; the inves-
tigation was taken up anew October i, and it is not possible to present the
advanced results obtained at this time.

Morphology and Physiology of Storage Organs, by Dr. D. T. Mac-
Dougal. — A comprehensive examination of the water-storing functions in
plants of arid regions has been begun in which the physiological as well as
the morphological aspect of the subject is taken into consideration. The
adaptations for accumulating and holding a reserve suppl}' of water occur in
all parts of the root and shoot of various species of seed-plants, and the
development of tissues for this function shows some important morphological
features. So far as a general survey of American deserts has been made it
seems justifiable to conclude that storage organs and storage plants are most
abundant in regions in which the scant rainfall comes within a limited period
in the year, while the remainder of the year is lacking in sensible precipitation.
In regions such as those on the lee side of the main range of the peninsula
of Baja California, in which the precipitation is very slight, at any time,
and in which the total is small, very few plants are found with well-developed
storage organs.

Ihervillea sonorce ("guarequi''), one of the cucurbits, develops a storage
organ at the base of the stem, the size of squash, which is furnished with a
heavy outer covering highly resistant to evaporation. During the dry season
these structures lie on the surface of the hot sands unaffected. With the
beginning of the rainy season roots are quickly formed, shoots are sent up,
and fruit and seed quickly matured, when the thin stems die away and the
guarequi goes into a resting condition for another year. Some of these
plants were collected and placed on a dry shelf in a museum case in February,
1902, where they have since remained. Every year since, at a time cor-
responding to the rainy season in the native habitat, thin stems have been
sent up, which after a time die back after having developed leaves. Five
years' growth has thus been made at the expense of water stored up in
October, 1901, and the great storage organs are still sound and give evidence
that they may furnish supplies for the annual formation of stems and leaves
for a decade. A large number of species from the desert show similar
adaptations.

Bxplorations and Field Work, by Dr. D. T. MacDougal. — The original
sketch of some of the better known deserts of North America made by Dr.
MacDougal and Mr. Coville has proved so useful in the organization of
researches and has afforded so much information that it has been deemed
advisable to extend the work to include areas not previously examined. In
accordance with this plan a visit was made to the sage-brush deserts of
northern Nevada, to the arid and saline areas contiguous to Great Salt Lake
in Utah, and to the great bolson of Las Vegas, in southern Nevada, all of

128 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

which He in a zone in which the annual precipitation does not exceed ten
inches. The vegetation is composed chiefly of compositaceous types with
reduced surfaces fitted for conserving rather than storing moisture and of
chenopodiaceous forms, such as are characteristic of regions with soils
highly charged v/ith salts.

The latter part of August and the month of September were spent in
making an examination of the desert conditions, and the general aspect of
the vegetation near Laredo, Texas ; Saltillo, Mexico City, and in the region
southward from Tehuacan to Mitla, in latitude 17° N. By the cooperation
of Dr. J. N. Rose, assistant curator of botany in the Smithsonian Institution,
detailed studies were made which would have been impossible without its
aid. The Tehuacan desert was found to constitute a type not hitherto exam-
ined, and to be extremely rich in plants with adaptations for the storage of
water. Among these are the numerous massive cacti, several genera of
which are represented by species that surpass the saguaro of Arizona in bulk.
Three species of Bcaucarnea were encountered in which the storage function
is highly developed, and one of these, Beaucarnca oedipns, probably has a
capacity for holding as much as a ton, or even a ton and a half, of water in
reserve for its needs during dry periods. Much valuable living material was
secured and sent to the Desert Laboratory for experimental purposes, and a
carload of succulents was shipped to New York to be used by Drs. Britton
and Rose in their investigations of the Cactacese.

Numerous expeditions, participated in by the various members of the
staff of the Desert Laboratory, have been made to the Santa Catalina Moun-
tains, the Sierritas, Quijotoa, and Tucson Mountains, and to several areas
within a radius of 100 miles from the Laboratory. These trips are always
organized for some special purpose, such as securing material for experi-
mentation, or the examination of the structure or distribution of desert
forms. Many of them have been shared by visiting naturalists.

Physiology of Genetics, by Dr. D. T. MacDougal. — In continuance of some
investigations begun at the New York Botanical Garden in 1902 a series
of cultures has been carried in the New York Botanical Garden by the
courtesy of Dr. N. L. Britton, director, in which the assistance of Miss A. A.
Knox has been obtained. The series of mutants or individuals appearing
in the progeny of pure strains of plants which differed from the parental
forms by appreciable qualities, obtained by deVries in Oenothera lamarckiana,
have been tested and in main confirmations of his results secured. The
mutants did not in any case occur in a proportion greater than 5 per cent of
the entire progeny and were identical with the forms secured in Amsterdam,
with perhaps one exception. Seeds obtained from various parts of the world,
from some localities in which the plant has been noted since 1854, were found
to produce a low percentage of mutants.

PLATE 10

'^-^.w^^Mt^^ :'^^

AREA DENUDED FOR THE PURPOSE OF MAKING EXACT OBSERVATIONS ON
MOVEMENTS OF DESERT PLANTS IN ITS REOCCUPATION .

L-IAJ.i i-:.._ „.- ^.,_7-,-: ^■-- - '^ ''■'"- '/-■ ''--^- ^' - OVE SEA-LEV>^;

MARGIN OF SEA ON MAY 22, 1906. MINOR BEACH LINES DENOTED
BY PLANT FORMATIONS BETWEEN.

3 ^

E ^ H

2 ^ ^

^ O

BOTANICAL RESEARCH — MACDOUGAI,. I29

No real actuating cause for discontinuous variation in a hereditary strain
having been found, attention was directed to the possibility of inducing
changes in the hereditary elements in such a manner that the qualities trans-
mitted would be altered or destroyed. A theoretical consideration of the
subject seemed to indicate that the changes constituting the essential opera-
tion of mutation ensued in a stage previous to the reduction divisions in the
embryo-sac, or the pollen mother cells. It was planned therefore to subject
these structures to the action of chemical agents, not ordinarily encountered
by the elements in question, at a time before fertilization occurred. The
tests were planned to include the use of a solution of high osmotic value
and mineral compounds, some of which are toxic in concentrated solutions
and stimulating in the proportions used. The probability of success would
be heightened with the number of ovules contained in any ovary operated
upon, and therefore the common evening primrose, Oenothera biennis,
Raimannia odorata, a relative of it and a member of the same family, Begonia,
Cleome, Ahiitilon, Sphceralcea, Mentzelia, and others were experimented
upon. Without recourse to the detail of the work, it may be stated that the
use of sugar solutions (10 per cent) and solutions of calcium nitrate, one
part in one to two thousand of distilled water with capsules of Raimannia
odorata, and zinc sulphate in a stronger solution used with Oenothera
biennis was followed by very striking results. In the first-named plant, there
appeared in the progeny obtained from a few capsules of one individual,
several individuals which were seen to differ notably from the type with the
appearance of the cotyledons, and as development proceeded, it was evident
that a mutant had appeared following the injections and nowhere else and
thus to have some direct relation to the operation. The characters of the
newly arisen form were so strikingly aberrant as to need no skill in their
detection. The parent was villous-hairy ; the mutant entirely and absolutely
glabrous ; the leaves of the parent have an excessive linear growth of the
marginal portions of the leaf-blades and hence become fluted ; the excess of
growth in the mutant lies along the midrib and the margins become revolute.
The leaves are widely different in width, those of the mutant being much
narrower. The parental type is of a marked biennial habit, and near the close
of the season the internodes formed are extremely short, which has the result
of forming a dense rosette ; the mutant forms no rosette by reason of the
fact that the stem does not cease or diminish its rate of elongation and hence
presents an elongated leafy stem, which continues to enlarge as if perennial.
The first generation of the derivative came to bloom at the beginning of the
present year, and bare mention of the existence of the derivative was given
in a lecture before the Barnard Botanical Club at that time. The real value
of the changes induced, however, lay in the transmissibility of the newly
exhibited qualities. The flowers of the mutant were closely guarded and as

9 — YB

130 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

soon as seeds were obtained these were planted to obtain a second generation,
A few plants were obtained, which in every particular conformed to the new
type and exhibited no return to the parental type.

Injections of the ovaries of Oenothera biennis were followed by the pro-
duction of one individual, which was recognizably different from the parental
type in many qualities, some of which were plainly apparent even in the
earliest leaves of the seedlings.

Like the other derivative induced by the action of the chemical reagent, this
form also transmits its qualities to the second generation. The parental
form has been under observation for five years in cultures and in a wild
condition. An aberrant form which appears to be ever-sporting has been
previously figured, and while this form appeared in the injected or treated
seeds in a normal proportion, yet the newest aberrant has not been seen
elsewhere. The probability must be taken into account that it may be a
mutant of rare occurrence, the cycle of which came within the experiments,
but in either case it is plainly a mutant, and it only remains to be seen
whether or not it was induced by the action of the zinc solution. The pre-
sumption seems to favor such a conclusion.

The atypic forms which have been tested to the second generation in both
species are found to constitute mutants in the sense in which that term is used
by de Vries, and are real and actual departures from the course of the
hereditary strain. The capacity of the mutants induced in this manner for
survival would depend entirely upon the environment into which they might
be thrown.

The results of this experimentation have the additional interest that some
simulation of their action may be reasonably predicated in nature. Thus the
effect of radioactive substances such as spring and rain waters, the gaseous
emanations in volcanic regions, the accidental and unusual formation of
certain enzymes or substances in the vicinity of the egg-cells or pollen mother-
cells, or the action of substances set free by foreign pollen which might pene-
trate to the region of the egg-cell in which pure fertilization ensued, or the
stings of insects with the attendant liberation of inciting substances might
well exert a similar action.

It is also to be noted that in these experiments the possibility is by no
means eliminated that the reagents injected into the ovaries may not aft'ect
the egg-cell alone or at all, but may influence the elements carried by the
pollen tube as it penetrates the placental tissues on its course to the egg-cells.

Two instances of sports or branches which bore characters not character-
istic of the shoot of the species on which it was found were tested. In both
cases the characters of the sport or variant were found to be fully inheritable
without any admixture of the qualities of the main shoot of which the sport
was a branch.

BOTANICAI. RESEARCH — MACDOUGAIv. I3I

In a consideration of the subject of origin of new species many forms are
encountered in nature which exemplify quahties of two other species either
in a mosaic or an apparent intermediate grade in the ordinary taxonomic
sense. Such forms are usually taken to be hybrids, although nothing but the
actual resynthesis of the form by crossing the supposed parent or its culture
to show resolutions in successive generation may yield any actual evidence
upon the subject.

An oak tree of this character growing on the farm of Mr. John Bartram
on the banks of the Schuylkill, some time previous to 1750, attracted atten-
tion as being of this hybrid character, and was named "Bartram's oak."
In recent years similar forms have been found in a wide range of localities,
the northernmost being Staten Island. The extended consideration of the
subject by systematists seemed to lend favor to the supposition that it was
a hybrid between Qnercus rubra (the red oak) and Q. phellos (the willow
oak). A number of acorns were procured from one of the trees on Staten
Island in October, 1905, and sprouted in the cultures in the New York
Botanical Garden. The resulting progeny, embracing nearly a hundred
plantlets, constituted the second generation of the hybrid and included a
series of forms which comprised individuals, some of which in this young
stage simulated the red oak, others the willow oak, while the remainder
showed various combinations of the parental characters. The origin and
nature of this form was thus definitely established, and it is without doubt a
hybrid product of the two oaks named. In conjunction with this work a
comprehensive description of methods of testing the constitution of supposed
hybrids has been formulated, and a list of reported hybrids incorporated in a
paper now in press.

Hybridizations between Oenothera lamarckiana and O. rubrinervis, one of
its mutant derivatives, resulted in a progeny which in the first generation
split into the two immediate parents with no intermediates.

Induction and Inheritance of Fasciations in Stems, by Miss A. A. Knox. —
Miss Knox, while assisting in the care of the cultures for the study of
heredity carried on by Dr. D. T. MacDougal in 1905 and 1906 at the New
York Botanical Garden, made an independent investigation of the causes, and
transmissibility from generation to generation of the banding or fasciation of
stems in evening-primroses. It was found in this work that the malformations
in question were due to injury in all cases examined. The injuries are caused
by larvae which hatch and feed on the growing tips, attacking the cells while
still in a meristematic condition. In most plants which are attacked the
growing region is destroyed or its vitality impaired, or the surrounding
leaves alone are consumed, the cells of the apex not reached, when no fasci-
ations result. Certain swarms of larvae by boring into the heart of the tip,
inflict delicate wounds which may induce fasciation. The occurrence of the
phenomena is dependent on three factors — the individual manipulation of

132 REPORTS ON INV]eSTlGATlONS AND PROJECTS.

the insect, the extent and nature of the wound, and the innate character of
the plant. Slow-growing species are more apt to fasciate than those of rapid
development.

In the case of the fasciation from the rosette stage the injuries may be
made by small larvae in the soil, and usually date from the first stages of
germination. The development is slow, and the causes must be traced far
below any sign of their effect. The fasciations are ordinarily flat, but often
ring-shaped, and intermediate stages between the two are common. The
appearance of secondary meristems which later differentiate and which may
eventually become incorporated with the bundle ring in conjunction with the
alteration of the stem's shape is a frequent occurrence.

The section of a fasciated tip shows no deviation from the normal structure
other than that of shape. Below the fasciated region inequalities in the
amount of wood formed are indicative of the early injury.

The progeny of fasciated plants shows no more tendency to fasciation than
that of normal stock. Both may give an equally large percentage of fasciated
stems.

An Automatic Rain-meter, by Mr. H. de Raasloff, C. B. — In the estab-
lishment of the various acclimatization cultures and of experimental tests
in various arid localities it becomes highly desirable to obtain some data
as to the precipitation, as well as of the soil-moisture. The latter may be
determined by occasional tests, but some automatic apparatus for obtaining
the total precipitation and registering it without the use of clockwork, which
could be left alone for extended intervals, is found necessary. Mr. de Raas-
loff has kindly volunteered to design an apparatus, which uses the weight of
the water secured to actuate the mechanism of measurement. A working
model has been constructed which is now in operation in New York, and by
observation of the workings of this instrument an improved form is being
designed which promises to meet the needs described above.

Cooperative Work, Gifts, and Donations. — In a plan for a study of the
horticultural results of Mr. Luther Burbank, Dr. D. T. MacDougal visited
Mr. Burbank's plantations at Santa Rosa and Sebastopol late in May in
company with President Woodward and Dr. C. B. Davenport and Dr. G. H.
Shull, of the Department of Experimental Evolution.

Mr. Godfrey Sykes, of this Department, was detailed to the Solar Obser-
vatory on Mount Wilson, California, beginning July i, 1906, to lay out and
construct a roadway from near Pasadena to the summit of the mountain, an
elevation of nearly 5,000 feet, and the duties in connection with this engineer-
ing problem detained him during the remainder of the year.

A number of naturalists have visited the Laboratory for the purpose of
making observations upon organisms peculiar to the locality and to obtain
material for extended researches. In addition numerous calls for material
and assistance in collecting data have been met as fully as possible.

■n

•n

Tl

T]

T]

K

k'

W

(r'

(r'

05

01

4^

CO

h3

-i

CO

H

H

H

3-

0

3

3-

3-

3-

a

0)

a

01

(8

iu

M

9

3

-5

3

ft (t

p 3 »

S » T3 S

JT O «

» " (T S

(/) «X^ Irf —

(t'
(/I

5'

>

n

3-
ft

ft

a

O"

SU

-J

o

2

ill

ft

<p

3-

ft

«

y

3

9)

0

3

3

ft

3^

5'

3

i>

3
0

3

C

3

n

9)

«

(S

o

0-

c

■D

(R

n

0

0

3

0

c

-i

0

"*

a

^

0

a

c-

c

3"

^

CO
>

(fl

0

a>

a

'*

3

»

»

H

{/>

^

tfi

2

a

>

0
0

(t

5'

«

fi

ft
ft

0
m

03

—

t)

«

?

ft

_

S

■o

ft

3

iC

z

3"

ft

(/)

3-

0

SU

ft

0)

O

3-
O

o
o

0

-*i

3-

ft

0

3'

3-

i'
ft

a

9)

T

0
S'

Ul

0

-1
0

2
>

c

0

3

m

o

3

0

3
0

3-
ft

0

a.

<
ft

-(
>

r

-<

»

a
ft

u

ft'

ft

3

>
0

»

3

-1
a

0

3-

0

9)

H

o

ft"

9)

0
n

c

<

ft

0

2

c

3

U

o-

a

a-

-5

ft

CO

in

0

C

ft

3'

K

a.

3
91

>

n'

ft

3

3

0

s

0

0

-s

c
3'

»'

T

3

■0

O

0

3-

T

■a

3-

Ul

ft

ft

cn

BOTANICAL RESEARCH MACDOUGAL. 133

Prof. J. J. Thornber has contributed a set of herbarium specimens from
southern Arizona to the Desert Laboratory, and has aided the staff at all
times in the systematic study of the local flora. He has accompanied several
of the field expeditions to various localities and also cooperated in the organ-
ization of the alpine plantation.

Prof. W. P. Blake has contributed a set of the report of the tenth census
of the United States to the library of the Desert Laboratory, which is also
the recipient of numerous publications given by members of the staff.

The publications received by the Department, not needed in its work or
development have been contributed to the botanical libraries of several insti-
tutions.

By the courtesy of Dr. N. L. Britton, director-in-chief, the facilities of the
propagating houses and experimental grounds of the New York Botanical
Gardens have been given for the completion of v.-ork on plant breeding by
Dr. D. T. MacDougal. Space in the laboratories has also been at the
disposal of the Department for work in connection with these investigations.
As a partial return for these courtesies the members of the staff of the
Desert Laboratory have used every effort to aid in the investigation of the
Cactacese by Dr. N. L. Britton and Dr. J. N. Rose, of the United States
National Museum. Several shipments of living material from Nevada,
Arizona, California, and various places in Mexico have been sent to these
investigators.

BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT.

Some of the facilities of the Desert Botanical Laboratory have been noted
in previous reports, but it will be of interest to present here a complete
summary of the equipment.

Reservation. — Beginning with the effort of the Chamber of Commerce of
Tucson, in 1903, various additions have been made to the tract on which the
Laboratory is located so that at the present time the grounds available for
experimental work comprise 860 acres, immediately to the westward of the
city of Tucson. Within this tract Tumamoc hill rises to a height of eight
hundred feet above the lower mesas. These topographical features present a
wide diversity of conditions for vegetation, and offer ideal conditions for
many classes of experimental work. The Laboratory building is placed on
a shoulder of the hill about midway to the top, and is reached by a mountain
road of uneven grade which will shortly be replaced by one of better plan.
During the present year the grounds were enclosed by a wire fence of three
strands on cedar posts set a rod apart ; it will be necessary, however, to rein-
force this fence with a basal section of wire netting of close mesh to exclude
domestic animals and to control jack-rabbits and other animals which would
injure the increasing vegetation. Within a few months after the completion
of this fence the difference between the vegetation and that of the surround-
ing areas was noticeable, and also an increased abundance in the number of

134

REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

the wild animals. The proper inclosure of the tract places at the disposal of
the investigator, hill-slopes, mesa, and wash, freed from the disturbances
attendant upon free access of grazing animals and upon ranching operations.
Buildings. — Early in January plans were drawn and contracts let for the
construction of additions to the Laboratory by which its capacity was more
than doubled. With the completion of this construction work the Laboratory
now extends around three sides of a quadrangle 126 feet in length with a
short axis of 85 feet. Attached to the new arm of the building is a small glass
house for experimental purposes, the adjacent room of the building being
used as a work-room. The Laboratory now comprises a small work-room

1=J u=i

1=1 1=1 t=l t=J t=i fc=j

1=) M.. h=* i=i__s:

UJ uj-^

^^

12

•^ ^ 1=1

10

t=l 1=1

SCALE -

0 5 10 20 30 feet

14

Key to Ground-Plan of Desert Laboratory.

1. Morphological laboratory.

2. Library.

3. Photographic dark-room.

4. Store-room and drawing-room.

5. Main laboratory.

6. Underground constant-temperature dark-room.

7. Chemical laboratory.

8. Physical laboratory.

9. Physiological laboratory and oflBce.

10. Work-room for greenhouse.

11. Greenhouse.

12. Covered porch with parapet wall.

13. Soil thermographs.

14. Cold frames for plants.

for morphological work, a library and reading-room, a store-room and draft-
ing-room, a photographic dark-room, a large laboratory for geographic and
general work ; a chemical and preparation-room with hoods and fume drafts ;
a laboratory for physical experimentation with independent piers for delicate
instruments, a subterranean constant-temperature chamber, a large physio-
logical laboratory and office; a small work-room and bath-room, and an
experimental greenhouse. In addition one of the stone cross-walls has been
continued through the roof by a brick pier, capped with soapstone, furnish-
ing an elevated base for meteorological instruments, which is surrounded by
a platform reached by a stairway from the physical laboratory. Here is
installed the new type of evaporimeter designed by Dr. Livingston.

BOTANICAL, RE;SEARCH — MACDOUGAI,. 1 35

The constant temperature chamber was made by digging an excavation
6 by 6 feet, to a depth of 9 feet, in the rock in the center of the physical
laboratory. This was walled with an air-space all around with brick and
arranged with a heading so that the chamber can be entered without creating
disturbing air-currents. The top of this chamber is insulated by planking and
tarred paper. The bulb of a Hallock thermograph is suspended in the
chamber, the recorder of which stands in the Laboratory above, so that a
continuous record is obtained. In addition to the constant temperatures
a" perfect dark-room is also formed, which will be of the greatest usefulness
in several investigations. Similar thermographs are employed in keeping a
continuous record of the soil.

A small instrument shelter is in position a few feet to the westward of the
Laboratory in which is placed a set of thermometers, thermographs, hygro-
scopes, etc., the data obtained from such sources being referred to in many
of the researches carried on at the Laboratory.

Rainwater Reservoir. — For the ordinary operations of the Laboratory and
for cultures of plants rainwater is necessary. To meet this need the entire
laboratory was properly guttered and leaders were joined in a system which
led to a small stone reservoir which was built in the line of the southern side
of the quadrangle. Supply pipes from this reservoir were run to the physical
and chemical Laboratories and to the small greenhouse.

Water System. — It was found necessary to reorganize the entire water
supply of the Laboratory, as the old service was inadequate and the machinery
faulty. To meet these conditions a lot was purchased in McKee's addition in
the valley of the Santa Cruz and a well driven in it by contract. A pump
was installed and a new line of i^-inch dipped pipe was laid to the labora-
tory site, 7,000 feet distant and 400 feet above the well. Here a new stone
reservoir, lined with brick, has been constructed with a capacity of 6,000
gallons. The lowest point in this reservoir has a head of 35 feet above the
roof of the Laboratory, and it is believed provides an adequate supply for
use, as well as for fire protection.

Miscellaneous. — A small building near the Laboratory furnishes quarters
for an attendant, but should be replaced by one of fireproof construction. A
public-comfort station was also built of stone near the main laboratory.

The equipment embraces two series of cold frames for cultural work, one
of which has been put in place in the quadrangle, while the other is kept in a
knock-down condition in order that it may be readily moved to any part of the
reservation as occasion arises in the experimental work.

The alpine and austral plantations may be reached only by trails, and all
material must be carried by pack animals. To meet this need a complete
pack equipment has been organized, which comprises two pairs of heavy
rawhide kyacks suitable for the transportation of instruments without dam-
age. In addition, a fairly adequate camping outfit for mountain work has
been provided.

136 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

BOTANY.

Bufbanfc, Luther, Santa Rosa, California. Grant No. 310. Expcrivients in
plant development. (For previous report see Year Book No. 4, p. 125.)

$10,000.

Most strangely and most fortunately the great earthquake of April 18,
1906, which leveled the whole business section of this city in a few seconds,
did no damage whatever to the greenhouse or to any of the plants.

Though in the very heart of destruction, not a pane of glass was cracked,
not a leaf was broken, not a plant injured ; even the rows of trees and plants
at the Sebastopol farm, though in some places moved 4 feet out of line, were
in no case injured in the least.

The work of crossing and the continual selection of promising variations
continues as before, and an unusual number of new species and varieties of
wild and locally known plants have been received and are being carefully
inspected for characters of value either for economic or scientific purposes.
Five hundred and twenty-two native species and varieties were received
from native collectors in South America, 241 from Australia and New
Zealand, and nearly 200 from various other parts of the world, among them
many promising new types of Solanums, Opuntias, native wild fruits and
vegetables, locally known and medicinal plants, trees, shrubs, and flowers,
nearly all from seeds, thus obviating danger of insect pests and greatly
lessening the expense and giving a better opportunity for selection by having
greater numbers.

Some necessary draining has been done at the farm in spots too wet for
cultivation, and the Home grounds have been made level and formed into
raised beds to prevent the destruction of valuable plants by winter rains as
formerly and to economize water used in summer irrigation.

Help to carry on the work is as usual the principal expense, but I now
have loyal, intelligent helpers, so that nothing is wasted or lost by careless-
ness and inefficiency. The work is gradually being systematized and adapted
to the new plans. It is perhaps not necessary to go into particulars here,
but specially great progress is being made with the Opuntias, plums, nuts,
and berries, among all of which unequaled opportunities for the study of
scientific laws and principles have developed.

Blafceslee, Albert F*, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Grant

No. 340. Investigation of sexuality in lower fungi. (For previous report

see Year Book No. 4, p. 275.) $1,000.

Abstract of Report. — Investigations on the germination of zygospores

begun the year previous have given certain definite results, which may be

summarized as follows :

(i) The zygospores of the Mucorineae require a longer or shorter period
of rest before they become capable of germination.

BOTANY — BLAKESI^EE.

137

(2) The germinatiou of the zygospores of the homothallic species Sporo-
dinia is pure homothallic.

(3) In the germination of the zygospores of the heterothallic species
Mucor vmcedo the segregation of sex is completed at some time before the
formation of sporangial spores, and all the spores in a given germ sporan-
gium are of the same strain, either (-f) or (— ).

(4) In the germination of the heterothallic species Phycomyces iiitens a
segregation of sex may take place at the formation of spores in the germ
sporangia, but is only partial.

(5) In addition to ( + ) and ( — ) heterothallic spores, spores are formed
which give rise to homothallic mycelia characterized by a production of
spirallj' coiled aerial outgrowths termed pseudophores and the occasional
formation of homothallic zygospores.

(6) The sexual character in these homothallic mycelia is unstable, and
in their sporangia a segregation again takes place and (+), ( — ), and homo-
thallic spores are produced. (Annales Mycologici, iv, pp. 1-28, pi. 1,2 text
figs., 1906.)

The investigation of the distribution in nature of the sexual strains of the
common bread mold {Rhizopus yiigricans) has been extended. (Science,
n. s., XXIV, pp. 118-122, July 27, 1906.)

The results obtained from a study of zygospore germinations in the
Mucorineae have led to an investigation of the sexual condition in the
sporophyte of Bryophytes. (Botanical Gazette, xlii, pp. 161-178, fol. vi,
3 text figs., September, 1906.) For one form {Marchantia polymorpha) it has
been definitely determined that a single capsule contains both male and female
spores. The exact point in the development of the capsule at which the
segregation of sex takes place has not as yet been determined.

A study of the influence of the composition of the substratum upon the
sexual reproduction has been begun and is still in progress. The forms
under investigation are included in the following list of species, arranged
according to the type of their sexual reproduction:

Homothallic

1. Sporodinia grandis.

2. Spinellus fusiger.

3. 4. Miicors I and II.

Heterogamic.

5. Zygorhynchus Moelleri.

6. Zygorhynchus heterogamus.

7. Dicranophora.

Heterothallic
I. Mucor Mucedo.
2-7. Mucors III to VIII.

8. Rhizopus nigricans.

9. Phycomyces nitens.

10. Circinella umbellata.

11. Cunninghamella echinulata.

12. Absidia caerulea.

13. Absidia repens.

14. Absidia sp.

15. Helicostylum.

16. Syncephalastrum.

17. Mucor N, n. gen.

138 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

Olive, Edgar W», University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin. Grant
No. 271. Researches on the life histories mid cytology of certain loiver
plants. (For previous reports see Year Book No. 2, p. xxvii ; Year
Book No. 3, p. 131, and Year Book No. 4, pp. 130-131.) $1,000.

Abstract of Report. — Three papers, representing part of the writer's earlier
work as research assistant of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, have
been published, one on Oscillatoria and two on the structure and develop-
ment of Kmpusa.

Several other papers have been partially completed, two on Diplophrys
and other colonial organisms, one on Empusa nmsccB, one on Ceratiomyxa,
and one on Basidiobolus. Some preliminary work on the rusts has shown
that the results of certain recent writers on the group are, at least in the
essentials, not contradictory, as has been supposed.

Swingle, Walter T*, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
Grant No. 235. Investigation of the lines oj force in livi?ig cells ajid the
ejects of electromagnetic and electrostatic fields on szich lines of force. (For
previous report see Year Book No. 4, pp. 131-132.) $1,500.

Abstract of Report. — The most important progress in connection with this
work during the past year has been the bringing up to date of the bibliog-
raphy of the literature of the cell. This index now comprises 6,774 cards,
being duplicate entries of 3,387 titles. These titles were copied photo-
graphically from the bibliographies of cytology and histology, published in
the Anatomischer Anzeiger from January i, 1900, up to date. Photographs
were also made of the bibliography in the second edition of Prof. K. B.
Wilson's work on the cell, which includes titles up to 1900. By means of
this new card index it is possible to find arranged under any author's name
practically all of the titles of his published work relative to cytology. This
is a matter of very great importance in a science which is progressing so
rapidly and which has such a scattered literature. Heretofore it has been
almost impossible to avoid overlooking some of the most recent and important
contributions on the subject owing to the difficulty of keeping track of the
literature relating to it.

The importance of such a bibliography in the study of lines of force in the
living cell is very great, since it is a new point of view involving explana-
tions in very different terms from those given by most of the investigators
themselves — that is, a description or drawing considered of minor import-
ance by the author for the problems he had in view may prove to be of very
great import for demonstrating the existence of lines of force in the cell.

Arrangements have been made to utilize new forms of the microscope for
the study of the minute details of cell structure. In this work the naphtho-
brom immersion lens, having a numerical aperture of 1.63, will be used for
visual examination of fixed material and the monochromatic lens for ultra-

BOTANY — SWINGIvE. 139

violet light will be used for making photographs of living cells and also of
preparations made from fixed material. The latter lens has a resolving
power of 2.5. It is believed that the utilization of these microscopic object-
ives having a far greater resolving power than any which have been used up
to now will permit the investigations to be carried on to much better advan-
tage than has been possible heretofore.

During the past year several articles have been published by writers who
accept the doctrine that there are lines of force in the living cell. At least
one of these, by Dr. Marcus Hartog, in the Proceedings of the Royal Society
of London, December i, 1905, gives some new evidence demonstrating the
existence of what he calls " chains of force," which may prove very helpful
in explaining the appearances seen in living cells. These ' ' chains of force ' '
can be formed artificially if fine iron filings are placed in a viscid medium
between the poles of a powerful magnet. These chains have a remarkable
tensile strength. They resist the influence of gravity and can be pushed
aside with a glass rod, or swayed by currents without breaking. They are
more permeable to the magnetic lines of force than is the surrounding medium,
and consequently the medium adjoining one of these "chains of force" is
almost free from lines of force.

It is confidently believed that it will shortly be established to the satisfac-
tion of cytologists that the cell is the seat of a hitherto unknown system of
forces and that these forces are one of the most important agencies at the
disposal of the cell in carrying on its structural work. These kinoplasmic
forces are as important in connection with cell division, the formation of the
organs of the cell, and the building up of tissues as enzymes have proven to
be in carrying out the physiological activities of the cell.

140 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

CHEMISTRY.

Acree, Solomon F., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. Grants
Nos. 204 and 372. Study of pinacoyie-pinacolin r-earrangement and of
urazoles. (For previous report see Year Book No. 4, pp. 134-135.)

$1,300.

Report. — Dr. Acree has continued the investigations on the pinacone
rearrangement and the urazoles. The work on the urazoles will be reported
on later. In the study of the pinacone rearrangement, a phase of this sub-
ject, of biological importance, was taken up in conjunction with Dr. J. E.
Hinkins in the investigation of some cases of abnormally acid saliva. It
was thought possible that carbohydrates in the saliva undergo a rearrange-
ment into the acids found to be present.

A number of individuals suffering from erosion of the teeth, attended with
abnormally acid saliva, presented themselves to aid in the work. The saliva
was titrated with N/ 10 potassium hydroxide solution and phenol phthalein
and found to vary with the different individuals from N / 300 to N / 50. An
increase in the acidity of the saliva was attended by an increase in the
severity of the erosion of the teeth. Investigations were made to throw
light upon the following questions: (i) Is the acid generated wholly or
partially in the saliva by aerobic or anaerobic bacteria present in the mouth ?
(2) Is the acid generated appreciably by enzymes present in the saliva ? (3)
Is the acid generated entirely or in part in the mouth or does the saliva issue
acid from the ducts ?

(i) A study of the rate of formation of acids by various mouth-bacteria,
such as B. coli communis, Staphylococcus pyogenes aicreus, etc., in different
culture media led to the conclusion that bacteria are hardly at all concerned
in the formation of the acid in the saliva.

(2) Similarly, a study of the rate of hydrolysis of triacetylglucose by
various enzymes led to the belief that enzymes play only a very small role in
the generation of acid in the saliva after it enters the mouth.

(3) A study of samples of saliva obtained from different individuals by
catheterizing the left Steno's duct showed this saliva to be as acid as the
total saliva obtained from the mouth. A bacteriological examination of the
saliva issuing from the ducts of the different individuals showed these salivas
to be free from bacteria. The conclusion, then, is that the saliva is secreted
acid in the glands.

In the further study of erosion of tooth structure some new analyses of
teeth were made, and a new color test for proteids was investigated. The
results of these researches are embodied in three articles, now ready for pub-
lication, which will appear with the titles "On Abnormally Acid Saliva,"
"On the Composition of the Dentine and Enamel of Human Teeth," and
"A Formaldehyde Color Test for Proteids (I)." The investigations will
be continued.

CHEMISTRY — BANCROFT, BASKERVILLE. 14^

Bancroft, Wilder D,, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. Grant No. 323.

Systematic study of alloys. (For previous reports see Year Book No. 2,

p. xxix, and Year Book No. 3, p. 104, and Year Book No. 4, pp.

133-134.) ^^'°°°-

The following papers have been published during the year :

The alloys of antimouy and tin. F. E. Gallagher. Jour. Phys. Chem., v. 10, p. 93

(1906).
Electrolytic corrosion of the bronzes. B. E. Curry. Ibid., v. 10, p. 474 (1906).
Electrolytic precipitation of the bronzes. B. E. Curry. Ibid., v. 10, p. 515 (1906).

The paper on the constitution of the bronzes is in the press and will
appear in November. In the work on the electrolytic corrosion of the
bronzes Mr. Curry has shown that there is a definite relation between the
anode efficiencies and the constitution of the bronzes. Sudden changes in
current efficiency take place only at points where the crystalHne structure
changes, though not necessarily at every point at which such a change takes
place. The ' ' breaks ' ' occur at different places in different solutions, but
we are not able to predict the position of the "breaks." In all solutions
except chlorides the bronzes become passive over a greater or lesser range
of concentrations. It has been shown that this is due to the formation of a
surface film of stannic oxide. There is no relation between the corrodi-
bility and the electromotive force of the alloys, but the electrolytic and the
chemical corrosions have been shown to run parallel.

In the electrolytic precipitation of the bronzes satisfactory deposits were
obtained from acid oxalate solutions, and data are given for the relation
between composition of solution and composition of cathode deposit. Under
the conditions of the experiments the electrolytically precipitated bronzes are
the equilibrium forms.

Some work has been done during the year on the constitution, corrosion,
and tensile strength of aluminum bronze, but a report on this will have to
be deferred till next year. A tentative diagram for the carbon steels has
also been worked out, but the confirmatory data are still incomplete.
Baskerville, Charles, College of the City of New York, New York, N. Y.
Grant No. 237. Contimiation of mvestigatio7i of the rare earths. (For
previous reports see Year Book No. 3, p. 105, and Year Book No. 4,
pp. 136-148.) ^^'°°°-

Professor Baskerville submits the following abstracts of several investiga-
tions carried out by himself and Dr. Fritz Zerban with the aid of grants from
the Carnegie Institution of Washington.

PREPARATION OF METALLIC THORIUM.
It was shown by previous experiments (Fourth Year Book of the Carnegie
Institution of Washington, pp. 139-142) that metallic thorium of a high
degree of purity may be obtained by the reduction of thorium potassium

142 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

fluoride with aluminum under suitable conditions, and subsequent treat-
ment of the regulus obtained with caustic alkali to remove the excess of
aluminum. The metal prepared in this way, however, was a crystalHne
powder which still contained some impurities. The removal of these im-
purities was absolutely essential for the subsequent determinations of the
physical and chemical properties of the metal. The only effective way for
accomplishing this is remelting it repeatedly. But this method can not be
applied to thorium under ordinary conditions, because the melting point of
this metal is extremely high and because it is attacked by all inert gases,
forming hydride, nitride, or carbide. It can not be fused under a cover of
an alkaline chloride, because the metal oxidizes at a temperature much lower
than the melting points of the chlorides. It is necessary, therefore, to fuse
it in an absolute vacuum. We hope to carry out these experiments in a
vacuum resistance furnace of the Arsem type.

In the meantime some other methods were tried with the view of obtaining
the fused metal directly. Muthmann and his pupils showed that the metals
of the cerite group may be obtained by electrolysis of the fused anhydrous
chlorides in a water- jacketed copper crucible, using a very thin carbon rod as
cathode and a thick carbon anode. In order to find out the most favorable
conditions, samples of metallic cerium, lanthanum, and neodymium were
prepared with satisfactory results. It was further tried to obtain these
metals from their respective double fluorides with potassium by electrolysis.
The double fluorides were prepared in the following way : Concentrated
solutions of the chlorides or nitrates were heated on the water-bath and pure
hydrofluoric acid added. The gelatinous precipitate obtained at first soon
changed into a fine, heavy, sandy powder which could be easily filtered by
means of a hard rubber funnel and washed with water. It was then dried
at 1 20° C. and finally fused with 3 molecules of potassium fluoride. When
working under the same conditions as Muthmann, these double fluorides
were readily fused by the current used, but in no case was metal formed, as
Muthmann had also observed in the case of didymium. By changing the
proportions of rare-earth fluoride to potassium fluoride the melting point and
the resistance of the substances was also altered. By electrolysis of these
bodies metal could not be prepared.

After these preliminary experiments the preparation of metallic thorium
was attempted. As the fluoride of this element is prepared much more
readily than the anhydrous chloride, the investigation was begun with the
double fluoride of thorium and potassium made in exactly the same way as
those of the cerite metals, mixing two molecules of potassium fluoride with
one of thorium fluoride. The material fused very readily in the electrolytic
cell ; however, no metal was obtained. Next to this experiment the elec-
trolysis of double chlorides of thorium was attempted. Anhydrous thorium
chloride was prepared in a porcelain tube by Matignon's method, i. e., by

CHEMISTRY — baske;rvili.E. 143

heating oxide in a current of chlorine mixed with vapors of sulphur chloride.
The chloride obtained in this way was mixed with one-third of its weight of
barium chloride and with suflScient sodium chloride to make up for two
molecules of sodium chloride altogether. The barium chloride was added
to increase the temperature of the electrolyte ; this peculiar property of
barium chloride was discovered by Muthmann. Experiments with the view
of electrolizing the double chlorides are in progress.

A third method which presented itself was the use of metallic calcium as a
reducing agent acting in a similar way as aluminum, since calcium is now
one of the cheaper metals and can be had in large quantities. A great
number of experiments was undertaken, using oxide, anhydrous chloride,
double chlorides or fluorides, changing the proportions of the thorium com-
pound to the reducing agent, and using outside heat or Goldschniidt's ignition
method. In most cases metallic thorium was obtained in the form of a gray
powder, but never as a regulus. Although calcium has a higher reducing
power than aluminum, the heat of combustion is not sufl&cient to melt the
metal as well as the calcium oxide produced.

INVESTIGATIONS ON METALLIC YTTRIUM, GLUCINUM, CERIUM, AND

ZIRCONIUM.

In connection with the experiments on metallic thorium an investigation
on some other rare-earth metals was begun. For the material, which con-
sisted of pure rare-earth preparations and of 5 pounds of Norwegian gado-
linite, we are indebted to the Welsbach Light Company, at Gloucester, New
Jersey, and especially to their chemist, Dr. H. S. Miner.

The gadolinite was treated in the following way : It was ground to a fine
powder and decomposed by heating with crude hydrochloric acid. The
silica was then filtered off and the solution evaporated to dryness in order
to render insoluble that part of the silica which remained dissolved after
the first treatment. The residue was dissolved in very dilute hydrochloric
acid, the solution filtered again, diluted to about 10 liters, and slowly poured
into a solution of 3 pounds oxalic acid in 15 liters of water, and the whole
allowed to stand for two days. It was then filtered and washed. The yttria
was extracted from these oxalates by Drossbach's method, which consists
in dissolving the moist oxalates in a strong solution of potassium carbonate
and pouring this solution into a large quantity of hot water, whereby the
cerite-earths are precipitated. The filtrate was acidified with hydrochloric
acid, which precipitated the oxalates again. These were filtered off, washed,
dried, and ignited. In this way a first portion of yttrite earths was obtained,
which was further purified by precipitation with ammonia. The hydroxides,
after thorough washing, were dissolved in hydrochloric acid.

The other portion of the double carbonates which was insoluble in water
still contained a large quantity of yttrite earths. The precipitate was, there-

144 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

fore, dissolved in hydrochloric acid and reprecipitated with oxalic acid.
After converting into oxide this portion amounted to 290 grams. It was
dissolved in hydrochloric acid, the solution evaporated to dryness, the residue
taken up with water, poured into a mixture of 2.3 kg. of potassium sulphate
and 15 liters of water and stirred for four days. The solution obtained by
this process was filtered, precipitated with ammonium hydroxide, the precipi-
tate thoroughly washed and redissolved in hydrochloric acid. This solu-
tion of yttrite chlorides was then combined with the one obtained by the
carbonate process.

In order to find out the approximate composition of the material prepared
in this way, an atomic weight determination was carried out by the well-
known method of Kriiss, as described by C. R. Bohm. 0.5126 gram oxide
gave 0.9852 gram sulphate. The atomic weight calculated from these figures
is 106. i§ for a trivalent element, a perfectly satisfactory number for crude
yttria.

It seemed desirable, on account of the small quantity of material and its
high value, to undertake the first experiments with this crude yttria instead
of first extracting the single constituents from it. Thus far four electrolyses
have been run with the anhydrous chloride mixed with barium chloride, but
in these only pulverulent metal was obtained. The double fluorides, which
were also tried, did not give satisfactory results. The experiments will be
continued.

The glucinum contained in the first filtrate from the rare-earth oxalates
and contaminated mainly with iron was purified by the usual methods with
ammonium carbonate and ammonium sulphide, and will be used for an
investigation of metallic glucinum.

In connection with the experiments in which it was tried to reduce
thorium by means of metallic calcium, the behavior of this latter metal
towards ceria, zirconia, and their respective haloid salts was studied. Only
in one instance, by using anhydrous cerium chloride, mixing it with the
calculated amount of calcium filings and igniting with Goldschmidt's igni-
tion mixture, small globules of metallic cerium were obtained, but the heat
produced was not sufficient to melt both of the products of the reaction. In
all other cases only pulverulent metal was obtained.

ON THE ATOMIC WEIGHT OF CAROLINIUM.

The investigation on the elementary nature of thorium, published in pre-
vious Year Books, was criticized by Meyer and Gumperz. These authors
used, for the preparation of the anhydrous chloride, a method similar to
that described by Charles Baskerville, but which differs from it in certain
important details. Whereas the latter author found different values for the
atomic weights of the three fractions, Meyer and Gumperz claim that there

CHEMISTRY — BASKERVILIvE. 145

is no such difference, and that all of the fractions have the atomic weight
of old thorium. Charles Baskerville, in a note discussing Meyer and
Gumperz's paper, called attention to the necessity of exactly following the
procedure described by him for the preparation of the anhydrous chloride.

This criticism necessitated a redetermination of the atomic weights of the
fractions prepared by the original process, combined with a comparative
study of the methods which have been suggested for the determination of
the atomic weight of thorium, and are based upon the relation of oxide to
adhydrous or hyd rated sulphate.

In the determinations reported on below, the purely physical manipula-
tions, as heating and weighing, were carried out with the same precau-
tions as have been described in the previous work. For heating the sulphate
and oxide to a certain fixed temperature, our electric resistance furnace,
with heating space for two crucibles, was used. We had found in the earlier
work that the two counterpoised platinum crucibles when heated to 1,200° C.
lost in weight at a different rate. This difficulty was easily avoided by
heating to only 1,050° C, at which temperature the difference in the loss
is immeasurable. It was ascertained by experiment that at this temper-
ature thorium sulphate is quantitatively converted into oxide.

In one experiment the use of counterpoised quartz crucibles was tried.
They could easily be brought to constant weight at 1,200° C, but it was
found that at this high temperature the thorium-oxide reacted with the
silica, apparently forming a silicate. This silicate having a different coeffi-
cient of expansion, the crucible cracked in one place. It is apparent from
this observation that quartz crucibles can not be safely used for like experi-
ments.

Before weighing, both crucibles were always inclosed in glass-stoppered
weighing bottles of thin glass and of approximately the same weight. This
precaution was taken in order to avoid errors resulting from the highly
hygroscopic properties of both the sulphate and the oxide.

Leaving out the first possible method for the atomic weight determination,
which consists in heating the weighed oxide with sulphuric acid repeatedly
and dr^dng at 400° C. to constant weight, there are two more processes
available.

The first one is accomplished by dissolving pure hydroxide in hydrochloric
acid in a weighed platinum crucible, adding a slight excess of sulphuric acid,
evaporating on the water-bath, and then heating in an air-bath, at 400° C,
to constant weight. The sulphate thus obtained is then converted into
oxide by glowing.

Experiments carried out in this way before had given 241 for crude caro-
linium and 258 after several crystaUizations of the chloride.

Two more determinations made in the same way with material prepared
by Baskerville' s method resulted in the following figures: 0.9706 gram

10 — YB

146 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

sulphate gave 0.6001 gram oxide, atomic weight 227.3 ; 0-9745 gram sul-
phate gave 0.5973 gram oxide, atomic weight 221.5. If the four results
obtained by this method be compared, it is evident that it does not give satis-
factory results and that it can not be used for atomic weight determinations.

The third possible method was used by Meyer and Gumperz. These
authors expressly state that only a crystallized sulphate gives exact results,
and that even among the various crystallized sulphates of thorium only those
with 8 and with 9 molecules of water of crystallization are suitable for the
determination, whereas the tetrahydrate yields unsatisfactory results. The
octo- (or ennea-) hydrate must be dried at 400° C, whereby neutral anhy-
drous sulphate is obtained. This is then converted into oxide and the calcu-
lations are made from the relation Th (SOJ, : ThO,. The authors say : ' ' Our
experiences have shown us that the method described here is the only one
which can be used for the preparation of a neutral anhydrous sulphate. ' '

In order to control this statement also in a positive way, crystallized
sulphate was prepared according to the directions given by Mej^er and
Gumperz. The evaporation of the sulphate solution was carried out at
ca. 35° C. in a round flask, constantly drawing dry air through the liquid,
in order to accelerate the evaporation. After about two-thirds of the liquid
had evaporated, a mass of very small, fine crystals separated out, which
were dried in the air without heating.

The determination made with this substance gave the following results :

1.4893 gram hydrate gave 1.2136 gram anhydride and 0.9326 gram oxide.

The small quantity of water, which corresponds to only 18.51 percent,
shows that the substance obtained could not be the one which should have
been expected. The atomic weight of the element contained in it, assuming
the formula M(SO02 for the anhydrous sulphate, would be as high as 499.
Such a figure is altogether out of question. The compound must, there-
fore, have a different composition. Assuming 256 as atomic weight of the
metal contained in it, a simple formula can not be constructed, but on the
basis of 232 for that figure the formula ThSO^O ; 4.5H,,0 is found.

The compound, according to the figures given above, contains 62.62 per
cent ThO,, 18.86 per cent SO,, 18.51 per cent H^O. By dividing these
numbers by the molecular weights respectively, we obtain the relation
0.237 : 0.237 : 1.028, which is equivalent to i.oo : i.oo : 4.34. The quantity
of water found by this analysis is, therefore, a little smaller than required
by the formula given above.

The correctness of the formula was confirmed by a direct analysis, made
in the following way : 0.5453 gram of the substance was dissolved in water,
the thoria precipitated with ammonia and the sulphuric acid determined in
the filtrate by means of barium chloride 0.3353 gram ThO^ and 0.3015 gram
BaSOi were thus obtained.

CHEMISTRY — BASKKRVTLLE, BAXTER. 147

The results of the two analyses, using different methods, are as follows :

Calculated for
ThOSOi;
4-5 H.,0.

Fouud.

I.

II.

ThOj

SO,

Per cent.
62.12
18.82
19.06

Per cent.
62.62
18.86
18.51

Per cent.
61.49
18.98

(^9-53)

HjO

100.00

99-99

100.00

If the anh3^drous salt be taken as a basis for the calculation, we find the
following figures, agreeing closely :

ThO^
SO3.

Calculated for
ThOSOi.

Per cent.
76.74
(23.26)

Found.

Per cent.

76.84

(23.16)

Since, in this particular instance, we failed to obtain the octo- or ennea-
hydrate, preparing instead a substance heretofore unknown, we have begun
a series of determinations with a sample of octohydrate.

In conclusion it may be remarked that, whereas the equilibria of the
various hydrates of thorium sulphate between 0° and 100° C. have been
made the subject of an extensive study by Roozeboom, there are no data at
hand concerning the decomposition curves of the tetrahydrate and of the
anhydride at temperatures above 100° C. For an exact revision of the
atomic weight of thorium these data will be now indispensable.

Baxter, Gregoty P*, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Grant

No. 293. Researches upon ato7nic zveights, particularly of manganese.

(For previous reports see Year Book No. 3, p. 105, and Year Book No. 4,

pp. 149-150.) $1,000.

Five investigations have been carried on by Professor Baxter or under his

direction.

(i) With Dr. Murray A. Hines the investigation upon the atomic weight
of manganese, begun with Grant 154 (see Year Book No. 4, p. 149, 1905)
by analysis of manganous bromide, was continued by the analysis of man-
ganous chloride. This salt was prepared for analysis by fusion in a current
of hydrochloric acid gas which had been dried with sulphuric acid. Then,
after solution in water, the chloride was titrated against a weighed equiv-
alent amount of the purest .silver. Finally the precipitate of silver chloride
was collected and weighed. The result for the atomic weight of manganese
obtained from the analysis of manganous chloride is essentially identical
with that previously found by analysis of manganous bromide, the final

148 REPORTS ON inve;stigations and proje^cts.

average from both series being 54.96, referred to silver 107.930. The com-
plete account of this investigation will soon be published in the Journal of
the American Chemical Society for November, 1906, and also in the Zeit-
schrift fiir anorganische Chemie.

(2) An investigation upon the atomic weight of cadmium, begun some
years ago by Dr. Hines by analysis of cadmium chloride (see Journal of the
American Chemical Society, 27, 222 (1905), and Zeitschrift fiir anorgan-
ische Chemie, 44, 158, was continued by Dr. Hines and Mr. Harry Iv.
Frevert by the analysis of cadmium bromide. Here also weighed portions
of the fused salt were first titrated against pure silver, and then the precipi-
tated silver bromide was collected and weighed. Since in the investigation
upon manganous chloride it was found that phosphorus pentoxide is slightly
attacked by hydrochloric acid gas, new analyses of cadmium chloride were
completed, in which the salt was fused in a current of hydrochloric acid
which had been dried by concentrated sulphuric acid only. These analyses,
however, agreed very closely with the analyses of cadmium bromide, and
also with the previous analyses of cadmium chloride, although in the earlier
work phosphorus pentoxide had been used as a drying agent for the hydro-
chloric acid gas. The atomic weight of cadmium, referred to silver 107.930,
was found to be 112.47. The results of this research have already been
published in the Journal of the American Chemical Society, 28, 770 (1906),
and in the Zeitschrift fiir anorganische Chemie, 49, 415.

(3) The atomic weight of bromine was determined by Professor Baxter
both by synthesis of silver bromide from weighed amounts of silver and by
the conversion of silver bromide into silver chloride. If the atomic weight
of silver is 107.930, the atomic weight of bromine is found to be 79.953.
This investigation has already been described in full in the proceedings of
the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 42, 201 (1906), the Journal of
the American Chemical Society, 28, 1322, and the Zeitschrift fiir anorgan-
ische Chemie, 50, 389.

(4) Dr. Hines also commenced an investigation upon the atomic weight
of chromium. Silver chromate was precipitated by addition of a dilute
silver nitrate solution to a dilute solution of ammonium chromate. After
being dried at 200° the salt was dissolved in nitric acid and the silver was
precipitated by either hydrochloric or hydrobromic acid. Then the pre-
cipitated silver halide was collected and weighed. Difficulty was experi-
enced in preparing silver chromate free from dichroraate. Furthermore,
it was found impossible to eliminate all moisture from the silver chromate;
hence a correction for this moisture was determined. This research is not
yet completed. The reduction of silver chromate in hydrogen is also under
investigation.

(5) With Mr. George S. Tilley an attempt to refer the atomic weight
of iodine directly to that of oxj^gen has been made through the analysis

CHEJMISTRY — BAXTER, JONES. 149

of iodine peutoxide. Pure iodic acid was made by the action of fuming
nitric acid upon iodine in quartz vessels. The iodic acid, after crystalliza-
tion in quartz vessels, was dehydrated in a current of dry air and the result-
ing pentoxide was weighed. Then it was dissolved in water, reduced with
sutphurous acid, and titrated against the purest silver. This investigation
is still in progress,

Jones, Harry C, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. Grant
No. 267. Investigations on hydrates in concentrated aqueous solutions.
(For previous reports see Year Book No. 2, p. xxx ; Year Book No. 3,
p. 106, and Year Book No. 4, pp. 151-152.) $1,000.

During the past year a study has been made of the absorption spectra of
such salts as cobalt chloride, copper chloride, and copper bromide, as affected
by the presence of certain colorless salts with large dehydrating power, such
as calcium chloride, calcium bromide, and aluminium bromide. The object
of this part of the investigation, which has now been in progress several years,
was to see what evidence could be obtained for or against the present hydrate
theory proposed about six years ago, from a study of the absorption spectra
of certain colored substances as affected by the presence of other substances
which have even greater power to combine with water than the colored sub-
stance in question. By adding the colorless substance in different quanti-
ties we hoped to throw light on the relation between hydration and mass
action.

A Hilger prism spectroscope was used for observational work, and a
grating spectrograph for the photographic records. The solutions were
placed in cells provided with quartz ends, so as to be able to obtain results
also in the ultra-violet region.

The freezing-points and conductivities of many of the solutions were also
measured.

Very satisfactory spectrograms were obtained, showing the change in the
absorption spectra of cobalt chloride, cobalt bromide, and aluminium chloride;
by the addition to solutions of each of varying amounts of calcium chloride,
calcium bromide, and aluminium chloride.

The wave-lengths of the absorption bands in all of the 34 spectrograms
were carefully measured. The results from aqueous solutions are entirely
unambiguous as bearing upon the hydrate problem. The color changes in
the solutions are not due to the presence of double salts, as Engle supposed.
They are not to be accounted for on the basis of ionization, as Ostwald had
thought. They are not due to the presence of complex ions, as Donnan
supposed, but to a change in the hydration of the colored salt or the ions
resulting from it.

The evidence furnished by the spectroscopic work for the general correct-
ness of the present hydrate theory seems to be conclusive. Indeed, the
interpretation of the spectrograms in terms of this theory is perfectly simple,

150 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

while it is impossible to interpret them in terms of any other conception thus
far advanced.

Having obtained such satisfactory results in aqueous solutions, we turned
our attention to solutions in non-aqueous solvents, working with methyl and
ethyl alcohols and acetone. To work with these solvents a special form of
cell was devised for holding the solutions, which could be assembled entirely
without cement.

We worked with cobalt chloride in methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol, and ace-
tone, and photographed the change in the absorption spectra produced by
the addition of varying amounts of water. In a similar manner work was
done with copper chloride in methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol, and acetone; and
copper bromide was studied in methyl and ethyl alcohols.

The bearing of the results obtained with non-aqueous solvents on the
present theory of hydrates is interesting. The fundamental interpretation
given to the widening of the absorption bands is that the vibrations of the
resonators were becoming less damped, which was due to the dehydration of
the vibrating systems. We should then expect that the absorption bands,
characteristic of a given colored salt, would be widest for the anhydrous
solutions, and would become narrower and narrower on the addition of more
and more water. The thirteen spectrograms obtained with non-aqueous
solutions all confirm this conclusion. The work in non-aqueous solvents is
then as confirmatory of the present hydrate conception as that in solutions
in water itself.

The results of this investigation will soon be published in the form of a
monograph by the Carnegie Institution of Washington.

Morse, H, Nv Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. Grant
No. 324. O71 the vieasurement of os?notic pressure. (For previous
reports see Year Book No. 2, p. xxx; Year Book No. 3, p. 108, and
Year Book No. 4, pp. 152-153.) $1,500.

The work of the past year has consisted in (i) the construction of some-
what elaborate automatic devices for the maintenance of constant temper-
atures ; (2) the remeasurement of the osmotic pressure of cane-sugar ; and
(3) the measurement of the osmotic pressure of glucose.

During the first series of measurements of the osmotic pressure of cane-
sugar great difficulty was experienced with certain ' ' thermometer effects ' '
in the cells — that is, "temporary fluctuations of pressure which follow
changes of temperature, and are due to the expansion or contraction of the
liquids in the cell, and not to actual variations in osmotic pressure." It
was determined to eliminate these by constructing a bath in which very
nearly constant temperatures could be maintained automatically for any
desired length of time. The outcome of this part of the work was two
large water-baths — each sufficient for the accommodation of six cells, in

che;mistry — MORSE. 151

which, by means of electrically driven pumps, the water (300 liters) is kept
in constant and uniform circulation, and the air in the enclosed space above
the water is made to pass continuously through pipes lying in the water.
By surrounding these baths with a thick covering of hair very slow changes
of temperature were secured despite considerable and rapid variations in
external temperature conditions. Nevertheless, we proceeded to devise
means for maintaining nearly constant temperatures in the space outside the
baths. For this purpose both electric and gas stoves were employed, and
for the latter there was devised a new form of gas regulator. Finally, to
regulate both the electric and the gas stoves, a new form of electric mercury
thermostat was constructed in which sparking — the usual difficult}^ with
this class of instruments — is suppressed by spanning the spark gap with a
resistance which bears a certain relation to the potential of the battery.

A full account of the measures taken to eliminate the ' ' thermometer
effects," which had given us so much trouble in the earlier work, has been
published in the American Chemical Journal, volume xxxvi, and it is only
necessary to state here that they were entirely adequate for the removal of
the most serious obstacle to the accurate measurement of pressure which we
have encountered.

With the improved facilities mentioned above, for the maintenance of
constant temperatures, a careful redetermination of the osmotic pressure of
cane-sugar solutions, ranging in concentration from o. i to i.o weight-normal,
was undertaken. This part of the work has been completed, and the results
have been published in the American Chemical Journal, volume xxxvi.

The first series of measurements had led to the conclusion that :

Cane-sugar, dissolved in water, exerts an osmotic pressure equal
to that which it would exert if it were gasified at the same tem-
perature and the volume of the gas were reduced to that of the
solvent in the pure state. In other words, dissolved cane sugar
exerts an osmotic pressure throughout the larger volume of the
solution equal to that which, as a gas, it would exert if confined
to the smaller volume of the pure solvent.

It appeared important that this conclusion should be tested with the
utmost care, and great pains were taken to minimize or remove all known
sources of error. The measures which were employed with this end in view
have been fully discussed in the two published papers already referred to.
A tabular statement of the results is given on the next page.

They appear to confirm in a convincing manner the conclusion which was
deduced from our earlier measurements of the osmotic pressure of cane-sugar
solutions.

The measurement of the pressure of glucose solutions has also been under-
taken, and the first series of determinations is nearly completed. The results
indicate that the rule established for solutions of cane-sugar holds equally

152

REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

well for those of glucose. The measurement of the pressure of glucose
solutions was delayed somewhat by a persistent infection of the solutions
and membranes with penicillium. This necessitated a search for a poison
for the fungus which should be effective in such small quantities that the
pressure of the solutions would not be sensibly altered by its presence, and
which would not act injuriously upon the membranes. Thymol was found
to fulfill these conditions in a satisfactory manner.

A Final Summary of Results.

Weight-
normal
concentra-
tion.

0.2
0-3

0.4
0.5
0.6

0.7
0.8
0.9

I.O

No. of
experi-
ment.

Tempera-
ture of
solution.

Observed
osmotic
pressure.

24.05°

24.23

20.90

21.47

21.75

21.65

19.90

21.62

22.15

22.60

23.70

24-35

24.23

24.1

23.68

24.03

2359
23.68

2478
24.78

23.58

2455

Atmospheres.
2.51
2.55
4.72

4.78
4.81

7.24

7.20

9.64

9.69
12.06
12.22
14.74
14.70
14.77
16.95
16.96
19.30

19.39
21.82
21.91

24.42
24.05

Theoretical
gas pressure

at same
temperature.

Atmospheres.
2.42
2.43
4-79
4.80
4.81
7.21
7.16
9.61

963
12.06
12.10
14.55
14-55
14-54
16.94

16.93
19-35
19.36
21.86
21.86
24.19
24.28

Differences

betvreen
osmotic and
gas pressure.

A tmosphere.
-I-O.09
-j-0.12
— 0.07
— 0.02

0.00
+0.03
+0.04
+0.03
■^-o 06

0.00
+0.12

+0.19

+0.15
+0.23

O.OI

4-0.03
—0.05
+0.03

— 0.04

+0.05
4-0.23
—0.23

Molecular
weight cal-
culate d from
osmotic

pressure.

327.85
322.56

344.96
340.90

339-74
338.37
338.20

338.73
337.50
339-59
336.19
335-32
336.07
334-32
339-59
339-50
340.48
339.08

340.19
338.82

336.39
342.72

Mean molec-
ular weight

for each con-
centration.

325.21

341.87
338.29
338.12
337-89

335.24
339-55
33978
339.51
339-56

Simultaneously with the work indicated above, careful determinations
have been made of the freezing-points, and the densities at different tem-
peratures, of cane-sugar and glucose solutions, with a view to discovery, if
possible, what relations exist between the osmotic pressure of these solutions
and their other properties. It had been found, during the earlier work,
that if the factor of density is taken into account, the so-called abnormality
of the freezing-points of concentrated solutions of cane-sugar disappears, in
the sense that all concentrations then conform to the same rule, making it
practicable, in the case of cane-sugar, to calculate correctly the freezing-
point depression of any solution from its known osmotic pressure, and vice
versa. The existence of this relation has been confirmed, but its significance
has not been explained.

CHEMISTRY — MORSEj NOYES. 153

The work now in progress is as follows : (i) A second series of measure-
ments of the osmotic pressure of glucose ; (2) a determination of the press-
ure of solutions of lactose; and (3) a determination of the osmotic pressure
of cane-sugar solutions in the vicinity of 0°.

The second problem has a special interest in connection with the molecule
of water of crystallization which is contained by lactose, the question being
whether, in solution, this water will or will not be found to play the part of
solvent.

The determination of the pressure of cane-sugar solutions at low tempera-
tures may be expected to furnish some evidence as to the validity of the usual
explanation of the abnormal freezing-points of such solutions; for if, as sup-
posed, the sugar appropriates a portion of the solvent, thus bringing about
a concentration of the solution, we may expect to obtain abnormally high
osmotic pressures at temperatures in the neighborhood of the freezing-points.

In the work upon osmotic pressure there have been associated with the
author during the past year Dr. J. C. W. Frazer and Messrs. P. B. Dunbar,
E. J. Hoffman, B. S. Hopkins, W. L. Kennon, and B. F. Lovelace.

Noyes, Arthwr A*, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Massa-
chusetts. Grant No. 325. Researches upon {i) Electrical condtidivity
of aqueous sohitio7is at high temperatures; (2) Electrical transference deter-
minatiojis in aqueous sohitions. (For previous reports see Year Book No.
2, p. XXXI; Year Book No. 3, p. 109, and Year Book No^ 4, p. 154.)

$2,000.

These researches have been continued during the past year in the Research
Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology. The first has been executed with the assistance of Mr. Arthur C.
Melcher, Mr. Guy W. Eastman, and Mr. Robert B. Sosman, and the second
with that of Mr. Edward W. Washburn. A series of twelve articles, which
describe fully the methods and results, has been submitted to the Carnegie
Institution of Washington for publication and is now in press. As the
general results obtained are fully and concisely presented in the closing
pages of that publication, a brief reference to the new experiments will
here suffice.

During the past year the work done upon the electrical conductivity of
aqueous solutions at high temperatures has consisted in an extension of the
measurements previously made with various salts to certain strong acids,
namely, nitric, hydrochloric, sulphuric, and phosphoric acids at temperatures
up to 306°.

The research previously referred to on the ionization of weak acids and
bases and the hydrolysis of their salts has been continued by measuring the
conductivity of ammonium hydroxide and acetic acid and studying the

154 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

hj-droh'sis of ammonium acetate at a temperature of 306° by the method
described in preceding reports, which consists in determining the increase
produced in the conductivity of the salt by the addition to it of one of its
hydrolytic products, acetic acid or ammonium hydroxide. From these
results the ionization of water at 306° has been derived. An entirely simi-
lar investigation of the magnitude of this ionization at ordinary temper-
atures has also been completed by Mr. C. W. Kanolt, and has yielded results
in good agreement with those previously obtained by entirely independent
methods. Finally, good progress has been made in the development of the
new apparatus for extending the conducti\'ity measurement up through the
critical temperature ; and also in the development of the method for deter-
mining the hydration of ions by transference experiments, but final results
have not j-et been obtained.

Richards, Theodore W», Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Grant No. 326. Investigatio7i of the values of atomic 7veights, etc. (For
previous reports see Year Book No. 2, p. xxxii ; Year Book No. 3, p.
112. and Year Book No. 4, p. 155.) $2,500.

Abstract oj Report. — The full records of two of the investigations described
in the last report have been published as Publications of the Carnegie Insti-
tution of Washington, Nos. 56 and 61, occupying 68 and 43 pages respect-
ively. These are entitled ' ' Energy changes involved in the dilution of zinc
and cadmium amalgams ' ' and ' ' The electromotive force of iron under varj-
ing conditions and of its occluded hydrogen." The other investigations
outlined in that report which have not already been published are now being
prepared for publication.

The following investigations were wholly or partially supported by grants
from the Institution.

(i) A revision of the atomic weight of potassium by the analj'sis of potas-
sium chloride was carried out with the assistance of Dr. Arthur Staehler,
assistant in the First Chemical Institute of the University of Berlin, on leave
of absence for a year of study in Harvard University. This research was
modeled essentially on the lines of that upon sodium. (Publication of the
Carnegie Institution of Washington No. 28.) Great care was taken in the
preparation of the material and the analysis. The results were as concordant
and convincing in this new research as in the previous one, and uncovered
as before small errors in the work of Stas. The molecular weight of potassic
chloride was referred to the weight of silver just needed to precipitate its
chlorine, as well as to the weight of silver chloride. The two methods gave
essentially the same result, the former giving K — 39.114, and the latter
K = 39. 1 13, if CI = 35.473 and Ag = 107.930. The close agreement of the
results confirms the previous Harvard work upon chlorine. (Publication
of the Carnegie Institution of Washington No. 28.)

CHEMISTRY — RICHARDS. 155

Parallel with this, and supporting its conclusions, there was conducted :

(2) A revision of the atomic weight of potassium by the analysis of potassic
bromide, carried out with the assistance of Edward Mueller. This problem
involved a number of new points, because the preparation of potassic bromide
in a pure state involves many difficulties. The electrolysis of potassic oxalate
with a mercury cathode and the subsequent electrical decomposition of the
resulting amalgam was found to be one of the most convenient means of
obtaining pure potassic hydroxide used in making the bromide. The results
confirmed the work with the chloride in a satisfactor}' manner, giving K =^
39.1143 by reference to silver, and 39.1135 by reference to argentic bromide.
The average 39.114 of the essentially identical results of the previously
described investigation and this one may be accepted as representing very
closely the true atomic weight of potassium, if silver is taken as 107.930.

As a contribution towards the determination of the true value for silver,
the following investigation also was successfully brought to completion with
the assistance of Dr. G. S. Forbes :

(3) The synthesis of argentic nitrate. Here again great care was used in
every stage of the work. The employment of vessels of fused quartz and
other precautions too numerous to mention carried the work to an unusual
degree of accuracy. The essentially identical results show^ed that if silver
is taken as 107.930, nitrogen can hardly be low^er than 14.037 ; or if nitrogen
is taken as 14.008, silver can hardly be higher than 107.88. Another some-
what similar research was :

(4) A new determination of the atomic w^eight of sulphur, carried out with
the assistance of Grinnell Jones. Recent investigations, carried out under
the auspices of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, have given such
definite knowledge concerning argentic chloride that the conversion of the
sulphate into the chloride promised to yield trustworthy^ data for computing
the atomic weight of sulphur. It was found that the former salt is com-
pletely converted into the latter by gentle ignition in a current of hj'dro-
chloric acid gas ; and very careful experiments conducted in quartz vessels
indicated that the ratio of the equivalent weights is 100.000 : 91 .933. Hence,
if silver is taken as 107.93 and argentic chloride as 143.403, sulphur must
be 32.113, a much higher figure than that usually accepted (32.06) ; and
even if silver is as low as 107.89, sulphur must be almost 32.08. This out-
come was not a surprise, for it had been clear that impurities in Stas's silver
might have affected his results concerning sulphur as well as his work with
chlorine. A single research is not enough to furnish conclusive results
in a case of this kind, and the study of the atomic weight of sulphur will
be continued.

In addition to these finished researches, other work of the same type was
begun, which had as its object the final decision of the uncertaint}^ concern-

156 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

ing the atomic weight of silver ; but this is not as yet far enough advanced
for discussion here. This also will be continued in the near future.

Turning now to the second subject covered by the grant, namely, experi-
mental chemical energetics, there are four other researches to report, as
follows : First among these may be mentioned —

(5) A comparison of the compressibilities, surface tensions, specific grav-
ities, vapor tensions, and heats of vaporization of certain organic compounds,
carried out with the assistance of J. H. Mathews. Nearly all the data
involved in this comparison were determined anew, with carefully prepared
material and new and improved apparatus. Thirty-five typical substances
were investigated. The investigation was undertaken with the hope of
obtaining new light upon the nature of cohesion and its relation to the
so-called chemical afiinity, and this hope was not wholly unwarranted. The
results, in so far as they are capable of interpretation, support the hypothesis
of compressible atoms. Both data and conclusions are too voluminous to
find a place here. The work upon heat of vaporization was not wholly
finished ; it will be continued next year. The remainder of the work is
almost ready for publication.

The investigation next described dealt with an allied subject :

(6) The compressibilities of various inorganic solids and liquids. It was
carried out with the assistance of F. N. Brink. This work was a continu-
ation and amplification of the work of W. N. Stull mentioned in the last
report. Other elements and simple compounds were studied, and much time
was spent in obtaining a new absolute measurement of the compressibility
of mercury, which serves as the standard for other substances.

Three years ago, in an attempt to discover the reason for the difference
between the free energy change and the total energy change of a given
reaction, the author suggested that this difference might be partly due to the
difference in total heat contents between the factors and products of the
reaction. With the assistance of F. G. Jackson this hypothesis was sub-
mitted to preliminary experimental trial in the research next to be reported,
to which may be given the title —

(7) Bound energy and change of heat capacity. In order to obtain sig-
nificant results it was necessary to evaluate the heat capacities of both the
factors and the products of a reversible reaction between the absolute zero
and ordinary temperatures. With the help of the admirable liquid-air
plant of the Chemical Laboratory of Harvard College results at very low
temperatures were obtained, which showed such a well-marked linear tend-
ency that extrapolation to the absolute zero was reasonably safe. The
factors and products of three reversible galvanic cells were studied, and in
each case it was found that the heat expelled by diminution of the heat
contents of the sj^stem was of the same order and the same sign as the

CHEMISTRY — RICHARDS. 157

difference between the change of total energy and the change of free energy.
This result, while not enough to prove the relation in question, is at least
highly encouraging, and points to the advisability of continuing the research.
Even if the supposed relation should be found to be non-existent, the data
are interesting and valuable, and can not but be of use in the experimental
development of chemical thermodynamics. The work will soon be con-
tinued here.

(8) The adiabatic combustion of organic substances and the heat of com-
plete combustion of benzol formed the subject of another research carried out
with the assistance of Dr. h. J. Henderson and H. L. Frevert. In this series
of experiments, the last to be reported here, a research begun with a subsidy
from the Rumford fund of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences was
continued under the auspices of the Carnegie Institution of Washington,
The object of the research was the exact determination of the heats of
combustion of a series of typical organic substances in order to discover a
possible relation between changes of internal energy and differences of
structure. The Berthelot-Atwater calorimetric bomb was used adiabati-
cally, according to the new method devised by the author, and various
precautions necessary to attain great accuracy were adopted. While the
results concerning benzol seem to be definitive, much remains to be done
with other substances ; hence this investigation is still in progress.

The effort will be made to publish in full the details as soon as possible.

158 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

ECONOMICS AND SOCIOLOGY.

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR OF THE DEPARTMENT.*
By Carroll D. Wright.

The year just closing has been a very busy one for the members of this
department and those engaged in assisting the work of original research.
The total number of persons, including the collaborators, employed in such
research work is 135, a large proportion of whom are compensated by the
payment of their expenses and the privilege of publishing theses, mono-
graphs, etc., acknowledging the aid of the Carnegie Institution of Washing-
ton, as provided for in the original plan of the work of this department.

A new division has been added, making twelve in all, and this is entitled
"The negro in slavery and freedom." The work in this department is being
conducted by Alfred Holt Stone, an educated business man from Mississippi,
who is a thorough, impartial, and very candid student of the economic devel-
opment growing out of negro slavery and the work of the negro under
conditions of freedom. The general scope or syllabus of the new work will
be outlined in its proper place.

In all the divisions a vast quantity of material has been gathered, and as
the investigation goes on the sources of original information develop, and of
course the work of collection increases. The prospects of beginning the
editorial work — that is, of bringing the amount of material collected together
in consecutive volumes — has already been entered upon, but will be prose-
cuted more particularly during the coming calendar year. I see no reason
why the work as originally planned can not be completed for the appropria-
tions made and to be made, although the time may be longer than we at first
anticipated. This is quite natural under all conditions, but the financial side
is easily cared for by the fact that surpluses accumulate, so as to allow us to
use the time without further appropriation than that contemplated.

The Department found it necessary to take up quite an exhaustive index
of State documents. This is something which has never been undertaken
before, and the work is now going on with vigor. Each State will have an
index of its State documents relating to economic and financial affairs, and
some others, and the recommendation of the executive committee that an
appropriation of $17,500 be made by the Board of Trustees and added to the
appropriations already made for the Department of Economics and Sociology,
to be used only in case the original appropriations are not sufficient, is a very
wise one, and one which I hope will be adopted by the Board of Trustees.
Of course, if the regular appropriations of this department are sufficient to

* For the year ending September 30, 1906. Grant No. 311. $30,000 for investigations
relative to an economic history of the United States. (For previous reports see Year
Book No. 3, pp. 55-64, and Year Book No. 4, pp. 160-169.)

:eC0N0MICS AND SOCIOLOGY — WRIGHT. 1 59

carry out the work of the index, it is very desirable that this should be done,
but in order to assure the success of the index it is essential that the Board
pledge itself to this plan.

The collaborators in charge of the various divisions have made quite full
reports of their work, and I submit a condensed statement relating to each
division.

Division i. — Population and Immigration.

Dr. Walter F. Willcox, in charge, reports that during the past year he has
written two articles called out by his work in this field, one on "The expansion
of Europe and its influence on population," published by Houghton, Mifflin &
Company, in a volume of "Studies in philosophy and psychology ;" the other,
on "The distribution of immigrants," published in the August issue of the
Quarterly Journal of Economics. These have not been written with the aid
of Carnegie funds, but have grown out of that work, and are, therefore,
useful in the completed work of the Department of Economics and Sociology.

Mr. E. A. Goldenweiser has published an article entitled "Economic condi-
tion of the Jews in Russia," being an abstract of a recent two-volume work
published in Russia by the Jewish Colonization Society. This has not been
done with the aid of Carnegie funds, but has been one of the works growing
out of the influence of our own investigations.

Dr. Willcox's work under the above title is being carried on with a proper
spirit and an appreciation of the work.

Division 2. — Agriculture and Forestry^ Including Public Domain and Irrigation.

This interesting division is under the charge of President Kenyon L. But-
terfield, of the Massachusetts Agricultural College. Prof. F. W. Blackmar
is aiding President Butterfield, and has in preparation a number of mono-
graphs, and also his final report on somiC of the subdivisions.

There have also been published under this division "Church federation as
a practical proposition" (Christian Advocate, March and April, 1906) ; "The
need of church federation in Vermont" (The Congregationalist and Christian
World, April, 1906) ; "The country church and its social problem" (The
Outlook, August, 1906). The titles of these short articles seem to be foreign
to the work of the division, but they are practically the outcome of studies
relating to the farm and social and religious problems. The above are by
George Frederick Wells, B. S., Madison, New Jersey.

There has also been published, under President Butterfield's charge, "The
economics of land tenure in Georgia" (The Columbia University Press, 1905;
Enoch Marvin Banks, of Georgia).

This division perhaps offers as complicated work as any. The ramifica-
tions of agricultural topics are somewhat bewildering, but I think President
Butterfield is working along proper lines, and will be able to present a very
concrete and valuable report.

i6o REPORTS ON inve;stigations and projects.

Division 3. — Mining.

No publication of results has as yet been made in this department, which
is under the charge of Edward W. Parker, of the Geological Survey, but
he has several chapters of his final work nearing completion, and has no con-
cern about the ultimate result.

Division 4. — Manufactures.

Dr. Victor S. Clark is making a very thorough study of the development of
manufactures, and is receiving most cordial responses from all parties, both
north and south. The work in this department was delayed by the resigna-
tion of Mr. S. N. D. North, on account of his arduous duties in the Census
Office, and the whole work of the division turned over to myself. I have
employed Dr. Clark as my assistant in this, and I think the division has made
advances nearly equal to those of any other. The work is progressing rapidly
and satisfactorily.

Division 5. — Transportation.

Prof. B. H. Meyer is conducting this particular work, and is making rapid
headway. The only papers which have received financial assistance from the
Department in their preparation, and which have thus far been published, are
the essays of Professors Ripley and Phillips, but the following works, in all
probability, will be finished during the next six or eight months :

"Railway pools," by Alton D. Adams. A good-sized monograph, ready for the printer.

"The Granger movement," by S. J. Buck.

A series of five monographs embracing such topics as "Railway construction," "Finan-
ciering," "Receiverships," etc., by Dr. F. A. Cleveland, New York City.

"Railway accidents," by Prof. C. W. Doten, Boston, Mass., whose work has been pub-
lished since the report of the collaborator in charge was made.

"Early transportation in Ohio," by W. F. Gephart.

"A congressional history of railways," by Dr. Lewis H. Haney, one volume of which is
ready for the press.

"Canals," by Chester Lloyd Jones, of Philadelphia, ready for the press.

"The struggle between Atlantic seaports for trade from the interior," by Dr. G. D.
Luertscher.

"The relation between Canadian railways and the railways in the United States," by
Prof. S. J. McLean.

"Railway development in Southern territory," by Prof. U. B. Phillips, of the University
of Wisconsin, published in the Quarterly Journal of Economics, May, 1906, and two
other chapters by him, ready for the press.

"The history of railway transportation in Texas," by Prof. C. S. Potts, Austin, Texas.

"Rate systems of trunk lines and southern territory," by Prof. W. Z. Ripley. The first
part of his work was published in the Quarterly Journal of Economics last February.

"Commerce on the Great Lakes," by Dr. G. G. Tunnell, Chicago.

"River transportation in the United States," by Dr. R. B. Way, Northwestern Univer-
sity, Evanston, Illinois.

"Railway transportation in the Oregon country," by Prof. F. G. Young, University of
Oregon.

It will thus be seen that the Division of Transportation has already com-
pleted a great deal of its work.

ECONOMICS AND SOCIOLOGY — WRIGHT. l6l

Division 6. — Domestic and Foreign Commerce.

This division, Prof. E. R. Johnson in charge, has pnbHshed a number of
works, as follows :

"The Consular Service of the United States; its history and activities,"' by Chester

Lloyd Jones, in publications of the University of Pennsylvania, June, 1906.
"The organization of ocean commerce," by J. Russell Smith, in the same publications.

May, 1905.
"The American system of improving and administering commercial facilities," by J.

Bruce Byall (Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,

November, 1904.)
"The British system of improving and administering ports and terminal facilities," by

J. Russell Smith, in the same publication.
"Relation of the Government in Germany to the promotion of commerce," by S. Hueb-

ner. University of Pennsylvania, in same publication.
"The development and present status of marine insurance in the United States," by

same author, in same publication, September, 1905.
"Federal supervision and regulation of insurance," by same author, in same publication,

November. 1905.
"Ocean and inland water transportation," by Prof. Emory R. Johnson, in charge of the

division, published by D. Appleton & Co., June, 1906.

These works have been aided rather than paid for by grants from the
Carnegie Institution. Mr. A. A. Giessecke, of Philadelphia, and Dr. Walter
Sheldon Tower, University of Pennsylvania, have done a great deal of work,
as has Prof. Raymond McFarland, of Massachusetts, but their work is not
ready for publication.

Division 7. — Money and Banking.

No publications have as yet been issued by this division, of which Prof.
D. R. Dewey is in charge, but a vast deal of work is under way. There has
been some difficulty in the prosecution of the work of this particular division
on account of the lack of available men willing to take it up on the basis pro-
posed by the department in the initiative. New men are being found, how-
ever, and the work is progressing, more than double the amount noted in last
year's report now being under way.

Division 8. — Labor Movement.

Dr. Carroll D. Wright is in charge of this division. An extensive work,
subsidized in a measure, by the Department of Economics and Sociology has
been brought out under the editorial charge of Jacob H. Hollander, entitled
"Studies in American trade unionism." This work will be of very great
value when the final volumes under the labor movement are brought into
shape. Further investigations are being made under Dr. Hollander's charge,
the larger part of the expense being borne by others.

There has also been published "The history of the industrial employment
of women in the United States," by Miss Edith Abbott. This work appeared
in the Journal of Political Economy for October, 1906, and is an exceedingly
valuable contribution to the completed work. Miss Abbott, aided by Miss

l62 REPORTS ON INV£;STIGATI0NS AND PROJECTS,

Breckenridge, of the University of Chicago, is at work upon other matters
germane to the subject.

An epitomized digest of the labor laws of the United States is also avail-
able, with the exception of bringing the matter down to the latest date. A
great deal of original material is being brought to light relative to the earlier
labor movement in the United States and its influence upon economic develop-
ment. Also the conditions and progress of labor in the South in antebellum
times. Very many subjects relating to this division have already been
treated in documents and volumes, and are available for the final work.

Division 9. — Industriai, Organization.

Prof. J. W. Jenks, in charge, reports that no publication has yet been made
under his division requiring aid from the Carnegie funds. It has seemed
best to him to spend the time largely in digesting material under his imme-
diate supervision rather than the preparing of monographs ; but he has a great
deal of work well under way, the items of which have already been reported
during the past month to the executive committee.

Division 10. — Social Legislation.

Under Prof. Henry W. Farnam's direction the following monographs have
been published:

"Trade unions and the law in New York," by George Gorham Groat, Ph.D., in the

Columbia University Studies.
"History of labor legislation in New York," publications of the American Economic

Association, 1905, by Fred R. Fairchil3, Ph.D., Yale University.

Two studies have been completed during the past year, but not yet pub-
lished— one by Dr. Alba M. Edwards, on the labor legislation of Connecticut,
the other by Dr. J. L. Barnard, on the labor legislation of Pennsylvania.
Work is also being prosecuted on the social legislation of the Southern States,
the labor legislation of Illinois, and the pauper legislation of Ohio. Professor
Farnam has made plans, in connection with the Wisconsin Free Library
Commission, for extended work during the coming year in the Middle States.
He proposes to give the history of labor legislation in a few States — not all
the States in the Union, but enough to indicate the progress which has been
made.

Division ii. — Federal and State Finance, Including Taxation.

Prof. H. B. Gardner, in charge of the division, reports that the results of
his extensive inquiries are beginning to come in, but nothing has as yet been
published. He expects, however, that some papers or monographs will be
published during the year 1907.

Division 12. — The Negro in Slavery and Freedom.

After very serious consideration and much discussion the collaborators, at
their meeting in May last, brought to conclusive arrangements the suggestions

ECONOMICS AND SOCIOLOGY — WRIGHT. 163

which had been discussed at previous conferences, and the title of the work
was given as above, "The negro in slavery and freedom."

Of course not much has been done under this division on account of its
recent constitution, but Mr. Stone has outlined a treatment which is reason-
ably exhaustive relating to the economic life of the American negro, without,
however, trespassing on either the political or social aspects of the topics.
In his syllabus he says the difficulty of treating the one as separated from
the other two is frankly recognized, but the desirability of such a method is
believed to more than outweigh the difficulties involved in its execution. Mr.
Stone will make an effort to interpret the salient features of negro life in
relation to their economic significance, both to the race and to the country as
a whole, the purpose being to correlate the negro'.s economic history with
that of the American people along certain broad lines, as, for example,
through the cotton industry and in the creation of national wealth and favor-
able trade balances as affected by products closely identified with negro labor.
Mr. Stone will treat of the condition of laboring classes during the American
colonial period — the introduction of negro slavery into America as an eco-
nomic factor. He will also investigate the efforts to utilize slave labor in
manufacturing and other industrial enterprises. His work, if carried out
fairly well, will constitute an exceedingly important and novel feature in
American economic history. He will also treat of the negro as a free man,
the rise and development of the negro industrial schools, their effect with
reference to local economic conditions, the negro landowner, and all such
topics as will bring out clearly and fully the whole industrial relation of the
negro to economic conditions.

It will thus be seen that the Department of Economics and Sociology is
progressing in its work as rapidly as can be expected with reference to good
results. As I have stated in previous reports, the really important mission
of the Department is to secure a great collection of materials which will be
available to the historian not only of economic development, but to others.
The Department does not aim so much to write a literary history on economic
development as to put the matter before the people in a way so much needed
at the present time.

164 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

ENGINEERING.

Dorand, F. W., Stanford University, California. Grant No. 64. Experiments

on ship 7'esistance and propulsion. (For previous reports see Year Book

No. 2, p. XXXII ; Year Book No. 3, p. 113, and Year Book No. 4, p.

170.) $4,120.

Professor Durand reports that his researches are practically finished and

he is engaged in preparing a final report to the Institution. A preliminary

report on ' ' Experimental researches on the performance of screw propellers ' '

was published in the fall of 1905 in the Transactions of the Society of Naval

Architects and Marine Engineers.

Goss, W. F. M., Purdue University, Eafayette, Indiana. Grant No. 114.
Research on the deter miiiation of the value of high steam pressures hi loco-
motive service. (For previous reports see Year Book No. 3, p. 114, and
Year Book No. 4, p. 170.) $5,000,

Professor Goss summarizes the results of his study concerning the value
of high steam pressures in locomotive service, the details of which will be
presented in Publication No. 66 of the Carnegie Institution of Washington,
as follows :

(i) The results apply only to practice involving single-expansion loco-
motives using saturated steam. Pressures specified are to be accepted as
running pressures. They are not necessarily those at which safety valves
open.

(2) Tests have been made to determine the performance of a typical
locomotive when operating under a variety of conditions with reference to
speed, power, and steam pressure. The results of 100 such tests have been
made of record.

(3) The steam consumption under normal conditions of running has been
established as shown in Table i .

(4) The results show that the higher the pressure, the smaller the possible
gain resulting from a given increment of pressure. An increase of pressure
from 160 to 200 pounds results in a saving of i.i pounds of steam per
horse-power hour, while a similar change from 200 pounds to 240 pounds
improves the performance only to the extent of . 8 of a pound per horse-
power hour.

(5) The coal consumption under normal conditions of running has been
established as shown in Table 2.

(6) An increase of pressure from 160 to 200 pounds results in a saving
of 0.13 pound of coal per horse-power hour, while a similar change from
200 to 240 pounds results in a saving of but 0.09 pound.

(7) Under service conditions, the improvement in performance with
increase of pressure will depend upon the degree of perfection attending the

ENGINEERING GOSS.

165

maintenance of the locomotive. The values quoted in the preceding para-
graphs assume a high order of maintenance. If this is lacking, it may
easily happen that the saving which is anticipated through the adoption of
higher pressures will entirely disappear.

(8) The diflSculties to be met in the maintenance both of boiler and cylin-
ders increase with increase of pressure.

(9) The results supply an accurate measure by which to determine the
advantage of increasing the capacity of a boiler. For the development of a
given power, any increase in boiler capacity brings its return in improved
performance without adding to the cost of maintenance or opening any new
avenues for incidental losses. As a means to improvement, it is more cer-
tain than that which is offered by increase of pressure.

Boiler
pressure.

Steam per

horsepower

hour.

120
140
160
180
200
220
240

29.1
27.7
26.6
26.0
255
25-1

24.7

Boiler

pressure.

Coal per

horsepower

hour.

120
140
160
180
200
220
240

3-84
367
3-53
3-46
3-40
335
3-31

Table 2.

(10) As the scale of pressure is ascended an opportunity to further
increase the weight of a locomotive should in many cases find expression in
the design of a boiler of increased capacity rather than in one for higher
pressures.

(11) Assuming i8o pounds pressure to be accepted as standard, and
assuming the maintenance to be of the highest order, it will be found good
practice to utilize any allowable increase in weight by providing a larger
boiler rather than by providing a stronger boiler to permit higher pressures.

(12) Wherever the maintenance is not of the highest order the standard
running pressure should be below i8o pounds.

(13) Wherever the water which must be used in boilers contains foaming
or scale-making admixtures, best results are likely to be secured by fixing
the running pressure below the limit of i8o pounds.

(14) A simple locomotive using saturated steam will render good and
efl&cient service when the running pressure is as low as 1 60 pounds. Under
most favorable conditions no argument is to be found in the economic per-
formance of a machine which can justify the use of pressures greater than
200 pounds.

l66 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

GEOLOGY.

Chamberlin, T» C, University of Chicago, Chicago, IlHnois. Grant No. 241.
Study of fzindamental problems of geology. (For previous reports see
Year Book No. 2, pp. 261-270; Year Book No. 3, pp. 195-258, and
Year Book No. 4, pp. 1 71-190.) $6,000.

The work of Dr. Chamberlin and his collaborators during the past year
followed essentially the lines set forth in previous reports. The personal
studies of Dr. Chamberlin were rather widely distributed over the group
of cosmogonic and geologic problems outlined in the report of last year, but
embraced some special studies on the former rates of rotation of the earth,
on the reversal of deep-sea circulation, and on the fourfold organization of
typical atmospheres. The special nature of these is, in a measure, indi-
cated in the synopses of his papers given below.

Prof. F. R. Moulton continued his computations of the orbits of mate-
rials ejected from one sun under the differential attraction of a second sun
passing near it, the endeavor being to test mathematically the working
value of some of the more basal propositions of the hypothesis that spiral
nebulse have arisen from the ejections and perturbations attendant upon
stellar approaches. These computations were carried forward continuously
during the whole year. Forty-eight cases, in addition to those reported last
year, were mathematically treated. The courses of the orbits were followed
by computation for an average period of about five years. The perturba-
tions were found so great that it was necessary to use short intervals in
most of the computations, and this entailed very large amounts of numeri-
cal work in which Mr. Elton James Moulton assisted. Most of the cases
selected were such that the disturbing sun at its nearest approach to the
disturbed sun was still at a distance of five astronomical units. In eight of
the cases the orbits of the two suns were hyperbolas with an eccentricity of
1.2. A sufficient number of cases have now been worked out to give a fair
basis for general treatment and provisional deductions. It appears already
that in a considerable percentage of assignable cases the ejected material
will be left by the disturbing sun revolving in orbits whose eccentricities are
of the same general magnitude as those of many of the planetoids.

Dr. A. C. lyUnn continued his mathematical inquiries into the application
of geophysical theory to accretion under the planetesimal hypothesis, particu-
larly in its relations to the temperatures and other physical states of the
earth's interior. Following his treatment of a theory initiated by Fisher —
but worked out by Dr. Lunn on the basis of the Laplacian law of density —
and the application of the results under alternative secondary postulates,
which was essentially completed last year, he entered upon a study of the
effects of changes in the secondary hypotheses thus entertained, and upon a
critical examination of them. The previous inquiry was traversed by the

GKOLOGY — CHAMBERLIN. 167

substitution of Roche's formula of internal density and by other formulas de-
duced to satisfy special conditions. A contrasting theory was also developed
on the basis of a substance whose nature was such that the work of com-
pression was done mainly against volume-elasticity, and deductions from this
compared with those previously obtained. The special phases of these treat-
ments will be best understood from the synopsis of his report given below.

Dr. Julius Stieglitz determined mathematically the relations of equilibrium
subsisting, under varying degrees of concentration, between the carbon dioxide
of the atmosphere and calcium sulphate and calcium carbonate and bicar-
bonate in solution in water in contact with the atmosphere. This involves
the conditions of precipitation of the calcium salts. Variations of carbon
dioxide from ten times greater to ten times less than the present atmospheric
content were employed. The rigorous calculations have been restricted for
the present to the simple case of the three calcium salts being present
alone in aqueous solutions, and proximate calculations have been made to
determine roughly the influence on the conditions of equilibrium of the
presence of sulphates other than gypsum in the proportions existing in
the ocean at present. The purpose of the inquiry was to lay a foundation
for the study of such states of equilibrium between the atmosphere and the
hydrosphere as may be involved in climatic problems on the one hand, and
in the determination of the saline content of the hydrosphere, and of the
nature and order of its precipitations, on the other.

The researches of this group of colaborers and the relations of these
results to one another are more concretely expressed in the following syn-
opses of their papers, which are now in an advanced stage of preparation
and are soon to be submitted as a correlated group of mutually auxiliary
discussions, under the title given below.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO COSMOGONY AND THE FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS

OF GEOLOGY, I.

Paper I. — On the Planetesimal Factor in Cosmogony. By T. C. Chamberi,in.

This opens with a critique upon the basal deductions usually drawn from
the direction of planetary rotation relative to the state of the parent nebular
material and currently accepted during the past century. The doctrine
that the aggregation of dispersed nebulous matter pursuing independent
orbits, and controlled by Kepler's third law, would normally give rise to
retrograde revolutions of the planets is challenged, and arguments for the
reversal of the proposition are presented. It is pointed out that the rectifi-
cation of this proposition is fundamental in that, in the currently accepted
form, it is a serious bar to the acceptance of any hypothesis founded on a
revolutionary state of the parent nebular matter so far as applied to the
solar system, while the truth of the reverse proposition is prerequisite to the

l68 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

tenability of any hypothesis of the planetesitnal order. The possible sources
of planetesimal organization are then discussed. Four states of organization
of free molecules are found to be required by a rigorous application of the
kinetic theory of gases to gaseous spheroids aud to atmospheres, the first
being the familiar collisional or truly gaseous state; the second, the state of
the elliptical, or fountain-like movement of molecules above the collisional
spheroid recognized by Stoney; the third, a system of molecules in quaqua-
versal revolutions around the collisional spheroid, and the fourth, a planet-
esimal system surrounding the equatorial tract of the collisional spheroid
when in rotation. The distribution of these is discussed and their relations
of equihbrium with one another, together with the application of these
equilibria to varying stages of evolution. In their application to the evolu-
tion of contracting gaseous spheroids, it is shown that the centrifugal com-
ponent of revolution at the equator can rarely, if ever, become equivalent to
the centripetal acceleration of gravity, as the result of simple contraction,
but that previous to reaching that stage the molecules of the collisional
spheroid must pass into the three other systems of organization. The paper
contains an ampler statement of the planetesimal hypothesis than has been
previously published, with new discussions of certain points, among which
are the significance of the present slow rotation of the sun, and of the
obliquity of its axis, out of which springs a suggestion relative to the
-possible origin of binary stars. In the disposal of the ancestral planetary
:family of the sun is found a possible origin of comets and meteorites.

Taper II. — On the Probability of a Near Approach of tivo Suns and on the Orbits of
Material Ejected front them under the Stimulus of their Mutual Tidal Disturbances
By F. R. MOULTON.

The treatment of the first part of the theme consists of the determination,
so far as the imperfect data will permit, of the probability of the near
approach of two suns. In the treatment of the second part, after some
considerations relative to the nature of the tidal disturbances, the pertur-
bations produced by one of the two bodies upon the material ejected from
the other are considered at length mathematically. The results of the com-
putations of the paths of the ejected material in the cases selected are given,
and are illustrated by plottings. Forty-eight such cases in which varying
assumptions are made relative to the positions, paths, and sizes of the two
suns are treated. The aggregate period through which the computations
of perturbations extend exceeds 200 years. Such general deductions are
drawn as the nature and number of cases investigated warrant. Among
these is the conclusion that in many cases the ejected material is left by the
disturbing sun, when it has receded to an ineffective distance, moving about
the parent sun in elliptical orbits whose eccentricities do not exceed some of
those found iu the orbits of the planetoids.

GEOLOGY — CHAMBERLIN. 169

This paper is in essence a mathematical discussion of the more funda-
mental factors of the theory that the spiral nebulae were derived from suns
through approach to one another and bears radically upon the planetesimal
hypothesis discussed in the preceding and following papers.

Paper III.— On the Growth of the Earth by Accretion under the Planetesimal Hypothesis.

By T. C. Chamberun.

The probable character and limitations of the planetary nuclei, the knots
of the spiral nebulae, are discussed and the mode of aggregation and the
associated temperatures considered. Taking the alternative of a primitive
atmosphereless earth as the more extreme, the accession of the atmosphere,
followed by that of the hydrosphere, is sketched, leading to the discussion of
the origin of the ocean basins and the conditions that controlled the evolu-
tion of the continents. The development of interior heat by planetesimal
impact, by compression, by atomic and molecular union, and hy radioactive
agencies is discussed, together with a theory of the origin and evolution of
vulcanism. The possibility of the early introduction of life is noted and the
requisite conditions of light and temperature are treated, involving autogenic
as well as solar sources of radiant energy.

Paper IV. — On Certain Applications of Geophysical Theory lender the Planetesimal

Hypothesis, especially those Relating to Compression and Temperature .

By Arthur C. Lunn.

This paper is devoted mainly to a quantitative study of that portion of the
earth's internal energy which is supposed to have been derived from the
mechanical energy of a primitive system of planetesimals subsequently gath-
ered into a planetary mass, and of the transformation of this internal energy
into the thermal form during the epoch of accretion, together with a study
of its subsequent redistribution by conduction.

In Part I a theory initiated by Fisher is developed on the basis of the
Laplacian law of density, together with certain auxiliary assumptions.
Formulas and tables are given showing the variation of dimensions and the
internal densities of the mass during the epoch of accretion and the dijEfer-
ential effect of the accession of an additional stratum on the size and on the
moment of inertia of the mass, together with the deformation of the mass
elements accompanying the resulting compression. Determinations under
alternative secondary postulates of the original distribution of the temper-
ature produced by compression, and of its redistribution by conduction, are
found to show the existence of a characteristic zone of rising temperatures
during the earliest ages.

Part II is given to an inquiry as to what changes in the results recorded
in Part I are produced by changes in the secondary hypotheses employed,
and to a critical examination of the latter. The computed masses of the
nucleus at various stages of accretion are compared with the observed masses

170 REPORTS ON INVE;sTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

of the small planets in the solar system. The previous theory is reviewed
with the substitution of Roche's formula for the internal variations of den-
sity, and, to serve as a basis of comparison, certain other formulas of the
distribution of density are deduced to satisfy special conditions. Criticism
in the line of general thermal dynamics leads to the suggestion that the
theory given is possibly an extreme view applicable to a substance in which
the work of compression is mainly frictional.

In Part III a contrasting theory is outlined applicable to the case of a
substance whose nature is such that the work of compression is done mainly
against volume-elasticity under the assumption that the successive strata
deposited at the surface are reduced to uniform entropy by free radiation
while their material was exposed. The thermal phenomena arising in this
case are compared with those developed under the conditions outlined in
Part I.

This paper thus treats mathematically a considerable range of funda-
mental propositions that enter basally into the problems discussed in the
preceding and following papers.

Paper V. — On Certain Problems of the Lithosphere. By T. C. Chamberlin.

This paper is concerned chiefly with the application of the deductions of
the preceding papers to the deformation of the lithosphere. It attempts to
differentiate deep bodily deformations from those affecting a limited super-
ficial shell. The nature and depth of this superficial shell, its relation to a
postulated zone of shearing below and to the more general deformations of
the deeper body of the earth on which it is dependent, are discussed. It is
assumed that tensional stages of the protuberant portions of the earth follow
compressive stages and give rise to a slow glacier-like creep of the unbalanced
protrusive portions and to relaxitative movements of the superficial shell.
Certain special applications of these deformations are outlined.

Paper VI.— On the Former Rates of Rotation of the Earth. By T. C. Chamberwn.

This theme is discussed here under the belief that it bears vitally on con-
ceptions of the constitution of the earth and on certain modes of deforma-
tion, as well as on superficial sea action. The paper opens with a review of
the grounds currently assigned for a high primitive rate of rotation based
upon cosmogonic hypotheses and on tidal deductions, and it endeavors to
show that these may be radically modified by alternative cosmogonic con-
siderations and by alternative interpretations of the nature and value of such
tides as affect rotation. The purpose of this introductory review is to free
the problem from preoccupying presumptions springing from extra-terrestrial
sources and cosmogonic hypotheses and to open the way for the untrammeled
application of the geological evidences that bear upon the problem. These
are then set forth. The paper is given this place in the series because of its
bearings upon problems of deformation.

GEOLOGY — CHAMBERUN. I7I

Paper VII. — Ott the Principal Constants of a7i Earth-like Body tinder the Varying
Conditions of Changing Rates of Rotation. By C. S. Slighter.

A series of ten rotational stages, ranging from a rotation period of 3.82
hours to the present rate, is made the basis of computation, the results of
which constitute the body of the paper. The constants are worked out
on the assumption that the internal densities follow Laplace's law. The
methods of computation, so far as new, are given. The data of this paper
enter fundamentally into the preceding discussion on rotation.

Paper VIII. — On Certain Problems of the Hydrosphere and Atmosphere.
By T. C. Chamberlin.

This paper proceeds on the assumption that the climatic problems of the
earth center about the discovery and elucidation of a S5'stem of automatic
control of such efficiency as to have kept the temperature of a large portion
of the surface of the earth throughout its organic history within the narrow
range of 100° C, and at the same time to have kept the constitution of the
atmosphere within the like narrow range consistent with plant and animal
life. The paper recurs to the four-fold organization of a typical atmos-
phere set forth in Paper I, and endeavors to apply the states of equilibrium
deduced therefrom to the feeding and depletion of the atmosphere. It is
recognized that the hj^drosphere is a derivative from the atmosphere, and
that its relations of equilibrium with the atmosphere are important factors.
The relations of equilibrium between the free atmospheric gases and those
absorbed or held in feeble combination in the ocean are considered, together
with the conditions and rate of exchange. The discussion of changes in
the basis of equilibrium forms a vital factor. The function of the ocean as
a source of atmospheric storage and supply is discussed and a possible
reversal of the deep-sea circulation, alternating with circulation of the
present order, is considered as a possible explanation of the alternation of
warm polar temperatures with periods of marked glaciation and aridity.
The sources of internal supply of atmospheric and hydrospheric material are
reviewed and correlated with sources of depletion, so far as practicable. The
function of deformation and base-leveling in changing the available amounts
of the critical atmospheric constituents is set forth. The relationship of the
atmosphere's constituents to thermal absorption, retention, and radiation,
and the bearing of these upon the climate, are also treated.

Paper IX. — On the Relations of Equilibrium betiueen the Carbon Dioxide of the Atmos-
phere a7id Calcium Sulphate and Calcium Carbonate and Bicarbonate in Solutions
tft Water in Contact with it. By J. Stieglitz.

This paper embraces the results of a computation of the varying equilibria
subsisting between different degrees of concentration of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere and varying degrees of concentration of calcium carbonate and
bicarbonate, and calcium sulphate in solutions in free contact with the atmos-

1/2 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

phere. It also considers the relative points of saturation of the calcium salts
under varying conditions and the consequent order of their precipitation.
The computations have been developed with reference to their application to
certain of the problems of equilibria set forth in the preceding paper, and
also incidentally to the order of deposition of evaporation deposits under
conditions of aridity and other atmospheric states. They have been limited
for the present to two cases, the first when the three calcium salts are present
alone, and the second when they are present with other sulphates, of the
nature and quantity found in the ocean at the present time.

Paper X. — Oti a Set of Postulates Relative to the Mega-Physical Constitution of the
Earth. By T. C. Chamberi<in.

This is little more than a convenient synoptical arrangement of the
deductions, hj'potheses, and postulates derived from the planetesimal
hypothesis and from other sources, gathered together in brief statement,
partly for convenience and partly to give in miniature a revised conception
of the earth.

Willis, Bailey, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, District of Columbia.
Second Supplement to Grant No. ii6 and Grant No. 373. Completion
of Reports A, B, and C, on geological research in Chi?ia. (For previous
reports see Year Book No. 2, p. xxxv ; Year Book No. 3, p. 118, and
Year Book No. 4, pp. 192-203.) $8,250.

The year has been devoted to preparation of publications. Report A
has been completed and transmitted to the Institution. It pertains to the
geographic and geologic observations in China by Messrs. Willis, Black-
welder, and Sargent, and also includes the contributions on petrography and
zoology by Mr. Blackwelder, which were originally intended for Report B.
Report B relates to paleontology, and the papers of which it is to be com-
posed are nearly complete. The topographic and geologic atlas authorized
under Grants Nos. 261 and 280 is printed. Report C, on systematic geology
of China, will be ready for publication before the end of this year, and then
the results of Mr. Willis's expedition to China will have been submitted to
the Institution in full.

Washington, Henry S., Locust, New Jersey. Grant No. 95. Chemical
investigatiojis of igneous rocks. (For previous reports see Year Book
No. 3, p. 113, and Year Book No. 4, p. 158.) $1,200.

Abstract of report. — After his return from the trip described in his preceding
report. Dr. Washington's first occupation was the completion of his paper on
the igneous rocks of the central Italian volcanoes. This has appeared as
Publication No. 57 of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, under the
title of "The Roman Comagmatic Region."

The study of the material collected in Catalonia, Sardinia, Pantelleria,
and lyinosa was then begun. This was very largely chemical, preceded by

GEOLOGY — WASHINGTON. 173

microscopic examination of the thin sections, so as to insure the selection of
representative specimens for analysis. The number of analyses so far made
of these rocks is twenty-four, with three of minerals occurring in them.
The rock analyses are, for the most part, of the more femic types (basalts),
with fewer of the more salic ones. This analytical work indicates that the
lavas of Catalonia are closeW similar to the more femic ones of the other
three districts, and discloses the existence in the western Mediterranean
basin of a hitherto unrecognized comagmatic region (petrographic province) .
This forms a volcanic zone extending from I^inosa, on the southeast, through
Pantelleria and western Sardinia, to Catalonia, the volcanoes of the French
Mediterranean littoral (as those of Agde and Montpellier) probably also
belonging to it, with a possible extension down the east coast of Spain, and
also possibly in Tripoli south of Linosa. The most striking feature of this
region is the richness of the more femic rocks in titanium, the figures for
TiOj found in the analyses being higher than those shown by any other
known region of igneous rocks, other than some titaniferous ore bodies pro-
duced by magmatic differentiation. It may be mentioned that the figures
for TiO., in these basalts vary from 2.64 to 6.88 per cent. Other chemical
features of the region are the high amounts of iron oxides, especially fer-
rous, the usually rather low alumina, magnesia, and lime, the dominance of
soda over potash, and the prevalence of nickel in, for this constituent, rather
large amounts. The analyses which were made of Pantellerian lavas, as
well as those of the lavas of Graham's Island, and of that of 1891 in the
vicinity, substantiate the earlier ones of Foerstner in their general features,
though being more complete they introduce some very important corrections.

The lavas of Catalonia and Linosa were found to be salfemanes without
exception, belonging to the subrangs camptonose, limburgose, and monchi-
quose, or basalts and nephelite-basalts in the prevailing classifications.
Those of Sardinia and Pantelleria are much more varied — so much so as to
preclude their enumeration here.

The minerals analyzed include an augite and an olivine from Monte Ferru
and a hornblende from Linosa. The two former are not specially note-
worthy in themselves, though of interest in connection with the rocks in
which they occur, but the hornblende is remarkable, the figure for TiOj (8.47)
being the highest yet recorded for this mineral. It is probably related to
the kaersutite of Greenland. A peculiar and possibly new mineral was
found in the crevices of rhyolite at Monte Arci, forming yellow, translu-
cent, hexagonal prisms, and will be investigated later.

The study of the material mentioned above will extend probably over two
years, and the results will appear from time to time in the American Journal
of Science, the Journal of Geology, and probably elsewhere. It is estimated
that at least 70 analyses must be made for proper discussion of all the rock
types of this region.

174 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

In addition to the above investigation, two analyses were made of the
well-known syenite of the Plauenscher Grund. These differ widely in some
important respects from the earlier ones, and were published in the Ameri-
can Journal of Science (v. xxii, 1906, p. 129), with a description of the type
and discussion of its systematic position. Short papers are also being pre-
pared on some rock types from Santorini and Monte Vulture, analyses of
which have been made. There is also being written an extended discussion
of the chemical conditions controlling the formation of leucite in igneous rocks,
which is a theoretical extension of observations made in connection with the
study of the leucitic rocks of central Italy.

GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH.

Adams, Frank D», McGill University, Montreal, Canada. Grant No. 335.
Investigations on the flow of rocks. (For previous reports see Year Book
No. 2, p. XXXIV; Year Book No. 3, p. 119, and Year Book No. 4,
pp. 230-231.) $1,500-

The investigation into the elastic constants of rocks, which was undertaken
by Professor Adams in conjunction with Dr. E. G. Coker, was completed last
October and the results have appeared in Publication No. 46 of the Carnegie
Institution of Washington, entitled "An investigation into the elastic con-
stants of rocks, more especially with reference to cubic compressibility."
An abstract of this paper was also published in the American Journal of
Science for August, 1906.

The attempt to measure the cubic compressibility of rocks by another
independent method — that proposed by Messrs. Richards and Stull — was
also continued during the past year, and while the experimental difl&culties
have not as yet been entirely overcome, it is expected that satisfactory
measurements will be obtained by its use during the coming year.

The experimental work which has been carried on during the past year
consisted chiefly, however, of an elaborate series of measurements of the
internal friction developed in rocks when these were subjected to very slow
deformation under varying conditions of differential pressure. The investi-
gation was made to cover nine typical rocks, namely :

Alabaster, Castelino, Italy. Sandstone, Cleveland, Ohio.

Soapstone, Virginia. Slate, New Richmond, Canada.

White Marble, Carrara, Italy. Diabase, Sudbury, Canada.

Black Marble, Belgium. Granite, Baveno, Italy.
White Dolomite, Cockeysville, Maryland.

Comparative measurements were made with the metals copper and lead.
Sixty-six complete determinations of internal friction have been made up to
the present date, and the investigation, which will be completed during the
coming year, will furnish, it is believed, valuable data bearing upon a
number of problems in geophysics.

GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH — ADAMS, BECKER. 175

Simultaneously investigations have been made into the structures developed
in the harder plutonic rocks of the earth's crust, as, for instance, diabase,
essexite, and granite, by differential movements under conditions of heat
and pressure, which reproduce those which there is reason to believe obtain
in the earth's crust in the zone of flow. This experimental work forms a
continuation of that which has already been carried out with the softer
rocks, such as limestones, dolomites, etc.

Becker, George F., U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, District of Colum-
bia. Grant No. 226. Experiments on elasticity and plasticity of solids.
(For previous reports see Year Book No. 3, p. 80, and Year Book No.
4, pp. 221-223.) $7,500.

During the past year the work on elasticity has been conducted along the
two lines indicated in the last report. The first has been a continuation of
the tension tests on steel tapes suspended in the Washington Monument.
Preliminary observations proved the need of accurate temperature measure-
ments. This was first accomplished by measuring the electrical resistance
of copper wires placed inside the closed tube containing the tape. New tapes
were procured later, and were calibrated electrically in the laboratory before
being put in place. The measurement of electrical resistance by means of a
galvanometer and a standard resistance-box affords a simple and suflSciently
accurate method of determining the mean temperature of the tape. Inci-
dental to the measurement of temperature, the method also affords a very
satisfactory means of investigating the variation of temperature and the
variation of electrical resistance with strain, subjects on which existing data
are not conclusive. The importance of a thorough investigation of the after-
effect curves as a means of elucidating the phenomena of elasticity was
emphasized in the last annual report, and the observations made during the
year amply justify these conclusions. As was there stated, the complete
solution of the problem would consist in determining the after-effect curv^es,
and in particular the asymptotes to these curves, for the various loads.
Owing to the limited time for which the use of the Washington Monument
had been placed at the disposal of Dr. Becker, he decided to spend about six
months of the year in making observations for the complete after-effect curve
for small loads (5, 10, and 15 kg.) well within the so-called limit of elas-
ticity. The remainder of the time has been spent in studying elastic fore-
strain in a manner quite different from the usual method. A load was applied
and allowed to remain about two hours, observations in the meantime being
made at fixed intervals of time during the progress of the strain. The load
was then removed, and the specimen allowed to rest three or four days for
the larger loads, until it had completely regained its initial dimensions, after
which a second load was applied, and the observations again made at the
same time-intervals after the application of the load as before. This gives

176 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

an easy means of comparing the ordinates of the successive after-effect curves
at fixed intervals of time, and therefore gives a load-strain relation for each
instant at which the observations are made. Successive loads have been
applied in this way at intervals of 5 kg. up to and including 50 kg., with
satisfactory results. The strains are much larger than those measured here-
tofore, while the accuracy is the same as that of the best methods. The
total number of observations made at the Washington Monument during the
year is about 1,350. With the exception of a small correction for the varia-
tion of Young's modulus with temperature, the computations have been
completed, and the data are ready for publication. Not much attention has
been given to the theoretical discussion of the experimental results, and for
this reason it is perhaps wise to refrain from stating some apparently obvious
but important conclusions that seem to be well established by the experiment.

A second line of work has been to design apparatus to be used in the
Physical Laboratory of the United States Geological Survey in studying the
variations of Young's modulus for various metals and crystals at high tem-
peratures. The preliminary investigations have been completed. An inter-
ferometer for measuring strains has been constructed, and a well-equipped
electric furnace will be ready for use in a few weeks. A temporary furnace
has also been constructed and used to determine the variations of Young's
modulus at temperatures ranging from 25° to 65° C. of the steel tapes which
have been used in the experiments at the Washington Monument. This
furnace will be used during the year to study the after-effect curves for
various loads of certain metals maintained at a constant temperature of about
25° or 30° C. _

Some preliminary work has been done on the variation of electrical resist-
ance of a granite containing moisture.

Bibliography of Geophysics. — For report on this subject see under Bibliog-
raphy, page 45.

GEOPHYSICAI, RE;SEARCH — DAY. 177

Day, Afthttr L., U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, District of Columbia.
Grant No. 334. Investip;ation of mineral sohdion and fiisioji wide? high
temperatures and pressures. (For previous reports see Year Book No. 3,
p. 80, and Year Book No. 4, pp. 224-230.) $17,500.

With the work of the present year our studies of mineral fusion and solu-
tion in the laboratory may be said to have passed beyond the preliminary
stage. It has been found thoroughly practicable to study several of the
important problems in mineral formation by applying the principles and
methods of physics and physical chemistry at the temperature where the
formation actually occurs, and to carry out the quantitative determinations
with an accuracy entirely comparable with the more conventional physical
and chemical research at ordinary temperatures. It is therefore a great
pleasure, at the close of the largest year's work which we have yet under-
taken, to be able to express our renewed confidence in these methods and our
full expectation that they will soon be generally adopted and applied to
build up a quantitative science of mineral solutions which will place our
knowledge of the minerals composing the accessible portions of the earth on
the same level with the long respected "exact" sciences. In expressing this
confidence in the coming development of a quantitative science of petrology,
I am not unmindful of the time factor involved. Exact research is slow and
the opportunities for it limited ; but, on the other hand, I doubt if any exten-
sive field of research was ever entered upon with more certain assurance of
a successful future.

The essential novelty of the present plan, when freed from all technical
terms and expressions, is this : It has been the habit heretofore, in investi-
gating the makeup of the earth, either to study natural minerals in which, of
course, the formation process is already complete and no longer accessible,
or to study artificial minerals in the same way after actual formation is over.
Our plan has been to transfer the investigation as far as possible to the region
where the earth-making processes are at work, and to observe the minerals
during actual formation. Only in this way, in my opinion, can we succeed
in ascertaining which forces are essential and which are merely incidental to
the operations under observation, and in measuring their magnitude. Then
only does it become possible to treat mineral solutions at high temperatures
substantially like other chemical solutions at lower temperatures, and to
utilize the experience gathered by miodern chemistry during the last quarter
of a century.

The method of actual procedure and the progress so far made can also be
outlined in a general way quite briefly. We must begin with the simplest
problems, and proceed in an orderly way to those more complicated — first,
the properties of single minerals over the entire range of their stable existence
(solid and liquid) ; then combinations of two, in which both remain stable;

178 REPORTS ON INVDSTI CATIONS AND PR0JB;CTS.

then similar combinations in which exceptional phenomena occur ; then simple
rocks of three components, etc. — the general principle of effective progress
being to meet and study the unknown phenomena one at a time. Our studies
hitherto have, therefore, been confined to single minerals and to compara-
tively stable combinations of two under usual atmospheric conditions. The
modified conditions which may be produced by an atmosphere of carbon
dioxide, or water vapor under pressure, or by pressure alone, have been taken
up only in certain special cases, and their systematic development is dependent
upon more favorable laboratory conditions than those now available.

First of all, a simple type of two-component system in which the com-
ponents form an isomorphous series of minerals (the plagioclase feldspars)
was carefully studied, then a typical eutectic pair (the lime-silica series), in
which we found three eutectic mixtures and two intermediate mineral com-
pounds. It was also found possible to discover and locate changes in the
crystal form of some of the solid minerals below their melting temperature,
even where the heat of transformation was extremely small. Such changes
fall into two general classes, one in which the change is reversible and one
in which it is not. We have been able to locate successfully a number of
cases of the reversible change, and during the past year have encountered
and successfully solved a problem in which a mineral compound (magnesium
metasilicate) appeared in four different crystal forms in irreversible relation
to each other, i. e., three of the forms could be changed into the fourth by
heating, but the reverse change does not occur.

This last investigation yielded one fact of a somewhat unusual character.
We have been accustomed to think of the laboratory of nature as possessing
one great advantage over any effort put forth by man ; with nature we have
assumed that there must always have been plenty of time for natural processes
to go on to completion. And yet we found that the particular form of this
magnesium silicate which is common in nature (enstatite) is not the stable
form; the process was rarely carried through to the end in nature's labo-
ratory. In meteorites we occasionally find this silicate in its final form.

In our work on the properties of silica we also found a way to make
"quartz-glass," a material of such peculiar properties that it would no doubt
be most useful in our everyday life. It differs from other glass but little in
appearance, but can be heated to dazzling whiteness without melting, and
then plunged into cold water with little danger of breaking. The high tem-
peratures required, of course, make it difficult and expensive to prepare.

Another discovery which we made in connection with the same series of
minerals (lime-silica) was very important and somewhat surprising. The
peculiar and valuable properties of Portland cement have been commonly
attributed to the presence of tricalcic silicate, but we found abundant proof
that no such compound exists. It is not unlikely that the continuation of
these investigations, which is now in progress, will reveal the true constitu-

GliOPHYSICAIv R]E;SEARCH — DAY. 179

tion of this cement, which is now prepared by routine methods, with rather
inadequate knowledge of the chemical processes actually involved.

We have also found further and most interesting relations between the
direction and linear force of crystal growth and the physical forces acting
upon the growing unit at the time; we have developed some new methods
for the optical study of our crystals ; and our high temperature measurements
have now reached quite extraordinary refinement. The aggregate error in
our pyrometric apparatus is now no greater than o.i° at i,ooo° C.

The staff of investigators was increased on January i, 1906, by the appoint-
ment of Dr. Fred Eugene Wright, formerly of the United States Geological
Survey. Before his appointment it was necessary to have the microscopic
study of our mineral products undertaken elsewhere. His cooperation has
therefore made it possible for us to cover practically the entire ground over
which we have worked within our own staff.

It has not been found necessary during the present year to add materially
to the equipment described in the last annual report.

THE SCIENTIFIC WORK OF THE YEAR.

The crowded quarters which the laboratory has occupied in what is prac-
tically an office building have made it inadvisable to begin any of the
systematic work at high pressures which has been contemplated from the
beginning of the undertaking. Several pieces of special apparatus have been
designed and built for this work, the mounting of which it has been found
necessary to postpone until a special laboratory and more favorable condi-
tions shall become available.

The published work of the laboratory during the year 1906 includes twelve
papers, all of which have appeared (or will appear before the close of the
year) in the scientific journals in the order and under the titles indicated
below :

(i) The phase rule and igneous magmas. Arthur L. Day and E. S. Shepherd. Econ.
Geol., I, 286-288. January, 1906.

A brief criticism of certain sweeping and fundamental assumptions which
had been made the subject of a geological discussion under this title by Mr.
T. T. Read, in the previous number of Economic Geology.

(2) Der Isomorphismus und die thermische Eigenschaften der Feldspate. Arthur L.

Day and E. T. Allen. Zeit. f. phys. Chem. 54, 1-54. January, 1906.

An extract from Publication No. 31 of the Carnegie Institution, printed in
German.

(3) On wollastonite and pseudo-wollastonite — Polymorphic forms of calcium metasili-

cate. E. T. Allen, Walter P. White, and Fred Eugene Wright. Amer. Journ.
Sci., (4), 21, 88-108. February, 1906.

Reviewed in last annual report.

l8o REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

(4) Quartz glass. Arthur L. Day and E. S. Shepherd. Science, n. s., 23, 670-672,
April 27, 1906.

The peculiar properties of quartz glass, so called, which have made it a
very important material for lenses, laboratory vessels, etc., made it seem that
any investigation of quartz would be incomplete which did not include a
careful study of the conditions of formation of this glass. From the investi-
gation of silica (see No. 8, "Lima-silica series of minerals") we learned that
if quartz is heated to 800° it becomes unstable, and will change its crystal
form if given time enough to do so, going over into tridymite. This change
is somewhat sluggish, and may be delayed far beyond that temperature. If
the heating is then continued, the tridymite melts slowly, beginning at a tem-
perature of about 1,600° C. The temperature is so high and the material
itself so inert that the melting usually proves to be a totally different phenom-
enon from the melting of most other solids. It is still further peculiar in the
fact that the liquid silica, after melting, is so viscous that it can hardly be
made to run at all unless heated far above this temperature. With such a
peculiar material, therefore, it is not surprising that great difficulty has been
encountered in melting quartz down to a clear glass. Small single crystals
have, to be sure, been melted in the oxyhydrogen flame to a clear liquid which
cooled down without crystallization, but when the attempt is made to melt
any considerable quantity of quartz it invariably comes out a spongy, white
mass, which resembles common pumice stone, and is, of course, useless for
any of the purposes to which glass is commonly applied. The viscosity is
such that the air included between the solid fragments before melting is
firmly held in small bubbles, which stoutly resist the usual methods of dis-
lodging them.

It was found in the laboratory that quartz would not run together into
a homogeneous mass after melting, without superheating, but the super-
heating of quartz in an electric furnace, with carbon electrodes, appears to
cause a reduction of the silica and the formation of gas in sufficient quantities
to cause more and larger bubbles. The problem which confronted us was,
therefore, to get the quartz sufficiently fluid without its undergoing chemical
change. We accomplished this by applying an air-pressure of about 500
pounds to the square inch, which proved sufficient to allow of considerable
superheating without the usual decomposition. By this means clear quartz
glass could be melted down from random fragments of pure material into
clear, transparent blocks of a size suitable for many technical applications.
It is probable that greater pressure would operate to still further hinder the
appearance of gas and increase the certainty of a clear product, but the labo-
ratory has no bomb strong enough to test this hypothesis.

The possibility of preparing this glass with reasonable facility in consider-
able quantities is extremely important, for when made it can not be melted
before reaching a white heat, and its expansion coefficient, which is a fair
measure of its tendency to break when heated, is insignificant.

GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH — DAY. l8l

(5) The determination of the feldspars by means of their refractive indices. Fred
Eugene Wright. Amer. Journ. Sci. (4), 21, 361-363- May, 1906.
Of the many methods which have been suggested for the discrimination of
the feldspars, perhaps none have received less actual attention from petrolo-
gists than those based on the refractive indices, and this, notwithstandmg the
fact that the refractive power of a mineral is one of its fundamental proper-
ties and can be approximately determined with comparative ease. The
method described in this paper is based upon principles developed by Schroe-
der van der Kolk some vears ago, but it has proved so effective m actual
practice and so thoroughly serviceable in its present form that it has been
thought to deserve separate publication.

(6) Errors in pyrometry. E. S. Shepherd. A paper before the American Electrochem-

ical Society, May 3, 1906. Published in the Transactions of the Society.
The paper is a brief exposition of the errors common to the pyrometric
apparatus now in use in the technical laboratories of the country.

(7) A modification of the Lasaulx method for observing interference figures under

the microscope. Fred Eugene Wright. Amer. Jour. Sci. (4), 22, 1^20. July, 1906.
A description of a convenient device by which this well-known method can
be applied without the usual disturbance of the microscope adjustment and
consequent loss of time.

(8) The lime-silica series of minerals. Arthur L. Day and E. S. Shepherd. Read before

the American Chemical Society at Ithaca, June 28, 1906. Extract m Jour Amer.
Chem. Soc, 28, 1089-1114. September, 1906. Full text, Amer. Jour. Sci. (4), 22,
265-302. October, 1906.
The feldspar investigation, published a year ago, was a study of a typical
isomorphous mineral series without any breaking down of the components,
limitations of solubility, or other complicating phenomena. In the interest
of a systematic progression, it therefore seemed desirable to undertake an
equally careful study of the eutectic relation. A further reason for under-
taking this series lav in the fact that the most important single mineral con-
tained in it had been made the subject of a special investigation during the
previous year. The most important results of the investigation may be
brieflv stated as follows : In addition to lime and silica, the initial components
of the series, only two compounds of these are capable of a stable, independent
existence These are wollastonite, which was found to exist m two different
crystal forms, one of which (the common form) is stable below 1,200 ; the
other is stable only above that temperature. It was found possible to prepare
both these forms in high chemical purity and to transform them from one to
the other, thereby establishing all the conditions of their equilibrium The
melting-point of the higher form was found to be 1,512°. The second stable
compound of these minerals is the orthosilicate of calcium, containing two
molecules of lime to one of silica. Three different crystal forms of this mm-

l82 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

eral were found, and their optical and physical properties carefully estab-
lished. One is stable from 1,410° to 2,080°, its melting-point; a second
between 675° and 1,410° ; while the third is only found at lower temper-
atures. It is interesting to note, however, that no one of these three forms
exists in nature on account of the energy with which they are attacked by
water and greater or less quantities of lime dissolved out.

The investigation of one of the components, silica, developed some further
interesting information regarding natural formations, and incidentally led to
a separate investigation, of which some account has already been given
(No. 4 above). Silica was found to crystallize in two forms, quartz and
tridymite, of which quartz is one of the commonest natural minerals. Tridy-
mite occurs but rarely in nature. Under atmospheric pressure, however,
silica can only crystallize as quartz below 800°. Above that temperature
tridymite forms, and existing quartz becomes tridymite by slow inversion.
Thus one of the most important and one of the commonest of the minerals
found in nature must have formed at a relatively low temperature. The
difference in density between these two forms of silica is relatively enor-
mous— quartz, 2,654; tridymite, 2,318 (more than 13 per cent). The density
of the glass is still lower — 2.213.

(9) Schistosity by crystallization : A qualitative proof. Fred Eugene Wright. Amer.

Journ. Sci. (4), 22, 224-230. September, 1906.

The schistose textures of many metamorphic rocks have been ascribed by
Van Hise and others to the orienting influence of pressures, with a stress
difference acting during the recrystallization of the rock in its new environ-
ment, solution taking place along the line of greatest strain and deposition
along the line of least resistance and normal to the maximum stress. In
such cases the rock cleavage is due to the parallel arrangement of its mineral
components in planes perpendicular to the line of greatest stress.

Conditions of experiment in which crystallization under unequal stresses
could take place were effected by using cubes of glass made by rapidly chill-
ing various mineral melts, and by heating these slowly to the point at which
crystallization began. The glass at that temperature is still so viscous as to
be mechanically rigid and capable of supporting unequal pressures.

Textures similar to those of certain metamorphic rocks were produced in
this way, and an experimental confirmation of the theoretical deductions thus
obtained.

(10) Minerals of the composition MgSiOs: A case of tetramorphism. E. T. Allen,

Fred Eugene Wright, and J. K. Clement. To appear in Amer. Journ. Sci.,
November, 1906.

Magnesium metasilicate, when prepared pure, can be made to appear in
four different crystal forms, of which two are pyroxenes and two are amphi-
boles. The only form which is stable at all temperatures is the monoclinic

GEOPHYSICAIv REISEARCH — DAY. 1 83

pyroxene, melting at 1,521°. Into this form the other three modifications
change more or less readily with the application of heat. If a melt of this
composition be cooled rapidly, one of the amphiboles results; if somewhat
less rapidly, an orthorhombic pyroxene identical with enstatite ; if slowly, the
stable pyroxene always reappears. Curiously enough, the stablest form of
this composition has never been identified in natural rocks, although we are
confident that intergrowths of it with enstatite must have been found and
overlooked. It does sometimes appear in meteorites. On the other hand,
the less stable pyroxene, enstatite, is a very familiar natural mineral.

The situation seems somewhat anomalous, and, indeed, no complete expla-
nation for it has yet been found, but a curious side-light is thrown upon it
by experiments which we made in the laboratory to the following effect: If
magnesium metasilicate in any one of its crystal forms is mixed with a small
quantity of a thinly fluid flux (calcium vanadate, magnesium vanadate, mag-
nesium tellurite, magnesium chloride in the presence of dry hydrochloric
acid) and heated, the stable pyroxene will always reappear. If, on the other
hand, a solution be formed between the magnesium silicate and albite, ortho-
clase, or some other viscous silicate, enstatite, and even the orthorhombic
amphibole crystallizes out quite readily. It thus appears that the retarding
influence of viscosity is sometimes sufficient to prevent or postpone the crys-
tallization of that form of the mineral which is relatively stablest in favor of
some one of the unstable forms which may or may not go over into the stable
form afterward. This final transition probably also depends upon tempera-
ture and viscosity.

The fourth form of this mineral is a monoclinic amphibole which we were
able to form in aqueous solutions at low temperatures, but only occasionally
and in small quantities from the melt. It appears to be unknown among
natural rocks.

The final proof of the relation between these minerals was established by
showing that each of the three lower forms passes into the monoclinic pyrox-
ene with evolution of heat.

This paper, although restricted to a study of the different possible forms
of a single mineral, was immensely instructive in explaining the appearance
of relatively unstable components among natural rocks, and in showing that
contiguous minerals, both in natural rocks and in pure mineral melts, are by
no means necessarily in equilibrium.

In all branches of quantitative research, especially in its earlier stages,
nearly as much attention requires to be paid to the methods of measurement
as to the results. It therefore frequently happens that investigations which
appear to bear only indirectly upon the ultimate purpose of the research are
among the most important which the laboratory is called upon to undertake.
During the past winter the methods of temperature measurement which we

184 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

have been using, and upon which the value of our results very largely
depends, have therefore been made the subject of a searching examination.
The results of this purely physical investigation are not only of value to us,
but to all other investigators who have occasion to use high temperatures, to
technical laboratories, and to a considerable number of the important indus-
tries. They will therefore be embodied in a series of separate papers, of
which two are now ready for the press. These are concerned with the actual
tools of our daily measurements, and will be briefly reviewed under their
individual titles below. In addition to these, a fundamental investigation of
the gas scale, in terms of which all high temperatures are now expressed, is
well under way, and equipped with new and exceptionally perfect apparatus,
but no report upon it can be made during the present year.

(11) Everyday problems of the moving coil galvanometer. Walter P. White. To

appear in Phys. Rev. for November, 1906.

A discussion of the conditions of construction and of adjustment of moving-
coil galvanometers in order to secure (i) high sensitiveness, (2) short
period, (3) suitable damping, (4) constancy of zero, and of the possibility
of obtaining some of these at the expense of others. The discussion has also
been extended to include ballistic systems.

(12) The constancy of thermoelements. Walter P. White. To appear in Phys. Rev.

for December, 1906.

The main source of error in thermoelectric measurement is due to inhomo-
geneity in the wires of the thermoelement. This may be original, and due to
an imperfect distribution of the materials composing the wires, or may be
acquired by exposure to contamination in their daily use. In the two classes
of thermoelements in common use, platinum with platin-rhodium (Heraeus)
at high temperatures, and copper and constantan (an alloy of copper and
nickel) at low temperatures, we find no original impurity which need affect
temperature measurements by as much as o.oi per cent (equal to 0.01° at
100° or 0.1° at 1,000° C). The problem, therefore, resolves itself into an
effort to discover what are the agencies which cause deterioration of the ele-
ments, the character of the error produced by their presence, and whether or
not these substances can be excluded or rendered harmless.

In copper-constantan elements, inhomogeneities appear from two sources :
(i) Variations in the hardness of the wire, due partly to unsatisfactory
initial annealing and partly to bending the wires when in use. The effects
of inadequate annealing are quite permanent at low temperatures, and are
best avoided by rejecting wires in which they are found. Drawing the
wire over the sharp corner of a board before using will usually produce uni-
form hardness, and no further trouble need then be feared from handling.

GEOPHYSICAL RE;SEARCH — DAY. 1 85

The second (2) cause of inhomogeneity arises from superficial oxidation of
the wires. This can usually be prevented in various ways, or corrected by
scouring.

The error, after these precautions have been observed, is less than 0.002°
up to 40° C. These thermometers are, therefore, as sensitive as the finest
mercury thermometers ; they have a much greater range, and are more cer-
tain in their behavior. Still greater sensitiveness could be attained by using
several elements in series, if sufficient galvanometer sensitiveness were
available.

Platinum elements at high temperatures take up impurities which diffuse
into the wire. Two sources of contamination are also found here : ( i ) The
action of reducing agents (carbon, illuminating gas, etc.) upon the material
of the furnace which sets free substances which combine with platinum
(usually iron and silicon). Neither carbon itself nor the common gases
containing it affect the elements. The second cause of contamination (2)
appears in an oxidizing atmosphere, and has frequently been overlooked
hitherto. It is due to the presence in the furnace with the element of vapors
of the other platinum metals at temperatures above 900°. These (chiefly
iridium and rhodium), when alone or alloyed with platinum, will penetrate
both wires, and will cause low readings by diminishing the thermoelectric
potential difference after a very short exposure. Glazed porcelain is a suffi-
cient protection against these vapors, but not unglazed porcelain. When a
wire is once contaminated with iridium or rhodium, there is no way to restore
it except by cutting off the contaminated portion. The distribution of the
contamination, as well as its amount, can be readily determined by a thermo-
electric test against a piece of pure wire. A contaminated element can still
be used for accurate work, provided it can be compared with a perfect ele-
ment immediately afterward without changing the temperature gradient along
the wire.

By observing the precautions above indicated, a platinum-platin-rhodium
thermoelement was found to show no variations greater than one-twentieth
of 1° at 1,000° — a remarkably high degree of perfection.

l86 REPORTS ON INVEISTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

HISTORICAL RESEARCH*

By J. Frankwn Jameson, Director of the Department.

I beg leave to submit the following as my first annual report as director of
the Department of Historical Research of the Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington. I arrange it under the three heads of "General plans," "Work of
the past year," and "Special plans for 1907." Since my tenure of this office
began on October i, 1905, I aim to cover in the second section of the report
the transactions of thirteen rather than twelve months.

GENERAL PLANS.

The proper functions of a department of historical research in the Carnegie
Institution of Washington are defined by the nature of the processes of his-
torical work on the one hand, and on the other hand by the present status of
such work in the United States and the form of its organization.

The normal processes of historical work would commonly be said to be
four : The finding of the original materials, printed or unprinted ; the putting
of them into accessible and well-edited print, if they have not already that
form; next, the production of monographs; and, finally, the composition of
general histories. Unless under circumstances quite exceptional, the last
two processes are better left to the free action of individual scholars. Given
the materials, they will produce monographs and histories in the future, as
they have in the past, and of a better flavor than those which might be turned
out by an organized institution. In the main, it must be the proper function
of an organized and permanent institution, disposing of ampler resources
than most individual historians can command, to carry on the primary,
fundamental, and costly tasks of finding the materials or guiding men to
them, and of printing such of them as are unprinted and most deserve print,
selecting those which are likely to give the greatest possible aid and incite-
ment to the production of good monographs in important fields. For us at
any rate, melius est petere fontes quam sectari rivulos.

Accordingly, the publications of such a department will naturally fall into
two classes : A series of reports, aids, and guides, mediating between the
worker and his materials, printed or unprinted, and a series of texts ; and the
main business of this department must be to plan, and so far as possible to
execute, those publications, of these two sorts, which are most needed, or
most likely to be of large utility, in the present state of American historical
work.

* Report for the year ending October 31, 1906. Grant No. 313. $17,600 for investiga-
tions and maintenance. (For previous reports see Year Book No. 3, pp. 65-79, and
Year Book No. 4, pp. 232-237.)

HISTORICAIv RESEARCH — JAMESON. 187

Reports, Aids, axd Guides.

If no such helps had hitherto been constructed and we had carte blanche,
our natural course might be to attempt the preparation, on a systematic plan
and a grandiose scale, of a comprehensive and minute survey of all the orig-
inal materials, printed and unprinted, for the history of the United States.
(The materials for the history of other countries, we may assume, will be
better cared for by them.) But we have not carte blanche. Many finding-
lists, many archive-reports, already exist in print. Governments and histor-
ical societies have furnished guidance to certain sorts of historical material,
and stand ready to furnish still more. The department should, on the nega-
tive side, avoid duplication and competition; on the positive side, it should
seek and promote cooperation. It may very well cherish the ambition to
supply what is still lacking of the grandiose scheme, to accomplish by its
own means and efforts the great general survey, minus such parts of it as
have already been achieved or are likely soon to be achieved by others. But
a task so defined is, from the nature of the case, composed of distinct por-
tions, which may be planned separately and taken up in the order of their
importance. The ideal outlines of a perfect general survey may be kept
always in mind; we need never lose from sight the relations borne to it by
the particular fragment with which we are at the time engaged, but we are
released from the necessity of pursuing an inconveniently logical order, and
can undertake our partial guides as they are most pressingly needed or as
thev are most conveniently approached.

To speak first of unprinted materials, it is plain that there are three stages
in the process of mediation between them and the historical scholars who
may wish to use them: First, the preparation of general descriptions of
them, as they lie in masses in their respective repositories ; secondly, the
preparation of calendars or itemized lists of them, usually in a chronological
order; thirdly, the editing and putting into print of those which are most
important. While the superior value of some materials may properly bring
them into the stage of calendaring or printing long before all the general
descriptions of the first-named order have been completed, it remains in
general true that in the earlier years of our work the compilation of general
descriptions of archive-material is logically entitled to the leading place.

Among reports or guides of this sort, the most obvious desideratum was
that of a guide to the archives of the Government at Washington ; and
such a volume was prepared and issued under my predecessor. Professor
McLaughlin. In this great field of the national archives, which our local
circumstances press upon our attention with peculiar force, the calendar stage
may for certain classes of material be appropriately reached soon. Of the
archives of the States, a dozen have been reported upon with a fair degree of
completeness by the Public Archives Commission of the American Historical

l88 REPORTS OX INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

Association, and a dozen other States have special commissions of their own
engaged in the preparation of similar reports. ]\lost of our older large cities
have, in some degree, made similar provision. So far as the main records in
the central archives of the States are concerned, what is most important is in
a fair way to be executed, either by such agencies or by the historical socie-
ties, which in this country are exceptionally rich and influential. Yet all the
older of these archives contain great quantities of historical material which
are no part of their regular series of legal records, which relate rather to the
history of other States or of the Union than to that in which they are found,
or which lack significance till combined with materials found elsewhere. In
work upon documents of this class the department has a large field, and
another, of indefinite magnitude, in dealing with those which still remain in
private possession.

Moreover, to exploit the unprinted materials for American history which
are to be found in archives outside the United States is not only an appro-
priate task for such an organization as this department, but one of the most
imperative and immediate. In the first place, the American colonies having
been under the control of various European governments during all their
formative period, there are many cases in which America contains only sec-
ondary or derivative records of transactions, of which the primary or funda-
mental documents are in Europe. Lacking these, we shall often miss the
central threads of colonial administration. Secondly, since not simply the
colonial governors and governments, but also the emigrants themselves, came
from Europe, it is as true of the history of American social institutions as it
is of American constitutional and political history, that it is vain to attempt
to write it without the aid of materials to be found in Europe rather than in
America. Thirdly, even for the period since the attainment of American
independence, there is a large branch of our history which can never be ade-
quately treated by means of American materials alone, namely, our diplomatic
history. To attempt to base this on purely American materials, without
taking into account the documents which exhibit the European side of the
same transactions, would be neither reasonable nor scientific. It would
amount to shutting out half the light. Finally, if needful, a quantitative and
pragmatical argument might be adduced. It is probable that, for the portion
of American history prior to 1815, there is a greater amount of original docu-
ment in Europe than in America. Moreover, of that which is in America, it
is certain that a larger portion has been printed than of the corresponding
masses of American material in Europe, for in the eyes of European govern-
ments and other printing agencies such material has naturally borne a wholly
secondary importance in comparison with materials bearing directly on their
own history, while to American governments it has seemed fundamental.

Here also, as in the case of American archives, the first step is properly
that of preparing summary descriptions or general inventories of the Amer-

HISTORICAIv RESEARCH JAMESON. 189

ican materials in the respective archives. There have been many partial
skimmings or deflorations of them by American searchers or agents of States,
But the partial or casual quality of their data makes it impossible to bring
them by supplementary efforts up to the full measure of what vje want, and
great stores of material are now thrown open that in former days were
excluded. We must first find out what there is, by thorough and orderly
search, proceeding through every division of the archive, not with a view to
the production of one book or to the illustration of the history of one State,
but with an eye to the interests of all present and future workers in American
history, in whatever topic, region, or State they may be interested. Acting
upon this plan of procedure, my predecessor instituted three elaborate projects
of research. Prof. C. M. Andrews, of Bry-n Mawr, undertook the prepara-
tion of a guide to the materials for American history prior to 1783 to be
found in the archives of Great Britain. Prof. W. R. Shepherd, of Columbia
Universit}", undertook a similar guide, but not limited chronologically, to the
three principal archives of Spain. Mr. L. M. Perez was sent to examine the
archives of Cuba. It was natural that England and Spain should be first
undertaken. In course of time we ought to complete the work there, by
bringing our English inventory down from 1783, by embracing the minor
national repositories in Spain, and in both countries by furnishing similar
guidance to the materials for American history in provincial and local, in
ecclesiastical, nobiliary, and other private archives in England, Scotland, Ire-
land, and Spain. But a more pressing need is for guides to the documents
for United States history in the main archives of France and Mexico. These
two countries have the first claim upon our attention, France because of the
high importance of her relation to the history of the Mississippi Valley and
to that of American diplomacy; Mexico, because (with the possible exception
of the Vatican archives) no archive of similar importance to our history has
been so little explored. Of the archives of the Dominion of Canada, on the
other hand, that great storehouse of historical material, one of the most
ample in the western hemisphere, we may say with some confidence that no
large archive has ever so fully made known in print its contents. An inven-
tory of what it contains for the history of the States may therefore without
harm be deferred, especially as it is at the beginning of a new administration,
with large ideas of development which, we may hope, will be so well sus-
tained as soon to make obsolete any handbook that we might prepare. Mean-
while, through the cordial relations which subsist between the archivist of the
Dominion and this office, we may hope shortly to possess all needed informa-
tion as to what the lesser archives of Canada possess that has value for our
historians.

After France and Mexico should come the archives of Rome. The extent
of the Roman archives, their state of preservation, and the ecclesiastical rela-
tions which subsisted between the Roman curia and especially the French

190 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

and Spanish portions of our territor}^ bring it about that here we have a
great and most interesting body of material for our history, and by reason
of the late date at which the Vatican archives were thrown open little system-
atic work in the American field has yet been done within their walls. The
attempt on our part to explore the Roman collections thoroughly can not be
at once begun. The problem is so important and so complex as to demand
for itself a special report. But it has a high place in our list of agenda.

Next in importance come the archives of Germany, including the German
parts of Austria and Switzerland. Here we have to deal not only with the
central archives, rich in documents for diplomatic and other public history,
but, because of the peculiar importance of German emigration to America,
with many local, university, and private archives and libraries, abounding in
the materials which illustrate that remarkable and momentous movement.
At later periods we may look forward to dealing with the archives of the
Netherlands, Portugal, Russia, and Scandinavia, and with those of Central
and South America. It may be mentioned that, apart from an order of coun-
tries dictated by American considerations, our general course of procedure
with respect to foreign archives is closely similar to that pursued by the most
sagacious of the European historical agencies.

There is, however, one peculiar aspect of our plans of procedure that
should be briefly commented upon. Of the American States, there are at
least twenty-six whose territory was once, in whole or in part, in greater or
less degree of completeness, under the civil control of France and the eccle-
siastical governance of Rome ; some twenty-two under the rule of Spain. In
many of these, especially in the Mississippi Valley, there are active historical
societies or State departments of history, of which several are upon the point
of undertaking extensive projects of transcription and publication of material
from European archives illustrating their respective histories. But it is
apparent that all this enthusiastic effort might lead to much wasteful dupli-
cation if cooperation were not carefully provided for. While the spirit of
cooperation exists in abundant measure in these institutions, it is not too
much to say that its course can be made much more effective and complete
through the work of this department. The clearing-house, we may say, was
instituted just in time. For example, our proposed guides to the American
material in the Spanish, French, and Roman archives will be, it may fairly
be said, invaluable to these organizations at the present juncture, relieving
them of much preliminary labor which one agency can do for all, and pro-
moting cooperation by laying before them a detailed and scientific map of
the territory in which they are to find their respective fields of work. In
many other ways it is possible for this department, while perfectly avoiding
"entangling alliances," to further mutual understanding and mutual help
among these organizations. In view of their ardor and of the increasing
resources which they are plainly destined to command, I do not know

HISTORICAL RESEARCH — JAMESON. IQI

whether there is any field of our activities where each hundred dollars of
expenditure brings so large a future profit to the cause of historical science
in the United States.

Hitherto this report, in treating of the ideals of a department of historical
research, and of the preparation of reports, aids, and guides as a necessary
element in its program, has spoken only of guides to unprinted materials.
I should be sorry to be supposed to hold that such a department has no func-
tion with respect to those that are in print. The distinction between the two
is broad as respects convenience of use, and therefore has its proper claim
to be regarded in our work. But for many purposes in historical science the
distinction simply does not exist. The worker wishes to have before him all
the first-hand statements that bear upon his theme. It is little to him, save
as to expense perhaps, that some come to him in the guise of print, some in
that of manuscript. Multitudes of them are annually passing over from the
latter to the former class. The distinction is external and superficial. An
organization that means to do what is most useful in the way of mediating
between workers and their original materials will not adopt it as a primary
basis of classification. Such an organization will not print in its text-series
that which is already printed, but in constructing some of its aids or guides,
as, for instance, in supplying historical scholars with lists of materials of
specific sorts, such as lists of colonial charters, or governors' commissions, or
legislative journals, or missionary relations (a most useful variety of guide,
of which we should have many more, of the type of certain European
regesta), it will surely list without distinction those members of a series that
are printed and those that are not. Whatever may be thought of ordinary
bibliographies — lists of writings original and secondary, good, bad, and indif-
ferent, on a given subject — for classified lists of original materials there will
always be a legitimate demand.

It is not without reason and intention that a heading making reference to
aids as well as to reports and guides has been chosen for the title of the
present section of this report. Besides reports upon archives, and guides to
particular masses of archival and other material, there are certain sorts of
historical reference-books that can best be produced by endowed institutions,
as the Art de Verifier les Dates was produced by the Congregation of St.
Maur, as the Allgemeine Deutsche Biographic has been produced in our time
by the Bavarian Historical Commission, or as the great historical atlas of
the Netherlands is being produced by the Historical Society of Utrecht.
Several such enterprises may ultimately, with permission, be proposed by the
department, the most interesting and important among them being the project
of an atlas of American historical geography comparable with the best of the
historical atlases now in course of preparation in and for various European
countries.

192 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

Textual Publication of Documents.

As has been intimated in a previous paragraph, the work of the department
in its earlier years may well consist mainly of the locating of materials and
the publication of information respecting them. But it is not needful that
the second natural division of its publications, the series of texts, should be
wholly postponed till the first has been completed. On the contrary, several
collections of documentary texts urgently demand publication, and can be
prepared concurrently with our series of guides. For a survey of the gen-
eral subject of desiderata of this class, I may refer to an article entitled
"Gaps in the published records of United States History," which I printed in
the American Historical Review for July, 1905. The part which this Depart-
ment may play in supplying these deficiencies must always be defined in
consideration of, and sometimes in consultation with, other agencies, such as
historical societies and governmental bodies. Thus while such series as
pertain to individual States should be left to be cared for by the States them-
selves, there are many series which, while they belong to many States, are
no natural concern of the national government, series of which the materials
are to be obtained from Europe, or lie so scattered in the archives of many
States that until they are brought together their significance and serial quality
are not appreciated. Examples of the former class would be the acts of the
Privy Council of Great Britain, proclamations of the English or orders of the
French and Spanish kings relating to these colonies, the journals of the
Board of Trade and Plantations, or the American debates of the House of
Commons. Another example, and one which has been claiming the attention
of the department during the past year, is a collection of all those treaties
and parts of treaties between European powers which have a bearing on the
history of the United States. A typical instance of the second class men-
tioned, collections whose materials must be assembled from many States, but
which none the less have a high degree of unity and value when assembled,
is that of the letters which delegates to the Continental Congress and the
Congress of the Confederation wrote to their respective States describing its
proceedings, a collection which was undertaken by my predecessor, and the
value of which was emphasized in his last report. Again, the State Trials
of the United States deserve to be collected. The papers of many eminent
statesmen call for collective editions, or better editions than have appeared,
e. g., the correspondence of John Adams, of Richard Henry Lee, of James A.
Bayard, of John Quincy Adams, of James H. Hammond, of Jefferson Davis,
or of Alexander H. Stephens, not to mention those whose papers are in the
Library of Congress or are otherwise likely to be cared for by existing
agencies.

HISTORICAL RESI:ARCH — JAMESON. I93

Miscellaneous Duties.

In its capacity of clearing-house for the historical profession, the Depart-
ment must endeavor to accumulate and keep on file in a convenient manner
all possible information respecting manuscript materials for American his-
tory, especially those which are scattered or difficult of access, and to do what
it can to facilitate use of these by scholars. It must also mediate between
historical scholars, the country over, and the archives of Washington, by
making searches of limited extent for them, indicating available materials,
answering questions, and making arrangements with copyists. It should aid
with particular zeal the efforts of societies and State departments of archives
and history. The editing of the American Historical Review, the organ of
the profession, is, inevitably, closely associated with its work.

WORK OF THE PAST YEAR.

I can not easily express my deep sense of obligation to my predecessor,
Professor McLaughlin, for the condition of advancement and of order in
which he turned over to me, on October i, 1905, the affairs of the depart-
ment. I am sure that all who work in the department and all to whom its
work is of service will continue to be grateful to him for the admirable
intelligence and skill with which he organized and for two years carried on
that work.

Reports, Aids, and Guides.

Messrs. Van Tyne and Iceland's Guide to the Archives of the Government
of the United States in Washington having come to be practically out of
print, a second edition is in preparation, and should be in press by January.
While the form of the Guide will not be changed, such corrections will be
introduced as have been made necessary by the receipt of additional infor-
mation or by occasional shiftings of archive-material from one place of
deposit to another. In many places the text will be considerably amplified.
A very full report has been prepared on the important body of material in
the Bureau of Indexes and Archives of the Department of State, the records
of territories in that Department and elsewhere have received particular
attention, and the account of the records of the Post Office Department has
been very much amplified. While this revised edition can in no way be made
a definitive one, it will be considerably larger and more informing than that
of 1904.

Mr. McLaughlin's Report on the Diplomatic Archives of the Department
of State, 1 789- 1840, also out of print, has been reissued with only a few
slight alterations.

To meet and to stimulate increased interest in the religious history of
America, an interest felt not only by workers in church history but by the

13— YB

194 REPORTS ON inve;stigations and projects.

most intelligent students of the history of American civilization, it was
resolved that an attempt should be made to furnish a methodical guide or
inventory to the large but scattered mass of unprinted historical material
preserved in the archives of the various religious bodies and missionary
societies, and in the libraries of theological seminaries and denominational
colleges. The Protestant portion was first taken up. Prof. William H.
Allison, of Franklin College, was chosen as the fittest person to conduct such
an inquiry. In explanation and furtherance of its objects a printed circular
was extensively employed.

Most of the work was done in the summer. It met with cordial cooperation
and much success, with some drawbacks, due to the summer closing of libraries
or the absence of custodians. The agent visited six denominational archives
in New York, six in Philadelphia, four in Boston, three in Louisville, two
each in Cincinnati, Princeton, Rochester, and Allegheny, and one each in
Cleveland, Oberlin, Dayton, Xenia, Springfield, and Urbana, Ohio; Gettys-
burg, Lancaster, Swarthmore, and Upland, Pennsylvania ; Wilmington, Dela-
ware ; New Brunswick, New Jersey ; Hamilton, Canton, and Syracuse, New
York, and Hanover, New Hampshire. A highly satisfactory report of prog-
ress has been rendered. By the end of another summer Mr. Allison hopes
to complete the visitation of such archives as are to be covered by the final
report.

Prof. Charles M. Andrews, of Bryn Mawr College, had been early engaged
by the department to prepare in England a guide to the materials for Amer-
ican history prior to 1783 to be found in London archives. The results of
his labors down to October, 1905, are described in Mr. McLaughlin's report
of a year ago. At that time he returned to America with an extraordinarily
complete mass of notes upon the American papers in the Public Record Office,
the British Museum, and the Bodleian Library. From these he has been
preparing the desired book as rapidly as his college duties have permitted.
It seems probable that by January it will be finished and ready for the printer.

Meanwhile it seemed desirable, both to Professor Andrews and to the
director, that the manual should not be confined to the three repositories
which alone the former had been able to examine thoroughly, but that such
supplementary searches and notes should be made as would complete it for
the whole circle of public or semi-public archives in London. To this end,
as Professor Andrews could not go to England again. Miss Frances G.
Davenport of this department went to England in June, after such conference
with him as would enable her to collect materials on a plan uniform with his.
The repositories which she was instructed to examine for their American ma-
terials were the archives of the House of Lords (never hitherto examined with
care for purposes of American history, it is believed), of Lambeth Palace, of
Fulham Palace, of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, of the Hud-

HISTORICAL re;se;arch — jAMEsox. 195

son's Bay Company, of the General Post Office, of the Catholic province of
Westminster, and of the Royal Society, Sion College, and Dr. Williams's
Library. By the kindness of Sir Henry Graham, Clerk of Parliaments, the
Archbishop of Canterbury, the Bishop of London, the Archbishop of West-
minster, Lord Strathcona, governor of the Hudson's Bay Company, the Sec-
retary to the Post Office (through the good offices of the American ambassa-
dor), and other authorities in charge of these collections, ample facilities for
Miss Davenport's work have been afforded. It is expected that it will be
completed within two months after the date of this report. The results will
then be combined with those obtained by Professor Andrews, and the Guide
produced.

The guide to the materials for United States history in the three chief
Spanish archives is not so near completion. Professor Shepherd's duties at
Columbia University and his voyage to Rio Janeiro have delayed it, but it
will apparently be finished by the end of the calendar year. Mr. Perez's
report on the Cuban archives is finished, and ready for the press. By the
kindness of Dr. Arthur Doughty, C. M. G., archivist of the Dominion of
Canada, arrangements have been made whereby two agents of his office who
are engaged in searches of the archives of the Maritime Provinces and of the
ecclesiastical province of Quebec, respectively, Dr. James Hannay and Father
P. M. O'Leary, will communicate to this department reports upon all material
for the history of the United States that they may discover.

It was from the first intended that all the reports of the department upon
foreign archives should be accompanied with lists of the transcripts of docu-
ments in foreign archives which exist in American public collections, in order
that the historical inquirer might run no risk of expending time and money
in seeking in Europe documents of which copies were accessible nearer home.
Mr. McLaughlin's last report explained what had been done toward this end
by Mr. W. G. Leland, of this department, in Virginia,* North Carolina, and
South Carolina. During the past year he has advanced this task much nearer
to completion, especially as regards the English and Spanish material, which
will be the parts first needed. The Hst of unprinted transcripts from the
British archives has been continued to include the documents in the Massa-
chusetts archives and in the libraries of Harvard University, the Massachu-
setts Historical Society, and the Maryland Historical Society, in all about
5,000, additional to about 10,000 that had been calendared a year ago. The
list of unprinted transcripts from the Spanish archives at present includes the
documents in the possession of the Louisiana Historical Society and the
Missouri Historical Society, in the library of Col. R. T. Durrett, of Louis-
ville, and in that of Harvard University, in all about a thousand. The
transcripts in the New York Public Library are next to be undertaken by

* Our list of transcripts in the Virginia State Library has been printed by the librarian
in a recent report.

196 REPORTS ON INVE;STIGATI0NS and PROJECTS.

Mr. Leland, and arrangements have been made to catalogue those in the State
Historical Library at Madison, Wisconsin, The whole list, so far as Eng-
land and Spain are concerned, is expected to be brought to completion by the
spring of 1907.

For similar reasons, indeed for obviously stronger reasons, lists of printed
documents obtained from foreign archives were planned from the beginning
of this work. The English list, which had been compiled some years ago by
Miss Gertrude Kimball, of Providence, under the auspices of the American
Antiquarian Society, and which was turned over to this Department, has
been brought down to date and otherwise completed by Miss Kimball, and
contains about 15,000 items. A similar list relating to the Spanish archives
has been compiled by Miss Mary Griffin, and contains about 2,000 items.

Under the rubric of "aids" mention might be made of a code of "Sug-
gestions for the printing of documents relating to American history," which
was jointly prepared by Prof. Edward G. Bourne, of Yale University, at
that time chairman of the Historical Manuscripts Commission of the Amer-
ican Historical Association ; Mr. Worthington C. Ford, Chief of the Division
of manuscripts in the Library of Congress, and the director of this depart-
ment. It was printed b}^ the American Historical Association, and has been
given extensive circulation among historical societies and students.

Texts.

Miss Davenport has been engaged throughout the year with the prepara-
tion of a volume which shall contain accurate texts of those treaties or parts
of treaties between European powers which have a bearing on the history of
the United States. In spite of their obvious importance to American history,
these texts are difficult to procure. Many have never been printed accurately ;
some have never been printed at all. The contemplated volume will give
texts carefully collated with the originals in European archives, and historical
introductions and notes by Miss Davenport.

The second of our text publications on which progress was made during
the year was that embracing the letters of delegates to the Old Congress,
described more fully in a preceding paragraph and in Mr. McLaughlin's last
report. The endeavor to locate additional collections of such letters has
been continued by Mr. Leland through correspondence and personal visits.
In Rhode Island a systematic search is being made by Miss Kimball. A
beginning has been made in the archives of Massachusetts. The collections
of the Connecticut Historical Society have been thoroughly searched and all
the letters of this sort found there, some 200 in all, have been copied. In
New Hampshire, through the kind offices of Prof. Herbert D. Foster, of
Dartmouth College, a collection of 58 letters has been located and copied.

HISTORICAIv RE;SE;ARCH — JAMESON. 197

As nearly 250 letters had previously been copied in Virginia and North Caro-
lina, there are now on hand about 500 letters. Further extensive copying
will be postponed until experiments now in progress, founded on suggestions
made at the Congress on Facsimiles at Liege, have demonstrated whether or
not the copying can be done as economically and rapidly by some photo-
graphic process. If so, the advantage will be great in the matter of proof-
reading, since the scattered situation of the originals will make collation of
proof-sheets with them a difficult matter.

Miscellaneous Operations.
So far as possible, all important inquiries addressed to the department by
serious students have been answered, especially such as related to historical
materials in Washington. The correspondence increases so rapidly that it
amounts to three or four times what it was two years ago.

Under the supervision of the department, but at the expense of the Michi-
gan Pioneer and Historical Society, large portions of the papers of Henry R.
Schoolcraft, at the Library of Congress and the Smithsonian Institution,
have been copied for the society. In a similar manner, a large number of
documents relating to the Illinois country during the period from the expedi-
tion of Gen. George Rogers Clark to the organization of the Northwest
Territory have been copied for the Illinois State Historical Library, and a
lesser number, relating to the period of Spanish rule in Missouri, and derived
from the archives of the United States and of Cuba, for the Missouri Histor-
ical Society. The effort is constantly made to exhibit toward historical socie-
ties and State historical departments, as well as toward individual students,
a helpful spirit. It is possible that success in mutual cooperation of this sort
may be furthered by the return of the director to the position of Chairman of
the Historical Manuscripts Commission of the AmiCrican Historical Associa-
tion, which he occupied for some years at its inception. It is certain that it
has been signally furthered by the personal visits which Mr. Leland has paid
during the past year, in the course of the searches mentioned in a preceding
paragraph, to historical societies and public archives in Richmond, Raleigh,
Columbia, Charleston, Savannah, Atlanta, Montgomery, Mobile, New
Orleans, Nashville, Louisville, Frankfort, and Charleston, West Virginia.
Many favors and courtesies have been received from such organizations by
various members of the staff. As instances of possible usefulness on our part
may be mentioned aid rendered the archivist of West Virginia in locating
certain bodies of material, and the discovery at the Department of State of a
large body of North Carolina archive-matter which has since been restored
to the State.

An instance of cooperation upon a wider field is the appointment of Mr.
Leland, with the consent of the director, to supply each year the American

198 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

portion of the Jahresberichte der Geschichtswissenschaft, published by the
Historical Society of Berlin.

In accordance with the practice established during Mr. McLaughlin's
tenure of this office, several persons competent in historical investigation
have been aided to come to Washington for that purpose by grants from the
appropriation made toward that end. They were: Mr. J. S. Fox, assistant
in the University of Michigan, studying certain aspects of the organization
of colonial legislatures ; Mr. J. P. Bretz, assistant in the University of Chi-
cago, studying the extension of the United States postal system into the
West; Mr. J. K. Lacock, studying the history of the Whisky Insurrection;
Mr. C. S. Larzelere, studying the internal boundaries of the United States;
Mr. J. L. Conger, of the University of Wisconsin, making researches into
the history of nullification in South Carolina; Prof. E. C. Barker, of the
University of Texas, who came to examine papers relating to Texas history
preserved in the Washington archives, and Dean W. H. Isely, of Fairmount
College, making similar inquiries into the history of the strife in Kansas in
1854-1859. Our practice has been to require that each such grantee shall at
his departure deposit in our office, for our benefit and that of future inquirers,
a more detailed account than has hitherto existed of the contents of that por-
tion of the Government archives which he has especially examined. I believe
that, under these arrangements, such grants are useful, and I hope that they
may be continued.

While the Library of Congress must always be our main reliance for books,
and while we are given the most liberal opportunities there, yet since we are
at twenty minutes' distance the department can not do its work properly
without having immediately at hand a certain supply of books, chiefly books
of reference and books respecting archives. With the permission of the
President, parts of the unexpended portions of the appropriations of 1905
were used in gathering together a small working library of this sort.

By permission of the Trustees, the director spent the spring in Europe,
sailing from New York for Naples on March 24, and returning to Boston,
from Liverpool, on July 10. The trip had two objects. The first was to
inspect several of those establishments or organizations in western Europe
whose work most closely resembles that which this department hopes to do,
to examine their material equipment and converse with those in charge, in
order to derive out of their experience suggestions for the future conduct of
our operations. Great kindness, interest, and willingness to assist were
everywhere manifested. It would be difficult to summarize observations of
quarters, equipment, methods, and plans, extending over a period of three
months. I am confident, however, that much has been gained, especially in
the way of enlargement of views and the making of profitable acquaintance,
that will have definite outcome in the work of succeeding years.

HISTORICAIv RESEARCH — JAMESON. I99

At Rome the several historical institutes were inspected which the various
nations have established since the opening of the Vatican Archives by the
late Pope, and which bear some such relation to those archives as that which
this department aims to sustain toward the archives in Washington. At the
E)cole Frangjaise, the Prussian, Austrian, and Dutch institutes, and that of the
Gorres Gesellschaft, respectively, much valuable information was obtained
from Mgr. L. Duchesne, Prof. Paul Kehr and Dr. Arnold O. Meyer, Dr.
Heinrich Pogatscher, Abbe Gijsbert Brom, and Mgr. Stephan Ehses. At
Quaracchi the historical establishment of the Franciscans, the College of St.
Bonaventure, was visited. At Munich there was profitable conversation with
Prof. K. Th. von Heigel, secretary of the historical commission connected
with the Bavarian Academy ; at Leiden and the Hague with Prof. P. J. Blok,
Dr. T. F. van Riemsdijk, archivist of the Kingdom, and Dr. H. T. Colen-
brander, members of the Commission of Advice on National Historical Pub-
lications ; at Ghent and Louvain with Dr. F. Vanderhaeghen, librarian of the
University of Ghent, and with Profs. Paul Fredericq and Henri Pirenne and
Abbe A. Cauchie, members of the Royal Historical Commission; at Paris,
London, and Oxford with various gentlemen connected with similar commis-
sions or with the national archives, especial kindness being received from
Prof. Ch.-V. Langlois, of the University of Paris, and Mr. Hubert Hall, of
the Public Record Office. No one of these various institutions occupies a
place precisely similar to that of this Department, but each has functions so
largely similar, on one side or another, that inquiry and comparison could not
fail to be highly interesting and instructive.

A second object of the mission was to do what could be done, by inquiries
and tentative and unofficial approaches, to pave the w^ay for those future
archive-searches the necessity for which has been exposed in a previous para-
graph. This object received especial attention at Rome, the interest and
complexity of the task to be pursued there being, as already explained, excep-
tionally great. Besides the suggestions received from some of the scholars
named above, I could not fail to mention with gratitude the aid and infor-
mation graciously imparted by Cardinal Merry del Val, Secretary of State;
Cardinal Gotti, prefect of the Congregation of the Propaganda; Father
Ehrle, prefect of the Vatican Library; Mgr. Wenzel, subarchivist of the
Vatican archives ; Father Leonard Neukirchen, definitor-general of the Fran-
ciscans ; Prof. Umberto Benigni, of the Propaganda ; Father Thomas Hughes,
S. J.; Abbe Pierre Richard, Mr. W. H. Bliss, English record agent, and
Father Leonard Lemmens, of Quaracchi. I feel confident that, when the
proper time arrives, unusual facilities will be afforded for whatever researches
we may undertake. Preparations toward future archive-searches elsewhere
in Italy, and at the Hague, Paris, and London, were a simpler and easier
matter.

200 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJEICTS.

SPECIAL PLANS FOR 1907.
Reports, Aids, and Guides.

Besides the maintenance of those varieties of work which have now become
established routine to the department, the year 1907 ought, without much
doubt, in view of the preparations described above, to see the issue of four
publications : The amplified edition of the Guide to the Archives at Washing-
ton, and the guides to the materials for American history in the archives of
Cuba, Great Britain (to 1783), and Spain. The last-named volume can with-
out difficulty contain our notes of manuscript transcripts and printed docu-
ments. The transcripts and printed documents from English archives are
so numerous as to require that our notes on them be published separately
from the Guide, in 1907, if possible; if not, in 1908.

The work most needed in respect to the Washington archives is the prepa-
ration of an itemized calendar of the papers relating to the Territories, begin-
ning with the Northwest Territory. It is for this class of papers that, owing
to the increasing activity of historical work in the West, there is the largest
demand for fuller information than is given in Messrs. Van Tyne and
Leiand's Guide. Moreover, they are so scattered through various Depart-
ments and bureaus, and have so little relation to the present business of the
Federal Government (nearly all these Territories having now become States),
that no single agency of that Government will be likely to feel an especial
interest in the collection of information regarding them from all the deposi-
tories in Washington, while the cordial aid we have received in the prepara-
tion of the new edition of the Guide makes us confident that we shall receive
every needed facility in this proposed advance into the second stage of
exploitation of archives. During the year it may be expected that Professor
Allison's inventory of historical materials in Protestant religious archives
should be made nearly or quite ready for publication.

As to the archives outside the United States, I desire to undertake first,
and in the year 1907, the exploration of the archives of France and Mexico,
on a plan similar to that which has been pursued in the case of England.
The reasons in both cases have been set forth in an earlier paragraph.

Texts.

The collection of European treaties and of letters of delegates to the Old
Congress may be expected to make large progress during the next year, the
former possibly reaching completion. We ought also to make a beginning
with some one of those series from British sources of which I described the
need in the article in the American Historical Review, to which reference
has already been made. In view of movements on foot by other organiza-
tions, it now appears that the one for us to undertake, one certain not to be

HISTORICAL, RESEARCH — JAMESON. 201

undertaken elsewhere, yet of great importance, is the collection of all access-
ible reports of debates in Parliament respecting American affairs previous to
1783. Doubtless it is popularly supposed that all this is in Cobbett; but this
is far from being the case. Without going into the complicated bibliography
of the pre-Hansardian debates, it may be said, briefly, that large parts of the
debates can only be found by searching a variety of antiquated collections,
wrongly supposed to have been superseded by Cobbett, and few of which are
to be found in the libraries of the United States ; while large amounts of
additional material exist only in manuscript, some in England, others, only
recently discovered, in France. It would be a great boon to students of the
British administration of our colonies, and to students of our colonial history
in general, if from all sources, printed and manuscript, a scholarly edition
of the American portion of these debates were to be compiled, and it is
hoped that a beginning may be made at once.

202 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

HISTORY.

Ferguson, W» S., University of California, Berkeley, California. Grant No.
338. A History of Athens from Demosthenes to Phdarch. $1,200.

Under this grant a preliminary study has been completed, the results of
which are published in vol. i, part 5, of the University of California Pub-
lications in Classical Philology and summarized in the Berlin Philologische
Wochenschrift for August 4, 1906, During the past summer Professor
Ferguson has been busy in the library of Harvard University, and reports
substantial progress with the work itself. Since the task calls for travel and
investigation in Europe during the coming twelve months a final report can
not be presented in this Year Book.

Haskins, Charles H*, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Grant

No. 328. Study of the doatmentary jnaterials for Anglo-Norman history.

(For previous report see Year Book No. 4, p. 238.) $1,000.

Besides such work as he was able to accomplish in the course of the year

in the printed sources. Professor Haskins spent two months of the summer

vacation in examining systematically the material for the Anglo-Norman

period preserved in local archives and libraries throughout Normandy, and

at the Bibliotheque Nationale, the British Museum, and the Public Record

Ofl&ce. A fair amount of valuable material was secured, and it is hoped that

the exploration of the documents to be found in Normandy and at Paris may

be completed next summer. Attention has been directed particularly to the

sources for the history of the military system and of judicial organization

and procedure. At the present stage of the investigation not much can be

attempted in the way of reaching definite conclusions, but three brief paperg

are in preparation and will appear in the course of the coming year.

"Wright, James M., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. Grant
No. 269. Study of the history of the Bahama Islands since i8<f.8 and a com-
plete report oj the contents of its public archives. (For a previous report see
Year Book No. 4, p. 239.) $250.

Abstract of Report. — Dr. Wright's report of last year concerned the archives
of the Bahamas, and he now reports that he has in hand 200 pages of manu-
script of this material. During the year complete reports concerning the
wrecking industry of the Bahamas, the ceremonial use of public burial
grounds, and educational matters have been worked up. Work has also
been begun on descriptions of a cholera epidemic at Nassau, of a financial
stringency, and how the colony passed through it, and of the state of the out-
islands, their public works, etc. Other topics have also been touched upon,
but the materials for reports are incomplete as yet.

LITiERATURE — SOMMER. MATHEMATICS — LEHMER. 203

LITERATURE.

Sommer, H* Oskar, "Astolat," Camberley, Surrey, England. Grant No.
347. Preparation of res^dts of researches on Arthicrian romatices. $2,000.

Abstract oj Report. — The manuscript of the first two parts of this work,
the history of Joseph of Arimathea or the Holy Grail and the Merlin or the
early history of King Arthur, have already been received from Dr. Sommer,
and preparations are being made for appropriate publication.

The Merlin, which Dr. Sommer formerly transcribed and printed privately,
has been improved upon as far as possible by the addition of reference num-
bers to the English prose version edited by H. B. Wheatley and the metrical
version edited by Dr. K. A. Kock (E. E. T. S.).

Dr. Sommer has two contributions to the criticism of the Arthurian cycle,
one dealing with the Tristan manuscripts, the Questeof the Grail, contained
therein, and a fragment of a lost Suite de Eancelot. This has been sent to
Professor Kittredge, of Harvard, for publication in Modern Philology. The
other contribution is a criticism of the remarks of Dr. Douglas Bruce on the
English version of Mort Arthur in the Harl. manuscript 2252. This is in
the hands of Professor Bright, of Johns Hopkins University, for publication
in one of the American journals of philology.

MATHEMATICS.

Lehmeft D* N*t Berkeley, California. Grant No. 374. Comparison of factor

table of first ten million mimbers ivith mamiscript tables of Kulik. (For a

previous report see Year Book No. 3, p. 121.) $400.

A preliminary count has been made of the primes in the tenth million

from Kulik' s manuscript. This manuscript has, however, not yet been

checked against any other tables and the count will have to be modified

later.

204 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

MERIDIAN ASTROMETRY*

By lyEwis Boss, Director of the Department.

At the annual meeting of the Trustees of the Carnegie Institution of
Washington, December, 1905, an appropriation was made to enable the writer
to execute the various observations and computations relating to the motions
of all stars down to the seventh magnitude, including, also, all stars observed
with precision during the first half of the nineteenth century. This was
done with the understanding that a like appropriation would be made annually
for ten years in order to complete the work under contemplated plans.

This work is essentially an extension of that for which the Institution has
been appropriating annual grants to the writer during the last three j'ears.

Associated with all such investigations of considerable extent is the thought,
more or less definite, that general conclusions of more than ordinary impor-
tance may be developed as a consequence of the new knowledge to be disclosed.
Sometimes the nature of the final outcome from an extensive investigation
has been entirely unforeseen. It must always be regarded as a fortunate
circumstance, however, when such an investigation has in view from the
beginning a specific and tangible object, the attainment of which will alone
constitute a sufficiently useful result to justify the effort involved in its
attainment. The present investigation has such an object.

The Department of Meridian Astrometry is designed to give an impulse to
the study of stellar motion. In order to do this effectively it aims to be
critical as to the motions themselves and comprehensive in its field of opera-
tions. In these two aspects of its work there are natural limits imposed by
questions of practicability. For more than one reason it is desirable that
the investigations shall cover stars down to the seventh magnitude. Inves-
tigators and practical observers in various lines are continually desirous of
information as to the positions and motions of stars of this class. It is
desirable that in this age of the scientific world we take account of stock as
to the vast effort which has been expended in precise observations of star-
positions. The class of stars we are considering has constituted the field
of such effort. It would be interesting to see what can be learned from a
study of accurately determined motions of from 15,000 to 20,000 stars in
relation to which the accumulated material of observations is of greatest
weight.

The point which should be held clearly in mind is that the first requisite
in the program of the Department of Meridian Astrometry is to ascertain
what are the systematic secular motions of the stars in general. There are

* Report for the year ending September 30, 1906. Grants Nos. 319 and 368. |28,ooo.
Study 0/ motion and structure of the stellar system. (For previous reports see Year Book
No. 2, p. XVIII ; Year Book No. 3, p. 85, and Year Book No. 4, pp. 78-82.) Grant No. 368,
for ^20,000, was not used during the year.

MERIDIAN ASTROMICTRY — BOSS. 205

such motions and they can be classified to some extent as to origin, if not as
to their full meaning. As a rule the total amount of such systematic motions
amounts to only a few seconds during a century ; but in the investigations
by which motions for each star are ascertained, and through which organ-
ized motion may be recognized, it is of the first importance to get rid of the
systematic errors of observations which tend to neutralize or exaggerate our
estimate of the motions that actually exist. We must attempt, so far as we
can, to free the measurements of star-positions from their sj'stematic errors.

This task has occupied close attention here for several years past. The
result has been full of encouragement. Various tests, some of them unfore-
seen, indicate that the adopted corrections are probably fair approximations
to fact.

It should be understood that more or less work of this nature is going on
iiere all the time, and that perfecting the tables of systematic correction for
some of the star-catalogs of greater extent (though often of minor accuracy)
has absorbed the efforts of a considerable percentage of our computing force
during the past 5^ear.

In the Preliminary General Catalog we now have effective means for
extending computations of systematic correction to minor star-catalogs and
lists that contain few observations of so-called standard stars. We shall
thus add to our resources much valuable material not hitherto available in
our deduction of proper motion. Much of this dates back forty years or
more, and will be specially useful.

At the same time, we carefully distinguish between systematic corrections
and the effects of errors of observation that are really nothing else than
fortuitous accumulations of error. Each case must be considered on its
own merits, and must be subjected to adequate tests and checks sufficient
to indicate the real nature of differences between the standard and the
catalog of observation.

For several good reasons our discussion must also apply to as many stars
as practicable. The discussion of systematic motions of the stars implies
selection and discrimination as to objects. For instance, if we wish to
determine whether the constants of solar motion are the same or different
for different spectral types of stars, the total number of available stars must
be divided into different classes, and the value of our conclusions will largely
depend upon sufficiency of numbers of stars in each class. We shall prob-
ably find, for instance, that the few stars of the Orion type, as well as those
of Class IV, indicate a low angular velocity of solar motion, as if those stars
are either at a relatively great distance or as if their general drift is approxi-
mately parallel to the motion of the sun. At any rate, we shall find it
necessary to deal with all available examples of these two classes of stars,
and it will appear that even the entire number maj^ be insufficient for a
thoroughly satisfactory conclusion in respect to them.

206 REPORTS ON INVEISTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

But aside from considerations of classification, large numbers of objects
are desirable in order to eliminate the purely fortuitous elements of motion.
In the attempt to secure the effect of pure parallactic motion of the stars in
any selected area of sky, the number of stars required to practically elimi-
nate accidental errors in the data of computation is small in comparison
with that which is required for effective elimination of the effects of ran-
dom motion, complicated as it is by numerous instances of star-drift in
various localities all over the sky.

Our work necessarily includes not only research upon, and assimilation
of, results of observation in the past, but also a strong contribution of
observations now. Other things being equal in measuring motions, obser-
vations at the two extremes of the interval in time — the oldest and the
latest — are the most valuable. Therefore, reobservation of stars most in
need of redetermination at the present time forms an important feature of
our program.

Early in the progress of the work now going on at the Dudley Observa-
tory it was seen that the most important obstacle to successful prosecution
of work in deriving motion for the stars lay in the difficulty of computing
such motion with sufficient accuracy for the southernmost one-fourth of the
sky. This difficulty can be remedied only through further observations.

The distinctive feature of the further work as now authorized is found
in the project for meridian observation of the stars of the southern hemi-
sphere not accessible to exact observation at observatories in the northern
hemisphere. To carry out this part of the program provision has been
made to transport to some suitable site in the southern hemisphere the
meridian circle belonging to the Dudley Observatory. The trustees of the
Dudley Observatory, at their annual meeting of the present year, formally
sanctioned this proposed use of the instrument, and in other respects have
placed the resources of the observatory at the disposal of this Department
of Meridian Astrometry.

The use of this meridian-circle alternately in the two hemispheres is
designed to take advantage of the combination of observations made at
Albany with those to be made at the selected southern station with a view
to securing greater accuracy in the systematic, or fundamental, sense. The
plan is to continue fundamental observations here until some time in 1908,
then to set up the instrument at a southern station to be occupied for about
three years, and, again returning the instrument to Albany, to complete the
corresponding series of observations here. The distance from the north to
the south pole being, necessarily, exactly 180°, it follows that if the minute
systematic errors of measurement of the instrument remain the same for its
use in the two hemispheres they will precisely eliminate for observations at
or near the equator. Nor will it be necessary to assume that the law of
atmospheric refraction is the same at the two stations. A proper arrange-

MERIDIAN ASTR0ME;TRY — BOSS. 20/

ment and combination of the corresponding observations will afford accu-
rate means for determining the amount of refraction at each station, while
the customary observations of circumpolar stars at lower culmination will
also afford values independent of these.

Thus a twofold advantage is anticipated from this project of observation:
(i) Greater simplicity and probably greater accuracy in the fundamental
determination of position for stars for both hemispheres. (2) The accumu-
lation of observations on the southern sky to reduce the disparity between
the two hemispheres in observed material now existing. This existing dis-
parity is due to two sources. In the first place, useful observations of pre-
cision upon stars in general were undertaken later in the southern than in
the northern hemisphere and are relatively far less numerous. In the second
place, there are only three or four observatories in the southern hemisphere
engaged in effective work of this kind, while there are at least twenty such
observatories in the northern hemisphere. It should occasion no surprise
that the share of observing due to the southern hemisphere is entitled to
added support of an increased number of instruments and observers.

Preparations for the projected expedition are already undertaken. While
the site of the southern station has not been definitively settled, much study
lias been devoted to that subject in years past. Finally, during his visit to
this country last summer opportunity for personal conference with Mr.
Walter G. Davis, chief of the meteorological service of Argentina, served
materially to clear up the situation. It now seems probable that in the
balance of advantages, among which must be reckoned the prevalence of
clear skies, Argentina offers desirable locations for the establishment of our
southern station.

Some minor equipment in instruments and accessories will be necessary,
in addition to the meridian circle, and these are receiving due attention.
Plans for the simple constructions required are also in preparation.

It is proposed to employ a staff of about seven persons at the southern
station, of whom three, at least, should be observers of experience. Under
this arrangement, and with the large number of clear nights attributed to
some of the stations under consideration, 15,000 observations per annum
should be regarded as a safe minimum estimate of the number of observa-
tions that it will be possible to obtain.

In the interests of the entire work both north and south an observing list
of stars is in preparation which is likely to number about 25,000 objects.
Of these at least 8,000 to 9,000 will belong to that part of the sky to be
covered by operations at the southern station.

Meanwhile the observations and computations requisite to the preparation
of the Preliminary General Catalog, as described in previous reports, is in
progress. As heretofore explained, this catalog will contain the computed
positions for 1900 and the motions for something over 6,000 stars, including

208 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

with other stars all those that are readily visible to unassisted vision from
the north to the south pole.

The greater part of the work done here during the past year has related
to the various operations for completion of the Preliminary General Catalog
of something over 6,000 stars, to which allusion has been made in former
reports. In the interests of the entire work it has been necessary to com-
pute first the positions and motions of several thousand stars that have been
most generally and accurately observed in the last century. These results
being now available, it was seen that an extension of the list to include
about 2,000 additional stars would furnish a catalog essentially complete
for all the stars ordinarily visible to the unassisted eye. Several hundreds
of these were urgently in need of reobservation. While this reobservation
would constitute something of an interruption of the regular program, it
was thought to be worth while, in view of the end to be gained. Since the
completion of the entire work planned for the Department of Meridian
Astrometry can not well be brought about within less than nine or ten years,
it seemed very desirable that practical astronomers, as well as investigators,
should have the use of such a work as this Preliminary General Catalog
without the delay which would be entailed by reserving publication until
the completion of the entire work. This catalog might have been offered for
publication a year ago if it had been restricted to the four thousand best-
determined stars ; but the advantage of essential completeness as to the lucid
stars, and as to both hemispheres, rendered possible by the cooperation of
the Royal Observatory at the Cape of Good Hope, seemed to justify the
disturbance of general plan and the vigor of effort implied.

Accordingly, the positions of 740 stars of the Preliminary General Catalog
have been determined by observations at the Dudley Observatory during the
past year. With few exceptions, each has been observed four times, in a
few instances eight times. All these observations have been completely
reduced in duplicate and formed into a catalog which includes in all 1,112
stars. These results have been already incorporated in the equations which
had been formed for determination of positions and motions for the Prelimi-
nary General Catalog, and within a few weeks the solution of these equa-
tions for all stars of the Catalog north of — 36° should be definitive for present
purposes.

As explained in my report of last year. Sir David Gill, astronomer royal
at the Cape of Good Hope, has undertaken the reobservation of about 1,100
stars south of — 36° of declination. Within two weeks I have learned from
him that the work of observation on these stars, begun September 26, 1905,
was brought to completion on August i of the present year. The compu-
tations are practically complete. The greater part of the results has already
been received here. The cooperation of the Cape Observatory in the fur-

MERIDIAN ASTROMETRY — BOSS. 209

nishing of material for construction of the Preliminary General Catalog is
of an importance which can scarcely be overestimated. Without the Cape
results the Catalog would have been very imperfect for all that part of the
sky that is south of — 36°. As it is now there will be no blanks in the
columns for proper motion. For every star of more than 6,000 to be included
in the Preliminary General Catalog it is now possible to compute a value of
its motion that will be a fair approximation to the truth, while the Catalog
will also furnish, m nearly every instance, reliable values of right ascension
and declination for 1900, with trustworthy means of bringing the positions
forward for several years to come. While the primary object of this Catalog
is to furnish computed motions that shall be as free as possible from sys-
tematic error, it seems probable that it will prove of considerable immediate
use to practical astronomers who, for any reason, have occasion to desire
accurate positions of the brighter stars at the present time. To illustrate
this use, it may be mentioned that the positions for 202 stars have been fur-
nished since the date of my last report to the United States Coast and Geo-
detic Survey for use in determination of latitudes. Several other requests
for data concerning the motions of stars have also been received.

In accord with the estimate contained in my last report, it seems proba-
ble that the Preliminary General Catalog can be made ready for publica-
tion during the coming winter of 1906-7. The necessary computations
should easily be completed before the close of the present year. The
checks and scrutiny required, insuring accuracy in combination of results
to produce the numbers to be printed in the catalog, will occupy an amount
of time that can not be very safely predicted, especially when the duties
of the staff upon other operations in the main program are considered.
But it seems highly probable that the complete manuscript for the catalog
can be prepared within the period already mentioned.

During the observational activity of the past year there have developed
two points that have an important bearing upon an estimate of the proba-
ble quality of our current and future work of observation.

In the report of last year I called attention to two essential prerequisites
for the successful combination of observations to be made in two hemi-
spheres with the same instrument. One is that the error of graduation
should be well investigated. The measurements to determine the errors of
the new graduations of our meridian circle were completed a year ago, as
described in the report of last year. A few months later the definitive
computations were completed, and the results are available in a table of
corrections giving, at intervals of 10' for each circle, the observed correc-
tions to bs applied to the mean reading of four microscopes, in order to free
that mean from the small error of graduation. Usually such determina-
tions are carried to degrees only, sometimes to intervals of five degrees

14 — YB

2IO REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

only, and too frequently there is no attempt at all to determine these correc-
tions. In the present instance the following facts have been made clear :

(i) That the systematic errors of our graduation, though not abnormally
large, are important, and could not have been neglected without disaster to
the principal aim of observations with this instrument — essential accuracy in
the systematic sense.

(2) It is found that, when the corrections due to the circle-readings for
each interval of 10' are actually determined, those for intermediate divisions
can be interpolated from these with the greatest confidence. The faithful
periodic repetition of errors from one lo-minute interval to another is a
remarkable characteristic of these circles. This fact is of great importance
in its bearing upon the sufiiciency of our investigation.

(3) Including the foregoing considerations, but of distinct value as a
voucher for accuracy both in marking the lines by the maker and in deter-
mining their errors here, is the extraordinary similarity in the trend of errors
found for corresponding subdivisions of the two circles, as well as the exceed-
ingly minute errors found in the length of successive arcs of 10'.

I would not so dwell upon a point of technical detail like this but for the
fact that it offers some assurance in advance that the execution of our pro-
posed task is likely to be successful in one particular of primary importance,
and that, too, without an undue expenditure of time and effort.

The second point relates also to a technical detail. In my report of last
year allusion was made to the results of a new method applied to determine
the motion of the mathematical axis of the meridian circle during rotation.
As previously explained, if the observations of star-transits can be reduced
to a true plane as described by the line of instrumental coUimation, then the
observations in the two hemispheres will offer a valuable indication of the
systematic errors of each. Usually the question whether the instrumental
line of collimation describes a true plane (and, if not, what are the deviations
from the plane) is left most obscure as to that part of the error which may
arise from minute irregularities in the form of the pivots upon which the
instrument revolves.

Since the date of my last report this point has been again investigated, and
in two ways. The first method employed was that to which allusion has
already been made. The second did not involve any special observations,
but simply treatment of observations already made in great abundance for
another purpose — determination of error of graduation. The second method
would have been too costly in observations if error of pivots had been the
only result sought. The gratifying feature in our determinations b)^ the two
methods of this error is that the two sets of results closely agree.

These particulars as to our experience in the instrumental investigations
are the only ones in that line calling for special remark at present, and these

MERIDIAN ASTROMETRY — BOSS. 211

only because of the fundamental importance of their relation to the two-
hemisphere work.

So far the results of our observations of stars and of our previous com-
putations furnishing predicted positions of the standard stars for the epoch
of observation are in very satisfactory agreement. The differences, within
the practicable range of observation at Albany, are very little, if any, greater,
either in right ascension or declination, than those which may readily be
attributed to casual errors of observation. This remarkable agreement may
be partly the result of chance, a fact which can be effectively tested when we
shall be in possession of results from the southern station.

The program of the coming year involves in the first line observations
with the meridian circle of the Dudley Observatory at Albany, These
observations are planned with special attention to their function as corre-
sponding observations with those to be made later in the southern hemi-
sphere. The two series north and south are to be discussed with a view to
producing one integral and consistent determination of the positions of
standard stars from the north to the south pole. In connection with the
observ^ations here (as at the southern station also) the observing force will
be largely occupied with determinations of position for the stars of the
general program, due apportionment of the objects having been made for
different periods of work.

The computing force will also be occupied with preparatory works for the
discussion of motion of stars for the General Catalog. This will include the
preparation of ephemerides of the stars, as well as works of compilation
upon various series of observations published during the last century, but
which, in the present shape, have not been considered as available for use
in our researches. The full extent of these latter operations can not now
be foreseen. Experience must be relied upon to settle the balance of
advantage, or disadvantage, between effort expended and value received ;
but it is certain that several series of observations now existing in the form
of annual results are well worth compilation into homogeneous catalogs.

212 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

METEOROLOGY.

Bjerfcnes, V., and Sandstrom, J. W., Stockholm, Sweden. Grant No. 361.
Preparation of a work on the application of the methods of hydrodynamics
a7id thermodynamics to practical meteorology a?id hydrography. $1,200.

The work was begun, in collaboration with Mr. J. W. Sandstrom, on
May I this year, and has been continued since then without interruption.

It is expected that the first part of the treatise will be ready for print
before the end of this year. In this part the methods which can be devel-
oped from the principles of hydrostatics are treated completely. These
hydrostatical methods will be of fundamental importance for all that follows,
which will be developed from the principles of kinematics, from the principles
of hydrodynamics, and, finally, from the principles of thermodynamics.

The most important part of the work hitherto performed has been the
calculation of a complete set of numerical tables to be employed by practical
use of the hydrostatical methods.

NUTRITION.

Benedict, Francis G., Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut. Grant
^o- 333- Researches in human nutrition. (For previous reports see
Year Book No. 2, p. xxxix ; Year Book No. 3, p. 130, and Year Book
No. 4, p. 258.) $10,000.

Since the last report was submitted the investigations in nutrition have
dealt mainly with three problems. First, the investigations in metabolism
during inanition, begun under Grant No. 258, were extended to include
seven two-day experiments with fasting men in the respiration calorimeter.
Three of the fasting experiments were followed immediately by one or two
days with food. In all of these experiments the pulse rate, respiration rate,
and body temperature, as well as the analyses of urine and respiratory
products, were made. The determinations included the measurement of the
heat given off from the body as well as the potential energy of the urine.
A not inconsiderable portion of the time has been devoted to the prepara-
tion for publication of the extensive series of experiments on fasting. A
very large number of computations have been made and their results con-
densed into a series of tables. The literature of the subject has been
thoroughly gone over and the report is practically completed.

The second line of work taken up was a study of the effect of the inges-
tion of food on metabolism, a subject naturally following that of the effect
of inanition on metabolism. In securing information regarding this factor
of nutrition, 39 experiments varying from 8 to 28 hours in duration were
made with the respiration calorimeter. Eight of them were fasting experi-
ments of 8 hours each, carried on to get a basis of comparison with experi-
ments in which food was ingested. In these experiments the subject was
required to remain quietly seated, and every precaution was taken to elimi-

NUTRITION — BENEDICT, CHITTENDEN, MENDEI.. 213

nate all muscular work and to so adjust the conditions of the experiment that
the different days and different periods might be wholly comparable. The
records of pulse, respiration, body temperature, and body weight were taken
in all experiments, and in the majority of experiments the urine was col-
lected in two-hour periods and the nitrogen determined. Determinations of
nitrogen and heat of combustion were made in the food. The data secured
by this series of experiments are to be amplified by those from others now
in progress and will ultimately appear as a report.

The third line of investigation involved the development and testing of a
form of respiration apparatus for obtaining the respiratory exchange in short
periods. The apparatus, which is a modified form of the larger respiration
apparatus, has been perfected, and check tests made with it showed most
satisfactory results. On the basis of the experimental apparatus as devel-
oped, a more permanent apparatus is now being constructed. The discussion
of the apparatus and check tests, as well as experiments made on man, wnll
appear later in the form of a report.

Chittenden, Russell H., Sheffield Scientific School, Yale University, New
Haven, Connecticut. Grants Nos. 264 and 348. Study of the miniynal
proteid reqicirement of high-proteid animals. (For previous reports see
Year Book No. 3, p. 131, and Year Book No. 4, p. 259.) $3.700-

Report. — These grants have been used in ascertaining the minimal proteid
requirement of healthy dogs as types of high-proteid animals. A large
number of experiments on healthy dogs has been carried out for periods up to
a year in length, with a study of the effects produced by a gradual diminu-
tion of proteid food, together with a diminution of non-nitrogenous food.
Contrary to the oft-quoted experiments of Munk, Rosenheim, and Jagerroos,
it has been found possible to keep dogs alive and apparently in good condition
for a period of at least a year on relatively small amounts of proteid and with
a comparatively low intake of non-nitrogenous food.

The experiments are practically concluded, the chemical work completed,
but there remains to be finished a histological study of the tissues of the
animals experimented with. Until the results of these examinations are
known the report combining the various conclusions can not well be written.
It is expected that a full and detailed report can be published this year.

Mendel, Lafayette B^ Sheffield Scientific School, Yale University, New Haven,

Connecticut. Grant No. 265. Study of the physiology of growth, especially

ill its cheviical processes. (For previous report see Year Book No. 4,

pp. 259-260.) $2,000.

Experimental work under this grant is progressing, but it will be several

months before the data are compiled satisfactorily so as to admit of any

general statements. The study of the changes in composition incidental to

diet are temporarily completed and at present work on the chemistry and

physiology of the purin bodies in embryonic life is being carried on.

214 REPORTS ON INVIlSTlGATlONS AND PROJECTS.

Osborne, Thomas B^ Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New
Haven, Connecticut. Grants Nos. 263 and 349. Application 0/ inetJwds
already developed to a comparative study of the tnore important vegetable
proteids. (For previous reports see Year Book No. 3, p. iii, and Year
Book No. 4, pp. 260-262.) $9,000.

Abstracts of Reports : Grant No. 26 j {$^,000). — Work under this grant was
begun April i, 1905, and concluded April i, 1906. During this time a
series of quantitative determinations of glutaminic acid have been made in
a large number of carefully purified preparations of vegetable proteins and
in some animal proteins. The results of this work have been published in
the American Journal of Physiology, March, 1906, vol. xv, page 333.

The contents of this paper may be summarized as follows :

Glutaminic acid can be separated more easily in a pure state than any
other decomposition product of the proteins. Experiments of our own, as
well as a comparison of some of our results with those obtained by others,
indicate that this acid can be separated very completely. Properly conducted
determinations, therefore, have much value in showing structural differences
between various protein bodies and afford the best means at present available
for determining the relations of protein preparations and fractional precipita-
tions to one another.

The various proteins examined showed a greater difference in the propor-
tion of glutaminic acid which they yielded than has heretofore been found
for any other decomposition product of these substances, with the exception
of glycocoU, the higher limit for which closely approaches and lower limit
falls below that found for glutaminic acid. The largest amount of glu-
taminic acid, 37.3 per cent, was found in wheat gliadin. This is the largest
proportion of any single decomposition product yet isolated in a pure state
from any protein substance. All the proteins examined yielded glutaminic
acid. All the seed proteins with one exception gave more than 12 per cent.

Glutaminic acid is quantitatively the most important protein decomposi-
tion product at present known. Nearly all the plant proteins yielded much
more glutaminic acid than any of the animal proteins yet examined. Pro-
teins which yielded a large proportion of glutaminic acid likewise yielded a
relatively large amount of ammonia. A strict numerical relation between
the amount of glutaminic acid and ammonia does not exist. It is possible
that this relation depends upon the dibasic character of glutaminic acid,
since one carboxyl group may be bound in the protein molecule by a
polypeptide union, while the other is united with NH2 as an amide. It may
be possible to establish closer relations between the dibasic acids and ammonia
when we have accurate determinations of the quantity of aspartic acid.

The method employed for determining glutaminic acid was that of Hlasi-
wetz and Habermann. The glutaminic acid was separated as hydrochlo-

NUTRITION — OSBORNE.

215

ride, and in most cases was obtained at once so pure that it showed the
correct melting-point and composition. Only products of ascertained purity-
were weighed, so that the results given in the following table maybe accepted
as minimal. We believe that they closely represent the full quantity of
glutaminic acid, though this, from the nature of the case, can not be posi-
tively demonstrated.

Proportion of Glutaminic Acid Yielded by Various Proteins.

VEGETABI^E PROTEINS.

Cereals : _ Per c^i^t.

Proteins soluble iu alcohol :

Gliadin, wheat 37-33

Gliadin, rye 33-81

Hordein, barley 36.35

Zein, maize 16.87

Proteins soluble in water :

Leucosin, wheat 5.72

Proteins soluble in alkali :

Glutenin 23.42

Legumes :

Proteins soluble in saline solutions :
Phaseolin, kidney bean. . . . 12.33

Legumin, vetch 16.48

Vignin, cow pea 16.89

Glycinin, yellow soy bean.. 19.46
Glycinin, Japanese soy bean 17.92
Conglutin A, yellow lupine . 20. 96

Legumes — Continued. Per cent.

Proteins soluble in saline solutions —
Continued.

Conglutin B, yellow lupine. 30.05
Conglutin, blue lupine. . . . 23.00
Oil seeds :

Proteins soluble in saline solutions :

Amandin, almonds 23.14

Globulin, sunflower 21.79

Corylin, hazelnut 17-94

Globulin, castor bean 14-50

Excelsin, Brazil nut 12.94

Globulin, cotton seed 17.59

Globulin, squash seed 12.35

Edestin, hemp seed 14.00

ANIMAI, PROTEINS.

Casein, cow's milk 10.77

Ovalbumin, hen's egg 9.01

Conalbumin, hen's egg 7.00

This table shows that the proteins of the cereals yield much more gluta-
minic acid than do any of the other groups, for, omitting leucosin, which is
present in the wheat kernel only in very small proportion and confined chiefly
to the embryo of the seed, the average yield of this acid was 29.5 per cent,
while the legumes yielded 19.6 per cent, the oil seeds 16.8 per cent, and the
three animal proteins 8.9 per cent.

An examination of the literature up to the time this work was carried to
this point showed that such other animal proteins as had been examined had
yielded very small proportions of glutaminic acid, most of them less than 3
per cent. It seemed, therefore, that, as the proteins of the seed endosperm
as well as of milk and eggs yielded relatively large quantities of this amino-
acid, in contrast to the proteins of animal tissues, a distinction could be made
between \h^food proteins and the tissue proteins.

With this idea in view, we undertook to determine the proportion of
glutaminic acid yielded by the muscle tissue of the ox and of the fish (halibut) ,
the results of which have shown, however, that these tissues yield about the
same amount of this acid as did the three animal proteins which we had
already examined.

2l6 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

Since this work was completed Abderhalden and Samuely * have revised
their determinations of glutaminic acid in the serum globulin and serum
albumin of horse blood, and give as the average of three careful determina-
tions in each 8.5 per cent and 7.7 per cent, respectively, instead of 2.2 and
1.52 per cent, respectively, which Abderhalden formerly gave.f

In view of these later figures by Abderhalden, those published earher by
him and his colleagues for other animal proteins can not be used as a basis
for a quantitative comparison, and in justice to those offering them it should
be stated that they were given only as minimal quantities.

If these later figures are accepted as representing approximately all of the
glutaminic acid in these proteins, it would appear that such animal proteins
as have been carefully investigated yield similar proportions of glutaminic
acid, namely, about 8 to 11 per cent, as may be seen from the following table:

Glutaminic Acid Yielded by Animal Proteins.
Per cent.

Casein 10.8 Osborne and Gilbert.

Casein lo.o Fischer.

Casein io-7 Abderhalden and Pregl.

Ovalbumin 91 Osborne and Gilbert.

Ovalbumin 8.0 Abderhalden.

Seralbumin, horse 7-7 Abderhalden and Samuely.

Serglobulin, horse 8.5 Do.

Beef-muscle protein ii.i Osborne and Gilbert.

Fish-muscle protein 8.9 Do.

In view of the wide differences in the constitution of the proteins of the
different species of seeds, as shown by the determinations of glutaminic acid
given in this paper, as well as by the few quantitative determinations of the
other decomposition products which have been made, it would seem impor-
tant to know definitely whether or not similar differences exist between the
proteins of the tissues of different species of animals which serve as food for
man, for it is possible that in such differences will be found a logical basis
for the use of one form of protein rather than another when deahng with
nutrition in various pathological conditions. We hope to be able to follow
this work along these lines in the near future.

The quantitative determinations of the decomposition products of the
proteins of the wheat kernel have been completed, and the results have been
published under the following title : " The chemistry of the protein bodies
of the wheat kernel," Parts II and III, in American Journal of Physiology,
1906, XVII, pp. 223 and 231.

Part II described the methods used in preparing and purifying the large
quantities of proteins needed for proper determinations of the decomposition

* Abderhalden and Samuely. Zeitschrift fiir physiologische Chemie, 1905, XI.VI, p. 194.
t Abderhalden. Zeitschrift fiir physiologische Chemie, 1905, xi,iv, p. 22, 1902-1903,
XXXVII, p. 484.

NUTRITION — OSBORNE. 217

products. As only the purest attainable preparations were suitable for this
work, a large amount of time and labor was required for making them.

Over 80 per cent of the proteins of the wheat kernel consists of gliadin
and glutenin, which, in most varieties of wheat, are present in about equal
proportions. Several kilograms of each of these proteins were made and
used in the work described in Part III. The remainder of the proteins of
this seed are leucosin, a globulin, and a mixture of several proteoses. The
combined quantity of all these proteins is only about i per cent of the seed,
and consequently the preparation of large quantities of them would be
impossible if it were not for the fact that they are constituents of the
embryo and can be obtained from the commercial germ meal of the flour
mills. A sufficient quantity of leucosin was prepared from this source to
enable us to make a nearly complete analysis. Attempts to prepare the
globulin from the germ meal failed, as we were not able to separate it from
the nucleic acid, which is present in the wheat embryo in relatively large
proportion. No attempt was made to prepare the proteoses, as there is no
available method by which products of definite character could be obtained.
The amount of these proteoses is too small to make their analysis important.

The results described in Part III are summarized as follows :

The extensive use of wheat flour makes it of great importance to know
as much as possible regarding its chemistry and especially regarding the
chemistry of its protein constituents. This is of importance not only in
relation to problems of vegetable chemistry and physiology, as well as to
problems of protein chemistry, but especially so in connection with the
nutrition of man. In connection with the latter question, it has become of
fundamental importance to know the nature and proportion of the products
which the food proteins yield when decomposed by boiling acids, for the
recent progress in our knowledge of digestion has shown that the digestive
enzymes convert the food protein very largely into the same substances as
those produced by boiling acids. These final products of hydrolysis are
consequently the units with which the process of assimilation chiefly deals.

Furthermore, as the wheat kernel is the only seed from which practically
all of the protein constituents have been isolated and of which we have the
most definite knowledge both in respect to their kind and proportion, it is
especially desirable to supplement our present knowledge by as full informa-
tion as possible concerning the primary decomposition products of these
proteins in order that something in regard to their structural relations may be
known and the kind and amount of the possible products of the metabolism
of this seed may be ascertained.

The investigation of this problem has accordingly been undertaken, the
results of which are given in the following pages.

As stated in Part II of this series of papers, ghadin, glutenin, and leucosin
were the only proteins of the wheat kernel which could be obtained in

2l8

REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

sufficient amount for such quantitative estimations of their decomposition
products.

The determinations of the mono-amino acids have been made for the most
part according to the methods recently proposed by E. Fischer (Zeitschrift
fiir physiologische Chemie, 1901, xxxiii, 151) and those of the bases essen-
tiall}' according to the methods given by Kossel and his associates (Kossel
and Kutscher, ibid., 1900, xxxi, 161 ; Kossel and Patten, ibid,, 1903,
XXXVIII, 39). The general plan of these analyses has been that followed
by Abderhalden {ibid., 1903, xxxvii, 484) in analyzing oxyhemoglobin.

In carrying out this work care has been taken to make the identification
of the substances determined as complete as possible and to weigh only such
products as examination showed to be essentially pure, so that the figures
given in the following table are to be taken as minimal, except possibly
those for prolin, which may be slightly too high owing to the well-known
difficulty of separating a/loi the other amino-acids from its alcoholic solution.

The results of these analyses are given in the following table :

Glycocoll

Alanine

Amino valerianic acid.

Leucine

aProlin

Phenyl alanine

Aspartic acid

Glutaminic acid

Serine

Tyrosine

Cystine

Oxyprolin

L5'sine

Histidine

Arginine

Ammonia

Tryptophane

Total

Gliadin. Glutenin. I,eucosin.

Per cent.

2.00

.21

5.61

7.06

2.35

•58

37-33

•13

1.20

.45

o

.61
3.16

Present.

65.81

Per cent.
0.88
4.64
.24

5-95
4-23
1.97

•91
23.42

•74

4.25

.02

1.92
1.76
4.72
4.01
Present.

59-66

Per cent.

0-73

4-45

.18

11-34
3-i8
3-83
3-35
6.73

3-34

2.75
2.83

5.94
1.41
Present.

50.06

The analyses show that these three proteins are distinguished from one
another by differences so great that there can be no question that decided
differences in structure exist between them. Thus gliadin differs from
glutenin and leucosin by yielding no glycocoll and lysine and much more
prolin and glutaminic acid. Gliadin and glutenin each yield very much
more glutaminic acid and ammonia than leucosin, and less leucine. In
respect to the amount of these amino-acids, leucosin more nearly resembles
the animal proteins than the seed proteins thus far examined, and in this
connection it is interesting to note that leucosin occurs chiefly if not wholly

NUTRITION — OSBORNE. 219

in the embryo of this seed aud is probably one of its ' ' tissue ' ' proteins, in
contrast to the "reserve" proteins of the endosperm, of which gliadin and
glutenin form the chief part.

Glycocoll is not given among the products of hydrolysis of gliadin, for
careful efforts to detect its presence in the preparation used for this analysis
failed. Another hydrolysis of another lot of gliadin prepared in essentially
the same waj^ did yield 0.02 per cent of glycocoll whose identity was cer-
tainly established. This small quantity was most probably due to a small
admixture of glutenin in the gliadin used for this determination, which may
have been dissolved in very small amount by the large quantity of dilute
alcohol used for extracting the gliadin. A contamination of this prepara-
tion with 2 per cent of glutenin would have sufficed to give the amount of
glycocoll found. The amount of prolin yielded by gliadin is larger than
that as yet obtained from any other protein, those coming nearest being the
albuminoids spongin and gelatin. As the amount of prolin from glutenin is
relatively high, the wheat proteins as a whole, so far as we yet know, are
particularly rich in this peculiar amino-acid.

Glutaminic acid is the chief constituent of the endosperm proteins of this
seed, gliadin jdelding more of this acid than any protein yet examined and
very much more than the average of our food proteins. The average amount
of glutaminic acid from the total protein matter of this seed is more than 30
per cent. The yield of ammonia is likewise relatively very high, more than
4.5 percent for the total protein, while the aggregate amount of hexone
bases is correspondingly small. In respect, therefore, to the proportion of
several of their decomposition products the wheat proteins present marked
and important differences from other food proteins.

During the year in which work under this grant was carried out it has
been necessary to devote a great deal of time to studying the methods
employed and assuring ourselves of the accuracy of our work. As a great
many processes were used this has necessarily delayed the work of the first
year, for many of these processes require a long time for their execution as
well as great care. The experience which we have acquired has now put us
in a position to obtain results much more rapidly.

Grant No. j^g {$^,000). — Under this grant work has been continued along
the same lines as under Grant No. 263. Large quantities of protein prepara-
tions have been made and are now ready for hydrolysis. These include several
from leguminous seeds, nuts, and oil seeds. A complete quantitative analysis
of the decomposition products of phaseolin, the principal protein of the white
or kidney bean, has been made and the results will soon be published. A
similar analysis of excelsin is well advanced.

A study of the methods for the quantitative determination of the basic
decomposition products of proteins has been made and the bases determined
in several proteins, the results of which we expect to be soon able to publish.

220 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

PALEONTOLOGY.

Hay, O. P., American Museum of Natural History, New York, N. Y. Grant
No. II 8 (supplement). Co7npl€tio7i of a vionograph on the fossil turtles of
North America. (For previous reports see Year Book No. 2, p. xxxvii;
Year Book No. 3, p. 122, and Year Book No. 4, p. 241.) $1,800.

The monograph of the fossil turtles of North America is completed and it
is expected that the manuscript will be presented soon for publication. The
investigation has required much more time than was originally anticipated.
In this monograph there are described 251 species, of which about 75 are
new. In addition to the discovery of new species our knowledge of many
species described by I^eidy, Marsh, and Cope has been greatly extended by
the finding and study of much additional material. The species are illus-
trated by about 1,000 drawings and photographs.

PHILOLOGY.

Fltigel, Ewald, Stanford University, California. Grant No. 244. Prepara-
tioyi of a lexicon to the works of Chaucer. (For previous reports see Year
Book No. 3, p. 96, and Year Book No. 4, p. 242.) $7,500.

The preparatory work has progressed favorably during the past twelve
months and will be completed before next summer. The work itself is
divided into six groups.

(i) Revision and completion of the slips. — The revision of the slips written
for the Canterbury Tales has occupied Dr. Wildhagen, Mr. Hiibschmann,
and Mr. Wolderich during the past year. Dr. Fliigel has carefully revised
their work and registered the variants of the eight manuscripts printed by
the Chaucer Society (for publication in Anglis). The work on the slips
from the Canterbury Tales is now finished.

The revision of the slips written for the Astrolabe has been commenced
by Dr. Wildhagen. Dr. Fliigel will make a final revision and add the results
from his new collation of tv^^o Oxford manuscripts.

Mr. Rossger, Mr. Hiibschmann, and Mr. Wolderich have been engaged
on the slips for the Minor Poems and have finished ' ' The Parliament of
Fouls" and "The House of Fame." The "Legend of Good Women,"
commenced by Miss Mason, is being revised by Mr. Wolderich. Mr. Moll
has finished his revision of four books of " Troilus" and is at work on the
fifth.

Mr. Rossger is to commence (about October i) with " Boethius," utilizing
the results of the Old French " Boece," a transcript of which has now been
obtained. The Old French parallels are to be copied on each slip.

Every slip written by these assistants is being revised carefully by Dr.
Fliigel.

PHILOLOGY — FLUGKIv. PHONETICS — SCRIPTURE. 221

(2) Alphabetizing of the revised slips . — 'The slips revised during the past
year were assorted into a ' ' rough ' ' alphabet by Mr. J. Rubin, Mr. Wolderich,
and Mr. Rossger. They have finished the alphabet for the Canterbury
Tales, with the exception of the " Wife of Bath."

(3) Copyifig for the collateral apparatzis. — Mr. Tanneberger has been work-
ing on copying the words underlined in Froissart ; he has besides assorted the
words collected from the " Roman de la Rose" into an "exact alphabet,"
preparing what is practically a concordance to this work, which will prove
most valuable for the Chaucer Lexicon.

(4) Copyi72g of Old Frc7ich texts {tuipublished) of authors knoivn to Chaucer. —
Mr. Frangois Bruel, of Paris, has finished his copy of " Boece," and is to
continue with his copying from Machault. Dr. Padelford has copied one
manuscript of the Old French ' ' Melibee ' ' at London. Dr. Fliigel has
collated this copy with the manuscript and added collations from twelve
other manuscripts at London and Paris. The whole is to be edited in a
parallel text edition with Chaucer's translation.

(5) Work on certain articles for the Dictionary in its final shape. — Professor
Einenkel has continued his work on the prepositions, the "impersonalia,"
and the auxiliary verbs.

(6) The work of verification of the accuracy of printed texts has been carried
on at London by Miss H. Palmer, who has carefully collated one manuscript
of ' ' Troilus ' ' and one manuscript of the Canterbury Tales (the Lansdowne
manuscript). Mr. Arthur Rogers, of the Cambridge University Library,
has been engaged on a collation of the Cambridge Boethius manuscripts ;
Dr. Fliigel has collated the Astrolabe manuscripts at Oxford and verified a
large number of doubtful passages from manuscripts at Oxford, London,
Cambridge, and Paris.

PHONETICS.

Scfiptute, E, W., New York, N. Y. Grant No. 358. Completion of a work
on researches in experimental phonetics. (For previous reports see Year
Book No. 2, p. XL; Year Book No. 3, p. 114, and Year Book No.
4, PP- 243, 244.) $1,800.

The first volume of results, for which the manuscript was completed in
1905, has been published as a quarto volume of 202 pages with 13 plates
and 138 figures (Publication No. 44 of the Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington). The manuscript for another volume is well advanced. The
topics treated in the second volume will include records known as the Yale,
Mitchell, Depew, Graham, and Yvetot records.

222 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AKD PROJECTS.

PHYSICS.

Batnett, S. J., Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana. Grant No. 149.

For deterininhig ivhether an electric intensity is developed in a dielectric^

moving at right angles to a magnetic field. ( For previous reports see

Year Book No. 3, p. 124, and Year Book No. 4, p. 245.) $250.

Experimental work has been in progress for some time, and will, it is

hoped, be completed before the end of the present academic year.

Barus, Carl, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island. Grant No. 292.
The ionization and nucleation of atmospheric air, natural and dust-free.
(For previous report see Year Book No. 4, pp. 246-247.) $1,000.

The chief purpose of the volume recently submitted to the Institution for
publication is the development of the fog-chamber of simplest practical
character capacious enough to admit of the measurements of the largest
available coronas and efficient up to the highest exhaustions applicable — /. e. ,
those which do not uselessly overstep the optical limits of the experiment
where fog particles become so fine as to be virtually inactive in diffracting
or scattering white light. This seems to have been accomplished, and the
results, so far as they go, are in no way inferior to the accomplishments of
Wilson's piston apparatus. It has not, however, been possible to go much
beyond the large green-blue-purple corona. The forms beyond are filmy
so and nearly colorless as to be unsuitable for measurement, but the steam jet
nevertheless reveals a whole order of axial reds, oranges, and yellows lying
beyond which have not been detected in any form of fog-chamber whatever.

As used in most experiments, including the author's own earlier work,
the fog-chamber with plug stopcock seems to be of very inferior efficiency
as compared with the piston form. This, however, in a properly manipu-
lated apparatus is the case only when the attempt is made to measure the
drop in pressure isothermally at the fog-chamber, closed at once after exhaus-
tion. The datum must be computed from the initial pressures of the fog and
vacuum chambers, their final pressures when in contact (always at the same
temperature), and their volume ratio. Though some correction would be
anticipated, one would not be prepared for the large difference between the
apparent isothermal drop and the true drop as actually appears. In the
experiments of the volume the relation is fully 100 to 77, a difference of
nearly 25 per cent. Hence it will be necessary to restandardize the coronas
with this result in view, an undertaking in which the author is now engaged
and which the large number of other subsidiarj^ results that have since
accrued would alone have made desirable.

Having improved the fog-chamber, it was made use of in certain incidental
experiments. The author has already shown that in case of the persistent
nuclei produced by intense X-radiation distribution of nuclei within the fog-

PHYSICS — BARUS. 223

chamber is a most remarkable feature of the exposure. The same, however,
is true of the ious. Whether produced by X-rays or by radium acting from
long distances, the density of ionization is, as a rule, different in different
parts of the fog-chamber, showing the important effects due to secondary
radiation. In like manner the change in nucleation produced when the
exciting cause (X-ray bulb or radium tube) recedes to different distances
from the fog-chamber is of interest. For the non-inclosed bulb the decrease
of nucleation is slower than the first power of distance. It is faster for the
bulb inclosed in a windowed lead chamber, faster still if the window is closed
by a thin tin plate, but in no case does it approach the law of inverse squares.

Finally, if the rate of decay of the ions can be inferred from the electrical
method, a method for the standardization of coronas is presented which bids
fair to be the most satisfactory solution of the problem suggested. The
method admits of the determination not only of the relation of the nuclei
corresponding to a given case to two different coronas (caet. par.), but of
the absolute nucleation involved as well, not to speak of the possibility of
detecting in this way how a given mass of precipitated water is distributed
among nuclei of different sizes — one of the most important of the problems
outstanding in connection with the subject.

The volume adduces a variety of results for colloidal nuclei in media other
than air-water. It is shown, for instance, that there is no evidence to prove
that the colloidal nuclei in a medium of carbon dioxide and water are larger
than in the other case, in spite of the presence of the coercible gas in the
latter, in which groups of larger molecular aggregates would be anticipated.
On the other hand, large colloidal nuclei do seem to occur in the medium of
alcohol and air, wherefore it is suggested that the colloidal nuclei of dust-
free wet air are primarily to be associated with the saturated vapor, and that
the gas enters as a secondary factor.

Furthermore, a systematic comparison between the number of ions in the
atmosphere and the corresponding dust contents in the lapse of time is worked
out under the author's direction. No relation is apparent ; whence it follows
that as the nucleation is largely of local origin other sources must be looked
to for the ionization, or that the enormous local contributions to the ioniza-
tion of a given region (due to combustion, etc.) vanish so rapidly as to be
quite neghgible. Incidentally, the nucleation of the atmosphere of Provi-
dence during nearly four years is exhibited.

Finally the author returns to the inquiry, already begun elsewhere with
negative results, whether there is any time change in the colloidal nucleation
of dust-free air, such as might be ascribed to the ionization produced by
penetrating cosmical radiation coming from without ; for it was to be the
plan of these researches to begin with the study of the ordinary dust contents
in its dependence on time and thereafter to continue in the same way with
the filtered atmosphere. The apparent nucleation of dust-free air is found

224

REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

to increase s5nichronously with the decrement of the barometer. But as
the amount of adiabati ccoohng, /. e., the efficiency of the apparatus (caet.
par.) follows the same conditions, it is extremely difficult to disentangle the
two effects.

Bwrgess, Charles F., University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin. Grant
No. 330. Invest! gatio7i of the properties of electrolytic iron and alloys made
from it. (For previous report see Year Book No. 4, pp. 247-249.)

$2,500.

Abstract of Report. — The work has progressed without interruption during
the past 3'ear, being under the charge of Dr. O. P. Watts, who has devoted
his entire time to it. Acknowledgment is made of assistance received from
Profs. G. C. Shaad and A. Hoyt Taylor, of the University of Wisconsin ;
from Mr. Andrew A. Blair, of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and Prof. R. E.
Lyons, of the University of Indiana.

About 1,500 pounds of electrolytic iron have been taken from the tanks
during the past year, being used in large part for the preparation of alloys.
A stock is being accumulated for second refining.

Some disappointment has been encountered in not being able to turn out
an iron by single refining of as high a degree of purity as the analyses a
year ago led us to believe might be readily attained. Difficulty has been
experienced in securing concordant analyses, due largely to the very small
percentages of the various impurities. Much remains ye.t to be done on the
chemical analysis of electrolytic iron, especially in reference to gaseous ele-
ments. The following figures are typical of what is being accomplished in.
the matter of purity under present conditions of operation :

AA.
Double
refined.

A.

Single
refined.

B.
Ingot turn-
ings from A.

Sulphur

None.

0.013
.004

None.
.012
.072

O.OOI

.003
.020
None.
.013
.0S3

0.012
.096
.025
.002
.047
.083

Silicon

Phosphorus

Manganese

Carbon

Hydrogen

It is shown that a second refining improves the purity. The above figures
indicate the necessity of further study to explain the apparent increase in
silicon by a second refining, to confirm the apparently demonstrated fact
that the hydrogen may still be retained in the metal after being melted, and
to determine what factors govern the addition of impurities during the
melting process.

Much attention has been given to the matter of melting the electrolytic
iron, and this involved a study of refractory materials. The method of

PHYSICS — BURGESS. 225

melting now in use is described in Electrochemical and Metallurgical In-
dustry for July, 1906, by Dr. O. P. Watts.

A large number of alloys and ingots of iron have been prepared, and these
have been forged and machined for test bars for examination of physical
properties. These tests are not sufl&ciently advanced to enable them to be
reported.

The following publications deal with various phases of the work carried
on during the past year :

Structure of electro-deposits. By C. F. Burgess and O. P. Watts. Trans. Amer. Elec-
trochemical Soc, vol. IX, 1906.

Peculiarities of physical structure of iron deposits are discussed, and the
resemblance is shown between electrolytic iron deposits and deposits of
various minerals formed in natural processes.

Observations on the corrosion of iron by acids. By C. F. Burgess and S. G. Engle.
Trans. Amer. Electrochem. Soc, vol. IX, 1906.

It appears that the physical structure, perhaps more than the purity,
influences the rate at which iron corrodes. It is shown that unheated
electrolytic iron dissolves in dilute sulphuric acid at a rate greater than
does zinc, and this fact, together with the greater purity of the resulting
hydrogen, appears to make electrolytic iron a useful material for hydrogen
generation.

An electric furnace for heating crucibles. By O. P. Watts. Electrochemical and Metal-
lurgical Industry, July, 1906, p. 273.
Iron and Calcium. By O. P. Watts. Journal of American Chemical Society, Sept., 1906.

It is shown that it is difficult, if not impossible, to alloy calcium with iron,
at least without the aid of some other element. It does not appear practi-
cable to employ calcium for the removal of phosphorus from molten iron.

Magnetic properties of electrolytic iron. By C. F. Burgess and A. Hoyt Taylor. Trans.
Amer. Inst, of Electrical Engineers, vol. xxv, 1906.

The remarkable influence of heating on the magnetic properties of elec-
trolytic iron is shown. Curves are given indicating the magnetic properties.

Limitations of the ballistic method for magnetic induction. By A. Hoyt Taylor. Phys-
ical Review, vol. xxiii. No. 2, August, 1906.

In Studying the magnetic behavior of an electrolytic iron ring it was found
that serious discrepancies occurred when different methods were employed.
It was found that a large error was introduced by the step-by-step method,
an error which, while present in other forms of soft iron, is especially notice-
able in the electrolytic iron tested. This error was found to be due to the
magnetic viscosity, and the above paper describes a modified ballistic method
of measurement which was devised by the author to eliminate the error
ordinarily introduced by this property.

15— YB

226 REPORTS ON INVE;STIGATI0NS AND PROJElCTS.

Campbell, William, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Grant No. 1 79.

Study of the eff-cct of heat treatmoit 2ipon the tnicrostnictiire and physical,

properties of steel and iron. (For previous reports see Year Book No.

3, p. 124, and Year Book No. 4, p. 249.) $1,500.

Abstract of Report. — The work of last year has been continued by the

examination of the series of high-carbon steels (0.7 to 2.0 per cent carbon)

after quenching from temperatures between 600° and 1400° C. A series of

18 steels, carbon o.i to 1.5 per cent, is being investigated as to overheating

and refining by heat treatment.

Six weeks have been spent at a large iron and steel plant, studying, for
the most part, the finishing temperatures of structural and rail steel with a
Wanner optical and a Le Chatelier thermo-electric pyrometer. The average
finishing temperature for 85-pound rails was 1105° to 1145° C, for 8-pound
rails 1050° to 1100° C, for low-carbon structural steel of small dimensions
about 985° C. The number of temperature readings obtained was very
great indeed, and numerous specimens were saved for further investigation
along microscopic lines.

Carhart, Henry S., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan. Grant
No. 151. Detenninatioji of the electromotive force of Clark and Weston
cells, etc. (For previous reports see Year Book No. 3, pp. 124-126, and
Year Book No. 4, p. 250.) $500.

Abstract of Report. — During the summer and autumn of 1906 five series of
determinations of the electromotive force of the Weston normal cell have
been made in conjunction with my colleague, Prof. George W. Patterson.
The apparatus used was the absolute electrodynamometer described by
Patterson and Guthe in the Physical Review, vol. 7, p. 257, and by Guthe in
the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards, vol. 2, No. i, p. 33. Our instru-
ment differs from the one described by Guthe chiefly in the fact that the
suspending bronze wire is about two and a quarter meters long as compared
with one of about one-third that length used by Guthe.

The current measured by the electrodynamometer is measured simultane-
ously by means of a standard resistance and a Wolff's potentiometer, assum-
ing a value of the electromotive force of a Weston standard cell set up about
three years ago. Then the ratio of the current measured by the electro-
dynamometer and the apparent current measured by the standard resistance
and the potentiometer is the same as the measured electromotive force and
the electromotive force assumed.

The results for the five series must be taken as preliminary only. The
elaborate calculation to find the correction for the irregularities of the wind-
ing of the stationary coil has been gone over but once. It must be recalcu-
lated as a check. Further investigation of the period of the suspending wire

PHYSICS — CARHART, FRANKI^IN, LE;WIS, NICHOLAS.

227

and its attached cylinders must be made, especially as regards any change
of period that may occur. Corrections for temperature have been applied,
but these should be checked. Then additional series will be made for a final
determination.

In the table the word " chemical " refers to the check cell in which the
mercurous sulphate used was made by chemical precipitation ; " electro-
lytic" designates cells with electrolytically prepared mercurous sulphate.

Series.

Chemical.

Electrolytic.

I

1. 01862
1. 01864
1. 01876
I. 01 864
1. 01867

I.01842
1. 01844
I.01856
1. 01 844
1. 01847

2

■\

4.

5 ••

Means

1. 01867

1. 01847

These values are for the temperature 20° C.

This mean value for cells made with electrolytically prepared mercurous
sulphate is 6 parts in 100,000 lower than the one found by Guthe, as given
in his final report in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards, vol. 2, No. i.

Franklin, "W. S*, and Freadenbergef, L. A*, South Bethlehem, Pennsylvania,

and Newark, Delaware. Grant No. 344. A new method of measuring

electrolytic resistances. $250,

This grant was for the purpose of construction of apparatus during the

summer of 1906. Dr. Freudenberger reports that this preliminary work has

been done, showing that the alternating current galvanometer possesses

excellent working characteristics for the purpose of measuring electrolytic

resistances.

Lewis, E» Percival, University of California, Berkeley, California. Grant
No, 150. Photographic investis^ations of vacuum-tube spectra of gases and
vapors. (For previous reports see Year Book No. 3, p. 128, and Year
Book No. 4, p. 253.) $500.

The large quartz spectrograph provided for by this grant has been com-
pleted and adjusted for work, and a description of the instrument has been
published in the Astrophysical Journal for June, 1906. At present a series
of investigations on vacuum-tube spectra is being carried on with the partic-
ular object of ascertaining the relationship between the nature of the electric
discharge and the accompanying differences observed in spectra. It is hoped
that some results will shortly be ready for publication.

228 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

Nichols, Edward L., Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. Grant No. 286.
Qtia7ititative shidy of fluorescence and phosphorescence^ especially at low
temperatures. (For previous report see Year Book No. 4, p. 254.)

$1,000.

Report. — Investigations have been in steady progress by Professors Nichols
and Ernest Merritt. The substance known as Sidot blende, a fluorescent
zinc oxide, which seems to be especially well suited to bring out the rela-
tionships that exist between different types of luminescence, has been made
a subject of detailed study. The luminescence of Sidot blende when excited
by Roentgen rays was carefully studied with the spectroscope, and the results
were compared with the photo-luminescence of the same substance during
excitation by means of the light of the carbon arc. To determine the
validity or failure of Stokes's law a pure spectrum from the arc light was
obtained by the method of double dispersion, and it was found that lumi-
nescence could be excited by light of wave-lengths lying between points
0.47 iJ. and 0.497 '") whereas the phosphorescence spectrum could be followed
to wave-length 0.46 /x. It appears, therefore, that there is a violation of
Stokes's law similar to that already noted in the case of similar fluorescent
substances.

These experiments were followed by a careful study of the law of deca-
dence of the phosphorescence spectrum of Sidot blende, wave-length by
wave-length. It was found that the phosphorescence spectrum remains
unaltered during decay as regards the distribution of intensities, the rate of
decay of the various wave-lengths being the same. A preliminary account
of these experiments was published in the Physical Review* for October, 1905.

This work was followed by an extended series of experiments upon the
law of decay of the phosphorescence of Sidot blende, a subject of consider-
able importance to the general theory of luminescence. Experiments were
first made upon various wave-lengths of the phosphorescence spectrum,
measurements of the brightness of each region being made by means of the
spectrophotometer as a function of the time which had elapsed after the close
of excitation. It was found that the results could be closely represented by
an expresssion of the form

i/|/T'=« + bt
where a and b are constants.

A preliminary account of these experiments was published in the Physical
Review t for May, 1906, in which paper the bearing of the relation deter-
mined upon theories of luminescence is discussed at considerable length.

In these measurements it is possible to extend observations only over a
brief period of time — about seven seconds. Early observations of the decay
of phosphorescence of other substances, taking the phosphorescent light as a

*Physical Review, vol. 21, p. 247. t Physical Review, vol. 22, p. 279.

PHYSICS — NICHOLS. 229

whole, have been made by E. Becquerel and others, and their results show a
more complicated relation than that which we have found.

Since the law of decay for various wave-lengths of the phosphorescence
spectrum is the same, it was possible to apply our method with some modifi-
cations to the undispersed light, and thus to greatly increase the interval of
time under observation.

By means of a specially devised photometer used in connection with a
chronograph we have made an extended study of the decadence of the phos-
phorescence from calcium sulphide, Sidot blende, willemite, and other phos-
phorescent materials under a variety of conditions. The interest and novelty
of the results thus obtained was such as to lead us to spend a great portion
of the year on this phase of the subject and to plot hundreds of decadence
curves. The decadence of phosphorescence is in fact a somewhat compli-
cated phenomenon, depending upon the length, intensity, and character of
excitation and Hkewise upon the previous history of the substance. The
emission of light after excitation appears to result from two independent proc-
esses, one of which succeeds the other after a fixed interval of time. The law
of the two processes is the same, being that determined in our earlier experi-
ments, but the constants of the equation for the relation between time and
intensity of light are different. The effect of increasing the intensity of excita-
tion on the one hand or of prolonging the duration of a weak excitation upon
the other is to produce saturation somewhat analogous to that observed in
the magnetization of iron and even an effect which might be termed hyste-
resis. The results of these further studies of the decay of phosphorescence
have been given in a paper printed in the Physical Review* for July, 1906.

The remarkable effect of certain of the longer wave-lengths of the spec-
trum, particularly of the red and infra-red regions, upon phosphorescence
is likewise under investigation. A mass of interesting results has been
obtained, and the experiments, which were interrupted for a time by the
removal of the Department of Physics to its new laboratory, are again under
way. The preliminary report upon this portion of our subject was made at
the July meeting of the Physical Society.

Apparatus for a thorough investigation of fluorescence and phosphor-
escence under the action of the cathode rays has been purchased from money
made available by this grant, and the experimental work will be taken up as
soon as the study of the effect of the infra-red is completed.

Under the direction of Professors Nichols and Merritt a graduate student,
Miss Frances G. Wick, has made a careful spectrophotometric examination
of the optical properties of a typical fluorescent solution and a much more
thorough and systematic study of the phenomenon of fluorescence absorp-
tion than had hitherto been attempted. This phenomenon, the existence of

*Physical Review, vol. 23, p. 37.

230 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

which in the case of uranium glass was discovered by Burke, was subse-
quently investigated in much greater detail in the case of fluorescent liquids
by the present writers. In two recent papers Carmichel has denied the
existence of this phenomenon, but Miss Wick's measurements not only serve
to establish it, but afford an admirable quantitative study of the relations
involved. Her results will be incorporated in a final report to the Carnegie
Institution of Washington. Directly connected with the subject of fluo-
rescence absorption and dependent upon it is the increase of conductivity of
fluorescent liquids when under excitation, a phenomenon which was discov-
ered and described in an early portion of this investigation. This phenom-
enon has likewise been questioned by Carmichel, and arrangements have
been made with another graduate student, Mr. Percy Hodge, to repeat the
measurements upon this interesting subject. His results will likewise be
published in a final report.

Preparations are at present being made for an extended investigation
upon the effect of high and low temperatures upon the position and intensity
of the fluorescence bands in the spectra of solids.

Wood, Robert "W», Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. Grant
No. 248. Researches on the theory of light. (For previous reports see
Year Book No. 2, p. xxxix. Year Book No. 3, p. 128, and Year Book
No. 4, pp. 255-257.) $1,000.

THE COMPLEX FLUORESCENCE SPECTRUM OF SODIUM VAPOR
AND ITS ANALYSIS.

The study of the remarkable fluorescent spectrum of the vapor of metallic
sodium has been continued. The very complicated spectrum observed when
the vapor is illuminated with white light is being gradually dissected by
stimulating the medium with the monochromatic radiations from the electric
arcs between metal electrodes. The lamps of fused quartz made by Heraeus,
of Hanau, have been found most satisfactory, but unfortunately very few
metals can be used with them. For every type of monochromatic stimulation
we obtain a definite fluorescent spectrum, consisting usually of sharply defined
lines, spaced at nearly regular intervals measured along a normal spectrum,
both of longer and shorter wave-length than that of the exciting light. The
same series of lines can be obtained by excitation of various points of the
spectrum, providing that these points coincide in position with the lines of
the series. The series is not, however, always complete. For example, if
we excite the vapor with the blue cadmium line of wave-length 4799, we
obtain a series which is broken up into groups of two and four lines, owing
to the absence of certain lines. These missing lines can be detected in their
proper places by very long exposures, the complete set being made up of
lines almost exactly equally spaced along the spectrum. One of these lines
coincides in position with the line 5209 of the silver arc, and when the fluo-

PHYSICS — WOOD.

231

rescence is stimulated with light of this wave-length the same series is obtained
as before, but with the difference that now the lines are of uniform intensity —
i. e., the series is not divided into groups by the absence of lines. Stimula-
tion with the green cadmium ray gives a fluorescence spectrum consisting of
a number of close double lines regularly spaced along the spectrum, and
characteristic spectra have been obtained with a large number of monochro-
matic stimulations. Thus far results have been obtained with the following
sources of light : Vacuum tubes containing helium and hydrogen, quartz arc
lamps containing zinc, cadmium, and thallium, and ordinary arcs between
copper, lead, silver, bismuth, lithium, and barium electrodes. The stimu-
lating radiations are separated and utilized by employing a large bisulphide
prism and a long- focus telescope objective. Exposures of ten hours are
often necessary, and the metallic arcs require constant attention. The lines
are now being measured and the spectra compared, and it is hoped that the
results will throw considerable light upon the mechanics of molecular radia-
tion. Over 100 lines are present in the fluorescent spectrum excited by the
zinc arc. This appears to be the first case in which it has been possible to
completely dissect a complicated spectrum into the comparatively simple
spectra of which it is composed, by shaking the individual electrons one at
a time and noting the effect upon other electrons in the same group.

cathode; I.UMINESCENCE OF SODIUM VAPOR.
This luminescence was first observed by Lewis in a glass vacuum tube,
but its spectrum has never been photographed or studied. By employing a
steel vacuum tube containing metallic sodium heated red hot and furnished
with a large concave electrode of aluminum a blazing disk of yellow light
appeared at the point where the cathode rays came to a focus. The spec-
trum could be photographed easily through the window of plate glass which
closed the end of the tube. It was found to consist of the doublets of the
principal and subordinate series, and in addition the complete fluorescent
spectrum of the vapor as it appears with white light stimulation. The
cathode rays are thus capable of exciting the electrons concerned in the
production of the fluorescent spectrum, which remain quiescent when the
metal is burnt in the Bunsen flame, electric arc, or introduced into the
ordinary vacuum tube.

THE MAGNETIC ROTATION, TEMPERATURE EMISSION, AND FLUO-
RESCENCE SPECTRA OF IODINE.

The discovery was made last year that the vapors of sodium and iodine,
when placed between crossed Nicol prisms in a powerful magnetic field,
transmit light which the spectroscope shows as a bright line spectrum. In
the case of the vapor of sodium these lines were photographed with the
15-foot concave grating, and were found to coincide with certain lines of
the fluorescent spectrum. Many of the fluorescent lines are absent or very

232 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

faint, which shows that the power of rotating the plane of polarization of
the transmitted light is only possessed by certain electrons of each group.
The results obtained from these experiments are being compared with the
observations made of the fluorescence produced by monochromatic stimula-
tion. It has been found, in addition, that not only iodine, but bromine,
potassium, and the colored oxides of nitrogen give magnetic rotation spec-
tra. The bright-line rotation spectrum of iodine has been photographed
with the 15-foot grating, in coincidence with the absorption spectrum, and
a study is in progress of the relations between the two. The color of the
transmitted light is with iodine bright green, with potassium yellow, and
with the nitrogen oxides blue-green. The yellow seen with potassium is
due to traces of sodium, which give powerful rotation at the D lines. The
spectra are all discontinuous, and their study is in progress. The fluo-
rescence spectrum and the temperature emission spectrum of iodine have
both been photographed and shown to be discontinuous.

LAMBERT'S LAW AND FLUORESCENCE.

Lambert's law states that the intensity of the radiation emitted by self-
luminous surfaces of solids and liquids varies in intensity with the cosine
of the angle of emission. This is an empirical law based upon the observa-
tion that the sun or a red-hot iron ball appears as a uniformly illuminated
disk. It is not obeyed by non-absorbing gases, as is shown by the fact that
a gas flame has a greater intrinsic intensity when viewed edgewise than
when observed from the side. An accidental observation made last year
that the fluorescent surface of a prism of crown glass illuminated with
ultra-violet light increased enormously in intensity as it was foreshortened
by turning the prism made it seem worth while to ascertain whether the
radiation in this case obeyed the same law as that of the gas flame. A pho-
tometric study of the luminosity of the surface at various angles of emission
has been made, with the result that it has been shown that the intrinsic
intensity of a fluorescent surface viewed, so to speak, within the medium
increases in proportion as the apparent width of the surface is diminished
by foreshortening, or, in other words, the total amount of light given off is
independent of the direction, as is the case with a surface emitting X-rays.

INTERFERENCE COLORS OF CRYSTALS OF CHLORATE OF POTASH.

Thin flakes of chlorate of potash, obtained by cooling a hot saturated solu-
tion, often show interference colors of extraordinary brilliancy and purity.
These colors were studied by Stokes and Lord Rayleigh, and shown to be
often nearly monochromatic — i. e., the reflected light, when examined with
a spectroscope, was found to consist of one or more extremely narrow bands
in contrast to the broad and ill-defined bands shown in the colors of thin

PHYSICS — WOOD, ZAHM. 233

films obtained in the usual way. lyOrd Rayleigh explained the remarkable
purity of the reflected light by assuming that the reflection took place from
a large number of parallel twinned planes, sensibly equidistant, a steepening
of the intensity curve resulting, as in the case of the Fabry and Perot inter-
ferometer. It has appeared that Stokes's explanation of the occurrence of
more than one band in the spectrum by assuming two or more sets of twinned
planes was unnecessarilj' complicated, the simpler explanation being to
assume a single set of reflecting planes and consider the colors as of differ-
ent orders. To test this a study of the position of the bands in the spectrum
of the reflected light has been made in the visible and ultra-violet regions,
the position of the bands confirming the above hj'pothesis. It was usually
found that the first-order color occurred in the infra-red.

Zahm, Albert F», Catholic University of America, Washington, District of
Columbia, Grant No. 272. Determination of resistance of air to moving
bodies. (For previous report see Year Book No. 4, p. 257.) $1,000.

Dr. Zahm. reports that he has extended the atmospheric resistance meas-
urements of cylinders down to wires of the smallest gage. He finds that
the resistance of rods and thick wires is proportional to the diameter, but
that this law does not obtain for fine wires, the resistance factor rapidly
increasing as the diameter diminishes. On the other hand, the resistance
varies exactly as the square of the velocity for all sizes, even to wires of the
finest gage. The experiments were performed with wires that did not sing
perceptibly and in a uniform air-stream that could be maintained steady at
various chosen speeds.

Experiments are now under way to determine the lift and drift of arched
surfaces at various angles of wind impact, the object being to investigate
the shapes most useful for the sustaining surfaces of gliding and flying
machines.

234 REPORTS ON INVi:STlGATlONS AND PROJECTS.

PSYCHOLOGY.

Farrar, Ckfence B*, Sheppard and Enoch Pratt Hospital, Towson, P. O.,
Mar3dand. Grant No. 350. Experimeyital studies on stnichcre andf2t7ic-
tions of the cerebral cortex, its histopathology and physiological psychology.
(For previous report see Year Book No. 4, p. 263.) $1,000.

An experimental study on the reparatory activities of the cortex cerebri
was delayed in publication and is now in press (Histologische u. histopath-
ologische Arbeiten iiber die Grosshirnrinde, Jena, Fischer). Porous foreign
bodies were introduced into the gray cortex of rabbits under aseptic condi-
tions and the reparatory changes observed from the sixth hour to the end
of the fourth week.

The study furnishes interesting information as to the mutual relations of
ectodermal, mesodermal, and hematogenous elements in the cortex cerebri,
as well as concerning the genesis of blood-vessels and the fibrillar substances
in their walls.

A second study, not yet published, concerns the development of the
pia-arachnoid. A complete series of chick embryos was used, beginning
with the earliest stage of incubation. The arachnoid is seen to be in no
sense a separate membrane. The pia and arachnoid are one and represent,
respectively, a highly vascularized and poorly vascularized inner and outer
portion of an identical tissue. The only lymph cavities discovered are
the arachnoidal spaces themselves and the intra- adventitial spaces of the
blood-vessels.

On the clinico-psychologic side the wards of the Sheppard and Enoch
Pratt Hospital have still been drawn upon for material. The object has
been to give extended study to individuals and small groups of patients,
which are then carefully analyzed and compared. In this way it is hoped
to contribute a little perhaps to the possibilities of differentiation in mental
diseases. In connection with the course in clinical psychiatry in the Johns
Hopkins University the publication has been commenced of a series of type
biographies, presenting as completely as possible the clinical course and
psychologic analysis of illustrative mental cases. The first three histories
have been completed : (I) Dementia pracox ; (II) Depressio affectus ; (III)
Depressio psychomotoria, appearing, respectively, in the American Journal
of Insanit}' for April, July, and October, 1906.

The group of devolutional psychoses has also been made the subject of
special study and certain provisional subtypes differentiated. At the invi-
tation of the British Medical Association a paper was presented on this sub-
ject at the Toronto meeting, August, 1906, and was published in the
British Medical Journal (September 29) and in the Edinburgh Review of
Neurology and Psychiatry.

PSYCHOLOGY — FRANZ. 235

FtanZf Shepherd L^ Mclyean Hospital, Waverley, Massachusetts. Grant No.
80. Livestigatioii 0/ the Junctions of the cerebrum with special rejcrence to
the functio7is of the association areas. (For previous report see Year Book
No. 4, p. 263.) $1,000.

Abstract oj Report. — The work on the frontal lobes has been completed.
A short account of the results was read before the section of pathology and
physiology of the American Medical Association at the meeting in Boston,
June, 1906, and this paper is now in type for the journal of the association.
A fuller account of the experiments conducted by Dr. Franz, with a critique
of previous physiological and clinical investigations, will be published soon
in an appropriate physiological or psychological journal. The results of the
experiments and the conclusions to be drawn therefrom may be summed up
as follows : In monkeys as well as in cats the frontal lobes are normally
employed in the formation of simple sensory motor associations. When the
frontal lobes are destroyed recently formed habits are lost, but it has been
found possible for the animals to form new associations and to relearn old
tricks. When the associations are firmly established destruction of the
frontal lobes is not always followed by a loss of such habits. There are in
these cases all degrees of memory for any particular habit, from " perfect "
to a very decided hesitancy and slowing. In this latter event the cerebral
path is probably shortened, and the nervous connection of the sensory and
the motor elements of the association takes place through the connections
made in the mid-brain. The association has taken on the character of a
reflex. The experiments show clearly that not only are there mental changes
coincident with brain lesions, but that the mental difference is one that could
not be determined by simple observational methods. They suggest, further-
more, that for the determination of mental defect in man following cerebral
disturbances the usual clinical observational methods are not of great value,
and that more accurate physiological and psychological experiments should
be made.

Work on the functions of the temporal lobes has been continued and an
article on this subject is in process of preparation.

236 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.

DEPARTMENT OF RESEARCH IN TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.*

By L. a. Bauer, Director.

Owing to the great amount of field work in operation, which was under-
taken on account of the reasons given in the report of the previous year, the
office investigations have of necessity been curtailed. The progress made
during the year in the office and in the field is as follows :

OFFICE WORK.

Investigation I. — Study of the secular variation and compilation of data
preparatory to publication on a uniform plan. — As related in the heading
"Field work" a number of secular variation stations have been established.
The compilation and the discussion of data have been continued as oppor-
tunity offered. For certain countries the compilations have been completed.

Investigation II. — Discussion and publication of the data on the magnetic
perturbations observed during the eruption of Mont Pelee, Martinique, igo2. —
This work is about 80 per cent completed; the final discussion had to be
temporarily discontinued by reason of the more pressing duties, but it is
confidently expected that the investigation can soon be brought to a close.

Investigation III. — A general study of the laws of the diurnal variation
to serve as a basis for determining corrections and their reliability for the
reduction of Held observations. — Work along this line has been confined
chiefly to the collection of data. The Department has also secured the
results of the valuable series of declinations obtained by Mr. W. J. Peters
while in charge of the scientific work of the Second Ziegler Polar Expe-
dition in the Franz Josef Archipelago in 1903 and 1904.

Investigation IV. — Special investigation of magnetic storms, with the
view of determining a working method for the discussion and analysis of
such fluctuations. — These studies have been continued under the direction
of Prof. Adolf Schmidt, in charge of the Potsdam Magnetic Observatory,
with the aid of funds supplied, with the approval of the Executive Com-
mittee, by the Department. Owing to Professor Schmidt's multitudinous
duties during the present year, it has not been possible for him to do more
than make a preliminary report.

Investigation V. — Discussion of the magnetic and electric observations
made during the total solar eclipse of August jo, 1905. — During the year
considerable progress has been made in the reduction of the observations
made by the Department at its stations, Battle Harbor, Labrador ; Turnavik,
Labrador; Black Point, Nova Scotia; Missinaibi, Canada, and TripoH,

* Report for the year ending October 31, 1906. Grant No. 312. $56,000 for investiga-
tions and maintenance. (For previous reports see Year Book No. 3, pp. 68-74, and
Year Book No. 4, pp. 264-274.)

\:,^'^^:M

VIEW OF •"GALILEE," SHOWING SPECIAL OBSERVING BRIDGE AND INSTRUMENTS
USED IN OBSERVATIONS.

THE "GALILEE" AT SAN DIEGO, CALIFORNIA, FEBRUARY 22, 1906.

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM — BAUER. 237

Algeria. The great interest in this investigation generally among magne-
ticians is evidenced by the fact that in addition to the stations reported as par-
ticipating in the last annual report of the Department observations have now
been further received from 38 stations and are in the course of reduction.

Professors Elster and Geitel and Dr. Harms have made a full report on
the atmospheric electricity observations made by them under the auspices of
the Department at Palma, Majorca. This report has already been printed in
the journal Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity, March, 1906.

The Department has also been favored by a report from Dr. H. Ebert on
his atmospheric electricity observations at Palma, Majorca, which has been
published in the December, 1905, number of the journal referred to above.

Two reports on the observations at Tripoli, Algeria, made by Professors
Palazzo and Oddone, under the auspices of the Department, have been
received and a third is in preparation.

Miscellaneous. — A card index of all observatories and institutions either
engaged or interested in magnetic work has been prepared. The card cata-
logue of publications and investigations in terrestrial magnetism and atmos-
pheric electricity and allied subjects has been continued, as also the collection
of information as to work accomplished and proposed.

The preparation of the "Scientific report of the Ziegler Polar Expedition"
for publication and the reduction of the observations, owing to the appoint-
ment of Mr. W. J. Peters, in charge of the scientific work of that expedition,
to the command of the Magnetic Survey vessel Galilee, were undertaken
under the auspices of the Department under the direction of Mr. J. A. Flem-
ing. The expense incurred was chiefly borne by the Ziegler estate. Mr.
Fleming, with the aid of temporarily employed assistants, made such good
progress that the printed report is expected to appear about the end of the
present year.

In connection with studies for the improvement of methods of observa-
tion and computation at sea, Mr. G. W. Littlehales, consulting hydrographer,
prepared an article upon the probable error of the determination of position
at sea by the methods at present used, as also such other reports as were
required for the work of the Galilee. Various special computations and
investigations of formulae have been made as the occasion arose in the reduc-
tion of the sea observations.

From time to time during the year numerous abstracts and reviews of the
current literature along the lines of the work of the Department have been
prepared and published by its members. Chief among these are the reviews
of articles on atmospheric electricity by Mr. J. E. Burbank appearing in
the ]\Iarch, June, and September issues of the current volume of the journal
Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity. Various articles have
also been prepared during the year on the work and progress of the work of
the Department for different journals.

238 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

FIELD WORK.

In pursuance of the plan already announced of a general magnetic survey
of the accessible regions of the globe within a period of fifteen to twenty
years and of the general investigation of the secular variation, the following
observational work has been executed or is in progress:

A. — Magnetic Survey of the Pacific Ocean.

The employment of the yacht Galilee has been continued during the year.
At the end of the last fiscal year she had just left Honolulu for Fanning
Island, where the party arrived October 10, 1905. After the necessary
harbor swings and shore observations a course was taken south to about
1.5° south latitude in longitude 162.8° west, which point was reached on
October 17, whence a northward course to meridian 169.5° to the west-
northwest of Honolulu was pursued, the expedition arriving again at Hono-
lulu on November 7. Leaving November 12, a northwesterly course was
followed to about 28.2° north latitude and longitude 163.5° west, from
which point the expedition proceeded somewhat north of latitude 41.2° in
longitude 150.3° west and thence followed a direct course to San Diego.
The first cruise was thus completed at San Diego on December 9, 1905, a
distance of about 11,000 nautical miles having been covered. The necessary
swings and shore observations were made between December 11 and 18.

Upon the completion of these observations the work of alterations on the
ship and instruments as indicated by the experience of the first cruise was
taken in hand. In order to settle the various matters pertaining to the con-
tinuation of the work and the proposed alterations the director found it
necessary to make a trip to the Pacific coast. Owing to the obligation of
the members of the scientific personnel, with the exception of Mr. J. P.
Ault, who was in the permanent employ of the Department, to return to their
duties with the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey at the expiration
of their furloughs, it was necessary to reorganize the staff. Mr. W. J.
Peters, who has had charge of scientific exploring parties of the U. S.
Geological Survey in Alaska and had been second in command and in charge
of the scientific work of the Ziegler Polar Expedition, was appointed the
new commander. To him were assigned as assistants Mr. J. P. Ault, Mr.
J. C. Pearson (formerly instructor in physics at Bowdoin College, Maine),
and Dr. H. E. Martyn, surgeon and recorder. Mr. Peters took command
of the party in January, 1906. The alterations were made chiefly under the
direction of Mr. J. E. Pratt, the former commander, who also rendered Mr.
Peters the required assistance in taking command. The alterations, harbor
swings and shore observations having been completed preparatory to the
inauguration of the second cruise, the Galilee left San Diego on March 2
last and took a direct course for Fanning Island. A stay of ten days from

te;rrestrial magnetism — bauer. 239

March 31 to April 10 was made at this port, during which time all necessary
check shore and swing observations were made at the stations occupied on
the first cruise. The next stop was made at Pago Pago, Samoan Islands,
from April 26 to May i. On account of severe local attraction, as also
because of lack of tug facilities, no harbor swings or shore observations were
made at this point. At Apia, Samoan Islands, May 2 to 10, comparisons were
made between the Galilee instruments and those of the German Observatory
in charge of Dr. Franz Linke, to whose kindness and extension of all pos-
sible courtesies the Department is indebted. Harbor swings were not made
owing to the lack of sufficient tug facilities and to the strong harbor currents.
At the next port, Suva, Fiji Islands, comparisons were made between the
instruments of the ship and those used by Mr. G. Heirnbrod, magnetic
observer in charge of the work on the islands of the South Pacific. Harbor
swings were also secured at this point during the stay there between May
17 and 26. Jaluit, of the Marshall Islands, wao reached on June 21 and
shore and harbor sea . observations were made, after which a course was
taken for Guam Island on June 30. During July 11 to 24, harbor swings
and shore observations were made at San Luis d'Apra, Guam Island.
Thence sail was set for Yokohama, Japan, where the expedition arrived on
August 13 last. At this port numerous shore observations as well as harbor
swings were made, as also, through the courtesy of Dr. K. Nakamura, in
charge of the Central Meteorological Observatory of Tokyo, and of Dr. A.
Tanakadate, of the University of Tokyo, comparisons with the observatory
standards of Japan were secured. On August 24 the Galilee was blown on
the breakwater at Yokohama by a typhoon and such damage sustained that
she had to be dry-docked in order to have the necessary repairs made.
Fortunately the damage was not very serious and she was enabled to take
up her work again on September 6, on which date the expedition left Yoko-
hama for San Diego. At the end of the fiscal year the vessel was thus en
route to San Diego, upon the arrival at which port, on October 20, she had
terminated the second cruise of the Magnetic Survey of the Pacific Ocean
and had covered on this cruise approximately 15,000 nautical miles, or a total
of 26,000 nautical miles for the two cruises.

Throughout, observations have been made of the three magnetic elements
as frequently as the weather and sea conditions would permit. The pre-
liminary reductions indicate that the sea work has attained a high state of
efficiency, and that a most satisfactory degree of accuracy has been reached.
An article on the instruments, methods, and preliminary results of this work
has been published by the director in the June number of the current volume
of Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity, this article being
the summary of two addresses delivered before the Philosophical Society
of Washington and before the American Physical Society. As soon as the

240 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

second cruise has been completed and all of the control observations have
been made, the final reduction and publication of the work of the two cruises
will be undertaken.

The need of the ocean magnetic survey, viewed from a practical as well
as a scientific standpoint, is most emphatically shown by the comparison of
the charted and observed values of the magnetic elements contained in the
article referred to above. Thus, the present isogonic charts of the Pacific
Ocean show values too small between San Francisco and Honolulu by
amounts ranging from 1° to 2° ; the isoclinic charts, values too low by about
1°, while the charts of lines of equal horizontal intensity give uniformly
too high values on the average of one twenty-fifth part.

While the deviation coefficients of the Galilee have been found to be
smaller than those of any vessel thus far engaged in oceanic magnetic work,
the need of a specially constructed, non-magnetic, auxiHary-powered sailing
vessel has become more and more patent as the work has progressed. With
such a vessel the cost of maintenance and operation would be reduced and
results of the desired accuracy be obtained with much less labor than is
possible when consideration must be paid to the determination of deviation
corrections.

B. — Land Work.

China. — Dr. C. K. Edmunds, the magnetic observer in charge of the work
in China, has executed during the past year valuable series of observations.
Through the courtesy of Dr. W. S. Doberck, the director of the Hongkong
Observatory, and that of the governor of Hongkong, he secured the loan
of a Kew dip circle and magnetometer with tripods and theodolite, which,
with remainder of outfit supplied him by the Department, enabled him dur-
ing January and February to carry out a magnetic survey of Hainan Island.
Standardization observations were made at Kowloon (Hongkong Observa-
tory) both before and after the trip. Eight stations were occupied on the
island of Hainan and vicinity as follows : Hoihow, Cape Kami (Lei Chan
Peninsula, Kwangtung Province), Hiongpo, Yaichau, Yulinkan, Eeong Sui,
Kacheck, and Honglok (near Canton, Kwangtung Province). The region
thus covered was, magnetically speaking, unexplored. Dr. Edmunds reports
that several of his stations have never before been visited by a Caucasian.
On the completion of this campaign Dr. Edmunds returned to his duties at
the Canton Christian College.

In May Dr. Edmunds, through the courtesy of Father J. de Moidrey,
director of the Zi-ka-wei Observatory, secured the loan of the small French
instruments belonging to the observatory. During the latter part of ]May
he made the necessary comparisons at the Hongkong Observatory between
the Kew instruments used in the Hainan work and the French instruments.

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISAI — BAUER. 24I

With the latter outfit he again took up field work in June, this time along
the coast from Swatow northward. Up to August 12 he had occupied the
following stations: Honglok, Swatow, Chau-chu-fu, Amoy, T'suan Chau,
Fuchau, An Tau, Yangchau, Chinkiang, Suchau, and Shanghai (Zi-ka-wei
Observatory). In the execution of this work he was ver\- materially assisted
by the American vice-consul at Kuchau, the Hon. E. Carleton Baker, to
whose aid and advice much of the success of the trip is due.

Dr. Edmunds during the time remaining at his disposal for field work
has been able to occupy, through the extension of the privilege of passage
on the revenue cutters by courtesy of the inspector of general customs, Sir
Robert Hart, and the coast inspector. Captain T. J. Eldridge, eleven stations
distributed in the neighborhood of the lights in the Chusan Archipelago and
in the neighborhood of Cheefoo, Tientsin, and Naichwang. In securing this
valuable aid he has been ably assisted by the American minister at Peking.

South Pacific Islands. — Mr. G. Heimbrod, magnetic observer, continued at
the German ^Magnetic Observatory under the direction of Dr. Franz Linke, at
Apia, Samoan Islands, until March 17. Up to this time he was engaged in
the determination of the various methods of observation and constants of
the magnetometer and dip circle, courteously loaned to the Department by
the observatory. He also familiarized himself with observatory work.

Since leaving Apia, Mr. Heimbrod has made m^agnetic observations at
the following stations : Suva, Viti Levu, Fiji Islands (three stations) ;
Rotumah Island; Tilingitha Island; Suva, Viti Levu, Fiji Islands (com-
parisons of his instrumental outfit with that of the Galilee and determinations
of corrections and constants of dip circle No. 171 supplied him from the
Galilee to replace the one loaned from the Apia Observatory) ; Nukulau
Island; Niakombi Point, Levuku Ovalau, Fiji Islands; Vagadace, Levuku
Ovalau, Fiji Islands; Christchurch, New Zealand; several stations in the
Society Islands, including Tahiti Island, also in the Paumotu, or Low Archi-
pelago, and Rarotonga Island of the Cook Group. At the end of the fiscal
year Mr. Heimbrod was en route to Auckland, New Zealand, and Sydney,
Australia.

The observations at Christchurch will furnish a direct correlation between
the standards used by the Potsdam, Cheltenham, Apia, and Christchurch
magnetic observatories, as also between the instruments used by the British
Antarctic and the German Antarctic expeditions and by the Galilee in the
Magnetic Survey of the Pacific Ocean.

From several of Mr Heimbrod's stations important contributions to the
secular variation data have been obtained.

Canada. — In order to furnish data for the completion of the magnetic
survey of the region of the earth bounded by the parallels of latitude 20° and
49° north and the meridians of 65° and 125° west, the director, together

16 — YB

242 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS,

with Mr, p. H. Dike, magnetic observer, and Mr. E. H. Bowen, computer,
determined the three magnetic elements during September and October at
about 70 stations, nearly uniformly distributed over southern Canada between
the meridians 70° and 105° west longitude. This region is the one covered
by I^efroy in his magnetic survey of 1842 to 1844, and several of his stations
were reoccupied, and thus important secular variation data were obtained.
These observations will at the same time complete the magnetic survey of a
very large quadrilateral of the earth's surface when taken in connection with
the magnetic work of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey ; the
work will, moreover, all be based upon one standard. From so large an area
valuable contributions to the theory of the earth's magnetism will doubtless
result. In connection with the work in Canada a comparison of the standard
instruments of the Toronto and of the Cheltenham observatories was also
secured.

The various necessary testing observations and standardizations of instru-
ments have been made at Washington and at the Cheltenham Magnetic
Observ^atory during the year, mainly by my chief assistant, Mr. J. A. Fleming,
and Magnetic Observer D. C. Sowers.

C. — Magnetic Disturbances.

The two direct recording declinometers after the design and construction
of Dr. W. G. Cady, research magnetician, have been completed. As already
reported, one of these instruments has been supplied to the Solar Observatory
of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, where it has been in operation
since March. The second instrument has been temporarily installed at the
office of the Department. An article by Dr. Cady on this instrument will
be found in the September, 1906, issue of the journal Terrestrial Magnetism
and Atmospheric Electricity.

D. — Atmospheric Electricity.

Mr. P. H. Dike, magnetic observer, made an investigation at the Caven-
dish Laboratory, under the direction of Prof. J. J. Thomson, on the diurnal
variation of the amount of radioactive emanation in the atmosphere. An
account of this work has been published in the September number of the
current volume of the journal Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric
Electricity.

Mr. J. E. Burbank, magnetician, has completed a report on his atmos-
pheric electricity observations made at Battle Harbor, I^abrador, He has
also made some observations of the atmospheric radioactivity at Washing-
ton, showing the presence of thorium in the air. An account of this work
appeared in the June, 1906, issue of the journal Terrestrial Magnetism and
Atmospheric Electricity. Mr. Burbank also made some preliminary tests of
instruments to be used in atmospheric electricity work at sea.

ZOOLOGY — CASTLE. 243

ZOOLOGY.

Castle, W» E*, and Mark, E. L*, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachu-
setts. Grant No. 331. Experwie?ital studies iyi heredity. (For pre-
vious reports see Year Book No. 3, p. 136, and Year Book No. 4, p.
276.) $500.

Drs. Castle and Mark are associates of the Department of Experimental
Evolution at Cold Spring Harbor, and their work has been done in cooper-
ation with that of the Department.

Abstracts of Reports. — Dr. Castle reports that observations have been made
upon about 2,000 guinea-pigs, 1,000 rabbits, and 1,500 rats reared from
pedigreed stock. The general questions concerned are, (i) what sorts of
variations are concerned in the processes of evolution, and (2) what are the
laws governing their transmission ? As in previous years, much attention
has been given to color-inheritance, being concerned this year chiefly with
color-patterns, particularly with their modification by selection. Other
characters studied are polydactylism, skeletal dimensions, general size, and
ear-characters. The contrasted ' ' mutation ' ' and ' ' selection ' ' theories as
to the origin of new organic forms have been kept constantly in mind, and
it is concluded that both are important in evolution. Ivatent inheritance
and reversion have received considerable attention, and a most interesting
experiment has been an attempt to fix a reversionary heterozygous charac-
ter, the agouti coat of guinea-pigs, identical in its general features with the
coat-color of wild cavies.

The results of some selection experiments extending over several years are
ready for publication, and others are in preparation. Anatomical studies
have been made of hybrids between the guinea-pig and Cavia aperea of Bra-
zil. The hybrids are of remarkable size and vigor, but completely sterile.
A second importation of Cavia aperea from a different part of Brazil was
unfortunately lost in the long ocean voyage to this country.

Student assistants in the work and the topics upon which they have been
engaged are indicated in the following list :

(i) Mr. P. C. Ackerman. The anatomy of the four-toed foot in the polydactylous race
of guinea-pigs ; is it atavistic or not ? Probably atavistic.

(2) Mr. H. R. Fulton. Can giant and dwarf races of guinea-pigs be established by selec-
tion ; if so, are they stable races ? This investigation is still in progress.

{3) H. MacCurdy. Can color-patterns among spotted guinea-pigs and rats be fixed by
selection ? They can not ; but selection can fix within certain limits as racial
characters particular amounts of pigmentation ; that is, spotted races can be created
at will which bear either much pigment and little white fur or the reverse, much
white and little pigment. One can not at will fix the position of the pigmentation,
either on the anterior or on the posterior part of the body, or in any other arbi-
trarily selected position. This investigation is completed and ready for publication.

(4) R. C. MuUenix. The inheritance of skeletal dimensions among rabbits.

244 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

(5) J. T. Nichols. The inheritance of skeletal dimensions among guinea-pigs. The

results of these two related investigations have not yet been fully analyzed, but
the inheritance is apparently fully blending.

(6) A. S. Pearse. The inheritance of polydactylism in guinea-pigs. A continuation of

the investigation described in Publication No. 49 of the Carnegie Institution of
Washington.

(7) W. G. Vinal. Certain problems in color inheritance among guinea-pigs. In progress.

(8) H. E. Walter. Ear-length and color-inheritance among rabbits. This first part is

finished and nearly ready for publication, the second part in progress.

(9) A. Gulick. Skeletal characters of the sterile hybrids between the guinea-pigs and

Cavia aperea.

Dr. Mark reports that a good beginning has been made on the study of
the sexual cells of hybrid fowls, and satisfactory methods of fixation and
staining have been worked out. As rapidly as the material can be spared
from the station at Cold Spring Harbor, where it is being bred for this and
other experiments, it is being prepared by Miss Lutz for microscopic study.

A study of the histological conditions of the male sex-cells in domesticated
guinea-pigs {Cavia cobaya) and in hybrids resulting from crosses of these
with the wild guinea-pig (C aperea) has also been carried on. Several
thousand section.s have been prepared, and it has been possible to make out
from these marked differences between the domesticated and the hybrid
individuals, which it is hoped may lead to valuable results.

It has also been possible to reach some interesting results in the study of
the formation of spermatozoa in honey bees, and a preliminary paper cover-
ing some of the points established has already been published by us. These
studies will be extended to embrace other Hymenoptera, material for which
has been secured during the past summer,

Crampton, Henry E», Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Grant No. 137.

Determination of the laws of variation and inheritance of certain Lepidop-

tera. (For previous reports see Year Book No. 2, p. xli, Year Book

No. 3, p. 136, and Year Book No. 4, p. 276.) $500.

Report. — In continuing the work of former years additional pedigreed

families of Philosamia cynthia have been reared, and statistics relating to

elimination, sexual and other forms of selection, correlation, and inheritance

have been obtained for more than 2,000 additional individuals. Of the four

series of pupae produced during the previous j^ear (as described in previous

reports) more than 4,000 became moths in June and July, 1906, and these

were mated in 425 cases. Three hundred and nine of these pairs gave 44,418

eggs. Only 69 families, however, were reared, and these gave 2,196 cocoons

in August. As in previous years, it was found that some individuals emerged

during the latter part of the summer when they were reared, although there

were less than 200 such cases this year. The moths that emerged were

mated in nearly 50 instances and 5,845 eggs were obtained from these pairs.

Some of these are now being reared.

ZOOLOGY — CRAMPTON, DUERDEN, HOWARD. 245

With the emergence of the pupae now on hand during the earl}^ summer
of 1907 the acquisition of statistics in connection with the present research
will be regarded as concluded. Ten thousand and more pedigreed individuals
produced since 1903 will afford ample material for the statistical treatment
of the problems of variation, selection, correlation, and inheritance. The
data will gain an additional value because of the opportunit}^ for comparison
with figures obtained during the years 1899-1903, relating to many thousands
of ' ' wild ' ' individuals.

Daerden, James E», Rhodes University College, Grahamstown, So. Africa.
Grant No. 288. ContiiniatioJi of investigaiio7is oji the morphology a?id
development of recent ajid fossil corals and physiology of the Zoantharia.
(For previous reports see Year Book No. 2, p. xli ; Year Book No. 3,
p. 137, and Year Book No. 4, p. 277.) $75o.

Abstract of Report. — (a) Morphology and development of recent corals. —
Work has been continued upon the Pacific corals collected in the Hawaiian
Islands during 1904, and the seventh of the series of papers dealing with the
morphology of the Madreporia has been published. The contribution " In-
trapolypal tentacles ' ' describes a peculiar modification undergone by certain
of the tentacles in species of Pocillopora. Studies on variation by statistical
methods have been continued and are yielding results of much interest.

{b) Fossil corals. — During the year an attempt has been made elsewhere
to controvert the hexamerism of the Rugose corals, a condition claimed by
the author as a result of previous investigations. From further studies upon
fossil specimens it has been possible to demonstrate a primary hexameral
condition for several additional species of Rugose corals, so that no doubt
can now be entertained as to the correctness of the original conclusions.
Two papers, containing further evidence upon the subject of the primary
septa of fossil corals, are now in press.

(f) Physiology of the Zoantharia. — A paper, ' ' The role of mucus in corals, ' '
has been published and contains an account of the important part which
mucus plays in the feeding of living polyps. Another contribution, "On
the habits and reactions of crabs bearing Actinians in their claws," has also
been published and discusses the various relationships involved in this pecu-
liar form of commensalism.

Howard, L. Ot U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Grant
No. 250. Preparatio)i of an elaborate monog7-a,ph on American mosquitoes.
(For previous reports see Year Book No. 2, p. xlii ; Year Book No. 3,
p. 138, and Year Book No. 5, p. 279.) $3,000.

Abstract of Report. — Dr. Dyar has made some collections in southern Cali-
fornia, and has done some breeding in that part of the country, and addi-
tional material has been coming in from Trinidad, British West Indies, and
from Florida. Additional observations have been made by volunteer assist-

246 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS.

ants, and some new data have been gained in this way. The recipient of
the former grants has been engaged, with the assistance of Dr. H. G. Dyar
and Mr. Frederick Knab, in systematic work upon the material brought
together by the operation of the grants. Very many new illustrations have
been made, and it is hoped to complete the monograph early in 1907.

Mark, E. L., Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Grant No. 346.
Significance of the fact that in mice tzvo forms of eggs ai'e produced, and its
bearing, if any, on heredity. $300.

Report. — Dr. Mark and Mr. J. A. Long are conducting these investigations
in cooperation with the director of the Department of Experimental Evolu-
tion. They report that work is advancing satisfactorily and a considerable
number of microscopic slides of great value have been prepared. A part
only of these have been studied in detail, but careful drawings of some of
the more important sections have been made.

Morse, Albert P., Wellesley, Massachusetts. Grant No. 284. Research on
North American Aoidiidce, with especial reference to biology, distribution,
and variation. (For previous report see Year Book No. 4, p. 283.)

$1,000.

Abstract of Report. — During the latter part of the trip of reconnoissance of
the States of the lower Mississippi Valley, made in the summer of 1905 for
the purpose of securing data on the biology and distribution of the locust
fauna of that section of the country, observation was directed particularly
to the transition area between the humid and arid sections, and to the status
of brachypterous species in the treeless districts visited. Based upon the
data secured upon this trip, it would appear that as a whole the biota of the
treeless plains and prairies is characterized by an Acridian fauna richer in
number of species than that of the East, and that these are of geophilous
and campestrian character, in consonance with the climate and the habitats
represented. While differing much in general facies from that of the
Eastern States of the same latitude in these particulars, the transition is
gradual rather than abrupt (agreeing with the physical conditions), the
border-land being peopled with numerous genera and species of very wide
distribution, sometimes transcontinental, sometimes restricted to the district
between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains, but occurring both
in the humid and arid sections of this region.

Brachypterous species are much less numerous proportionally in treeless
arid districts than in humid forested regions, East or West. When present
they inhabit shrubby or herbaceous thickets. It is a noteworthy fact that
(excluding the aberrant group Tettiginse) every flightless species of locust
known from the eastern half of the continent is phytophilous, as contrasted
with geophilous, in habits.

ZOOLOGY — MORSE, NAPLES ZOOLOGICAL STATION, PEARL. 247

Several local lists of the species secured, characteristic at that season of
the year of the different portions of the region traversed, together with notes
on their habits, have been prepared for convenience of reference. These
are accompanied by a series of photographs illustrating some of the typical
habitats in which they live.

The body of the report consists of a complete annotated systematic list of
the species taken, with full data and descriptions of several forms new to
science.

Naples Zoological Station, Naples, Italy. Grant No. 332. For niainte^imice
of hvo tables. (For previous reports see Year Book No. 2, p. CLiv, Year
Book No. 3, p. 145, and Year Book No. 4, p. 288.) $1,000.

As in previous years, the grant was made to aid the laboratory in paying
for the maintenance of two research-tables. The director of the laboratory
assigned the tables during the past year to Dr. Naohide Yatsu and Dr. Ray-
mond Pearl. Abstracts of reports by these investigators will be found in the
following pages.

Pearl, Raymond, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Grant No. 345. Completion of mvestigatio7is by statistical vietJwds 07i
variation and correlation. (For previous reports see Year Book No. 3,
p. 140, and Year Book No. 4, p. 285.) $500.

Abstract of Report.— tho^ year was spent in work at the following Euro-
pean laboratories : Zoologisches Institut, at Leipzig ; Biometric Laboratory,
University College, London ; and the Stazione Zoologica, at Naples.

The following investigations were completed, and the papers detailing the
results will appear shortly :

(i) A biometrical study of conjugation in Paramecium. The results of
this work may be summarized as follows :

{a) It was demonstrated that the conjugant individuals of a Paramecium
population are distinctly differentiated in size and shape of body, both in
respect to type and variability, from the non-conjugant portion of the popu-
lation living in the same culture at the same time.

{b) There is a high degree of homogamy in the pairing of individual
Paramecia in conjugation. Individuals like one another in size and shape
of body tend to conjugate together.

{c) It was shown that this homogamy can not be accounted for either by
any form of random pairing or by a process of equalization in size after
conjugation has occurred.

{d) A definite physiological basis for the homogamy is assigned, and it is
shown that the existence of homogamy in conjugation and the differentiation
of conjugants from non-conjugants have significant theoretical bearings in
the interpretation of the life history of Paramecium.

248 re;ports on investigations and projects.

The complete paper on this work will appear soon in Biometrika.

(2) A study of variation in relation to differentiation and growth in
Ceratopln^llum. It is impossible in an abstract to give an adequate summary
of the results of this study. Some of the more important of the general
results are the following :

(a) A thorough analysis of the facts of variation in the plant as a whole
and in its constituent axial elements was made. From this analysis it was
possible to work out the biological factors concerned in the genesis of charac-
teristic frequency curves of variation more completely than has hitherto
been done for any organism.

(Jf) The analysis led to the establishment of two laws of growth, which
serve to describe very exactly and completely the observed phenomena of
variation and differentiation in leaf whorls, branch production, etc., in the
plant.

{c) The first of these laws has been designated the " logarithmic law of

growth." For Ceratophyllum it states that the size of parts on any axial

division of the plant increases as we pass toward the distal end of that

division, but the rate of this increase steadily diminishes the farther distad

we go. As a general law of growth, this may be stated as follows : The

increase by growth of a part or character is quantitatively expressed by an

equation of the form

y^=A-{-C\o% (a'— «)

or some closely related logarithmic equation. In this equation y denotes size
of the growing part or character, x stands for the time factor, and A, C,
and a are constants.

(d) The second of these laws is that in accord with which the variability
of an organism or its parts steadily diminishes with growth.

The complete paper on this work will appear shortly as Publication No. 58
of the Carnegie Institution of Washington.

(3) A study of the relation of variation and correlation to morphological
differentiation and homology in the appendages of the crayfish. This work
led to the general result that physiological and ontogenetic factors are rela-
tively much more important in influencing the degree of variation or correla-
tion of parts than are morphological and phylogenetic factors. I^ack of space
forbids a general summary of the results of the paper, which is now in press,
and, it is hoped, will appear shortly.

(4) Experimental studies on variation and correlation in Protozoa. The
work on Paramecia of known ancestry reared under controlled environmental
conditions has been practically completed, but the results are withheld from
detailed publication until further experiments along similar lines have been
made. A prehminary paper dealing with a portion of the results has
appeared during the year. In this paper it is shown that while under normal
circumstances rigid selection of ancestry markedly reduces the variability of

ZOOLOGY — PEARL, TOWER. 249

Paramecium, yet by proper environmental conditions it is possible to obtain
a population which, in spite of its selected ancestry, shows just as great varia-
bility as does a " wild" population of unselected ancestry. A paper dealing
with variation and correlation in Chilomonas has been completed and is now
in press.

(5) The material on variation in the whitefish (Coregonus), to which
reference has been made in previous reports, has been reduced, and a paper
giving an account of the results will be ready for the press soon,

(6) Several minor papers dealing with specific problems of variation and
correlation have been completed during the year, and have either appeared or
are now in the press.

In continuation of the investigation of the problems of variation and
correlation, it is proposed to carry forward the work along two principal
lines, viz, (a) Vv'ork on Protozoa, and (d) analysis of the laws of growth.

Tower, "William L«, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois. Grants Nos.
181 and 251. Experimental investigations of the production ayid preserva-
tion of new character races and species hi insects, (For previous reports
see Year Book No. 3, p. 141, and Year Book No. 4, pp. 286-2S8.) $1,945.
Abstract of Report. — The studies with Leptinotarsa since 1904 have been

along four chief lines :

1. Pedigree breeding and the experimental production of new races.

2. Transplantation experiments in nature in southern Mexico.

3. An experimental statistical investigation of natural selection.

4. The ecology of the material under investigation.

While investigations under these grants have been largely concerned with
the genus Leptinotarsa, it seemed desirable to extend them to the related
genera of the essentially American group. This was begun in the year 1905
and has been continued during the past year. The work upon these other
forms has been largely preparatorj^ consisting in a compilation of all known
data concerning their distribution, variation, habits, etc. Preliminary pedi-
gree cultures of different species of Calligrapha, Zygogramma, Stilodes,
Labidomera, Dorj^phora, and Melasoma are being made, and this material
will later form the source of supply for experimental studies.

General results derived fro7n these investigations. — In these investigations,
which have now been in progress for more than twelve years, an attempt has
been made to view animal evolution in a restricted group from as many
viewpoints as possible and thus to be able to correlate and check the results
obtained from different minor parts of the main problem.

The investigation of the phenomena of variation in its diverse aspects has
given the general result that, as far as this material is concerned, there is
no indication of indeterminate variability — that is, all variations thus far
studied are in few directions, and in the case of any particular species are
determinate irrespective of their size or behavior in inheritance. Variations,

250 REPORTS ON INVi;STlGATlONS AND PROJECTS.

as far as it is possible at the present time to decide, are never predetermined,
but are always the direct result of the response of the developing organism
to stimuli, and these stimuli seem to be primarily external. Although it is
becoming clearer with each year's work that variations are responses to
stimuli, as yet there are no indications that the variations are trophic in
their nature, but that different stimuli produce the same results.

A point of importance is the continuity of variations found, there being
no indications that there exists in any sense the isolation of variations or
" unit characters " as postulated by De Vries. Variations may form with
rapidity, but there are always to be distinguished intermediate steps which
grade into one another.

The data and conclusions concerning heredity derived from these investi-
gations, while of interest and suggestive, may easily be overestimated in their
value. In Chrysomelid beetles not all inheritance is Mendelian in character;
but as far as determined only characters that are " general characters" in
the organism are thus inherited. The minor characters differ in different
species and also according to the character, no general rule being followed
as far as it has been possible to discover. It is hoped that the pedigree
cultures now going can be continued without accident for a term of years,
thus giving data upon the questions of heredity from known pedigreed
families.

Whether species have developed by accumulated variations and natural
selection or by mutation and natural selection is perhaps the question of
greatest interest at this time. The results derived from the study of varia-
tion and the data of the transplantation experiments, when added to the
information gained in nature of this problem, shows that in these beetles the
method of evolution is an orthogenetic, rapid transmutation in response to
stimuli, according to the method of trial and error, with natural selection
and segregation acting as the factors to conserve the developing race. All
evidence points to the general conclusion that species have arisen through
the progressive and continuous modal shifting of the evolving, segregated
group, the mode representing the optimum or most stable condition existing
between the organism and its environment. " Mutations " — that is, large or
extreme variations — do not seem to play any part in the process as carried
on in nature, but are exterminated, in the instances observed, as soon as
they arise.

"Wilson, Edmund B,, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Grant No. 370.

Researches in the chromosomes of insects and other animals with reference to

the cytological basis of sex-prodiiction and Mendelian inheritance. $500.

Professor Wilson made an extensive field trip during the summer, south

as far as Georgia and then westward across the continent in the southern

region. A very large amount of material was secured, which will require a

long time to work up in full.

ZOOLOGY — YATSU. 25 I

Yatso, N», Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Grant No. 268. Experi-
mental study of the Nemertine egg. (For previous reports see Year Book
No. 3, p. 144, and Year Book No. 4, p. 288.) $1,000.

Abstract of Report. — Under this grant Dr. Yatsu has continued at the
Naples Zoological Station (January to June, 1906) the investigation which
was begun in the summer of 1905. While at Naples most of his time was
devoted to the analytic experiments on the egg of Beroe. These led to
several interesting conclusions, among which may be mentioned the follow-
ing : In the &^g of Beroe the ctenoplasm is not definitely localized before
fertilization, nor, perhaps, immediately after. At the 8- cell stage the cteno-
plasm is not equally distributed in all the cells, the corner cells containing
usually a larger quantity. The third cleavage of the egg of Beroe is, there-
fore, qualitative, as in the egg of most forms. Incidentally he studied also
the mechanism of cell-division in the egg of Beroe. He cut the egg during
the first cleavage at different periods and along different planes, and he
studied the behavior of the " cleavage-head." This is the first instance in
which cutting experiments were employed for this purpose, and he believes
that his results offer at least a clue to the final solution of the problem of the
mechanism of cell-division. He also studied the early cleavage stages of
both the trifoil and ring embryos of Cerebratulus marginatus to determine
the seat of the cleavage factors. His results will be published in a series of
papers during the coming academic year.

INDEX

Page

Abbott, Charles G 66

Abbott, Edith -. i6i

Acclimatization of Plants 121

Ackerman, P. C, Studies in Heredity 243

Acree, S. F ig

Formaldehyde Color Test for Proteids 45

Research Assistant 44

Study of Pinacone-pinacolin Rearrangement and of Urazoles 140

Acree, S. F., and J. E. Hinkins, Publications by 45

Acridiidae, Research on North American 44

Adams, Alton D 160

Adams, F. D 18, 21, 23

Investigations on Flow of Rocks 174

Adams, F. D., and E. G. Coker, Investigation into Elastic Constants of Rocks. . . 31, 45

Adams, Walter S 64

Publications by 45, 48

Adams, Walter S., and George E. Hale, Publications by 48

Administration Building, Proposed Plans 11

Algonkin Indians, Religion of Central Group of 44

Allen, E. T., and Arthur L. Day, Publication by 47

Allen, E. T., E. E. Wright, and J. K. Clement 45

Allen, E. T., W. P. White, and F. E. Wright 45

Allen, Gordon 56

Allison, William H 194

Alloys, Systematic Studies of 141

American History, Bibliography of Works on 24

American History, 1903, Writings on 31

Ampullaria, Origin of Lung in, Report by W. K. Brooks 109

Ancient Hawaiian Worship 58

Andrews, CM 189, 194

Anthropology 55

Minor Grants 19

Aphids, Studies on Germ Cells of 31

Appendicularias of the Dry Tortugas, Report by Carl Kellner no

Appropriations, General 12

Aqueous Solutions at High Temperatures, Electrical Conductivity of 153

Electrical Transference Determinations in 153

Investigations on Hydrates in Concentrated 149

Archeological Expedition, Trans-Caspian 59

Researches in Egypt 59

Archeology, Minor Grants 19

Reports on 5^59

Arcturus, Sun-spot Lines in the Spectrum of . . . ■ 45

Argentine Republic, Study of Political System of 44

Arthurian Romances, Preparation of Results of Researches on 203

Asklepios, Priests of, a new Method of Dating Athenian Archons 48

Astrometry, Department of Meridian 21, 26

Meridian, Report of Director of Department of 204-211

Astronomy, Minor Grants 19

Reports on 60-89

Astroscopus in

Athens, American School of Classical Studies at 19, 56

Atmospheric Electricity, Recent Papers in 46

Atomic Weights, Investigations of the Values of 154

Atwater, W. O., and F. G. Benedict, Respiration Calorimeter 31

Ault, A. P 238

Baker, E. Carleton 241

Ballistic Method for Magnetic Induction 51

Ballou, Susan H 57

253

254 INDEX.

Page

Bancroft, W. D 19

Systematic Study of Alloys 141

Banks, Enoch M 159

Economics of Land Tenure in Georgia 45

Barker, E. C 198

Barnard, J. L 162

Barnett, S. J., Researches in Physics 222

Barrows, W. M., Publication by 47

Barus, Carl, Nucleation of the Uncontaminated Atmosphere 31

Publications by 45

Researches in Physics 222

Basin Range Structure and Glaucophane, California and Nevada 44

Baskerville, Charles, Continuation of Investigation of Rare Earths 141

Bateson, William, Experimental Studies in Physiology of Heredity 45

Bateson, William, and R. P. Gregory, Inheritance of Heterostylism in Primula.. 45

Bateson, William, Further Experiments in Sweet-peas and Stocks 45

Bauer, L- A 29

Director Department of Terrestrial Magnetism 22

Publications by 45. 46

Report as Director of Department of Terrestrial Magnetism 236-242

Baxter, Gregory P 19

Publications by 46

Baxter, Gregory P., Researches upon Atomic Weights 147

Becker, George F 18, 21, 23

Experiments on Elasticity and Plasticity of Solids 175

Becquerel, E 228

Benedict, F. G., Researches in Nutrition 18, 22-26, 212-219

Nutritive Requirements of the Body 46

Benedict, F. G., and W. O. Atwater, On a Respiration Calorimeter 31

Benigni, Umberto I99

Bibliography 90-91

Minor Grants 19

Of Publications Relating to Work Accomplished by Grantees and Associates. 45-52

Billings, John S ii

Biology, Experimental, Report by C. B. Davenport 92-105

Marine, Department of. Report of A. G. Mayer, Director 106-118

Bjerknes, V 19, 30

Researches by 212

Blackmar, F. W I59

Publications by 4^

Blake, W. P I33

Blakeslee, A. F 19

Publications by 46

Investigation of Sexuality in Lower Fungi 136

Research Assistant 44

Bliss, W. H 199

Blok, P. J 199

Boiler Pressure for Locomotives 48

Bolographic Investigations Ti

Boring, Alice M 96

Boss, Lewis 19. 21

Director Department of Meridian Astrometry 22, 26

Report as Director of Department of Meridian Astrometry 204-211

Botanical Research, Department of 21

Report of Department of II9-I35

Botany, Minor Grants 19

Bourne, Edward G 196

Bowen, E. H 242

Branner, J. C 30

Bread Mold 46

Bretz, J. P 198

Brigham, W. T I9

Investigations Concerning Ancient Stone Temples of the Hawaiians 58

INDBX. 255

Page

Brink, F. N '. 156

Britton, N. L 128, 133

Brom, Gij sbert 199

Bromine, Revision of Atomic Weight of 46

Brooks. W. K 106, 108

Buck, S. J 160

Burbank, J. E 237, 242

Publications by 46

Burbank, J. E., and L. A. Bauer, Publications by 46

Burbank, Luther 18, 19, 21, 24, 132

Experiments in Plant Development 136

Burckhalter, CRarles 30

Burgess, C. P., Researches in Physics 19, 224

Burgess, C. F., and A. H. Taylor, Magnetic Properties of Electrolytic Iron 46

Burgess, C. F., and O. P. Watts, Structure of Electro-deposits 46

Burgess, C. F., and S. G. Engle, Observations on Corrosion of Iron by Acids. ... 46

Burns, Keivin 86

Butterfield, Kenyon L 159

Byall, J. Bruce 161

American System of Improving and Administering Commercial Facilities... 46

B}'-Laws of the Institution 5-8

Cadmium, Revision of Atomic Weight of 46

Cadwalader, John L 11

Cady, W. G. 242

Publications by 46

Calcium Vapor in the Flocculi, Radial Motion of 72

California Earthquake Commission 19

Campbell, William, Publications by 46

Study of Effect of Heat Treatment upon Microstructure of Physical Prop-
erties of Steel and Iron 226

Campbell, W. W 19, 30

Investigations vmder Direction of 86-87

Cane-sugar Solutions, Redetermination of Osmotic Pressure 50

Cannon, W. A., Publications by 47

Root-habits 126

Topography of Chlorophyll-masses 125

Carhart, Henry S., Electro-motive Force of Clark and W^eston Cells, etc 226

Carnegie, Andrew II

Carolinium, On the Atomic Weight of 144

Caskey, L. D 56

Castle, W. E 19

Experimental Studies in Heredity 243

Origin of a Poh'dactylous Race of Guinea-pigs 31

Publications by 47

Castle, W. E., F. W. Carpenter, A. H. Clark, S. O. Mast, and W. M. Barro^ys,
The Effects of Inbreeding. Cross-breeding and Selection upon Fertility

and Variability of Drosophila 47

Castle, W. E., and Alexander Forbes, Heredity of Hair-length in Guinea-pigs and

its Bearing on the Theory of Pure Gametes 31

Catalogue of Stars within Two Degrees of the North Pole 31

Cauchie, A I99

Cerebral Cortex, Studies on Structure and Functions of 44

Cerebrum, Functions of 44

Cerium, Investigations on 143

Chamberlin, T. C I9

Growth of the Earth by Accretion under the Planetesimal Hypothesis 169

A Set of Postulates Relative to the Mega-Physical Constitution of the Earth. 172

Certain Problems of Hydrosphere and Atmosphere 171

Certain Problems of the Lithosphere 170

Former Rates of Rotation of the Earth 170

Planetesimal Factor in Cosmogony 167

Study of Fundamental Problems of Geology 166-172

Chase, Fredrica 87

2S6 INDEX.

Page

Chaucer, Preparation of Lexicon to Works of 220

Chemical Studies on Growth 50

Cheniistr}', Investigations in 140-157

Minor Grants 19

China, Geological Research in 172

Chittenden, R. H. 18, 19, 22, 26

Study of Minimal Proteid Requirement of High-proteid Animals 213

Chlorophyll-masses, Topography of 125

Chromatic Polarization, Availability of Celluloid in Illustrating 49

Church Federation as a Practical Proposition 52

Clark, Victor S 160

Classical Studies at Athens 56

Classical Studies at Rome 56

Clawson, A. B., Results of a Study of Correlation in the Crayfish 47

Cleveland, F. A 160

Coat Color in Horses 49

Coker, E. G 174

Coker, E. G., and F. D. Adams, Investigation into Elastic Constants of Rocks. . . 45

Cole, L. J 108, no

Colenbrander, H. T 199

Color Photography 49

Commerce, Promotion of. Relation of the Government in Germany to 49

Condensation Nuclei 45

Conductivity of Aqueous Solutions 49

Conger, J. L 198

Consular Service of the United States 49

Contents v-vii

Copeland, M., and E. L. Mark, Stages in Spermatogenesis of the Honey Bee. ... 50

Corals, Recent and Fossil 245

Role of Mucus in 47

Rugose, Primary Septa in 47

Correns, C, Publications by 47

Corrosion of Iron by Acids 46

Coville, Frederick V 120, 127

Cowles, H. C. 19

Origin, Distribution, and Development of Flora of Everglades 126

Cov^les, R. P 108, 1 10

Crabs Bearing Actinians in their Claws, Habits and Reactions of 47

Crampton, H. E • 96

Determination of Laws of Variation and Inheritance of Certain Lepidoptera. 244

Crayfish, Study of Correlation in 47

Cuenot, L., Publications by 47

Cycads, American Fossil 31

Dahlgren, Ulric 108

Report of Work at Dry Tortugas ill

Darbishire, A. D., Publications by 47

Davenport, Charles B 23, 25, 132

Director Department of Experimental Evolution 21

Inheritance in Poultry 31

Publications by • 47

Report as Director of Department of Experimental Evolution 92-105

Davidson, George 30

Davis, H. S 19

Day, Arthur L 18, 21, 23, 67

Investigations of Mineral Solution and Fusion under High Temperatures

and Pressure "^77

Day, Arthur L., and E. S. Shepherd, Publications by 47

Day, Arthur L., and E. T. Allen, Publication by 47

Day, Arthur L., and Fred Eugene Wright, The Lime-silica Series of Minerals 47

del Val, Merry 199

Department of Historical Research 24

Department of Marine Biology at Dry Tortugas 25

Department of State, Report on Diplomatic Archives of 24

iNDi;x. 257

Page

Department of Terrestrial Magnetism 28

Desert Botanical Laboratory 21

Publications 50, 51

Desert Plants, Relation to Soil Moisture and to Evaporation 31

Desert Vegetation, Movements and Distribution of 123

Dewey, D. R 161

Differentiation of Sex in Thallus, Gametophjrte, and Sporophyte 46

Dike, P. H 47, 242

Diplomatic Archives of Department of State 31

Distribution of Publications 32

Doberk, W. S 240

Dodge, Cleveland H il

Doolittle, C. L 87

Dorsey, G. A 19

Report on Investigation 55

Traditions of the Caddo 31

Doten, C. W 160

Drosophila, Inbreeding and Cross-breeding 47

Duchesne, L 199

Duerden, James E., Investigations on Morphology and Development of Recent

and Fossil Corals 24S

Publications by 47> 48

Dunbar, P. B 153

Durand, W. F., Experimental Researches on the Performance of Screw Propellers 48

Ship Resistance and Propulsion, Experiments on 164

Durrett, R. T 196

Dyar, H. G 246

Eames, Wilberforce, Sabin's "Dictionary of Books Relating to America" 90

Earth's Magnetism, On the Present Shrinkage of 45

Eastman, Guy W 153

Economics and Sociology, Department of 19, 21, 158-163

Edmondson, C. H 108

Report on Work at Dry Tortugas 111-112

Edmunds, C. K 240

Edwards, A. M 162

Eg>'ptological Researches 31, 59

Ehses, Stephan 199

Eldridge, T. J 241

Electro-deposits, Structure of 46

Electrolytic Iron, Magnetic Properties of 46

Ellerman, Ferdinand 65

Ellerman, Ferdinand, and George E. Hale, The Five-foot Spectroheliograph of

the Solar Observatory 49

Elster, J., J. Geitel, and F. Harms, Publication by 48

Empusa, Papers on 50> 5i

Engineering, Reports on 164-165

Engle, S. G., and C. F. Burgess, Observations on Corrosion of Iron by Acids. ... 46

Eumenes II, Premature Deification of 48

Evaporation, Annotated Bibliography of Literature relating to 124

Everglades, Origin, Distribution, and Physiographic Development of Flora of . . . . 126

Evershed, John 65

Evolution, Experimental, Report of Department of 21, 23, 92-105

Executive Committee, Report of 39-52

Fairchild, Fred R 162

History of Labor Legislation in New York 48

Farnam, Henry W 162

Farrar, C. B I9

Experimental Studies on Structure and Functions of the Cerebral Cortex 234

Publication by 48

Research Assistant 44

Feldspars, Determination by Means of their Refractive Indices 52, 181

Ferguson, W. S iQ

Publications by 48

Research Assistant 44

17 — YB

258 INDEX.

Page

Financial Statements of Institution 17-20, 42, 43

Fleming, J. A 242, 237

Fletcher, Robert, Report on Index Medicus 91

Fliigel, Ewald ig

Preparation of Lexicon to Works of Chaucer 220

Forbes, Alexander, and W. E. Castle, Heredity of Hair-length in Guinea-pigs. ... 31

Ford, Worthington C 196

Formaldehyde Color Test for Proteids 45

Fossil Turtles of North America, Monograph on 220

Foster, Herbert D 197

Fox, J. S 198

Franklin, W. S 19

New Method of Measuring Electrolytic Resistances 227

Franz, Shepherd I., Investigations of the Function of the Cerebrum with Especial

Reference to the Functions of the Association Areas 235

Observations on the Functions of the Association Areas (Cerebrum) in

Monkeys 48

Research Assistant 44

Frazer, J. C. W 153

Frazer, J. C. W., E. J. Hoffman, W. L. Kennon, and H. N. Morse, A Redeter-
mination of the Osmotic Pressure and of the Depression of the Freez-
ing-points of Cane-Sugar Solution 50

Fredericq, Paul 199

Freudenberger, L. A 19

New Method of Measuring Electrolytic Resistances 227

Frevert, H. L 46, 147

Frew, William N 11

Frolev, J. W., and G. W. Littlehales 50

Frost, E. B 63

Fuld, L. F 90

Fulton, H. R., Studies in Heredity 243

Furness, Caroline E., Catalogue of Stars within Two Degrees of the North Pole. 31

Gage, Lyman J 11

Gale, Henry G 65

Gale, Henry G., George E. Hale, and Walter S. Adams, Publication by 48

Galilee J Observing Ship 28, 238

Galton, Francis 96

Gardner, H. B 162

Genetics, Physiology of 128

Geology, Minor Grants 19

Geology, Reports on 166-185

Geophysical Laboratory, Site for 23

Geophysical Research, Reports on 174-185

Geophysics, Bibliography of 90

Geophysics, Work in 21, 23

Gephart, W. F 160

Giard, Alfred 96

Giessecke, A. A 161

Gilbert, G. K 30

Gilbert, Walter M., elected Secretary of the Executive Committee 41

Gilman, Daniel C 1 1

Globe-measuring machine 64

Glucinum, Investigations on _ I43

Glucose, Osmotic Pressure and Depression of the Freezing Points of Solutions of 50

Goldenweiser, E. A IS9

Goss, W. F. M., Boiler Pressure of Locomotives 48

Determination of Value of High Steam Pressures in Locomotive Service... 164

Grants to Departments 18

Gregory, R. P., and William Bateson, Inheritance of Heterostylism in Primula. . 45

Griffin, Mary 196

Groat, George G 162

Trade Unions and the Law in New York 48

INDEX. 259

Page

Hale, George E 22, 122

Director of Department of Solar Physics 27

Publications by 48

Report on the Solar Observatory, Mt. Wilson, California 60-86

Hale, George E., and Ferdinand Ellerman, The Five-foot Spectroheliograph of

the Solar Observatory 4g

Hale, George E.. and Walter S. Adams, Publications by 48

Haney, Lewis H 160

Hart, Robert 241

Hartog, Marcus i^g

Haskins, C. H in

Hay, O. P., Publications by ^g

Heigel, K. Th. von igg

Heimbrod, G 239-241

Heliomicrometer 80

Helix hortensis and H. nemoralis. Breeding experiments with 47

Henderson, L. J 157

Heredity, Experimental Studies in 23, 45

Heredity of Hair-length in Guinea-pigs 31

Heredity, Studies in 243-244

Higginson, Henry L 1 1

High-carbon Steels, Heat Treatment of 46

Hill, George William, Collected Mathematical Works 31

Hines, Murray A 147

Hinkins, J. E., and S. F. Acree, Publications by 45

Hinks, A. R 87-89

Hinks, A. R., and H. N. Russell, Determinations of Stellar Parallax 49

Hippodamia and other Lady-beetles 44

Historical Research, Department of 21-24

Report of Department of 186-201

History, Minor Grants 19

Hitchcock, E. A 1 1

Hobe, A. M 87

Hoffman, E. J 153

Hollander, Jacob H 49, 161

Honey Bee, Some Stages in Spermatogenesis of 50

Hooker, John D 11, 27, 60

Hopkins, B. S 153

Horticultural Work of Luther Burbank 24

Horticulture, Work in 21

Howard, L. O., Preparation of a Monograph of American Mosquitoes 245

Howe, William Wirt 11

Huebner, S 49, 161

Hughes, Thomas 199

Human Teeth, Composition of 45

Hurst, C. C, Publications by 49

Hutchinson, Charles L 1 1

Hj-bridization 23

Incorporation, Articles of 1-4

Index Medicus 19, 91

Industrial Organization 162

Ingersoll, Leonard R 66

Insurance, Federal Supervision and Regulation of 49

Marine, Development and Present Status of 49

International Law, Publications Concerning 12

Isley, W. H 198

Ives, H. E., Improvement in Diffraction Process of Color Photography 49

Jackson, F. G 156

Jameson, J. Franklin, Director Department of Historical Research 21, 24

Report as Director of the Department of Historical Research 186-201

Jenks. J. W 162

Jennings, H. S., Behavior of Sea-anemones 49

26o INDEX.

Page

Johnson, Emory R i6i

Ocean and Inland Water Transportation 49

Johnson, R. H ig

Report of 102-104

Research Assistant 44

Jones, C. L 160, 161

The Consular Service of the United States, its History and Activities 49

Jones, Grinnell 155

Jones, H. C 19

Publications by 49

Investigations on Hydrates in Concentrated Aqueous Solutions 149

Jones, William 19

Investigation of Religion of the Central Algonkin Indians 55

Research Assistant 44

Joslin, Lulu B., Publications by 49

Keher, Paul 199

Kellner, Carl 106, 108

Kellogg, Vernon L 97

Kennon, W. L 153

Kimball, Gertrude 196

Knab, Frederick 246

Knox, A. A., On Induction and Inheritance of Fasciations in Stems 131

Labor Legislation in New York 48

Labor Movement 161

Lacock, J. K 198

Lambert's Law and Fluorescence 232

Land Tenure in Georgia 45

Lang, A., Publication by 49

Langley, Samuel Pierpont li

Memorial 13

Langlois, Ch. V I99

Larzelere, C. S 198

Lasaulx Method for Observing Figures under the Microscope 181

Lawson, Andrew C 30

Lehmer, D.N 19

Comparison of Factor Table of First Ten Million Numbers 203

Leland, W. G I95

Lemmens, Leonard I99

Leuschner, A. 0 30

Lewis, E. Percival, Vacuum-tube Spectra of Gases and Vapors 227

A Large Quartz Spectrograph 49

Light, Research on Theory of 230

Lime-silica Series of Minerals 47. 181

Lindsay, William 11

Linke, Franz 241

Linton, Edwin 108

Report on Animal Parasites Collected at Dry Tortugas 112-117

List of Illustrations viii

Literature, Minor Grants I9

Littlehales, G. W 237

Publications by 49. 50

Littlehales, G. W., and J. W. Froley, Publication by 50

Littrow Spectrograph 64

Livingston, B. E., Publications by So

Relation of Desert Plants to Soil Moisture and to Evaporation 31

Studies in Transpiration ; 124

Livingston, Grace J., Annotated Bibliography Relating to Evaporation 124

Lloyd, F. E., Physiology of Stomata 124

Publications by 5°

Locomotive Service, Determination of Value of High Steam Pressure m 164

Long, J. A 246

Louderback, George D., Research Assistant 44

Lovelace, B. F ^53

INDEX. 261

Page

Low, Seth II

Lower Plants, Researches on Life Histories and Cytology of certain 44

Luertscher, G. D 160

Lunn, Arthur C, Certain Applications of Geophysical Theory 169

Lutz, Anne M 101-102

Lutz, F. E., Publications by 50

Report of " [ . ioo-ioi

MacCurdy, H., Studies in Heredity 243

MacDougal, D. T 25, 85, 132, 133

Director Department of Botanical Research 21

Explorations and Field Work by 127

jNIorphoIogy and Physiology of Storage Organs 127

Physiology of Genetics 128

Publications by 50

Report of Department of Botanical Research 119-135

MacVeagh, Wayne 11

Madreporaria, Morphology of 47

Magnetic Survey of North Pacific Ocean 45

Marine Biology, Department of 22, 25

Report of Department of 106-118

]\Iark, E. L 19

Researches by 246

Studies in Heredity 243

Mark, E. L., and M. Copeland, Stages in Spermatogenesis of the Honey Bee 50

Martyn, H. E 238

Mast, S. O., Publications by 47

IMathematical Works of G. W. Hill 31

^Mathematics, Comparison of Factor Table of First Ten Million Numbers 203

Mathematics, Minor Grants 19

Mathews, J. H 156

Mayer, A. G., Director Department of Marine Biology 22, 25

Medusae of the Hawaiian Islands Collected by the Steamer Albatross in 1902. 50

Report on Department of Marine Biology 106-118

Studies at Dry Tortugas 118

Mayer, A. G., and Caroline G. Soule, Reactions of Caterpillars and Moths 50

McClung, C. E., The Chromosome Complex of Orthopteran Spermatocytes 50

McFarland, Raymond 161

McGlone, B 107

McGrath, John E 66

McLaughlin, A. C 24, 193

Report on Diplomatic Archives of the Department of State 31

Writings on American History, 1903 31

McLean, S. J 160

Measuring Machines at Mount Wilson 80

Medusae of the Hawaiian Islands 50

Melcher, Arthur C 153

Memorial on Death of Samuel P. Langley 13

Mendel, L. B 22, 26

Publications by ; 5°

Study of Physiology of Growth, especially in its Chemical Processes 213

Mendelian Dominance in Poultry Hybrids, Imperfection of 47

Meridian Astrometry, Department of 21, 22

Report of Director of Department of 204-211

Merritt, E., and E. L. Nichols, Publications by SO

Metallic Thorium, Preparation of 141-143

Metallography Applied to Opaque Minerals 47

Meteorology, Minor Grants 19

Work in 212

Meyer, Arnold O I99

Meyer, B. H 160

Mills, D. O II

Miner, H. S 143

Minor Projects 29-31

262 INDEX,

Page

]\litchell, S. Weir n

Moenkhaus, W. J 96

Report of 105

Moidrey, J. de 240

Moore, Joseph H 86

Morrow, William W 11

Morse, Albert P., Research Assistant 44

Researches on North American Acridiidae 246

Morse, H. N 19

Morse, H. N., J. C. W. Frazer, E. J. Hoflfman, and W. L. Kennon, Publication by. . 50

Mosquitoes, American, Monograph on 245

Moulton, F. R., Probability of a Near Approach of Two Suns, etc 168

Mount Wilson, Laboratory Investigations 76

Solar Observatory, Report on 60-86

Special Investigations at 78

Mullenix, R. C, Studies in Heredity 243

Miiller, W. Max, Egyptological Researches 31, 59

Nakamura, K 239

Naples Zoological Station 247

Negro in Slavery and Freedom 158

Neukirchen, Leonard 199

Investigations under Direction of 88

Newcomb, Simon 19

Newkirk, B. L 86

Nichols, E. F 65, 66

Nichols, Edward L., Quantitative Study of Fluorescence and Phosphorescence. . 227-230

Nichols, J. T., Studies in Heredity 244

North, S. N. D 160

Noyes, A. A 19

Investigations by 153

Nucleation of Uncontaminated Atmosphere 31

Nutrition, Investigation Concerning 26

Researches Concerning 212-219

Work in 22

Nutritive Requirements of the Body 46

Ocean Commerce, Organization of 51

Oikopleura longicauda and O. intermedia no

Oliver, Edgar W., Research Assistant 44

Publications by 50, 51

Researches on Life Histories and Cytology of Certain Lower Plants 138

Olmsted, Charles M 65

Oriental Art Recorded on Seals 59

Osborne, T. B 18, 22, 26

Application of Methods already Developed to Comparative Study of the More

Important Vegetable Proteids 214-219

Osborne, T. B., and R. D. Gilbert, Publications by 51

Oscillatoria prolifica. Occurrence in Ice of Pine Lake 51

Palazzo, L., I\Iagnetic Elements Determined at Tripoli, Barbary 51

Paleontology, Minor Grants 19

Researches in 220

Palmer, H. K 65

Paramecium, Studies in 51

Parker, Edward W 160

Patterson, George W 226

Pawnee, Mythology of the 55

Pearl, R 19

Investigation by Statistical Methods on Variation and Correlation 247

Publications by 51

Pearl, R., and F. J. Dunbar, Study of Variation in Paramecium 51

Pearse, A. S., Studies in Heredity 244

Pearson, J. C 238

Pease, Francis G 65

Pecuniary Claims against the State, Private, History and Law of 44

INDEX. 263

Page

Perez, L. M 189

Peters, W. J 236

Phillips, U. B 160

Railway Development in Southern Territory 51

Philologj' and Linguistics, Minor Grants 19

Researches in 220

Phonetics, Researches in Experimental 221

Photography of the Sun 67

Physics, Researches in 222-233

Minor Grants 19

Physiology of Genetics 128

Minor Grants 19

Pinacone-pinacolin Rearrangement, Studies of 44

Pirenne, Henri 195

Plant Breeding and Hybridization 49

Plants, Acclimatization of 121

Pogatscher, Heinrich 199

Potts, C. S. 160

Poultry, Inheritance in 31

Pratt, J. F 238

President's Report 15-37

Primula, on Inheritance of Heterostylism in 45

Pritchett, Henry S II

Protein Bodies of the Wheat Kernel 51

Psychiatry, Clinical Demonstrations in 48

Psychology, Researches in 19, 234-235

Pterophryne histrio ill

Publication Grants 20

Publications and their Distribution 31

Publications Issued in 1906 31

Pumpelly, Raphael, Trans-Caspian Expedition 59

Pyrometry, Errors in 51, 181

Quartz Glass 180

Spectrograph 49

Raasloff, H. de 132

Radioactive Emanation in the Atmosphere, Diurnal Variation of 47

Railway Development in Southern Territory 51

Rain-meter, Automatic 132

Rare Earths, Investigation of 44, 141

Reclamation Service, Economics and Politics of 46

Reid, H. F. 30

Research Associates and Assistants 44

Resistance of Air to Moving Bodies, Determination of 44

Respiration Calorimeter, with Appliances for Direct Determination of Oxygen. . . 31

Revertments 20

Richard, Pierre 199

Richards, T. \V _ 19

Investigation of the Value of Atomic Weights, etc 154

Riemsdijk, T. F. van 199

Ripley, W. Z 160

Rate Systems of Trunk Line and Southern Territory 51

Ritchey, G. W 27, 66

Roadway to Mount Wilson 28

Rolfe, John C. . . _. 57

Roman Comagmatic Region 31

Romanes, George J 97

Rome, American School of Classical Studies at 19, 56

Root, Elihu II

Root-habits 126

Rose, J. N 133, 128

Rowe, L. S 19

Research Assistant 44

264 INDICX.

Page

Russell, H. N., Publication by 51

Photographic Determinations of Stellar Parallaxes 89

Research Assistant 44

Russell, H. N., and A. R. Hinks, Determinations of Stellar Parallax from Photo-
graphs made at Cambridge Observatory 49

Sabin's Dictionary of Books Relating to America 90

Saliva, Abnormally Acid 45

Salton Basin, Vegetation of 1 19-120

Salton Sea 46

Sandstrom, J. W 19, 30

Researches by 212

Sanford, R. F 87

San Francisco Earthquake, Seismograph and Magnetograph Records of 46

Saunders, E. R., Further Experiments in Sweet-peas and Stocks 45

Schistosity by Crystallization 182

Schmidt, A. D., Publication by 51

Scott, George W., Research Assistant ■ 44

Screw Propellers, Experimental Researches on the Performance of 48

Scripture, E. W 19

Researches in Experimental Phonetics 221

Sea-anemones, Behavior of 49

Sexuality in Lower Fungi, Investigation of 44

Shepherd, E. S., Errors in Pyrometry 51

Shepherd, E. S., and Arthur L. Day, Publications by 47

Shepherd, W. R 189

Shull, George H 25, 95, 132

Report of 98

Sidot Blende, Papers on 50

Silvester, C. F 1 1 1

Skidi Pawnee, Traditions of the 55

Slichter, C. S., Principal Constants of Earth-like Body under Varying Conditions

of Changing Rates of Rotation 171

Smith, Edwin 66

Smith, J. R 161

Smithsonian Expedition 79

Social Legislation 162

Sociology and Economics, Department of 158-163

Solar and Magnetic Phenomena, Relationship between ^7

Solar Observatory, Latitude and Longitude of 79

Publications, List of 48-49

Report on 60-86

Solar Physics, Work in 22, 27

Solar Rotation, Spectrographic Investigations of 73

Sommer, H. Oskar, Researches on Arthurian Romances 19, 30, 203

Sosman, Robert B I53

Soule, Caroline G., and A. G. Mayer, Reactions of Caterpillars and Moths 50

Sowers, D. C 242

Spalding, E. S., Seasonal and other Variations in Volume of Succulents 123

Spalding, V. M •.•••.•••; ; ^^i

Movements and Distribution of Vegetation 123

Publications by 51

Spectra of Sun-spots 70-72

Spectroheliograph 63, 67-70

Spermatogenesis, Studies in 31

Spooner, John C 11

Staehler, Arthur 154

Stellar Parallaxes, Determination by Photographs 44) 49

Stellar Spectroscopy 75

Stereocomparator 64

Stevens, N. M 96

Publications by 31

Report of 105

Stieglitz, J., Paper by 171

Stokes, John F. G 58

tNDEX. 265

Page

Stomata, Physiology of , . jo^

Stone, Alfred H '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.[ 158

Storage Organs, Morphology and Physiology of 127

Stall, W. N .' '.'..'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'..[ 156

Sun-spots, Spectra of " ' ' 70-72

Swingle, Walter T., Investigations of Lines of Force in Living 'Cells ........ 138

Sykes, Godfrey 28, 6^, 8s, 121, 1^2

Taft, William H 11

Tanakadate, A ] 239

Taylor, A. H., Limitation of the Ballistic Method for Magnetic Induction 51

Taylor, A. H., and C. F. Burgess, Magnetic Properties of Electrolytic Iron 46

Terrestrial Magnetism, Department of 22, 28

Present Problems of ' ^5

Progress of Science as Exemplified in 50

Report of Director of Department of 236-242

Tetramorphism 4c

Thomson, J. J 242

Thornber, J. J j ^,

Tilley, George S 148

Tittmann, O. H 65

Tolman, C. F., Topographical and Geological Survey of Desert Laboratory Tract! 124

Tower, William L., Researches by 249

Tower, W. S i5i

Trade Unionism, Studies in 40

Trade Unions and the Law in New York 48

Traditions of the Caddo 31

Transeau, E. N qe

Report of J05

Transpiration, Studies in 124

Trustees, Minutes of Fourth Meeting 9-13

Tschermak, E., Publications by '^i t^->

Tunnell, G. G '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 160

Turner, Matthew 28

Turtles, Eocene 4g

Turtles, Fossil, Descriptions of two new Genera and two new Species 49

Van Buren, Albert W 56

Vanderhaeghen, F ipg

Vinal, W. G., Studies in Heredity 244

Wace, A. S. B tj

Walcott, Charles D '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 11

Elected temporary Secretary of Executive Committee 41

Walter, H. E., Studies in Heredity 244

Ward, William H., On Completion of Oriental Art Recorded on Seals, etc 19, 59

Ware, Louise 66

Washburn, Edward W 153

Washburn, O. M 56

Washington, Henry S., Chemical Investigations of Igneous Rocks 172

Publications by 52

Roman Comagmatic Region 31

Water Transportation, Ocean and Inland 49

Watts, O. P., Publications by 52

Watts, O. P., and C. F. Burgess, Structure of Electro-deposits 46

Way, R. B 160

Weeks, F. B., Bibliography of Geophysics go

Welch, William H n

Wells, George F 52, 159

West, Andrew F., Report on American School of Classical Studies in Rome 56

Wheeler, James R., Report on American School of Classical Studies at Athens. . . 56

White, Andrew D 11

White, W. P., Publications by 45, 52

Wick, Frances G 229

Wieland, George R., American Fossil Cycads 19, 31

Wiesmann, August 97

18— YB

266 Index.

Page

Willcox, Walter F I59

Willis, Bailey I9

Completion of Reports on Geological Research in China 172

Wilson, Edmund B., Researches by. 19, 250

Wollastonite and Pseudo-wollastonite 45> I79

Wood, Donn, and Deming, Architects, Geophysical Laboratory 23

Wood, R. W., Publications by 52

Researches on Theory of Light 230

Woodward, R. S ii,i32

Wright, Carroll D u, 161

Director Department of Economics and Sociology 21

Elected temporary Chairman of Executive Committee. 41

Report as Director of Department of Economics and Sociology 158-163

Wright, F. E., E. T. Allen, and J. K. Clement, Publication by 45

Wright, F. E., Publications by 52

Wright, F. E., and Arthur L. Dav, The Lime-silica Series of Minerals 47

Wright, F. E., W. P. White, and E. T. Allen, Publication l)y 45

Yatsu, N., Researches by 251

Young, F. G 160

Yttrium, Investigations on I43

Zahm, Albert F., Determination of Resistance of Air to Moving Bodies 44, 233

Zeleny, Charles 108, 117

Zerban, Fritz 44, Ui

Zirconium, Investigations on I43

Zoological Station at Naples 247

Zoology, Researches in I9- 243-251

Zygospore Germinations in the Mucorineie 46

__.J

lilH 1A5G Z

3 3