S3S3 £S3 8^ Bg K ^gE " M ■'■:■ 9« •":■■ ";>- § ass HP •«■=■••■ -.•-".■'' CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON YEAR BOOK No. 9 1910 PUBLISHED BY THE INSTITUTION WASHINGTON, U. S. A. JANUARY 191 1 n WASHINGTON, D. C. PRESS OF JUDD & DETWEILER, INC. IQII 33^ OFFICERS FOR THE YEAR 191 President of the Institution Robert S. Woodward Trustees John S. Billings, Chairman Elihu Root, V ice-Chairman Cleveland H. Dodge, Secretary John S. Billings Robert S. Brookings John L. Cadwalader Cleveland H. Dodge Simon FlExner William N. Frew Lyman J. Gage Henry L. Higginson Charles L. Hutchinson Seth Low S. Weir Mitchell Andrew J. Montague William W. Morrow Wm. Barclay Parsons Henry S. Pritchett Elihu Root Martin A. Ryerson William H. Taet Charles D. Walcott Henry P. Walcott William H. Welch Andrew D. White George W. Wickersham Robert S. Woodward *John S. Billings ♦Cleveland H. Dodge S. Weir Mitchell Executive Committee William H. Welch, Chairman Wm. Barclay Parsons Elihu Root Charles D. Walcott William H. Welch ♦Robert S. Woodward Seth Low, Chairman Finance Committee Henry S. Pritchett * Ex-officio member. Henry L. Higginson hi CONTENTS. Page Articles of Incorporation ix-xii By-Laws of the Institution xiii-xvi Minutes of the eighth meeting of the Board of Trustees I Memorial in regard to the death of Darius Ogden Mills 5 Report of the President of the Institution 7-34 Report of the Executive Committee 35~52 Financial statement 39~42 Report of the Auditor 43 Bibliography of publications relating to work accomplished by Grantees and Associates 45~52 Reports on Investigations and Projects: Department of Botanical Research 55-66 Department of Economics and Sociology 67-74 Department of Experimental Evolution 75-86 Geophysical Laboratory 87-105 Department of Historical Research 106-1 16 Department of Marine Biology 1 17-148 Department of Meridian Astrometry 149-155 Solar Observatory 156-178 Nutrition Laboratory 179-194 Department of Terrestrial Magnetism 195-204 Other Investigations : Archeology : American School of Classical Studies at Athens 205 American School of Classical Studies in Rome 205 Miiller, W. Max 205 Van Deman, Esther B 206 Bibliography : Fletcher, Robert 207 Chemistry: Acree, S. F 208 Bancroft, Wilder D 209 Baxter, Gregory P 209-214 Jones, Harry C 214-216 Morse, H. N 216-218 Noyes, Arthur A 218 Richards, Theodore W 219-221 Geology : Chamberlin, T. C 222 Moulton, F. R 222-223 Geophysical Research : Adams, F. D 224 Literature : Sommer, H. Oskar 225 Meteorology : Bjerknes, V 225 v VI CONTENTS. Reports on Investigations and Projects— continued: Page Mathematics : Morley, Frank 226 Nutrition : Osborne, Thomas B 226-228 Paleontology : Case, E. C 228 Wieland, G. R 229-230 Physics : Barus, Carl 230-231 Burgess, Charles F 232 Howe, Henry M 232-234 Nichols, Edward L 234-237 Physiology : Loeb, Leo 237 Reichert, E. T 237 Political Science : Rowe, Leo S 238 Psychology : Franz, Shepherd Ivory 238 Zoology : Castle, W. E 239-240 Crampton, Henry E 241 Gudger, E. W 241 Mark, E. L 241-242 Naples Zoological Station 242 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Facing page Plats i. A and B. Two views of reef off Loggerhead Lighthouse as seen at extreme low tide on June 6, 1910. Heads above water are Orbicella annu- laris. The alcyonarian Rhipidogorgia Habellum and Plexaura sp. are also shown 142 C and D. Two views of storm-proof live-car in which the tiles bearing attached planulae were planted. C, before launching, showing how tiles are fastened. D, after launching, showing its appearance in water. Plate 2. One-Hundred-and-Fifty-Foot Tower Telescope on Mount Wilson, Octo- ber 1910 156 Plate 3. Ha Flocculi around spots of the Bipolar type 160 Plate 4. Spiral Nebula Messier 51 Canum Venaticorum 168 Plate 5. Magnetic Work of Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, 1905-1910 204 VII ARTICLES OF INCORPORATION. The Carnegie Institution was originally organized under the law governing the organization of corporations in the District of Columbia. Owing to certain limitations in the law, the Trustees deemed it desirable to obtain articles of incorporation from the Congress. Accordingly, articles of incor- poration were prepared, submitted to the Congress, amended by the Congress, and enacted into statute by the Congress and the signature of the President. Organization under the new articles of incorporation was effected on May 1 8, 1904. Resolutions were passed electing the same Executive Committee and officers as those of the Carnegie Institution organized in 1902 and con- tinuing all instructions and authorizations given to the Executive Committee by the old organization. Public No. 260. — An Act To incorporate the Carnegie Institution of Washington. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the persons following, being persons who are now trustees of the Carnegie Institution, namely, Alexander Agassiz, John S. Billings, John L. Cadwalader, Cleveland H. Dodge, William N. Frew, Lyman J. Gage, Daniel C. Gilman, John Hay, Henry L. Higginson, William Wirt Howe, Charles L. Hutchinson, Samuel P. Langley, William Lindsay, Seth Low, Wayne MacVeagh, Darius O. Mills, S. Weir Mitchell, William W. Morrow, Ethan A. Hitchcock, Elihu Root, John C. Spooner, Andrew D. White, Charles D. Walcott, Carroll D. Wright, their associates and successors, duly chosen, are hereby incorporated and declared to be a body corporate by the name of the Carnegie Institution of Washington and by that name shall be known and have perpetual succession, with the powers, limitations, and restrictions herein contained. Sec. 2. That the objects of the corporation shall be to encourage, in the broadest and most liberal manner, investigation, research, and discovery, and the application of knowledge to the improvement of mankind ; and in particular — (a) To conduct, endow, and assist investigation in any department of science, literature, or art, and to this end to cooperate with governments, universities, colleges, technical schools, learned societies, and individuals. (b) To appoint committees of experts to direct special lines of research. (c) To publish and distribute documents. (d) To conduct lectures, hold meetings and acquire and maintain a library. IX X CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. (e) To purchase such property, real or personal, and construct such build- ing or buildings as may be necessary to carry on the work of the corporation. (f) In general, to do and perform all things necessary to promote the objects of the institution, with full power, however, to the trustees herein- after appointed and their successors from time to time to modify the condi- tions and regulations under which the work shall be carried on, so as to secure the application of the funds in the manner best adapted to the con- ditions of the time, provided that the objects of the corporation shall at all times be among the foregoing or kindred thereto. Sec. 3. That the direction and management of the affairs of the corpora- tion and the control and disposal of its property and funds shall be vested in a board of trustees, twenty-two in number, to be composed of the follow- ing individuals: Alexander Agassiz, John S. Billings, John L. Cadwalader, Cleveland H. Dodge, William N. Frew, Lyman J. Gage, Daniel C. Gilman, John Hay, Henry L. Higginson, William Wirt Howe, Charles L. Hutchinson, Samuel P. Langley, William Lindsay, Seth Low, Wayne MacVeagh, Darius O. Mills, S. Weir Mitchell, William W. Morrow, Ethan A. Hitchcock, Elihu Root, John C. Spooner, Andrew D. White, Charles D. Walcott, Carrol! D. Wright, who shall constitute the first board of trustees. The board of trus- tees shall have power from time to time to increase its membership to not more than twenty-seven members. Vacancies occasioned by death, resigna- tion, or otherwise shall be filled by the remaining trustees in such manner as the by-laws shall prescribe ; and the persons so elected shall thereupon become trustees and also members of the said corporation. The principal place of business of the said corporation shall be the city of Washington, in the District of Columbia- Sec. 4. That such board of trustees shall be entitled to take, hold and administer the securities, funds, and property so transferred by said Andrew Carnegie to the trustees of the Carnegie Institution and such other funds or property as may at any time be given, devised, or bequeathed to them, or to such corporation, for the purposes of the trust ; and with full power from time to time to adopt a common seal, to appoint such officers, members of the board of trustees or otherwise, and such employees as may be deemed necessary in carrying on the business of the corporation, at such salaries or with such remuneration as they may deem proper ; and with full power to adopt by-laws from time to time and such rules or regulations as may be necessary to secure the safe and convenient transaction of the business of the corporation ; and with full power and discretion to deal with and expend the income of the corporation in such manner as in their judgment will best promote the objects herein set forth and in general to have and use all powers and authority necessary to promote such objects and carry out the purposes of the donor. The said trustees shall have further power from time to time ARTICLES OF INCORPORATION. XI to hold as investments the securities hereinabove referred to so transferred by Andrew Carnegie, and any property which has been or may be transferred to them or such corporation by Andrew Carnegie or by any other person, persons, or corporation, and to invest any sums or amounts from time to time in such securities and in such form and manner as are permitted to trustees or to charitable or literary corporations for investment, according to the laws of the States of New York, Pennsylvania, or Massachusetts, or in such securities as are authorized for investment by the said deed of trust so executed by Andrew Carnegie, or by any deed of gift or last will and testament to be hereafter made or executed. Sec. 5. That the said corporation may take and hold any additional dona- tions, grants, devises, or bequests which may be made in further support of the purposes of the said corporation, and may include in the expenses thereof the personal expenses which the trustees may incur in attending meetings or otherwise in carrying out the business of the trust, but the services of the trustees as such shall be gratuitous. Sec 6. That as soon as may be possible after the passage of this Act a meeting of the trustees hereinbefore named shall be called by Daniel C. Gil- man, John S. Billings, Charles D. Walcott, S. Weir Mitchell, John Hay, Elihu Root, and Carroll D. Wright, or any four of them, at the city of Wash- ington, in the District of Columbia, by notice served in person or by mail addressed to each trustee at his place of residence ; and the said trustees, or a majority thereof, being assembled, shall organize and proceed to adopt by- laws, to elect officers and appoint committees, and generally to organize the said corporation ; and said trustees herein named, on behalf of the corporation hereby incorporated, shall thereupon receive, take over, and enter into pos- session, custody, and management of all property, real or personal, of the corporation heretofore known as the Carnegie Institution, incorporated, as hereinbefore set forth under "An Act to establish a Code of Law for the District of Columbia, January fourth, nineteen hundred and two," and to all its rights, contracts, claims, and property of any kind or nature; and the several officers of such corporation, or any other person having charge of any of the securities, funds, real or personal, books or property thereof, shall, on demand, deliver the same to the said trustees appointed by this Act or to the persons appointed by them to receive the same ; and the trustees of the existing corporation and the trustees herein named shall and may take such other steps as shall be necessary to carry out the purposes of this Act. Sec. 7. That the rights of the creditors of the said existing corporation known as the Carnegie Institution shall not in any manner be impaired by the passage of this Act, or the transfer of the property hereinbefore men- tioned, nor shall any liability or obligation for the payment of any sums due or to become due, or any claim or demand, in any manner or for any cause XII CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. existing against the said existing corporation, be released or impaired ; but such corporation hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obligations and liabilities and to be held liable to pay and discharge all of the debts, liabilities, and contracts of the said corporation so existing to the same effect as if such new corporation had itself incurred the obligation or liability to pay such debt or damages, and no such action or proceeding before any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been discontinued by reason of the passage of this Act. Sec. 8. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or modify this Act of incorporation, but no contract or individual right made or acquired shall thereby be divested or impaired. Sec. 9. That this Act shall take effect immediately. Approved, April 28, 1904. BY-LAWS OF THE INSTITUTION. Adopted December 13, 1904. Amended December 13, 1910. Article I. THE TRUSTEES. i. The Board of Trustees shall consist of twenty-four members, with power to increase its membership to not more than twenty-seven members. The Trustees shall hold office continuously and not for a stated term. 2. In case any Trustee shall fail to attend three successive annual meetings of the Board he shall thereupon cease to be a Trustee. 3. No Trustee shall receive any compensation for his services as such. 4. All vacancies in the Board of Trustees shall be filled by the Trustees by ballot. Sixty days prior to an annual or a special meeting of the Board, the President shall notify the Trustees by mail of the vacancies to be filled and each Trustee may submit nominations for such vacancies. A list of the persons so nominated, with the names of the proposers, shall be mailed to the Trustees thirty days before the meeting, and no other nominations shall be received at the meeting except with the unanimous consent of the Trustees present. Vacancies shall be filled from the persons thus nominated, but no person shall be declared elected unless he receives the votes of two-thirds of the Trustees present. Article II. MEETINGS. i. The annual meeting of the Board of Trustees shall be held in the City of Washington, in the District of Columbia, on the first Friday following the second Thursday of December in each year. 2. Special meetings of the Board may be called by the Executive Com- mittee by notice served personally upon, or mailed to the usual address of, each Trustee twenty days prior to the meeting. 3. Special meetings shall, moreover, be called in the same manner by the Chairman upon the written request of seven members of the Board. Article III. OFFICERS OF THE BOARD. I. The officers of the Board shall be a Chairman of the Board, a Vice- Chairman, and a Secretary, who shall be elected by the Trustees, from the members of the Board, by ballot to serve for a term of three years. All vacancies shall be filled by the Board for the unexpired term ; provided, how- ever, that the Executive Committee shall have power to fill a vacancy in the office of Secretary to serve until the next meeting of the Board of Trustees. XIII XIV CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. 2. The Chairman shall preside at all meetings and shall have the usual powers of a presiding officer. 3. The Vice-Chairman, in the absence or disability of the Chairman, shall perform his duties. 4. The Secretary shall issue notices of meetings of the Board, record its transactions, and conduct that part of the correspondence relating to the Board and to his duties. He shall execute all deeds, contracts or other instru- ments on behalf of the corporation, when duly authorized. Article IV. EXECUTIVE ADMINISTRATION. The President. 1. There shall be a President who shall be elected by ballot by, and hold office during the pleasure of, the Board, who shall be the chief executive officer of the Institution. The President, subject to the control of the Board and the Executive Committee, shall have general charge of all matters of administration and supervision of all arrangements for research and other work undertaken by the Institution or with its funds. He shall devote his entire time to the affairs of the Institution. He shall prepare and submit to the Board of Trustees and to the Executive Committee plans and suggestions for the work of the Institution, shall conduct its general correspondence and the correspondence with applicants for grants and with the special advisers of the Committee, and shall present his recommendations in each case to the Executive Committee for decision. All proposals and requests for grants shall be referred to the President for consideration and report. He shall have power to remove and appoint subordinate employees and shall be ex officio a member of the Executive Committee. 2. He shall be the legal custodian of the seal and of all property of the Institution whose custody is not otherwise provided for. He shall affix the seal of the corporation whenever authorized to do so by the Board of Trus- tees or by the Executive Committee or by the Finance Committee. He shall be responsible for the expenditure and disbursement of all funds of the Insti- tution in accordance with the directions of the Board and of the Executive Committee, and shall keep accurate accounts of all receipts and disbursements. He shall submit to the Board of Trustees at least one month before its annual meeting in December a written report of the operations and business of the Institution for the preceding fiscal year with his recommendations for work and appropriations for the succeeding fiscal year, which shall be forthwith transmitted to each member of the Board. 3. He shall attend all meetings of the Board of Trustees. BY-LAWS. XV Article V. COMMITTEES. i. There shall be the following standing Committees, viz, an Executive Committee and a Finance Committee. 2. The Executive Committee shall consist of the Chairman and Secretary of the Board of Trustees and the President of the Institution ex officio and, in addition, five trustees to be elected by the Board by ballot for a term of three years, who shall be eligible for re-election. Any member elected to fill a vacancy shall serve for the remainder of his predecessor's term : Provided, however, that of the Executive Committee first elected after the adoption of these by-laws two shall serve for one year, two shall serve for two years, and one shall serve for three years ; and such Committee shall determine their respective terms by lot. 3. The Executive Committee shall, when the Board is not in session and has not given specific directions, have general control of the administration of the affairs of the corporation and general supervision of all arrangements for administration, research, and other matters undertaken or promoted by the Institution; shall appoint advisory committees for specific duties; shall determine all payments and salaries ; and keep a written record of all trans- actions and expenditures and submit the same to the Board of Trustees at each meeting, and it shall also submit to the Board of Trustees a printed or typewritten report of each of its meetings, and at the annual meeting shall submit to the Board a report for publication. 4. The Executive Committee shall have general charge and control of all appropriations made by the Board. 5. The Finance Committee shall consist of three members to be elected by the Board of Trustees by ballot for a term of three years. 6. The Finance Committee shall have custody of the securities of the cor- poration and general charge of its investments and funds, and shall care for and dispose of the same subject to the directions of the Board of Trustees and of the Executive Committee. It shall consider and recommend to the Board from time to time such measures as in its opinion will promote the financial interests of the Institution, and shall make a report at each meeting of the Board. 7. All vacancies occurring in the Executive Committee and the Finance Committee shall be filled by the Trustees at the next regular meeting. 8. The terms of all officers and of all members of committees shall con- tinue until their successors are elected or appointed. Article VI. FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION. I. No expenditure shall be authorized or made except in pursuance of a previous appropriation by the Board of Trustees. XVI CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. 2. The fiscal year of the Institution shall commence on the first day of November in each year. 3. The Executive Committee, at least one month prior to the annual meet- ing in each year, shall cause the accounts of the Institution to be audited by a skilled accountant, to be appointed by the Board of Trustees, and shall submit to the annual meeting of the Board a full statement of the finances and work of the Institution and a detailed estimate of the expenditures for the succeeding year. 4. The Board of Trustees, at the annual meeting in each year, shall make general appropriations for the ensuing fiscal year; but nothing contained herein shall prevent the Board of Trustees from making special appropria- tions at any meeting. 5. The securities of the Institution and evidences of property shall be deposited in such safe deposit or other corporation and under such safe- guards as the Trustees and Executive Committee shall designate ; and the moneys of the Institution shall be deposited in such banks or depositories as may from time to time be designated by the Executive Committee. Article VII. AMENDMENT OF BY-LAWS. i. These by-laws may be amended at any annual or special meeting of the Board of Trustees by a two-thirds vote of the members present, provided written notice of the proposed amendment shall have been served personally upon, or mailed to the usual address of, each member of the Board twenty days prior to the meeting. MINUTES OF THE Eighth Meeting of the Board of Trustees December 13, 1910. ABSTRACT OF THE MINUTES OF THE EIGHTH MEETING OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES. The meeting was held in Washington, in the Board Room of the Admin- istration Building, on Tuesday, December 13, 1910, and was called to order at 10 o'clock a. m. by the Chairman, Mr. Billings. Upon roll-call by the Secretary, the following members of the Board were found to be present: John S. Billings, John L. Cadwalader, Cleveland H. Dodge, William N. Frew, Lyman J. Gage, Henry L. Higginson, Charles L. Hutchinson, S. Weir Mitchell, Andrew J. Montague, William W. Morrow, Wm. Barclay Parsons, Henry S. Pritchett, Elihu Root, Martin A. Ryerson, Charles D. Walcott, William H. Welch, Andrew D. White, George W. Wickersham, Robert S. Woodward. The minutes of the seventh meeting were approved as printed in abstract and submitted to members of the Board of Trustees. The reports of the President, the Executive Committee, the auditor, direc- tors of departments, and grantees of the Institution, and a special report of the Finance Committee were presented and considered. The following general appropriations for 191 1 were authorized: Publication $50,000 Administration 45,000 Division of Publications 9,000 Departments and Laboratories 443,797 Minor grants and research associates 47,700 Index Medicus 12,500 Classics of International Law 10,000 Insurance fund 15,000 632,997 After lengthy discussion amendments were made to certain By-laws affect- ing the mode of election of Trustees, the date of the annual meeting, the custody of the seal and of the securities of the Corporation, and the appoint- ment of the auditor. Vacancies in the Board of Trustees were reported, due to the death of Mr. Hitchcock, the death of Mr. Lindsay, and the non-acceptance of election of Mr. Eliot. Balloting to fill the vacancies resulted in the election of the fol- lowing persons to membership in the Board : Dr. Simon Flexner, of New York. Mr. Robert Somers Brookings, of Missouri. Dr. Henry Pickering Walcott, of Massachusetts. The Board adjourned at 1 o'clock and 5 minutes p. m. 3 dbmarutl Darius Ogden Mills 1825-1910 Darius Ogden Mills was elected a member of the original Board of Trustees of the Institution on January 4, 1902. He died on January 3, 1910, shortly after his resignation as a mem- ber of the Board had taken effect. During his entire connection with the Institution he served as one of the three members of the Finance Committee and gave to the Institution the benefit of his exceptionally sound judgment in financial matters. Mr. Mills's varied interests led to activities in educational circles which were unusually fruitful and of much benefit to society. He served as regent and treasurer of the University of California from 1868 to 1880 and founded there a professorship of moral and intellectual philosophy. He also served as one of the first trustees of the Lick estate and the Lick observatory. After coming to New York in 1880 he built the Mills hotels and established training schools for nurses. He accepted elec- tion as president of the New York Botanical Garden and also became a trustee of the American Museum of Natural History, of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and of the American Geo- graphical Society. Ill health attended his later years and prevented active partici- pation in the affairs of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. He was, however, ever mindful of its interests and recognized the importance of its work, and his absence will be felt in the loss of a keen judgment of men and affairs, and of an intelligent and sympathetic comprehension of the mission of the Institution. REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT OF THE CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON FOR THE YEAR ENDING OCTOBER 31, 1910. REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT OF THE CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. In compliance with Article IV of the By-laws of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, I have the honor to submit the following report on the pres- ent status of the interests of the Institution and on the Explanatory State- events and the work thereof for the fiscal year ending ment. . October 31, 1910, along with recommendations of appro- priations for the ensuing year and with sundry suggestions and recommenda- tions concerning other questions which have been under consideration during the past year. This report is the ninth annual report of the Institution and is presented under the following principal heds : 1. Work of administration. 2. Resume of investigations of the year. 3. Publications. WORK OF ADMINISTRATION. The more noteworthy events in the history of the Institution during the past year are the dedication in December, 1909, of the Administration Build- ing; the inauguration at that time of an annual series of Salieot Events of the semi-popular lectures explanatory of the researches of the Institution; the inauguration on the same occasion of a series of periodical exhibits of the work accomplisht by the departments of investigation and the divisions of publication and administration; the suc- cessful completion of the first voyage (of 8,000 miles) of the non-magnetic ship Carnegie, and the beginning of a second cruise, which is expected to require three years, by this novel craft; and the fourth conference of the International Solar Union held at the Solar Observatory of the Institution on Mount Wilson, California, from August 29 to September 4, 1910. The administrativ staff of the Institution movd into the Administration Building on November 8, 1909 ; and altho the building was not then com- pleted and equipt in all its parts, it was so far advanced in the two upper stories as to permit immediate use and a formal dedication on the evening of Monday, December 11, 1909. On this occasion the Trustees and their guests assembled in the lecture room of the building and brief addresses were made by the Chairman and Vice-Chairman of the Board of Trustees and by the Founder of the Institution. Following these ceremonies a lecture on the work of the Solar Observatory was given by Prof. George E. Hale, Director of that establishment. The Trustees and their guests were then invited to inspect the exhibits instald in the rooms of the uppermost floor of the Admin- istration Building by the ten principal departments of research of the Insti- tution and by the divisions of publication and administration. 9 IO CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. During the afternoons of a week beginning December 13, 1909, the Ad- ministration Building was opend to the public, and between 3,000 and 4,000 visitors inspected the building and the exhibits instald therein. This was the first opportunity the Institution has had of indicating in a concrete way the plan, scope, and results of its work, and the comprehension and appreciation of this work by the public have been very gratifying. As an aid to the dis- semination of semi-popular information concerning the Institution and its activities an illustrated pamflet of 32 octavo pages was printed for this occa- sion and distributed to guests present at the dedication and to visitors who came later to inspect the building and the departmental exhibits. Probably nothing hitherto done by the Institution has helpt so much to give correct popular information and to remov false popular impressions concerning the objects of the Institution as the publication of this pamflet. The opportunities thus afforded for a summary view of the development, the progress, and the history of the Institution during the first eight years of its existence provd alike advantageous to the Trustees, to the investigators, and to the public. The directors of the principal departments of research were enabld for the first time to become acquainted with one another and to confer as a body with the President concerning matters of common interest in departmental researches and in departmental administration. The confer- ences held on this occasion with these directors were so fruitful that it ap- pears desirable to hold them annually during the week of the annual meeting of the Board of Trustees. In proportion as the work of the Institution is novel, advanced, or funda- mental it will be difficult to understand and slow to receiv popular apprecia- tion. Some of it, indeed, must be expected to meet initially with disapproval because misunderstood. Hence, to counteract false impressions, to keep the investigator in touch with his contemporaries in other occupations, and to maintain an intelligent public interest in the work of the Institution, it seems essential to hold exhibitions, at intervals of three to five years, similar to that which provd so instructiv a year ago. A detaild account of the remarkable success of the non-magnetic ship Carnegie will be found in the annual report of the Director of the Depart- ment of Terrestrial Magnetism. It may suffice here to state that her first cruise in the Atlantic Ocean (of about 8,000 miles) not only demonstrated her fulfilment of all expectations as a floating magnetic observatory, but also brought to light important errors in the magnetic elements shown on the best sailing charts of the Atlantic. The perfection of observation on this ship is fitly supplemented by a promptness of computation which enables her scien- tific staff to furnish the results redy for publication as fast as the observa- tions are made. Thus the results of her first cruise were soon in print and are alredy in use by mariners. After returning to Brooklyn in February, 1910, she had her copper sheathing attacht, and was thoroly overhauld and refitted for a three years' cruise, on which she set sail June 29, 1910. At REPORT OE THE PRESIDENT, I9IO. II the present time she is off the coast of South America between the ports of Para and Rio de Janeiro, having had a successful voyage of about 9,000 miles when last heard from. An event of unusual importance in astrophysical science and of special interest to the staff of the Solar Observatory was the meeting of the Inter- national Solar Union held at Pasadena and on Mount Wilson, August 29 to September 4 last. Attracted by the novel methods and equipment of the Solar Observatory and by the remarkable results it has alredy achievd, nearly one hundred delegates, about a third of whom were from European coun- tries, held what promises to be one of the most fruitful of international conferences in the history of astrophysics. The counsel, the criticism, and the constructiv suggestions derivd, especially from our distinguisht Euro- pean colleags, are highly esteemd, not only by the staff of the Solar Observa- tory but by all members of the Institution interested in physical science. Many of the foren delegates visited Washington on their homeward jour- neys, and all of these were interested also in the novel enterprises of the Geophysical Laboratory and of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism. In the two preceding reports attempts have been made, for the benefit of the reader who has little time for details, to condense into a single paragraf „ , W7 < the salient facts indicating the growth and extent of the Summary of work ° ... of Institution to work of the Institution. Since the period of rapid expan- ate* sion has now past and since economic conditions must require some degree of contraction of the Institution's activities in the near future, it seems desirable to bring that summary down to date. Additional studies made during the past year of the ramifications of the work of the Institution show that the range of this work and the numbers of investiga- tors and collaborators engaged in its prosecution have been hitherto some- what underestimated. It now appears that since its organization in 1902 upwards of twelve hundred individuals have contributed in one way or an- other to the promotion of the researches and the publications undertaken by the Institution. During each of the past five years about five hundred indi- viduals have thus collaborated. Ten independent departments of research and the divisions of publication and administration, each with its staff and assistants, have been organizd and establisht within the Institution itself. In addition to these larger departments of work, numerous special researches, in aid of which upwards of seven hundred grants have been made, have been carried on by research associates and other individual investigators. For the departments of research, two astronomical observatories, five laboratories, and a non-magnetic ship have been built and equipt; while the divisions of administration and publication have been provided with adequate quarters in the Administration Building, at Washington, D. C, completed a year ago. A full inventory of the property of the Institution to date includes fifty- nine buildings, thirteen parcels of land (held either by clear title or by favor- 12 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. able long-term leases), and ten vessels. Investigations have been carried on in more than thirty different fields of research and the geografical range of this work has extended to more than forty different countries. One hun- dred and sixty-seven volumes of publications, with an aggregate of more than 40,000 pages of printed matter, have been issued directly by the Institution to date, and twenty-five volumes are now in press. These works are distrib- uted gratuitously to a limited list of the greater libraries of the world and they are also offerd for sale at the nominal cost of publication. In addition to these publications issued by the Institution itself, upwards of twelve hundred shorter papers have been contributed to the current journals of the world by departmental investigators, by research associates, and by collaborators. Except for a few gifts from friends of the Institution and its investigators, the costs of the work accomplisht and of the property acquird have been paid wholly from the interest on the endowment of the Institution. The total amount of funds derivd from this source, from interest on tempo- rary investments and bank balances, and from miscellaneous sources is $4,723,570.45. The total amount of funds appropriated for expenditure to date is $4,947,401, which includes $329,442, which have been reverted and afterwards reappropriated. The total amount expended to date is $4,590,- 820.90. Of this amount $1,540,840.37 are represented in land, buildings, vessels, equipments, and publications in stock; $371,415.35 have defrayd the expenses of administration ; $281,223.96 have been spent for publications, and $2,418,708.45 have been applied directly to the prosecution of research. The printed financial statements issued monthly from the offis of adminis- tration exhibit the details of receipts and expenditures for each month of any year, the aggregates of receipts and expenditures from Status the beginning of any year, and the corresponding aggre- of the Institution. gates for the period which has elapst since the founda- tion of the Institution. But while these publications show that the present financial status of the Institution is sound and that it may be kept so by living within an income of about $615,000 per year, they make no refer- ence to the very adverse economic condition to which institutions dependent on fixt incomes are now subject. This adverse condition arises from the world-wide increase in prices of commodities and in the cost of living which has been going on since 1897. Conservativly stated, it may be said that the increase in question has been upwards of 20 per cent since the foundation of the Institution ; so that the purchasing capacity of our pres- ent income of $600,000 per year is no greater than that of the original in- come of $500,000 would be under such economic conditions as obtaind in 1902. Moreover, existing circumstances point clearly to a still further rise in world prices, or to a still further diminution of the purchasing capacity of the Institution's income. Attention was cald in my report of a year ago to REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, 1910. 13 the limitations imposed on the growth of the Institution by this economic condition, and steps essential to keep expenditures within income were taken in the preparation of the last annual budget. It was necessary, in fact, be- ginning with the year 191 o, to restrict the work of the Institution mainly to existing fruitful enterprises and to prepare for a probable curtailment of them in the near future. These considerations arising from causes external to the Institution should be borne in mind in any attempt to interpret its present and prospectiv financial status. -. . , Cl The sources of funds available for expenditure during Financial Statement r ° for Fiscal Year the past year, the allotments for the year, and the balances unallotted at the end of the year are shown in detail in the following statement : Unallotted Oct. 31, 1909. Appropri- ation, Dec. 14, 1909. Revertments Oct. 31, 1909, to Oct. 31, 1910. Total. Aggregates of allotments and amounts transferd. Balance unallotted Oct. 31, 1910. $417,661 65,800 23,800 65,000 45,000 $33,948.28 2,298.28 $451,609.28 69,098.28 23,800.00 98,996.42 58,565.41 $451,609.28 69,098.28 23,800.00 91,376.26 44,OII.6l Minor grants $1, OOO.OO Research associ- ates and assist- ants Administration. . . 27,194-53 I3,4I7-76 6,801.89 I47-65 $7,620.16 I4,553-8o Total 41,612.29 617,261 43,196.10 702,069.39 679.895-43 22,173.96 The following list shows the departments of investigation to which the larger grants were made by the Trustees and the amounts allotted from those grants by the Executiv Committee during the year : Department of Botanical Research $34,728.00 Department of Experimental Evolution 40,970.00 Department of Economics and Sociology 10,000.00 Geophysical Laboratory 51,020.00 Department of Historical Research 22,700.00 Department of Marine Biology 27,070.00 Department of Meridian Astrometry 35,655.00 Nutrition Laboratory 26,378.00 Division of Publications 9,000.00 Solar Observatory 115,720.00 Department of Terrestrial Magnetism 76,920.00 450,161.00 Transferd to minor grants 1,448.28 451,609.28 14 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OE WASHINGTON. The fields of investigation to which minor grants were assignd, the names of the grantees, and amounts of the grants are shown in the following list : Details of minor grants. Field of investigation. Archeology .... Astronomy Bibliografy Botany Chemistry Geophysics .... Literature Mathematics. . . Meteorology . . . Paleontology. . . Physics Zoology Transferd Names ot grantees. ' American School of Classical Studies at Athens American School of Classical Studies in Rome. , Van Deman, Esther B . Miiller, W. Max J International Solar Union \ Gale, Henry G Index Medicus J Huntington, Ellsworth \ Account of the work of Luther Burbank , ( Bancroft, W. D , \ Acree, S. F (. Osborne, T. B Jaeger, F. M Sommer, H. Oskar Morley, Frank Bjerknes, V f Wieland, G. R \ Case, E. C Howe, Henry M ( Castle, W. E \ Naples Zoological Station ( Large grants I Unappropriated fund. Amount of grants. $4, 600.00 2,000.00 1,200.00 2,000.00 7,500.00 588.79 12,500.00 750.00 2,000.00 1,500.00 1,000.00 7,250.00 1,600.00 3,000.00 1,200.00 1,200.00 1,000.00 1,600.00 300.00 1,000.00 1,000.00 54,788.79 12,500.00 1,809.49 69,098.28 The following table shows the fields of investigation of research associates and the amounts of their grants : Field of investigation. Astronomy. Chemistry , Geology Paleontology Philology and linguistics Physics , Physiology ... Political science Terrestrial magnetism . . Transferd to unappro- priated fund Names of research associates. /Kapteyn, J. C. \Gale, Henry G f Richards, Theo. W. I Morse, H. N 1 Baxter, G. P I Jones, Harry C [ Noyes, A. A Moulton, F. R Wieland, G. R Hempl, George ... . f Barus, Carl I Nichols, E. L Reichert, E. T Rowe, L. S Beattie, J. C Amount of grants. $2, OOO OO I.OOO.OO 2,500.00 I,8oO.OO 1,000.00 I,200.00 3,000.00 2,000.00 1,000.00 1,000.00 500.00 3,000.00 1,500.00 I,500.00 416.67 23,416.67 383-33 23,8oO.OO REPORT OP THE PRESIDENT, I9IO. 15 The following grants for publication were authorize! during the year : Adams, Walter S $1,850.00 Allison, Wm. H 850.00 Baxter, G. P 800.00 Benedict, F. G., and T. M. Car- penter 1,800.00 Benedict, F. G., and E. P. Joslin 1,200.00 Boss, Lewis 241.59 Campbell, D. H 2,250.00 Cannon, W. A 1,400.00 Carnegie Institution of Wash- ington 392.82 Do 1,200.00 Churchill, Wm 1,800.00 Davenport, C. B 676.96 Fish, Carl R 1,400.00 Goss, W. F. M 1,350.00 Jones and Strong 3,500.00 Lehmer, D. N 3,274-55 Lloyd, F. E 2,500.00 Lutz, F. E 300.00 MacDougal and Cannon 600.00 MacDougal and Spalding Mayer, A. G Mark and Long Miiller, W. Max Papers from the Tortugas Lab- oratory Perrine, Charles D Republication of Classics of In- ternational Law Richards, T. W Smith, E. F Sommer, H. O Van Deman, E. B Transf erd : Large grants $10,000 Unappropriated fund. . . 20,000 $600.00 964-3S 850.00 216.13 3,200.00 192.29 15,000.00 450.00 4,500.00 7,500.00 517.57 61,376.26 30,000.00 91,376.26 The sources and amounts of the revertments from November i, 1909, to October 31, 1910, inclusiv, are shown in the following. Large Grants: Transferd from Publication $10,000.00 Insurance 10,000.00 Minor grants ; 12,500.00 Department of Experimental Evolution, pur- chase of additional land 1,448.28 Minor Grants: $33,948.28 Transferd from Large grants 1,448. 28 International Solar Union, Grant No. 620 850.00 Publication: ' Putnam, Herbert, Grant No. 290 129.69 Spalding, V. M., Grant No. 532 657.62 Reichert and Brown, Grant No. 581 1,239-93 Ward, W. H., Grant No. 514 2,472. 19 Benedict and Carpenter, Grant No. 594 200.87 Richards, T. W., Grant No. 636 5181 Barus, Carl, Grant No. 593 _ . . . 140.44 California State Earthquake Investigation Commission, Grant No. 467 653.29 Johnson, R. H., Grant No. 595 H7-40 Benedict and Carpenter, Grant No. 637 827.01 Robertson, J. A., Grant No. 596 275.37 MacDougal and Cannon, Grant No. 643 36.27 Administration : ' Shipping expenses (Mt. Wilson reprints) 53-47 Sale of boxes 26.80 Sale of waste paper 10.92 Operating equipment (Bausch and Lomb) 18.00 Building grounds (refund on sidewalk) 38.46 147.65 43,196.10 i6 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. The aggregate receipts from interest on endowment, "ancTExoenditures3 * * rom interest on bond investments, from interest on de- posits in banks, from sales of publications, from refund on grants, and miscellaneous items to date is $4,923,820.45, as shown by the following table : and Expenditures of the Institution to Date. Interest. Sales of publications. Refund on grants. Miscellane- ous items. Year ending Oct. 31— Endowment. Bonds and bank deposits. Total. I903 1904 I9°5 I907 I909 $250,000.00 500,000.00 500,000.00 500,000.00 500,000.00 500,000.00 550,000.00 600,000.00 600,000.00 $9-70 5,867.10 33,004.26 25,698.59 27,304.47 22,934.05 17,761.55 14,707.67 10,422.78 $1,825.52 IOI.57 $251,835.22 508,254.83 536,439-36 529,088.48 534,068.84 531,683.93 623,698.88 731,806.14 676,944.77 $2,286.16 2,436.07 3,038.95 4,349.68 6,026.10 7,877-5I 11,182.07 10,470.25 $999-03 200.94 2,395-25 2,708.56 25.68 2,35L48 1,319.29 150.00 19.44 15.22 48,034.14 103,564.92 54,732.45 4,500,000.00 157,710.17 47,666.79 10,000.23 *2o8,443.26 4,923,820.45 *lOf this amount, $200,250 were received from the sale of bonds in 1908, 1909, and 1910. The purposes for which funds have been appropriated by the Board of Trustees of the Institution may be summarily classified under five heds, namely: (i) investments in bonds and on account of Administration Build- ing; (2) large projects; (3) minor projects, special projects, and research associates and assistants ; (4) publications; (5) administration. The actual expenditures under these heds for each year since the foundation of the Institution are shown in the following table : Year ending Oct. 31— Investments in bonds and on account of Adminis- tration Building. Large projects. Minor pro- jects, special projects, re- search asso- ciates and assistants. Publications. Administra- tion. Total. 1902 $4, 500. co 137,564.17 2I7,383.73 149,843.55 93,176.26 90,176.14 61,282.11 70,813.69 73,464.63 $27,513.00 43,627.66 36,967.15 37,208.92 42,621.89 46,005.25 48,274.90 45,292.21 44,OII.6l $32,013.00 282,605.36 1903 $100,475.00 I96,I59-72 5r,937-50 63,01509 2,000.00 68,209.80 116,756.26 57,889.15 $938.53 11,590.82 21,822.97 42,43I-I9 63,804.42 49.991-55 41,577.48 49,067.00 1904 I9°5- - 1906 I907 1908 I909 1910, $49,848.46 269,940.79 381,972.37 500,548.58 448,404-65 495,021.30 437,941.40 511,949.88 530,753.73 623,216.80 702,534.39 676,163.01 769,460.94 662,373.79 Total . . 656,442.52 2,583,67755 898,204.28 281,223.96 371,522.59 4,791,070.90 REPORT OP THE PRESIDENT, 1 9 10. 1 7 On account of site for and construction of the Administration Building of the Institution, and on account of real estate, buildings, and equipments of departmental establishments, the following sums have been expended : Administration : Building, site, and equipment $312,307.93 Publications : Stock on hand and outstanding accounts (October 31, 1910) 165,359.06 Department of Botanical Research (September 30, 1910) : Buildings, offis, and library $23,477.29 Apparatus — 6,713.75 Operating appliances 8,555.28 38,746.32 Department of Experimental Evolution (September 30, 1910) : Buildings, offis, and library 38,131 . 12 Laboratory apparatus. 4,095 . 37 Operating appliances and grounds 15,860.03 58,086.52 Geophysical Laboratory (September 30, 1910) : Building, library, operating appliances 110,712.61 Laboratory apparatus 58,585 . 75 Shop equipment 10,567 . 90 1 79,866 . 26 Department of Marine Biology (September 30, 1910) : Vessels 12,712 . 55 Buildings, docks, furniture, and library 9,903.58 Apparatus and instruments 1,741 • 02 24,357.15 Department of Meridian Astrometry (June 30, 1910) : Buildings and operating appliances 13,518.90 Apparatus and instruments 2,394.34 I5.9I3-24 Nutrition Laboratory (September 30, 1910) : Building and offis 108,492.60 Laboratory apparatus 10,218.69 Shop equipment 1,895.83 120,607.12 Solar Observatory (August 31, 1910) : Buildings, grounds, road, and telephone line 113,328.52 Shop equipment 18,953 . 25 Instruments 265,888.95 Furniture and operativ appliances 40,147.50 Hooker telescope 37,404.14 475,722.36 Department of Terrestrial Magnetism (September 30, 1910) : Offis 4,250.83 Instruments 24,410. 19 Vessel and ocean equipment 1 16,976 . 57 Land equipment 4,236.82 149,874-41 1,540,840.37 2 — YB i8 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. Cost of Site, Admin- istration Building, and Its Equipment. A summary statement of the items which go to make up the total cost of the site, construction, and equipment of the Administration Building is given in the following table : To whom paid. Object. Cost. Total. T. J. Fisher Co Site $63,015.09 Carr^re and Hastings. Construction of building.... Architects' fees and expenses. Builders' bond I216.132.58 H.937 93 375 00 112.71 12.85 10.00 Fidelity and Deposit Co. . , Newton and Painter. . Extra electrical wiring M. C. Hazen Electric and gas fixtures. . . . Steel Shelving 228,581.07 Sterling Bronze Co 7,614.22 2,972.24 189.50 175.00 43-50 General Fire Proofing Co R. B. Caverly, Inc. . Toilet fixtures Franklin Electric Mfg. Co Copeland Co Awnings Offis furniture 10,994.46 Davenport Co 2,968.00 674.00 2,33299 657-43 134.00 558.65 214.60 Derby Desk Co Offis furniture W. and J. Sloane Ruefs Bausch and Lomb Optical Co. . . . A. T. Thompson and Co. . . Baloptican lantern . . Baloptican light feed Window shades . . Allen Shade Holder Co.. E. T. Burrowes Co Window and door screens. . . 7,539.67 Total -UO.i30.29 In connection with the information furnisht by the last table, it is of in- terest to note that the "building fund" set aside in 1902 has sufficed not only to defray the costs of the site and of the construction of Status of Building tiie Administration Building, but also to pay for nearly all of its equipment, including fixtures and furniture, the total cost of which latter, as shown by the table, being $18,534.13. The amount of the "building fund" and the interest thereon up to the end of the year 1909, when the building was completed, are shown as follows : Amount of investment $250,000 . 00 Interest, 1903 1,500.00 1904 8,500.00 1905 10.375 • 00 1906 10,501 .80 1907 10,000.00 1908 10,000.00 1909 9,038.89 Total 309,915-69 It should be stated also in this connection that interest-bearing railway securities of the nominal value of $100,000 are still held from this "building fund," subject to demand call from the current cash account of the Institu- tion. This retention has been made possible by reason of the relativly large sum pledgd but not promtly cald for by the publication account, and by reason of conservativ attention to current expenses and to bank balances. REPORT OF THE) PRESIDENT, I9IO. IQ, The experience of the past year has demonstrated the utility, from all points of view, of the dignified and permanent home for the In- of Maintenance stitution afforded by the Administration Building. It has of Administration provd especially satisfactory to the resident administrativ Building. gta^ kv reason of its fitness to mitigate the severity of a tropical summer. It has provd to be admirably adapted also to the storage and to the handling in receipt and shipment of the Institution's publications. These are now, for the first time, reasonably safe from damage either by fire or by the excessiv humidity of the summer season in Washington. As ex- plaind in a later section of this report, these publications now include about 70,000 individual volumes and represent a cost value of about $165,000; and while there is reason to think that the present accumulation of books is greater than it will be in the future, the need of the provision made for safe storage is evident. As to the cost of maintenance of this building, it may suffice to state the fact that the aggregate expense of the past year has fallen within the esti- mates for this purpose approvd in the budget of a year ago. It may be stated also that there is no reason to fear any material increase in this cost in the near future, altho the general rise in prices and the natural increase in the business of the Institution as a shipping and intelligence agency will probably cause some increase in this expense. In respect to this subject, it seems desirable to point out that we have no adequate theory to guide us in determining in any new instance what should be the best ratio of cost of administration to total income. In actual experi- ence it appears to be the universal practis to charge to administration the cost of any necessary work which does not fall obviously into some other category. This was done, for example, in the case of the publication work of the Institution until the establishment of a division for that work a year ago. Similarly, the costs of storage and shipping of publications and the costs entaild by an extensiv but fruitless portion of offis correspondence may be cited as inappropriate charges in the administrativ budget. But while it will be practicable and proper to make the sales of publications pay the ex- penses connected with them, it is not yet feasible to make the wasteful corre- spondence referd to pay any part of the expense it requires. These concrete cases are cited, however, only to indicate the complexity of the subject and the difficulty in the way of reducing the ratio in question to a rational mini- mum. In the meantime it may be observd that while the volume of pro- ductiv work of the Institution has greatly increast and the volume of the unproductiv work scarcely diminisht in recent years, the cost of administra- tion, however it may be reckond, has remaind nearly stationary. 20 carnegie; institution of Washington. Statement of The present status of the insurance fund of the Institu- Insurance Fund, tion is shown by the following statement : Appropriation for the year 1909 $15,000 Appropriation for the year 1910 10,000 Accrued interest, 1909 450 Accrued interest, 1910 843 Insurance receivd February, 1910, for fire loss of quarters of Solar Observatory 3,990 Insurance receivd March, 1910, for loss by fire of chemicals and apparatus in laboratory of Dr. T. B. Osborne 727 31,010 Allotment for rebuilding the quarters of Solar Observatory, made March, 1910 10,000 Amount of fund on hand 21,010 RESUME OF INVESTIGATIONS OF THE YEAR. Work in the ten specially organizd departments of research in the Insti- tution has gone forward during the year with increasing vigor and with in- creasing productivity. All of these novel establishments mentsof Research" ma^ ^e Sa^ t0 ^ave nOW Past ^e Prenminary stages of organization, equipment, and tentativ experience, so that henceforth their efforts and resources may be still more effectivly directed and applied. Most of the departments have been strengthend during the year by additions to the staffs of investigators and by accessions to equipment and other facilities, some of which latter have come thru the generosity of friends, who have thus shown their appreciation of departmental researches. But while the existing status of departmental affairs is in general highly satisfactory, it appears essential to again call attention to the fact that with present income and current economic conditions no further expansion of de- partmental appropriations can be expected. It may be necessary, on the con- trary, to curtail research in the departments in order to keep the aggregate expense of the Institution within income. It need not follow, however, that this prospectiv diminution in financial outlay will cause a corresponding dimi- nution of productivity, for work of investigation, like work along other novel lines, is usually most costly in the preliminary stages. Referring to the current Year Book for interesting and instructiv details in the reports of the directors of departments, some of the salient features of their activities are summarizd in the following paragrafs. It is a maxim in the pursuit of physical science to proceed from the simpler to the more complex in any attempt to discover the relation among observd facts. In accordance with this maxim, the Bohmical'^esear h nedquarters of the Department of Botanical Research are located in a desert area where the facts of plant life are exhibited, in general, in their simplest, tho often extreme and highly special- ized, relations. But even under these favorable conditions plant life presents REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, I9IO. 21 problems whose solution requires aid from many sciences other than those which are commonly held to make up biology, and especially from chemistry, physics, and meteorology. Thus the researches of this department call for much collaboration and for a wide range of observation, experiment, and determinate analysis. During the year the Director of the department has continued his inves- tigations on the water-balance of succulent plants, on the conditions of vegetable parasitism, on the variability in plant species induced by chemical treatment of their seeds, and on the influences of climate on plant organisms. In collaboration with Prof. Ellsworth Huntington, research associate of the department during a portion of the year, the Director has begun a general climatological study of the region about Tucson, giving special attention to the factors and effects of the Santa Cruz and Asuncion river systems. Dr. Cannon, of the permanent departmental staff, has given attention espe- cially to his elaborate investigation of the root systems and habits of desert plants. For the purpose of extending the range of his studies in this funda- mental subject he visited the Sahara Desert and will spend most of the year in that advantageous field for both comparativ and direct observations. Some of the more important conclusions alredy establisht in respect to this inquiry are set forth in the Director's current report. Dr. Shreve, also of the permanent staff of the department, while occupied with the more general problem of the relation of plants to climate in the United States, has also carried on special investigations of the vital statistics of plants in the vicinity of the Desert Laboratory; of the vegetation in the Santa Catalina Mountains ; and of the physiological characteristics of the lace-fern family of plants. In the first of these researches he has been aided by the collaboration of Dr. Livingston, who resignd from the staff of the department a year ago to accept a professorship in Johns Hopkins University. Observations on the phenomena presented in the drying up of Salton Sea, and especially on the influx of vegetation over the bared strands and islands of this slowly retreating body of water, have been continued during the year. In this work a series of soil analyses of the strands has been secured thru the cooperation of Mr. E. E. Free, of the Bureau of Soils of the U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture. Publications by members of the department issued during the year are shown in the list on pp. 32-33 and in the bibliography of the Year Book. Others in press are Nos. 131, 139, 141. One of these, No. 139, on the Guayule, a desert rubber-producing plant of considerable economic impor- tance, is the work of Prof. Francis E. Lloyd, formerly a resident associate of the department, but now a member of the faculty of Alabama Polytechnic Institute. 22 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. So many converging lines of fruitful research are now being pursued by this department that it is difficult to summarize fitly its current progress. ^ , This duty must be accorded, in fact, as in all other cases, Department of f , . , . Experimental to the Director of the department concernd, in his annual Evolution. reports and in his more detaild publications. From the abstract scientific point of view the most interesting feature of this work is found in the introduction of statistical and other quantitativ methods, whereby biology is now passing from the first to the next higher stage in the development of a science. From the more popular points of view the work in question is of special interest by reason of its bearing on the economics of plant and animal breeding and by reason of the light it is certain to shed on the laws of human heredity. So large and so intricate a field of work calls for varid objects and sub- jects of experimentation and for the resources of many collateral sciences. Thus, studies of heredity have developt the necessity of certain investigations in physiological chemistry, and a small equipment for this purpose has been fitted up in a room of the main laboratory building and put in charge of Dr. R. A. Gortner. Similarly, for studies of the changes which organisms undergo in dark caves and in deep waters, an artificial cave has been added to the basement of the laboratory, and the work of experimentation by means of this adjunct has been assignd to Dr. A. M. Banta, whose erly investiga- tions in this line were printed by the Institution some years ago in Publica- tion No. 67. In order to meet the increasing needs of the department for land for the cultivation of plants and the breeding of animals, the Institution purchast in January, 1910, a tract of 21 acres of very desirable land lying about a mile east of the laboratory. It may be noted also that Goose Island, in Long Island Sound, acquird for the department a year ago, has alredy been put to good use in experiments on plants and animals in a state of isolation. It is a source of plesure to record that two friends of the department have shown their appreciation of the Director's enterprise by gifts which will greatly aid him in the prosecution of his work : one has supplied a wharf and a shelter house on Goose Island ; the other has furnisht funds essential to establish, near to but independently of the laboratory, an offis for the collection and interpretation, under the direction of Dr. Davenport, of data bearing on human heredity. Erly in the current year the Executiv Committee requested Prof. Henry W. Farnam (who was appointed Chairman of the Department of Economics De artme t f anc* Sociology soon after the deth of Dr. Wright) to sub- Economics mit a report on the status of the work of the department, and bociology. along vvith recommendations for its future conduct. Ac- cordingly, a comprehensiv report was presented to the Executiv Committee April 18, 1910, and subsequently printed in full and transmitted in this form to all members of the Board of Trustees. It is assumed, therefore, that a review of this report is not needed here. It should be stated, however, that REPORT OE THE PRESIDENT, I9IO. 23 the Executiv Committee, after considering this report at length, authorize! by resolution adopted May 16, 1910, a continuation of the work in question along the lines hitherto followd, with the understanding that it be brought to such a state of completion as may prove practicable under the limitations of the balances of appropriations alredy made to the department. In addition to the special report referd to above, attention should be in- vited also to the annual report of progress renderd by the Chairman of the department in the current Year Book. From this it is seen that a large num- ber of individuals have collaborated in carrying forward the programs of work adopted for the twelve departmental divisions of research. During the year the conduct of the Division of Labor, originally in charge of Dr. Wright, has been assignd, under favorable conditions, to Prof. John R. Commons, of the University of Wisconsin. Several volumes of publications arising directly or indirectly from the investigations of the department have been issued during the year thru the agencies of commercial publishers. Two volumes also of the Index of Economic Material in the Documents of the United States, namely, those for Delaware and Kentucky, prepard under the auspices of the department by Miss Adelaide R. Hasse, have been issued as publications of the Institution. The removal of the administration offises from the Bond Building a year ago made it practicable for the Department of Historical Research to secure more desirable and somewhat more enlargd quarters than Department of it has hitherto occupied in that building. By reason of this Historical Research. r ° J . readjustment the conditions for comfort and efficiency of the resident staff of the department have been distinctly improved. One of the most important works produced by the department has appeard during the year under the title "List of documents in Spanish archives relat- ing to the history of the United States, which have been printed or of which transcripts are preserved in American libraries," Publication No. 124, pre- pard by Dr. James A. Robertson, now librarian of the Philippine Library, Manila. Two other works of similar import are now in press, namely: "Guide to the materials for American history in Roman and other Italian archives," Publication No. 128, by Prof. C. R. Fish; and "Inventory of the unpublished material for American religious history in Protestant Church archives and other repositories," Publication No. 137, by Prof. William H. Allison, now of Colgate Theological Seminary. Manuscripts have been receivd also of the "Guide to materials for Amer- ican history in German archives," by Prof. Marion D. Learned, and of the "Guide to materials for the history of the United States in Mexican archives," by Prof. Herbert E. Boulton. Progress is likewise reported in respect to a guide to materials for American history in the archives of Paris, in preparation by Mr. Leland, of the department staff ; and in the rearrange- ment of a guide to British materials made necessary by a reclassification of the British Public Record Office promulgated after Prof. C. M. Andrews had the preparation of this guide well under way. 24 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. Many other researches in progress are described in the Director's current report, to which reference must be made for further details; but two of peculiar interest, in preparation for textual publication, may be cited, namely : "Letters of Delegates to the Continental Congress relating to its transac- tions"; and "The American proceedings and debates in Parliament." The principal steps which have been necessary and in large degree pre- liminary in the development of the work of the Geophysical Laboratory are recounted with instructiv particularity by the Director in Thf9eophysicaI ^is report for the current year. They are the steps re- quired to pass from a merely descriptiv knowledge of rock formation to a knowledge based on definit mesurements. Briefly stated, these steps are four in number, namely: provision for correct temperature determinations over the entire range involvd in the processes of rock forma- tion; provision for like determinations of the chemical reactions of these processes ; provision for precise microscopic, optical, and crystalografic mes- urements ; and provision for the quantitativ applications of high pressures to rock masses and rock constituents. In supplying the desiderata just indicated for its own special work, the laboratory has alredy achievd results of prime importance also to many other fields of physical and chemical science. Thus, two contributions of great import to general physics and chemistry have been brought out during the past year. The first of these is a determinate extension of the scale of temperature mesures from about 3000 C. to about 16000 C. This is a fitting supplement to the classic work on thermometry begun more than thirty years ago under the auspices of the International Bureau of Weights and Meas- ures. It must take rank, in fact, with the fundamental advances in the tech- nique of thermometry. The other contribution is a determination of the system of compounds which may arise in combinations of the three most important oxides entering into the composition of rocks, namely, silica, lime, and alumina. This system is of special economic interest, since it includes, among many other compounds, the hitherto much studied but baffling Port- land cement. The complexity of the investigations requird to analyze this system is indicated by the facts that it involvs the interaction of fourteen minerals and the formation of sixteen ternary eutectics, or substances whose melting-points are lower than those of the primary constituents. Many other important investigations are outlind in the Director's report and the productivity of the laboratory may be inferd from his citation and review of twenty-five publications emanating from the staff during the year. It is of interest to note in this connection that researches from the labora- tory find redy access for prompt publication thru current journals both at home and abroad. Many of these papers have alredy been publisht in Ger- man as well as in English and arrangements have been made during the year to maintain this doubly effectiv mode of publication. REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, I9IO. 25 Six years ago, when the duties of the Presidency were assumed by the writer, he deemd it desirable to visit at the erliest opportunity all individuals pursuing researches under the auspices of the Institution. Marinf Bioloev. "^ soon developt, however, that a speedy accomplishment of this task would prove quite impracticable, and it became essential to adopt a much more restricted program for activities in this direc- tion. Thus, while nearly all other departmental establishments of the Insti- tution have been visited by the President prior to the past year, his first visit to the Tortugas Laboratory was not made until June, 19 10. Having alredy entertaind very favorable, but somewhat indefinit, opinions concerning the wisdom of the choice of this locality for a marine laboratory, it is fitting to state that the extraordinary biological resources and the salubrity of the sum- mer climate of the Tortugas group are so evident as to rouse the enthusiasm of any interested observer. As pointed out by the Director of the laboratory, the isolation even of these islands furnishes important advantages to the in- vestigator. In brief, the favorable impressions gaind during the first visit in respect to the locality and in respect to the scientific spirit and possibilities of the establishment are only temperd by the present incapacity of the Insti- tution to give more liberal financial support to this department of work. Two emergencies seriously affecting the department and calling for prompt action have arisen during the year. One is due partly to the gradual aban- donment by the U. S. Navy of the supply depot and wireless station at Tor- tugas, thus rendering communication between Key West and the laboratory less certain and frequent than hitherto. The curtailment of this source of aid generously extended by the Navy to the laboratory during the past six years has forced upon the department the necessity of providing better inde- pendent transportation than that afforded by its best boat, the Physalia. One object, therefore, of the visit above referd to was to consider with the Director the best way to meet this urgent need. Accordingly plans and specifications for a 70-foot twin-screw boat were prepard during the sum- mer ; and on authorization by the Executiv Committee, at its meeting of October 18, 1910, a contract for the construction of this proposd vessel was let October 31, 1910, to the Miami Yacht and Machine Co., of Miami, Flor- ida, with the expectation that the contract will be completed July next. The other emergency arises from the damage to the laboratory caused by the hurricane of October 14-18, 1910. The extent of this damage is not definitly known at the present writing, but steps have been taken to get trust- worthy details at the erliest practicable date, so that estimates of the expense requird to restore the building may be redy for submission to the Board of Trustees before their next meeting in December. It is gratifying to note that the opportunities afforded for intensiv research by the laboratory are so highly appreciated that applications for its privi- leges are alredy more numerous than can be granted. Each year since its establishment additions have been made to its equipment and the Director 26 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. hopes that with some minor additions quarters may be found for fifteen or more investigators every summer. During the past season twelve associates, one collector, and one artist illustrator, in addition to the Director, carrid on work at the laboratory. Of the investigators, nine returned to continue work begun in previous years, while two of the other three expect to return in 191 1. Many researches are in progress, therefore, as may be seen by reference to the full reports of the Director and his associates in the current Year Book. Of the publications of the department during the year, special attention should be cald to the comprehensiv monograf in three quarto volumes by Dr. Mayer, on "The Medusae of the World," issued as Publication No. 109 of the Institution. Two other volumes, Publications Nos. 132 and 133, con- taining shorter papers from the Director and associates of the laboratory, are now passing thru the press. Capital progress has been made during the year in the large and exacting undertaking which this department has so successfully started. Work at ^ , the observatory in Argentina has gone forward at an un- Department of ,,,.,,, Meridian precedented rate and with such a degree of thoroness and Astrometry. completeness as to give assurances that this part of the enterprise will be completed within the next year. Great credit is properly assignd by the Director to the zeal and the industry shown by the resident staff of the observatory in thus completing, within so short a time and with- out lowering the highest standards of precision, an unparalleld amount of observational work. The general success of this enterprise affords a for- cible illustration of the superior effectiveness of a department of research which may proceed with its work intensivly in accordance with carefully pre- arranged plans and organization of effort. While the supplementary observations of the positions of the stars are going forward in the southern hemisphere, arrangements for the final com- putations of these positions are proceeding at the Dudley Observatory ; for the formidable task of observation must be followd by a still more formida- ble task of computation. Preliminary to the grand catalog of stellar positions projected by the department, there has been issued by the Institution during the past year, as Publication No. 115, a catalog of 6188 stars for the epoch 1900. This has alredy assumd first rank among catalogs of precision and the demand for it indicates that a second edition may be cald for before the larger catalog is completed. In response to a demand from other astrono- mers and in view of the needs of his own work, the Director has publisht also, thru the Dudley Observatory, a "List of 1059 standard stars for 1910." REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, 1910. 2.J Altho this laboratory has been occupied less than two years and is not yet fully equipt, it has alredy produced contributions of fundamental importance to our knowledge of the chemistry, physics, physiology, The Nutrition an(j pathology of nutrition. Its experience, like that of all the laboratories of the Institution, affords an impressiv demonstration of the productivity attainable by concentrated effort along determinate lines of research. Construction and instalation of additional equipment, the prosecution of investigations, and the publication of results have gone forward simultaneously during the year. One new calorimeter has been completed, another partly constructed, and various auxiliary apparatus for use with these and the erlier equipments have been supplied. Similarly, respiration apparatus for men, respiration apparatus for dogs, and many improvements in the calorimeter section of the laboratory have been made. Several pieces of apparatus have been acquird also by purchase abroad, and the efficiency of the machine shop has been improvd by the addition of a precision lathe. The investigations under way at the laboratory and outlined in the Direc- tor's report are too numerous and too technical to permit further abstract or parafrase. It may suffice here, therefore, to cite one of the most important of these investigations in which decided progress has alredy been made, but which may yet require many years to complete, namely, the nature and mean- ing of metabolism in diabetes. In the researches on this recondite problem the Director has thus far had the good fortune to enlist the activ cooperation of Dr. Elliott P. Joslin, thru whose aid especially it has been possible to use the laboratory's apparatus in detaild observations and mesurements of a number of diabetic patients during the past two years. The preliminary results of the research just referd to were regarded as so important as to justify prompt public announcement, and they have accord- ingly been printed during the year in Publication No. 136. Interest in the laboratory and its work is now so widespred that another volume, describing in detail the respiration calorimeters and their applications, by the Director and Mr.Thorne M. Carpenter, has been issued as Publication No. 123. Many shorter publications from members of the research staff have appeard during the year in current journals and in the proceedings of learned societies. The rapid growth in equipment and facilities and the equally rapid prog- ress in the production of capital results from the researches at this observa- tory are at once sources of surprise and gratification to the Observt astronomical world. Work during the past year has gone on with little diminution of vigor, altho illness of the Director has forced him to relinquish his activities for a considerable portion of the time. He has recently gone abroad for a season and the departmental 28 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. report for the past year has been prepard by Mr. Walter S. Adams, now Acting Director of the Observatory. The work of this establishment is now so extensiv and so varid that it is somewhat difficult to summarize even in its salient aspects. In addition to the observatory proper, with its four principal telescopes and much auxil- iary equipment on Mount Wilson, there are the physical laboratory and the instrument shops at Pasadena, along with special divisions devoted to the work of computations and construction respectivly. To become conversant, therefore, with the complexity of activities of this department, one must read the somewhat lengthy but relativly condenst annual reports of the Director. By way of equipment several large pieces of apparatus for the new tower telescope, for the 6o-inch telescope, and for the 100-inch grinding machine have been made at the shops. The towers for the new 150- foot tower telescope, begun a year ago, are now finisht along with the well, 75 feet deep in the rock below, which forms a part of the telescope tube of this novel instrument, now essentially complete except for its spectroscopic attachments still under construction at the shops. Some preliminary trials made recently with this instrument indicate that it will fulfil the sanguin ex- pectations entertaind in respect to its capacity. At the time of the annual meeting of the Board of Trustees a year ago "The Monastery," a wooden building on Mount Wilson supplying quarters for the resident members of the observatory staff, was completely destroyd, along with a considerable number of books and other valuable property, by fire. This building has been replaced during the year in somewhat enlarged form by a reinforced concrete structure. Progress has been made during the year in the details of designs for the proposed 100-inchor "Hooker" telescope, for which Mr. J. D. Hooker, of Los Angeles, made a substantial gift to the observatory some years ago. This work has been in charge of Professor Ritchey, whose construction of the 60-inch reflector has provd so signally successful. After repeated trials and failures to make a satisfactory disk the contracting firm at St. Gobain, France, have quite recently renewd the hope that a disk they now have an- nealing may meet the exacting requirements set by the astronomers. Allusion has alredy been made in an erlier part of this report to the meet- ing of the International Union for Cooperation in Solar Research held at the observatory during the week of August 29 to September 4 of the cur- rent year. An outline of the proceedings of this meeting, which was of peculiar interest to the observatory staff, is given by the Acting Director at the end of his report. In spite of the difficulties of access to the observatory site, this meeting was regarded as the most important held by the Union. Opportunities were afforded the visiting astronomers and physicists to inspect the entire establishment and to test especially the efficiency of the REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, I9IO. 29 telescopic apparatus. Their appreciation of these opportunities and of the optical perfection of the telescopes, particularly of the 60-inch equatorial reflector, is a source of keen encouragement to the observatory staff. Attention is invited to the interesting account given in the departmental report of the numerous investigations now under way at the observatory and in the physical laboratory at Pasadena. They are so effectivly summa- rized in this report that any restatement appears superfluous. No department of research in the Institution is conducting work which is at once so obviously practical and so obviously theoretical as the work of the n Department of Terrestrial Magnetism. Every one ac- Terrestrial quainted with the daily use of the compass in exploration, Magnetism. jn surveying, and in navigation recognizes the practical utility of a magnetic survey of the erth. But those who recognize that any utilitarian results may come from a deeper knowledge of the erth's mag- netism and its cosmic connections are at present very limited in number. Nevertheless, the history of science warrants a confident expectation that the latter results will ultimately prove to be of much greater value than the former. The more striking events of the year in this department refer naturally to the non-magnetic ship Carnegie, which was off on her first cruise at the close of the previous fiscal year. She was then at Falmouth, England, where her determinations of the magnetic elements were compard with independent determinations made at the permanent magnetic observatory of that port. She proceeded thence, November 9, 1909, to Funchal, Madeira; thence to Hamilton, Bermuda ; and thence, under tempestuous conditions which provd her seaworthiness, to Brooklyn, N. Y., where she arrivd February 17, 1910. Here she had her copper sheathing applied by the constructors, as requird by their contract, and was overhauld and refitted for a three years' circum- navigation cruise. It is a pleasant duty to report that in all essential respects this vessel has proved more effectiv than was anticipated. It has been dem- onstrated that even in rough weather the three magnetic elements (declina- tion, dip, and intensity) may be determind with a precision little short of that attainable in a fixt observatory. Thus she was able to discover on her first cruise errors of unexpected magnitude in the best sailing charts of the north Atlantic, and she is certain to attain at least an equal degree of precision in all future ocean work. By crossings of her own tracks and by connections at all available ports having magnetic observatories it will be practicable to exclude the possibilities of any important errors in this work. Similarly satisfactory progress has been made also in the land work of the department during the year. The expedition in Africa, from the Cape to Cairo, undertaken by Dr. Beattie and Professor Morrison as temporary 30 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. associates, was completed erly in the year, a total of 348 stations having been occupied. Mr. Pearson, field observer of the department, continued work in Turkey in the erly part of the year until relievd by Mr. Sligh, who ex- tended the work to Palestine, Syria, Arabia, Mesopotamia, and the islands of Rhodes and Cyprus. Up to the end of July of this year these two observers had occupied a total of 47 stations. Another observer, Mr. Stewart, left Washington erly in June to begin extensiv work in South America, proceed- ing in the launch El I man, provided especially for work along the Amazon and its tributaries. Additional observations are reported also from Canada and from various European countries in which initial determinations or in- strumental comparisons have been made. The offis work of the department has gone forward with corresponding productivity, the large volume of computations requird being kept closely up to date. The preparation for collectiv publication of data obtaind by the department on land and on sea is now well advanced, altho many of these data have been alredy furnisht for use by hydrografic offises and other na- tional and international bureaus. Much critical attention must be devoted by the offis staff to the inspection and perfection of instruments and auxiliary appliances. By the aid of a skild mechanician and a shop now attacht to the department it has been practicable to attain a degree of instrumental perfec- tion and a degree of economy in cost not hitherto equald in this kind of work. About fifty research associates have carried on investigations under the auspices of the Institution during the past year, either by aid of grants made directly to the individuals concernd, or by aid of grants Investigations of made to organizations like the American Schools at Athens Research Associates. ° .... and Rome, or by cooperation with our departments of re- search. In general, each of these associates has been in collaboration with one or more colleags or assistants, so that the total of those contributing to this work has been upwards of one hundred investigators. The range of their investigations embraces sixteen distinct fields of research, namely: archeology, astronomy, botany, chemistry, geology, geophysics, literature, mathematics, metallurgy, meteorology, paleontology, philology, physiology, political science, terrestrial magnetism, and zoology. Reference must be made, therefore, to the reports of individual investigators and to the general bibliografy, to be found in the current Year Book, for a fuller account of the fruitful activities in this branch of the Institution's work. It should be observd, however, that existing and prospectiv economic conditions, else- where referd to in this report, will probably require curtailment in this branch of work in the near future. REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, I9IO. 3 1 The preliminary preparations for the publication of the Classics of Inter- national Law, such as the determination of the classics selected for publica- tion and the designation of the individual editors, have Classics of Interna- ]jeen largely completed, and an erly appearance of some of the volumes may be confidently expected. The Gen- eral Editor of the Series, Prof. James Brown Scott, furnishes the following memorandum with respect to the present status of this enterprise : The text of Grotius' De Jure Belli Ac Pacis (1625) has been fotografi- cally reproduced and the translator, Dr. J. D. Maguire, professor of Latin in the Catholic University of America, has alredy translated the Introduction and Books 1 and 2, as well as a considerable portion of the third and final book. He expresses the hope that the entire translation of the work will be completed by the end of this year. In that event the original text and trans- lation will be redy for publication erly in 191 1. The Juris et Judicii Fecialis (1650) of Zouche has been fotografically re- produced and is redy for publication. It has been edited by Prof. Thomas Erskine Holland, until recently professor of International Law and Diplo- macy in the University of Oxford, who has supplied an introduction to the text, a list of errata, and an index of authors cited ; he has given the entire work careful supervision, including a translation of the text, by Mr. J. L. Brierly, of Lincoln's Inn, Barrister-at-Law, Fellow of All Souls College, and Lecturer of Trinity College, Oxford. It is probable that the text and translation of Zouche will appear erly in 191 1. The preparation of Ayala's De Jure et Officiis Bellicis et Disciplina Mili- tari (1582) was intrusted to Dr. John Westlake, until recently professor of International Law in the University of Cambridge. He has completed the introduction to be prefaced to the original text, and a translation has been made, under Professor Westlake's direction, by Mr. John Pawley Bate, LL. D., Reader of Roman and International Law in the Inns of Court, Lon- don. Professor Westlake's introduction and the translation have been re- ceivd by the Institution and the original text has been reproduced foto- grafically. It is probable, therefore, that the text and translation of this work will appear some time in 191 1. Prof. A. G. de Lapradelle, of the University of Paris, has undertaken the editorial supervision of Vattel's Droit des Gens (1758) and the text of the entire work has been reproduced fotografically. Professor de Lapra- delle expected to have the introduction completed during the summer, but it has not yet been receivd. It will probably arrive, however, before the close of the year, and the Institution will be able to publish this masterpiece in the course of 191 1. In a letter dated October 13, 1910, the distinguished Dr. von Bar, pro- fessor in the University of Gottingen, states that he has completed the intro- ductions to be prefaced to Rachel's De Jure Naturae et Gentium (1676) and Textor's Synopsis Juris Gentium (1680). The texts of Rachel and Textor 32 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. have not yet been reproduced, but, since they are very short, this part of the work will require little time. Dr. Georg Jellinek, professor of International Law at the University of Heidelberg, has undertaken the editing of the two masterpieces of Wolff, Jus Gentium Methodo Scientifica Pertractatum (1749) and Institutiones Juris Naturae et Gentium (1750). His introductions to both of these works are completed, and they may be expected in the course of the current year. The texts in question have not yet been reproduced, but it is hoped that they may be completed during the coming year. PUBLICATIONS. The publication of twenty-three volumes has been authorizd by the Ex- ecutiv Committee at an aggregate estimated cost of $39,900. The following P bl f A th ^st giyes tne titles and names of the authors of publica- ized and Issued dor- tions issued during the year. It includes twenty-nine vol- ing tne Year. umes with an aggregate of 3,274 octavo pages, 4,341 quarto pages, and one folio of 490 pages. List of publications issued during the year. Year Book, No. 8, 1909. Octavo, vii + 260 pages, 16 plates. Index Medicus, Second Series, vol. 7, 1909. Octavo, 1,348 pages. No. 53. Muller, W. Max. Egyptological Researches. In two volumes. Quarto. Volume 2. Results of a Journey in 1906. Pages v + 188, 47 plates, 68 text figures. No. 74. Sommer, H. Oskar. Vulgate Version of the Arthurian Romances. Edited from MSS. in the British Museum. In six volumes. Quarto. Volume I. Lestoire del Saint Graal, 296 pages. Volume II. Lestoire de Merlin, 466 pages. Volume III. Le Livre de Lancelot del Lac, Part I, 430 pages. No. 85. Hasse, Adelaide R. Index of Economic Material in the Documents of the States of the United States. Prepared for and under the direction of the Depart- ment of Economics and Sociology of the Carnegie Institution of Washing- ton. Separate volume for each State. Quarto. Kentucky (1792-1904), 452 pages. Delaware (1789-1904), 137 pages. No. 87. The California Earthquake of April 18, 1906. Report of the State Earthquake Investigation Commission, A. C. Lawson, Chairman. Quarto, two volumes and atlas. Volume 2. The Mechanics of the Earthquake. By H. F. Reid. vm + 192 pages, 2 plates, 62 text figures. No. 96 (Part II). Barus, Carl. Condensation of Vapor as induced by Nuclei and by Ions. Report IV. Octavo, vm 4- 84 pages, 21 text figures. No. 100. Ward, William Hayes. The Seal Cylinders of Western Asia. Quarto, xxix -f 428 pages, 1,500 text figures. No. 105. Lehmer, Derrick N. Factor Table for the First Ten Millions, containing the smallest factor of every number not divisible by 2, 3, 5, or 7, between the limits o and 10017000. Folio, xrv 4- 476 pages. No. 108. Van Deman, Esther B. The Atrium Vestas. Octavo, xn 4- 47 pages, 17 plates. No. 109. Mayer, Alfred G. The Medusae of the World. Quarto. In three volumes. Volume I. The Hydromedusae, pp. 1-230 + xv, plates 1-29, text figures 1-119. Volume II. The Hydromedusae (continued), pp. 231-498 + xv, plates 30- 55, text figures 120-327. Volume III. The Scyphomedusae, pp. 111 4- 499-735, plates 56-76, text figures 328-425. REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, I9IO. 33 No. 115. Boss, Lewis. Preliminary General Catalogue of 6,188 Stars for the Epoch 1900, including those visible to the naked eye and other well-determined Stars. Quarto, xxxvn + 345 pages. No. 116. Reichert, Edward T., and Amos P. Brown. The Differentiation and Specificity of Corresponding Proteins and other Vital Substances in relation to Biological Classification and Organic Evolution : The Crystallography of Hemoglobins. Quarto, xix -f 338 pages, 100 plates, 411 text figures. No. 119. Perrine, Charles D. Determination of the Solar Parallax from Photographs of Eros made with the Crossley Reflector of the Lick Observatory. Quarto, v + 08 pages, 1 plate, 2 text figures. No. 121. Davenport, C. B. Inheritance of Characteristics in Domestic Fowl. (Paper No. 14, Station for Experimental Evolution.) Quarto, 100 pages, 12 colored plates. No. 122. Johnson, Roswell H. Determinate Evolution in the Color Pattern of the Lady Beetles. (Paper No. 15. Station for Experimental Evolution.) Octavo, iv + 104 pages, 92 text figures. No. 123. Benedict, Francis G., and Thorne M. Carpenter. Respiration Calorimeters for studying the Respiratory Exchange and Energy Transformations of Man. Octavo, vii + 102 pages, 32 figures. No. 124. Robertson, James A. List of Documents in Spanish Archives relating to the History of the United States, which have been printed or of which transcripts are preserved in American Libraries. Octavo, xv + 368 pages. No. 125. Richards, Theodore W., and H. H. Willard. Determinations of Atomic Weights. Octavo, iv + 113 pages, 4 text figures. No. 126. Benedict, Francis G., and Thorne M. Carpenter. The Metabolism and Energy Transformations of Healthy Man during Rest. Octavo, vm + 255 pages. No. 129. MacDougal, D. T., and W. A. Cannon. The Conditions of Parasitism in Plants. Octavo, in + 60 pages, 2 text figures, 10 plates. No. 13s. Baxter, G. P., in collaboration with M. A. Hines, J. Hunt Wilson, F. B. Coffin, G. S. Tilley, Edward Mueller, R. H. Jesse, Jr., and Grinnell Jones. Re- searches upon the Atomic Weights of Cadmium, Manganese, Bromine, Lead, Arsenic, Iodine, Silver, etc. Octavo, vn + 185 pages, 5 text figures. No. 136. Benedict, Francis G., and Elliott P. Joslin. Metabolism in Diabetes Melitus. Octavo, vii + 234 pages, 2 plates. Pamflet, Issued on the Occasion of the Dedication of the Administration Building at Washington, December 13, 1909. Octavo, 32 pages, 1 plate, 20 figures. As fast as the steel shelving of the storage vaults of the Administration Building became available during the present year, steps were taken to collect and to arrange in safe and orderly condition the Storage of Public*- publications of the Institution, which have accumulated somewhat rapidly in recent years. These had been stored, chiefly in packing boxes, partly in the Bond Building and partly in the attic of the Geophysical Laboratory. They are now all catalogd, secured in dust- proof packages, and stackt so that they may be redily inspected and cared for. Since the walls of the vaults are impervious to moisture and since the moisture of the air within them may be controld by the heating plant, the volumes in storage may be considerd reasonably secure against the usual sources of damage and deterioration. The gross amounts receivd annually from sales of publications, including subscriptions to the Index Medicus, are shown in the fourth colum of the c t t i3 ti. .- table on page 16 of this report. The amounts receivd Sales of Publications ° . T , , , ,. r 1 1 and Value of Those from subscriptions to the Index Medicus, from the sales on Hand. Q£ Year Books, and from sales of all other publications, are shown separately in the following table for each year since the founda- tion of the Institution : 3— yb 34 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. Table showing Sales of Publications. Year. Index Medicus. Year Book. Miscellaneous Books. 1903 I904 1905 1906 I907 1908 1909 1910 Total. . $2,256.91 2,37047 2,562.76 2,970.56 3,676.71 3,406.19 4,821.85 4470.50 $29-25 52.85 44-75 37.60 56.50 99-65 73.OI IOO.70 $12.75 431-44 1,341-52 2,292.89 4,371-67 6,287.21 5,89905 26,535.95 494.31 20,636.53 Altho the figures in this table show some degree of fluctuation, it seems safe to predict that the sales of miscellaneous publications especially will go on increasing for some years before reaching a maximum amount. In the meantime the reflectiv public is coming to understand that it is more rational for the Institution to offer its publications for sale at nominal prices than to attempt the unsatisfactory and wasteful task of a broadcast free distribution. At the end of the fiscal year just closed there are on hand 69,763 volumes of miscellaneous publications and Year Books, having a sale value of $152,- 776.55. There are also on hand 25,287 numbers, or the equivalent of about 2,000 volumes, of the Index Medicus, having a sale value of $11,725.25. The total value of publications now on hand is therefore $164,501.80. REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 35 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. To the Trustees of the Carnegie Institution of Washington: Gentlemen: Article V, Section 3, of the By-Laws provides that the Executive Committee shall submit at the annual meeting of the Board of Trustees a report for publication, and Article VI, Section 3, provides that the Executive Committee shall also submit, at the same time, a full statement of the finances and work of the Institution and a detailed estimate of the expenditures for the succeeding year. In accordance with these provisions, the Executive Committee herewith respectfully submits its report for the year 1909-1910. During the fiscal year ending October 31, 1910, the Executive Committee held nine meetings. Printed reports of these meetings have been sent to the members of the Board of Trustees. At the meeting of the Board of Trustees on December 14, 1909, Messrs. Mitchell, Parsons, and Welch were elected to succeed themselves as members of the Executive Committee for a term of three years. Upon the adjournment of the Board of Trustees on December 14, 1909, the members of the Executive Committee met and organized by the election of Mr. Welch as Chairman for 1910, and by voting that Mr. Gilbert, Assist- ant Secretary of the Institution, act as Secretary of the Committee for the same period. The President's report gives in detail the results of the work of the Insti- tution for the fiscal year 1909- 19 10, together with various recommendations and suggestions, and also an outline of suggested appropriations for the year 191 1. The Executive Committee hereby approves the report of the Presi- dent, and his recommendations, as the report and recommendations of the Committee. The Executive Committee on October 18, 1910, voted to recommend to the Board of Trustees that the salary of the Director of each Department of the Institution, with the exception of the Department of Economics and Soci- ology, be $6,000 beginning January 1, 191 1, and provision for this increase in salaries has been made in the President's recommendations for the budget of 1911. The Chairman of the Board of Trustees, in accordance with the By-Laws of the Institution, notified the Committee, at the meeting of October 18, 19 10, that he had designated The American Audit Company to audit the accounts of the Institution for the fiscal year ending October 31, 1910, and the report of this company is herewith submitted as a part of the report of the Executive Committee. 37 38 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. There are also submitted a financial statement and a statement of receipts and disbursements for the year, together with a statement of aggregate receipts and disbursements since the organization of the Institution on January 28, 1902. Certain proposed amendments to the By-Laws, framed in accordance with the action of the Trustees at their last meeting, were approved by the Execu- tive Committee at its meeting of May 16, 1910, and written notice of such proposed amendments has been forwarded to each member of the Board of Trustees. It becomes the duty of the Executive Committee to report the death of Darius Ogden Mills, a former Trustee of the Institution, on January 3, 1910. Three vacancies in the Board of Trustees will call for action at the coming annual meeting. William H. Welch, Chairman. John S. Billings. Cleveland H. Dodge. S. Weir Mitchell. Wm. Barclay Parsons. Elihu Root. Charles D. Walcott. Robert S. Woodward. December 12, ipio REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 39 Financial Statement, October 31, igw. ASSETS. LIABILITIES. Endowment $12,000,000 Reserve Fund : Administration Building Fund (balance due on con- tract) 2,045.39 Aggregate premium from sale of bonds 1,893-75 Insurance Fund and accrued interest 21,010 Bonds (original cost) : U. S. Steel Corporation bonds, 5 per cent $12,000,000 $50,000 A., T. & S. Fe Ry. Co. 4 per cent 100-year gold bonds, due Oct. 1, 1995 50,056.25 $50,000 L. S. and Mich. S. Ry. 4 per cent debenture bonds, due Sept. I, 1928 48,222.22 $50,000 C. Pacific First Refunding gold 4 per cent bonds, due Aug. 1, 1949 51,937-50 Real Estate, Equipment, and Publications : Administration : Building, site, and equipment 312,307.93 Publications : Stock on hand and outstanding accounts (Oct. 31, 1910) 165,35906 Department of Botanical Research (Sept. 30, 1910) : Buildings, office, and library $23,477.20 Apparatus 6,713 . 75 Operating appliances 8,555.28 Department of Experimental Evolution (Sept. 30, 1910) : Buildings, office, and library 38,131.12 Laboratory apparatus 4,095.37 Operating appliances and grounds 15,860.03 38,746.32 Geophysical Laboratory (Sept. 30, 1910) : Building, library, operating appliances. 110,712.61 Laboratory apparatus 58,585 . 75 Shop equipment 10,567.90 Department of Marine Biology (Sept. 30, 1910) : Vessels 12,712 . 55 Buildings, docks, furniture, and library 9,903.58 Apparatus and instruments 1,741 .02 58,086.52 179,866.26 Department of Meridian Astrometry (June 30, 1910) : Buildings and operating appliances.... 13,518.90 Apparatus and instruments 2,394.34 Nutrition Laboratory (Sept. 30, 1910) : Building and office 108,492.60 Laboratory apparatus 10,218.69 Shop equipment 1,895 • 83 Solar Observatory (Aug. 31, 1910) : Buildings, grounds, road, and tele- phone line 113,328.52 Shop equipment 18,953.25 Instruments 265,888.95 Furniture and operative appliances 40,147.50 Hooker telescope 37,404. 14 24,357-15 i5,9i3-24 120,607.12 475,722.36 Carried forward 13,541,181.93 12,024,949.14 4.0 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OE WASHINGTON. Financial Statement, October 31, 1910 — continued. Real estate, Equipment, and Publications — Continued. Brought forward. ._ $13,541,181 .93 $12,024,949. 14 Department of Terrestrial Magnetism (Sept. 30, 1910) : Office 4,250.83 Instruments 24,410 . 19 Vessel and ocean equipment 116,976.57 Land equipment 4,236.82 149,874-41 Property Investment (aggregate cost) 1,540,840.37 Grants : Large 119,967.56 Minor 21,167.87 Research Associates and Assistants 7.853 • 7§ Publication 68,652.34 Administration 14,553.80 Cash: In banks 132,749-55 Stamps and petty cash fund 300 Unappropriated Fund 26,121 . 03 13,824,105.89 13,824,105.89 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 41 s s o o o fa <5 k. s-, 8 CO V. 3 •3 s to \r> CO t-i O on 58 no ^ ONO 00 1- 0 in. M On 10 >-< Tf 69- m VO o 5 H « s w en « S3 en Q on-a ■<*■ OnNO NTfO ro O tJ- O ThVO rf VO 10 in CM On coVO hH In. t)- «n. CM CM CM >-< 1000 ;+NO ON Ov IO00 in O CM (n.00 eoOO 00 fiH "° "^.9 *t O "N M" co O 00 iO hOO P)h h N COVO tN. VOvo 5 On 50 ■* cm "5" CM a o ca t- e a ca H bo H 3 {-. On IN. CO In. CO cm 00 CM m O 1-1 CO mtvN H l«)Ol oooo 0 cm" K cm* cm bo 2 tn <1J W c X n CD .5 £ o ft s-1" CX in ft CU •CO " C c E ft o R W u T.-S en -*-* cd ca V on n V u ex X bO.^ CD 1- c CS «r .— *ft q. en tn •O C O v- bo $pq s-r^tf > < z « 5 o CD •9 tn CD 3 CD d X J25 •3 cd + o" On CM On en in » 0 O O CN no a rf to NO ONNO OCO In. NO NO COCO ONNO CM 1-1 CO Tf O t^. in 00 in in NO 1-1 0 0 m m cm Tt" CM CO CO iv, Tf N co OlH If) IN. w f-l I— ( w o en •O o ftQi ^ '^ O CL) U ofe^E - ca H rrjcH -b ^n » C 15 enjn S C e4Q tn o < tn U •3 CO o o pq tn i4 fa O rt tn ft ft O ca 57 cj O <^ ft tn - u. u U 1-, u 1- Soooooo w » o o O clj^^ >J tljj {J. £j*ca ca "3 «" en C 3 5 -.»-)_( 14-1 On 0 ON O co o en CU u O ft o -i NO CO tN. W NO *-' On O On I- O O PQ 1. ca ho c o c CO CO CM in On fN. 42 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OE WASHINGTON. o On H e*i o O O) o Ov o 8 S 8 ■** o ••* 8 Q 8? o z tt a w in « P « w Q in NO in no o 01 o IO00 ' o en en <$! -a c « bo •o s c .2 *-£ CTJ «.= S eg in 03 > en NO 00 On 00 01 00 CM 00 00 Tt oi in Ti- en 01 in t^ >-. o Tt I". vo en w en en n '■too "50\h nn nmd o en M ON00 O (H OO aNOOOO N M m -hj-vo 01 t^vo en no q ►* OO mOO of * ino\0\ent^cnino m OnOO no no "">no in o N O m h TtOO O h miOH *o MC "IK no xr> enco en»o in o Tt o m «* onoo^ w m rf of tC in Tt of \o t-^ t-Too" O* of m in M H H N 0) H H N oi ^ en in < c rt U 4) S a! •• bog H be bfl C c •O "C CJ u c c C5 R s "to cu %) IM » en en in en w Tt inONinenoioo o< en oi no in O Tt oi in 00 en 01 VO NO 1^ On m < o o c p to rt «j > 03 u C ~ cu -2 in 0.3 m rt u W O.J^ Q.'o'eS in «J rt c 0 - k* b a u w -Srt°-B^ i_ rt rt O u. rt rt in "3 "in « ^^ *j ,g O rt.S1 m O-j: O v a P- " da vs. I. 2. Ordinary sea-water 3 3 24 4 32 5 60 93 0 0 8 2 0 0 0 0 25 7 500 c.c. sea-water + 15 gtts. N/10 acetic 3- *• Do 4 5 2 14 13 3 16 15 5 81 69 5i 0 0 0 3 16 44 0 3 6 0 0 0 10 12 2 Do 500 c.c sea-water + 2 c.c. N /io acetic 6. 7- 8. 9- 10. Do 2 3 4 20 6 24 49 7i I 0 45 5 5 0 0 0 1 9 500 c.c. sea- water + 15 gtts. Do.. N/10 HC1.. 4 5 2 17 13 6 17 16 9 79 66 51 0 0 0 4 18 40 0 3 4 0 0 0 13 8 2 Do 500 c.c. sea-water + 30 stts. Do N/10HCI... 11. 2 5 7 49 0 44 2 0 1 These investigations have furnished proof of the possibility of controlling the appearance of certain characters by a change in environment. My ob- servations, together with those of Herbst, show that there is an optimum, environment for the occurrence of definite characters. This environment is a complex of factors. Two of the factors are temperature and OH ion concentration. DEPARTMENT OF MARINE BIOLOGY. 1 35 The chief aim of the work in 1910 was the acquisition of material for a study of nuclear activities in eggs whose potencies had been determined by OH ion concentration. An abundance of material was obtained, but no re- port can be made until the cytological study is completed. The Recent Madreporaria of Southern Florida, by Thomas Wayland Vaughan, U. S. Geological Survey. SURVEY OE THE CORAE ElELDS. The survey of the coral fields of the Tortugas was continued in 1910 and three additions to the list of the shallow-water madreporarian fauna were made, viz : Astrangia solitaria, which grows on calcareous blocks on the reefs off Loggerhead Key ; Cladocora arbuscula, which is attached to the outer face of the northwest side of the Fort Jefferson moat-wall; and Acropora pal mat a, which was observed by Dr. Mayer in the Five-Foot Channel, off Bush Key reef, in water about 5 feet deep. Acropora ccrvicornis and A. prolifera covered acres or even square miles of the shallow-water flats around the Tortugas previous to the "Black Water" period of 1879, when they were nearly all killed. For many years subsequent to this general destruction only occasional specimens of them could be found, the principal locality being off the northwest face of Loggerhead Key in water about 20 feet deep. Now, however, they are rapidly reestablishing themselves, and have become fairly common on the flats west of Garden Key off Fort Jefferson, and on the flat north of Bird Key, in water 4 or 5 feet deep. The present tentative list of Tortugas Madreporaria comprises 27 species and forms,* including most of the common reef and flat corals of the Antillean and Floridian regions. The annual surveys of the piers of the Fort Jefferson dock and of the Fort Jefferson moat were continued. In both localities young corals were dis- covered and measurements to determine growth-rate initiated. Especially noteworthy among the young corals are single-caliced specimens of Busmilia and small Mceandra clivosa on the piers of the dock, and a young Oculina in the moat. The continued observations on the piers of the dock seem to show that strong light is essential for the growth of shallow-water corals, as the piers in the permanently shaded area under the dock are devoid of corals, while they are abundant wherever the light is strong. Skeletal texture and strength of basal attachment are other factors determining habitat. Corals with fragile skeletons, such as Busmilia and Oculina, can not live in the region of breakers, while that kind of environment is favorable for massive species, such as Orbicella annularis and Pontes astreoides. Species with narrow bases of attachment, as Mceandra areolata, are necessarily limited to rather quiet water. The annual examinations of the moat show gradual changes in the biologic associations. Certain algse, both non-calcareous and the calcareous Hali- meda, are becoming more abundant, while ramose bryozoa are very prolific. In some instances these organisms are overgrowing the corals, and probably killing them. Evidently here is an opportunity not only to study the adapta- bility of the corals to moat conditions, but also to observe the struggle for supremacy between different groups of organisms. Effect of exposure between tides on corals. — Between June 6 and 8 was a period of unusually low tide, accompanied by very calm weather, causing the exposure of the tops of many colonies and in other instances exposing entire * Variations and forms are treated as species in this report. I36 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. colonies for several hours without the usual dashing of water over them through agitation by wind or ocean-swell. Two photographic illustrations of the appearance of one of the reefs off Loggerhead Key are here presented (plate 1, figs. A and B). The corals in the Fort Jefferson moat were also examined to ascertain the effect of the exposure. The ability to withstand exposure between tides seems to be a function of the porosity of the skeleton. On the reefs the tops of the heads of Orbicella annularis were bleached, and at least the superficial soft tissues were killed. In the moat the superficial soft tissues of Busmilia, Orbicella annularis, Mceandra arcolata, M. clivosa, and Manicina ("Colpophyllia") gyrosa were killed, and the same was also the case with some specimens of Favia fragum, or all corals with imperforate hard tissues. The amount of regeneration that may take place from living tissue deeply situated in the skeletons can not be ascertained before inspection during the next field season. It should be stated that even these corals may stand atmospheric exposure if kept satu- rated with sea-water. Siderastrea radians, the skeleton of which is slightly perforate and is made more spongy by synapticula, withstands exposure better than corals with imperforate skeletons ; while the various species of Pontes seemed to be not at all affected by an exposure of several hours, their extremely porous skeletons insuring a continuous supply of water through capillarity. That Orbicella annularis heads are often partially killed by exposure is attested by the dead summits of large heads, which are usually submerged, off the western side of Garden Key. RATE OF GROWTH OE CORALS. The report for 1909* contains notes on measurements instituted to ascer- tain the growth rate of corals, and a few comparative measurements made in 1908 and 1909 are given. In 1910 the colonies measured in 1908 and 1909 were remeasured, except in those instances in which the colony had been broken from its attachment or had died, and the series of measurements was greatly increased. It was stated in the 1909 report that the measurements were then not sufficiently accurate. An attempt has been made to remedy this defect by referring the colonies to horizontal and vertical coordinates. Plumb-lines were attached to the instruments to get vertical lines, and the horizontal was determined by an arm perpendicular to the one to which the plumb-line was attached. Nevertheless, as corals are very irregularly shaped objects and grow in various positions, and as it is difficult to measure under water in the ocean, even in quiet weather, only approximate accuracy can be expected. Cementing specimens to tiles and photographing them before plant- ing has been initiated, hoping thus to obtain more accurate results than by measurement alone. It is very desirable to determine both the weight and the volume of the skeleton produced in a known period of time. It will be possible to determine these directly in specimens reared from larvae ; and they can be closely estimated when such growth observations as are now being made become sufficiently numerous. In the succeeding notes on the present status of the investigation each species is considered separately. In several instances tentative estimates of the age of average-sized adult colonies are given ; these estimates, although they seem reliable, must not be considered as facts, and are being checked by numbers of observations. Madreporarian colonies are limited in growth, a fact which brings up for consideration the cause of this limitation. The * Carnegie Institution of Washington, Year Book No. 8, 1909, pp. 141-142. DEPARTMENT OF MARINE BIOLOGY. 137 hypothetical explanation is offered, that limitation in growth is caused by the natural limit of asexual reproduction of a sexually produced polyp. To state this hypothesis in other words : a sexually produced polyp may bud or divide ; each polyp thus asexually produced can give rise to only a limited number of asexual generations, and if sexual reproduction does not intervene the species will become extinct. Busmilia knorri. — In 1910 observations or measurements were again made on two colonies, the records for which began in 1908, and one, the record for which began in 1909, all three colonies growing attached to the piers of the Fort Jefferson dock. Although the data are meager, they indicate rapid growth, the increase in the three dimensions varying from 33 per cent to 100 per cent, and the increase in the number of calices from 100 per cent to 200 per cent per annum. During 1910 the number of records was increased to 14, 10 of them being without measurements and 4 with measurements. Each of two of three speci- mens first measured in 1910 consisted of a single undivided calice. The next season's field observations may furnish sufficient data to determine the time required for growth from the initial calice to an average-sized mature specimen. Dichoccenia stokesi. — A single colony of this species, living in the Fort Jefferson moat, is under observation. It is attached to the vertical face of the outer wall, near the southeast exit; it is permanently submerged and through the nearby entrance receives a supply of pure sea-water. The speci- men is large : Length in 1909, 363 mm. ; in 1910, 368 mm. ; an increase in one year of 5 mm., or 1.38 per cent. Breadth in 1909, 297 mm. ; in 1910, 315 mm. ; an increase of 18 mm. or 6 per cent. The measurement of the thickness in 1909 is not reliable. The growth of this colony was slight, and as it is already large perhaps it has almost reached its growth-limit. Oculina sp. probably diffusa. — In 1908 records were begun for three colo- nies attached to the piers of the Fort Jefferson dock; in 1909 records were begun for one additional colony attached to a pier and for two growing in the moat. Three colonies, attached one above another to the same pier of the dock, show the following percentage increase in height : the uppermost, 175 per cent ; the median, 75 per cent; the lowest, 33.33 per cent. The upper- most colony has increased in height more than five times as rapidly as the lowest. As the uppermost has the strongest light, this may be the accelerating factor. Another colony on a pier showed an increase in height during the year from 75 to 128 mm., a percentage increase of 70 per cent. Two colonies in the moat showed respectively an increase in height of 41 to 62 mm., or jy per cent, and 35 to 60 mm., or 86 per cent. The increase of the number of branches in these two colonies was about 100 per cent. In 1910 a young Oculina was discovered beside the two others in the moat, and as it was not seen in 1909 probably represents a year's growth. Its dimensions are as follows : Diameter of basal expansion in horizontal plane, 32 mm. ; in vertical plane, 28.5 mm. ; one branch projects horizontally 22 mm. from the basal expansion. A large colony on a dock pier is 350 mm. in diam- eter and 100 mm. tall. The annual growth-rate in height is from 15 to 35 mm., with about 25 mm. as an average. Therefore, a colony may grow to a height of 100 mm. in four years under moderately favorable conditions ; the range in the attainment of such a size would probably be from three to seven years. In 1910 the number of growth records on this species was increased from 6 to 11. I38 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. Favia fragum. — In 1909 records were begun on six colonies living in the moat. In 1910, two of these were apparently dead, two showed very little or no growth, while the other two had grown considerably. The death of two colonies and the retardation of growth in two others were probably due to exposure at low tide ; and the other two, probably for the same reason, are really not thriving. Evidently this species can not withstand atmospheric exposure so well as species with more porous skeletons. Of the two speci- mens that had grown, one had increased in length over 100 per cent; the other had increased in breadth 57 per cent. Data obtained in 1908* showed that planulae attached between May 11 and May 18 had grown by July 22 to calices having a diameter of 3.5 to 5.5 mm., with an average of about 4.5 mm., or they had attained this size at an age between 66 and 73 days. At this rate of growth, at the end of the first year a specimen should be about 20 mm. in diameter. An adult specimen, about 60 mm. in length, is estimated, from the combined data procured to the present time, to attain its size within about three years. In 1910 the number of growth records was increased to 30, nearly all of the specimens being below the level of the lowest tide, and therefore not sub- ject to exposure between tides. Mceandra areolata. — Only one growth record is available. It is of a speci- men transferred from the piers of the Fort Jefferson dock to the moat and planted near the southeast exit. Its length in 1908 was 40 mm. ; in 1909, 54 mm.; in 1910, 80 mm.; an increase of 100 per cent in two years. Its breadth in 1908 was 27 mm. ; in 1909, 46 mm. ; in 1910, 69 mm. ; an increase of 156 per cent in two years. Its height in 1909 was 28 mm. ; in 1910, 42 mm. ; an increase in height of 50 per cent in one year. It is estimated that this specimen is about four years old ; and, as it is almost adult, indicates that the probable age of an adult specimen is from four to five years. In 1910 the number of records for M. areolata was increased to 21. Mceandra viridis. — The only growth record is of a rather large head living on the reef off Loggerhead Key. Its length in 1909 was 432 mm. ; in 1910, 445 mm. ; an increase of 13 mm. or 3 per cent. Its breadth in 1909 was 325 mm. ; in 1910, 341 mm. ; an increase of 16 mm. or 5 per cent. Its height in 1909 was 347 mm. ; in 1910, 371 mm. ; an increase of 24 mm. or 7 per cent. In actual amount of growth, the increase in size, compared with that of young Mceandra clivosa colonies, is slight, suggesting that this colony is approaching its growth limit. Mceandra clivosa. — Seven colonies, all living in the Fort Jefferson moat, were measured in 1909 ; one of these had disappeared in 1910, leaving 6 colo- nies which were again measured. The percentage increase in length and breadth ranged from 14 per cent to 113 per cent, the 113 per cent represent- ing an increase in length from 99 to 211 mm. The increase in thickness for the six specimens was, respectively, 124 per cent, 15 per cent, 48 per cent. 114 per cent, and 76 per cent. Although information on the initial stages of this species is not yet suffi- cient, there is some. A young specimen, which is now growing on one of the piers of the Fort Jefferson dock and has diameters of 30 and 40 mm., re- spectively, probably represents a year's growth, as it was not seen when the pier was examined in 1909. A major diameter of 300 or 400 mm. is common for large specimens. From the data obtained, it is estimated that a colony * Carnegie Institution of Washington, Year Book No. 7, 1908, p. 135. DEPARTMENT OE MARINE BIOLOGY. I39 under favorable conditions of growth may attain a length of 200 mm. in three years ; and with a subsequent annual increase of 50 to 100 mm., a maxi- mum diameter of 300 mm. would represent four to five years ; 400 mm., five to seven years ; 500 mm., six to nine years. Ten years' growth would pro- duce a large corallum. Should the environment be unfavorable, a colony may increase only slightly in size. In 1910 the number of records for M. clivosa was increased to 16. Manicina ("Colpophyllia') gyrosa. — Two specimens are being annually measured. One of them was transferred from a pier of the Fort Jefferson dock and planted in the moat near the southeast exit in 1908. A mistake was made in the identification of this coral, while its skeleton was covered by living soft tissue, and in the reports for 1908 and 1909 it is referred to as Mccandra labyrinthiformis* Its length in 1908 was 65 mm.; in 1909, 85 mm. ; in 1910, 122 mm. ; an increase of 88 per cent in two years. Its breadth in 1908 was 65 mm. ; in 1909, 85 mm. ; in 1910, 112 mm. ; an increase of J2, per cent in two years. Its height in 1908 was 20 mm. ; in 1910, 32 mm. ; an increase of 60 per cent in two years. The other specimen, which is attached to a pier of the Fort Jefferson dock and is shaded above by an Oculina colony, seems to have grown but little. In 1909 it had a maximum diameter of 144 mm. (erroneously given as 154 mm. in the report of 1909) ; in 1910 diameter in horizontal plane 147 mm. ; in vertical plane 132 mm. ; thickness 55 mm. Siderastrea radians. — Seven colonies living in the moat were measured in 1909 ; of these, in 19 10 two were apparently dead ; two others had grown but little, while the three others had increased in length and breadth, the range of increase being from 21 to 46 per cent. The largest of these colonies now has a length of 58 mm. ; all are therefore small. The growth rate as com- pared with other species is slow and the colonies appear not to be thriving. Exposure at low tide is probably the principal disadvantageous factor. In 1910 the number of records was increased to 10; six of the specimens are cemented to tiles planted off the northwest face of the Fort Jefferson moat wall and are permanently below water-level. Agaricia sp., probably fragiUs var. — Previous to 1910 only one colony was measured. It was attached to a pier of the Fort Jefferson dock, but was knocked off between the summer of 1909 and 1910. It was an attached thin plate, and showed between 1908 and 1909 an increase in length from 50 to 69 mm. or 38 per cent ; in width from 37 to 54 mm. or 46 per cent. In 1910, 10 new records were initiated upon this species of Agaricia. Poritcs clavaria. — Two colonies growing in the moat were measured in 1909 and again in 1910, but the data are not satisfactory. The increase in length and breadth ranged from 54 to 100 per cent ; that in height from 10 to 43 per cent. The growth rate under favorable conditions is evidently rapid. In 1910 the records upon Pontes clavaria were increased to 8. Porites furcata. — Thirteen colonies, two attached to piers of the Fort Jef- ferson dock and eleven living in the moat, were measured in 1909. Of this number, two colonies in the moat had not grown or had been damaged, while the remaining eleven furnished interesting information. As the table em- bodying the data is long, it will not be inserted here, but remarks on it will be made. * Carnegie Institution of Washington, Year Book No. 7, 1908, p. 135 ; Year Book No. 8, 1909, p. 142. 140 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. The specimens on the piers show an increase in length and breadth of as much as 64 and 79 per cent ; in height, 41 and 105 per cent. One specimen that in 1908 had one nodule on its surface, in 1910 had seven stocks, each subdivided ; thus within two years an incrusting base may develop a clump of branches. The growth-rate varied greatly between the specimens in the moat, seemingly those nearer the exits growing more rapidly than those more distant. The increase in length in one instance reached 210 per cent; in breadth, in the same specimen, 163 per cent; the maximum increase in height was 207 per cent, while in the other more favorably situated colonies, 6y, 69, 74, 92, 155, and 168 respectively represent the percentage increase. The branching is as rapid as the general growth ; a few nodules of one year may be replaced in the succeeding year by stocks and clusters of branches, rendering recognition of the colony in successive years impossible without marking. Within three or four years a rather large colony may be produced. In 1910 the number of records for P. furcata was increased to 26. During the field season of 1910 additional colonies living on the reefs off Loggerhead Key, on the piers of the Fort Jefferson dock, and in the moat were measured and records were made. Specimens of corals fastened by Portland cement in 1909 thrived, showing that this material can be used in affixing corals for planting in desirable localities. Eighty-six specimens were cemented to tiles, and after having been photographed and measured were planted on iron stakes off the northwest outer face of the Fort Jeffer- son moat wall in water ranging from 12 to 18 inches in depth at the lowest tide. Ten other specimens were cemented to tiles and, after having been sketched and measured, were planted in a live-car, intended to withstand hurricanes, off Loggerhead Key. The number of records by species is as follows : Number of Growth Records by Species. Name of species. No. of records. Name of species. No. of records. Eusmilia knorri . 14 1 11 4 11 4 30 21 1 16 Manicina gyrosa 2 10 4 10 11 8 26 12 7 Dichoccenia stokesi Siderastrea radians Oculina, probably diffusa siderea . Astrangia solitaria Agaricia, probably fragilis var. Orbicella annularis cavernosa . Porites clavaria Favia fragum . furcata Mseaudra areolata ... astreoides viridis... Too voung for identification Total 203 These 203 records are distributed over 18 species, forms, or variations. Less than 10 records for a species is of course valuable, but as so small a number is not sufficient, an effort will be made to get at least 10 records for each species. This is possible in most instances, for a colony may be divided and each part, after attaching it with cement, can be used for growth experi- ments. At present there are no serial observations or measurements on 9 species or forms known to live around the Tortugas, but, as material can be obtained of 4 of these 9, the deficiency can be partially remedied during the next season's field work. Young stages of about half the species have been obtained, permitting the growth to be rather confidently followed from the end of the first year. DEPARTMENT OF MARINE BIOLOGY. I4I Attempts are being made certainly to fill this gap by rearing colonies from the planula stage. These experiments will be subsequently described. As the records for one or two years clearly show variation in growth-rate for different colonies of the same species, a consideration of the factors ac- celerating or retarding growth becomes necessary. At present it seems that strong light and pure ocean-water are two accelerating factors, but the data on them are vague. A thorough knowledge, which we do not now possess, of the feeding-habits and the food-supply is essential before these problems can be solved. The tiles planted on the reefs in 1909, in the hope that young corals would settle on them and furnish material for growth observations, had collected nothing in 1910. but were left undisturbed, hoping for ultimate success. REARING CORALS FROM PLANUL-*:. Results of previous attempts. — During the field season of 1908 planulae of Pavia fragum attached themselves to the bottom of a glass vessel, which was placed in a live-car that broke its moorings during a storm. These planulae attached themselves between May 11 and 18, 1908, and on July 22, when measured by Dr. Mayer, had attained a size ranging from 3.5 X 4 mm. to 5 mm. in diameter. In 1909, twelve tiles bearing attached young were planted, but in 1910 no trace of living coral could be found on them, all evidently having died. Experiments in ipio. — In 1910, 50 cultures were made, as follows: Planula Cultures wade in igio. Name of species. No. of cultures made. No. of tiles to which pla- nulae attached. Successful cultures. No. of plauulae that attached. Astrangia solitaria 1 8 4 20 '7 0 3 1 4 13 per cent. 0.0 37-5 25 20 75 0 16 3 29 155 Favia fragum Agaricia crassa . Porites clavaria . astreoides . Total . 50 21 203 The culture technique was considerably improved during this season and will be briefly described. An effort is made to have the planulae settle on tiles having a central perforation by which they may be fitted over the heads of iron stakes. The tiles have a diameter of 8 inches and are placed in jars, the inside diameter of which is about 8.25 inches and the depth about 8.5 inches. After the bottom of a jar has been covered with the cleanest sand obtainable, a tile is placed in it and the central perforation and the space be- tween the periphery of the tile and the sides of the jar are filled with sand to the level of the upper surface of the tile. Filling these spaces is necessary, as the planulae tend to settle in depressions. After this preparation, fresh sea- water is gently poured in through a funnel until the jar is nearly full. The extruded planulae are pipetted from the vessel containing the parent colony and placed in the culture-jar prepared for their reception. To get the best results, the water in the culture-jar should be changed at least once a day. This may be done by several devices. In order not to draw I42 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. off the planulae, which are very small, a bag of fine-mesh bolting-cloth must be affixed to any tube used in withdrawing the stale water. One method was to siphon off the stale water with a rubber tube, the end of the tube inserted into the culture-jar having been drawn over one end of a glass tube, the other end of which is enveloped in a bolting-cloth bag. The table on which the culture-jars stand is provided with a gutter into which the water drawn off is discharged, ultimately flowing outside the building through a pipe through the floor. After a jar has been emptied to within an inch of the tile, it is refilled with fresh sea-water. This method causes a change in the level of the water, and by the pouring stirs up the unattached planulae. A second method was to withdraw the old water by a glass siphon resting on the upper edge of the jar, the siphon having been rendered non-emptying by having its outer end bent upward. Fresh sea-water is added by a siphon extending to the bottom of the culture- jar from a supply-jar placed at a higher level. By this method a constant level is maintained in the culture-jars; the old water is drawn off from the top while the new water is added at the bottom. A third method was to have inside the culture-jar a tantalus siphon emptying through the side of the jar near its bottom. Fresh water is siphoned into the culture- jar from supply- jars placed at a higher level. When the water in a culture-jar has reached the level of the upper curvature of the siphon, it begins to run out and continues to flow until the level of the open end of the siphon in the jar is reached. The jar is then refilled by the afferent siphon until the level of the upper curvature of the tantalus siphon is again reached, when the water again begins to flow out. This method causes a rise and fall in the level of the water. A fourth method was to cut the bottom out of a culture-jar and to place the glass collar thus produced over a tile in a jar of larger diameter, the bottom of which had previously been covered with sand to a depth of an inch or slightly more. The tile and its surrounding collar are sunk into the sand until the upper surface of the tile and the upper sur- face of the sand are level with each other, while the level of the upper edge of the collar remains slightly higher than that of the inclosing jar. Water is siphoned into the collar from supply- jars, and filters through the sand filling the space between the collar and the side of the inclosing jar. When the level of the upper edge of the jar is reached, the water overflows. This method maintains a constant level of water, draws off old water at the bot- tom, and adds new water at the top. As all four of these methods were tried, and as all were successful, the preference between them was not determined. Fresh water is necessary, and occasional stirring of unattached planulse may be beneficial. The two previous attempts to carry attached larvse over from one year to the next failed. As it was discovered in 1908 that attached larvse thrived in a floating live-car, it was decided to try to build a live-car strong enough to weather a hurricane, to load it with tiles bearing young polyps, and to anchor it securely. Two views of this live-car are here presented. One, plate 1, fig. C, shows its structure and the method of fastening the tiles ; the other, plate 1, fig. D, shows the car after being placed in the water. Buoyancy was obtained by a closed copper tank in each end. The car is made fast to a sea- anchor by an anchor chain.* *This live-car was sunk just before the hurricane of October 17-19, 1910, but was re- floated, and, according to a report received from John Mills, the head mechanic of the laboratory, 6 tiles bore a total of 32 living polyps, or one-fifth of the polyps had sur- vived the sinking of the car and the hurricane. PLATE 1 r A, B. Two views of reef off Loggerhead Lighthouse, as seen at extreme low tide on June 6, 1910. Heads above water are Orbicella annularis. The alcyonarian Rhipidopirgia fiabellum and Plexaura sp. are also shown. C, D. Two views of storm-proof live-car in which tiles bearing attached planulae were planted. C. Before launching, showing how tiles are fastened. D. After launching, showing its appearance in water. DEPARTMENT OF MARINE BIOLOGY. 143 Thirteen of the tiles to which planulae had attached themselves were placed in this car on June 10. Dr. Mayer examined them on July 14 and forwarded the notes appearing in the fourth column of the following table. Record of Tiles placed in Live-car anchored off Loggerhead Key. No. of culture. Name of species. No. of polyps 011 tile. Notes by Dr. Mayer on July 14, 1910. 1 4 6 S 10 11 12 21 22 24 25 39 41 Favia fragum I* 5 20 2 9 4 3 } ' 2 2S 70 8 3 3 calices, each 2.5 mm. in diameter. Larger calice 2.5 mm. in diameter. 7 single and 1 double calice ; largest 3 mm. in diameter. Larger calice 2.75 mm. in diameter. Larger calice 3 mm. in diameter. 29 colonies ; largest 6X4 mm. composed of 8 polyps. Largest calice 2 mm. in diameter. Largest calice 2.5 mm. in diameter. Porites clavaria I .. Favia fragum I fraguui III .. Forites clavaria I .. clavaria I .. Agaricia crassa .. Porites clavaria.. ... 2 astreoides? ... .. 1 astreoides I . astrecides II . . astreoides II astreoides II . astreoides .. *The Roman numerals refer to the parent colonies. Dr. Mayer did not specifically report in his notes of July 14 on five of the tiles. These five include the four bearing young Porites clavaria and one bearing young Agaricia crassa. He says regarding them, "The five other tiles have only a few small corals on them." As the young polyps of Porites clavaria are so small that they can be seen with the naked eye only with diffi- culty and may easily be overlooked even with a reading-glass, and as there were originally only three polyps of Agaricia, Dr. Mayer's report is highly gratifying. But the outcome of the experiment is not yet known. In order to check the favorableness or unfavorableness of the environment in a floating live-car for the life of the species of corals represented by the attached young in the live-car, 3 specimens of Favia fragum, 4 of Agaricia crassa, 1 of Porites clavaria, and 2 of Porites astreoides were taken from the reef whence the parent colonies came and were cemented to two tiles, which were also placed in the live-car alongside the young corals. Dr. Mayer reported on these specimens on July 14, that 2 colonies of Agaricia were about half dead ; 1 Favia was dead, but the other 2 were thriving ; the Porites were doing well, except a patch on one of the P. astreoides colonies. The 8 other tiles were planted on iron stakes along the outer face of the northwest side of the Fort Jefferson moat wall, in water ranging at extreme low tide from 12 to 18 inches in depth. Only Porites astreoides is repre- sented ; 5 tiles bore the offspring of colony I, 22 young polyps, while 3 tiles bore the offspring of colony II, 21 young polyps. A comparison of the number of attached young obtained from the different parents which gave out planulae brings out interesting data showing the rela- tive mortality of different stocks. Number of attached Young obtained from the Different Parent Colonics. Name of species and num- ber of parent. No. of attached young. ! Name of species and num- ber of parent. No. of attached young. Astransia solitaria 0 7 0 9 0 Porites clavaria I . clavaria II, III, IV. astreoides I 29 0 24 127 0 Favia fragum I fragum II fragum III astreoides II ... fragum IV ... astreoides III . . 144 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. The parentage of four of the Porites astreoides planulse was not definitely known; this was also the case with the one successful culture of Agaricia crassa, but the mortality of the young of this species is known to be high. Definite conclusions on the vitality of the planulse of different species and on the planulse of different specimens of the same species perhaps can not be drawn from these data, but they are suggestive and the suggestions are here given. There is variation in the vitality of planulse both between different species and between the planulse of different colonies belonging to the same species. The planulse of Pontes astreoides are the hardiest ; those of speci- men II of this species were hardier than those of specimen I, while none of those of specimen III survived. Comparing species, Favia fragum fur- nished the next hardiest planulse, two of four specimens yielding successful cultures ; while from only one of four colonies of Porites clavaria were at- tached planulse obtained. Agaricia crassa ranks about with Porites clavaria. It is important to obtain as complete data as possible on the vitality of plan- ulse and the duration of the free-swimming larval stage, as on them depend the ability of planulse to be distributed by ocean currents. Additional information was obtained on the duration of the free-swim- ming larval stage, but as a complete presentation of the data would necessi- tate a long table only a summary is given. Duration of the Free-swimming Larval Stage in Experiments of igio. Name of species. Duration of free- swimming stage. Name of species. Duration of free- swimming stage. Favia fragum Days. 6 to 23 11 to 17 Porites clavaria Days. 12 to 20 7 or S to 22 Agaricia crassa astreoides Most of the planulse in culture 25, the one in which most larvse became attached, attached themselves on the nineteenth day, or they were free 18 days. The planulse in 41 cultures were extruded between May 18 and May 24. The water on some of them was first changed on May 28, on the 29th it was changed on all, and subsequently it was changed every day. As previous to May 28 only one planula had become attached, it is thought that the stale water may have prolonged the free-swimming stage. The data for 19 10 show longer duration of the free-swimming stage than did those for 1908 and 1909. Larvse that can swim or float in the water from two to three weeks can be transported enormous distances by ocean cur- rents. Madreporarian planulse have frequently been obtained in the plank- ton tows off the Tortugas, clearly showing that these larvse in that region come within the influence of the ocean currents. Report of Prof. John B. Watson on the Work on Bird Key. The past season was one very unfavorable for carrying out work upon dis- tant orientation. The heavy storms in the Gulf region were the chief causes of the difficulties. In 1907 the work upon the homing sense of the terns was incidental, whereas in the season just passed it was the principal feature. For this reason it was desirable to send out large numbers of birds. The shipping technique was very faulty until toward the very last. Twelve to fourteen DEPARTMENT OF MARINE BIOLOGY. 145 birds would be captured and marked and put into one cage. Under these conditions they injured themselves seriously by climbing over one another. Furthermore, some of the birds are shyer than others and will not feed un- less individual attention is given. Late in the season it was found that if the large cage is divided into individual compartments the birds could be easily shipped. Minnows, too, are indispensable for keeping the birds in good con- dition. On some occasions it was found impossible to get minnows for the trip in Key West and large fish had to be carried and then chopped up at feeding-time. These precautions in shipping and in caring for the birds were not taken in the experiments made at New York, Galveston, and Mobile. Releases were made in all these harbors. The birds were invariably found in poor condition upon arrival — many of them dying en route. Furthermore, after every release the birds had to contend against cold weather and strong adverse winds. No birds returned from these ports. a. Notwithstanding the failure to get returns from the above ports several important returns were obtained from intermediate points : Four sooties were carried from Bird Key and placed on a Mallory boat bound for New York. They were released at night (7h 30111 p. m.) 365 miles from Bird Key. One bird returned at the end of 4 days. A second one, according to Mr. Wilson (a reliable employee of the laboratory), returned after my departure from the island — at the end of about 5 weeks. b. Two noddies out of three returned from a distance of 460 miles due west of Bird Key. The time required was 3 days. This is probably the most important record ever obtained in the homing work. The journey was made entirely over water (the place of release was about midway between Galveston and Key West), with no possible object to serve as a visual land- mark. Four sooties released with the noddies did not return. (See /.) c. Twenty-four noddies and sooties were released at Key West, 65.25 miles from Bird Key. Twenty-two returned — twelve out of twelve noddies and ten out of twelve sooties. The time of the noddies varied from 17.5 hours to 2 days 15 hours. Three of the sooties returned at the end of 17.5 hours ; two required 1 day 20.5 hours, while the remaining ones required 5, 6, 8, 9, and 11 days respectively. This flight is of interest in showing such a large percentage of returns and the varying times of those returns. It is of further interest in showing that the nest mate and nest locality are recog- nized and claimed after an interval of several days. d. An attempt was made to determine the speed of flight. Three noddies which had already been over the route to Bird Key from Key West were again shipped to Key West and released at ih 30m p. m. All three returned to the island at 5h 45m p. m. of the same day. They returned just as the other birds were coming in from the feeding-grounds for the night. It is probable that the three birds flew back until familiar waters were reached and then stopped to feed. e. Cyon's well-known hypothesis of a special nasal sense was tested. The anterior nares of two birds were tightly plugged with wax and then coated heavily with asphaltum. They were released at Key West at ih 30™ p. m. Both were on the nest at daylight of the following morning. Examination showed that the nostrils were still tightly closed. The asphaltum had not even been scratched. The birds were in very good condition. This entirely upsets Cyon's theory so far as the terns are concerned. /. Exhaustive experiments were made upon the water-habits of the birds. Both species can swim in, rest on, and fly up from the water. If the two spe- cies are confined in a large cage partially sunk in the water, it is found that 10 — YB I46 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. the noddies can pass the whole night in the water and still arise from it in the morning. The sooties, on the contrary, perish in nearly every case if forced to remain long in the water. If, however, small wooden floats are left in the water, the sooties immediately utilize them and can spend the whole night under such conditions, and be little the worse for the experience on the fol- lowing morning. It follows from these experiments that the sooties can not be expected to return over water from a distance greater than that which can be covered in a day's flight. If the bird were lucky enough to meet with driftwood at the proper time it would doubtless survive. The noddies are not so limited in their water capacities. We yet have hopes of getting returns from Galves- ton and Mobile with them. Report of Prof. Dr. B. Jorgensen, of the Cathedral School of Bergen, Norway. My visit to the marine laboratory at the Tortugas occupied three weeks and a half, during which time I was engaged in a life-study of the Peridinea. As the laboratory is somewhat near the Gulf Stream, a thorough exam- ination of the plankton there should be of more than usual importance, for it would give one the opportunity to compare the Gulf Stream plankton with that of the seas of northern Europe. On the whole, the plankton of the Tortugas is rather rich, considering its subtropical situation and the well- known fact that the plankton of the tropical and subtropical regions is often very poor as to quantity. Some of the groups of the Peridinea were well represented, while others occurred only sparingly. There were only few Ceratia, so that the material was scarcely sufficient for the decision of sev- eral important questions ; for instance, the manner in which active motion of these forms is produced. It is well known that the Ceratia are highly differ- entiated drifting organisms; their often strikingly "luxuriant" and remark- able forms are produced (as a more thorough examination will show) by more or less perfect adaptations to their life as passively drifting organisms. The more perfect this adaptation the more closely will the cell be confined to the particle of water in which it is living; therefore it should a priori seem probable that the forms provided with floating apparatus and on the whole best adapted to drifting in the water should be those least capable of active motions. This should especially be true concerning the power of rotation, which in highly specialized floating forms may be expected to be greatly reduced. According to my experience, from the small amount of material obtained at the Tortugas, the Ceratia really seems, from a state of active movability in the lower forms, to have developed to a passive drifting in the higher, and this to such a degree that I was not able to make out any active power of motion by the long-horned forms. It should, however, be stated that the Peridinea are usually very difficult to keep alive and do not well endure being placed on an object-glass for direct study under the micro- scope. It would therefore be rather rash to declare that the specialized floating forms of Ceratia have really lost all their power of active motion, yet it would seem safe to conclude that the long-horned species have lost more or less completely their power of rotation, especially such forms as C. trichoceros and C. tenne. Several species of the genus Peridininm were studied. This genus is a difficult one and includes a great many species, very few of which have as yet been defined with sufficient accuracy. DEPARTMENT OE MARINE BIOEOGY. \\"J Among other interesting Peridinea I found Blepharocysta splendor maris and Ceratocorys (= Dinophysis) jonrdani to be very plentiful. The latter species is of special importance, as Dr. Cutzjun attempts to prove it to be a connecting link between the two otherwise very different genera Phala- croma and Ceratocorys. Entz has rather pointedly defined his understanding of it in naming it Phalacroma ceratocorys, including herein both Phalacroma jonrdani and Ceratocorys horrida; he considers it a Phalacroma that changes into a Cerat- ocorys. In spite of the interesting observations and figures given by him, I have always considered this to be rather incredible. The genus Phalacroma is a typical genus of the Dinophysidse, with a regu- lar longitudinal division of the shell along a sagittal suture into two essen- tially symmetrical halves (a right and a left one), while Ceratocorys belongs to the Peridinidse, has no sagittal suture, and is obliquely divided into two asymmetrical parts. After an examination of numerous specimens I came, however, to the conclusion that Dinophysis jonrdani — which Dr. Schutt re- ferred to the genus Phalacroma — is a genuine Ceratocorys, but a species different from the common tropical C. horrida, although the species may be easily mistaken for a Dinophysis or Phalacroma. The other larger species, Ceratocorys horrida, was rare at the Tortugas, and when found was usually far out toward the border of the Gulf Stream. I have not observed inter- mediate forms between the two species. At the Tortugas I also met with a peculiar species of Peridinea, that has been described and figured by Gourret under the name of P o stpr or o centrum maximum. Gourret considered it to be related to Ehrenberg's genus Proro- centrnm, which it somewhat resembles. Later on, the same species seems to have been described by Dr. Joh. Schmidt, of Copenhagen, as Ostreopsis siamensis. Dr. Schmidt also found most of the plates of the shell, showing that it belongs to the Peridinidae, not to the Adinidse, such as Prorocentrum, and is somewhat remotely related to the genus Gouyaulax. Like the species of this latter genus, it also possesses numerous brownish yellow (diatomine- colored) chromatophores. Occasionally I observed some specimens of Pyrocystis pseudonoctiluca, especially toward the border of the Gulf Stream, but did not succeed in keep- ing them alive sufficiently long to be able to discover whether it developed from spherical to crescent-shaped cells. I also found a species, for which I shall propose the name P. claparedei, for the Gymnodinium lunula of Schutt is a different warm-water species with a single larger gymnodinium in each crescent-shaped cell. Such cells as the latter I observed at the Tortugas, but only seldom, and it seems probable that they belong to Pyrocystis pseiido- noctiluca as a stage of development. The other species of Pyrocystis oc- curred only very rarely at the Tortugas. Further, I observed a most remarkable fact about a very widely distributed organism, the systematic position of which has not yet been finally deter- mined, viz, Spermatogonia antiqua. It is a protozoon with long, stout spines, reminding one of those of radiolaria of the groups Acanthomctra; Cleve therefore referred it to the radiolaria. The organism seems to be cosmo- politan, occurring not only at Tortugas, but also off the coast of Norway. It seems, however, to be more common in the warmer seas. It possesses a nucleus or a similar body of a short, sausage-like shape and a peculiar, very coarse structure. It differs from the radiolaria in possessing no central capsule. To my great astonishment, I twice observed that living specimens are able to move their spines suddenly and simultaneously toward one an- I48 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. other, so that their distal ends diverge less than before; then they move back again, and so on, so that it appears that the cell pushes its way through the water by means of the spines. The axis of the Gulf Stream is so far from the Tortugas that I could col- lect there only rarely, although near the edge of the Stream there is a differ- ent plankton, containing some of the rarer tropical forms, as Heterodinium, species of Orinthocercus, Centrodinium, and large species of Peridinium. In the immediate region of the Tortugas the water was quite shallow, and this shallow coast water did not seem to afford suitable conditions for the development of Peridinea. DEPARTMENT OF MERIDIAN ASTROMETRY* Lewis Boss, Director. The headquarters of the Department of Meridian Astrometry is located at the Dudley Observatory, Albany, New York. A branch observatory has been established at San Luis, in the Argentine Republic, as described in the reports of the Department for 1908 and 1909. The activities of the Department in the line of observation have been wholly transferred to San Luis for the present. That station is in charge of Prof. Richard H. Tucker, with Mr. A. J. Roy as chief assistant, and is devoted to observations of far southern stars with the meridian-circle of the Dudley Observatory, as described in previous reports. The work of the Department, as already stated, includes for the time being no observations at Albany. During the past year operations at Albany have been carried on mainly in three lines. a. Preparatory computation for the General Catalogue of Stars down to the seventh magnitude. b. Computations relative to the observations reported from San Luis. c. Publication of the Preliminary General Catalogue, preparation of a general cata- logue of standard stars for 1910, and studies upon systematic proper motion, as derived from the individual values of motion contained in the Preliminary General Catalogue. Under the first head, ephemerides for all the stars to comprise the pro- posed catalogue of about 25,000 stars (which I call the General Catalogue) are completed in such a manner that an accurate comparison of them with the results of observation in each case can be readily made after the mate- rial from the later observations becomes available for use. Much progress has also been made in comparing the results of all published observations with these ephemerides. Comment on the progress made under the second head — preliminary re- ductions and tests of the observations made at San Luis — is deferred to a later paragraph of this report. Under the third head it may be stated that the Preliminary General Cata- logue of 6,188 stars was published in March 1910. The Department ac- quired 200 copies, most of which have been presented to students of stellar problems and to the principal observatories engaged in stellar observations. Much of my personal attention has been given to the proof-sheets of this work, which it was desirable to have specially free from errors. During the summer and autumn months of 1909, and in connection with consultations with other members of the committee on proposed fundamental observations desired by the Paris Congress of April 1909, a "List of 1,059 * Address, Dudley Observatory, Albany, N. Y. Grant No. 605. $35,655 for investiga- tions and maintenance during 1910. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 2-8.) 149 I50 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. standard stars for 1910" was prepared by me, was published by the Dudley Observatory, and a few copies were circulated in January 1910. This list of standard stars is the result of a careful selection from a much larger list of standard stars which we have been using in observations with our meridian-circle, both at Albany and San Luis. In giving the positions and motions for 1910, we have used the Preliminary General Catalogue for 1900 as the basis. The object was to prepare a larger list of the standard stars homogeneous in character, which can most rapidly and economically be per- fected by further observation. Nearly all of these south of — 200 have already been observed at least 12 times at San Luis. In making these selec- tions the requirements of safe prediction have been specially regarded. STUDIES UPON STELLAR MOTION. The position of the apex of solar motion, the general parallactic drift of the stars, the probable value of the precession, and the probable amount of the motion of the equinox are all problems concerned in the apparent system- atic motions of the stars. These had first to be considered and eliminated before we could proceed to a closer study of special forms of systematic drift should such exist. In my report for 1909 I gave an outline of the results of our studies upon the general systematic motions, or drift. These points have been subjected to further examination, analysis, and extension during the past year, and an outline of processes employed and of results attained have been published in Nos. 612 and 614 of the Astronomical Journal. The preliminary result has been reached that the general systematic motions of the stars, as we find them to be in our Preliminary General Catalogue, are not inconsistent with the hypothesis of random motion of the individual stars, or at least with a symmetrical distribution of the motions around a conventional origin. In the course of discussion, however, it was found that the mean of ap- parent stellar motions distinctly varies with distance from the Galactic plane, and increases decidedly with Galactic latitude. This result completely estab- lishes the results of previous researches of a less comprehensive scope. It is also shown (Ast. Jour., 614, p. 122) that the parallactic drift in the plane of the Galaxy is probably greater, in proportion to the mean motion of the stars therein, than it is in the higher Galactic latitudes. One explana- tion of this phenomenon was naturally suggested at once. The mean mo- tions peculiar to the stars themselves, for a part of those in the vicinity of the plane of the Milky Way (Galaxy), might be smaller in linear velocity than those in the higher Galactic latitudes. It was, in fact, pointed out, some eight years ago, by Professor Frost (Publ. Yerkes Observatory, vol. 11, Radial Velocities of Twenty Stars, p. 105) that the radial velocities of 20 stars of the Orion type are in the mean only 7.0 km. This is much less than half of the means for all types. Additional testimony to the same effect has accumulated since. Our Catalogue contains 525 stars of the Orion type DEPARTMENT OF MERIDIAN ASTROMETRY. 151 (B to B.J, and of these 472 have Galactic latitude less than 300, and 244 have latitude less than 10°. This and other indications seemed to render it necessary that in our fur- ther examination of evidences of systematic motion we should take into ac- count the principal types of stellar spectra. Furthermore, we find evidence which seems to indicate, on the part of the larger motions at least, a tendency in those motions to have comparatively small inclinations to the plane of the Galaxy. We are now proceeding to test these and other points bearing upon our general hypotheses. The necessity of pushing reductions of the observations reported from San Luis greatly restricts the amount of time we can devote to these important researches. In fact, it is becoming more and more evident that the facts of observation which we are hoping to accumulate in the larger General Catalogue will soon be urgently needed to establish more accurately what degree of confidence shall attach to various promising hypotheses that are constantly cropping up in relation to the mechanism of the stellar uni- verse, for the proper examination of which the existing material is showing itself to be inadequate in the number of stars. OBSERVATIONS AT SAN LUIS. In the Year Book for 1909 (pp. 154-158) some account was given of the work of installing the Olcott meridian-circle in San Luis, Argentina, and of the observations thereupon begun April 6, 1909. The remarkable rate of observations reported as prevailing up to the close of the record in August 1909, so far from falling off, became even somewhat accelerated. At the end of the first full year of observations, April 1, 19 10, more than 60,000 observations had been obtained. The latest date for which I have a report of the count is August 1, 1910. At that date the total for 16 months, which includes observations of the nadir, was, in round numbers, 78,000, of which the share of each observer at the telescope was approx- imately as follows: R. H. Tucker, 17,700; A. J. Roy, 19,800; W. B. Varnum, 20,400; M. L. Zimmer, 11,000; R. F. Sanford, 9,100. The instrumental circumstances of observation are conveniently designated as follows : B and W indicate whether the clamp of the instrument was east or west. Reversal took place about once a month. A or B indicate whether the circle A (next the clamp) or B, respectively, was employed in observa- tion. Alternation in the employment of circles took place about midway be- tween reversals. The 78,000 observations were almost equally distributed in the four circumstances of the instrument: AB, AW, BB, and BW. The observers usually worked in two shifts on each night, each consisting of an observer at the telescope and another at the microscopes. Sometimes, in the crowded parts of the list, a third assistant was employed in making the settings. Up to August 1, 563 series had been observed on 369 nights. The average number of observations in each series was a little under 140. It was 152 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. the practice of the three fundamental observers, Tucker, Roy, and Varnum, to make some observations in the late afternoon, but the principal part of them in the first half of the night. Observations were also made by them for a short time in the morning in order to secure a group of fundamental stars, approximately 12 hours later than observations of fundamental stars the evening before, and at the same time to obtain transits of close-polar stars, successively above and below pole, in order to determine the azimuth of the instrument, independently of any knowledge of the right-ascension of any polar stars. The office of the groups of fundamental stars, approx- imately 12 hours apart, is to obtain corrections of the "clock-stars" free from diurnal period. The fundamental observers also observed for determination of the standard stars in all zenith-distances from about 8o° north to 8o° south, and aimed to obtain, in one class 8 and in another class 12 observations each. As they had opportunity, they also observed for determination of the places of those stars that are brighter than the seventh magnitude, or that are contained in La Caille's zone-catalogue for 1750. Each of these stars, not included in the classes of standards, was scheduled to have four observations. Each of the three fundamental observers was assigned to primary observa- tions for one week and was then followed by another, who assumed the responsibility for all primary observations during the next week. Quite fre- quently the fundamental observers not on duty with primary observations were engaged during the last half of the night on secondary observations. The observers Zimmer and Sanford were always engaged on secondary ob- servations, and usually for the later hours of the night. While one observer was engaged at the telescope, another read the micro- scopes, recording the indications of each of the four microscopes at each setting. Following was the approximate number recorded by each of the readers: Fair, 12,000; Delavan, 16,000; M. I. Roy, 3,500; Mearns, 14,500; Jenkins, 16,500; Sanford, 6,300; Zimmer, 4,800; fundamental and miscella- neous, 4,400. Almost invariably the chronograph sheets were read off on the day follow- ing observations, so that the observing list could be carefully checked off, and observations superfluous to the program avoided. Computation of the wire- intervals and of the inclination of zenith-distance wire were kept nearly up to date. Nearly 2,600 sets for wire-intervals have been obtained in all, about equally in the two clamps. In the first 334 series 725 determinations of magnitude-equation were made by the five telescope observers — mainly by the three fundamental observers. Up to July 4, 19 10, from 40 to 70 single deter- minations of the difference of transit north minus south were made by each observer, or 270 in all. This part of the work is still considerably in arrears. As soon as the first general determination of wire-intervals was obtained, the staff in San Luis applied the results to the reduction of transits to mean wire. The means of the microscopes and the application of the correction for errors of runs were currently made. DEPARTMENT OF MERIDIAN ASTROMETRY. 153 Then began the preparation of copies of the observing record to be sent to Albany. This included the name, the approximate position, and the magni- tude of the star observed, with the concluded mean transit; in zenith-distance the means of the four microscopes corrected for runs and graduation-error, together with designation of the point in the field where bisection took place. This record was finally dispatched to Albany by registered mail, and up to the present writing has reached series 253. It is proposed to continue the dispatch of this record to Albany until the whole of it has been received, before sending the original observing record made at the instrument. As security for the transit record, the forms upon which the transits were re- corded from the chronograph sheets are arriving by registered mail, and the chronograph sheets will accompany the observing books, at the end, as part of the original record. In the same way copies of the readings for instrumental record and for the refraction-arguments are sent to Albany in advance, so that when the instru- ment is taken down it will be known that complete copies of the record have been received in Albany as security for the preservation of the result. As explained in previous reports, the plan of observing at San Luis (four times each in the minimum) our standard stars situated between — 200 and -f- 490 was adopted in order to get material for constituting a firm connec- tion between the observatories at Albany and San Luis. Corresponding measures are to be taken at Albany. Thus it is expected to determine a con- stant correction to the adopted flexure-correction of the instrument and those values of the refraction constant at each observatory that will best harmonize the results from the two stations. The following statement exhibits the progress made in determining the positions of stars at large north zenith- distance at San Luis : Declination. Zenith- distance. No. of obser- vations. No. of stars. +35° to +40° +40 to +45 +45 to +49 68° to 73° 73 to 78 8S to 82 400 500 300 46 50 3i While the latitude at San Luis, according to concurrent experience, is too small to permit of a reliable independent determination of the refraction from circumpolar observations alone, it has been thought best to provide a large number of observations below the pole that may serve to strengthen the determination otherwise obtained. For other reasons the observations below pole are very numerous down to 66° of zenith-distance. Beyond that we have: Zenith- distance. No. of obser- vations. No. of stars. 670 to 72° 72 to 77 77 to 82 500 500 600 50 68 92 154 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. Unfortunately, the conditions of observation at San Luis at zenith-distances much over 65 ° seem to be very unfavorable, both on account of the defini- tion and the unsteadiness ; in fact, the unsteadiness at all zenith-distances, according to the unanimous testimony of the observers having experience of both places, Albany and San Luis, is distinctly more troublesome at the latter. At the same time, the accuracy of the observations at ordinary zenith- distances does not seem to be so much impaired as one might have supposed. This appears to be substantiated by the preliminary reductions already made at Albany, and is in accordance with experience elsewhere, except when very special accuracy in observation of a very few stars is attempted. As a general check on the direct observations, about 400 observations by reflection have been secured by the fundamental observers ; but they are not included in the foregoing count. Owing to the prevalence of wind at San Luis the observers are not sanguine as to the quality of these observations. COMPUTATIONS UPON OBSERVATIONS. Computation of reductions to apparent-place and of tabular correction for refraction have been occupying a large part of the attention of the computing staff at Albany since the beginning of the arrival of the instrumental record, to which allusion has been made. None of this could be sent until several months of observation had been accumulated. The Director has given a great deal of attention to test-reduction, as well as to parts of the reduction that are semi-definitive. None of the systematic treatment of the work can be considered definitive until practically the whole of the observations are under consideration. The tests have gone far enough, however, to indicate that the instrument, from month to month, is very steady indeed, and that, although some of the diurnal changes are distinct, they are also in general very small. The determination of the level by the nadir obser- vations seems to be precise in a gratifying degree, so that it is possible to detect a very minute diurnal variation which could not have been very cer- tainly shown with less precise observations. The standard collination appears to be very permanent except when adjustments have been purposely made. A small change with the temperature is closely marked and precisely determined. In relation to the azimuth it is not possible to decide upon the true char- acter of its variations. The changes in this coordinate appear to be larger and less regular in the nadir, though not pronounced from month to month. Much labor has been expended by the Director personally upon this subject. His investigations have proceeded far enough to indicate that the outlook for systematically accurate results in this respect is good when all the material of special observation for systematic constants shall be at hand. As stated previously, the observations have been tested extensively for their quality in the differential sense. In this respect they appear to corre- spond well with the standard toward which we aimed. This standard did not propose competition with special observations where the highest accuracy has been attained upon comparatively few objects. It aimed at attaining, in the differential sense, good rank among the best modern collections of obser- DEPARTMENT OF" MERIDIAN ASTROMETRY. 155 vations containing a large number of stars ; and there is every prospect that such rank will be reached. If this opinion should be verified it will become a remarkable tribute to the skill and to the intensity of application of the observers who have made a record of such unprecedented proportions as to the rate of observations. This rate is somewhat greater than 4,800 per month for 16 months — twice the highest previous rate known to the Director in this class of observations and about five times the ordinary rate. On the other hand, there were always seven observers, and for a short time there were ten. Moreover, the annual number of clear nights was 280, and a large pro- portion of these were clear from sunset to sunrise. Furthermore, practically the entire energy was devoted to observations alone and to such preliminary operations as were necessary to furnish the record that should be the basis of the general reduction. Naturally this work has proved very exhausting and the strain has been decidedly felt by at least one-half of the observers. At the outset of the work the Director hazarded the proposition that it might be possible to secure 30,000 observations in each of the second and third years. That this rate should have been doubled was due to a unanimous and irresistible determination on the part of the observ- ers themselves to shorten the period of observations. It is believed that it will be possible to complete the entire work and to take down the meridian-circle some time in the early part of 191 1. At the present writing less than 5,000 observations in the regular program remain to be made. There is still a small program of observations required to complete the investigation of certain constants of importance in the systematic sense. Arrangements are not now fully made for attending to the photometry of the fainter stars of the observing list. This was a part of the original de- sign, but in the rush of meridian observations there never seemed to be a time when it could be advantageously started. The prosecution of that work, however, would require only two observers, and it could probably be com- pleted within one year. THE STAFF. At the present writing (aside from the Director) the staff consists of 15 persons regularly employed. There is one group consisting of 8 persons at Albany, and another of 7 at San Luis. Besides these, there is a varying number of computers (at present 9) working upon apparent-place computa- tions on the piece-work plan. MOUNT WILSON SOLAR OBSERVATORY* Walter S. Adams, Acting Director. The past year has been a most active one in the history of the Solar Ob- servatory from the standpoint of the investigations in progress. The con- tinuation of the study of magnetic fields in the sun has gathered about it many allied investigations involving both laboratory and solar results, and similarly studies of the spectrum of the sun's limb, of the solar chromosphere, and of the circulation of the gases in the sun's atmosphere have developed numerous related problems. On the side of stellar research the efficiency of the 6o-inch reflecting telescope for many lines of investigation has led to the inclusion of a constantly increasing number of additional subjects in its pro- gram of observational work. Among the main results of investigations conducted during the past year the following are to be included : (i) The classification of sun-spots according to the properties of their magnetic fields. (2) The development of a method of mapping magnetic fields over the entire solar surface. (3) Additional proof has been found of the rotation of the plane of polari- zation, sometimes known as the Faraday effect, in certain spots. (4) The continuation of the measurement of the areas of the calcium flocculi has served to furnish an index of the solar-activity and to confirm the relationship between it and the changes in the earth's magnetic field. (5) An extended study of the circulation of the calcium- vapor in the solar atmosphere indicates a motion of ascent for the gas producing the bright lines H2 and K2 and a descending motion for the gas producing the dark lines H3 and K3. The motions are radial with reference to the sun's surface. (6) The study of the dark hydrogen flocculi with high dispersion has strengthened the view that they are to be considered as regions of increased absorption. (7) The measurement of the displacements of the spectrum lines at the sun's limb has led to the conclusion that they are probably due mainly to pressure. The enhanced lines show systematically larger shifts than do the arc lines, and the elements of low atomic weight show smaller shifts than those of higher weight. (8) About 1,200 bright lines in the spectrum of the sun's chromosphere have been photographed and their wave-lengths measured. No evidence is found of systematic differences in wave-length from the dark lines of the solar spectrum. * Situated on Mount Wilson, California. Grant No. 607. $105,720 for construction, investigations, and maintenance during 1910. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 3-8, inclusive.) 156 PLATE 2 One Hundred and Fifty Foot Tower Telescope on Mount Wilson, October 1910. MOUNT WILSON SOLAR OBSERVATORY. 157 (9) The measurement of several photographs of the spectra of the oppo- site edges of the sun indicates that no appreciable change has taken place in the sun's period of rotation since 1908. (10) Direct photographs of certain of the star-clusters and spiral nebulae show an immense amount of detail hitherto unknown. In particular the spiral nebulae are found to contain great numbers of nebulous stars enveloped in the curved streamers. (11) Spectra of several of the brighter stars have been obtained with the 1 8- foot spectrograph and the 60-inch reflector. The measurement of the photographs indicates that the enhanced lines in the spectra of Sirius and Procyon are shifted toward longer wave-lengths relative to the arc-lines. An investigation of the spectrum of Arctiirus shows a relationship among the displacements of the lines due to different elements similar to that found at the sun's edge. The effect is probably due to pressure. (12) A low-dispersion spectrograph containing one prism has been used at the primary focus of the 60-inch reflector since September 1909 for the determination of radial velocities of stars and the classification of spectra. With this instrument the spectrum of a star of the solar type of 8.0 visual magnitude may be photographed in 70 minutes. (13) The spectra of four spiral nebulas and of nine star clusters have been photographed with a low-dispersion spectrograph. The spectrum of all of the spiral nebulas investigated is approximately of the G type, and that of the globular star clusters of the F type. (14) Experiments with diaphragms of varying aperture on the 60-inch reflector have indicated that the effects of diffraction are essentially negli- gible in their influence on the brightness of the star images. In view of the results obtained it seems reasonably probable that by this simple means an absolute scale of photographic stellar magnitudes may be obtained which will be satisfactory within a wide range of brightness. (15) A statistical study of the motions of certain stars of the Orion type of spectrum points to the existence of systematic motion on the part of two large groups of stars situated in Scorpius and Perseus. The motions are in opposite directions, and the groups probably form part of two main stellar streams. (16) An extensive laboratory investigation of the Zeeman effect for iron, chromium, and titanium, and comparison with pressure displacements, has shown that no direct quantitative relationship appears to exist between the amount of separation and the pressure-shift. (17) The Zeeman effect for vanadium and nickel has also been investigated for purposes of comparison with sun-spot spectra, and the lines have been classified according to their type of separation in the magnetic field. (18) Photographs of the spectrum of the electric spark under pressure have shown that the enhanced lines remain bright under a pressure at which the great majority of the remaining lines are reversed. An application has been made of this result to the spectrum of the solar chromosphere. l$g REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. (19) Measurements of the photographs of the spectrum of the spark under pressure indicate that at the same pressure the enhanced lines are dis- placed considerably more than the great majority of the arc lines. References will be made to numerous other investigations in the course of the discussion of the work now in progress. One of the most important of the researches of the past year, particularly in its wide bearing on the future work of the 60-inch reflector, has been that of Professor Kapteyn on the systematic motions of groups of stars. Per- haps the greatest difficulty in the construction of an outline of work for a large telescope is that of coordinating the various kinds of observations and making them so far as possible lead toward the same end. By his discovery of a common motion among stars of certain groups, Professor Kapteyn has given to the study of the radial velocities of the fainter stars a definiteness of purpose which is perhaps commensurable in importance with the value of the discovery itself. STAFF. There have been few changes in the staff of the Observatory during the past year. Mr. Adams has served as Acting Director during the absence of the Director, and has been engaged in the organization of the stellar spectro- scopic work. Prof. F. H. Seares has continued as superintendent of the computing division throughout the year and has had editorial charge of the Observatory publications. He has also carried on certain photometric in- vestigations with the 60-inch reflector. Dr. Arthur S. King has remained in charge of the physical laboratory. Prof. G. W. Ritchey has continued to devote a part of his time to the design of the 100-inch reflecting telescope, and part to direct photography with the 60-inch reflector. Prof. C. E. St. John has been engaged in an investigation of the motion of the calcium vapor in the sun's atmosphere and in a study of the radial motion in sun-spots. Mr. Ferdinand Ellerman has continued the observations with the spectro- heliographs of the Snow and tower telescopes, and has also taken numerous photographs of spectra with the tower telescope. Mr. H. D. Babcock has divided his time between spectroscopic work in the Pasadena laboratory and photography of stellar spectra with the 60-inch reflector. He has also taken many spectra of sun-spots with especial reference to the determination of the direction of polarization of the spectrum-lines. Dr. E. A. Fath has been engaged in photographing the spectra of certain spiral nebulae and star- clusters, and has also secured photographs of some of the Kapteyn selected areas. Dr. C. M. Olmstead resigned from the staff in October 1910. Prof. J. C. Kapteyn, of the University of Groningen, Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, has been at the Observatory since July, engaged in making certain statistical studies of star-groups, and in planning a considerable part of the work of the 60-inch reflector. Dr. H. G. Gale, of the University of Chicago, Research Associate of the Car- negie Institution of Washington, spent the months of April, May, and June MOUNT WILSON SOLAR OBSERVATORY. 159 in Pasadena, and made an investigation of the displacements of the spark lines under pressure in the physical laboratory. M. Henri Chretien, of the Observatory of Nice, spent the months between February and September on Mount Wilson and in Pasadena, and carried on a large amount of obser- vational work on the sun. Visits from astronomers and physicists passing through Los Angeles have been frequent during the year. Mr. Abbot, of the Smithsonian Institution, has been continuing since May his investigations of the solar radiation at his permanent observatory station on Mount Wilson. During a special expedition by Mr. Abbot to Mount Whitney in August, his work was conducted on Mount Wilson by Mr. F. E. Fowle, of the Smithsonian Institution. INVESTIGATIONS IN PROGRESS. SOLAR RESEARCH . Direct Photography of the Sun. Direct photographs of the sun have been taken on practically all of the clear days during the past year. These plates, besides furnishing a valuable record of the condition of the sun's surface, have been most useful during the past year in the study of the structure surrounding sun-spots. Work with the Spectroheuograph. The work of the year with the spectroheliograph has comprised : (i) Daily photography of the sun with the Snow telescope and 5- foot spectroheliograph. The greater part of this work has been carried on by Mr. Ellerman, but during his absence in Hawaii from March until July for the purpose of photographing Halley's comet, the observations were con- tinued by M. Chretien. During the year photographs have been made on 289 days, and 793 spectroheliograms of the solar disk with Hx, H2, Ha, Hf3, Hy, and HB, and of prominences at the limb with Ha, have been obtained. (2) Photography of the sun with the 60- foot tower telescope and 30- foot spectroheliograph by Mr. Hale and Mr. Ellerman. This work included the use of H3, K3, D2, and other narrower lines ; the center, edges, and wings of Ha, Hf3, Hy, and Ho ; lines widened in spots, etc. (3) Studies of spectroheliograph plates by Mr. Hale and Miss Smith. The purpose of this work is to investigate the life-histories of sun-spots and accompanying faculse and flocculi, in connection with Mr. Hale's researches on solar magnetism. The plan now followed includes : A. An examination of direct photographs of the sun (photoheliograms) giving (a) appearance and distribution of the faculse; (b) approximate heliocentric coordinates of spots; (c) area of spots; (d) classification accord- ing to Cortie; (e) curvature of the penumbral filaments. B. Study of the calcium flocculi on H2 plates, giving their (a) area, (b) distribution, and (c) approximate intensity. C. Study of the hydrogen flocculi on Ha and, in some cases, H[S, Hy, and HB photographs, with especial reference to (a) the appearance and changes - REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. of the vortex structure, classified as unipolar, bipolar, or multipolar; (6) b igh tZ structure about spots; (c) eruptions; («) filaments, and the ange ftey make with the equator; (e) angle between the axis of the multipolar ^ch" Sr of the ffi flocculi and the discovery that the two larger snots lying at opposite ends of a group are usually if not always of nnnosite oolarny led to the classification of the H. fioccuh as (l) unipolar 7a itlePspo or bright flocculus surrounded by simple vortex structure igh "rand d left-handed, or radial); (a) bipolar (spot group or two Ss-one sometimes absent or replaced by bright flocculus-surrounded ITL flo cuh resembling in form the lines of force -necttng the opposite poles of a bar magnet) ; (3) multipolar (spot group grounded b curved Ha flocculi of special form) ; (4) filaments (very dark, usually long ana noccu" V „uotions (very bright, rapidly changing in form). This education ISui sometbdivisions wni include most of the more character- -££& * ** «»£»££ — ,:r nruiit t £ S^r^XS" d^nlai^d with or without Aistu= in - —tLT-nd^o^ ST^^tST S Sola ™e he bright flocculi are usually seen first between the spots, the bipolar typ the bg ^^ ^ ^ ^ of group Thiffivot thltypoSis led upon observation of the magnetic phenom- ^a *" theto principal'spots of a bipolar group are the opposite extremi- '^e SSrst^ure on which the above system of classification is ^phftne ™ipHo,t Ld bipolar typ'e cau be distinguished in .ome cases but no good example of the multipolar type has been found as yet. The general 1,1 Th'e' Caxis of multipolar flocculi has been found, in 38 «*»£££ nearly parallel to the solar equator and to coincide very nearly with the axis of the inclosed spot groups. PLATE 3 YY Ha Flocculi around spots of the Bipolar type. MOUNT WILSON SOLAR OBSERVATORY. l6l Of 145 dark Ha filaments, 84 make an angle of less than 45 ° with the solar equator, while 61 are inclined from 45 ° to 900 to the equator. The completion of the 75-foot spectroheliograph of the new tower tele- scope, which is now under construction, should permit this work to be ex- tended considerably. Spectra of Sun-spots. The study of solar magnetism, rendered possible by the detection of the Zeeman effect in sun-spots, has been continued throughout the year, in so far as the decreasing solar activity has permitted. A point of especial in- terest is the determination of the polarities of the various spots in groups. Photographs of the spectra of the several umbras and penumbras, made in rapid succession by setting different parts of the group on the slit of the spectrograph, give the polarity and the strength of magnetic field at all points crossed by the slit. The magnetic survey of the solar surface begun in this way will soon be greatly facilitated by the use of special polarizing apparatus with a multiple slit, so constructed as to permit the spectra of six or eight contiguous regions to be photographed simultaneously. The results already obtained show that the polarity of the numerous small spots in a group is not necessarily the same as that of the largest spot, even though all lie within the same penumbra. The polarity of the large penum- bra, however, seems to be determined by that of the principal umbra. In the case which is frequently observed of a group consisting of two principal spots, with or without accompanying small spots, the two spots are usually, probably always, of opposite polarity. As already remarked, the configura- tion of the Ha flocculi about such a group closely resembles that of iron filings in the field of a bar magnet. In the classification of sun-spot lines provision has been made for the in- clusion of resolved and unresolved triplets and quadruplets, and of more complex types as well. A number of cases of asymmetrical lines and of parallel and convergent lines in the same spectrum have also been detected. The observational work with the 60-foot tower telescope and 30-foot spec- trograph by Messrs. Hale, Ellerman, and Babcock includes the determination of polarity and field strength for all spots of sufficient size. The study of the photographs by Mr. Hale, Mr. Babcock, and Miss Burwell has been carried on with the following purposes in view : Preparation of a catalogue of doublets and triplets; comparison with laboratory results, measurement of field strength in umbra and penumbra as a function of the diameter and the age of the spot; determination of the polarity of spots in the northern and southern hemispheres, and of different spots in a group, as related to the curvature and structure of Ha flocculi; determination of the proportion of longitudinal and transverse light in the sun-spot lines, and of the inclination of the axis of the electric vortex ; study of the rotation of the plane of polar- ization in spots, and of methods of eliminating the polarization effects of the telescope and spectrograph. 1 1 — YB l62 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. The continuation of the study of the Zeeman effect in sun-spots and the knowledge that many of the lines affected in spots are most complicated in structure and require very powerful spectroscopic apparatus for complete resolution has made it desirable to revise to some extent the general cata- logue of the spot-spectrum according to the results obtained with the spec- trograph of the 1 50- foot tower telescope now under construction. Accord- ingly definitive publication of the catalogue is being delayed for this reason. A summary of some of the more general results, however, has been pub- lished by Mr. Adams during the past year. Among the conclusions the fol- lowing may be included : (1) About 14,000 lines are contained in the catalogue, of which 11,000 have been measured and the wave-lengths determined independently. (2) About 5,000 lines present in the spot-spectrum have been identified as due to titanium oxide. About 600 lines have been identified by Mr. Olmsted as due to calcium hydride. (3) A detailed study of the iron lines affected in the spectrum of sun- spots and comparison with the results obtained for the same lines in labora- tory spectra of the flame and center of an iron arc strengthens the view brought forward several years ago by Fowler, and by Hale and Adams, that the observed phenomena may be accounted for satisfactorily on the basis of a reduction of temperature in sun-spots. The weakening of the enhanced lines in the spectrum of sun-spots points to the same conclusion. (4) The existence of a magnetic field in sun-spots explains in a most satisfactory way the presence of the large number of lines which are greatly widening or show doubling or tripling in the sun-spot spectrum. The radial movement of the vapors in sun-spots, first discovered by Ever- shed, has been confirmed during the past year by Mr. St. John. He is con- tinuing the investigation with the spectrograph of the 60-foot tower tele- scope, using an auxiliary device by means of which spectra of different por- tions of the spot may be brought side by side upon the photographic plate for purposes of measurement. Investigation of Displacements of Spectrum Lines at the Sun's Limb. An investigation of the displacements at the sun's limb of 470 selected lines has been published by Mr. Adams during the year. Some of the prin- cipal results found are as follows : ( 1 ) The displacements are very small for certain high-level elements, such as hydrogen, sodium, magnesium, and calcium. Also for certain elements of very high atomic weight, such as lanthanum and cerium. (2) The displacements for titanium, vanadium, and scandium are con- siderably smaller than those for iron and nickel. (3) The enhanced lines as a class show decidedly larger displacements than the arc lines. (4) The lines most strengthened at the limb usually show small displace- ments. MOUNT WILSON SOLAR OBSERVATORY. 163 (5) The displacements in the case of calcium and titanium and probably the enhanced lines of iron appear to increase in size in direct proportion to the wave-length of the lines. In the case of nickel and the arc lines of iron the increase toward longer wave-lengths is more rapid than in direct propor- tion to wave-length. These differences may readily be accounted for on the basis of differences of level among the various elements. (6) It seems probable that the greater length of the path in the lower strata of the sun's atmosphere at the limb as compared with the center, and the relatively greater pressure in these lower strata, may account in large measure for the displacements observed. The investigation will be continued with the spectrograph of the 150-foot tower telescope. The General Circulation oe the Calcium Vapor in the Solar Atmosphere. Mr. St. John carried out during the year an extensive investigation on the circulation of the calcium vapor in the sun's atmosphere. Some of the prin- cipal results may be summarized as follows: ( 1 ) The calcium- vapor producing the absorption line K3 in the solar spec- trum has a descending motion over the general surface of the sun amounting to about 1.1 km. per second in the mean. The calcium vapor producing the bright line K2 has an ascending motion of 2.0 km. per second in the mean. The motions are essentially radial in their nature. (2) The close agreement of the wave-lengths of K2 and K3 at points near the pole and the equator argues strongly against the existence of currents of appreciable velocity parallel to the sun's surface. (3) The narrowness of the absorption lines H3 and K3, the lower pressure suggested by the slightly shorter wave-length of K3, the continued increase in absolute width in passing from center to limb, as well as direct observa- tions with a radial slit, all point to a high level, small depth, and extreme tenuity for the absorbing layer. (4) A possible cause of the high radiating power of the emitting layer may be found in its increased temperature resulting from the transformation into heat of the mechanical energy set free by the loss of velocity in the opposing upward and downward currents. Mr. St. John is continuing the investigation, and extending it to include measures of the bright H and K lines in the spectrum of the chromosphere. Spectroscopic Observations of the Rotation of the Sun. No extended series of observations on the rotation of the sun has been made during the year, but occasional photographs have been taken for the purpose of detecting a possible variation in the rate of rotation. The meas- urement of five of these confirms the results obtained in 1908 and indicates no appreciable change in the interval. 164 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. Photographic Observations of the "Flash" Spectrum. The photographic investigation of the "flash" spectrum begun in the early part of 1909 by Mr. Hale and Mr. Adams has been continued throughout the year. In a communication read at the Cambridge meeting of the Astro- nomical and Astrophysical Society of America, August 1910, some of the results obtained were summarized. Among these may be mentioned the following : (1) About 1,200 bright lines have been photographed and their positions measured between A 4400 and a 6600. Of these about 97 per cent have been identified with reasonable certainty with dark lines given in Rowland's table of the solar spectrum. (2) Double reversal seems to be practically a universal characteristic of chromospheric lines at points close to the sun's edge. (3) There can be no systematic shift greater than 0.002 Angstrom between the average of the wave-lengths of the bright lines and the corresponding dark lines in the solar spectrum. (4) The enhanced lines are relatively very much stronger as bright lines in the chromosphere than as dark lines in the solar spectrum. (5) Cobalt, titanium, and vanadium show the greatest number of bright lines of any of the elements in the solar spectrum except carbon. The large image and powerful spectroscopic equipment of the 150- foot tower should be especially favorable for the continuation of this investigation. Miscellaneous Investigations. A self-recording declination magnetograph has been in regular operation on Mount Wilson since the spring of 1909, with the exception of a few months during the winter season. The instrument is in charge of Mr. Bab- cock. The chief value of the record lies in the nature of the disturbances observed near the time of transit of sun-spots across the solar meridian. The greater part of these disturbances are found to occur about 24 hours after the transit. Perhaps the best example of this kind was that accompany- ing the spot which crossed the solar meridian on August 9, 1909. Twenty- four hours later the magnetic declination suddenly increased 40', remained almost stationary for several hours, and then returned to its normal value. On the following day at about the same hour the declination suddenly de- creased about 25', but did not remain displaced. No unusual effects were noted during the proximity of Halley's comet. By means of a Dolazalek quadrant electrometer observations were made by Mr. Babcock of the diurnal variation of the atmospheric potential preced- ing and during the transit of Halley's comet. M. Henri Chretien devoted a considerable amount of time during the ear- lier part of this year to a theoretical investigation of an electromagnetic theory of the law of the sun's rotation. He also did a large amount of obser- vational work with the 5-foot spectroheliograph and the 30-foot spectrograph. MOUNT WILSON SOLAR OBSERVATORY. 165 Shortly before his departure M. Chretien spent some weeks in Pasadena and carried on investigations on the law of distribution of stars on some of Mr. Ritchey's photographs of globular star clusters. He also did consider- able theoretical work on the problem of methods of increasing the field of the reflecting telescope. THE SIXTY-INCH REFLECTOR. The performance of the 60-inch reflector during the past year has been extremely satisfactory from the standpoint both of photographic and of visual observations. Although comparatively few nights have been devoted to visual work, the instrument has been employed most successfully by Mr. Hale and others of the staff in observations of the planets and certain star clusters and nebulae. Visual observations were also made by many of the visiting astronomers present at the recent meeting on Mount Wilson of the International Solar Union. A new double-slide plate-carrier of improved design was completed in the autumn of 1909. With this instrument two guiding eye-pieces are used on opposite sides of the center. In this way any slight rotation of the field can be detected immediately and corrected by rotating the bronze plate which carries the guiding eye-pieces and the plate-holder. Two fine screws with graduated heads are provided for this purpose. The eye-pieces give a mag- nification of about 750 diameters. The plates used are 3.5 inches (89 mm.) square, and are sufficiently large to cover all of the field which is free from serious distortion. The plate- holder is so designed that it can be removed quickly and replaced as fre- quently as desired during long exposures, thus allowing of frequent refocus- ing by means of the knife-edge method. The position of the plate-holder is defined by small hardened-steel surfaces, so that it returns accurately to its original position. Since, as was stated in the last report, changes of focal length have been found to be due almost entirely to the expansion and con- traction of the metal tube of the telescope, it is evident that no change of scale is introduced, and hence no injury to the definition of the star-images, by frequent refocusing. With this instrument Mr. Ritchey has obtained on his best negatives, taken with Seed "23" plates, perfectly round star-images i//.03 in diameter after an exposure of 11 hours. A number of photographs of the stars near the north pole have been secured by Mr. Fath during the year and sent to Professor Pickering for use in his determination of a scale of photographic stellar magnitudes. One of these was obtained with an exposure of 4 hours. Although the surface of the 60-inch mirror was not in the best of condition at the time this photo- graph was taken, in the opinion of Professor Pickering stars of about the twentieth magnitude appear upon the negative. l66 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. Stellar Photography. Mr. Fath has taken 3 photographs of the Kapteyn selected areas during the year. Thus far a total of 33 have been obtained since the work was begun, and it should be possible to conclude this series of photographs dur- ing the coming year. Twenty-eight photographs for use in the investigation of the absorption of light in space have been secured during the year. Parallax Investigations. Seven complete sets of photographs for the determination of stellar paral- lax have been obtained by Mr. Babcock and Mr. Fath under the direction of Professor Kapteyn. Several preliminary photographs have been made with the Cassegrain combination of 100 feet equivalent focal-length. The nega- tives will be investigated carefully during the coming months and future parallax work with the reflector will be guided mainly by the results obtained. Photography op Nebula and Star Clusters. Mr. Ritchey has continued throughout the year his work with the 60-inch reflector on the photography of nebulas and star clusters. Since the last annual report he has secured photographs of the following objects: Spiral nebulae: Messier 33, 51, 63, 64, 81, H. V. 24 Comce Berenices, Andromeda Nebula (central part). Planetary nebulae: Owl Nebula, Dumb-Bell Nebula, Planetary Nebula in Draco, Planetary Nebula in Hercules. Annular nebulae : Ring Nebula in Lyra, H. IV 13. Irregular nebulae: Messier 82, Orion Nebula (central part), N. G. C. 6960, N. G. C. 6992, Trifid Nebula. Globular clusters : Messier 3, 13, 92. Mr. Ritchey also obtained 17 negatives of the head of Halley's comet in May and 14 negatives in June. The exposures on the nebulae and star-clusters have ranged from 3 min- utes on the bright planetary nebulae to 1 1 hours on some of the spiral nebulae and star-clusters. The amount of detail shown on these photographs is in many cases extra- ordinarily great, especially in the case of the globular star-clusters and the spiral nebulae. A few of the conclusions drawn by Mr. Ritchey from an examination of the negatives may be summarized as follows : (1) The globular star-clusters are found to consist of scores of thousands of stars, and their angular diameters are at least three times as great as they appear in the large refracting telescopes. A partial count by Miss Ware of the number upon an enlargement of a negative of the Hercules cluster up to within 2' of the center gives 27,000 stars. (2) The spiral nebulae contain great numbers of star-like condensations which may possibly be stars in process of formation. In general they lie in streams which follow the convolutions of the nebulous material in which they appear. MOUNT WILSON SOLAR OBSERVATORY. 167 (3) The nebulosity is in general much brighter toward the center of the nebula, becoming gradually fainter toward the extremities of the branches. In the case of the nebulous stars, however, this tendency is less marked and they are often brighter and more numerous in the intermediate region be- tween the center and the extremities of the branches. (4) The nebulous stars are frequently visible in the extremities of the branches beyond the point at which the nebulosity ceases to be visible. These stars frequently occur in groups. In Messier 33, for example, which contains over 2,400 nebulous stars, there are at least 20 such groups, each containing from 10 to 60 stars. Photographic Photometry. Systematic investigations in photographic photometry have been under- taken by Mr. Seares. Fifty plates of the north pole and one other specially selected region have been obtained with the 60-inch reflector, mainly with wire-gauze screens and diaphragms of various forms and sizes. Ten addi- tional plates of the north pole have been taken with the 60-inch reflector by Mr. Seares and Mr. Fath at the request of Professor Pickering for use in the determination of the absolute magnitudes of the fainter stars of the Har- vard Polar Sequence. At present the relation between diffraction pattern and the corresponding photographic image is being studied with a view to determining the relia- bility of magnitudes derived through the use of diaphragms. The results thus far obtained indicate that the systematic differences between magnitude scales based on exposures with the full aperture combined with those with diaphragms of 32, 14, and 6 inches, respectively, are at least no greater than the uncertainty of the determination of the scales themselves from a single plate. Whether there exist small systematic differences at present masked by the uncertainties mentioned remains yet to be seen. As soon as it is clear that a reliable absolute photographic magnitude scale extending to the fainter stars has been established it is proposed to undertake a determination of the brightness of the stars of the Pritchard-Kapteyn regions. Stellar Spectroscopy. Two stellar spectrographs have been in use throughout the past year, the high-dispersion 18- foot instrument described in the last annual report and a small low-dispersion spectrograph used at the primary focus with the Newtonian combination of mirrors. The large three-prism spectrograph which has been under construction by William Gaertner & Co. is now in Pasadena, and will soon be ready for use. It will be employed with a Casse- grain combination of 80 feet equivalent focal-length. The observations with the 18- foot spectrograph have been carried on by Mr. Hale, Mr. Adams, and Mr. Babcock, and spectra of the following stars have been obtained : a Orionis, fi Ononis, Sirius, Procyon, Arcturns, and Antares. The photographs in the cases of Sirius and Arctnrus cover the l68 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. entire visible spectrum with the exception of a part of the violet. The linear scale of the spectra at A 4300 is 1 mm. = 1.4 Angstrom. The results of an investigation of the spectra of Sirins, Procyon, and Arc- turus are contained in a communication by Mr. Adams read at the Cam- bridge meeting of the Astronomical and Astrophysical Society of America in August 1910. The principal results found are as follows : ( 1 ) The enhanced lines in the spectra of Sirius and Procyon are displaced toward the red relative to the arc lines. In the case of Sirius this displace- ment amounts to 0.014 Angstrom, or 0.90 km. if measured as radial velocity. In the case of Procyon, 0.009 Angstrom, or 0.58 km., as radial velocity. The displacement of the enhanced lines in Arc turns is so small as to be negligible. (2) If we may assume, as seems probable from the investigations of Mr. Gale on the spectrum of the spark under pressure, that the enhanced lines are shifted on an average 50 per cent more than the arc lines by pressure, these results furnish us with the means of estimating the pressures in the reversing layers of these two stars. For Sirius the pressure would be 12 atmospheres greater than in the sun's reversing layer, and in Procyon 7 atmospheres greater. These values are in harmony with our general knowl- edge concerning the physical conditions of these stars. (3) In the case of Arcturns the lines of different elements are displaced by different amounts, the lines of iron being displaced toward the red with reference to the lines of all the other elements investigated. Hydrogen, calcium, and magnesium show the largest differences from iron, and in gen- eral the elements behave in almost exactly the same way that they do at the sun's limb. (4) It seems probable from these results that Arcturns is a star with a comparatively shallow reversing layer, and that within this layer the general arrangement of the gases is similar to that in the sun. The high-level gases accordingly would be subject to less pressure than those lying at a lower level, and the lines of the latter would be displaced toward the red relative to the lines of the higher elements. It has been necessary during the past year to use a 640 prism of compara- tively small aperture with the 18-foot spectrograph. We have, however, placed an order with European glass manufacturers for a block of glass sufficiently large to provide a prism which will utilize the full beam of light coming from the telescope. It will then be possible to investigate the spectra of several additional stars with this powerful instrument. The low-dispersion spectrograph used at the principal focus of the 60- inch reflector was planned originally for use with a multiple-slit device of Mr. Hale's design with the object of obtaining the spectra of several stars at the same time. A test of the short-focus lenses employed in the instru- ment soon showed, however, that the curvature of the field was too great to allow of this, and accordingly we have been using it during the past year as an ordinary compound-slit spectrograph for photographing the spectra of Spiral Nebula Messier 51 Canum J'cnaticorum. Photographed with 60-Inch Reflector, on Seed "23" plate, February 7 and 8, 1910. Exposure 3h 55>n. Enlargement from negative 6.4 diameters. Scale: 1 111111 = 4". 2. MOUNT WILSON SOLAR OBSERVATORY. 1 69 single stars. We hope to be able within a short time to secure lenses which will give a much more uniform field, and to take up again the experiments with the multiple-slit device. Since September 1909 Mr. Adams and Mr. Babcock have obtained about 460 photographs of spectra of 128 stars with this spectrograph. The great majority of the negatives are of stars between the fifth and eighth magni- tudes on the visual scale, and they have been used both for the purpose of classification of spectral type and for the determination of radial velocity. The stars observed are as follows: Kapteyn selected areas, 15; stars with known parallaxes, 98; Scorpius group of Orion type, 10; miscellaneous stars, 5. Almost all of the stars with known parallaxes have a type of spec- trum resembling that of the sun. Three spectra of Halley's comet in the more refrangible part of the spec- trum were obtained before its transit in May. The exposure-times with this spectrograph under moderately good condi- tions are about as follows for stars of the solar type of spectrum : for stars of visual magnitude 6.0, 12 minutes ; of visual magnitude 7.0, 30 minutes ; of visual magnitude 8.0, 70 minutes. These results refer to the region of the spectrum between A 4000 and A 4400. Spectra of Groombridge 1830, visual magnitude 6.46, have been obtained in 15 minutes under good conditions. The measurement and reduction of a large number of these photographs has been completed by Mr. Adams, and Miss Lasby and Miss Waterman of the Computing Division. Miss Ware has also measured some of the nega- tives. Where possible series of measures by two observers have been made in order to reduce the accidental and personal errors inherent in this class of work. Miss Waterman has carried on the greater part of the classification of the spectra. Although, of course, the determinations of radial velocity with this instru- ment are much inferior in accuracy to those made with powerful three- prism spectrographs, the results obtained are satisfactory. The probable error of a single line on a photograph of the spectrum of a star of the solar type is about 3 km., or about 1 km. for the mean of the plate when 10 lines are measured. The instrument, accordingly, provides the means of obtaining with a fair degree of precision the radial velocities of stars to about the ninth magniture on the visual scale. Photographic Investigations of the Spectra of Globular Star-Clusters and Spiral Nebula. In order to provide for work on very faint objects we have adapted the low-dispersion spectrograph for use with a 300 light flint-glass prism and a special lens, kindly loaned to us by the Yerkes Observatory, of 4 inches aperture and 7.2 inches focal length. Mr. Fath has employed this instru- ment during the past year and has obtained photographs of the spectra of the following objects: Globular star-clusters : N. G. C. 5024, 5272, 6205, 6229, 6341, 6656, 6779, 6934, 7078. Spiral nebulae: N. G. C. 650-1, 4725, 4736, 7331. 170 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. The exposures on these objects have ranged from 3.5 to 16 hours. From an examination of the negatives Mr. Fath concludes that essentially all of the globular star clusters photographed are approximately of the F type of spectrum on the Harvard system of classification, while the spiral nebulae are of the G type. A few of the photographs are under-exposed, and it is possible that these results may be modified somewhat when more spectra are available. The spectrum of N. G. C. 650-1 shows 7 bright lines coincident with those found in the spectra of gaseous nebulae, and it is pos- sible that this object is a transition type between gaseous and spiral nebulae. Professor Kapteyn's Investigations. A considerable portion of the time of Professor Kapteyn this year was devoted to the working out of a part of the program of the 60-inch reflector. Last year a series of photographs of the spectra of spiral nebulae and star- clusters was undertaken. Since these objects are, as a rule, so faint that spectra can be obtained only of the brighter ones, and even then with low dispersion and with exposures which extend over a whole night or even two nights, especial attention has been given to the question in what way these laborious observations can be made useful in the solution of the fundamental problem whether there is an appreciable selective absorption of the light of the stars in its passage through space. For this purpose a number of obser- vations have been added to the program of the reflector. With the aid of Mr. Seares a program has also been worked out for the photographic determination of standards of magnitude for stars of every degree of brightness down to the faintest stars that can be obtained with a moderate exposure with the 60-inch reflector. Several observatories are already devoting much labor to this problem, and the great light-gathering power of the Mount Wilson reflector makes it particularly desirable that this Observatory should take part in the work, not only in order to aid in establishing a scale of absolute magnitudes, but also in order to extend the scale to include fainter stars than could be reached at most other observa- tories. The main part of Professor Kapteyn's work, however, has been devoted to an investigation of two very extensive systems of stars of the Orion type of spectrum. These systems have already been shown to include probably more than half of the stars known to belong to this spectral type. It seems probable that further investigations will lead to the conclusion that these two systems are identical with two main star-streams, in which case the movement of these streams, as shown by the Orion stars, would be seen in its "purest" or least perturbed state, owing to the vast distance of stars hav- ing this type of spectrum. However this may be, there seems to be little doubt that as soon as a sufficient number of radial velocities are available the nature of these systems will allow us to derive the individual distances of all of the members of the groups of stars, and therefore of at least half MOUNT WILSON SOLAR OBSERVATORY. 171 of the stars known to belong to the Orion type. This fact in itself seems to furnish sufficient reason for the inclusion of all of the Orion stars not under observation elsewhere, for which we have accurate determinations of the proper motion, in the radial velocity program of the 6o-inch reflector. The values of the radial velocities will be used not only in the determination of the distances of the stars, but also to complete the data necessary for an accurate computation of the elements of the star systems. The faintest of these stars will be observed with the low-dispersion spectrograph ; but higher dispersion can probably be used to advantage on the great majority, and for this purpose the large three-prism spectrograph will be employed. PHYSICAL LABORATORY. The work in the physical laboratory in Pasadena has been chiefly a con- tinuation of the investigations in progress last year, the main lines of work being the study of the effect of a magnetic field upon the light producing the spectrum-lines, carried on by Mr. King and Mr. Babcock ; electric- furnace investigations by Mr. King, and a study of the influence of pressure upon spark spectra by Mr. Gale. The purpose of the magnetic field work has been to make a study of the Zeeman effect for a number of elements whose lines are prominent in sun- spot spectra. These spectra are photographed with high dispersion and a field of 16,000 to 20,000 gausses through the range from a 3700 to a 6700. The aim has been to tabulate the material in as convenient a form as possible for purposes of comparison with sun-spot spectra and for general physical work. The character of the separation produced by the magnetic field has been determined for each line in so far as the strength of field available has permitted. To do this, separate photographs are taken of the Zeeman com- ponents produced by light vibrations respectively perpendicular and parallel to the direction of magnetic force. The measurement of the separation of the components into which a single line is resolved, frequently several in number, has given a large quantity of material for direct comparison with lines showing separations in sun-spot spectra. In this way the character and strength of the magnetic field present in different sun-spots and in dif- ferent regions of the same spot can be studied most effectively. Further- more, the measurement in the laboratory of the separations of lines under a constant field, taken through a wide range of wave-length, shows in how far these separations are multiples of a fundamental interval, and how the aver- age separation changes with wave-length. The results of the detailed study of iron and titanium are fully worked out and will be published during the autumn. The investigation of the spectra of chromium, vanadium, and nickel along similar lines is in progress. A comparison by Mr. King of the Zeeman separations for the lines of iron, chromium, and titanium, with the displacements of the same lines under 172 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. pressure as given by Humphreys and Duffield, indicates that there is no very direct relationship, since there are many lines affected in very different de- grees by the two influences. A statistical treatment of a large number of lines, however, shows that in general there is a fair agreement between the order of magnitude of separation and displacement, pointing to the conclu- sion that the physical bases of the two phenomena, if not the same, are at least closely related. The changes in spectra with varying temperature of the radiating vapor have been studied by means of the electric furnace according to the plan described in the preceding report. A classification is thus made of the lines of any element based on their response to change of temperature in the source, and we obtain for any line which is found in the furnace-spectrum not only the approximate temperature at which it appears but the rate at which the line changes in intensity with increase of temperature. It is found that in the case of some substances almost the entire arc spectrum can be obtained at the higher temperatures of the furnace. Other elements show many strong arc lines which are absent in the furnace, a fact which may be explained usually by their appearance and behavior in the arc. Several minor alterations in connection with the furnace have given greater efficiency and better results, and the material for the study of the spectra of a number of elements having many lines is nearly complete. Mr. Gale spent the months of March, April, and May in Pasadena engaged in an investigation of the spectrum of the electric spark under pressure. Reference has already been made to some of the results found in the course of his work, but on account of their important applications to certain astro- physical problems they may well be repeated at this point. ( 1 ) The enhanced lines remain bright under pressures at which the great majority of the other lines are reversed. A probable explanation of the intensity and persistence of the enhanced lines in the spectrum of the sun's chromosphere is afforded by these observations. Since the pressures em- ployed in the laboratory investigations were nearly the same as those present in the sun's reversing layer, it is evident that at the sun's edge we should expect the enhanced lines to appear bright when the majority of the arc lines are still dark. This is in agreement with observations. Similarly the arc lines which remain bright under pressure are in almost all cases prominent in the spectrum of the chromosphere. (2) The enhanced lines are displaced more than the arc lines at the same pressures. In an investigation of the spectra of the sun's limb it was found that the enhanced lines are displaced more than the other lines, and a similar effect is present in the spectra of the stars Sirius and Procyon. The labora- tory results, accordingly, appear to furnish us with a means of determining quantitatively the pressures in the atmospheres of certain stars. A short investigation has been made by Mr. King of the relative wave- lengths of lines given by the arc and by the spark. The long- focus Littrow spectrograph, giving high dispersion with freedom from astigmatism, com- MOUNT WILSON SOLAR OBSERVATORY. 175 bined with the powerful transformer spark, provides the means of getting more definite data on the subject than has been possible with most other apparatus. The experiments, so far as they have progressed, show that the spark, with a proper adjustment of circuit conditions, gives in most cases lines which would be measured as having a wave-length greater than the arc lines, though the photographs also show to what extent unsymmetrical widen- ing may explain the effect. The conditions requisite for this apparent differ- ence in wave-length appear to be confined to the central part of the spark, the outer portions giving lines coinciding with the arc lines. The instrumental equipment of the laboratory has received a number of additions during the year, chief among which are the following: an 8-inch plane grating by Michelson, which has proved very efficient when used in the spectrograph of 30 feet focal-length ; a Rowland concave grating of 1 meter radius to be mounted for use in low-dispersion work; a Gaertner comparator ; a D'Arsonval ballistic galvanometer ; standards of resistance, electromotive force, capacity, and self-induction ; several voltmeters and am- meters of different ranges ; a Gaede high-vacuum pump, and a Cox mercury interrupter. A plate condenser having a capacity of about 0.06 microfarad and capable of sustaining a i-inch spark has been built in the laboratory. The measurement of plates and the computations in connection with the laboratory work have been carried on for the most part by Miss Griffin of the Computing Division. THE COMPUTING DIVISION. The Computing Division has remained throughout the year under the charge of Mr. Seares. Miss Burwell has been engaged in the measurement and reduction of sun- spot spectra. The discussion of the material available for the catalogue of sun-spot lines was practically finished at the time of the last report. During the year she has devoted her attention to various phases of the Zeeman effect in spot spectra. Some 60 photographs taken with and without a Nicol prism have been examined for the purpose of analyzing the character of the lines in the presence of the magnetic field, and such as are suitable for the purpose have been measured for the determination of the strength of field. The plates of various spots and spot groups have been examined for polarity. Miss Burwell has also undertaken a detailed comparison of the lines of the spectrum of Arcturus with those of the spot-spectrum, using the photographs obtained with the 18-foot stellar spectrograph. Miss Griffin, since her appointment on February 1, has devoted the greater part of her time to the measurement and reduction of laboratory spectrum photographs, about 100 in all, relating to the Zeeman effect. She has also made measures of brightness on several plates taken for photometric pur- poses, and has determined the screw errors of three small comparators used in the measurement of spectra. 174 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. Miss Lasby has continued the measurement and reduction of the photo- graphs of stellar spectra taken with high dispersion. Of these 26 have been reduced and the results discussed both with respect to the peculiarities ex- hibited by the arc and the enhanced lines in certain stars and with respect to the systematic deviations shown by the lines of different elements. Miss Lasby has also measured and reduced 215 low-dispersion stellar spectrum plates obtained with the one-prism spectrograph in the principal focus of the 60-inch reflector, and a number of solar rotation, chromosphere, and labora- tory photographs. Miss Smith has continued, as in the past, the measurement of the calcium flocculi and prominence areas, and has reduced during the year 148 calcium and 150 prominence plates by the weight method explained in the last report. All of the plates of these series are completely reduced to February 1, 1910, and the final curves showing the fluctuation of the calcium flocculi and promi- nence areas have been constructed up to November 4, 1909. Miss Smith has also begun, under the direction of Mr. Hale, an extensive examination and comparison of direct photographs of the sun with H2 and Ha spectro- heliograms for the purpose of obtaining more definite information concerning sun-spot structure and related phenomena. To avoid the inconvenience in- volved in handling large numbers of plates, Miss Smith has made and used for the comparison paper prints which have been collected in volumes, each volume showing the complete history, so far as recorded, of each of the spots or spot groups studied. Fifteen of these, comprising some 700 prints, are complete at present, and the tabulation of the data resulting from this com- parison has been finished. The prints used in this investigation have proved so convenient for rapid examination and comparison that it is proposed in the future to make similar prints for all direct photographs and spectroheliograms as they are obtained. Miss Ware has been engaged mainly in the measurement of solar and stellar spectra. The stellar-spectrum work has included the measurement and reduction of several high-dispersion photographs as well as a consider- able number of the low-dispersion plates of the fainter stars. Recently she has measured a large number of solar spectrum negatives for the determina- tion of the absolute wave-lengths of the H and K lines at various points on the solar disk and in the chromosphere. The work forms part of an exten- sive investigation by Mr. St. John of the circulation of the calcium vapor in the neighborhood of spots and spot-groups, as well as in the general solar atmosphere. Miss Ware has also carried on the difficult work of determining the number of stars present upon the photograph of one of the globular star clusters. Miss Waterman's time has been devoted mainly to the study of stellar spectra, some 250 low-dispersion plates having been measured and reduced, and over 400 classified according to type of spectrum. In addition she has measured some laboratory photographs of spectra taken under pressure, and MOUNT WILSON SOLAR OBSERVATORY. 175 has given a large amount of time to computations connected with the investi- gation of the solar rotation. Miss Wickham continued, up to the time of her resignation on February i, her measures of laboratory photographs taken for the investigation of the Zeeman effect. She also measured a considerable number of chromosphere plates and one of the high-dispersion stellar spectrum negatives. Although the books and pamphlets of the library had been roughly classi- fied, no attempt at cataloguing was made until the appointment of Miss Haines on March i. Since then the classification has been completely revised and all of the bound volumes have been catalogued. The loss of books as a result of the burning of the quarters was serious, but we have succeeded in replacing most of those burned. The accessions during the year through purchase amount to about 125 volumes, while in addition the value of the collection has been greatly enhanced through the gift of a large number of volumes from various institutions and societies. At present the bound vol- umes in the collection number 1,451. CONSTRUCTION DIVISION. All of the construction work of the year has been under the general super- vision of the Director, with Mr. Ayers in immediate charge of the work in the instrument shop and Mr. Jones in immediate charge of the work on Mount Wilson. The difficult work involved in the details of the design of the instruments built during the year has been under the immediate charge of Mr. Pease. Mr. Ritchey has remained in charge of the design of the 100-inch telescope. Among the instruments constructed in the instrument shop during the past year the most important are the following: The new double-slide plate-carrier for the 60-inch reflector. The ccelostat, second mirror support, and lens mounting for the 150- foot tower telescope, including tracks, and slow-motion and focusing attachments. The larger portions of the 75-foot spectrograph and spectroheliograph to be used with the 150- foot tower telescope; also the slits, with their supports and various auxiliary attachments. Additional parts of the 100-inch grinding-machine, which complete its construction. In addition a large number of smaller pieces of apparatus have been built, and minor repairs made on existing instruments. THE ONE HUNDRED AND FIFTY FOOT TOWER TELESCOPE. The erection of the tower telescope was begun last year and two of the lower sections were completed before the opening of the rainy season put an end to the construction work. The large pit, 78 feet deep, beneath the tower was also completed and thoroughly dried during the winter by arti- ficial means. Erection work was begun again in March of this year and continued until September. With the exception of the spectroscopic equip- ment still under construction in the Pasadena instrument shop, the tower I76 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. telescope is now essentially complete. The concrete laboratory at its base has also been finished and the mirrors and 150- foot focus lens are installed. The general features of the telescope were described in the last report. The erection of the two towers, one inclosed within the members of the other, has been carried out most successfully by Mr. Jones. The dome which covers the instruments at the top of the tower consists of two approximately hemispherical sections of slightly different radius, one of which may be rotated within the other. This form of construction has the marked advan- tage of affording a very large opening and thus promoting the free circula- tion of air about the mirrors. A square tube 5.5 feet in size, built of angle iron and lined with sheet iron, extends the full height of the tower, inclosing the beam of light from the lens and protecting it from disturbing air-currents. To prevent heating, the outside of the tube is covered with canvas louvers of a form similar to those used on the Snow telescope house. The dome is supported by the outer tower, and the tube jointly by the outer tower and the concrete roof of the laboratory. The mirrors which have been figured in the Pasadena optical shop are about 12 inches thick and similar to those which have proved so successful in use with the 60-foot tower telescope. To prevent distortion due to heat- ing of the edges, the sides of the mirrors are incased in closely fitting water- jackets through which a stream of water may be kept circulating. The lens now in use is 12 inches in diameter and of the triple construction designed by Hastings to reduce the effect of chromatic aberration. The 75-foot focus lens for use in the spectrograph is of the same form. Both lenses will be given a careful test during the next few months. The few preliminary trials thus far made with the tower telescope indicate that it should prove most successful in regular operation. The 17-inch image of the sun shows excellent definition on days when the observing con- ditions are good, and there appears to be an entire absence of vibration due to shaking of the tower by the wind. THE MONASTERY. On December 13, 1909, a fire caused by an overheated range entirely de- stroyed the Monastery. A considerable number of valuable books were burned, but fortunately little was lost that can not be replaced readily. As soon as the rainy season was over the work of rebuilding was commenced, and is now completed. The present building is of reinforced concrete throughout and follows closely the general design of the former Monastery. A few additional rooms have been provided and more convenient heating and water systems installed. The Observatory is indebted to the Carnegie Institution of Washington for a special appropriation by means of which it was enabled to reconstruct so promptly and in such a satisfactory and per- manent form the building about which so large a part of the social life on Mount Wilson naturally centers. MOUNT WILSON SOLAR OBSERVATORY. 1 77 THE ONE-HUNDRED-INCH TELESCOPE. The details of the design of the 100-inch telescope have made excellent progress during the year under the immediate direction of Mr. Ritchey. The experience gained during the last year with the 6o-inch reflecting telescope has been of the greatest value in guiding the design of the larger instrument. As stated in the last report, the glass disk, weighing 4.5 tons, which was secured from the St. Gobain firm, contained so many flaws that it seemed inadvisable to accept it. Since this disk was made the St. Gobain firm has been continuing the attempt to secure a perfect casting. A very large fur- nace and melting-pot capable of holding 20 tons of material has been con- structed and improved methods of annealing have been introduced. In the spring of this year a successful disk was cast, but unfortunately, owing to defects in the mold, strains were introduced in the process of annealing and the disk was broken. With the experience gained from these trials we may reasonably hope for a perfect disk before very long. The large grinding-machine for the 100-inch disk has been completed dur- ing the year and the shaping and rough-grinding of the 60-inch plane mirror to be used in testing the larger disk has been nearly finished. THE INTERNATIONAL SOLAR UNION MEETING. The fourth Conference of the International Union for Cooperation in Solar Research was held on Mount Wilson during the week of August 29 to Sep- tember 3, 1910. About 80 members of the Union and invited guests were present. A brief outline of the program of the Conference follows: August 29. Inspection of the Pasadena offices, instrument and optical shops, and physical laboratory. August 30. Journey to Mount Wilson. August 31. (1) Opening address by Professor Hale. (2) Report of the executive committee. (3) Report of the committee on standards of wave-length. At 8 p. m. Address by Mr. Abbot. September 1. Report of the committee on the measurement of solar radiation. Report of the committee on the investigation of the spectra of sun-spots. Report of the committee for the organization of eclipse observations. At 8 p. m. Address by Professor Kapteyn. September 2. Morning session: Report of the committee on the determination of the solar rotation by means of the displacements of lines. Report of the committee on work with the spectroheliograph. Afternoon session : Discussion of a proposal to extend the scope of the Union. Nomination and election of committees. Meetings of the astrographic chart committee and of the committee on the Kapteyn Selected Areas were held in connection with the Conference. Important action was taken by the Solar Union on a number of questions connected with solar and stellar research. In particular, we may refer to the adoption of secondary standards of wave-length; the recommendation of certain instruments as standards for the measurement of radiation ; the prog- ress made toward additional cooperative work among sun-spot observers and 12 — YB I78 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. those working on the solar rotation, and finally, the extension of the scope of the Union so as to include general astrophysics and the appointment of a committee to consider stellar classification. During their stay on Mount Wilson the visiting astronomers made many observations with the Snow and tower telescopes and with the 60-inch re- flector. NUTRITION LABORATORY* Francis G. Benedict, Director. During the past year the equipment of the Nutrition Laboratory has been increased considerably by purchase, and particularly by the construction of special apparatus of our own devising. Preliminary investigations have been carried out, aiming toward the solution of some of the innumerable problems in human nutrition, and the investigations begun in previous years have been continued and the results in large measure prepared for publi- cation. ADDITIONS TO EQUIPMENT. While the respiration calorimeter, as originally built at Wesleyan Univer- sity, marked a great advance in the study of physiological problems dealing with the transformations of matter and energy, each year of experience sug- gests changes in the apparatus of practical value for increasing its efficiency or facilitating manipulation. To enable us to make such changes and im- provements, a machine shop was included in the original equipment of the laboratory. Certain alterations in the interior arrangement of the building itself have also been made necessary by the demands for increased space re- sulting from a larger use of the apparatus. RESPIRATION CALORIMETERS. During the past year a third respiration calorimeter has been built and completely finished. This is somewhat larger than the calorimeters pre- viously constructed and will accommodate a man lying down or standing upright, and will permit a subject to work upon a bicycle ergometer. The apparatus is designed for experiments of 24 or more hours' duration, and thus provides for more extended observations than are possible with either of the two calorimeters first constructed. The new calorimeter has not yet been used for experiments with man, but has been satisfactorily tested elec- trically and some preliminary trials have also been made by burning known amounts of alcohol inside the chamber. During the latter part of this year the construction of a large respiration calorimeter has been begun for the purpose of studying muscular work, par- ticularly that in which the legs are used in the motion of forward progres- sion and up and down an inclined plane. The structural-steel framework and the copper lining or inside chamber of this respiration calorimeter have been finished, and it is expected that the entire apparatus will be completed within a year. * Situated at Boston, Mass. Grant No. 606. $26,378 for investigations and maintenance during 1910. (For previous reports on work in nutrition see Year Books Nos. 2-8.) 179 l80 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. In researches with the respiration calorimeter just mentioned, it is planned to use a treadmill of unique design, on which it will be possible for the sub- ject to walk forward at any desired rate, or even to run. The construction of this treadmill is well under way. An important factor in the measurement of heat by the calorimeter is the physical observer's table, where all the heat-controlling appliances are in- stalled and all temperature measurements recorded. The original table, which was more or less experimentally constructed, has been replaced by a substantial permanently constructed and wired table, which has been tested for a year. The building of a third calorimeter made necessary the construction of a second observer's table for controlling the calorimetric features of the ap- paratus. From this table it is possible to control not only the new calo- rimeter, but also one of the calorimeters controlled from the other observer's table, i. e., the bed calorimeter. It is thus practicable to make experiments with any two of the three completed calorimeters at one time. The special features of these two tables will be described in a future publication. RECONSTRUCTION OP CHAIR CALORIMETER. In using the chair calorimeter, which is described in Publication No. 123, experience showed that the entrance as originally placed was very incon- venient. As the opening was at the top, it was necessary for the subject to ascend a ladder, then climb over the side of the opening, and descend a small ladder to the floor of the chamber and seat himself in the chair. The method of entering the apparatus was thus very complicated, and there was danger that inexperienced subjects might strike the head on parts of the chamber or on the framework above the chamber. The opening has therefore been changed from the top to the front of the calorimeter chamber. It is fitted with two panes of plate glass which are easily manipulated and give a very satisfactory closure. This change has been of great advantage, as the sub- ject can very easily enter the chamber and sit in the chair without great difficulty. In reconstructing the top slight alterations were made which give somewhat more space for the shoulders and head, and while the total content of the chamber has been increased but little, the advantages are considerable. RESPIRATION APPARATUS FOR MEN. In the last report mention was made of a respiration apparatus for the determination of the respiratory quotient and of the respiratory exchange in short periods, which had been developed and constructed in this laboratory. While a considerable number of experiments had been made with it, it was not by any means perfected in all minor details, and during the past year another apparatus has been built on exactly the same principle as the pre- vious one. This has been constructed more substantially and more carefully finished, and a number of improvements made. The new apparatus was NUTRITION LABORATORY. l8l completed late in the spring and has been in almost constant use since that time. It has been very satisfactory, and is much more easily manipulated than the first apparatus. A third apparatus is now in process of con- struction. RESPIRATION APPARATUS FOR DOGS. For use in an investigation in which dogs were employed for subjects, a respiration apparatus was constructed of galvanized sheet-iron with a capac- ity of about i cubic meter. The apparatus was constructed on the closed- chamber principle, and in use the animal was placed inside the chamber and analyses of the air made periodically, the rise in carbon dioxide being noted. This apparatus proved very serviceable. After the routine and method of procedure had been thoroughly established, however, it was found that the apparatus was somewhat too large for securing the most accurate results with the small dogs required for the particular research in progress. A sec- ond respiration apparatus was therefore constructed upon the same principle with a cubic content of only about one-third of a cubic meter. This ap- paratus has been used almost exclusively since its construction and gives perfectly satisfactory results. The chamber is in the shape of a cube, with a cover placed upon the top closed with a water-seal; on one side of the chamber is constructed a supplementary apparatus to determine the activity of the subject. The movements of the animal confined in the small cage which is fastened inside of the apparatus result in a vertical displacement of a pointer which records the variations upon smoked paper. Samples of air are periodically withdrawn and the carbon dioxide determined. Only the variations in the carbon-dioxide content have thus far been studied. ADIABATIC CALORIMETER. The new adiabatic calorimeter mentioned in the last report has been im- proved and completed, and it is now in permanent useful condition and has been in constant use during the past year. The results have been extremely satisfactory, less time being required for the determinations and its manipu- lation being much easier. CHANGES IN THE CALORIMETER LABORATORY. Much of the construction in half of the respiration calorimeter laboratory is practically completed, and instead of relaying the floor, as was originally planned, it was decided to cover the floor with linoleum. The heaviest grade of linoleum was used and cut and laid so that it would be possible, for repair work, etc., to easily uncover the troughs through which the piping runs. This floor covering has been very satisfactory. As originally constructed, the respiration calorimeter laboratory had a head-room of about 15 feet and in some parts of the room this is not utilized. Since so large a portion of the floor space was being used for the respiration l82 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. calorimeters and accessory apparatus, it was considered advisable to increase the facilities of the laboratory by constructing a gallery upon which appa- ratus could be stored and which would also provide desk-room for assistants in connection with the work. Accordingly such a gallery, with stairway, has been built in the southwest corner of the laboratory, and an assistant perma- nently stationed there, who makes the calculations for each experiment as soon as the results are available. It has been found a very great advantage to have the work done in the calorimeter laboratory. A part of the space has also been utilized for storing apparatus, printed forms, etc., which are to be used in the laboratory, and which are thus immediately available when needed and out of the way at other times. SPECIAL APPARATUS AND MACHINERY. In a recent European trip several pieces of apparatus were ordered for the use of the laboratory. Among these were a Deprez-d'Arsonval galvanometer and a Sonden-Pettersson gas-analysis apparatus. Three Brunswick calculat- ing machines were also purchased for use in calculations. For the purpose of still further increasing the efficiency of the machine-shop, a precision lathe has been added to its equipment. During the past year there has been added to the office equipment a phonograph for dictation, and much use has been made of it, especially in preparing rough drafts of material intended for publication. COOPERATING AND VISITING INVESTIGATORS. Dr. Elliott P. Joslin has continued his cooperation in the study of metabo- lism in diabetes and has offered many helpful suggestions in connection with the work. He has also had entire care of the patients, and it is almost entirely due to his enthusiastic assistance that the laboratory has been able to carry out this work. Dr. John Homans, of the Harvard Medical School, has likewise cooperated in the investigations upon the influence of the removal of the hypophysis from small animals. A number of foreign investigators have visited the Nutrition Laboratory during the past year, their visits varying in length from several days to two or three weeks. Among them was Prof. Otto Cohnheim, of Heidelberg, who spent two or three weeks at the laboratory and served as the subject of several experiments with the respiration apparatus and the respiration calo- rimeter. He also made a critical study of the respiration apparatus for men with the idea of applying the same principles to the study of the gaseous metabolism of extirpated organs. Dr. M. Hindhede, of Copenhagen, Den- mark, spent about three weeks at the laboratory during the early part of the spring, and was the subject of several experiments in the respiration calo- rimeter dealing with the influence of food upon metabolism. Prof. Adolph Magnus-Levy, of Berlin, spent two or three days at the laboratory, and made a short study of the methods employed in the investigations on metabolism NUTRITION LABORATORY. 1 83 in diabetes. He read in manuscript the entire report on this investigation which has recently been published (Publication No. 136), and offered a number of suggestions for use in further investigation on the subject. STAFF NOTES. In conformity with a plan outlined at the inception of the laboratory, the Director took an extended tour in Europe (during the spring and early summer), visiting different laboratories and investigators who were inter- ested in researches in nutrition and allied subjects. While on a previous trip, three years ago, his main object was the inspection of laboratory con- struction and equipment, with special reference to apparatus; on this tour he was able to spend much more time in the discussion of experiments, plans, and problems that might be advantageously studied, with special refer- ence to clinical problems, particularly diabetes. The cordiality with which he was received in all hospitals, laboratories, and clinics, and the great inter- est exhibited by the different investigators in the researches being carried on by the Carnegie Institution of Washington in general, and by the Nutrition Laboratory in particular, make it seem all the more desirable to continue these periodic European tours and thus keep in close touch with foreign investigators. As many of the American scientific investigators visit the laboratory, it enables the observers to keep in touch with the scientific work and workers in this country. It is very gratifying to see the number of foreign investigators who are now exhibiting an interest in the Nutrition Laboratory, both by correspondence and by personal visit. During the Director's absence Mr. T. M. Carpenter had the entire charge of the laboratory as acting Director, and, with the necessity for the presenta- tion of results and the writing of reports of major investigations, it has become more and more necessary to readjust the administration of the laboratory so as to make more advantageous use of Mr. Carpenter's excel- lent administrative ability. When the laboratory was first established, although provision was made for subsequent extension of chemical research, as distinguished from the calorimetric investigations, it was deemed important to first perfect the calo- rimeters, which made it possible for researches on the energy transformations of man to be carried out in this laboratory as nowhere else. This elaboration of calorimetric apparatus was continued to the neglect of the development of the chemical side, but, with the satisfactory completion of three calorimeters, chemical research may now be advantageously undertaken. We have been extremely fortunate in inducing Dr. A. W. Peters, who has been associated with Prof. Otto Folin, of the Harvard Medical School, for the past two years, to join our staff. Dr. Peters will for the most part confine himself to such problems of nutrition as are of a purely chemical nature. The complicated electrical devices used in connection with the calorimeters and in many projected investigations necessitated the presence of an electri- 184 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. cal expert, and Mr. E. P. Slack, for two years an assistant in the electrical laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, has been associated with the laboratory for the past year. During this time he has been occupied in developing accessory apparatus for use with the respiration calorimeter, and more particularly upon a development of the thermo-electrical method for determining body-temperature. The office work and administration of the laboratory have been so modified as to utilize to much better advantage the editorial skill of Miss A. N. Dar- ling, whose long association with the Nutrition Laboratory and with the investigations in Middletown, Connecticut, make her peculiarly fitted for this kind of work. INVESTIGATIONS NOW IN PROGRESS. METABOLISM IN DIABETES. The investigation of metabolism during diabetes continues to be the most important single investigation now in progress in the laboratory. Cooperat- ing with Dr. Elliott P. Joslin, a number of experiments have been made., some with the subjects of previous years and some with new subjects. The abnormal metabolism noted in many of the older subjects was such as to make it advisable to secure as many cases of severe diabetes as possible. The gravity of the cases may be inferred from the fact that out of the 13 cases studied, 9 have already died, for the most part in coma. Although it was found in the two previous years that the ingestion of food other than protein did not result in any material alteration in the metabolism of dia- betics, the plan of studying these cases 12 hours after the last meal is still for the most part adhered to. The whole equipment of the laboratory appa- ratus is used in these investigations — the bed and chair calorimeter as well as the respiration apparatus. Incidentally, observations with regard to pulse- rate, respiration-rate, and body activity are made simultaneously. The re- sults of the first two years' work on this subject are most gratifying and the plan of a definite, long-continued research leading toward a fundamental knowledge of this disease is fully substantiated by the results thus far. It has been made obvious that investigations including but one or two cases are wholly inadequate for any fundamental knowledge of this obscure disturb- ance of metabolism. During a recent tour in Europe the Director was in touch with all the foremost clinicians, and the policy of the Nutrition Labora- tory in attacking the problem in this way was thoroughly approved by all. INFLUENCE OF INGESTION OF FOOD ON METABOLISM. In connection with the investigations carried out at Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut, approximately 100 experiments were made to study the influence on metabolism of the ingestion of food. In collecting the results of these experiments for publication it was found necessary to sup- plement them by further research on the subject, and accordingly, as often NUTRITION LABORATORY. 185 as pressure of other work permitted, experiments of 4, 6, or 8 hours were made. In all, some 33 of these experiments were carried out. The routine and general plan of the experiments were the same as in the experiments previously conducted at Wesleyan University, but, as the chair calorimeter was used for these later studies, a higher degree of accuracy was obtained than was possible in the Middletown investigations. The results of both series of experiments will be published as soon as practicable. METABOLISM OF WOMEN. Since so large a proportion of the experiments made in the past have been with men, it was considered of value to make a special study of the normal metabolism of women. For this investigation both calorimeters were used, the experiments in all cases being made 12 hours after the ingestion of food. Most of the subjects were young. The experiments (27 in all) were pre- liminary in character and the investigations will be continued further as opportunity offers. INFLUENCE ON METABOLISM OP THE REMOVAL OF THE HYPOPHYSIS FROM ANIMALS. Much interest has been exhibited in recent years in the study of the effect upon metabolism of the ductless glands in various parts of the body. In this connection considerable study has been made of the effect of the removal of the hypophysis from small animals, and an investigation of this subject has been begun in this laboratory by Dr. John Homans, of the Harvard Medical School. Dr. Homans has used in his experiments two or three very young dogs, and, with the respiration apparatus for dogs previously men- tioned, has studied the influence of the removal of the hypophysis upon the total metabolism as measured by the carbon dioxide. He first studied the carbon-dioxide output periodically in young dogs, and, after he had estab- lished the control, he removed the hypophysis, in part or wholly, from the animal. Shortly after their recovery from the operation the dogs were placed in the respiration chamber and the metabolism again studied. In all of the experiments careful observations were made of the muscular activity and of the pulse-rate. The urine was also collected daily during the whole period of the experiment and analyzed for nitrogen. With one animal, after the greater portion of the hypophysis had been removed, the effect of an injection of an extract of the gland was studied and preliminary data have been obtained upon this subject. COMPARISON OF METHODS FOR STUDYING THE RESPIRATORY EXCHANGE. In the plans for investigations originally made for this laboratory, a study of the different methods employed for determining the respiratory exchange was included, and accordingly several types of apparatus for studying the respiratory exchange were made a part of the initial equipment. Among these were the Zuntz apparatus and the Chauveau and Tissot spirometer. In addition, an apparatus was devised and constructed in this laboratory l86 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. which gives very accurate determinations of the respiratory exchange in short periods. Utilizing the experience he obtained in both the French and German laboratories, Mr. T. M. Carpenter has during the past year begun this comparative study of the methods of determining the respiratory ex- change, using these three types of apparatus. A preliminary study of the respiratory exchange after a short fast has already been made and the in- vestigation will be carried further. These results will also be compared with the results obtained with the bed calorimeter, which gives accurate deter- minations of the respiratory exchange in periods i hour in length. A com- parison of these methods is deemed of vital importance by many foreign investigators. INFLUENCE OF OXYGEN-RICH MIXTURES UPON THE RESPIRATORY EXCHANGE. The respiration apparatus, of which mention has already been made, offers a peculiarly advantageous opportunity for the study of the influence of oxygen-rich mixtures upon the respiratory exchange, and accordingly ex- periments were carried out along this line during the earlier part of the year. Using normal atmospheric air, a large number of experiments were made in which the respiratory exchange was determined 12 hours or more after the last meal. The percentage of oxygen in the apparatus was then arbitrarily increased and the respiratory exchange again determined under identically the same conditions and on the same day, except that the air used was rich in oxygen, 90 per cent or more. Five or six different individuals have been used as subjects, with different percentages of oxygen, and it is expected that the results of these experiments will throw very definite light upon the question of the oxygen absorption with oxygen-rich mixtures. The work has been carried out by Mr. H. L. Higgins of the laboratory staff. THE INFLUENCE OF THE PRECEDING DIET UPON THE RESPIRATORY EXCHANGE. In the last report reference was made to a study which had been begun on the influence of the previous diet upon the respiratory quotient. It was ex- pected at that time that the results of this study would soon be published, but it was deemed advisable to continue the work further. This investigation has also been supplemented by noting the effect of diet upon fasting value in connection with the investigation upon the effect of oxygen-rich mixtures. Considerable data have been added in this manner and the whole material is now being prepared for publication. TOPOGRAPHICAL STUDY OF BODY-TEMPERATURE. The desirability of a topographical study of body-temperatures has been increasingly apparent in the work of the laboratory and plans for a thorough investigation of the subject have long been made. Mr. Edgar P. Slack has been at work during the past year compiling material upon this topic and constructing thermometers and accessory apparatus to be used in connection with the research. In the investigations a simultaneous study will be made of the temperature of the different portions of the body, such as the mouth, stomach, colon, vagina, and axilla, and upon various parts of the body- NUTRITION LABORATORY. 187 surface. It is hoped by this means to obtain some information upon the question as to whether a change in temperature in one portion of the body is accompanied by a similar change in another portion, a question of funda- mental importance in experiments on heat production. HEAT OF COMBUSTION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS. Considerable attention has been given during the past year to the deter- mination of the heat of combustion of a number of organic compounds, par- ticularly those which are very important in investigations in physiological chemistry. The adiabatic bomb calorimeter previously mentioned was used for this work and the most time was given to the determinations of the heat of combustion of ethyl alcohol. Ordinary alcohol was used, i. e., about 90 per cent, in gelatine capsules, and also in glass bulbs according to the method described by Richards. This alcohol has also been diluted in varying pro- portions, and accurate determinations made of the heat of combustion. In addition to the work on alcohol, some preliminary determinations have been made of the heat of combustion of acetone, lactic acid, and some foods. It is expected to continue this work in connection with other work in the labo- ratory. ANALYSES OF DIABETIC FOODS. In connection with the study of diabetes carried on in cooperation with Dr. E. P. Joslin, a number of diabetic foods, so-called, have been collected and analyzed. Many of these foods are especially advertised as being excel- lent for the use of diabetics, and accordingly particular attention has been paid to the determination of the total carbohydrate content. A great variety of foods was analyzed, not only breads, but also sugarless milk, sugarless jelly, chocolate, vegetables of various kinds, and other materials recom- mended for diabetics. The analyses of these foods have proved of great value in connection with the treatment of diabetics, as such foods were some- times found to contain more carbohydrates than stated. They could thus be eliminated from the diet of a patient and the ingestion of carbohydrate prop- erly controlled. NUTRITIVE VALUE OF SERVINGS OF FOOD. The average individual has little, if any, conception of the amount of nutri- ment in food, and when we attempt to estimate the energy in a single meal, or, indeed, in a single helping of food, we find that it is very difficult to obtain any very accurate idea of the amount. Most people, including many considered to be experts, when given the number of materials in a meal and an approximate idea of the size of the helpings, are unable to tell how much energy the materials should supply. When the weight and heat of combus- tion of a material are known, the amount of energy can be calculated very closely, but very few people are in a position to weigh every helping during the meal or to know the heat of combustion of the different materials used or the amount of protein contained in them. l88 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. Recognizing this lack of knowledge, an investigation has been begun in this laboratory in the hope of supplying such information. Ordinary serv- ings of food have been collected and weighed and a sample of the serving saved for analysis. At some future time determinations will be made on these samples of the heat of combustion, the nitrogen, and the carbohydrates. It is hoped in this way to collect enough data so that with a knowledge of the materials included in a meal and an idea of the size of the helpings, the amount of energy in any given meal may be calculated, at least approximately. In addition to the collection of samples for analysis, the compilation of pub- lished analyses of cooked foods has been begun and will be continued. ANALYSES OP OUTDOOR AIR. The analyses of the outdoor air begun last year have been continued. These have been made almost daily by means of the Sonden-Pettersson gas- analysis apparatus, with which very accurate determinations of carbon dioxide, oxygen, and nitrogen can be made. Occasionally variations have been found in the oxygen content of the air which are not accompanied by similar variations in the carbon-dioxide content. No cause has thus far been ascertained for this variation, and it is planned to make an even more thor- ough study of such variations in the coming year, supplementing the analyses with very accurate controls to make sure that the differences are not due to variations in the apparatus. The significance of oxygen in respiratory pro- cesses and the almost universal use of the oxygen content of the air as a constant fully justify the continuance of this most interesting meteorological study. PUBLICATIONS. The following publications have been prepared and issued during the past year: (i) A comparison of the direct and indirect determination of oxygen consumed by man. Francis G. Benedict. Amer. Jour. Physiol., 26, p. 15. 1910. The great importance of knowing accurately the amount of oxygen con- sumed by man has led to many attempts to make this determination indi- rectly. By means of simple forms of respiration apparatus it is possible to determine the carbon dioxide eliminated and the water vaporized. If accu- rate records of the body-weight can be obtained, the oxygen consumed may also be computed by the simple formula a = b + c — d, in which a is the weight of the oxygen, b the weight of carbon dioxide, c the weight of water vaporized, and d the loss in body-weight of the subject. While it is rela- tively easy to determine with considerable accuracy the carbon dioxide elim- inated, it is extremely difficult to determine the water vaporized, and the errors incidental to the determination of changes in body-weight are ordi- narily so great that it is practically impossible to use this method for the accurate determination of oxygen. With the new respiration calorimeters at the Nutrition Laboratory the determination of all the grosser factors of metabolism — i. e., carbon-dioxide production, water- vapor elimination, oxygen absorption, and, indeed, heat elimination — was extremely satisfactory. With the installation of a special balance, the changes in body-weight could be NUTRITION LABORATORY. 189 recorded to within a few tenths of a gram. Inasmuch as this apparatus was provided with a method for determining oxygen directly, experiments were made for comparing the direct and indirect determinations. The experi- ments were all made with men sitting quietly in a chair suspended on a balance inside the respiration chamber. A sample experiment is given in the table herewith : Comparison of the Direct and Indirect Determinations of Oxygen. [Metabolism Experiment, January 31. 1910.] Period. (a) Carbon dioxide elimi- nated. Water vaporized. (c) Loss in body- weight (calculated to 60 min.). (rf) Oxygen consumed (indirect determina- tion). (a + b)-c. Oxygen consumed (direct determina- tion). (/) Ratio of indirect determina- tion to direct determina- tion. (d + e.) First ... grams. 27.2 323 34.8 31.0 25-5 26.3 grams. 33-7 33-9 33-2 34 4 31.2 29.4 gra ms. 38.1 42.4 41-3 39° 35-7 35-0 grams. 22.8 23.8 26.7 26.4 21.0 20.7 grams. 23-4 25-0 25.4 26.0 20.9 22.0 per cent. 97-4 95-2 1 05. 1 101.5 100.5 94.1 Second Third Fourth ... Fifth Sixth Total 1 77- 1 195-8 231-5 I4I-4 142.7 99-1 The result of the experiment showed that while the indirect method with extraordinary precautions could be used, the indications are that the errors involved in the indirect determination of oxygen are such as to preclude its use under the conditions that ordinarily obtain even in the most perfect forms of respiration apparatus, and the accurate determination of the oxygen con- sumption of man is practicable only by the use of the direct method. (2) Control tests of a respiration calorimeter. Francis G. Benedict, J. A. Riche, and L. E. Emmes. Amer. Jour. Physiol., 26, p. 1. 1910. Two of the respiration calorimeters now in use in the Nutrition Laboratory were subjected to the most rigid control tests to show their capability for determining the four important factors of metabolism in man, namely, carbon-dioxide production, water vaporization, oxygen consumption, and heat elimination, even in periods as short as one hour. Each apparatus has been first tested as a calorimeter by developing heat electrically inside the chamber. Under these conditions a number of experi- ments show that the two calorimeters give extremely accurate results. A sample experiment is here given : Record of Heat Developed in Electrical Check 'Experiment with Chair Calorimeter, October 14, 1909. (i-hour Periods.) Period. Theory. Found. Percent- age found. First calories. 87.1 87.4 86.9 86.9 calories. 86.9 88.0 86.6 86.3 99.8 100.7 99-7 99-3 Second Third Fourth Total 348.3 347-8 99-9 190 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. Using the electrical method of control, it was possible to determine the hydrothermal equivalent of the respiration calorimeter by introducing a cer- tain amount of heat into the chamber and allowing the temperature of the apparatus to rise slowly. Obviously in this operation the heat brought away by the cooling water-current was less than that introduced by the amount absorbed by the chamber as its temperature rose. This amount gave accu- rate data for computing the hydrothermal equivalent of the apparatus. The reverse operation was then carried out, namely, the rate of withdrawal of the heat by the water-current was arbitrarily adjusted so as to cool the whole chamber somewhat and the excess of the heat withdrawn over and above that developed by the electric current gave means for computing the hydro- thermal equivalent of the chamber. With the bed calorimeter this was found to be 19.5 kg. of water, and with the chair calorimeter 21 kg. of water. The most rigid control, however, is obtained in experiments in which a definite amount of alcohol is burned inside the chamber and all four of the factors are measured. The results of an experiment of five consecutive i-hour periods is given in the table herewith : Alcohol Check Experiment. Chair Calorimeter, November 18, 1909. (i-hour Periods.) Period. •6 V a u 3 .O "o O < Carbon dioxide. Oxygen. Water-vapor. Heat. u 0 V a 3 0 fa .2-2 0 ri<2~ u 0 K XI •a a 3 0 fa ■— 0 . o~ >, 2*2 0 3 g ti p2i2*j u 0 V H •a a 3 0 fa <*- 0 . •Bis 0 V fS a 3 tM O • 0 *• >, .2 'go PS >2* First Second Third Fourth . Fifth gms. 14.7 14.3 15- 1 13-9 14.6 gms. 26.0 25.1 26.7 24.6 25-9 gms. 25-5 24.7 26.5 24.4 25-9 per ct. 98.1 98.4 99-3 99.2 1 00.0 gms. 28.3 27.4 29.1 26.9 28.3 gms. 28.2 27-3 28.8 26.9 28.7 per ct. 99-7 99.6 99.0 100. 0 101.4 gms. 17.0 16.5 17-5 16.2 17.0 84.2 gms. 16.7 16.4 17-5 16.2 16.9 per ct. 98.2 99-4 100.0 100.0 99-4 cat. 86.1 83.3 88.5 81.7 85-9 cal. 86.1 82.8 88.9 79.8 88.1 per ct. 100.0 99-4 100.5 97-7 102.6 Total 72-5 128.3 127.0 99.0 140.0 "39-9 99-9 83-7 99-4 425-5 425-7 100. 1 To obtain duplicate results in the determination of a single chemical ele- ment or radicle by analysis frequently requires a number of determinations, and when two factors are simultaneously determined, as carbon and hydrogen in elementary organic analysis, still greater difficulty is experienced. It can, therefore, easily be seen that the simultaneous determination of four factors presents a problem that is rarely met with in either physical or chemical oper- ations and heretofore never in physiological chemical operations. Indeed, the apparatus has proved as accurate as any chemical process ordinarily used in a laboratory, and it can accordingly be characterized, both calorimetrically and chemically, as an instrument of precision. (3) The composition of some Bengali food materials. Hope Sherman and H. L. Hig- gins. Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 32, rv, p. 558. 1910. In this paper are reported analyses of a number of Bengali food materials sent to the Nutrition Laboratory by Captain McCay, Professor of Physiology in the Calcutta Medical College. The materials included wheat, corn, pulse, and rice, all of which are commonly used in the diet of the Bengalis. The analyses were compared with the analyses of American food materials and it was found that the wheat flour as prepared in India had a considerably higher absolute fat content than ordinary American flour. Twenty-three samples were analyzed and the heats of combustion determined. NUTRITION LABORATORY. 191 (4) An adiabatic calorimeter for use with the calorimetric bomb. Francis G. Benedict and Harold L. Higgins. Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 32, iv, p. 461. 1910. In all investigations in calorimetry, the great and serious obstacle is the cooling correction or the interchange of heat between the calorimeter and the surrounding medium. With the new type of calorimeter the temperature of the surrounding medium is arbitrarily controlled so as to always equal that of the calorimeter itself, thus doing away with any interchange of heat. In the investigations described in this paper the Kroker modification of a Ber- thelot bomb calorimeter was used, although any other bomb can be em- ployed. The calorimeter vessel containing water in which the bomb was immersed is placed inside of a nickel-plated brass can, allowing a certain air- space between the calorimeter can and its outer nickel vessel. This outer vessel is in turn surrounded by a water-jacket whose temperature can be arbi- trarily raised by means of an electric heater. A turbine stirrer keeps the water in agitation and a delicate thermometer enables the reading of the temperature. Passing a current of electricity through the electric heater in the outer jacket maintains the temperature of the water at any desired point; and throughout the whole calorimetric operation the temperature difference between the inside and outside is negligible. The apparatus has been most rigidly tested and has given the most satisfactory results. It promises to be an important addition to calorimetric investigation and supplements the admirable calorimeter devised by Richards, Henderson, and Frevert for spe- cial scientific experiments. (5) Elementary analysis by means of a calorimetric bomb. Harold L. Higgins and Alice Johnson. Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 32, rv, p. 547. 1910. In nutrition investigations innumerable analyses of organic materials are involved in which the carbon and hydrogen content must be known. Usually on the same sample there must also be a determination of the heat of com- bustion. This paper describes a method of carrying out in practically one operation the determination of the heat of combustion of a material and of the carbon and hydrogen. The substance is burned in a calorimetric bomb and the heat eliminated is measured by the rise in temperature of the water in which the bomb is immersed. The organic material after combustion has been converted into carbon dioxide and water. The gases in this bomb are then allowed to escape and samples are taken and analyzed on a Haldane gas-analysis apparatus. By weighing the bomb before a combustion and after the gas has been allowed to escape, it is possible to compute with great accu- racy the carbon and hydrogen content. The method has been checked by determining the carbon and hydrogen in pure substances, such as sugar, urea, uric acid, and benzoic acid. The results have been most gratifying, and the method has proved of great service in the routine analyses connected with metabolism experiments. (6) Respiration calorimeters for studying the respiratory exchange and energy transfor- mations of man. Francis G. Benedict and Thorne M. Carpenter. Publication No. 123, Carnegie Institution of Washington. 1910. In the two calorimeters described, one of them for bed-ridden patients, the heat eliminated by man is measured by a current of cold water passing through a heat-absorbing system inside the chamber, the mass of water and the temperature-rise being known. Direct measurement of the water vapor- ized gives the latent heat of water-vapor. By means of a system of thermal I92 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. junctions any slight temperature differences between the inner copper wall and an outer zinc wall are constantly noted. The temperature of the zinc wall is arbitrarily adjusted by heating and cooling to maintain it at the tem- perature of the copper wall, thus holding the calorimeter in an adiabatic condition. The chambers are large enough for a man to remain comfortably seated or lying for several hours, an electric light furnishes illumination, connection is made by call-bell and telephone with the outside, and a supply of air is continually circulated through the chamber and thence through weighed vessels containing sulphuric acid and soda-lime to absorb quantita- tively water-vapor and carbon-dioxide. The oxygen consumed is determined by admitting the gas from a weighed cylinder of highly compressed pure oxygen. Analyses of the air residual in the chamber are made at the end of every period and corrections for barometric changes are applied. Elec- trical resistance thermometers are used to measure calorimeter as well as body temperatures. A stethoscope and pneumograph permit the measure- ment of the pulse-rate and respiration-rate. A graphic record of the minor muscular movements is also furnished by the tracing of the pneumograph tambour. The apparatus has been most carefully checked as a calorimeter by the development of the heat from a known electrical current inside the chamber, and the accuracy of measurement of all four factors — carbon dioxide, water-vapor, oxygen absorption, and heat production — has been controlled by burning known weights of pure ethyl alcohol. The methods of calculation and the details of the routine of an experiment with man are included. The apparatus has proved highly successful for 6-hour to 10-hour experiments with men and women, and experiments may be subdivided to i-hour periods with accurate results. (7) The metabolism and energy transformations of healthy man during rest. Francis G. Benedict and Thorne M. Carpenter. Publication No. 126, Carnegie Institu- tion of Washington. 1910. In the decade during which the experiments were in progress with the respiration calorimeter at Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut, a large amount of material on the normal metabolism of healthy men and women was accumulated. This material has been in part published in other reports, but much of it has never been published and is collected here for final presentation. Among the subjects discussed in detail are the changes in body-weight, the insensible perspiration, body-temperature with its varia- tions and fluctuations, and pulse-rate. By means of the respiration appa- ratus, important data with regard to the vaporization of water from the body of the subject were accumulated, and these are discussed at some length in connection with the elimination of carbon-dioxide, oxygen con- sumption, and the heat elimination and heat production. Special reference is made to comparisons between the metabolism during sleep and during waking hours and the relationships between the different factors of metabo- lism. The variations in metabolism due to variations in physical charac- teristics, age, muscular activity, sex, etc., have received especial attention, including the metabolism of athletes, non-athletes, and women. A number of experiments dealing with the metabolism and energy transformations inci- dental to simple every-day body movements are also included and tentative tables for the computation of the metabolism of normal individuals with varying degrees of muscular activity are given. NUTRITION LABORATORY. 193 (8) Suggestions regarding research in animal nutrition. Francis G. Benedict. Pro- ceedings Amer. Soc. of Animal Nutrition, p. 20. 1910. The relation between animal and human nutrition and the importance of coordinating researches in nutrition in general are emphasized in this paper. As studies of the protein requirement of animals are possible in a large number of laboratories that are not equipped for studies of the total metab- olism, the suggestions deal for the most part with problems in regard to the protein requirement, such as the minimum and optimum protein require- ment, the importance of ash constituents of protein, and the periodic inges- tion of protein. Great emphasis is laid upon the importance of using a suffi- cient number of control animals. (9) Metabolism in diabetes mellitus. Francis G. Benedict and Elliott P. Joslin. Publi- cation No. 136, Carnegie Institution of Washington. 1910. In the research reported in this publication the metabolism of 13 diabetic patients was studied by means of the respiration calorimeters of the Nutri- tion Laboratory. The investigation included 42 experiments lasting 2 to 6 hours, 14 hours after the last meal, together with 11 experiments following the ingestion of food. In these experiments the water elimination, carbon- dioxide production, oxygen consumption, and heat elimination and produc- tion were determined, and simultaneous determinations were likewise made of the body-temperature, pulse-rate, and respiration-rate. Besides experi- ments with the respiration calorimeters, 26 experiments were made with a respiration apparatus which permitted very exact determinations of carbon- dioxide production and oxygen absorption. The urine was collected and the nitrogen and sugar determined in all these experiments. Complete details of the investigation are reported, together with the clini- cal history of each case. A summary is given of the gaseous exchange and energy transformations in these experiments and the averages are compared with those for normal individuals in experiments with the same apparatus. The metabolism in diabetes of different degrees of severity is compared. Some of the other topics discussed are the nitrogen excretion, the dextrose- nitrogen ratio, the vaporization of water from the lungs and skin, and the influence of food on the nitrogen and sugar excretions, on the respiratory exchange, and on the total katabolism. The report concludes with a dis- cussion of practical features in the treatment of diabetes on which light has been thrown by this investigation, including a consideration of the quantities of food allowed diabetic patients, the restriction of the diet, and the advisa- bility of making the diabetic sugar-free. The value of the respiration calo- rimeter in studying diabetes mellitus is shown and a number of suggestions are made for further investigations on this subject. (10) The influence of mental and muscular work on nutritive processes. Francis G. Benedict. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc, 49, p. 145. 1910. After considering in a non-technical way the fundamental principles in- volved in the study of nutrition, including a brief description of the respira- tion calorimeter, some of the results of more general interest in regard to the average normal output of carbon dioxide and heat from the body during the day and during different conditions of muscular work are presented. These are shown in table I. 13— YB 194 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. Table I. — Average Normal Output of Carbon Dioxide and Heat from the Body. Conditions of muscular activity. Average quantities per hour. Carbon dioxide. Heat. Man at rest, sleeping .. gms. 25 35 55 100 150 210 cals. 65 100 170 290 450 600 Man at rest, awake, sitting up Man at light muscular exercise Man at moderately active muscular exercise. Man at severe muscular exercise Man at very severe muscular exercise The method of making a rough calculation of the average daily output of the heat from a man is given in table 2. Table 2. — Average Daily Output of Heat of a Man at Light Muscular Work. Daily program. At rest, sleeping, 8 hours, 65 calories per hour At rest, awake, sitting up, 6 hours, 100 calories per hour Light muscular exercise, 10 hours, 170 calories per hour Total output of heat, 24 hours Heat output. cals. 520 600 1,700 2,820 Since muscular work plays such an important role in gross metabolism, it is of interest to see to what extent mental work affects metabolism, and a brief resume of previously published experiments in which students wrote their college examinations while inside the respiration chamber is given in this paper. No effect of mental work on metabolism was noticeable.* After considering the results of excessive muscular work,* the conclusion is drawn that in general if the appetite is ordinarily followed it will result in a most perfect adjustment of the food intake and the food requirement. Obviously it is important to select foods that agree with a person ; excessive amounts of sweets and foods difficult of digestion are certainly to be avoided, but whether the no-breakfast, no-dinner, or no-supper plan be followed, it is absolutely certain that in the course of 24 hours, or perhaps in the course of a week, the amount lost in the meals voluntarily given up will be compen- sated by the increased consumption at other meals. * See Year Book, Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1908, p. 190. DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM .* L. A. Bauer, Director. GENERAL SUMMARY. It is now somewhat over two centuries ago that the first attempt at an ocean magnetic survey was made, the originator and leader of the expedition being the famous astronomer, Edmund Halley, of whom so much has been written recently in connection with the comet named after him. While a great deal has been said of Halley's various attainments and achievements, but little mention has been made regarding his contributions to the advance- ment of the art of navigation and to the science of terrestrial magnetism by his "Chart of the lines of equal magnetic variation" — the first of its kind. The subject of the earth's magnetism had early attracted Halley, and espe- cially the cause of the mysterious change ever going on in the magnetic state of our planet, by reason of which the compass changes its direction, even in so short a period as 5 to 10 years, by an amount sufficient to affect the purely practical interests of surveying and navigation. In 1692 he proposed a unique theory to the Royal Society of London to account for the secular change of the earth's magnetism, and in the year 1698 he set out from Eng- land as captain of the ship Paramour Pink, under the auspices of the English government, to determine the compass direction in various parts of the oceans. After devoting two years to this task, in which he encountered various difficulties, he laid down the results of his labors on a chart giving the "Lines of equal variation." The first edition of this chartf was pub- lished probably in the year 1701, and covered the Atlantic Ocean from about 6o° north to nearly 6o° south, the lines being in no case extended over land areas. In the following year most likely he published his "World chart," the lines of equal variation covering the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean, and the extreme western part of the Pacific Ocean. Since Halley's time the "Charts of the lines of equal magnetic variation," upon which the mariners rely in navigating their vessels, have been repeat- edly reconstructed and revised with the aid of newer data. With the advent of iron-built vessels, the acquirement of compass data of sufficient reliability became increasingly difficult; those whose duty it was to keep magnetic charts up to date have thus been frequently unable to gage the precise value of data from modern vessels even when acquired by the most experienced * Address : The Ontario, Washington, District of Columbia. Grant No. 608. $76,920 for investigation and maintenance during 1910. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 3-8.) t A copy was found by the writer in the British Museum and republished in the Janu- ary, 1896, issue of the journal Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity. 195 196 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. navigators. It was necessary to take an average of the data supplied from many different sources in the hope that thereby the effect of the outstanding errors might be reduced to a minimum. Thus, for example, a few years ago an attempt was made by a hydrographic office to improve the existing mag- netic charts with the aid of data obtained on vessels the world over in the course of their regular voyages. Circulars were sent to many thousand ves- sels and many hundred supposedly accurate determinations of the compass direction were received in response and plotted on a world chart. Whenever there were several values for the same region they were found to be so dis- cordant among themselves that the error of even the average results appeared sufficiently large to render it unsafe to make any material alteration in the existing "lines of equal magnetic variation." In brief, to determine possible errors in the present mariners' charts with the appliances and vessels hereto- fore at the disposal of the hydrographic offices would not only be an exceed- ingly expensive undertaking, but a most laborious task as well, with the unsatisfactory result, after all had been done, that there might still be errors due to variable effects of the iron of the modern vessel which were not suffi- ciently eliminated. It is possible for the Carnegie, on a single trip of but twelve days, as, for example, the one in October of 1909 from St. John's, Newfoundland, to Falmouth, England, to uncover errors of practical importance to the mariner because of their consistency and prevalence over long distances. These errors, in general, exceed the corrections on account of the secular change in the compass direction for 10 to 20 years. The errors found by the Carnegie on her trip to Falmouth, as above re- lated, were confirmed on other parts of her first cruise covering the Atlantic as far south as the Madeiras and the Bermudas. Again, for long stretches, systematic and, hence, cumulative errors were disclosed, the charts showing the compass direction, which are now in actual use, being found in error at times as much as 20 to 2.50. The chief cause for these errors was likewise discovered, viz, that incorrect allowances, for sufficiently long periods, were made in the construction of the charts on account of the secular changes. The "Complete magnetic results of the first cruise of the Carnegie" were promptly supplied in manuscript to the leading hydrographic establishments and published in the June 1910, issue of the journal "Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity." The September issue of the same journal gave an account of the special investigations made in the vicinity of Gardi- ner's Bay in 1909 and 1910, as also tabular statements showing the distribu- tion and run of the chart errors revealed by the Carnegie's first cruise. The errors disclosed may be summarized as follows : Except for the portion of the cruise from 48.5 ° N., 47 ° W., to Falmouth Bay, and thence to Madeira, all charts show too low west magnetic declina- tion (variation of compass) over the portion of the Atlantic Ocean covered by the Carnegie. While the error is in general less than a degree, it is un- fortunately in the same direction for about 5,000 miles, and hence the result- DEPARTMENT OE TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. 197 ing error in a ship's course based on the present mariners' charts may be cumulative and ultimately reach a considerable amount. The maximum chart error at any one point may be from 1.30 to 2.6°, according to the chart used. The average chart error (sign not being considered) for magnetic dip approximates 1.50 to 2° the maximum error for the British chart being 2.50 and that of the German 4.40. The British chart gives, in general, too small dips and the German too large ones. The average chart errors for magnetic horizontal intensity, disregarding sign, approximate 8 units in the third decimal C. G. S. ; the maximum error is about 15 units for either British or German chart. For the greater part, both charts give, in general, too high values. The Carnegie's first cruise covered about 8,000 nautical miles and extended from September 1, 1909, to February 1910. On June 20, 1910, she began her second cruise, which will extend around the globe, with an aggregate length of about 65,000 nautical miles and requiring about 3 years for com- pletion. Special tests made in Gardiner's Bay, off Long Island, again showed that, with the appliances and methods used aboard the Carnegie, the mag- netic elements can be determined with an accuracy sufficient for all purposes, practical as well as scientific. Leaving Greenport, Long Island, June 29, she arrived off Port Mulas, Porto Rico, July 24. On this trip errors in the mariners' compass charts of 20 to 2.5 ° in the North Atlantic were once more revealed, as also similar errors to those found on the first cruise in the dip and the magnetic force. Reviewers of the work already accomplished by the Carnegie have made the statement that even if this vessel should do nothing more she has already justified her existence. The projected circumnavigation cruise of the Carnegie can be briefly indi- cated by the following ports to be visited : Greenport, Long Island ; Vieques, Porto Rico, where she arrived July 24 ; Para, where she arrived September 24, and Rio de Janeiro (November 1910) ; Montevideo and Buenos Ayres (December 1910) ; Tristan da Cunha and Cape Town (March 191 1) ; Co- lombo (Ceylon) and Bombay, Mauritius, and Batavia (October 191 1) ; Manila (December 191 1) ; Samoa (March 1912) ; Acapulco, Mexico (June 1912) ; Cape Horn and South Georgia Island (November 1912) ; Cape Town (January 1913) ; Vieques, Porto Rico (April 1913) ; Greenport, Long Island (June 1913). On the accompanying map, the status of the magnetic work accomplished both on land and ocean by the Department up to October 31, 1910, is shown in red. The cruises of the Galilee in the Pacific Ocean, 1905-08, and of the Carnegie in the Atlantic Ocean, 1909-10, are shown by full red lines. The uncompleted portion of the circumnavigation cruise of the Carnegie is shown by broken red lines (return portion is indicated by dots and dashes). Besides the important results in magnetism obtained by the Carnegie, there has also been acquired other information of interest to the mariner, viz, data for testing and revising the corrections which must be applied, on account I98 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. of atmospheric refraction, to astronomical observations for determining a ship's position. So, again, there have been obtained results of value to the student of atmospheric electricity.* The Carnegie also contributes useful meteorological data to meteorological institutions. In brief, every oppor- tunity is embraced by the scientific personnel to obtain information of prac- tical as well as of scientific value. From the detailed statements below of the field work, it will be seen that the land work during the present fiscal year consisted in the satisfactory completion of important work in Africa by Professors Beattie and Morrison, who, as will be recalled, were associated with the Department during 1909, and in Turkey and Asia Minor by Observers Pearson and Sligh. Of considerable importance for the rapid execution of land magnetic work was the purchase of a 35-foot launch supplied with an 18 H. P. Remington oil-engine for use along the rivers in the portions of South American coun- tries where proper transportation facilities could not be readily had. This expedition is in charge of Observer C. C. Stewart ; the launch, which is called Bl I man (Spanish for the magnet) was shipped to Manaos, Brazil, from which point Mr. Stewart started his work. Satisfactory progress, as will be seen from the detailed statement, has likewise been made in the office work and in theoretical investigations. The rapid reduction and publication of the results of the Carnegie has already been noted. As a result of intercomparisons of magnetic outfits made by the observers of the Department in all parts of the globe, it is now possible to make a final publication of the magnetic data thus far obtained by the De- partment, all reduced to a common basis ; the manuscript of this report is in good state of progress and is rapidly approaching completion. In the workshop of the Department there have been constructed various instruments of special design and of light weight, which promise to further facilitate the field operations, especially in matter of transportation. Of theoretical interest are the results obtained with regard to magnetic storms as published in recent issues of the journal "Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity." The main conclusions were as follows : Magnetic storms do not begin at precisely the same instant all over the earth. Those beginning abruptly, in which the effects are in general small, appear to progress over the earth more often eastwardly, though also at times westwardly, at a speed of about 7,000 miles per minute, so that a complete circuit of the earth would require 3.5 to 4 minutes. For the bigger and more complex magnetic disturbances the velocity of propagation may be cut down considerably. The time of beginning of the disturbance may be appreciably different for the various magnetic elements, according to the character of the disturbing causes. * See Observer Kidson's report, "Atmospheric electricity observations on the first cruise of the Carnegie," Journal "Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity," June 1910. DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. 199 The manifestations of solar activity, with their resulting emanations and radiations, seem not to be the direct but the indirect cause of the earth's magnetic storms. Their effect appears to be more in the nature of a releasing or "trigger" action, setting in operation electric energy already in existence in the upper regions of the atmosphere ; terrestrial sources in reality, how- ever, supply the energy required for the magnetic storm. To account then for the well-established, general relationship between magnetic disturbances and the sun-spot period, we must suppose that the radiations which alter the conductivity of the atmosphere vary in their amount and intensity in accord- ance with the periodicity of the solar phenomena. In conclusion, it is but due to the members of the departmental staff, in general, and specifically to the commander of the Carnegie, Mr. W. J. Peters, and to the magnetician in charge of office, Mr. J. A. Fleming, that acknowl- edgment is made hereby of the effective and cordial assistance rendered in the successful execution of the various operations of the Department. DETAILS OF MAGNETIC WORK DURING THE YEAR, NOVEMBER 1, 1909, TO OCTOBER 31, 1910. EAND WORK. Africa. — The itinerary for work, as outlined in last year's report, entrusted to Dr. J. C. Beattie, Research Associate, assisted by Prof. J. T. Morrison, Magnetic Observer, has now been completed. An inspection of the work shown for Africa on the accompanying map (plate 5) will serve to give some idea of the numerous data obtained in a laborious campaign well car- ried out. The distribution of stations occupied during October 1908 to Jan- uary 1910 is as follows: Jointly by both observers, 6 in Belgian Kongo, I in Cape Colony, 1 in Egypt, 1 in England, and 39 in Rhodesia — in all 48; by Dr. Beattie, 36 in Cape Colony, 45 in German Southwest Africa, 60 in German East Africa, 3 in Rhodesia, and 33 in the Uganda Protectorate — in all 177; by Professor Morrison, 35 in British Central Africa, 28 in British East Africa, 4 in Cape Colony, 10 in German East Africa, 24 in German Southwest Africa, 6 in Portuguese East Africa, 15 in Rhodesia, and 1 in Zanzibar — in all 123. The total number of stations is 348. Such a large num- ber of stations was made possible by the plan adopted of taking observations at each camping-place. The results will accordingly furnish also knowledge regarding locally disturbed regions along the line of work. In addition to the results obtained on this expedition, Dr. Beattie has placed in the hands of the Department for reduction observations made by Professor Morrison and himself at 15 stations during June and July 1908, in Cape Colony, Natal, and Transvaal; also observations by himself during January to February 1907 at 18 stations in Cape Colony. Intercomparisons of standards were made for the instruments used in this work at the magnetic observatories at Helwan and Kew. China. — No field work was done in China during the year. However, the necessary preparations have been made for extended campaigns in following 200 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. years under the charge of the President of the Canton Christian College, who has already conducted magnetic work in China for the Department in the years 1905 to 1908, as per previous reports. The plans as contemplated, in connection with the work already completed by Department observers, provide for the completion of a general magnetic survey of the Chinese Empire. During September Dr. Edmunds made at Washington a series of complete standardization observations for the instrumental outfit to be used by him. Canada. — During August to October the Department has cooperated with the expedition of Professors Raymond McFarland, T. C. Brown, and P. N. Swett, of Middlebury College, Middlebury, Vermont, from Lake St. John to Lake Mistassinni and return. The magnetic observations have been made by Professor Swett and 6 stations have been occupied. During June and July Professor Swett made complete standardization observations of the instrumental outfit at Washington and occupied a repeat station at Middle- bury. It has again been the good fortune of the Department to be able to co- operate in instrumental matters with Prof. R. F. Stupart, Director of the Meteorological Service of Canada, who has sent an observer to obtain mag- netic data along the Mackenzie River. Turkey and Arabia. — Mr. J. C. Pearson, Magnetic Observer, continued work in Turkey until relieved in January by Mr. W. H. Sligh, Magnetic Observer. Mr. Pearson, after securing observations during November 1909, at 3 stations along the southern coast of the Black Sea in Turkey in Asia, proceeded to Constantinople. After complete intercomparisons of instru- ments had been made at the magnetic station, Robert College (near Constan- tinople), Mr. Sligh took up operations in Palestine, Syria, Arabia, Mesopo- tamia, and the islands of Rhodes and Cyprus. Up to the end of July he had established 44 stations. In August Mr. Sligh left Constantinople over- land for Bagdad and Busra, which latter point he will probably reach early in January 191 1. During August to October about 25 stations will be occu- pied. This work and that by Mr. Pearson will practically complete a general magnetic survey of Asia Minor and Persia, as well as a part of Arabia. Austria, England, and Germany. — Upon completion of the work at Con- stantinople Mr. Pearson made intercomparisons of standards at the magnetic observatories, Pola (Austria), Potsdam (Germany), Kew (England), and Cheltenham (United States), thus completing a very valuable series of inter- comparisons of standards ; in his previous work he had made similar obser- vations at Kew, Helwan (Egypt), Tiflis (Transcaucasia), Tashkent (Rus- sian Turkestan), and Cheltenham. Acknowledgment must be made of the very cordial assistance rendered the Department in the execution of this work by the Directors of the various observatories as well as by their assist- ants. Those in charge were Mr. B. F. E. Keeling, Helwan ; Dr. Charles Chree, Kew; Dr. M. Ossipov, Tashkent; Dr. Stephen v. Hlasek, Tiflis; Dr. Adolf DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. 201 Schmidt, Potsdam ; Capt. W. v. Kesslitz, Pola, and Messrs. R. L. Faris and J. E. Burbank, Cheltenham. South America. — Messrs. C. C. Stewart, Magnetic Observer, and W. C. Hamer, Launch Engineer, left early in June for Manaos, Brazil, to make preparations for the magnetic survey along the navigable rivers of the Ama- zon system. The launch El Imdn, referred to in the general summary above, was received by them at Manaos early in August and at once placed in com- mission. The observations at Manaos being completed, the party left on August 21, 1910, for Iquitos, Peru, where they arrived September 30, 1910, having occupied 19 stations en route. From Iquitos the work will be ex- tended along the Ucayali River as far as is possible into southern Peru, and thereafter along the navigable rivers in northern Peru and Ecuador. At the end of the fiscal year there will have been occupied in all about 30 stations, which will afford very valuable data. This work is being done in cordial cooperation with the existing organizations in the countries penetrated. Miscellaneous. — In connection with the operations of the Carnegie, land stations have been established at the following points : Funchal, Madeira ; repeat stations at Agar's Island and Hunt's Island, Bermuda ; repeat stations at Bronx Park and Greenport; Vieques Magnetic Observatory and repeat station on Culebra Island, Porto Rico ; and repeat station at Pinheiro, Brazil. New stations were also established by the Director at Plum Island, Ram Head (Ram Island), and Shelter Island, United States, in order to assist in determining the character and extent of the prevalent local disturbances. OCEAN WORK. The Carnegie left Falmouth, England, upon the completion of the work there on November 9, 1909, and arrived at Funchal, Madeira, on November 24, 1909. Owing to the pronounced local disturbances at Funchal, no stand- ardization observations were made. The longest leg of the first cruise of the Carnegie, viz, between Funchal and Hamilton, Bermuda, was completed between December 1, 1909, and January 8, 1910, under very favorable con- ditions. The constants of the instruments were determined at Agar's Island and Hunt's Island and the final leg of the first cruise to New York begun on January 28, 1910. After a very stormy trip, which amply proved the sea- worthiness of the vessel, the Carnegie came to dock in Brooklyn on February 17, 1910. The alterations in the vessel and additions, found desirable as the result of the first cruise, were completed by the Tebo Yacht Basin Co. in time to permit the Carnegie to set out from Brooklyn upon a three years' circum- navigation cruise on June 20, 1910. In connection with these alterations, which were almost wholly in the auxiliary propulsion plant and its general arrangement, acknowledgment must be made of the cordial and effective assistance rendered by the architect of the Carnegie, Mr. H. J. Gielow ; by the constructing firm under the management of Mr. Wallace Downey; by 202 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. Mr. C. D. Smith and Prof. W. C. Bauer, consulting engineers ; by Mr. James Craig, jr., the builder of the engine, and by Mr. D. F. Smith, the engineer in charge. The Carnegie first proceeded to Greenport, Long Island, and "swung ship" in Gardiner's Bay on June 23 and 25 at the same place as last year. Having completed the determinations of instrumental constants, course was set for Vieques, Porto Rico, on June 29, via latitude 340 north and longitude 460 west. She was visited and inspected at Greenport by President Woodward in company with the Director. After an unusually favorable cruise, during which observations of all the elements were possible on all but two days, Vieques was reached on July 24. At this point opportunity was afforded, through the courtesy of Superintendent O. H. Tittmann, of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, to intercompare all of the instruments with the standards of the Vieques Magnetic Observatory. After calling at San Juan, Porto Rico, where valuable assistance was rendered the vessel by Commo- dore Karl Rohrer, of the United States Naval Station, magnetic observations were secured at the repeat station on Culebra Island ; the Carnegie left thence for Para, Brazil, where she arrived September 24, 1910, having again in this leg of the cruise encountered unusually favorable conditions for work. Upon completion of the shore work at Pinheiro, the Carnegie left Para on October 15, 1910, and is en route to Rio de Janeiro at the end of the fiscal year. The present personnel of the Carnegie consists of the following: Scientific staff: L. A. Bauer, Director; W. J. Peters, in command of vessel; C. C. Craft, surgeon and magnetic observer ; E. Kidson, magnetic observer ; H. D. Frary, mag- netic observer ; C. R. Carroll, meteorological observer and clerk. Sailing staff and crew: F. S. McMurray, first watch officer; M. Clausen, second watch officer; A. Jorgensen, third watch officer; M. G. R. Savary, engineer; eight seamen; one mechanic ; two cooks ; two cabin boys. The personnel up to the completion of the first cruise in February was the same as stated in the annual report of the Director for 1909. OFFICE WORK. Excellent progress has been made during the year with the work of com- putation and this is practically complete for all work in hand to date. These reductions involve very extensive discussions of the methods and constants of instruments used. The first computations of the observations at some 350 stations since November 1908, in the African campaign of Dr. Beattie and Professor Morrison, have been completed. The preparation of the data ob- tained by the Department both at sea and on land for publication is well advanced and very nearly completed for the operations to date. The question of differences in various standards used by different governments and insti- tutions has been studied at length and the reductions of the intercomparison results so far obtained at 20 magnetic observatories in all parts of the world have been completed. The constants and corrections to standard have been determined or redetermined during the year for 10 magnetometers, 10 dip DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. 203 circles, and I earth inductor. This work has been done invariably by the method of simultaneous comparison with standard instruments. The instru- ments used for the observations in atmospheric electricity on board the Car- negie have been tested and standardized. The various forms for sea and land work have been carefully revised and improved and new forms devel- oped to facilitate as well as to give greater uniformity of method for all observations and reports. General and particular instructions have been prepared as necessary. The compilation of past magnetic data, the indexing of current literature, and abstracting of publications of especial interest have been continued. Requests for data and information have been numerous and varied ; responses have been made as promptly and in such detail as has been possible. The Government trigonometrical survey of Southern India has been supplied for mapping purposes with the data obtained in Persia; a preliminary isogonic chart of the North American continent has been constructed at the request of Professor Chant, of the University of Toronto ; ocean magnetic data have been supplied the hydrographic offices of various governments ; details of instrument construction have been supplied to the United States Geological Survey ; tests of improved forms of compass needles have been made for manufacturers of surveying instruments, etc. Some time has been given to the magnetic work to be undertaken in co- operation with Capt. R. Amundsen in his coming polar expedition and the preparation of the magnetic outfit, the observer-in-charge, Dr. H. M. W. Edmonds, being engaged at the office from January to June partly on this special work and partly on the regular work of the Department. Extensive preparations were made for the work to be taken up in South America and in China in the present and coming years. In connection with the alterations of the Carnegie, much attention has been given in the office to the perfection of details, consideration of materials, tests, and plans. SHOP WORK. Magnetometers Nos. 12, 13, 14, and 15 have been completed during the year; No. 15 was constructed at the request of the Canadian government for the use of the meteorological service of Canada. These instruments have been found very satisfactory and their portability and light weight makes them peculiarly suited for survey work in countries where transportation is diffi- cult. Magnetometer No. 14 is a universal instrument of new design ; it is suited for the determination of all the magnetic elements and geographical position and azimuth. The weight of this instrument with its accessories, but without packing, is under 15 pounds; the packing will increase this to about 30 pounds (the instrumental outfit and packing heretofore used in the earlier work of the Department weighs considerably over 100 pounds ; thus some idea of the compactness of the present outfit may be obtained). Magnet- ometers Nos. 12, 13, and 15 were especially designed as theodolite magnet- 204 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. ometers for the determination of all the elements except inclination ; with accessories and packing these weigh about 25 pounds each. Full descriptions and details of these instruments are to be given in an early number of the journal "Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity." Magnet- ometers Nos. 16 and 17, similar to No. 12, are now under construction. A special form of sighting device has been provided for deflector No. 3, at present used on the Carnegie. The plans have been made for the con- struction of deflector No. 4, which will embody further improvements, as indicated by the experience during the first cruise of the Carnegie. This instrument is now under way. Several pieces of special apparatus for the study of atmospheric electricity and radioactivity of rain and sea water have been constructed for the Carnegie ; the old equipment of such instruments has also been thoroughly overhauled and put in first-class condition. During the year numerous improvements and repairs have been made on the outfits in hand ; it has thus been possible to keep all instruments in first- class order and in commission. This has been particularly the case for the dip-circle needles, for which new pivots have been supplied as found neces- sary to replace inferior or rusted ones. The facilities of the shop have been increased by the installation of an engraving machine, and a dividing engine has been ordered ; it will thus be possible soon to construct all parts of our instruments ourselves. Mr. Adolf Widmer continues as Chief Instrument-maker under the gen- eral supervision of the magnetician-in-charge. Owing to the increase in the shop work, a second instrument-maker, Mr. E. K. Skonberg, was appointed on April 1. SPECIAE INVESTIGATIONS. ( See statement above in general summary regarding investigation of mag- netic storms and intercomparisons of magnetic instruments, as also list of publications by members of the Department.) TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM .-,- »SH, D.( THE MAGNETIC WORK OF THE DEPA Projected ci Nov. 1910-Dec. 1911 PLATE 5 NT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM, 1905-10 ' the Carneg-ie Jan. 1912-June 1913 ARCHEOLOGY. American School of Classical Studies at Athens. James R. Wheeler, Chairman of Managing Committee, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Grant No. 619. Maintenance of a fellozvship in architecture at Athens. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 4-8.) $1,000 Mr. Dinsmoor has continued his work on the western slope of the Acrop- olis and has published an elaborate article on the Gables of the Propylaea in the American Journal of Archaeology (vol. xiv, 1910, pp. 143-184, 2 plates, 15 text-figures). He has also discovered the site of the choragic monument of Nicias, the position of which has hitherto been misunderstood, and has written an article on this monument, which has been sent to the editors of the Journal of Archaeology7. He has also given the director of the school assist- ance in certain work at Corinth which involved architectural study. His chief work, however, has been in Athens, as described above. The officers of the school are much gratified with what he has accomplished. American School of Classical Studies in Rome. Andrew F. West, Chair- man of Managing Committee, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J. Grant No. 615. Continuation of investigations in the field of Roman archeology. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 4-8.) $2,000 Dr. Elias A. Loew (Carnegie Associate 1907-1908) continued his valuable work on the Scriptura Bcneventana. One-half of this work is in press. It comprises about 100 fac-similes of the writing of Benevento, published by the Palaeographical Society ; a preface will accompany the whole. The second half is a study of the script in the form of a lengthy monograph, to be published independently of the first half. This monograph is well ad- vanced towards completion. The coming year (Dr. Loew has been reap- pointed) will see the completion of this work, which bids fair to be of great historical value. Dr. Henry H. Armstrong, Carnegie Research Associate, made a topographical and historical study of the ancient Privernum in the Pomptine Marshes, between Rome and Terracina. He discovered a large quantity of new matter, both on the spot itself and in the search of the archives. His work is in process of publication by the American Journal of Archaeology. W. Max Muller, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Grant No. 646. Continua- tion of archeological research in Egypt. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 3, 5, and 6.) $2,000 Dr. Muller left New York May 12, first going for conferences with some leading scholars and for consultation of libraries, etc., to London, Oxford, Paris, Strassburg, Munich, and Vienna; by way of Constantinople, he ar- rived at Cairo in the first days of July, and worked through the new acqui- 205 206 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. sitions of the museum, also pursuing linguistic and ethnologic studies in the interesting negro quarter of the Egyptian metropolis. Studies in the field were begun in August, and were pursued especially at Thebes, where the vast temple of Amon still yields not only new details of inscriptions and pic- tures, but some of the largest inscriptions known. Dr. Miiller continued the collection of ancient ethnographic pictures. His work at Philse was left for the second half of September. Much valuable material here has been washed away within the last couple of years, but some good pieces are left for copying. Esther B. Van Deman, Rome, Italy. Grants Nos. 565 and 640. Researches in Roman Archeology. (For previous reports under auspices of Roman School see Year Books Nos. 6, 7, and 8.) $2,200 The months of July, October, and November, 1909, were spent largely in arranging the data already collected and in the preparation, from this mate- rial, of a working outline of the Handbook on Roman Concrete Construction. In December the regular study of the monuments was resumed ; the greater part of the time, until April 15, was devoted to the monuments belonging to the more difficult periods, namely, those of the late Republic and Augustus, and of the late Empire. In connection with the earlier periods it became necessary to determine the levels of the Forum and Palatine and the dates to be assigned to each, in order to classify more certainly the materials found at the various levels. The work in the Forum, which is almost completed, has yielded many results important for the topography of the region (includ- ing the location of several monuments as yet unplaced) as well as for the subject in hand. The work on the Palatine has been postponed, in view of the expected publication of a set of measurements made under the direction of the government. During March much light was thrown upon the construction of the Roman vaults by the valuable suggestions of Miss Gertrude Bell, whose work has included a study of that subject in the East. During the fourteen months four trips have been made. The first of these, from the 5th to the 20th of August 1909, included brief visits to Potenza, Bari, Brindisi, and other points in southeastern Italy. The results were wholly negative, since no traces of the use of concrete by the Romans were found. The second trip, in addition to two weeks of rest in Switzerland, included the study of the monuments in Aosta, Como, Milan, Macerata {Helvia Re- tina), Urbisaglia, Tolentino, and Cagli. The principal result was the dis- covery of a type of Roman concrete and brick construction in Italy distinct from that found at Rome, and which influenced directly the medieval con- struction in the same districts. During the month from April 15 to May 18 the leading ancient sites of Sicily were visited. Among these were Segesta, Selinunte, Trapani, Mount BIBLIOGRAPHY — FLETCHER. 207 Eryx, Girgenti, Syracuse, Catania, Centuripe, Taormina, Spadafora (an an- cient brick-kiln in the vicinity), Tindari, Solunto, and Palermo. In western Sicily and Syracuse (with the exception of the amphitheater) no traces of concrete construction were found. In Centuripe, Catania, and Palermo many remains exist showing the use of concrete construction by the Romans, while the monuments of Taormina, especially the theater, are among the finest brick-faced concrete structures as yet found. These monuments may, it is hoped, throw some light on the question of the origin of the Roman con- struction in general. The object of the fourth trip, from July 23 to August 8, was to determine, if possible, the extent of and methods used in the concrete constructions in the vicinity of Ancona, among the most important districts for the study of the problems now in hand. The points visited were Rimini, Fano, Pesaro, Ascoli Piceno, Urbisaglia, Gubbio, Spello, Terni, Narni, and Amelia, in all of which places, except Fano and Pesaro, were found valuable remains in concrete faced with stone or with brick. In connection with these trips, a list (as yet incomplete) has been made of the most important centers where there exist Roman concrete remains, showing the variations in material and technique from the concrete struc- tures in Rome and its immediate vicinity. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Fletcher, Robert, Army Medical Museum, Washington, District of Colum- bia. Grant No. 634. Preparation and publication of the Index Medicus. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 2-8.) $12,500 The volume of the Index Medicus for the year 1909 was duly issued. Readers are cautioned that additional headings of subjects are made during the publication of the volume to correspond to advances in pathology in particular. For example, in a recent number the heading "Epidemic Polio- myelitis" brings together the many indeterminate names for the prevailing and alarming epidemic disease known to some extent as "infantile paralysis." An interesting illustration of the world's progress is the citation in the pages of the Index Medicus of medical periodicals in languages not previously exhibiting works of the kind. Some of these may be mentioned : as, one in the Catalan dialect, which curious tongue contains relics of the old Basque language of primitive Spain ; others are Bulgarian, Little Russian, Servian, Slavonian, and even one of Esperanto ! 208 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. CHEMISTRY. Acree, S. F., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. Grant No. 616. Continuation of study of tautomerism and catalysis. (For previ- ous reports see Year Books Nos. 4-8.) $1,000 Work on tautomerism and catalysis has been continued with the coopera- tion of Dr. B. B. Turner, Dr. Sidney Nirdlinger, Dr. H. C. Robertson, Dr. S. K. Loy, Mr. E. P. Doetsch, N. E. Loomis, and Mr. E. K. Marshall. Some especially interesting results were secured at — 70 ° C. in the work on tauto- meric compounds. This line of investigation will be continued at still lower temperatures. During the year an excellent system of resistance thermometry has been developed by Messrs. Turner and Marshall, with the cooperation of Drs. Dickinson and Mueller, of the Bureau of Standards. The special features of the Wheatstone bridge and the thermometers enable us to measure tem- peratures with an accuracy of 0.0010 C, or better. A system of standard calomel cells has been perfected ; pairs of these have not varied in their electromotive force in one year as much as 0.0000 1 volt. The following papers have appeared during the year : On the Reactions of Diazoalkyls with i-Phenyl-2-Methylwazole. By Sidney Nirdlinger and S. F. Acree. (American Chemical Journal, 43, pp. 358-384.) — In this article are discussed some new methods of studying the reactions of tautomeric acids. The results give strong evidence of the exist- ence of two tautomeric acids in solutions of i-phenyl-2-methylurazole. Note on the Reactions of Diasoalkyls with i-Phenyl-2-M ' ethylurazole '. By Sidney Nirdlinger, E. K. Marshall, jr., and S. F. Acree. (American Chemi- cal Journal, 43, p. 424.) — This is a continuation of the preceding article and embodies the results of experiments at — 70 ° C. On the Salts of Tautomeric Compounds: Reactions of Urazole Salts with Alkyl Halides. By R. F. Brunei and S. F. Acree. (American Chemical Jour- nal, 43, pp. 505-553.) — Dr. Brunei prepared a large number of derivatives of phenylurazole and performed a number of quantitative experiments to secure light on tautomeric reactions. There is a full discussion, which shows that the evidence secured harmonizes much better with our theory of tauto- meric compounds than with the theories of other workers. On the Rearrangement of the Tautomeric Salts of 1,4-Diphenyl-^-Thiou- urasole and 1 ,4-Diphenyl-yThiolurazole . By Sidney Nirdlinger and S. F. Acree. (American Chemical Journal, 44, pp. 219-251.) — In this article is an excellent example of the use of physical organic methods in the determina- tion of the constitution of these urazoles, which had been given wrongly by others for twelve years. These acids and their salts were shown to rearrange into each other and to give characteristic derivatives in harmony with our theory. CHEMISTRY — BANCROFT, BAXTER. 200, Ueber die Quantitative Bestimmung von Diazoalkylen. By E. K. Marshall, jr., and S. F. Acree. (Berichte d. d. Chem. Ges., 43, p. 2323.) — Mr. Marshall has worked out an accurate method for analyzing a solution of diazoalkyls. none having existed for these organic compounds. Bancroft, W. D., Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. Grant No. 609. Systematic study of alloys. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 2-8.) $1,500 Owing to the failure to obtain a suitable temperature-regulator and to the delay in obtaining a suitable temperature-recorder, no thermometric measure- ments have yet been made upon the iron-carbon alloys. The microscopic examination is practically finished and much time has been spent in collating work of other investigators; when properly interpreted this other work con- firms the conclusions drawn from the present investigation in an extremely satisfactory manner. There seems good reason to suppose that the substance which crystallizes from the melt is 8 iron and not y iron, as usually supposed. It is now sought to determine the limits of the 8 and the y fields. The copper- tin diagram has been finished. One of the two unexplained heat-changes has been shown to be due to the presence of free tin where it did not belong. Annealing for three months at 2100 removed this. The other heat change at 1 88° has been shown to be due to a second modification of the e phase. The work on the tensile strength of the zinc-aluminum alloys has been finished. It was previously reported that the tendency of certain of these alloys to break down was due to the formation of a new phase of unknown composition, but further investigation shows that the trouble is due to the action of furnace gases on the melt. An extended investigation has been made on the electrolytic corrosion of copper, tin, nickel, cadmium, zinc, and iron. The corresponding chemical corrosions are only partially finished ; but it is believed that this work will be completed before the end of the winter. Baxter, Gregory P., Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Grant No. 623. Determination of atomic zveights. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 3-8.) $1,000 With the assistance of the above grant the following researches were car- ried on under Professor Baxter's direction: The investigation upon the atomic weights of silver and iodine through the analysis of iodine pentoxide (recently published; see Year Book No. 7, pp. 189—192) was continued by new determinations of the ratio of silver to iodine. Since the percentage of iodine in the pentoxide is obtained by multi- plying the ratio of silver to iodine pentoxide by the ratio of iodine to silver, it seemed highly desirable to investigate the latter ratio by as nearly as possible the same method as that used in determining the former ratio. This method consisted in the titration, at very high dilution, of the solutions of weighed 14 — YB 2IO REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. amounts of pentoxide, after reduction to hydriodic acid by means of hydra- zine, against weighed nearly equivalent amounts of the purest silver. A few tenths of a milligram excess of silver were always used, and the excess was determined gravimetrically in the filtrate after evaporation. In the determination of the ratio of silver to iodine, the method was ex- actly like the one just outlined, except that, instead of iodine pentoxide, iodine was weighed and reduced, with elaborate precautions to prevent loss by spattering or evaporation, with an excess of hydrazine. The titration against weighed equivalent amounts of silver proceeded as above. The iodine was prepared in part by decomposing very carefully crystallized iodic acid at high temperatures in a current of pure dry air. One specimen of iodic acid, which had been made by the action of pure fuming nitric acid on pure iodine, remained from the previous research. A second specimen was prepared from recrystallized potassium iodate through barium iodate. Still another specimen of iodine was purified by double distillation from an iodide, with intermediate boiling in the form of hydriodic-acid solution to eliminate hydrocyanic acid. The preparation of the iodine for weighing consisted in sublimation in a current of pure dry air into a weighed tube, of glass in most of the experi- ments, of quartz in the three final experiments. At first the sublimation was conducted in a hard-glass tube, but in most of the experiments a quartz tube was used for the purpose. Several samples of silver of known purity were employed. In order to prevent or detect occlusion by the silver iodide, the method of analysis was varied by diluting the solutions, more in some cases than in others, before precipitation, but in no case was either the hydriodic-acid solution or the silver-nitrate solution more concentrated than thirtieth normal. Furthermore, although in most of the experiments the silver-nitrate solution was poured into the hydriodic-acid solution, in two experiments precipitation was effected in the reverse fashion. All variations in material and method were without perceptible effect. In the following table are given the results of all the analyses except one which met with an accident: No. of analysis. Weight of iodine in Weight of silver in Weight of silver io- dide from Ratio, Ag : I. vacuum. vacuum. filtrate. grams. grants. gram. i 9.00628 7.65478 0.00022 0.849927 2 I3-45067 11.43208 0.00062 0.849905 3 H.8664S 10.08602 0.00067 0.849933 4 8.52461 7-24530 0.00070 0.849890 5 6.42840 5.46366 0.00033 0.849902 6 8.30266 7.05651 0.00022 0.849897 7 9 95288 8.45918 0.00030 0.849909 8 6.97131 5-92510 0.00042 0.849899 9 9.38852 7.97952 0.00055 0.849897 10 6.5681 1 5-58238 0.00015 0.84991 1 ii 17.84091 15-16312 0.00136 0.849872 12 18.87136 16.03919 0.00036 0.849913 13 14.95666 12.71182 0.00027 0.849902 Average 0.849906 CHEMISTRY — BAXTER. 211 The average ratio is slightly lower than that previously found by Baxter, 0.849943. When combined with the ratio of silver to iodine pentoxide deter- mined by Baxter and Tilley, 0.646230, the percentage of iodine in iodine pentoxide is found to be 76.0355 and the atomic weights of iodine and silver to be 126.913 and 107.864, respectively. This value for the atomic weight of silver is in very close agreement with that recently found by Richards and Willard through the analysis of lithium perchlorate, 107.871. This investi- gation will be published in the Journal of the American Chemical Society, vol. 32, December, 1910. In order to confirm the results of this research, further experiments upon the ratio of the atomic weights of iodine and silver will be made by the con- version of silver iodide into silver chloride. The analysis of phosphorus tribromide was continued by Dr. C. J. Moore. (See Year Books Nos. 7 and 8.) This substance was prepared by allowing pure dry bromine to react with pure dry phosphorus in a vacuum. The chief difficulty in preparing the tribromide lay in the removal of the penta- bromide formed by the excess of bromine which was necessarily added; for to use a deficiency of bromine was found impossible, since under these cir- cumstances either a lower bromide of phosphorus is produced which evapo- rates with the tribromide, or else the phosphorus itself dissolves in the tri- bromide and distils with it. For the same reason it was not feasible to re- move the pentabromide by distillation from either red phosphorus or metallic silver. Finally it was found necessary to eliminate the pentabromide by sim- ple distillation in a vacuum. During the distillation the pentabromide dis- sociates into tribromide and bromine, and the bromine is eliminated in the first fractions of distillate. Even if it is not possible to remove the excess of bromine completely in this way, the distilled material will at any rate yield a minimum value for the atomic weight of phosphorus. The tribromide was not exposed to air or moisture at any point in its preparation. It was col- lected by distillation into small glass bulbs sealed off while exhausted. Several specimens of the tribromide have been prepared and have been analyzed volumetrically by first decomposing the tribromide with water and then titrating the hydrobromic acid produced against equivalent amounts of silver, and gravimetrically by the determination of the silver bromide formed. Owing to the reducing effect upon the silver salts by the phosphorous acid formed in the decomposition of the tribromide with water, it was necessary to oxidize the phosphorous acid by means of hydrogen dioxide, first in am- moniacal solution and then in dilute nitric acid solution, before the precipi- tation of the silver bromide. The material prepared and analyzed in this way indicates the value for the atomic weight of phosphorus 31.03 (Ag = 107.870), which is identical with the value obtained by Baxter and Jones from the analysis of trisilver phosphate. The investigation upon neodymium chloride which was carried on last year by Dr. H. C. Chapin (see Year Book No. 8) has been completed by the determination of the moisture in neodymium chloride dried as for analysis, 212 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. by the determination of the specific gravity of neodymium chloride, and by the examination of the absorption spectrum of aqueous solutions of neo- dymium salts both in the visible and in the ultra-violet regions. The per- centage of moisture in the dried salt was found to be very small, 0.003 Per cent, and lowers the values for the atomic weight of neodymium given in the previous Year Book by only eight one-thousandths of a unit. The specific gravity of the fused salt at 250 referred to water at 40 was found to be 4.134, while Matignon's value, which was used in the previous calculations, is 4.18. In the following table are given the final corrected values for the different samples of neodymium chloride, based upon the atomic weight of silver 107.870. This investigation has been published in the Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. 46, 215—244, 1910. Sample. Percent- age of praseo- dymium. Atomic weight of neo- dymium. Atomic weight of neodym- ium cor- rected for praseo- dymium. A B 1+2 4+5+6 IO+II 14 + 15 0.2 015 0.0 0.0 0.0 O.I 144.252 144-265 144-275 144.251 144.260 144.251 t 44. 260 144.271 144-275 144.251 144.260 144-255 Mr. T. Thorvaldson continued the investigation upon the atomic weight of iron begun in the previous year by Mr. Cobb. In this investigation fer- rous bromide was analyzed in the way commonly employed in this laboratory by titration against an equivalent amount of silver and gravimetrically by collecting the silver bromide produced. The ferrous bromide was formed by the solution of very pure metallic iron in aqueous hydrobromic acid and crystallization of the salt from hydro- bromic-acid solution. The metallic iron was a specimen of material obtained from the American Rolling Mills Company. It contained the following im- purities: sulphur 0.19 per cent, phosphorus 0.003 Per cent, carbon 0.018 per cent, copper 0.05 per cent, manganese trace, and silicon trace. It was puri- fied by solution in nitric acid, and double precipitation as hydroxide with pure ammonia, with solution in nitric acid in the first case, but in sulphuric acid in the second ; electrolytic reduction to ferrous sulphate ; electrolytic deposi- tion from oxalate solution on a platinum dish ; solution in nitric acid and crystallization of the nitrate; ignition of the nitrate to oxide, and reduction to metal in a stream of pure hydrogen. The ferrous bromide was first dehydrated and then fused in a weighed quartz boat in a current of nitrogen which had been saturated with hydro- bromic-acid gas by passing through fuming hydrobromic-acid solution. The salt was dissolved in slightly acidulated water, and before precipitation with the silver-nitrate solution it was oxidized with a slight deficiency of potas- sium dichromate. CHEMISTRY — BAXTER. 2I3 A second sample of material was prepared from meteoric iron. Nickel was the chief impurity contained, the greater part of which was eliminated as sulphide and the remainder by precipitating the ferric hydroxide many times with a large excess of ammonia, as previously described. Metallic iron was obtained by processes similar to those enumerated above. Eighteen titrations against silverwith the first sample of material yielded as an average value for the atomic weight of iron 55.835 (Ag— 107.870), while 16 gravimetric analyses gave an average value 55.831. In the case of the meteoric material 5 titrations gave as an average result 55.829 and 5 gravi- metric determinations 55.827; 4 of the analyses with the meteoric material were, however, subject to slight uncertainty. The 6 analyses which were free from known error gave an average value 55.832. The difference between the results with the two samples is no greater than the probable experimental error, and therefore there can be no doubt that the two specimens of material were identical. The final result for the atomic weight of iron is less than one one-hundredth of a unit lower than the value previously obtained by Baxter with ferrous bromide which had been sub- limed in porcelain tubes and which was found to contain a small quantity of alkali bromides extracted from the tubes. This investigation will be pub- lished very shortly. The investigation upon lead bromide begun by Mr. Worsham (see Year Book No. 8) was continued by Mr. Thorvaldson. The previous difficulty in obtaining fused lead bromide which would dissolve completely in water was apparently due to hydrolysis of the salt during solution, with the formation of an insoluble basic bromide. Hydrolysis was prevented by adding a small amount of acetic acid to the water in which the salt was dissolved. Several preliminary experiments with material fused in a current of nitrogen and hydrobromic-acid gases and analyzed as described above in the case of iron, indicate a value somewhat higher than that previously obtained by Baxter and Wilson. This investigation will be continued. Mr. G. W. Harris undertook the determination of the atomic weight of arsenic by the titration of arsenious oxide against iodine. The method con- sisted in subliming recrystallized arsenic trioxide in a current of dry gas into a weighed glass tube. After the solution of the trioxide in dilute sodium hydroxide in a vacuum to prevent oxidation by the air, and after neutralization of the excess of sodium hydroxide with phosphoric acid, a weighed very nearly equivalent amount of pure iodine, which also had been sublimed in a current of dry air into a weighed tube, was dissolved in the arsenite solution. The end-point was found in the presence of starch by adding very dilute iodine or arsenite solution, with due observance of the precautions to preserve neutrality during the titration by means of soluble phosphates, which have been shown by Washburn to be necessary. Arsenic trioxide sublimed in air yields a value for the atomic weight of arsenic of 74.96, referred to silver (107.870) and iodine (126.920), while 214 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. material sublimed in oxygen yields a somewhat higher value, 75.04. Mate- rial sublimed in nitrogen nearly free from air yields a minimum value, 74.95, which is identical with that found by Baxter and Coffin through the analysis of silver arsenate. The meaning of these variations will be further investi- gated and the titration of arsenic trioxide against iodine pentoxide also will be undertaken. Jones, Harry C, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. Grant No. 624. Investigations on the absorption spectra of solutions. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 2-8.) $1,200 The work during the year has been on three problems : first, the nature of the solvent as affecting the absorption ; second, the effect of adding free acids to salts on the absorption ; third, the effect of temperature on the absorbing power of solutions. The first problem was studied rather fully, on account of its bearing on the theory of solvation or combination of solvent with the dissolved substance. If solvents in general combine with substances dissolved in them, then the different solvates formed by the different solvents ought to absorb different wave-lengths of light. That this is true will be seen at once if we recall that the absorption of light is a resonance phenomenon. Those wave-lengths of light that are absorbed throw something in solution into resonance with themselves and are consequently stopped. The different solvates formed in the different solvents would have different compositions, and the vibrators in the molecules, whatever they are, would, consequently, be expected to have different resonance. In a word, the different non-absorbing solvents would be expected to affect the absorption of a salt dissolved in them. One case was found by Jones and Anderson. Neodymium chloride, when dissolved in water, has a very different absorption spectrum than when dis- solved in alcohol. In a mixture of water and alcohol the water-bands and the alcohol-bands coexist on the spectrogram ; showing that the one set of bands was not the other set shifted in position, but that there were two sepa- rate sets of bands corresponding to the two solvents. A fairly large number of cases illustrating this same point have been found. Uranyl and uranous salts have fine absorption lines and bands, which can be carefully studied and their wave-lengths accurately measured. When a given uranyl or uran- ous salt was dissolved in different solvents, the resulting absorption spectra were very different. The solvents used were water, methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol, acetone, and glycerol. The existence of water-bands, alcohol-bands, acetone-bands, and glycerol-bands has been proved. This result is specially interesting, as it furnished another line of evidence, added to the many already discovered, for the correctness of the solvate theory. The study of the second problem has led to results that seem to have a bearing on the nature of chemical reactions in general. It is usually sup- CHEMISTRY — JONES. 215 posed that when a salt, say a sulphate, is treated with an acid, say nitric acid, that a part of the sulphate is transformed into nitrate, the amount depending on the amount of nitric acid present relative to the amount of salt. As the amount of nitric acid is increased the amount of the sulphate would gradu- ally decrease until, when a large excess of nitric acid is present, practically all of the sulphate would be transformed into nitrate. The results obtained in this part of the spectrum work would indicate that the above conclusions are not correct. The nitrates of certain metals, notably of uranium, have a different spectrum from the sulphates, acetates, etc. If when uranyl nitrate was treated with sulphuric acid a part of the nitrate was transformed directly into sulphate, both the nitrate and the sulphate bands would be found upon the spectrogram. If only a small amount of sulphuric acid were added to the nitrate there would be only a small amount of the nitrate transformed into sulphate. Consequently, the nitrate bands would come out relatively strong and the sulphate bands relatively weak. As the amount of sulphuric acid present was increased, more and more of the nitrate would be trans- formed. The nitrate bands would, consequently, become weaker and weaker and the sulphate bands stronger and stronger, until finally practically only the sulphate bands would be present. The facts are directly at variance with these predictions. When uranyl nitrate is treated with a relatively small amount of sulphuric acid, there is in the resulting spectrogram neither nitrate-bands nor sulphate- bands, but bands intermediate in position between the tzvo. By the addition of more or less sulphuric acid these bands can be made to occupy any posi- tion between those of the nitrate and those of the sulphate. Work on the absorption spectra of solutions, which has now been extended to about 5,000 solutions, shows that any given absorption bands are charac- teristic of a given chemical condition. Indeed, this seems to hold about as well for the absorption spectra of solutions as for the emission spectra of the elements. This being the case, the conclusion is forced upon us that between the nitrate and the sulphate there is a whole series of systems or compounds, for the most part too unstable to isolate, yet existing in solution, as is shown by their action on light. These may be sulphonitrates or nitro- sulphates; this question can not be answered at present, because these sys- tems or compounds are too unstable to isolate chemically. The chemical equations used to express chemical reactions do not take into account these intermediate systems. As is well known, these equations express only the beginning and the end of chemical reactions and do not take into account the intermediate stages. A sufficiently large number of examples illustrating the above point have been brought to light to justify drawing some conclusion with reference to chemical reactions in general. This gradual change in the position of the bands has been noted when uranyl nitrate is treated with sulphuric acid, with hydrochloric acid, or with acetic acid. It has also been found when uranyl and uranous acetates are treated with various acids, and when uranous and 2l6 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. neodymium salts are treated with nitric acid ; the salts and acids studied hav- ing been selected so as to show the greatest spectroscopic changes when one salt is transformed into another. Since these reactions do not differ chemically from reactions in general, it is a fair question to ask at least ivhether chemical reactions in general are not more complex than are represented by our ordinary equations? It is diffi- cult, not to say impossible, to see why these intermediate systems should be formed in the reactions studied spectroscopically if they are not also formed in other chemical reactions. This suggestion seems all the more probable in that there are certain lines of evidence, from the chemical side, pointing to the existence of intermediate compounds in chemical reactions. In studying the third problem — the effect of temperature on the absorp- tion of light by solution — a thick-walled steel tube closed at both ends with glass or quartz plates and lined on the inside with gold was employed. Tubes of different lengths were used for solutions of different concentrations. Con- siderable difficulty has been experienced in closing the apparatus to withstand high pressure, yet it has been possible to work with alcoholic solutions and with mixtures of alcohol and water at temperatures well above the boiling- point of alcohol. Although work on this problem can be said to be only fairly begun, some results of interest have already been obtained. The effect of rise in tempera- ture is, in general, to cause the absorption bands to widen, a few exceptions, however, having been found. Solutions that show both the water-bands and alcohol-bands with equal intensity at ordinary temperatures show these bands to have very unequal intensities when the temperature is raised. Of the solutions studied the alcohol-bands are the more persistent at the elevated temperatures, indicat- ing that the alcoholates undergo less change in composition with rise in tem- perature than the hydrates. The effect of temperature on the absorption spectra of solutions will be extended next year to as high temperatures as may prove to be possible. Morse, H. N., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. Grant No. 614. Study of the measurement of the osmotic pressure of solutions. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 2-8.) $1,800 The purpose of the work of the past year, as of that of the previous year, has been to determine with all possible certainty the relation of osmotic pressure to temperature. As the method of measurement has been improved from time to time, and as the results which should agree have become more concordant in consequence of the removal of known sources of error, it has been found that the ratios of osmotic to calculated gas pressure at different low temperatures has approached a constant value for any given concentra- tion of cane-sugar solution. In other words, the later results indicated an increasingly closer agreement between the temperature coefficients of osmotic and gas pressure, i. e., that osmotic pressure obeys the law of Gay-Lussac for gases. CHEMISTRY — MORSE. 217 To test this apparent agreement — or, rather, to ascertain beyond a reason- able doubt the temperature coefficient of osmotic pressure — very elaborate arrangements were made to meet and minimize the remaining known defects of the method. The improvements made concerned every phase of the work and in many cases were of a fundamental character. The cells were improved in a number of important particulars. The automatic system of temperature regulation was advantageously modified. The older baths were reconstructed in order to introduce the numerous improvements which long experience with them had shown to be necessary or desirable. Three new baths were built, which made it practicable to deposit the membranes — and to maintain the cells at all times when out of use — at the temperatures at which measure- ments were to be made. Another bath was constructed for measuring press- ure at high temperatures. The largest single source of error in the work at present appears to be the manometers ; accordingly the facilities for the cali- bration and verification of these instruments were increased and greatly im- proved. The above will serve to indicate the thoroughgoing nature of the preparation for the solution of the problem in hand. The essential details will be given in a series of papers about to appear in the American Chemical Journal. The results of the actual measurements made under the improved condi- tions are given below in tabular form, except in so far as they have not yet been verified by duplicate determinations. At all points where verification is still lacking the spaces have been left vacant. The table gives the pressures obtained and the ratios of these to the calculated gas-pressure of the material in solution. It is to be noted that all solutions employed in this work are made by dissolving the appropriate weight of material in 1000 grams of water. Comparing the ratios of osmotic to gas pressure, it will be seen that between o° and 25 ° they are very constant for any given concentration. The Osmotic Pressure of Cane-sugar Solutions. Weight, normal concen- tration. Osmotic pressure in atmospheres. Ratio of osmotic pressure to gas pressure. 0° 5° 10° '5° 30° 25° 0° 5° 10° '5° 20° 25° O.I 0.2 o-3 0.4 o-5 0.6 0.7 o.S 0.9 1.0 2-452 4.818 7.198 9.608 12.098 14.605 17.206 19.822 22.478 25.283 2.498 4.893 2.590 5961 7-605 10.137 I2.748 15-388 18.128 20.906 23715 26.648 2.636 5.148 7.727 10.296 12.951 15.624 18.435 21.254 24.126 27-053 1. 081 1.063 1.058 1.059 1.067 1.074 1.084 1.003 1. 102 1. H5 1.082 1.060 I.0835 1-059 1. 061 1.060 1.067 1.073 1.084 1-095 1. 103 1.115 1. 08 1 1-059 1.060 1.059 1.066 1. 071 1.083 1.092 1. 103 1.113 4.722 7-085 9422 11.895 14.381 16.886 19.476 22.118 24.825 1. 061 1. 061 1.060 1.068 1.0765 1.083 1 093 1.104 1. 115 9.790 12.297 14.855 '7-503 20.161 22.884 25.680 1.060 1.066 1-073 1.0S3 1.092 1. 102 1.113 15-131 17.821 20.533 23-3'4 26.189 1.074 1.084 1-093 1. 103 1.115 The relation of osmotic pressure to temperature is established in the field covered by the work with much greater certainty than the relation of press- ure to concentration, the reason being that the undeterminable and unknown errors of the manometers are of much less importance in the former than the latter case. The results given in the table have not hitherto been published. 2l8 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. The writer has been assisted, in the investigations here reported, by Drs. W. W. Holland and E. G. Zies and Messrs. W. M. Clark and C. N. Myers. Noyes, Arthur A., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Massa- chusetts. Grant No. 625. Researches upon the physical properties of aqueous solutions in relation to the ionic theory. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 2-8.) $3,000 During the past year the several lines of investigation described in pre- vious reports have been continued. It may be recalled that the general object of these researches is to develop the Ionic Theory of Solutions, or at any rate the empirical principles expressing the phenomena involved, in such a way as to account for the unexplained anomalies which aqueous solutions of strong electrolytes exhibit. The special subjects that have been under investigation are: (1) the trans- ference numbers of tri-ionic salts (especially of thallous sulphate and lead nitrate), by Dr. K. G. Falk, with the purpose of determining whether inter- mediate ions, such as T1S04_ or PbN03+, exist in considerable quantity ; (2) the electrical conductivity of mixtures of salts, by Mr. A. C. Melcher, Dr. W. C. Bray, and Mr. F. L. Hunt, with the purpose of establishing the general law governing the ionization of salts; and (3) the solubility of salts in the presence of other salts, by Dr. W. D. Harkins, with the purpose of determining empirically the form of the law of solubility-effect which must be substituted for the inexact mass-action form of that law. A systematic, critical review of existing data bearing on the properties of solutions in their relations to the Ionic Theory has also been begun with the aid of Dr. K. G. Falk; and a first paper of the series, dealing with freezing- point lowerings, has already been published (Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, vol. 32, pp. 1011-1030). During the past year articles describing the work previously completed and reported on in earlier volumes of this Year Book have also been pub- lished as follows : (1) The solubility of silver chloride, barium sulphate, and calcium sulphate at high temperatures, by A. C. Melcher (Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, vol. 32, pp. 50-66). (2) The hydrolysis of ammonium acetate and the ionization of water at high temperatures, by A. A. Noyes, Yogoro Kato, and R. B. Sosman (Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, vol. 32, pp. 159-178). (3) The ionization of salts in mixtures with no common ion, by M. S. Sherrill (Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, vol. 32, pp. 741-748). CHEMISTRY — RICHARDS. 2IO, Richards, Theodore W., Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Grants Nos. 524, 570, and 626. Extended investigations of precise values of atomic zveights; and a study of volume and energy relative to material in relation to the new hypothesis of compressible atoms. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 2-8.) Each grant, $2,500 (1) The Revision of the Atomic Weight of Calcium: With the help of Dr. Otto Honigschmid, upon leave of absence from the Royal German University of Prague, a careful research was completed upon the atomic weight of calcium. This element is especially interesting, not only because it is one of the very common and important constituents of the surface of the globe, but also because it is one of the interesting series of which radium is the last and newest member. The atomic weights of barium and strontium, the other members of this series, have been determined with care in the Chemical Laboratory of Harvard College, and that of calcium was begun 15 years ago, but only preliminary determinations were made at that time. It was very highly desirable, therefore, to complete this work. Dr. Honigschmid analyzed with great care many pure specimens of calcium bromide and chloride made in different ways from the purest materials, with all the precautions recently devised in this laboratory, and obtained the fol- lowing final average results, if silver is given the present international value, 107.88: From the ratio 2Ag :CaBr2 (6 analyses) Ca=40.070 ratio 2AgBr :CaBr2 (6 analyses) Ca=40.070 ratio 2Ag : CaCl* (7 analyses) Ca=40 . 074 Average of 19 analyses Ca=40.07i Not only the averages, but also the individual results, agreed very closely with one another. The outcome leaves no doubt that the atomic weight of calcium is not far from 40.07, a result only slightly lower than that given by the preliminary Harvard investigations (40.08), but much lower than the value, 40.15, ob- tained by Hinricsen under Landolt's direction in Berlin. This work will appear among the publications of the Imperial and Royal Academy of Sciences of Vienna as well as in the usual American publications. (2) The Revision of the Atomic Weights of Lithium, Chlorine, and Silver: This investigation, concerning which a comprehensive paper was published in Publication No. 125 of the Carnegie Institution of Washington and re- printed in the Journal of the American Chemical Society and the Zeitschrift fur Anorganische Chemie, has been continued yet further during the present summer, Dr. H. H. Willard having returned to Harvard from the University of Michigan for the summer months on this account. The work is being conducted with the yet greater precision made possible by experience gained in the work already published, and the operations are being conducted upon a somewhat larger scale. The earlier results are confirmed. Evidence is to 220 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. be obtained also concerning the possible retention of traces of water in the lithium perchlorate which serves as one of the standard substances. (3) Adiabatic Determination of the Heats of Solution of Metals in Acids: During- the winter of 1908-09, with the help of Dr. L. L. Burgess, the heat evolved by the action of the more electropositive among the heavy metals upon acids was studied with great care, the object being to secure precise data for thermochemical and thermodynamic computation. These experi- ments have already been described in the report of last year, and in greater detail in a paper published in the Journal of the American Chemical Society. In the course of the work it was shown that much greater accuracy in the determination of the heats of dilution of the acid solutions concerned was needed than had been supposed to be necessary in the past. It was shown that Thomsen's method of applying the heat of dilution to the results was wholly erroneous, and preliminary results for the heat of dilution of the liquids concerned were obtained. Before publishing this latter part of the work it seemed highly desirable, however, to obtain more accurate knowledge concerning these quantities ; and during the winter of 1909-10 a protracted series of very careful experiments was made with a new, more accurate ther- mometer, by Dr. Allen W. Rowe. These not only fix beyond question the heat of dilutions of several strengths of hydrochloric acid, but show the in- teresting fact that zinc chloride, when substituted in small amount for its equivalent quantity of acid, considerably increases the heat of dilution of the acid, whereas cadmium chloride diminishes it. The full details are described in a comprehensive paper which has already been sent to the press. This paper will appear in the Journal of the American Chemical Society and will ultimately be published, it is hoped, among the publications of the Carnegie Institution of Washington in a volume including all the recent thermochem- ical studies carried out at Harvard University. (4) The Heat of Neutralisation of Strong Acids and Strong Bases: This problem, undertaken with the help of Dr. Rowe and discussed in the last report, has been studied further during the year just past. Confirma- tory results obtained in several different ways and with different thermome- ters have made the outcome so certain that the results are now practically ready for publication. (5) The Specific Heats of Aqueous Solutions: The method already described in the previous report has been improved so that results of very great constancy and reliability can now be obtained with a minimum of exertion. During the past winter the specific heats of solutions of hydrochloric, hydrobromic, hydriodic, nitric, and perchloric acids, as well as sodium and potassium hydroxides, have been obtained with Dr. Rowe's assistance. The hydroxide of lithium is now being investigated. Interesting relations have already been detected from the comparison of the data for analogous substances. CHEMISTRY — RICHARDS. 221 (6) The Heat of Combustion of Pure Organic Substances: Concerning- this subject a comprehensive investigation completed last year with the help of Dr. R. H. Jesse, jr., was discussed in the last report and has since been published in full. This research is now being continued with the assistance of Mr. F. Barry; and the novel apparatus and methods used in the previous work have continued to yield admirably consistent results. The data already secured, together with those to be obtained in the future, will, it is hoped, form a more satisfactory basis for the comparison of the internal energy-changes of these substances than any other data thus far available. (7) The Compressibility of Ice: In the last report it was pointed out that the compressibility of ice is a datum of much interest, and the execution of a preliminary determination was announced. During the past winter, with the assistance of Prof. C. L. Speyers, this matter has been carried much further, and the quantity in question has been determined with considerable accuracy. According to one method, the compressibility of ice at — 70 C. was found to be 0.0000118, and according to another 0.0000116, between 100 and 500 megabars, if the com- pressibility of mercury under like conditions is taken as 0.0000037. The outcome is surprising. One might have expected the compressibility of ice to be greater than that of water, since as a general rule the phase of any given substance possessing the greater volume has also greater compressibil- ity. Thus the substance water forms an exception in this respect, as in so many others, to the general rules usually governing the physical properties of solid and liquid substances. (8) The Surface-Tensions of Liquid Substances: In connection with the comprehensive research upon the compressibility of liquids discussed in a previous report, Professor Speyers has also deter- mined the surface-tensions of liquid substances ; because compressibility has been shown by Richards and Mathews, as well as by other investigators, to be fundamentally connected with surface-tension. In the course of this new work upon surface-tension it has been found that many previous investiga- tions have been inadequate because of the still remaining slight "capillary" effect of the walls of even fairly wide containing-vessels. As a rule, in the past, experimenters have not used vessels nearly wide enough to eliminate this source of error. The careful study of the surface-tension of a number of liquids whose compressibilities have also been determined at different temperatures and in tubes of different sizes promises to throw light upon the whole subject, including the relation between surface-tension and com- pressibility. It has already been pointed out that many of these investigations are already in print or in press. References to these will be found in the Bibli- ography of this Year Book (page 51). The others will be cast into shape suitable for publication as soon as circumstances will permit. 222 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. GEOLOGY. Chamberlin, T. C, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois. Grant No. 571. Study of fundamental problems of geology. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 2-8, inclusive.) $4,000 The year has been spent mainly on special inquiries bearing on the sources and the methods of supply and of depletion of atmospheric material and on the regulative factors that enter into the maintenance of the equilibrium of the atmosphere and into the limitation of its oscillations, as these are implied by the climatic data of the geologic record. A paper on the secular mainte- nance of the atmosphere, embodying these results, has been in course of preparation during the last quarter of the year. Moulton, F. R., University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois. Grant No. 627. Continuation of investigations relating to the planetesimal hypothesis. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 4, 5, and 8.) $2,000 The work finished during the year and now being published or ready for publication is : Periodic Orbits (vol. I) : For description see Year Book No. 8. The Straight-Line Solutions of the Problem of Bodies: In this paper it is proved that it is possible to arrange any n positive finite masses on a straight line in precisely y2 n ! different ways, so that, under proper initial projections, they will always remain collinear. The orbits of the masses are similar conic sections having the center of mass of the whole system as a focus. This is the complete generalization of Lagrange's results for the Problem of Three Bodies. The related problem is solved of determining, when possible, n masses such that if they are placed at n arbitrary collinear points they will, under proper initial projection, always remain in a straight line. If n is even and the linear dimensions of the orbits are given, it is proved that the n masses are in general uniquely determined ; and that if n is odd the coordinates of the n points must satisfy one algebraic relation, after which, choosing any one of the masses arbitrarily, the remaining n — 1 are uniquely determined. This paper is in type for the Annals of Mathematics. The Singidarities of the Two-Body Problem for Real Initial Conditions: From the standpoint of analysis, the most important properties of a func- tion are the location and character of its singularities. They determine the character of its expansibility at every point. This paper makes a complete discussion for the problem of two bodies for all real initial conditions. It has been submitted to the Transactions of the American Mathematical So- ciety for publication. GEOLOGY — MOULTON. 223 Linear Differential Equations with Periodic Coefficients: This paper was prepared with the collaboration of Dr. W. D. MacMillan, of the University of Chicago. It takes up first in a new way the proof of the analytic character of the solutions in the general case of a simultaneous set of equations of any order. Then it treats those equations whose coefficients have the property of being expansible as power series in certain parameters, and exhibits not only the character of the solutions with respect to these parameters, but shows how actually to construct them by relatively simple and convenient processes. These are the equations which arise in celestial mechanics and their solutions in all cases are now at hand. The most useful cases for equations with right members are also treated. This paper is being published by the American Journal of Mathematics. Problem of the Spherical Pendulum from the Standpoint of Periodic Orbits: The problem of the spherical pendulum falls in the class of those which can be treated by the methods of periodic orbits. The solution of the ^-equa- tion leads to elliptic functions which are obtained here expanded as power series in their modulus directly from the second-order differential equation. The method is applicable, with slight modifications, to hyperelliptic func- tions. After the ^-equation has been solved the x and y equations become linear of the second order with periodic coefficients which are expansible as power series in the modulus of the elliptic functions. The solutions of these equations are found. After the properties of the solutions have been derived from the original differential equations, the remarkable fact is shown that all the coefficients can be obtained from the integral relations which hold among the coordinates. Thus a second independent method of computing them is given. This paper is being submitted to the Rendiconti di Palermo for pub- lication. A Certain Class of Oscillating Satellites: In this paper two finite masses are supposed to be describing undisturbed elliptical orbits, and an infinitesimal mass is moving near one of the La- grangian centers of libration. The conditions under which its oscillations can be periodic are determined, and a method of finding these solutions is given. The coordinates are expansible as sums of fractions of a parameter, of which they are discontinuous functions. The work under preparation is : The first three subjects described in Year Book No. 8, p. 225. Continuation of the work on periodic orbits for a second volume. The section on cosmogony for Encyclopaedic der Mathematische Wissenschaften. 224 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH. Adams, F. D., McGill University, Montreal, Canada. Grant No. 503. Con- tinuation of investigation into the -flow of rocks. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 2-7.) $1,500 This investigation is now nearly completed. During the past year a study of the effect of deformation on the strength of compact and more or less im- pure limestones was completed. Solenhofen lithographic stone and black Belgian limestone ("Noir fin") were selected, and it was found that even at the ordinary temperature, under differential pressure, they can be deformed without loss of strength. It is evident from these and from the experiments of former years that limestones of any kind, pure or impure, may in the fold- ing of the earth's crust be contorted without losing strength during the process. An extended series of experiments has also been carried out on the deformation of granite, diabase, and essexite at temperatures ranging from the ordinary temperature of the laboratory up to iooo0 C. The tem- peratures chiefly employed, however, were 4500 C. and 5500 C. In these ex- periments a modification of the method described was adopted with very sat- isfactory results. This consists in deforming those hard Plutonic rocks in the form of disks which are placed between disks of marble, the whole being then inclosed in steel in the usual manner. It is found that the marble effects a distribution of the pressure upon the flowing disk of granite or diabase which it was impossible to secure under the older method. The rocks in question, as well as the essexite, developed a very perfect Cataclastic struc- ture under the movement, but remain hard and compact. A series of experi- ments has been made to determine what proportion of their strength they retain after deformation at the ordinary temperature and at a temperature of 4500 C. Another investigation, referred to in a former report, has also been con- tinued. This deals with the pressures required to cause small holes bored through columns of limestone or granite to close, the rocks being inclosed in very heavy tubes of steel, so that this can not become deformed in the usual manner. These are developing results of considerable interest. Two preliminary papers presenting some of the results obtained have appeared during the past summer and others will be published within the next few months. The titles of the two papers are as follows : An experimental investigation into the flow of rocks. First paper. The flow of marble. (Amer. Jour, of Science, June 1910.) An experimental investigation into the action of differential pressure on certain minerals and rocks, employing the process suggested by Professor Kick. (Jour, of Geology, Sept.-Oct., 1910.) LITERATURE — SOMMER. — METEOROLOGY — BJERKNES. 225 LITERATURE. Sommer, H. Oskar, Astolat, Camberley, Surrey, England. Grant No. 650. Completion for publication of results of researches on Arthurian Ro- mances. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 5-8.) $3,000 1. I have transcribed at the British Museum the additional manuscript 10294, representing the sixth volume of the Vulgate Version of the Arthur- ian Romances. I have collated the text with the other manuscript at the British Museum, and with the photographic reproduction of the manuscript No. 342 of the Bibliotheque Nationale. The photographs being of reduced size, this task had to be performed by the help of a magnifying glass, and was of a very trying nature, occupying ten weeks. 2. I have revised the pages of volume III for the second time and com- pleted the volume for publication. 3. I have revised for the first time the remaining galleys of volume IV. 4. I have revised for the first time the whole of the fifth volume and made it ready for making up in page form. The following work remains to be done : 1. The second revise of the whole of volumes IV and V and the addition of head-lines and side-notes. 2. The first and second revises of volume VI and the addition of head- lines and side-notes. 3. The compilation of the Index raisonne to the six volumes. METEOROLOGY. Bjerknes, V., University of Christiania, Christiania, Norway. Grant No. 610. Preparation of a scientific work on the application of the methods of hydrodynamics and thermodynamics to practical meteorology and hydrography. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 5-8.) $1,200 The working out of the kinematic methods for investigating and repre- senting synoptically the atmospheric or oceanic motions has been finished. The final examples of the synoptic representation of fields of motion in the atmosphere have been worked out, and the text is nearly ready. The reading of the proof-sheets of the meteorological and the hydrographic tables has been continued, and the tables entirely revised and brought up to date accord- ing to the newest determinations of the fundamental constants. IS— yb 226 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. MATHEMATICS. Morley, Frank, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. Grant No. 558. The application of Cremona groups to the solution of alge- braic equations. $1,000 Professor Morley reports that a memoir by Prof. A. B. Coble, called "The reduction of a sextic equation to the Valentiner Form-problem," has been accepted by Professor Klein and will appear in the Mathematische Annalen. This bears directly on the subject of the grant, and a further memoir by Dr. Coble will be submitted later. A memoir by Dr. J. R. Conner, on "The norm-curve in four dimensions," is completed. This was a matter taken up in connection with the proposed problem. NUTRITION. Osborne, T. B., Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Conn. Grant No. 573. Comparative study of the more important vege- table proteins. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 3—8.) $5,000 Grant 573 ($5,000). — A large part of the work done under this grant has been directed to determine the nature of the deficit shown by even the most successful protein analyses. It has been found that a large part of this deficit is caused by defects in the analytical methods, losses occurring through incom- plete hydrolysis of the protein ; through secondary decompositions during the hydrolysis leading to the formation of humin ; through incomplete esterifica- tion and extraction of the esters ; through condensation of the esters during distillation ; and through imperfect separation of the individual amino-acids by fractional crystallization. Although it has long been known that losses were thus caused, it appears that few if any realized that in the aggregate these were so large as we have found them to be. The yield of some of the amino-acids is materially increased by longer hydrolysis, and it is necessary to boil the protein with strong acids for a very much longer time than has heretofore been the practice. The formation of humin is almost certainly limited to secondary decompo- sition of histidine, tryptophane, and carbohydrate, since zein, which yields none of the latter two and only a very small amount of histidine, yields but a trace of black amorphous substance known as humin. The losses which occur through incomplete esterification appear to be small if this process is properly conducted, but the conduct of this operation is simplified and expedited by applying a method proposed by Phelps and Phelps for esterifying organic acids. The losses incident to extracting the esters with ether can be reduced to an unimportant amount by repeating this process a sufficient number of times. NUTRITION — OSBORNE. 227 The greatest loss is caused by decomposition of the esters during distilla- tion, whereby products of unknown nature are obtained in the higher-boiling fractions of the esters and a relatively large amount of undistillable residue is formed. These losses can be reduced to a considerable extent by distilling as rapidly as possible to a temperature sufficiently high to carry over all of the leucine ester and then treating the undistilled esters according to the method usually applied to the higher-boiling fractions. This procedure sim- plifies the process and materially decreases the labor involved. The losses caused by incomplete separation of the amino-acids can be re-- duced to a comparatively small amount by careful work and by using the method of Levene and Van Slyke for separating leucine and a method de- vised for separating the dibasic glutaminic and aspartic acids from the mono- basic amino-acids by aid of their acid sodium salts. Much larger losses than have heretofore been assumed have been found to take place when alcohol or ether are distilled from the free esters and the yield, especially of alanine, can be greatly increased by taking the necessary precautions to recover it from the distillate. The extent of these losses has been learned by making several analyses of zein and by analyzing known quantities of the amino-acids which this pro- tein contains mixed together in the same proportion as these were obtained from this protein. By assuming the losses in the analysis of zein to be equal to those that occurred in the analysis of this mixture, it has been found that over 92 per cent of this protein almost certainly consists of those amino-acids which were previously known as its decomposition products. In making this estimate, account was taken of the water which is eliminated when the amino- acids are combined in polypeptide union. By taking advantage of the knowledge gained in this study the total quan- tity of decomposition products actually isolated from zein in a pure form has been very materially increased above that earlier obtained by working under the formerly employed conditions. This is shown by a comparison of the following figures : Analysis of Zein. Former analysis. Present analysis. Former analysis. Present analysis. per cent. 0.00 2.23 0.29 18.60 6-53 4.87 1.41 18.28 o-57 per cent. 0.00 9-79 1.88 19-55 9.04 6-55 1. 71 26.17 1.02 per cent. 3-55 1. 16 0.43 0.00 0.00 3.61 0.00 per cent. 3-55 1-55 0.82 0.00 0.00 3-64 0.00 Carbohydrate Total Glutaminic acid 6i.53 85.27 As zein constitutes 5 per cent of the corn crop, its enormous commercial value justifies the expenditure of much time and money in learning every- thing possible about its constitution. The increased knowledge of its decom- 228 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. position products thus incidentally gained in this study of the analytical methods has much value apart from its application to the analysis of other proteins and is to be considered a part of an extensive investigation of the proteins of this important seed which we have already entered upon. The results of the work above described have been published in the Ameri- can Journal of Physiology, 1910, xxvi, pp. 212-228, 295-304, and 305-328; 420-425. An extensive study of the proteins of the hemp seed has been made which is now approaching completion. This is designed to give information con- cerning the nature and proportion of all of the different proteins of this seed and a better knowledge of their properties. It is expected that this work will yield results of general application for the better isolation and preparation of seed proteins than has heretofore been possible and also shed light on some of those minor changes which proteins undergo and about which little is at present known. Some further work is required to make the data thus far accumulated available for publication. During the past year extensive feeding experiments have been undertaken in cooperation with Prof. Lafayette B. Mendel, of Yale University, under a grant from the Adams fund. The purpose of this work is to study the rela- tive nutritive value of the more important food proteins. In connection with this investigation much work has been done under this grant in preparing large quantities of proteins for feeding purposes and in obtaining more defi- nite knowledge of the properties of some of these proteins which appeared to be of importance in connection with their food value. Valuable data have already been obtained and a part of these have been discussed in a paper which is now nearly ready for publication. An extensive study of the anaphylaxis reaction has been begun in coopera- tion with Prof. H. Gideon Wells, of the University of Chicago, who has already conducted several hundred experiments on animals with very pure preparations of proteins which we have prepared for him. The results of this study are now ready for publication. PALEONTOLOGY. Case, E. C, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan. Grants Nos. 559 and 611. Continuation of the work on the Permian reptiles and am- phibia of North America. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 2, 4, and 8.) $3^00 Professor Case has completed the preliminary manuscript of two mono- graphs, one on the Cotylosauria and Pareiasauria of North America and one on the Amphibia and Pisces of the Permian of North America. These will average about 275 pages each and will be accompanied by about 30 plates each and numerous text figures. The manuscripts are the result of studies in American museums. Last summer Professor Case studied related forms in PALEONTOLOGY — CASE, WIEXAND. 229 European museums for comparison. The manuscript of the first monograph has been sent to the Carnegie Institution of Washington, and the second will be forwarded by December first of this year. Wieland, G. R., Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut. Grants Nos. 628 and 648. Continuation of investigations on fossil cycads. (For pre- vious reports see Year Books Nos. 2-4 and 6-8.) $2,000 The two memoirs on American fossil cycads announced in previous reports are now nearing completion. Moreover, there is in projection a further gen- eral treatise on the fossil cycadales which should form a notable contribu- tion to our knowledge of the structure and distribution of Mesozoic plants, inasmuch as it now becomes possible to examine in new light the only two well-marked Williamsonia floras hitherto known, namely, those of the York- shire coast and the Gondwanas of India, both of which it is intended to re- study in field and laboratory. As indicated last year, the field-work in Mexico, noted as desirable in an earlier report, resulted in the discovery of a profusion of early Mesozoic cycads, including the first series of Williamsonia fruits to be reported from North America. In addition to their definite stratigraphic interest, these Williamsonias of southern Mexico present a noteworthy variety of form and include the most reduced staminate disk yet discovered. As discussed tenta- tively in the Botanical Gazette for last December, the existence of such a flower does suggest polyphyletic origins amongst the angiosperms, and ren- ders more plausible the ascription of certain foliar types found low down in the Cretaceous to such modern and supposedly advanced genera as Viburnum and Nerium. Indeed, this new evidence, taken in conjunction with the recent discovery of Nathorst that the Rhatic cycad Wielandiella had monantherous microsporophylls as minute as stamens, goes far toward a demonstration of the validity of our theory of angiosperm origin by reduction. These complementary studies of Williamsonia floras having been brought thus far forward, active work on the silicified cycads has been resumed, and is now so far advanced that the companion volume to American Fossil Cycads (structure), or that in taxonomy, should be ready to submit for publication during this coming year. As already announced, the results will have more than a merely taxonomic interest, the floral structure of some little-known species having been found to exhibit more variety than was at first anticipated. Many additional thin sections of the largest size have been cut. A notable one traverses the lateral armor of a trunk tangentially so as to bring to view no less than 17 strobili in two series about equal in number, the one large with seeds containing proembryos, and a much smaller ovulate series. This latter, in case it should prove young, would show my suggestion that the fossil cycads were more or less monocarpic to require modification. How- ever, the corresponding series of parallel longitudinal sections has been made and it is expected that by comparative study of supplementary series from 230 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. other trunks the true condition may be exactly determined, whether indicat- ing simply the bisporangiate or else dioecious fruits of two seasons of fructifi- cation or, as the remaining alternative, a more or less distinct monoecious monocarpy. In any case it is once more brought forcefully home to us that the study of the young fruits yields much of interest, and that in dealing with fossil cycads every phase of angiospermous sporophyll arrangement may sooner or later be found repeated. In these later studies the seeds have been receiving the special study merited by their morphologic interest and value as pointed out in the prefa- tory note to the volume in structure — the avowed effort, despite the labor involved, being to exhaust the possibilities afforded by the collections for such study, either direct or comparative. It is of primary interest to note that here, for the first time in the case of any fossil plant, the cotyledonary bundle pattern has been determined. Intermediate in form to that of the existing cycads and Ginkgo, it exhibits a degree of reduction not equaling that of the conifers, but showing a remarkable similarity to the more primi- tive of the angiosperms in the lateral strand elimination and entire form; whence we derive yet another of the cumulative proofs that Cycadeoidean fructification indicates in all larger outlines the true manner of angiosperm evolution. Taken in entirety, the series of sections demonstrating these facts of fundamental interest must without any qualification be the most complete ever worked out and brought together to illustrate genera, species differentia- tion, and fructification in a group of extinct plants. Early persuaded of the interest of the cycadophytes from every scientific point of view, persistent effort has been made to carry their study beyond the boundaries of countries and the far severer limits of existing collections. The task is to link together the really little-understood silicified trunks, Wil- liamsonia fruits, and ubiquitous cycad foliage of the Mesozoic, as far as may be, into a connected whole which can yield its full quota of stratigraphic and structural interest and fact. PHYSICS. Barus, Carl, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island. Grant No. 630. Continuation of study of the properties of condensation nuclei, including ions. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 4, 5, 7, and 8.) $500 In connection with his work on the coronas as a means for the study of nucleation, Professor Barus came across a principle of interferometry which seemed of sufficient importance to justify special investigation. This has been done and what appears to be a very promising new procedure in inter- ferometry has been developed. The report is nearly ready for publication. The method consists in bringing to interference two complete diffraction spectra (components) from the same source of light. This may be done in a variety of ways, either directly or by using the devices of Jamin, Michelson, and others for separating the components. PHYSICS — BARUS. 23 1 In the direct method, a mirror immediately behind the grating returns the reflected-diffracted and diffracted-reflected component rays, to be superim- posed for interference, producing a series of phenomena which in addition to their great beauty are eminently useful. In fact, the interferometer so con- structed needs but ordinary plate-glass and replica-gratings. It gives equi- distant fringes, rigorously straight, and their distance apart and inclination are thus measurable by ocular micrometry. The fringes are duplex in char- acter and an adjustment may be made whereby ten small fringes occupy the same space in the field as one large fringe, so that sudden expansions within the limits of the large fringe (as, for instance, in magneto-striction) are determinable. This has not been feasible heretofore. Lengths and small angles (seconds of arc) are thus both made subject to micrometric measure- ment. Finally, the interferences are very easily produced and are strong with white light, while the spectrum-line used may be kept in the field as a station- ary landmark. The limiting sensitiveness is half the wave-length of light. Professor Barus, assisted by Mr. M. Barus, has worked out the theory, has devised advantageous instrumental equipment, and has made a number of incidental applications to test the apparatus. The range of measurement of such an instrument is necessarily limited to about 1 cm. and the component rays are not separated. To increase the range indefinitely and to separate the component rays, let the grating replace the symmetrically oblique transparent mirror of the Michelson adjustment, for instance. In this way transmitted-diffracted and reflected-diffracted spectra, or two corresponding diffracted spectra returned by the opaque mirrors, may be brought to interference. In the former, but particularly in the latter case, the author has been strikingly successful. The interference pattern, how- ever, is now of the ring type, extending throughout the whole spectrum from red to violet, with the fixed spectrum-lines simultaneously in view. These rings closely resemble confocal ellipses ; their centers have the same position in all orders of spectra, but the major axes of the ellipses are liable to be vertical in the first and horizontal in all the higher orders of spectra. Again, there is an opportunity for coarse and fine measurement, inasmuch as the rings have the usual sensitive radial motion as the virtual air-space increases or decreases, while the centers simultaneously drift as a whole across the fixed lines of the spectrum, from the red to the violet end. Drift and radial motion may be regulated in any ratio, and this is one advantage of the method. Professor Barus shows that three groups, each comprising a variety of interferences, are possible, and has worked out the theory of the phenomenon and the instrumental conditions for efficient practical work. Transparent sil- vered surfaces are superfluous, as the ellipses are sufficiently strong not to need accessory treatment. Considerable width of spectrum-slit is also ad- missible. Finally, the ellipses may be made of any size and the sensitiveness of their lateral motion may be regulated to any degree by the aid of a com- pensator. In this adjustment the drift may be made even more delicate than the radial motion, thus constituting an entirely new method of interferometry. 232 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. Burgess, Charles F., University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin. Grant No. 560. Investigation on electrolytic iron and iron alloys. (For pre- vious reports see Year Books Nos. 4-8.) $2,500 During the past year the work has been carried on under the direction of C. F. Burgess and James Aston, with the assistance of G. A. Roush and A. G. Sladky. The electrolytic iron-refining tanks have been in operation and several hundred pounds of single-refined and double-refined iron have been pro- duced. Practically all of this has been used in experimental work here, though some has been shipped to others investigating the properties of this material. Continuing the work of the past, this electrolytic iron has been used as a basis for the preparation of alloys, its value lying in its comparative freedom from impurities and in its marked uniformity. The work on alloys during the past year has been confined largely to three channels: the combined influence of copper and nickel on the strength of iron ; the hardness tests of numerous alloy samples accumulated during the past few years ; and the utility of electrolytic iron as a base material for the manufacture of tool steels. Among the results noted are the following: 1.5 per cent of copper addition gives a similar increase of strength as does 4 per cent of nickel. It has been found that the presence of copper is not detri- mental in making nickel-iron alloys, and therefore Monel metal, a cheap source of nickel, may be used for making high-grade alloys. This conclu- sion has been confirmed by Mr. Clamer, who reported before the American Society for Testing Materials, in July, 19 10. Most of the results of the past year's work have been published, although some data and information still remain to be prepared for publication. A list of publications of the past year bearing upon this work will be found in the Bibliography (page 47). Howe, H. M., Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Grant No. 618. To determine whether the sealing of gas in blowholes of steel ingots is or is not hermetical. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 6-8.) $300 In the solidification of molten or liquid substances, especially those of high melting-point, two classes of cavities are likely to form — gas-bubbles called "blowholes," and a central contraction cavity called a "pipe." The blow- holes represent (a) the progressive concentration in the molten or liquid mother-mass of the gases initially present, a concentration carried on to supersaturation and to the liberation of part of this gas from the supersatu- rated layers; perhaps (&) and in some cases, such as that of the solidifica- tion of steel ingots, the formation of a gas from chemical reaction brought about by fall of temperature or by passage from the liquid to the solid state. Tn the case of steel ingots there are indications that carbonic oxide is thus formed during solidification by the union of carbon and oxygen present side by side in the molten metal. PHYSICS — HOWE. 233 The formation of the central "pipe" is due to the cooling and hence con- traction of the different layers of the mass seoliotachically, i. e., at different rates inter se. In the early stages of solidification the outside of the mass, especially if it is cast in a cold iron mold, cools much faster than the deeper seated solid layers. The early excess of contraction of the outside, caused by this excess of cooling, is resisted by the lagging interior, with the result that the outer layers are virtually stretched beyond their normal dimensions; so that, when solidification is complete, the interior, which in the latter part of the cooling has to cool through a greater range of temperature and hence has to contract more than the outside, no longer suffices to fill that outside completely, and this deficit of volume of the interior is represented by a central cavity, overlying the region in which the last of the solidification occurs. This same excess of contraction of the earth's crust in its early stages should later throw that crust into great compression, which may be an important element in volcanic and earthquake phenomena. Blowholes themselves tend in effect to expand the volume of the interior as a whole, without changing its outer dimensions, and thus to lessen the deficit or pipe. In case of steel ingots this pipe may reach very deep into the axis and, because it is hard to weld up, may compel the manufacturer to discard as much as a third of the ingot in order to get sound unpiped metal. To avoid this some makers of steel of a composition favorable to welding have pur- posely allowed blowholes to form rather abundantly, so as to prevent the formation of a pipe, and, relying on the ease with which such steel welds, have tried to get flawless metal by welding these blowholes up in the process of rolling the ingot out into its final form, such as that of a boiler-plate. This procedure is of great economic importance, in that it enables the steel-maker to avoid the serious discarding which would be necessary in case his ingots were free from blowholes and hence deeply piped. But many intelligent metallurgists have condemned this practice on the ground that the closing of blowholes was impossible, because the gas which they contain must remain ever present during the rolling, even though somewhat compressed. The present investigation seeks to learn by two lines of inquiry whether the gas of the blowholes is qualitatively absorbable, and whether the sides of the blowholes themselves are qualitatively weldable, under the conditions of actual manufacture. Both lines proceed by comparing the metal in slabs cut from the original ingot without rolling with metal cut from a boiler- plate into which that same ingot was rolled, and cut in such a way as to separate and distinguish those parts of the metal in the plate which had orig- inally been porous when in the ingot from those which had originally been compact. The first line showed that the enormous differences in density which ex- isted between the porous and the compact parts of the ingot were practically completely obliterated in rolling the metal down into a boiler-plate. In one case the initial difference of 16 per cent in density was completely removed; 234 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. in the other the initial difference of 10 per cent in density was reduced to one-fiftieth its original quantity. This tended strongly to confirm the strong antecedent probability that the blowhole gases could be reabsorbed during the rolling process, thanks to its long continued great pressure at a very high temperature. The second line of inquiry disclosed what traces of blowholes remained in the boiler-plate, by cutting very thin slices lengthwise and crosswise from that plate, mirror-polishing them, and then bending them double in such a way that any blowhole traces present ought to gape open like the cards of a bent pack. Had there been no welding of blowholes, this bending should have disclosed unwelded seams about 3.5 inches long and 1.3 inches wide. In point of fact, the traces detected were so short as to indicate strongly that a very great degree of welding had occurred, as seemed to the writer, though not to all competent investigators, to be antecedently very probable. The longest single trace was 0.07 inch long. Only one "string" of such traces was found, and this was only 0.3 inch long. Further, the scantiness of these relics of blowholes tends to show that the blowhole gases have been reab- sorbed by the metal to a very great degree. Such relics of blowholes as have persisted in most cases probably represent spots where the reabsorption of the gas has become complete after the temperature has fallen too low to permit welding, and the proper course to pursue may be found in prolonging the exposure to a temperature above the welding-point, so as to complete the reabsorption of gas while the metal is still weldable. Nichols, E. L., Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. Grant No. 631. Con- tinuation of researches of phosphorescence and fluorescence. (For pre- vious reports see Year Books Nos. 4-8, inclusive.) $3,000 The following is a brief report of the progress of the work on fluores- cence and phosphorescence by Prof. Ernest Merritt and the grantee, carried on under grant No. 631 of the Carnegie Institution of Washington: ( 1 ) Photographic Measurements: During the year 1909-10 much time has been spent in the development of a strictly quantitative method for the photographic study of the spectra of fluorescent and phosphorescent bodies. This will make it possible to extend observations to bands in the violet and ultra-violet and also to study spectra that are too weak for accurate spectrophotometric determination. For this work a large quartz spectrograph and a wave-length spectrometer with photographic accessories have been imported from Hilger. For the meas- urement of negatives a special form of micro-comparator has been designed and constructed. Throughout the year Dr. C. A. Pierce* has been engaged in the photo- graphic study of phosphorescence spectra. Mr. H. E. Howe has tested the proposed method of measurement as applied to the fluorescence spectrum of * Pierce, Physical Review, xxx, p. 663. 1910. PHYSICS — XICH0LS. 235 anthracene, and Messrs. Howe and Phelps Gage have made numerous photo- graphic determinations of the value of various flaming arcs and other sources of light for purposes of excitation. Many tests of photographic plates have also been made. (2) Fluorescence Absorption: In the course of the year the consideration of this subject, which has for some time been in dispute, has been resumed, and by a variety of independent methods the conclusion has been reached, in conformity with the results of Camichael, Houstoun, and Wood, that the effect is either too small to detect or non-existent.* (3) The Conductivity of Anthracene Vapor: The work of Mr. H. E. Howe, begun in 1908, has been completed, and his resultsf have been published in the Physical Review for April 1910. Mr. Howe finds that whatever dissociation may be supposed to occur when the vapor of anthracene is excited to fluorescence does not produce a measurable effect on the conductivity of the vapor. (4) Studies of Phosphorescence of Short Duration: During 1908-09, Dr. C. W. Waggoner} undertook the determination of the form of the curve of decay in the case of phosphorescence of very short duration. By means of a new form of phosphoroscope especially designed for this work he was able to make observations for the complete determina- tion of the curves of decay for substances, the phosphorescence of which had vanished or become immeasurably faint in a few hundredths of a second. He found these curves, like those depicting the decay of slowly decreasing phosphorescence, which were the only cases previously investigated, to con- sist of two parts, indicating two successive processes of decay merging into one another. He also found that all the general laws determined for phos- phorescence of slow decay applied to the cases of phosphorescence of very brief duration. These investigations have been continued during the past year by Mr. Carl Zeller,§ who has confirmed the results obtained by Waggoner and has in ad- dition, by the use of the same phosphoroscope, made a detailed study of the first process in the decay of several of the phosphorescent combinations of Lenard and Klatt. Lenard, in a recent paper, has questioned the form of this portion of the curve as given by us in our earlier work, but Mr. Zeller's observations, which are carried to within less than a thousandth of a second from the close of excitation, are conclusive as to the linear relation between the reciprocal of the square root of the intensity and the time. * Nichols and Merritt, Physical Review, xxxi, p. 241. 1910. t H. E. Howe, Physical Review, xxx, p. 453. 1910. t C. W. Waggoner, Physical Review, xxvn, p. 109. 1908. § Zeller, Physical Review, xxi, p. 367. 1910. 236 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. (5) Katho do-luminescence: Preliminary work on kathodo-luminescence, an account of which was pub- lished in 1909,* is being followed up by Mr. J. A. Veazey. The greater part of the year was employed in the construction, assembling, and calibration of the apparatus, which consists of a Fluess mechanical air-pump and a rotary mercury air-pump, in tandem for the production and maintenance of high vacua ; a large four-plate, motor-driven, electrostatic machine ; electrostatic voltmeters for the measurement of potentials ; galvanometers for determin- ing the flow of current through the vacuum-tube and of the leakage current due to the kathodic discharge ; a photometer and spectro-photometer for the optical observations. This portion of the work is now completed, and it is confidently expected that within the next few months data will be obtained which will greatly add to our definite knowledge of the laws of kathodo- luminescence. (6) X-ray Luminescence : In the course of our studies of fluorescence and phosphorescence we have from time to time used X-rays as an exciting agency and have compared the effects with those obtained by means of light. A systematic quantitative study of X-ray luminescence is now proposed and apparatus for the produc- tion of rays of the highest intensity has been ordered, on trial. This work will probably be placed in the hands of Mr. A. H. Forman, who has for two years been engaged in researches involving the use of X-rays. (7) The Effect of Temperature on Fluorescence and Phosphorescence: Quantitative studies of low temperature, down to — 1900 C, upon the loca- tion and intensity of the bands of fluorescence spectra, which were begun in the spring of 1909, have been continued during the past year. The measure- ments show that what all writers have hitherto considered as single bands and treated as units are in many cases complex in structure, consisting of an aggregation of overlapping bands, which can not be separated by spectro- photometric or photographic methods. These overlapping components are, however, frequently differently affected by change of temperature, so that the comparison of the curves giving the distribution of intensities in a flu- orescence spectrum affords definite indication of the number and location of the bands of which the spectrum is composed. Numerous determinations of the effect of low temperatures upon the intensity and rate of decay of phos- phorescence have also been made. Some of the results of these investiga- tions were given in a paper read before the April (1910) meeting of the American Philosophical Society, and a further report will shortly appear in the Physical Review. Two years ago Dr. R. C. Gibbs began the spectrophotometric study of the effect of temperature upon the absorption and fluorescence of various glasses. * Nichols and Merritt, Physical Review, xxviii, p. 349. PHYSICS — NICHOLS. — PHYSIOLOGY — LOEB, RElCHERT. 237 His work, which has a range from — 1900 C. to 4000 C, has been continued during the past year and is still in progress. Many of his results have already been published in the Physical Review.* (8) The Distribution of Energy in Fluorescence Spectra: In earlier work the spectrum of the acetylene flame was used as a stand- ard and fluorescence spectra were compared with it by determining their in- tensities, wave-length by wave-length, in terms of corresponding wave- lengths of the standard spectrum. To derive from such measurements the actual distribution of energy in fluorescence spectra the spectrum of the acetylene flame with that of the light from an ideal black body of known temperature has been compared once for all, thus determining the distribu- tion of energy in the spectrum of the flame. From this a curve was plotted giving reduction factors by means of which any spectrum that has been spectro-photometrically compared with the spectrum of the acetylene flame can be described by means of a curve indicating the actual distribution of energy. The results have been published in the Physical Review. f In con- nection with this work, the value of a unit of absorbed energy in producing fluorescence has likewise been determined, wave-length by wave-length. It is hoped at an early day to present for publication an extended memoir describing in full the work on fluorescence and phosphorescence thus far completed by the grantee and various collaborators under grants from the Carnegie Institution of Washington. PHYSIOLOGY. Loeb, Leo, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Grant No. 582. Study of the toxic action of the poison of Heloderma suspec- tum. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 6, 7, and 8.) $500 The investigation into the toxic action of the venom of Heloderma has been brought to a conclusion and a full account of the results obtained will, it is believed, be ready for publication in the course of the coming winter. Reichert, E. T., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Grant No. 632. Study of differentiation and specificity of homologous vital substances. $i,5°° In Publication No. 116, entitled "The differentiation and specificity of cor- responding proteins and other vital substances in relation to biological classifi- cation and organic evolution: The crystallography of hemoglobins," it was shown that the hemoglobins of different species of animals differ in chemical constitution, and that these differences are specific in relation to genera, spe- cies, etc. The present research is a supplementary investigation. A number * R. C. Gibbs, Physical Review, xxvn and xxxi. t Nichols and Merritt, Physical Review, xxx, p. 328. 238 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. of groups of homologous vital substances, especially proteins, carbohydrates, and fats of plants, are being studied, the results in every instance being in entire support of the findings of the hemoglobin inquiry, and therefore tend- ing to the establishment of a new and preeminently important law in biology. At least another year of inquiry must elapse before the results of this re- search will be ready for report in detail. POLITICAL SCIENCE. Rowe, L. S., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Grant No. 633. Study of the federal system of Mexico. (For previous re- ports see Year Book No. 8.) $i,5°° Having completed the study of the antecedents of the constitutional system during the summer of 1909, the summer of 1910 was devoted to a study of the organization and operation of the Mexican political system. Pursuant to this purpose attention has been concentrated on the following topics: a. The organization of the Federal Government : Relative position of the Execu- tive and legislative authorities. b. Division of functions between Federal and State governments. c. Constitutional position of the States : political influence of the Federal Govern- ment over the State authorities. d. Constitutional guarantees under the Mexican political system. PSYCHOLOGY. Franz, S. L, Government Hospital for the Insane, Washington, District of Columbia. Grant No. 80. Investigation of the functions of the cere- brum. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 4-8.) $1,000 In connection with grant No. 80, for investigating the functions of the cerebrum, the grantee reports progress. The work mentioned in the report of last year has been continued and some is nearing completion. During the year this work has been presented in various forms before different medical and other scientific societies, as follows : Functions of the anterior and posterior association areas : Southern Society for Phi- losophy and Psychology. The functions of the occipital lobes : Georgetown Clinical Society. Retention of vision after extirpation of the occipital cortex in monkeys : Society of Experimental Psychologists. Color vision and its cerebral localization : Research Workers in Experimental Biology of Washington. During the year there have been no publications, but one article is now in press, a second has just been submitted for publication, and a third (to in- clude a full account of the experiments on the relation of the occipital lobes to vision) will be prepared for publication during the next two months. ZOOLOGY — CASTLE. 239 ZOOLOGY. Castle, W. E., Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Grant No. 612. Continuation of experimental study of heredity in small mam- mals. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 3-8.) $1,000 The experimental studies of heredity begun in the Harvard Zoological Laboratory ten years ago have made good progress since the last report. For seven of these ten years the experiments have been fostered by the Car- negie Institution of Washington. The more important of the experiments could not have been undertaken without the aid which the Carnegie Institu- tion grant has brought directly or indirectly. During the past year each of the lines of investigation described in the last report have been continued and several new ones have been added. Our present stock of animals consists of about 400 rabbits, 700 guinea- pigs, 500 mice, 1,000 rats, 400 pigeons, and 8 dogs. The experiments have been directed toward the solution of three main problems : (1) The nature and possible modifiability of Mendelian unit-characters. (2) The nature of blending inheritance. (3) The possibility of modifying inheritance by environmental influences. Certain color-patterns of rats behave as alternative Mendelian unit-char- acters in heredity. They are in reality, however, quantitative variations in amount of pigmentation and are subject to individual variation, and it is be- lieved also to modification by selection. These in brief are the conclusions which are tentatively held as a result of studying some 10,000 pedigreed rats. The purpose is, however, to double this number before venturing to draw final conclusions in a matter theoretically of much importance and in which current opinions are largely against our view. In this laborious investigation the grantee has had the assistance of Dr. John C. Phillips, research fellow in Harvard University. With his assist- ance the ovarian transplantation experiments with guinea-pigs described briefly in the last report have been continued. As yet it has not been possible to duplicate the one successful case then reported. The graft takes in about 10 per cent of the transplantations made, but in only one animal, so far, have young been obtained. We propose to continue these experiments on a con- siderable scale to see whether characters different in nature from color-char- acters will behave in the same immutable fashion when residing in germ- cells which have been transplanted to a body of different character. A brief account of this work was published in September 1909 (see Bibliography, p. 48), and a fuller report is in manuscript. Dr. Phillips and the grantee are also rearing in captivity several species of Peromyscus, a native field-mouse, the most widely distributed of North American mammals, and are endeavoring to hybridize species from widely 240 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. separated parts of the country, as from the Pacific Coast and New England, with a view of studying the inheritance in such crosses. Mr. C. C. Little, a research student, has completed an important investiga- tion of color-inheritance in mice. A preliminary paper on this work was published in September 1909 (see Bibliography, p. 48) ; a fuller paper is partly in manuscript. He has been able to make a more complete analysis of color-inheritance in these much-studied animals than has heretofore been made and to clear up several puzzling cases by use of the Mendelian hypoth- esis. Mr. Little is also beginning a systematic study of inheritance in pigeons and in dogs. Mr. John Detlefsen, Austin Teaching Fellow in Zoology in Harvard Uni- versity, is assisting in three distinct lines of work. Ovarian transplantation in frogs has given us, so far, only negative results; injection of various solu- tions into the reproductive glands of rats has likewise given negative re- sults ; the study of hybrids between Cavia aperea and the guinea-pig is giving results of interest. The curious sterility (in the male sex only) of those hybrids has been described in previous reports. At last a partially fertile male hybrid has been obtained, a one-eighth blood aperea, seven-eighths blood guinea-pig. A detailed study is being made of the size, color, proportions, and rate of growth of the various sorts of hybrids obtained, which range all the way from one-half blood to one thirty-second blood aperea. No publi- cation has yet been made upon this investigation, though it has been in prog- ress for some years and the results already obtained are considered impor- tant. The next year's work upon this problem should be productive. We are planning to carry it out on a considerable scale. Mr. E. C. MacDowell, a graduate student, has aided in studying size- inheritance in rabbits. This is apparently non-Mendelian, but may prove to be a complex Mendelian case. Large numbers of animals carefully studied from birth to full maturity are needed to solve this problem. Such data are being secured, and Mr. MacDowell is proving to be a careful and critical student of them. Selection for size in guinea-pigs (see last report) has been continued with the assistance of Mr. Detlefsen and Mr. J. W. Chapman, a graduate student in zoology. Professor Castle is studying some problems in color-inheritance in rabbits in connection with Dr. P. B. Hadley, of the Rhode Island Agri- cultural Experimental Station. The Harvard authorities have greatly increased the facilities for work by building new cages, a pigeon-house, and a yard for dogs. They are now adding a new section to the basement breeding-rooms for the further exten- sion of the experiments with rabbits and guinea-pigs. Four papers have been published since the last report. (See Bibliography, pp. 47, 48.) ZOOLOGY — CRAMPTON, GUOGER, MARK. 24I Crampton, H. E., Columbia University and American Museum of Natural History, New York, N. Y. Grant No. 563. Study of variation, muta- tion, heredity, and geographical distribution of Polynesian species of Partula. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 6, 7, and 8.) $2,500 During eight months of 1909 a fourth journey was made to the South Pacific Islands in order to complete a survey of certain important regions of several of the Society Islands and to confirm certain observations of previous years. The field-work in this group has been entirely completed and the final laboratory investigations are rapidly reaching conclusion. On the way to New Zealand four islands of the Cook group were visited, and although this group contains few Partula, some interesting material was obtained for comparison with the species of the Society and other islands. Later, by way of the Tonga Islands, Samoa was visited and a final complete exploration of Tutuila was made. A survey of Upolu and Savii was made impossible by the adverse meteorological and other conditions, but certain valuable collec- tions were made. At the Hawaiian Islands field-studies were prosecuted in order to observe the biological conditions under which the Achatinellidse exists. In addition a study was made of the important collections of Partula made by Garrett, which are deposited in the Bishop Museum at Honolulu. During the past summer the important collections of Partulae in the Mu- seums of Europe have been studied for the purpose of verifying the identi- fications of conchologists, and also for the study of type-specimens of signifi- cant species. Gudger, E. W., North Carolina State Normal and Industrial College, Greensboro, North Carolina. Grant No. 529. Investigation of the breeding-habits and life-history of the gaff-topsail catfish. (For pre- vious report see Year Book No. 7.) $3°° Work under this grant has been continued, but final results have not been reached. Mark, E. L., Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Grant No. 564. Study of the maturation and early stages in the develop- ment of the ova of mice and rats. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 5-8.) $100 Grant No. 492 (made jointly with W. E. Castle). Continuation of experi- mental studies in heredity. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 3-8, inclusive.) $500 Grant No. 564.— The paper by Dr. J. A. Long and Professor Mark on "The maturation of the egg of the mouse" is now in press. An abstract of that part of the results relating to the chromosomes was presented at the Eighth International Zoological Congress (which met at Graz, Austria, in August) under the title "Die Reifung des Eies der Maus." l6 — YB 242 REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS. The work of cross-fertilization between mice and rats by means of arti- ficial insemination, which was unsuccessfully attempted in conjunction with Mr. S. Morgulis, has been again taken up, now in cooperation with Dr. Long. The stock of mice was shipped to Dr. Long in Berkeley, California, and a small stock of rats has been purchased for these experiments. Grant No. 492. — A separate grant has been made to Dr. Castle for the continuation of his work in the field of this grant. The work on parasitic hymenoptera, which was interrupted by the failure of cold-storage material, has not advanced since the last report, owing in part to inability to control the material. Consequently similar work on another group of Arthropods was begun in cooperation with a graduate student in Harvard University, Mr. R. A. Spaeth. A study of the chromosomes in maturing eggs of several species of Copepoda was undertaken with a view to ascertaining whether the chromosome conditions were sufficiently differ- ent in different species to make crossing a promising means of studying the significance of chromosomes in inheritance. A considerable amount of ma- terial has been prepared and studied far enough to show that the chromo- some conditions are favorable and that interesting results may be expected, provided the desired hybrids can be produced. Although this has not yet been accomplished, we have grounds for believing that in time it can be done. Naples Zoological Station, Naples, Italy. Grant No. 613. Maintenance of the two tables for American biologists. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 2-8, inclusive.) $1,000 During the last term the two Carnegie Institution tables have been occu- pied by Mr. T. Gudernatsch, April 4 to May 29, 19 10, Prof. C. R. Stockard, April 15 to July 7, 1910, and Mr. M. Goldman, May 2 to June 1, 1910. Mr. Gudernatsch is a subject of the Austrian Empire. In future the principle will be strictly observed that the tables be granted only to citizens of the re- spective States. The Carnegie Institution of Washington has already ac- cepted this view, and it is recognized by Austria and other governments. The observation of this principle is indeed a necessity to the Zoological Station. The geological work of Mr. Goldman has been furthered, and it is satis- factory to state that the construction of the large physiological and chemical laboratories has extended the range of sciences previously studied in the Zoological Station. The word "table" now, indeed, in consequence of the parallel development and the growth of the whole of the Zoological Station, possesses a wider significance than merely "zoological." Morphologists, physiologists, and chemists will now find all the necessary appliances enabling them to work independently on the problem of marine biology. During last spring 68 naturalists were simultaneously working in this sta- tion and in the last year there were altogether 164 scientists, amongst whom 14 were Americans. INDEX. Page Abbot, Charles G I59 Abbott, Edith, Report on Women in Industry 70 Absorption Spectra of Solutions, Report of Investigations of 214 Acclimatization: Inductive Influence of Climatic Complexes upon Organisms... 60 Acree, S. F., Grant to 14 Publication by 45 Report on Continuation of Study of Tautomerism and Catalysis 208-209 Actinians, Report of Researches upon 124 Adams, Frank D., Publication by 45 Investigation into the Flow of Rocks 224 Adams, John 112 Adams, Walter S 28, 158, 162, 164, 167, 168, 169 Publications by 15, 45 Report on Mount Wilson Solar Observatory 156^-178 Adiabatic Calorimeter 181 Adiabatic Calorimeter for use with Calorimetric Bomb 191 Adiabatic Determination of Heats of Solutions of Metals in Acids 220 Administration, Appropriation for 3 Building, Statement concerning 18-19 Expenditures for 17 Africa, Magnetic Work in 199 Agassiz, Alexander 117 Agricultural Industry, Economic Characteristics of 67 Agricultural Market since 1840 68 Agriculture and Forestry, Reports upon 67 Aiptasia, Pedal Laceration in 125 Alcyonarians, Rate of Growth and Regeneration in 125 Allen, Eugene T 93 and John Johnston, On Exact Determination of Sulphur in Pyrite and Marcasite 97 , On Exact Determination of Suphur in Soluble Sulphates 96 , , and J. L. Crenshaw, On Sulphides of Iron 104 Allison, William H 23, 108, 109 Publication 15 Alloys, Systematic Study of : 209 Aluminum, Lithographic Stone, Fluorspar, and Graphite, Publication concerning. 68 Ambler, C. H., On the Free Negro in Virginia 72 American Audit Company ._ 43 American History in Roman and other Italian Archives, Guide to Materials for. 108 American Industrial Society, Documentary History of 70 American Religious History in Protestant Church Archives 108 American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Appropriation for 14 Report of #. 205 American School of Classical Studies in Rome, Appropriation for 14, 204 Amundsen, R 203 Andrews, Charles M : 23, 109, 114 Animal Nutrition, Suggestions Regarding Research in 193 Annelids, Report upon 126 Antimony, Study of 68 Aqueous Solutions, Researches upon their Physical Properties in Relation to Ionic Theory 218 Aqueous Solutions, Specific Heats of 220 Arabia, Magnetic Work in 200 Archeology, Appropriations for 14 Reports upon 205-207 243 244 INDEX. Page Armstrong, Henry H 205 Arthurian Romances, Researches on 225 Aston, James 232 Publications by 45. 47 Astronomical Investigations, Miscellaneous 164 Astronomical Observation at San Luis 151 Computations upon 154 Astronomy, Appropriations for 14 Atomic Weights, Determination of 209 Investigations of Precise Values of 219 Ayers, Alden F 175 Auditor, Report of 43 Babcock, H. D 158, 161, 164, 166, 167, 169 Bailey, W. L., On Mechanics' Lien Laws of the United States 71 Bancroft, W. D., Appropriation 14 Report on Systematic Study of Alloys 209 Banking and Money, Reports upon 70 Banta, A. M 22, 45, 78, 82 Barry, F 221 Barus, Carl, Grant to 14 Publications by 32, 45, 46 Report on Study of Properties of Condensation Nuclei 230 Barus, M 231 Bate, John Pawley 31 Bauer, L. A., Report as Director of Department of Terrestrial Magnetism. .. . 195-204 Publication by 46 Bauer, W. C 202 Baxter, Gregory P., Grant to 14 Publications by. . . ._ 15, 33, 45, 5i Report on Determination of Atomic Weights 209 Beattie, J. C. 14, 29, 198, 199, 202 Publication by 47 Beehler, William H 120, 124 Bell, Alexander Graham 79 Bell, Gertrude 206 Benedict, Francis G 188, 189, 191, 192, 193 Publications by 33, 47 Report as Director of Nutrition Laboratory I79_I94 and T. M. Carpenter, Publication by 15 and E. P. Joslin, Publication by 15 Bengali Food Materials, Composition of some 190 Bennett, B. F 47 Bibliography of Publications relating to Work Accomplished by Grantees and Associates 45-52 Grant to 14 Work in „ 207 Billings, John S iii, 3 Bjerknes, V., Appropriation 14 Publication by 47 Report on Work in Meteorology 225 Blackmar, F. W., On Social and Economic Phases of Irrigation 68 Blodgett, F. H., Publications by 47, 52 Body-temperature, Topographical Study of •. 186 Bogart, E. L., On Financial History of Ohio 71 Bolton, Herbert E 23, 109 Borden, Frederick no Boss, Benjamin 47 Boss, Lewis 47 Publications by 15, 33 Report as Director of Department of Meridian Astrometry 149-155 Botanical Research, Department of 20 Expenditures for l7 Report of Department of 55~66 Botany, Appropriations for *4 Boyd, W. K., On Financial History of North Carolina 72 INDEX. 245 Page Brant, L. C, Publication bv 47 Bray, W. C '. 218 Breitenbecher, J. B 64 Brierly, J. L 31 Brookings, Robert Somers iii, 3 Brown, Amos P., Publication by ^ Brown, J. G 65 Brown, T. C 200 Brown, W. H 58, 65 Brunei, R. F 45, 47, 208 Buck, Solon J., Report on Granger Movement 69 Building for Department of Historical Research 116 Burbank, J. E 201 Burbank, Luther, Account of Work of 14 Burgess, Charles F., Publication by 47 Report on Investigation concerning Electrolytic Iron and Iron Alloys 232 Burgess, L. L 220 Publications by 47, Si Burnett, E. C 106, 1 12, 1 16 Burwell, Cora G 161, 173 Butterfield, Kenyon L., Work in Department of Economics and Sociology 67 By-Laws of the Institution xiii-xvi Amended 3 Cactus Flora of Sonoran Desert 64 Cadwalader, John L iii, 3 Calcium, Atomic Weight of 219 Calorimeter Laboratory, Changes in 181 Calorimetric Bomb, Elementary Analysis by Means of 191 Campbell, Douglas H., Publication by 15 Canada, Magnetic Work in 200 Canadian Archives, Guide to Materials for United States History in no Canadian Railways, Report upon 69 Canary Birds, Breeding of 79 Cane Sugar Solutions, Osmotic Pressure of 217 Cannon, W. A ; 21, 66 On Conditions of Parasitism in Plants 59 On Root-habits of Desert Plants 61 Publications by . 15. 33 Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publication 15 Carnegie, Ship J0 Voyages of i95-*99 Carpenter, Thome M 27, 183, 186, 191, 192 Publications by 33> 47 Carroll, C. R 202 Carver. T. N., On Economic Characteristics in Agricultural Industry 67 Cary, L. R., On Development and Regeneration of Actinians 120, 121, 124 Case, E. C, Appropriation for 14 Publication by 47 Report on Permian Reptiles of Amphibia of North America 228 Castle, W. E., Appropriation for H Investigations concerning Heredity in Small Mammals 239 Publication by Cats, Experiments in Breeding 79 Cave Life of Animals, Studies of &; Cavendish, Henry IX3- ijo Chair Calorimeter l°& Chamberlin, T. C • • • • • • 48 Report on Study of Fundamental Problems of Geology 222 Chapin, H. C 2I1 Chapman, J. W 24° Chemistry, Appropriations for r^_014 Reports on Investigations in 208-221 Child Labor Policy of New Jersey 7° China, Magnetic Work in I99 Chinese Immigration, Report upon 246 INDEX. Page Chlorine, Atomic Weight of 219 Chree, Charles 200 Chretien, Henri 159, 164, 165 Chrysler, M. A., Publications by 48, 52 Churchill, William, Publication by 15 Clark, W. M 218 Clarke, Frank W 121-122 Clarke, Victor S 69 Clausen, M 202 Cleveland, F. A., On Financial History of Railroads 69 Clover, A. M., Publications by 48, 49 Climatology of American Deserts 57 Cobb, Victor 212 Coble, A. B 226 Coffin, F. B., Publication by 33 Cohnheim, Otto 182 Coker, E. G., Publications by 45, 48 Colby, William E 68 Commerce, Domestic and Foreign, Reports upon 69 Commons, John R 23 Work in Department of Economics and Sociology 67 Compressibility of Ice 221 Conner, J. R 226 Conway, Jr., Thomas, History of American Coastwise Commerce 69 Coolidge, Mary Roberts, Report on Chinese Immigration 67 Copper Industry, History of 68 Corals, Rate of Growth of 136 Reared from Planulae 141 Corn, Experiments in Breeding 80 Correns, C. E 48 Coulter, John L., On Educational Land Grants of Wisconsin and South Dakota. . 71 Coutiere, Henri 48 On Snapping Shrimps (Alpheidse) of Dry Tortugas, Florida 123 Craft, C. C 202 Craig, Jr., James 202 Crampton, Henry E., Study of Polynesian Species of Partula 241 Publication by 48 Crane, Walter R., On History of Mining of Gold and Silver 68 Crenshaw, J. L., E. T. Allen, and John Johnston, On Sulphides of Iron 104 Cross, Ira B., Labor History of the Pacific Coast 7° Cuenot, L., Publication by 48 Curry, B. E., Publication by 48 Darling, A. N 184 Davenport, C. B., Report as Director of Department of Experimental Evolution. 75-86 Publications by • • • • 15, 33. 48 Davenport, Frances G 106, 112 Dawson, Edgar, On Financial History of New Jersey 71 Day, Arthur L., Report on Operations of Geophysical Laboratory 87-105 On some Mineral Relations from Laboratory Viewpoint 94 and Robert B. Sosman, On Nitrogen Thermometers from Zinc to Pal- ladium 93 and Fred. Eugene Wright, On Heizmikroskope 98 Delavan, P. T 152 Departments and Laboratories, Appropriations for 3 Desert Perennials, Germination and Establishment of 62 Desert Plants, Vital Statistics of 63 Detlefsen, John 240 Diabetes Mellitus, Metabolism in 193 Metabolism in 184 Diabetic Foods, Analyses of 187 Dickinson, H. C 208 , E. F. Mueller, and Walter P. White, On Calibration of Copper-constantan Thermo-elements 100 Dike, P. H., Publication by 48 INDEX. 247 Page Dinsmoor, William Bell 205 Publication by 48 Dodge, Cleveland H iii, 3 Doetsch, E. P 208 Donaldson, H. H yy Donnan, Elizabeth 113 Doughty, Arthur G no Downey, E. H., On Labor Legislation of Iowa 70 Downey, Wallace 201 Eaves, Lucile, On Labor Legislation of California 70 Echinoderm Hybridization, Experiments in 134 Economics and Sociology, Department of 22 Report of Department of 67-74 Edmonds, H. M. W 203 Publication by 48 Edmunds, C. K 200 Educational Land Grants of Wisconsin and South Dakota 71 Egypt, Archeological Research in 205 Electrolytic Iron and Iron Alloys, Investigation concerning 232 Eliot, Charles W 3 Ellerman, Ferdinand 158, 161 Publications by 48, 49 Emmes, L. E 189 Publications by 47, 48 England, Magnetic Work in 200 Environic Factors, Influence on Fruiting of Dictyota 64 Environmental Factors, Influence upon Beetles in Pure Lines and in Hybridiza- tion 64 Executive Committee, Report of 35-42 Experimental Evolution, Department of 17, 22 Report of Department of 75-86 Fair, J. M 152 Falk, K. G 48, 51, 218 Faris, R. L 201 Farnum, Henry W 22 Report on Department of Economics and Sociology 67-74 Fath, E. A 158, 165, 166, 167, 169 Faust, Albert B., Report on German Element in the United States 67 Federal Land Policy, Report on 68 Field, A. S., On Child Labor Policy of New Jersey 70 Finance, Federal and State, Reports upon 71 Financial History of Alabama 71 California 71 Connecticut 71 Illinois 71 Indiana 72 Iowa 72 Minnesota 71 New Jersey 71 New York 72 North Carolina 72 Ohio 71 Oregon 71 Pennsylvania 72 South Carolina 72 Tennessee 71 Texas 71 Vermont 72 Virginia 72 Financial History of Railroads, Report on 69 Financial Statement for Year 1909-1910 13 Financial Statements 16-18, 39^-40 Financial Status of the Institution * 12 Fish, Carl R 23, 107, 108 Publication by 15 248 INDEX. Page Fisher, Sydney no Fisk, H. W 48 Fissurella, Embryology of 125 Flash Spectrum, Photographic Observations of 164 Fleisher, Moyer S 48, 50 Fleming, J. A IQQ Publication by 48 Fleming, W. L., On Economic Transition from Slavery to Free Labor System.. 72 Fletcher, Robert, Report on Preparation of Publication of Index Medicus 207 Fluorescence Spectra, Distribution of Energy in 237 Flexner, Simon Hi, 3 Forbes, R. H 55 Ford, Worthington C 112 Folin, Otto 183 Foreign Trade of the United States, History of 69 Forestry and Agriculture, Reports upon 67 Forman, A. H 236 Fossil Cycads, Investigations concerning 229 Fowle, F. E 159 Franz, Shepherd I., Investigations of the Functions of Cerebrum 238 Frary, H. D 202 French Contribution to Economic Development of United States 67 Free, E. E 21,57 Free Negro in Louisiana, Report on 72 Maryland, Report on 72 Philadelphia, Report on 72 South Carolina, Report on 72 Virginia, Report on 72 Frew, William N Hi, 3 Frost, E. B 150 Gage, Lyman J iii, 3 Gage, Phelps 235 Gale, Henry G 14, 158, 168, 171, 172 Publications by .- 45, 48 Garden Beans, Investigation and Variation of Inheritant Characters 81 Gardner, Henry B., Reports on Federal and State Finance 71 Garrod-Thomas, R. N., Publications by 48, 51 German Archives, Guide to Materials for American History in 109 German Element in the United States, Report upon 67 Germany, Magnetic Work in 200 Geology, Appropriation for 14 Reports on Investigations in 222-223 Geophysics, Appropriation for 14 Geophysical Laboratory 24 Report on Operations of 87-105 Geophysical Research, Report of F. D. Adams on Investigation into Flow of Rocks 224 Gibbs, R. C 236 Publications by 48, 50 Gielow, H. J 201 Giesecke, Albert A., On American Commercial Legislation before 1789 69 Gilbert, W. M 43 Girouard, Desire no Goats and Sheep, Experiments in Breeding 79 Gold and Silver Mining, History of 68 Goldman, M 242 Gortner, Ross Aiken 22, 75, 83 Publication by 48 Goose Island 22 Goss, W. F. M., Publication 15 Granger Movement, Report on 69 Grants, Minor, Details of 14 Graton, L. C, History of Copper Industry 68 Griffin, C. de F 173 Gudernatsch, T 242 INDEX. 249 Page Gudger, E. W., Investigations of Breeding Habits and Life History of the Gaff- topsail Catfish 241 Guthrie, C. C 78 Hadley, P. B 240 Hale, George E 159, 161, 164, 165, 167, 174 Publications by 45. 49 Halley, Edmund 195 Haines, Jessie M 175 Hamer, W. C 201 Haney, Lewis H., On Congressional History of Railroads 69 Harkins, W. D 218 Harris, G. W 213 Harris, J. A 78, 80, 81 Publication by 49 Harvey, E. Newton 121 Report on Researches Performed at Tortugas 128 On Membrane Formation and Pigment Migration in Sea-urchin Eggs as Bearing on the Problem of Artificial Parthenogensis 123 On Membrane Formation and Permeability of Eggs 120 Publication by 49 Haskins, Charles H 49 Hasse, Adelaide R 23, 73 Publication by 32 Hempl, George, Appropriation for 14 Heredity, Alterations Induced by Ovarial Treatment 60 Cell Studies in. 82 Experimental Studies in 241 in Small Mammals, Experimental Study of 239 Herriott, Frank I., On Financial History of Iowa. 72 Heubner, G. G., History of the Foreign Trade of the United States 69 Heubner, S. S., History of the Foreign Trade of the United States 69 Hibbard, B. H, On Federal Land Policy 68 Higgins, Harold L 186, 190, 191 Publications by 47, 49, 52 Higginson, Henry L iii, 3 Hill, Roscoe R 116 Hillebrand, W. F., and Fred. Eugene Wright, On a New Occurrence of Plumbo- jarosite 100 Hindhede, M 182 Hines, M. A., Publication by 33 Historical Research, Department of 23 Report of Department of 106-116 Hitchcock, Ethan Allen 3 Hlasek, Stephen v 200 Holland, Thomas Erskine 31 Holland, W. W 218 Homans, John 182, 185 Honigschmid, Otto 219 Hooker, J. D.. 28 Houghton, Louise S., On French Contribution to Economic Development in United States 67 Economic Status of the Syrians in the United States 67 Howe, H. E 234 Howe, Henry M., Appropriation for 14 Whether Sealing of Gas in Blowholes of Steel Ingots is or is not Hermetical 232 Publication by 40 Hoyt, W. D 63 On Influence of Environic Factors on the Fruiting of Dictyota 64 Hunt, F. L 218 Huntington, Ellsworth 14, 21, 55, 65 On Climatology of American Deserts cy Hurst, C. C 49 Hutchinson, Charles L iii, 3 Hymenophyllaceas, Physiology of 63 Immigration and Population, Report upon 67 25O INDEX. Page Incorporation, Articles of ix-xii Index Medicus 3, 13, 207 Indian Corn, Experiments in Breeding 80 Industrial Organization 70 Insurance Fund, Appropriation for 3 Statement of 20 International Law Classics 3, 15, 31 International Solar Union 1 1, 14, 177 Iron Ore, Study of 68 Irrigation, Social and Economic Phases of 68 Jackson, F. G., Publications by 49, Si Jaeger, F. M., Appropriation for 14 Jamaican Rain-forests, Physiological Plant-geography of 63 Jameson, J. Franklin, Report as Director of Department of Historical Research. 106-116 Jellinek, Georg 32 Jenkins, Leroy 152 Jesse, Jr., R. H 221 Publications by 33, 49, Si John, Emory R., Reports on Domestic and Foreign Commerce 69 Jones, D. Breese, Publication by 49 Jones, E. D., On Development of Agricultural Market since 1840 68 Jones, George D 175, 176 Jones, Grinnell, Publications by 33, 49 Jones, Harry C, Appropriation for 14 Investigations of the Absorption Spectra of Solutions 214 Publications by 49, 50 and Strong, Publication by 15 Johnson, Alice 191 Publication by 49 Johnson, Roswell H , 75, 76, 77 Publication by 33 Johnston, John, On Thermal Dissociation of Calcium Carbonate 100 and E. T. Allen, On Exact Determination of Sulphur in Soluble Sulphates. 96 , On Exact Determination of Sulphur in Pyrite and Marcasite 97 , , and J. L. Crenshaw, On Sulphides of Iron 104 Jorgensen, A 202 Jorgensen, E., On Peridinea 120, 121, 146 Joslin, Elliot P 27, 182, 187, 193 Publications by 33, 50 Kapteyn, J. C. 14, 158, 170 Publication by 50 Kathodo-luminescence 236 Kato, Yogoro 218 Publication by 51 Keeling, B. F. E 200 Keller, Carl 235 Kendrick, B. B 113 Kesslitz, W. v 201 Kidson, Edward 202 Publication by 50 King, Arthur S 158, 171, 172 Publication by 50 Labor History of the Pacific Coast, Report on 70 Labor Legislation of California 70 Iowa 70 Labor Movement, Reports on 70 Laf rentz, A. F 43 Lafrentz, F. W 43 Land Legislation of Texas 71 Land Tenure, Development of Leading Forms of 68 Laney, F. B., Study of Quarrying Industry 68 Lang, A., Publication by 50 Lanzas, Senor Don Pedro Torres 116 Lapradelle, A. G., de 31 INDEX. 251 Page Larson, E. S 104 Lasby, Jennie B 169, 174 Publication by 50 Laurier, Wilfrid no Lawson, A. C, Publication by 32 Learned, Marion D 23, 109, 1 14 Lehmer, D. N., Publications by 15, 32 Leith, C. K., Study of Iron Ore 68 Leland, Waldo G 23, 106, 109, ill, 113, 114 License Taxes of Southern States, Study of 72 Liddle, L. M., Publications by SO, 51 Lindsay, William 3 Literature, Appropriation for 14 Lithium, Atomic Weight of 219 Little, C. C 240 Publications by 48, 50 Livingston, B. E 21, 50 On Evaporation and Soil Moisture 58, 63 Livingston, G. J 59 Lloyd, Francis E 21, 65 Publication by 15 Lockhart, O. C, Comparative Study of Financial Development 71 Loeb, Leo, Report on Study of Toxic Action of Poison of Heloderma suspectum. 237 Publication by 50 Loew, Elias A 205 London Archives, Guide to Materials for United States History in no Long, J. A 241, 242 Longley, William H 120 Loomis, N. E 208 Low, Seth iii Loy, S. K 208 Luebkert, Otto 43 Lum, Elizabeth S 76 Lutz, Anne M 77, 82 Lutz, F. E 76 Publication by 15 Lychnis, Sex and Flower Color in 79 MacDougal, D. T., Report on Department of Botanical Research 55-66 Acclimatization : Inductive Influence of Climatic Complexes upon Organisms 60 Alterations Induced by Ovarial Treatment 60 On Condition of Parasitism in Plants 59 Publication by 33 Water-balance of Succulents 60 and Cannon, Publication by 15 and Spalding, Publication by 15 MacDowell, E. Carleton 76, 240 MacLean, S. J., Report on Canadian Railways 69 MacMillan, W. D 223 Madreporaria of Southern Florida, Investigations concerning 135 Magnus-Levy, Adolph 182 Maguire, J. D 31 Mahin, Edward G, Publications by 49. 5° Manufactures, Reports upon 69 Marine Biology 25 Expenditures for 17 Report of Department of 117-148 Mark, E. L., Studies of Development of Ova of Mice and Rats 241 and Long, Publication by 15 Marshall, j r., E. K. 208, 209 Publications by 45, 50 Martin, Mary T 113 Mast, S. O., On Reactions of Turbellaria to Light 120, 131 Mathematics, Appropriation for , 14 Investigations in 226 Mathews, J. H., Publications by 50, 51 252 INDEX. Page Mayer, Alfred G., Report on Department of Marine Biology 1 17-148 Publications by 15. 32, 5° On Medusae of the World 123 McClendon, J. F., On Effects of Fertilization in Increasing the Permeability of Eggs to Ions 120 On Electrolytic Experiments, Showing Increase of Permeability of Eggs to Ions at Beginning of Development 123 Publication by 50 Summary of Experiments on Development of Eggs 127 McCutchen, George, Financial History of South Carolina 72 McFarland, Raymond, History of New England Fisheries 69 McGown, Helen C 107 Mearns, L. Z 152 Mechanics' Lien Laws of the United States 71 Medusse of the World, Publication 26 Melcher, Arthur C 218 Publication by 50 Mendel, Lafayette B 228 Mercier, M., Publication by 48 Meridian Astrometry, Department of 26 Expenditures for 17 Report of Department of 149-155 Merritt, Ernest 234 Publications by 50, 51 Metabolism and Energy Transformations of Healthy Man During Rest 192 in Diabetes Mellitus 193 Influence of Ingestion of Food on 184 of Women 185 Meteorology, Appropriation for 14 Report on Investigations in 225 Mexican Archives, Guide to Materials for United States History in 109 Mexico, Federal System of 238 Meyer, B. H 69 Miller, E. T., On Financial History of Texas 71 Millis, H. A 72 Mills, Darius Ogden, Memorial 5 Minor Grants and Research Associates, Appropriations for 3 Mining, Reports upon 68 Mitchell, S. Weir iii, 3 Molby, F. A 50 Money and Banking, Reports upon 70 Montague, Andrew J iii, 3 Moore, C. J 211 Morgulis, S 242 Morley, Frank, Appropriation for 14 Investigations in Mathematics 226 Morita, K 120 Morrison, J. T 29, 198, 199, 202 Morrow, William W iii, 3 Morse, H. N., Appropriation for 14 Study of Measurement of Osmotic Pressure of Solutions 216 Moulton, F. R., Appropriation 14 Publications by 48, 50 Investigations Relating to the Planetesimal Hypothesis 222 Mount Wilson Solar Observatory, Expenditures for 17 Report of Operations at 156-178 Mueller, Edward, Publication by 33 Mueller, E. F 208 On the Calibration of Copper-constantan Thermo-elements 100 Miiller, W. Max 14, 15 Report on Archeological Research in Egypt 205 Munroe, Charles E 68 Murphy, Charles no Mussehl, O. F 50 Myers, C. N 218 INDEX. 253 Page Nabours, R. K., On Variation and Heredity in Beetles 120 Naples Zoological Station, Appropriation for 14 Report of 242 Negro in Slavery and Freedom, Reports upon 72 New England Fisheries, History of 69 Nichols, E. L 14 Publications by 50, 51 Researches of Phosphorescence and Fluorescence 234 Nirdlinger, Sidney : 208 Publications by 45, 51 Noyes, Arthur A., Appropriation for 14 Publication by 51 Researches upon Physical Properties of Aqueous Solutions in Relation to Ionic Theory 218 Nutrition Laboratory 17, 27 Report on Operations of 179-194 Nutrition, Investigations concerning 226-228 Nutritive Processes, Influence of Mental and Muscular Work on 193 Nutritive Value of Servings of Food 187 Ocean, Magnetic Work on 201 Oenotheras, Experiments in Breeding 80 Olmstead, C. M 158,162 Osborne, Thomas B., Appropriation for 14 Publication by 51 Report on Comparative Study of the More Important Vegetable Proteins... 226 Osmotic Pressure of Solutions, Study of Measurement of 216 Ossipov, M 200 Outdoor Air, Analyses of 188 Ova of Mice and Rats, Study of Development of 241 Oxygen Consumed by Man, Comparison of Direct and Indirect Determination of. 188 Oxygen-rich Mixtures, Influence upon Respiratory Exchange 186 Paleontology, Appropriations for 14 Investigations concerning 228-230 Palythoa, Embryology of 125 Parallax Investigations 166 Parasitism in Plants, Conditions of 59 Paris Archives, Guide to Materials for American History in 109 Parker, David W 106, no, ill, 112, 114 Parker, E. W., Work in Department of Economics and Sociology 68 Parsons, Wm. Barclay iii, 3 Paullin, Charles 0 109, 1 10, 1 14 Paxson, Frederic L 109, no, 114 Peacock, D. L 71 Pearson, J. C 30, 198, 200 Pease, F. G 175 Peirce, G. J 56 Peridinea, Investigations concerning 146 Perrine, Charles D., Publications by 15, 33 Peters, A. W 183 Peters, W. J 199, 202 Publication by 51 Phelan, R. V., On Financial History of Minnesota 71 Phillips, John C 239 Publications by 48, 51 Phillips, U. B., Report on Transportation in the Western Cotton-belt 69 Philology and Linguistics, Appropriation for 14 Photographic Photometry 167 Photography of Nebulae and Star Clusters 166 Photography of the Sun 159 Physalia, Yacht 124 Physical Laboratory at Mount Wilson 171 Physics, Appropriation for 14 Investigations concerning 230-237 Physiology, Appropriation for 14 Reports on Investigations in 237 254 INDEX. Page Pickering, E. C 165, 167 Pierce, C. A 51.234 Pilsbury, Henry A., On Stomatolepas, A Barnacle Commensal in Throat of Log- gerhead Turtle 123 Publication by 51 Plants, Experiments in Breeding 79 Investigations of Fertility and Fecundity in 81 Platinum, Publication concerning 68 Plehn, C. C, On Financial History of California 71 Political Science, Appropriation for 14 Report on 238 Population and Immigration, Reports upon 67 Portland Cement, Investigations concerning 91 Poultry, Experiments concerning 79 Pratt, Joseph Hyde, On Precious Stone, Abrasive Materials, etc 68 Pratt, Henry S., On Trematodes 120, 122, 126 Primroses, Experiments in Breeding 80 Pritchett, Henry S iii, 3 Psychology, Investigations in 238 Publication, Appropriations for 3 Expenditures for 17 Grants 15 Sales and Value of Those on Hand 33. 34 Storage of 33 Puckett, E. P., On Free Negro in Philadelphia 72 Quarrying Industry, Study of 68 Quick Silver, Study of 68 Railroads, Congressional History of 69 Rankin, G. A., and E. S. Shepherd, Preliminary Report on Ternary System CaO-AUVSiO* 102 Raymond, H, Publication by 51 Rawles, W. A., On Financial History of Indiana 72 Receipts and Disbursements 41-42 Reichert, E. T., Appropriation 14 Publication by 33 Study of Differentiation and Specificity of Homologous Vital Substances 237 Reid, H. F, Publication 32 Reid, Whitelaw no Research Associates 14 Investigation of 30 Researches in Roman Archeology 206 Respiration Apparatus for Men 180 for Dogs 181 Respiration Calorimeters 179 Control Tests of 189 for Studying Respiratory Exchange and Energy Trans- formations of Man 191 Revertments, Sources and Amounts of 15 Riche, J. A 47, 51, 189 Richards, Theo. W., Appropriation 14 Investigations of Precise Values of Atomic Weights 219 Publication 15, 33, 47, 51 Riddle, Oscar 78 Ritchey, G. W 28, 158, 165, 166, 175, 177 Publication by 51 Robertson, H. C 208 Robertson, James A 23, 107 Publication by 33 Rohrer, Karl 202 Roman Archeology, Researches in 206 Root, Elihu iii, 3 Root-habits of Desert Plants 61 Rose, J. N., On the Cactus Flora of the Sonoran Desert 64 Rose, R. Catlin 78 70 Ross, W. H 55 INDEX 255 Page Rotation of Sun, Spectroscopic Observations of 163 Roush, G. A 232 Publication by 51 Rowe, Allen W 220 Rowe, L. S., Appropriation for 14 Roy, A. J 149, 151 Roy, M. 1 152 Ryerson, Martin A iii, 3 Russell, Henry N 51 Salton Basin, Vegetation of 55 Sanford, R. F 151,152 Savary, M. G. R 202 Schmidt, Adolf 201 Schmidt, M. R., Publications by 49, 52 Scott, James Brown 31 Scroggs, W. O., On Financial History of Alabama 71 Seares, F. H 158, 167, 170 Selective Elimination, Quantitative Studies of 81 Sheep and Goats, Experiments in Breeding 79 Shepherd, E. S., and G. A. Rankin, Preliminary Report on the Ternary System CaO-Al203-Si02 102 Shepherd, W. R 115 Sherman, Hope 190 Publication by 52 Sherrill, M. S 218 Publication by 52 Shreve, Forrest 21, 58, 62, 63 Germination and Establishment of Desert Perennials 62 Physiological Plant-geography of the Jamaican Rain- forests 63 Physiology of the Hymenophyllaceae 63 Publication by 52 Vegetation and Climate of the United States 63 Vegetation in the Santa Catalina Mountains 63 Vital Statistics of Desert Plants 63 Shull, George H 76, 77, 78, 79 Publication by 52 Silver, Atomic Weight of 219 Sioussat, St. George, On Financial History of Tennessee 71 Skin-color in Man 84 Skonberg, E. K 204 Slack, Edgar P 184, 186 Sladky, A. C 232 Sligh, W. H 30, 198, 200 Smith, Carl D 202 Publication by 52 Smith, D. F 202 Smith, E. F., Publication 15 Smith, Ruth E 159, 174 Smith, William Roy, On Financial History of Pennsylvania 72 Snowdon, Yates, On the Free Negro in South Carolina 72 Social Legislation, Reports on 70 Soil Moisture and Evaporation 58 Solar Atmosphere, Circulation of Calcium Vapor in 163 Solar Observatory 27 Expenditures for 17 Report of Operations at 156-178 Solar Research, International Union for Corporation in 28 Sommer, H. Oskar, Appropriation 14 Publications by 15, 32 Researches on Arthurian Romances 225 Sosman, Robert B 51, 218 On the Platinum-rhodium from 0° to 17660 98 Publication by 52 and Arthur L. Day, On Nitrogen Thermometer from Zinc to Palladium 93 South America, Magnetic Work in 201 256 INDEX. Page Sowers, Don C, On Financial History of New York 72 Spaeth, R. A 242 Spalding, E. S 60 Spalding, V. M., Publication by 52 Spanish Archives, List of Documents in 107 Spectra of Globular Star-clusters and Spiral Nebulae 169 Spectroheliograph, Work with 159 Spectrum Lines at Sun's Limb, Investigation of Displacements of 162 Speyers, C. L 221 Spoehr, H. A 55, 66 Sprague, E. K 120, 124 State Documents, Index of 73 Stellar Motion, Studies upon 150 Stellar Photography 166 Stellar Spectroscopy 167 Stephenson, J. C 76 Stewart, C. C 30, 198, 201 St. John, Charles E 158, 163, 174 Publication by 52 Stock, Leo F 106, 108, 1 12 Stockard, Charles R., On Influence of Regenerating Tissue on Animal Body. .. . 123 At Naples Geological Station 242 Publication by 52 Stone, Alfred H., Reports on Negro in Slavery and Freedom 72 Stromsten, Frank A., On Lymphatic System of Turtles 120, 122, 133 Strong, W. W., Publication by 49, 50, 52 Stupart, R. F 200 Sulphides of Iron, Investigations concerning 92 Sun Spots, Spectra of 161 Surface Tensions of Liquid Substances 221 Swartz, D. L., Publications by 50, 52 Swett, P. N 200 Sydenstricker, Edgar, On Financial History of Virginia 72 Syrians, Economic Status in United States 67 Taft, William H iii Taylor, H. C, On Development of Leading Forms on Land Tenure 68 Tennent, David H., On Alteration of Dominance in Hybrid Echinoderms 120 Dominance of Maternal or Paternal Characters in Echinoderm Hybrids 123 Publication by 52 Report on Experiments in Echinoderm Hybridization 134 Terrestrial Magnetism, Appropriation for 14 Department of 29 Expenditures for 17 Land Work on 199 Report of Department of 195-204 Terry, E. M., Publication by 52 Thorvaldson, T 212, 213 Tittmann, O. H 202 Tilley, G S., Publication 33 Tower, W. L, On the Influence of Environmental Factors upon Beetles in Pure Lines and in Hybridization 64 On Variation and Heredity in Beetles 120 Publication by 52 Transportation in California 69 Pacific Northwest 69 Western Cotton Belt, Report upon 69 on the Great Lakes 69 Reports upon 69 Treadwell, A. L 118,119, 122 On Marine Annelids 120, 126 Trematodes, Report upon 126 Trustees, Minutes of Eighth Meeting of 3 Tschermak, Erich v 52 INDEX. 257 Page Tucker, Richard H 149, 151 Tunnell, George G., On Transportation on the Great Lakes 69 Turkey, Magnetic Work in 200 Turner, B. B 208 Turtle, Report upon Lymphatic System of 133 Van Deman, Esther B., Appropriation for 14 Publication 15, 32, 5.2 Researches in Roman Archeology 206 Van Tyne, C. H m Variation in Wild Plants, Study of 80 Varnum, W. B 151 Vaughan, T. Wayland, On Biology of the Coral Reefs 120 Report on Recent Madreporaria of Southern Florida 135 Veazey, J. A 236 Vegetable Teratology, Studies in 81 Vegetation in the Santa Catalina Mountains 63 Waggoner, C. W 235 Walcott, Charles D iii, 3 Walcott, Henry P iii, 3 Walker, Francis 69 Walradt, Henry F., On Financial History of Connecticut ^\ Ward, William Hayes, Publication by 32 Ware, Louise 174 Washington Archives, Calendar of Papers Relating to the Territories in Washington, Henry S., and Fred. Eugene Wright, On a Feldspar from Linosa and Existence of Soda Anorthite 92 Water-balance of Succulents 60 Waterman, E. Phoebe 169, 174 Watson, John B., On Reactions of Nesting Sea-gulls 120 Report on Work on Bird Key 144 Welch, William H iii, 3 Wells, H. Gideon 228 West, Andrew F., Report on American School of Classical Studies in Rome 205 Westlake, John 31 Weston, N. A., On Financial History of Illinois 71 Wheeler, James R., Report on American School of Classical Studies at Athens.. 205 White, Andrew D iii, 3 White, George F., Publications by 50, 52 White, Walter P., On a Test of Calorimetric Accuracy 104 Lag Effects and Other Errors in Calorimetry 103 Neutral Contacts and Switches 98 On the Thermo-element as a Precision Thermometer 99 Relation between Zero Shift and Size of Wire in Moving Coil Galvanometer . 98 Some Calorimetric Apparatus 103 Some Calorimetric Methods 102 , H. C. Dickinson, and E. F. Mueller, On the Calibration of Copper- constantan Thermo-elements 100 Wickersham, George W iii, 3 Wickham, Lillian 175 Widmer, Adolf 204 Wieland, G. R., Appropriation for 14 Publication by 52 Report on Investigations concerning Fossil Cycads 229 Willard. H. H 219 Publications by 33, 5h 52 Willcox, Walter F., Work in Department of Economics and Sociology 67 Wilson, J. H., Publications by 51, 52 Wirt, John L * 43 Wilson, J. Hunt, Publication by 33 Women in Industry, Report on 70 Wood, Frederick A., On Financial History of Vermont 72 Woodward, Robert S iii, 3 Worsham, W. A 213 17 — YB 2 258 INDEX. Page Wright, Fred. Eugene, On a New Ocular for use with Petrographic Microscope. 95 Intrusive Rocks of Mount Bohemia, Michigan 92 the Transmission of Light through Transparent Inactive Crystal Plates 100 Some Glacial Effects of Ice Action in Iceland 101 , and Arthur L. Day, On Heizmikroskope 98 , and Henry S. Washington, On a Feldspar from Linosa and Existence of Soda Anorthite 92 , and W. F. Hillebrand, On a New Occurrence of Plumbojarosite 100 Wright, J. M., On the Free Negro in Maryland 72 X-ray Luminescence 236 Yatsu, Nachide, Publication by . .... ; 52 Young, Allyn A., On Transportation in California 69 Young, F. G., On Transportation in the Pacific Northwest 69 On Financial History of Oregon 71 Zeller, Carl A 52 Zies, E. G 218 Zimmer, M. L 151, 152 Zoology, Appropriations for 14 Investigations concerning 239-242 aaaB«rf»OPlMiPPt— ■■ ■ •■'J .'-.■ ■■ ■•'■'■•■'■''■'-'■ .■'■: ' ' -