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UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1895.
» A a [PuBLic—No. 15. ee
AN ACT providing for the public printing and binding and the distribution of public documents. # # * * es
Section 73, paragraph 2:
The Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture shall hereafter be submitted and printed in two parts, as follows: Part one, which shall contain purely business and executive matter which it is necessary for the Secretary to submit to the Presi- dent and Congress; part two, which shall contain such reports from the different bureaus and divisions, and such papers prepared by their special agents, accom- panied by suitable illustrations, as shall, in the opinion of the Secretary, be specially suited to interest and instruct the farmers of the country, and to include a general report of the operations of the Department for their information. There shall be printed of part one, one thousand copies for the Senate, two thousand copies for the House, and three thousand copies for the Department of Agriculture; and of part two, one hundred and ten thousand copies for the use of the Senate, three hundred and sixty thousand copies for the use of the House of Representatives, and thirty thou- sand copies for the use of the Department of Agriculture, the illustrations for the same to be executed under the supervision of the Public Printer, in accordance with directions of the Joint Committee on Printing, said illustrations to be subject to the approval of the Secretary of Agriculture; and the title of each of the said parts shall ~ be sueh as to show that such part is complete in itself.
2
6983690
PREFACE.
The Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for 1894 has been prepared in compliance with section 73 of the “act providing for the public printing and binding and the distribution of public documents,” approved January 12, 1895, and in accordance with the instructions of the Secretary of Agriculture based thereon.
The Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture, which has of late years been published in an edition of half a million copies for distribu- tion to the farmers of the country, chiefly by Senators, Representa- tives, and Delegates in Congress, while comprising the administrative reports of the Secretary and the chiefs ef bureaus and divisions, had, perhaps unavoidably, included discussions of the investigations carried on in the Department, and contained matter better suited to scien- tific monographs. The report has been chiefly useful on account of these papers, and not on account of details of the administrative busi- ness of the Department. The separation of the scientific reports and other useful information designed for the instruction of the ordinary citizen from the purely executive and business matter has been accom- plished by the publication of the latter, as provided in the act of Janu- ary 12, 1895, by itself, as a part of the Message and Documents Communicated to the two Houses of Congress, while special reports and papers contributed from the several bureaus and divisions, suited to interest and instruct the farmers of the country, and including, for their information, a general report of the operations of the Department, are here presented under the title of ‘‘ Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1894.”
The present volume represents but imperfectly the ideal of what such a yearbook should be. The matter of the change of character of the report was not considered until many of the papers for the usual annual report had been prepared and submitted, and the law did not finally pass until after the usual time for filing the report. The best that could be done under the circumstances, therefore, was to select from the mat- ter in hand the most meritorious papers, representing a variety of differ- ent lines of work carried on in the Department, and to adapt them to the purposes of the new publication.
This volume is divided into three sections:
First. The Report of the Secretary of Agriculture for 1894, giving a general account of the operations of the Department during the year.
v
7. ~~ *
4 PREFACE.
Second. A series of papers, prepared for the most part by the chiefs of bureaus and divisions and their assistants, discussing either the gen- eral work of their bureaus or divisions, or particular lines of work with special reference to interesting and instructing the farmer.
Third. An appendix made up of statistical tables and information useful for reference, compiled in the various bureaus and divisions.
It is believed that the character of the volume can be improved from year to year until it shall become finally a standard book of reference for American farmers.
Public Printer Benedict has cordially cooperated with this Depart- ment in the effort to publish a book which in general appearance and mechanical work shall be far superior to any former annual report. The object has been to illustrate the book as fully as possible with text figures made by the very best methods, to print it on good paper, and bind it in a substantial manner. In order to enable him to make these improvements it was found necessary to omit all the colored litho- graphic plates, the expense of which in the past has far surpassed their value to the general reader.
Since the Government prints half a million copies of this publica- tion, at an approximate cost of $300,000 annually, to say nothing of the expense of distribution, every addition to the practical value of the book becomes a matter of the utmost importance.
It is believed that future numbers of this yearbook will still more fully justify the new departure, and it is hoped that in the meantime the present volume will be received rather as a promise and an earnest of improvement than as a fulfillment of the purpose contemplated by the change.
CHas. W. DABNEY, Jr., Assistant Secretary. WASHINGTON, D. C., June 8, 1895.
od EN LS,
Page. ere Mecrotary Of AcTicniture. .. .... 2.2.22 coc ccc oce cece cccecccccece 9 mame Federal Meat Inspection. By D. E. Salmon..................... 2-2-0. 67 Education and Research in Agriculture in the United States, By A. C. True... 81 What Meteorology Can Do for the Farmer. By M. W. Harrington.........-.- 117 “ueweeae Of Forecasts. By H. H. C. Dunwoody.......................--00. 121 Soils in Their Relation to Crop Production. By Milton Whitney............. 129 Water as a Factor in the Growth of Plants. By B. T. Galloway and A. F. Ee or ed SG ake np aah Th eS ibe-nav a Rev sindic deeGsacees 165 Mineral Phosphates as Fertilizers. By H. W. Wiley.............---..--.---- 177 Fertilization of the Soil as Affecting the Orange in Health and Diseases. By TS nS ae ee ea ee ee 193 The Geographic Distribution of Animals and Plants in North America. By Ie ete ek coc ota wes Lene n eens 203 Hawks and Owls as Related to the Farmer. By A. K. Fisher ............---. 215 The Crow Blackbirds and Their Food. By F. E. L. Beal.........--......-.-- 233 Some Scale Insects of the Orchard. By L.O. Howard................--..---- 249 The More Important Insects Injurious to Stored Grain. By F.H.Chittenden.. 277 The Dairy Herd: Its Formation and Management. By H.E. Alvord.-.-.-.-..-.-- 295 Some Practical Suggestions for the Suppression and Prevention of Bovine rn. ty" Theobald Smith... .. ...<.0s stew ab. we geen ee 317 The Pasteurization and Sterilization of Milk. By E. A. do Schweinitz....-. 331 I OM. SP DCG WREOE ne SS ee 8 ne ies wet been 357 _uneweea Investigation. By Gilbert H. Hicks.-...........-----...-.....:.-- 382 The Grain Smuts: Their Causes and Prevention. By W. T. Swingle.......-. 409 Grasses as Sand and Soil Binders. By F. Lamson-Scribner..............--. 421, 580 Sketch of the Relationship between American and Eastern Asian Fruits. By Pe oa as nolan ne RTS SI Wnie wid ow oe ew Sln sabes ene eds 437 mact Concerning Ramie. By Charles R. Dodge. ......-..-.-...---..-.-....-- 443 cr earmers, By b. bE. Fernow...............-- 5.622. .----- ween 461 Best Roads for Farms and Farming Districts. By Roy Stone.........-...---. 501 State Highways in Massachusetts. By George A. Perkins...............----- 505 Improvement of Public Roads in North Carolina. By Prof. J. A. Holmes, State eee: oe 513 APPENDIX. Organization of tho Department of Agriculture...... .... seen cecees cone cence 523 Agricultural institutions and experiment stations..................---..---- 526 List of institutions in the United States having courses in agriculture... 526 The locations, directors, dates of organization and reorganization, and princi- pal lines of work of the agricultural experiment stationsin the United States. 527 ar ronditions of the crop of 1894... . 2.0... .-cccs ccc ece ce cces coencecees 529
6 ' CONTENTS.
Directions for procedure in case of apparent death by lightning............-. Wholesale prices of principal agricultural products in the leading cities of the Pinrted States .< <~ te << Saas eek < hee cae eae meee te eee n+ es) eee
- Exports of the products of domestic agriculture for the years ending June 30, $900, 1891, 1892, 1895, and U8O4.. |< oi. set nn seted nese Sap eed 3a ae Imports of agricultural products for the years ending June 30, 1890, 1891, 1892,
PS BBO SOR sca toh Sl on SE be on wn eae nes eee eee Farm prices on December 1, 1890, 1891, 1892, 1893, and 1894......-.--..--....-.- Freight rates in effect January 1, 1891, 1892, 1893, 1894, 1895, in cents per 100 ROI etn ee oe hein mee Saictain br ieee a ete let Gt ee a a ree eit ea eam n nner Rr Composition of different food materials—refuse, water, nutrients—and fuel
Welwe per peend. =. 2... 0 sk ne eens sees oe = Nutrients obtained for 10 cents in different foods at ordinary prices...--. Prices used in estimating cost of daily dietaries -.........--...----------
Daily dietaries—food materials furnishing approximately the 6.28 pound
of protein and 3,500 calories of energy of the standard for daily dietary
ef aman at moderate muscular work _....--:-..---.-..------csueeeeeee Standards for daily dietaries for people of different classes.............-- European standards for daily dietaries...-.....--....--.- --2-eeeces eae en American standards for daily dietaries............. 2. 2. ...5-0 See eens Poeedume sits far antonella: 22°. 20k Se So. 2a.) i Se eee Cemposition of -feedine stulie. --....<---. 220.4. s+: -:-2-- 2) Sk eee Disestihility of fesding stuffs... ...-.2... 225.0225 0) ae eee Peedine piemdards ...-.2 52 =~4- ote cdot econ sa sS-5 th ctes on 2 enlcaulateen ef rations... .. 6.05. 022 -< - so see Lol 1222 bb eo. ee Fertilizing constituents of feeding stuffs and farm products.......-..---..--- PG OTR. 2 vee on 0 2 ee eae te eee ees 5 elt. oe - Amount and value of manure produced by different farm animals.........-.--- Methods of controlling injurious insects, with formulas for insecticides. -...... Insecticides (directions for their preparation and use)-.....---...--------.---- Paris green and londen purple... .......)---< J... 2 LS a cee ems Poisen batt .2)5 25.5 25.50 co. eet ORS was elie «See Hellebore... 2.5... 22. cu 2tecmdet te ges sone. VER. ol.
Ties resin whel v2 228 23 Se ein a OI Eee The hydrocyanic-acid gas troatment.... 2.22... enee ene ee ee ene cewe wees Biselphide.of carbon... -0.- -.o. 20.5 oe. as 4 1 ULE A cheap erchard-epraying outit........ .... 82050 52. ok. es See Treatment for fangous diseases of plants.-... 2... ---- 222-222 eee eee eee cea Forsmulas for fungicides w..... 0s. 2 osc s ae o oeed nb 4 ee
Grassee as sand and sotl binders ...0 5. 20.65 le oe el a eae 42
maplo- Of ene Bundred Weeds. wesc ccn decane heen cc ccts pa kciesslcce Bee WMTIROTe ~ DGLMGCING « os acne secon cnwmwaweccWes weenie sh cansuceee Jace
bwarw mo rRA TIONS.
PLATES. Page. Page. PLATE IT. Red-tailed Hawk (Buteo borealis). 224 | Prater VI. Section of macadamized road IL § w Hawk (Falcosparverius). 224 near Camden, N. C., showing Ill. Barred Owl(Syrrium nebulosum). 224 size of loads hauled overit... 516 lV. Ramie: Dried stalks, raw fiber, VU. Section of shell road, 8 miles degummed fiber, and manufac- long, Wilmington to Wrights- SR SSR eS eee 444 ville, New Hanover County, V. Ramie in detail: Ramie stalks, kre denbenmpastmiianncs » se. 518 machine-cleaned fiber, Chinese hand-cieaned fiber.............- 456 TEXT FIGURES. Fic. 1. Mechanical separation of the Fie. 21. Swainson's Hawk (Buteo swain- gravel, sand, silt, and clay in 20 Wg Pe eee, Or aR ees 218 rams of subsoil of the Colum- 22. Burrowing Owl (Speotyto eunieu- Fia formation at Marley, Md., tariae hypogiea) . ..... .<.e0--se-0- 226 adapted to early truck.......... 134 23. Great Horned Owl (Bubo virgini- 2. Mechanical separation of the SCE iste, cr hee nae ae oe ce ee 228 gravel, sand, silt, and clay in 20 24. Cooper’s Hawk (Accipiter cooperi). 230 s of subsoil of the Colum- 25. Lne Crow BinckDird....-......-..- 233 ia formation at Marley, Md., 26. Mytilaspis pomorum: Female scale adapted to cabbage and early from below; female scales; male re 135 ci 2S ae 257 3. Mechanical separation of the 27. Mytilaspis pomorum: Adult male; gravel, sand, silt, and clay in 20 foot of same; young iarva; an- ms of the limestone subsoil tenna of same; adult female from Frederick, Md., adapted to taken from scaie........2----.--- 258 meee, and grass. .........-.---- 136 28. Chionaspis furfurus: Female... --- 259 4. Mechanical separation of the 29. Chionaspis furfurus: Adult male gravel, sand, silt, and clay in 29 TRO SOR ce eS ee 260 grams of subsoil from Poquo- 30. Aspidiotus camellice: Female scale nock, Conn., adapted to tobacco. 147 from above; mass of scales as ap- 5. Mechanical separation of the pearing on bark; male scale; maie gravel, sand, silt, and clay in 20 scales on twig; female scales on sof subsoil of the Podunk 1 aT SPS 8 SE ne Peer eae ean ae Se 8 261 istrict, East Hartford, Conn., 31. Aspidiotus camellie: Young larva; adapted to tobacco...........-... 148 adult female removed from scale 6. Curves showing the amount of and seen from below. .........-.- 262 moisture in the tobacco soils at 32. Aspidiotus juglans-regie: Female Poquonock, East Hartford, and scale; male chbrysalis; male Hatfield, in the Connecticut Val- scales on twig; female scales on le ed entrant ani Sciam « <o 149 Oo, ee, Sasa) era ER tal eeali rae 263 7. Average amount of water main- 33. Aspidiotus juglans-regie: Newly tained in 20 grams of tobacco hatched larva; antenna of same; soils at Poquonock, East Hart- foot of same; female just before ford, and Hatfield, in the Con- last molt; full-grown male larva; Mees Valey.................- 150 adult male; adult female ........ 264 8. Mechanical separation of the 34. Diaspis lanatus: Branch covered gravel, sand, silt, and clay in 20 with male and female scales; ms of subsoil from Marietta, female scale; male scale; group a., adapted to tobacco......... 152 OF Wine SONNES:.. - 2... 6. << cawss = 555 265 9. Curves showing the amount of 35. Diaspis lanatus: Adult female re- moisture in tobacco soils.......... 153 moved from scale. ............-.. 266 10. The average amount of water in 20 36. Diaspis lanatus: Adult male....-. 267 grams of tobacco soils of Poquo- 37. Diaspis lanatus: Larva, greatly nock and Marietta............... 154 J Ses aa eee 267 11. Average yield of corn in bushels per 38. Aspidiotus perniciosus on pear fruit acro in Kansas, sixteen years... 158 and twig, with enlarged male and 12. Cross section of root............-.. 169 Pomities BOGies ..... <2 2.22 =~ ----ss 268 13. Root hair in the soil, showing ab- 39. Aspidiotus perniciosus: Adult fe- sorption of moisture............ 169 malc removed from scale, show- eee ae eee 170 ing embryonic young; ‘anal ne 172 DCRR WA chase ngs & in hcosan sien ecg ie 269 16. Effect of fertilizing vegetable soil 40. Aspidiotus perniciosus : Adultmale, with phosphates and other sub- greatly enlarged..............-.- 269 ERE eet dee ee olae.n Se mene a 188 41. Lecanium persice: Newly hatched 17. Effect of fertilizing muck soil with larva; unimpregnated female; different phosphates............. 189 twig with full-grown females; 18, Orange twigs, showing cffects of — female form above and below and RAS ees see 19) cut lengitudinally, all enlarged 19. Orange fruit, showing effects of dic- except specimens on twig......-- 270 _ A eS eer ae oe 200 42. Lecanium persiee: full-grown 20. a showing life zones ef the male scale; pupa; adult male; nited States 209 leaf with young male scales. .... 273
8 ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. | Page. Fia. 43. Calandra granaria: Adult beetle; Fic. 92. Head of beardless wheat aftected larva; pupa; Calandra oryza: | with sinat-- ...< i622 5ss66-c5-eee 410 Beetle, all enlarged...........-.- 279 93. Head of bearded wheat affected 44. Gelechia cerealella: Larva; pupa; with smat.--.....2.2.0222.3.-seee 410 moth; egg; kernel of corn opened, 94. Head of wheat affected with leese showing larva feeding; anal seg- smut in the lower half-......-.... 411 Mons.Of PUP: .~o 2-5 58- -a- == - 282 95. Head of wheat affected with loose 45. Ear of pop-corn, showing work of smut—harvest time..-.....-.-.. 411 Angoumois grain moth.........-. 283 96. Head of oats atiected with smut, 46. Ephestia kuehniella: Moth; moth, but having the chaff only partly from side, resting; larva; pupa; destroyed... . =. -~.<=<s--s55-eeeee 413 abdominal joint of larva more 97. Head of oats affected with smut, oT Ee ee 284 having the chaff only partially 47. Plodiainterpunctella: Moth; chrys- destroyed; decidedly smutty..-. 413 alis; caterpillar; head and first 98. Final stage of smut, showing con- abdominal segment of caterpillar 285 dition of head at harvest time... 413 48. Pyralis farinalis: Adult moth; 99. Diagram showing arrangement for larva; chrysalis; head of larva; treating smut ........Sesencueees 416 analsegmentofsame;tipofpupa 286 100. Marram grass on the sand dunes 49. Silvanus surinamensis: Adult bee- near the mouthof the Kalamazoo | tle; pupa; larva; antenna of River, Michigan. ..s---cee==> =" 422 Repeat nes is rere oe 287 | 101. Marram grass (Ammophila arena- 50. Tribolium confusum: Adult beetle; TUE) 2). oe oe ns ne cee 423 larva; pupa; lateral lobe of abdo- 102. Upright sca lyme grass (Elymus menu of pupa; head of beetle, arenareus) ... 2. - 23 -eeeeeeeee ' 424 showing antenna... -~--.<...-..- 289 | 103. Rolling spinifex (Spinifex hirsutus) 425 51. Echocerus maxillosus: Larva; pupa; 104. St. Augustine grass (Stentaphrum 2 A A eee 290 | americanum) . ..<--)..seeeeee eee 426 52. Sterilizing apparatus uscd in the 105. Louisiana grass (Paspalum com- Bureau of Animal Industry-...-.- 333 | PTCSUM) .. .. nn =< ee 427 53. The Koch oven, interior and exte- 106. Coast couch (Zoysia pungens).-..... 428 PCG UNS ee eee Ee ee en ai 334 107. Long-leafed sand grass (Calamo- 54. Koplik’s pasteurizer.-.............. 334 | vilfa longifolia) ..—- «=< ona ncenee 429 55. Fjord’s pasteurizing apparatus.... 336 108. Redtield’s grass (Redjieldia flex- 56. German sterilizer stopper........- 337 | W0SQ) - =. [n..- = === 5 eee 430 57. German sterilizing flasks.......-..- 33 109. Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) 431 ae. German BLersluzer. <..=\. s2..--..--- 338 | 110. Fresh-water cord grass (Spartina 59. Copper holders used in Straus’s CYNOSUTOLAES) - . - ae eee 432 fut eee et ee 339 | 111. Piant showing crown roots....--.-- 449 60. Copper boiler used in Straus’s plant 339 112. Plant showing roots to be sub- G1. Appleberg’s sterilizing box....... 340 divided .. -...- 25. =e 449 2: Mi eer = 2 ce = = 5 aes ee = = 343 113. Ramie stalks ready for cutting.... 459 63. Theil’s pasteurizing apparatus.... 344 114. Stalks of ramie, showing new 64. Hochmuth’s pasteurizing appara- growth of leayes--_ oo eeeeee = 450 ot BS Sa ee eS ee 345 115. Seed-bearing racemes. ......-...--- 451 65. Section of Hochmuth’s pasteuriz- 116. Physiological importance of differ- ig apparatus... . 22-2. 2s---4-48 345 ent parts of the tree; pathways 66. Hochmuth’s pasteurizing appara- of water and food materials. tus, with parts arranged horizon- (Schematic) «52 teen ee 468 tedly 2522. - ope daee eae os ees 346 117. Bud development of beech.......- 470 67. Hochmuth’s compound pasteuriz- 118. Buds of maple... 222.2 es ease 470 fae PPPATACUs....-...05-55-Feroee 346 119. Dormant bud... 2225.2 eens on e-= eee 471 68. Ablborn’s pasteurizing apparatus. 247 120. Section through a twelve-year-old 69. Ahlborn’s pasteurizing apparatus, stem of beech, showing manner Modes TOrM -. 2-2 <- v.~ceaee oe c- 347 of bud and limb formation ...-.- 471 70. Ahren’s pasteurizing apparatus... 347 | 121. Section through a partly decayed 71. Dierks & Méllman’s pasteurizing knot of oak wood ......-...-.... 472 Ce to vas 0): ae ae 348 | 122. Development in and out of the 72. Pasteurizing apparatus, construct- forest. ~~. =. = 473 ed by Lefeldt & Leutsch .......- 349 | 123. Trees in and out of the forest..... 474 73. Pasteurizing apparatus — after | 124. Sections of logs, showing the rela- MTGE eta a tin icles ain abo i 350 | tive development of knots ...... 475 74. Milk cooler—by Schmidt, in Bret- 125. Scheme to illustrate the arrange- ie a ee ee 351 ment of annual growth.......... 476 75. Sterilizing apparatus, by Neuhauss- 126. Oak tree grown in the open........ 477 Gronwald-Oehlmann .........--.- 352 | 127. Maple tree grown in the forest.... 477 76. Milk -sterilizing apparatus —after 128. Showing plan of group system in Paul Ritter von Hamm........--. 353 | regenerating a forest crop.-....-. 490 77. Bottling sterilizing apparatus..... 354 | 129. Appearance of regeneration by 78. Soxhlet’s patent sterilizing bottles group method _-:..- 22 ease 493 IE WAN Fn a oe Secs am pean ee de 355 130. Method of layering to produce new Cy Me a ae pe eg oe 355 stocks in coppice wood.......... 495 80. Composition of food materials..... 363 131. Cross section of Canandaiguaroads 502 81. Pecuniary economy of food........ 365 132. Underdrain for wet places in roads 502 82. Dietaries and dietary standards... 374 133. Underdrain for porous roads ..-..--. 502 83. Seed-germinating apparatus used 134. Drainage for macadam bed........ 503 by the United States Depart- 135. Three-track road. ......:sueeuewees 503 F ment of Agriculture ........---- 402 136. Prepared roadbed... .......c.--«-s-. 503 84. Germinating pan.................. 403 137. Finished road. ..........s5eeeaeeee 503 85. Nobbe’s germinating apparatus... 404 138. Average daily departures of normal 86. Homemade germinating apparatus 405 temperature and weekly depart- 87. Clover-secd samplers..-............ 406 ures from normal precipitation 88. Samples of sieve meshes..........- 407 from April 9 to October 1, 1894.. 529 89. Set of sieves for cleaning seeds.... 407 139. Average daily departures of nor- 90. Diagram of seed-cleaning machine mal temperature and weekly (after Setteégast).......-........- 408 departures from normal precipi- 91. Bottle used in the United States tation from April 9 to October 1, National Herbarium for small 18B4 2... censice ce snes anne 530 OOGUGs pe duWa dew eadupncicccccsse 408 140. Orchard-spraying apparatus....... 576
—————
YEARBOOK
OF THE
U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE.
Mr. PRESIDENT:
In compliance with law and custom, the Secretary of Agriculture has the honor now to submit the Annual Report for that Department for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1894. The data, statements, and sug- gestions contained herein show how much work has been performed, how many people have been employed, what expenses have been incurred, what improvements have been made in the service as to efficiency, and what economies in disbursements have been effected.
A critical perusal of the work of each bureau and division, as herein narrated, will impress the conclusion that, while six hundred thousand dollars ($600,000) have been covered back into the Treasury out of the annual appropriation—the same being 23 per cent of the entire sum set apart for the use of the Department of Agriculture for that fiscal year—economy has not diminished efficiency.
FOREIGN MARKETS FOR AMERICAN FARM PRODUCTS.
During the year the labor of finding where the greatest demand for the surplus farm products of the United States has developed outside of their limits has been persistently and intelligently alert and active.
There is nothing of greater or more vital importance to the farmers of the United States than the widening of the markets for their prod- ucts. It is the demand for wheat, the demand for beef, the demand for pork, the demand for all the products of human industry which confers a money value upon them in markets. Therefore, the relation of sup- ply to demand is the creator of prices and the sole regulator of values. Holding such views, the Secretary of Agriculture has carefully studied and enumerated the demands for American agricultural products in the principal markets of the world.
THE FARMER’S PRINCIPAL BEEF MARKET.
During the nine months ending September 30, 1894, the farmers and stock raisers of the United States have sold, and there have been exported, to the United Kingdom of Great Britain three hundred and
ee ee 4 Te 9
10 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
five thousand nine hundred and ten (305,910) live beef cattle, valued at twenty-six million five hundred thousand dollars ($26,500,000). During the same period of the year 1893 only one hundred and eighty- two thousand six hundred and eleven (182,611) live beef cattle from the United States were taken by the British markets, at a valuation of sixteen million six hundred and thirty-four thousand dollars ($16,634,000). The small consumption of American beef in England last year was due to restrictions imposed by law, and also to the low prices of domestic beef in England, because of the scarcity there of feeding stuffs, which enforced slaughtering. The increase of the present year does not quite restore the average of the cattle trade between the United States and England. Canada is practically the only competi- tor with the United States for the English live-cattle trade. The regu- lations governing the importation into England of live stock are the same as to animals from the United States and Canada, no discrimi- nation being made for or against either class. All of the animals are, under the provisions of English law, slaughtered immediately upon arrival at British ports.
Large proportions of the meat thus taken into England are sold in the retail markets of London, Liverpool, and other cities, as “prime Scotch” or “English beef.” Under that classification the butcher demands and secures a better price than he could with the meat known and sold as Canadian or American. This method is a splendid indorsement of the quality of American beef. It has, however, been the occasion of much contention, and at last.resulted in a Government inves- tigation. The official report of a seléct committee of the House of Com- mons on ‘the marking of foreign meat” was published in August, 1893. It states in the summary, on the evidence taken before the committee, that in “large West End of London” establishments which profess to sell nothing but English and Scotch meats there is practically no other meat than American sold. The committee show that in each case the prices charged were such as would be justified only had the meat been purchased, wholesale, at the price commanded by the best English fattened and killed meat. The conclusions of the committee of the British House of Commons were to the effect that it would bea vexatious and unworkable scheme to attempt to compel the labeling, as to its origin, of each piece of meat offered for sale. The committee suggested that butchers dealing in imported meats should be compelled to reg- ister themselves as such.dealers, and also pay a fee which might be applied toward defraying the costs of meat inspection. Nothing, however, has been done in pursuance of the recommendations of this committee.
In England it is not believed that legislation can prevent the sale of American and other imported fresh beef as Scotch and English beef. The beef from the United States is of such excellent quality and so very similar to the best English beef that even experts are unable to
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE, il
distinguish between the two. Any law which might be enacted would fail to repress the sale of American meat in English markets. The statute, however, might curtail the profits of butchers. The lower price which they could only obtain for imported meat, sold as such, would have a direct tendency to increase its consumption, and thus to make more demand for American beef.
The trade in live cattle between the two countries has been of the greatest advantage to the British people. During the six months of the year from March to September, when their cattle are fattening on the pastures, American steers are arriving in large quantities and of superior condition and flavor. Long ago it would have been generally admitted in England that American beef is superior, from March to September every year, to English beef produced during those six months, except for a certain national prejudice which is common to all countries.
During the year regulations have been made which compel the Cana- dian cattle to be slaughtered at the port of debarkation. These regu- lations interfere somewhat with the United States beeftrade. Formerly Canadian cattle were put in English pastures and fattened. Now, like those from the United States, they must be killed immediately upon arrival. Cargoes of Canadian and American cattle arriving simultane- ously at a British port, both being ordered to slaughter at once, would naturally at such times momentarily depress prices. Asarule, Canadian cattle are not equal in condition toours. They generally bring smaller prices. Canadian distillery-fed cattle, however, are very fine, and com- mand higher figures. At the present moment there are three times as many Canadian cattle being fed at distilleries for export as were fed last year. American shippers may, therefore, look for that competition in the spring. It may not be considered very important, however, as the number will not exceed 20,000 at furthest; but the competition is worth noticing.
The live-beef trade is conducted at different ports with slight differ- ences. At Deptford sales are private on the hoof. At Liverpool half of the animals are sold privately. The other half are slaughtered on _ account of shippers and sold to buyers by the carcass. The Liver- pool surplus makes its way to London, and a large part of it, beyond
question, is so “cut up” as to simulate “prime Scotch joints.” At
Glasgow and Bristol nearly all animals are sold at auction on the hoof. The charges do not differ very materially at the various ports. The _ following may be taken as the average costs at each place of debark- _ ation: Dock dues, use of slaughterhouse, etc., $1.20 per head; subsist- ence per day, 24 cents; commission of salesman on each animal, 96 cents; driving (feeding, attending, etc.), 24 cents. The shipper who gets out with British terminal charges of $3.75 per head upon his ‘cattle considers himself fortunate. Add to the above charges, freight $11, and $1.50 for the feed and attendance of: each animal on the
12 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
voyage, and $1.60 for insurance, and we have a total expense for each animal shipped of $17.85. This represents very nearly accurately the expense of getting a beef animal from the American port into the hands of the British buyer. |
October 25, 1894, good American steers were bringing in the British market $85 each. The best weight of cattle for shipment is 1,350 to 1,400 pounds, making a dead weight of about 750 pounds. In England the offal (especially in London and Liverpool, where large numbers of poor people purchase it) is considered of great importance. Heads, tails, livers, kidneys, lights, and hoofs go to one buyer, and the hides and inside fat to another. Parliament disinclines toward the encourage- ment of a trade in dressed meat, because that would shut out the offal ; but if the American cattle are killed at home, properly dressed, and sent to Europe in a state of refrigeration, the cost of American beef will be reduced in all those markets. By killing at home and shipping ‘only the dressed carcasses, bulk is compacted, value is enhanced, and the cost of transportation is reduced, so that the poor, who heretofore have bought offal, may be able to buy good meat instead.
During the first six months of the year 1894 there were exported to the United Kingdom of Great Britain one hundred and twelve million (112,000,000) pounds of dressed beef, valued at nearly ten millions of dollars. This trade in dressed beef is almost entirely in the hands of American citizens. Their principal competitors are found in Aus- tralasia. The question whether more profit remains with the producer from shipping live beef cattle or carcasses to European markets is one which requires thorough inveStigation. At the present writing it is deemed probable that more advantage and profit will result to the American farmer from the shipment of dressed beef than from the exportation of live cattle.
European governments are constantly declaring live animals from the United States diseased. These declarations are sometimes made for fear of infection of their own herds, and at other times, it is
believed, for economic reasons. If all American beef going abroad .
is shipped in carcasses, and it is all stamped “ inspected” as wholesome and edible, by authority of the Government of the United States, it certainly can not be shut out afterwards on account of alleged Texas fever, pleuropneumonia, tuberculosis, or any other disease. But if certain European nations continue to demand legally authorized micro- scopic inspection of American pork and require also veterinary inspec- tion for beef with Government certification to each, then why ought not the Government of the United States to demand that all imports from foreign countries for human consumption—either edibles or beverages—must likewise be certificated by the authorities of those
foreign governments as wholesome and unadulterated before they are |
permitted to be sold in the United States?
———
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 13
AMERICAN HOG PRODUCTS,
Besides consuming such a vast proportion of the beef exported from the United States, the United Kingdom of Great Britain is likewise a voracious customer for American bacon, hams, and lard. Between 20 and 25 per cent of the flesh food of the people of the United Kingdom consists of hog products. About 13 per cent of those hog products comes from other countries, and 14 per cent of the live cattle and dressed beef and 1nutton is also imported.
There were taken into the United Kingdom from the United States, in 1893, two hundred and forty-three million eight hundred and twenty-four thousand (243,824,000) pounds of bacon, valued at twenty- six million eight hundred and fifty thousand dollars ($26,850,000).
During the nine months ending September 30, 1894, the United States sent into England two hundred and twenty-two million six hun- dred and seventy-six thousand (222,676,000) pounds, against one hun- dred and seventy-nine million eight hundred and seventy-two thousand (179,872,000) pounds during the corresponding nine months of 1893. Thus our trade with Great Britain in hog products shows an increase of nearly forty-five million (45,000,000) pounds this year. This, how- ever, does not restore to us the position we occupied prior to the year 1895 as principal purveyor to Great Britain. Nor do the values make as good a showing as they should; for, notwithstanding the increase in quantity, there is a shrinkage in value of half a million of dollars; while the bacon imported to the United Kingdom during the same period increased fifty-six million pounds. The hog products from other countries than the United States did not fall in value proportionally with ours. This is shown by the market quotations throughout the year.
Imports of pig products, beef, mutton, etc., into the United Kingdom during the first nine months of the years 1892-1894.
{From the ofiicial returns of the British Board of Trade.]
Imports for first nine months— ‘Value of imports first nine months— Product. hs RGA TIO AEY Ka, : igo. | 1893, 1802 | 1894, 1893, pt ae 1392, =F) eS. - —————e eee Bacon: | From Denmark....cwt-. 607, 577 542, 496 530, 814 | $8, 614, 882 | $7,988,400 | $7,305, 375 Germany...... do.. 300 9, 499 2, 987 | 4, 275 141, 666 36, 546 CaHANa. . =... do.. 178, 878 113, 626 189, 999 1, 790, 871 1, 415, 041 | 1, 763, 800 United States .do..} 1, 988, 203 1, 606, 348 2, 295, 841 | 19, 357, 376 | 19, 857, 315 20, 031, 048 Other countries, ee ee et ee 73, 542 77, 336 53, 247 950, 712 998, 578 677, 368 PEOUAL > 25.5 bP 2,848,500 | 2,349, 305 3, 072, 888 30, 717, 916 L 30, 401, 000 000 | 29, 814, 137 Hams, bulk, United States, | ae ae oo ee ere 887, 740 | 757, G09 1, 013, 044 10, 704, 687 | 11, 067, 636 | 11,545,579
|
8 eS an 178,156 | 145,422 204,737 | 1,261,967! 947,742 | 1,425,879
14 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Imports of pig products, beef, mutton, ete.—Continued.
[From the official returns of the British Board of Trade.]
Imports for first nine months— | Valueof imports first nine months—
Product. SS 1894. 1893. 1892. 1894. 1893. 1892.
Beef (fresh): From Sea 1, 350,685 | 1,109,396 | 1,434,813 |$18, 995, 094 |$11, 958, 870 |$15, 106, 349
Other countries,
OW meters curses | 243, 118 223, 271 96,784 | 1,778,705 | 1,889,774 | 763,973 Pork (salted): From United States-cwt- . 107, 335 80, 965 125, 494 853, 440 730, 400 846, 775 Other countries, ape Pe os hs oe 59, 869 59, 514 55, 468 398, 620 353, 080 302, 559 Pork (fresh) : ain 5? From Holland ...-. cwt-. 77, 491 79, 515 49, 342 888, 079 928, 950 581, 111 Belgium...... do.. 16, 638 16, 159 11, 063 2038, 523 195, 642 131, 952 ' Other countries, as, ee ee ee 15, 019 23, 844 6, 189 198, 844 313, 474 65, 488 | 109, 148 119, 518 | 66,594 | 1,289,066 | 1, 438, 066 778, 551
Meat (unenumerated) :
From Holland...... ewt... 83, 118 91, 294 79, 978 882, 086 997, 222 885, 384 United States..do-. 21, 710 15, 784 16, 785 195, 802 164, 549 174, 744 ' Other countries, SS ae ae ee A 33, 431 30, 626 | 18, 704 386, 470 350, 913 214, 879 Woetal teas. ss . 138, 259 | 137, 704 115, 467 1, 464, 358 1, 512, 684 1, 215, 007 Meat (preserved otherwise | |
than by salting): BeGt ae 6 wa saldass ewt.. 193, 044 264, 805 METEOR ote Seperesie do... 85, 069 64, 023 OpRemsorts)- -.im00-- do.. 108, 950 99, 961
399, 882 | 2,674,043 | 3,253,040 | 4, 820, 362 47, 825 723, 779 584, 957 465, 942 128,169 | 1,715,507 | 1,730,786 | 1, 811, 692
ol LO 37 RE re 387, 063 428, 789
575, 876 | 5,113,329 | 5,568,783 | 7, 077, 906
Mutton (fresh) : From Germany .-...cwt.. 5 ONT 16, 335 Holland. .....- do.. 92, 646 98, 498 Australasia...do..| 1,082, 519 949, 232 Argentine Repub-
| 19, 857 83, 007 199, 269 | 249, 674 73,902 | 1,028,625 | 1,101, 809 865, 334 796, 933 | 10,226,000 | 9,202,762 | 7,945, 568
MG = I reese cwt.. 424, 958 384, 297 354,500 | 3,735,288 | 3,499,960 | 3, 185, 367 Other countries, PW ie dann onacineen= 58, 826 51, 531 48, 255 637, 626 574, 009 570, 633 BOOM: Sisk 22S arc 1, 665, 966 | 1,499, 893 6
1, 293, 547 | 15,710,546 | 14, 577, 809 | 12, 816, 576
Nore.—Cwt. = 112 pounds.
In the fall of 1893 English bacon was commanding nearly as high prices as in October, 1894. The decline in the best grades of Irish bacon during the same period represents about half a dollar per ewt. (112 pounds). There is some decline in Danish bacon and Canadian bacon. But United States side meats declined more than $2 per cwt. Cum- berland cuts have been reduced by $3, and short ribs the same amount perewt. There is also a similarly disproportionate decline in the values in England of United States lard.
seside the general causes of depression in values of all commodities throughout the world, there is a special reason why values of hog
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 15
products should have been lower in Great Britain during the last year. The drought there during 1893 forced their domestic animals upon a glutted market. Thus the price of beef and mutton was brought down to a point where they were preferred as of superior value to bacon and hams. Another cause for the decline in hog products may be found in frozen dressed meats. Excellent mutton can be bought in England at the same price as bacon. Therefore a larger number of people who fifteen years ago seldom ate other flesh than salted swine flesh now purchase New Zealand, Falkland Islands, and other frozen imported . mutton. In view of the low prices of meat and other food supplies 3 pouring into England, there have only lately been expressions of sur- A prise in the trade journals there that the prices of bacon are maintained i even at present figures. But the British people are a bacon-eating people at breakfast every morning, and no competition of fresh meat is likely to alter their habit in this respect. 4 The cheaply imported frozen meat largely lessens the consumption of bi bacon among a numerous class of working people who formerly were exclusively buyers of our hog products, which then were the cheapest in the EBuropean markets. Thus a great change in their demand for ? meats—from salt pork to fresh mutton and beef—is one cause of the decline; but there is another reason more potent than this for the com- : paratively disproportionate fall of the price in the American hog prod- ‘ uct output throughout the European markets, especially in the United _ Kingdom. The demand there is for a mildly cured, not oversalted, and very lean bacon. The nearness to market at the point of produce- ing gives to Danish bacon a great advantage. Therefore an astonishing growth of packing houses is witnessed upon the Continent, and partic- ularly in Denmark. Danish bacon reaches the English market in twenty-four hours. It arrives in fine condition. It is cured to meet the English taste and demand. The best Danish brands bring within a dollar a ewt. of the best Wiltshire. Thus a permanent and constantly increasing bacon trade has been — built up between Denmark and England, which already amounts to more than fifty million pounds per annum. In October, 1894, Danish bacon is temporarily being diverted by the shortness of the hog crop in Germany from the markets of the United Kingdom. For along time Germany put a stop by a high tariff duty to the shipment of Danish hogs intoits domains. Before that prohibition they were shipped there to be made into bacon; but this year German packers are compelled, by the decline in the swine crop of that country, to import Danish Swine and pay the duty thereon, to make up for domestic deficiencies. What is gained by carefully studying the character of the demand of the foreign markets we seek to supply is well illustrated by the figures given above, showing the relative values and quantities of bacon exported to Great Britain by Denmark and the United States. While the price obtained for Danish bacon is $14.18 per ewt., that obtained for bacon from the United States is only $9.72 per ewt. In other words,
Peas 8.7 rhs
16 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
if the quality of the American bacon offered for sale in the British mar- ket had been as well adapted to the taste of the British consumers as the Danish, American bacon would have realized $28,192,300 instead _ of the $19,357,376 which it actually did realize.
The prohibition of American cattle by Germany will stimulate the Teutonic consumption of bacon. Therefore, indirectly, but not the less effectively, it will aid in lessening the Danish bacon capacity to eompete in the British market with hog products from the United States.
The best brands of Canadian singed sides bring in England within a half dollar to a dollar per ewt. of the prices of the best grades of Danish bacon, and the Canadians command from a half dollar to a dollar more than the corresponding American cuts will bring. Canada, unlike Denmark, has no advantage over us geographically. Its seem- ing superiority in quality is due wholly to the fact that its hog carries 10 to 15 per cent more of lean and less of fat flesh than the American hog. It, therefore, more completely answers the taste and demands of the British public, and consequently commands a higher price. The imperious British demand for lean bacon is observed in the unceasing attempts of the great Wiltshire packers to obtain lean hogs. The firm of Charles & Thomas Harris, Limited, of Calne, England (Wiltshire), some time since began to offer a premium for medium-sized pigs. Their system of buying is the issuance of a weekly circular, stating the prices they are willing to pay for certain sorts of swine. A circular of this firm, issued in October, 1894, is as follows:
Present prices for prime pigs, in lots of not less than ten, on rail within 100 miles of Calne.
Prime stores. Thickness of fat in any part of the back. bay pounds. Ss. a. dap pounds to.190 pounds <:. .-2 266 enneciecim = 2i-inches and’ under. ...2--2--4---ee eee a 6 ACT DLO MDOUNGSca-,<c2 es obs. abt eceiece ees Not exceeding 22 inches .- 22s. s22.2eeeeeeeeee 6 9 OE Re SE ie a a a ars Not exceeding 22 inches . 2... . -..:~..s-aeee 6 3 WRGCE S40 MOURNS. cons ccm nme audacadbvince's Not exceeding 3 inches ....--. + ...asemeeeeeee 6 3
This circular shows that they offered the largest prices for animals running from 130 to 199 pounds which carried not more than 24 inches of fat on the back. For such pigs they offered 7s. 6d. “per score”—that is, in our money, $1.80 per 20 pounds, or 9 cents a pound live weight. Under the Harris plan of purchase it is reported that the percentage of lean pigs sent to the Calne market in Wiltshire has risen from 47 to 75. The public demand for this sort of bacon has been met by the farmers by changing the breed. To do this they have raised Tamworths and Yorkshires to the exclusion of the Berkshires. The methods of this firm of English packers are enlarged upon for the reason that Wiltshire bacon is all through Europe recognized as the standard brand, and the house of Charles & Thomas Harris is known as the largest and
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 17
best Wiltshire packing concern. Therefore a knowledge of the methods which they pursue to maintain their goods in public esteem is in the highest degree valuable to the American packers and farmers. The fact is demonstrated that the bacon which commands the best price in the English market is a lean and not oversalted meat. In view of that fact, itis of interest to American producers to place themselves in a position to cater especially for a market which demands so much of this peculiarly fattened and particularly cured commodity, :
The English lard market italicizes the fact that complaints from retail dealers throughout England are constantly being made, through their trade journals, regarding the short weights of American lard in pails. A prominent London trade journal of October 13, 1894, says:
The fesult of carefully weighing 50 wood pails of a well-known American, bought, as usual, at shippers’ weights and received by us about a fortnight ago, shows that the exact weight in each pail (cach lid bearing the words ‘£28 pounds net”) was as follows: 11 pails weigned 27 pounds 2 ounces each; 12 pails weighed 27 pounds each; 3 pails, 26 pounds 14 ounces each; 15 pails, 274 pounds each; 2 pails, 27 pounds 6 ounces each; 1 pail, 26 pounds 10 as 3; 2 pails, 274 pounds each; 1 pail, 27 pounds 10 ounces; 3 pails, 262 pounds each, making a shortage of 44 pounds on the lot. Retailers in England are combining against short lard weights gen- erally, and there is a movement in some of the larger trade centers looking to the same end. The result may be a discrimination, amounting in many places to a boycott, against all brands which do not weigh out as marked.
The foregoing somewhat tedious details as to the meat trade of the United States with the United Kingdom of Great Britain have been secured by personal solicitation of the Secretary of Agriculture, and are perfectly reliable down to and inclusive of the first nine months of theyear1894. They accentuate the magnitude of that particular foreign market for surplus meat products of the farmers of the United States.
Worthington C. Ford, the very competent and diligent Chief of the Bureau of Statistics in the Treasury Department, has furnished the Department of Agriculture the following table, which represents the quantities and values of bacon, hams, pork, ete., shipped into the United Kingdom from the United States during the year ending June 30, 1894:
Product. Quantities. | Values. Pounds. OM tis, 2 Pech ireaha igh aia ie gs Siow a 334,985, 389 | $31, 366, 843 EEyinee eee eee eet Sees Bet ees 73, 894, 248 8, 230, 787 Pork, fresh and ‘pickled... 2.2.35... 14, 272, 957 1, 159, 315 NUTR: Sota tM eo aiwainn Comoe eee ew 150, 655, 158 13, 528, 987
To Mr. Ford the American public is indebted for valuable statistical data further illustrative of the foreign markets and the amount of American farm products which they consume. In his summary state- mentof theimports and exports of the United States, corrected to March 1, 1894, it will be seen that during the seven months ending January 31, 1894, the United Kingdom of Great Britain took fourteen million
18 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
eight hundred and thirty-eight thousand three hundred and sixty- seven dollars’ ($14,838,367) worth of live cattle from the United States, while all other countries took during the same period of time only two hundred and thirteen thousand eight hundred and fifty-five dollars’ ($213,855) worth. During the one month of January, 1894, the United Kingdom of Great Britain took from the United States thirty-five mil- lion two hundred and forty thousand four hundred and thirty-one (35,240,431) pounds of bacon. The balance of the world took during the same time nine million five hundred and seventy-six thousand seven hundred and seventy (9,576,770) pounds. On page 565 of the summary statement referred to, under the head of “ Domestic bread-. stuffs, ete.,” exported from the United States, is a recapitulation show- — ing the amount of breadstuffs, provisions, cotton, and tobacco exported from the United States by all countries during the year ending Decem- ber 31, 1893. This recapitulation shows that the United Kingdom paid to Ameri- can producers during that year for breadstuffs, provisions, cotton, and tobacco more than three hundred and twenty-four millions of dollars ($324,000,000). That is to say, the British market bought more than one-half of all the farm exports of the United States during that year. Including mineral oils’with agricultural exports (and there was only $10,131,473 worth of oil shipped), the United Kingdom of Great Britain took 54.31 per cent of all that was exported from the United States during that year. And the entire exports of breadstuffs, provisions, mineral oils, cotton, and tobacco from the United States to all parts of the world ae that year aggregated six hundred and fifteen mil- lion five hundred and seventy-four thousand and eighty-six dollars’ ($615,574,086) worth in value. A study of the world’s markets demon- strates the fact to the producers of meat and breadstuffs in the United States that the United Kingdom of Great Britain furnished the largest demand for their commodities.
Besides taking so much of meat and breadstuffs the same country took, in the year ending September 30, 1894, one hundred and forty-one thousand two hundred and ninety-four (141,294) tons of hay from the United States; but, owing to the fine hay crop which has recently been secured in Great Britain, there will be a great falling off in this respect for the coming year.
Great Britain took thirty-one thousand five hundred and tw ane (31,520) tons of cheese from the United States during the year which ended April 30, 1894, and of butter, for the same period, two thousand and twenty-one (2,021) tons. But Denmark furnished, in butter, in the same year to Great Britain, forty-eight thousand nine hundred and ninety-seven (48,997) tons. From these dairy figures one may rea- sonably conclude that the butter and cheese capabilities of the United States are only just beginning to be developed.
One of the lessons of this competition, especially accentuated by the conditions of the foreign dairy market, is that quality must be the
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 19
constant aim of the producer. Upon that Denmark has founded and developed her wonderful foreign dairy trade. As a producing country, competing against all the world in the world’s markets, the high quality and integrity of our products must be firmly established aud strictly maintained. Such a reputation is indispensable if we are to hold our place in the markets of the world.
WHEAT IN ENGLISH MARKETS.
The United Kingdom took in from foreign countries during the nine months ending September 30, 1894, nine million (9,000,000) bushels more wheat than during the same months in the year 1893; but the increased shipments into England of wheat were principally from Russia, the Argentine Republic, and Australasia. During that time the United States did not maintain its position as a wheat seller in England. In those nine months there was a falling off in American wheat upon the English markets of thirteen and a half million (13,500,000) Winchester bushels. The decline in value was proportionately far greater, and amounted to eight million four hundred and thirty-three thousand dol- lars ($8,433,000). A primary cause for the falling off of American wheat in English markets during the early part of this year is found in the fact that Argentina was a free seller, while our people maintained figures a trifle above the British market. On October 25, 1894, the market appears more inclined to higher figures. There is a distinct indication of activity and a better trade, with, however, only slightly improving prices. Appended hereunto is a table showing the prices of American and British wheat, and English barley, and beef and potatoes, during each month of the year 1894 down to and inclusive of September 28.
Prices of certain food products in Great Britain on the first day of each month (or there- abouts) of the year 1894.
American | ola ee Pa a. ral WMter_ wheat (per Davies (per rior (cash, | Beel EC | Pstninien Winchester te ogy B ore ere | bomen Fer pound). | (per ton). bushel). | : p .| per pound). | | 1894. | Cents.. | Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. | Demmery................ : 7 76 | 883 | 7h 14} | $14. 60 Wepruary 2 .............. | 78 76 | 884 | 7 133 | 12.77 ee | 77 70 | 85 | 6 134 | 12. 16 ee | 70 70 82 | 7 12§ | 10. 33 eae 75 71 | 86 | 7 133 | 7.39 Eee 66 70 ie 7 135 | 9.73 eee 64 | 70 | 62 | 8 13§ | 12. 16 (OS ee 66 | 71 | 68 | 7 13§ | *17.03 emmast S1.......--.....0. 62 | 70 68 7 13§ | 15.78 September 28 ............ 57 57 ral | 7h 128 | 17.00 * New.
Note.—These averages are official. In the original tables the figures for red winter wheat are expressed in sterling money per quarter of 496 pounds. These are translated into United States equivalents at the par valuo of the pound sterling ($1.86,95,) and in bushels of 60 pounds each. DPng- lish wheat has for its unit the quarter of 504 pounds; English barley, the quarter of 448 pounds; flour, the sack of 280 pounds; beef, the London stone of 8 pounds. .
20 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
These tables are of value to the American farmer. They illustrate the fact that the price of wheat is now, and must always be, governed by the relation of the supply of wheat to the demand for wheat. Im- proved farming implements and machinery have reduced the cost of production. Wheat will, in all probability, remain at relatively low figures in all time to come, except when there are failures of the crop in large wheat-growing sections of the earth. The great competitors of the United States in the production and sale of wheat are the Argen- tine Republic, Australasia, and Russia. The capabilities of the last- named country as a bread producer are beyond computation. Already American farm implements and machinery are finding enormous sale in that Empire, and permanently established agencies of the great reap- ing and other manufacturing concerns of the United States are solidly located at Odessa and other important entrepdts to the wheat-growing regions.
Looking at cheap bread from the standpoint of the consumer, the world is fed better and oftener than it ever was before. The profits of the producer are now divided, so that the consumer gets a large share thereof. But it matters very little to the producer of wheat in the United States what the price may be if he is permitted to buy in the markets where he is compelled to sell. In other words, if the price of the farmer’s wheat is fixed in Europe, there is no good reason why the prices of the things he has to buy should not also be fixed in Europe. In selling, the farmer competes with all the world. To give him an equal chance he ought also to be allowed to buy where all the world competes. European and all other foreign markets for wheat indicate that the competition in that cereal is constantly increasing and intensi- fying. The Argentine Republic is capable already of placing thirty- five millions (35,000,000) of bushels of wheat a year on the European market, while it has only five millions (5,000,000) of population. The Argentine wheat fields average less than 100 miles from deep-water harbors. To reach shipping ports Argentine wheat pays no appreciable inland freight. But the wheat of the United States averages quite a heavy transportation charge in reaching the seaboard. In short, we have a long haul and the Argentine Republica short haul before reach- ing the Atlantic. Russia, likewise, has the advantages of a short haul and speedy transportation. ;
There are many subsidiary crops to which the American farmer may profitably turn his attention. Wheat will not hereafter be our staple cereal product. Corn is constantly advancing in importance because _ of an ever-growing demand for that cereal which is evolved from the various new uses to which it is being constantly appropriated.
EXPORTS OF BARLEY.
There has been a steadily growing demand for barley exportation to Great Britain. This demand amounted during the first nine months of 1594 to an increase over last year of eighteen millions (18,000,000) of
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 21
bushels. The universal use of barley by brewers in England maintains a steady and constant market for the highest grades of that cereal. Hard, firm, and bright grain barley from the Northwestern States and California commands higher prices than many European barleys. That kind of American barley is second best to the best grade barleys of Smyrna, and is regarded among the best malting barleys in the British markets. The average yield per acre of barley in Great Britain is thirty-four (34) bushels, though the drought of 1893 reduced it to an average of only twenty-nine (29) busheis. There are two and a quarter million (2,250,000) acres, average, of barley in the United Kingdom annually, so that the annual product is something like seventy-five million (75,000,000) imperial bushels, though the harvest of 1893 Shows only sixty-five million seven hundred and forty-six thousand (65,746,000) bushels.
In seven years the export of barley from the United States to Great Britain has grown from nothing into a very considerable trade. The average price in England during the year 1894 of good, bright barley, per bushel of 56 pounds, has been 77+ cents.
The supply of the best quality of malting barley is limited, but there are States in the American Union which have great advantages for the production of the very highest grades of this cereal, and the market seems to be a growing one into which American farmers can pour a large volume of remunerative products every year.
THE UNITED STATES APPLE TRADE WITH ENGLAND.
During the year 1892 England took in from the United States and Canada four and a half million (4,500,000) bushels of apples, valued at six and a half million dollars ($6,500,000). In the year 1893, however, owing to poor crops in this country and Canada, and not because of a want of a market in England, she purchased only three million four hundred thousand (3,400,000) bushels, valued at four million one hun- dred thousand dollars ($4,100,000); and during the nine months ending with September, 1894, Great Britain took one million nine hundred thousand (1,900,000) bushels of apples, valued at two and a half million of dollars ($2,500,000). The apple market in Great Britain during the spring is largely supplied from Australasia, New Zealand, France, and Italy, the import from the latter country being a novelty which was witnessed for the first time during the year 1894.
The English apple crop is gathered in the early autumn and partially supplies the markets until about the middle of September. Then the first shipments of American apples begin to arrive. They consist of Summer fruit. They are very tender and require immediate sale. They are packed in what are known to the trade as “New York barrels,” containing 3 bushels and running 1 ewt.in weight. These barrels are smaller by 25 pounds than those in which the Canadian apples reach that market. But it is rather an advantage to the American trade that
92 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the barre! is smaller. It is not believed in Great Britain that if the barrel were made larger the corresponding inerease in price eould be obtained.
Canadian apples begin to arrive in London at the end of October. Asarule they are firm, hard, and fine colored, and eommand the best prices through the winter. American apples average, at whelesale, $2.25 to $3.15 per “New York barrel,” while the Canadian bring $2.91 to $3.87 per ‘Canadian barrel.” The 1894 apple crop of England is exceptionally small, owing to a late frost in the spring. The market for American apples will be good throughout the entire coming winter.
It is important that the shippers understand that only choice fruit will.
pay profit on shipments. It is equally important that the apples be carefully handled and properly packed.
There is also a good demand in England for high-class cider, and there is ne reason why the American farmer should not export in this form the apples not properly conditioned for shipment. At the pres- ent time English cider is selling at 22 cents per gallon, with a prospect of commanding 25 cents during the greater part of the winter.
EXPORTS OF HORSES.
There is a growing demand in England for American horses. During the first nine months of the year 1894 the English market took two thou- sand eight hundred and eleven (2,811) American driving horses, at an average value of $139 per head. Last year the average price of those shipped was $230. A sound light draft horse, in good condition, of the size and weight adapted to omnibus work in cities, will generally bring, in Liverpool or London, $150. Nearly all of the shipments of horses thus far from the United States to Engiand have been through Hnglish buyers. Arriving in England, the animals are put out to grass, as a rule, for a month at least, and are then sold at auction. Canada has about an equal share with ourselves in the English horse market, although Canadian shipments have the reputation of being somewhat better in quality.
The average price of Canadian geldings during the last nine months has been $160, as against $139 for American. The English under- stand perfectly well that prices of horses have fallen in the United States on account of the extensive substitution of trolleys and bicycles for horses, and. it is generally conceded that a considerable demand for American horses will soon spring up throughout Europe. The great omnibus and tramway companies of London are recruiting their stoeks from the United States and Canada very generally at the present time.
POTATOES.
The British acreage in potatoes has not varied materially from half a million acres during many years. In Ireland the acreage has grad- ually fallen, in the course of fifteen years, from eight hundred and forty-
| i ethos
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 23
two thousand (842,000) acres to seven hundred and twenty thousand (720,000) acres. The potato product of the Channel Islands, France, and Belgium amounts to about three million (3,000,000) ewt. every year. But during the year 1894, up to and inclusive of the month of May, a considerable shipment of potatoes was made from England to the United States. When those shipments were made, potatoes were sell- ing in New York for $2.25 per sack of 168 pounds, and the price in Eng- land was $7.29 to $12.15 per ton of 2,240 pounds. In October, 1894, potatoes were selling in New York at $1.85 per sack of 168 pounds, while the prices ranged in England at from $14.60 to $17 per ton.
The cost of transportation for potatoes from Great Britain to the United States per ton is about as follows: Drayage to the ship, 60 cents; freight, $3.03; sacks, $1.80. To these figures must be added insurance, duties, and commissions on this side. The duty is put on to protect the “infant industry” of potato growing in the United States. It is supposed to make higher prices for those Americans who raise potatoes, and lower ones for those who eat them. A protective tariff is always depicted by its advocates as a dual blessing to the farmer, so adjusted as to always enhance the things he sells and cheapen the things he buys. However, English potato dealers do not look to the New York market for sales until prices there reach about $2.25 per sack. The potato crop of England this year is so limited that we shall not be able to draw supplies from there, even at higher prices than were obtained last year.
THE ASSISTANT SECRETARYSHIP.
On January 1, 1894, the Hon. Edwin Willits retired from the office of Assistant Secretary of the Department of Agriculture. He remained, by request, up to that date, so that he might complete satisfactorily his arduous duties in connection with the Government’s exhibit at the World’s Fair. The sense of obligation which the Secretary is pleased to cherish for Mr. Willits, because of his many good services to the Depart- ment, is hereby very frankly acknowledged, and a sincere admiration for his rugged honesty, industry, and vigilance, as an official and efficient friend of agriculture during his entire connection with this Adminis- tration, is unconcealed.
On the same date, Dr. Charles W. Dabney, jr., president of the University of Tennessee—who had previously been selected by the President and confirmed by the Senate as Assistant Secretary of A gri- culture—entered upon the discharge of his duties. During many years this gentleman had been prominently and intimately identified with agricultural education. He had especially prepared himself in that line of study by severe application in the laboratories of this country
and in Germany. His experience as a State chemist, as director of
an agricultural experiment station in North Carolina, and as presi-
dent of the University of Tennessee, brought him to his present
24 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
position peculiarly well equipped for the discharge of its responsible duties. Therefore, on the 2d day of January, 1894, the Secretary of Agriculture issued a special order wholly revising the duties of the Assistant Secretary. That order assigned to him the entire direction of all the scientific divisions, and likewise of the Office of Experiment Stations, of the Office of Irrigation Inquiry, of the Office of Fiber Inves- tigation, and of the Museum. Himself a scientist, Dr. Dabney has dis- charged the duty of supervising the expenditures and controlling the direction of scientific research, operations, and policy with admirable judgment and skill.
The application of science to agriculture, under his management, is becoming, through practical bulletins published by the Department and other popular means, more generally appreciated, understood, and approved.
During the year the Department has entered upon two new lines of very important investigation. ‘The first of these relates to grasses and forage plants.
AGROSTOLOGY.
The forage interests of the United States are vast in value. Seventy million (70,000,000) tons of hay are cut and cured each summer. This crop is taken from fifty million (50,000,000) acres of land. Hach year’s hay crop is estimated to be worth six hundred millions of dollars ($600,000,000). No accurate means have been found for ascertaining the cash value of grasses upon pasture and other lands that are grazed. It is known, however, that those lands support and fatten vast herds of cattle, sheep, and horses. In 1890 such ranges in the United States fed fourteen million fifty-nine thousand and thirty (14,059,030) head of domestic animals. As these millions of animals subsist largely upon native grasses and other forage plants, the magnitude of these figures elucidates the vital necessity of securing, if possible, new and better grasses and forage plants in this country. Therefore the Department of Agriculture has undertaken the development of a Division of Agros- tology. The gentleman in charge of this new line of investigation, Prof. I. Lamson-Scribner, has a national reputation. His appointment was made upon the recommendation of many of the best botanists in the several universities and colleges of the United States.
At present agrostology is merely an agency in the Division of Botany. It is the duty of the expert in charge of this agency to study grasses and forage plants in general and to instruct and familiarize the people of this country, through bulletins and leaflets, with regard to the con- servation of the native grasses of the continent, and to teach them how to introduce from foreign countries such improved and useful forage plants as may be found adaptable and profitable in the United States. It will be his especial and specific duty to prepare and publish a work on ‘the forage plants of the United States,” and subsequently a more
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 25
elaborate publication, Handbook of Grasses of the United States. _ This will contain deseriptions and illustrations of all the known grasses of this country.
Through the Department of State the Secretary of Agriculture has secured the assistance of all the consular agents of the United States in collecting at their several stations or posts of duty any seeds of forage plants. These specimens and seeds are forwarded directly to this Department and submitted to Professor Scribner for examination and testing. Thus it is proposed to search the whole civilized globe for erasses and forage plants which may be of value to the people in each section of the United States. It is hoped that in this way the quantity per acre of the hay crop of this country may be very materially increased andits quality improved. If, however, the hay production per acre 1n the United States is, as a result of this effort in behalf of agrostology, raised only 1 per cent, it is equal to an increase of six millions of dollars per year in the value of this single farm product. Professor Scribner’s investigations have already reached such proportions, and they promise to become of such inestimable value to the farmers of the United States, that it is proposed to create a new division in this Department, ‘as provided in the estimates herewith submitted, to be called “The Division of Agrostology.”
AGRICULTURAL SOILS AND CROP PRODUCTION.
The second new line of investigation relates to agricultural soils and crop production. Such soils have long presented a problem unsolved by chemical analysis. It has been known for some time that the pecul- iarly valuable characteristics of different agricultural soils are often due to some other cause or causes than the chemical composition. Climatic conditions are potent in their influences as to the general distribution of plants, but they alone do not explain why one soil is well adapted to one variety of crop, while the soil in an adjacent field, receiving the same amount of rainfall and heat, is wholly unadapted to it, while perfectly adapted to an entirely different crop requiring an altogether different nutrition.
Records of climatic conditions generally end at the surface of the earth. But the farmer’s interests are equally connected and concerned with the climatic conditions within the soil and below the surface of the ground.
The amount of sand, silt, clay, and organic matter contained in soils so modifies the atmospheric conditions that different soils maintain
very different degrees of moisture and temperature for plant life. Different varieties of plants require different degrees of moisture and heat for their best development. Thus each class finds the conditions best adapted to its peculiar nature in different kinds of soil. Wheat requires a low temperature. Corn requires a relatively high tempera-
96 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ture. Celery and rice develop best in moist soils. Sweet potatoes and peanuts require a comparatively dry, sandy soil.
Deeply tilled soils provide a large reservoir for the rainfall. The deeper the soil is stirred and cultivated, the larger the reservoir. The texture of the soil—that is, the relative amount of sand, silt, clay, and organic matter which it contains, and the way in which these con- stituent grains are arranged—determines the amount cf water which the soil may retain from rains. Sandy soils retain comparatively little water, because they afford little resistance to percolation of the rain- fall. Through them the water leaches down beyond the reach of veg- etation, and is lost to plants. Such soils are naturally adapted to the forcing of early “truck” and vegetables, and to such plants as are grown for fine texture and bright-colored leaf development.
Soils having a great amount of clay in their composition offer great resistance to the rainfall. The movement of moisture downward through such soils is exceedingly slow, and thus an abundant humidity is generally retained; this adapts them to the growth of wheat and pasture grasses that need an abundant supply of water for their growth. On such soils tobacco also grows strongly, throwing out heavy leaves which contain a great amount of oil and gum, developing a character of tobacco adapted to an entirely different purpose from that grown from the same seed in lighter soils.
Considerations like these led this year to the establishment of a division in the Weather Bureau for the study of meteorology in its relation to soils. Prof. Milton Whitney, who had previously been in the service of the Department as a special agent engaged upon these investigations and had made a marked reputation by his careful and original work, was appointed chief of this division.
Observations have been made during the past season on the condi- tions of moisture and heat in the typical soils of the “truck” area of the Atlantic seaboard and in several of the soil areas adapted to the different types of tobacco, and likewise in the soils of the arid regions of the West.
These observations have shown the cause of the peculiar value of “truck” Jands. They have indicated also large breadths of land simi- lar to them which are at present practically abandoned, although well adapted to the important and oftentimes very lucrative industry of raising early vegetables for the markets of our great cities. Investi- gations have shown the reason for the differences in the type of tobacco grown in several of the most important tobacco regions. They have
explained why certain types of land in the several regions are not
adapted to the varieties of tobacco demanded by the present domestic and foreign markets, They have demonstrated this, and also sug-
gested how the conditions of these lands may be changed to render
them productive of a demanded grade of tobacco. From the careful examination thus far made of the soils of the
A re
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 27
so-called arid regions of Kansas, Nebraska, and Colorado, Professor Whitney is convinced that, with their present climate, and with improved methods of thorough preparation and deep cultivation, and with a careful selection and modification and rotation of crops, they may be vastly improved in the certainty and constancy of their agri- cultural productiveness. Professor Whitney does not claim, however, that deep subsoiling alone can wholly obviate the necessity of irriga- tion, but he impresses the fact that irrigation is always expensive, and that there are vast areas of arid Jands which can never be irrigated nor profitably farmed under existing methods.
The time is not remote when in all the arid and subarid regions of the Northwest deep subsoil tillage will be regarded as the only probable certain assurance against the loss of crops in long-continued drought. The farmers in these regions must soon come to understand that the deeper, in plowing, the soil and subsoil is stirred, with subsequent deep tillage of corn or root crops during the summer, the greater the capacity for the storage of the rainfall and the less the liability of crop failure. Especially will this be demonstrated in the soils and sub- soils of Kansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotas, where there is so much of silt and so little of sand in the lands.
When the conditions essential to the proper development of particular kinds of crops are perfectly understood and established, these investiga- tions will supply the basis for amore intelligent use of water. It is now the intention of the United States Department of Agriculture to have the texture and physical conditions of the principal agricultural soils of the American Union thoroughly examined. Thus it will establish among the people the knowledge of the necessary conditions for the maintenance of crops. When the conditions in these typical soils are understood, they will be the basis for comparison with other soils. Such comparison will show what class of crops each soil is fitted for and how soil conditions may be changed to adapt it to any particular crop for which the general climatic conditions seem favorable.
As a basis for this work, a yast amount of material, consisting of nearly two thousand samples of soils, which have been collected with skill and judgment from all parts of the United States, is in possessicn of the Department.
In consideration of the vast importance of this work, the Secretary of Agriculture recommends that this division be taken out of the Weather Bureau and established as an independent division in this Department. Estimates have been submitted in accordance with this plan.
WEATHER BUREAU.
The administration of the Weather Bureau during the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1894, cost fourteen (14) per cent less than the appro-
priation made for that period of time. The financial history of the
28 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Weather Bureau service is clearly set forth in the appended tabulated statement, which begins with 1882 and closes with 1894, as follows:
Fiscal year ending June 30— seas ee sa Deficiency. retuned to i
j
"se Seng, Ae Pie he ain fo $988, 615.80 | $988,615.80 |......-.0- 22.0) ee :
NGG 2S tee a To Ro ne ee ee cee eee 993, 520. CO 993, 52020053... 2ascoc eee eee a
OE ee ee Pee 2 CSM eek See 958,034.57 | 984,451.30) $26, 416/790). a, eee 4
sR a PER | MSR Maret Ree ee Ys. Se 954,517.88 | 966, 076. 44 11, 558.565| Weg esa F
BR on oe ee 955,740.80 | 960, 812. 06 5 O74. Dunes ae ee BEBE cn 2 gk eee es 892,290.42 | 902, 042. 67 9; 752: Oa lee ee ee eee age 822) 0 a A es ee 887, 503.85 | 909, 410. 74 21,906, S)2 5 OR Se PHO: CU TES Mots Wie: ee: | 845,896.27 | 853, 396. 27 7, 500, OOF tee CN SE See AONE cca ee es ae oe de 801,122.59 | 810, 622. 59 9, 500: 0Bel 7d mc! eeeen. C1) a etna MR pe alr we Tee aad 813, 046.53 | 877, 659. 80 64, 61997: 2) oe eee TE ac el Re BA SR ae 889, 753.50 | * 830,783.33 |... 2. * $55, 000. 00 PAS BCT? Pel 5 Lev meee noes Aon 908, 595.50 | * 892, 805.20 |...... 2.222 * 15, 600. 00 nD ec ss niin Re Oe tee ES 951,100.00 | * 812, 711. 60 |. 32coeeneeee * 138, 500. 00
* Estimated—accounts not yet permanently closed.
This statement shows that for the year 1894 one hundred and thirty- eight thousand five hundred dollars ($138,500) of the appropriation was covered back into the Treasury—an amount of money aggregating nearly twice as much as all the moneys covered back into the Treas- ury from that Bureau in the preceding eleven years. It is agreeable to state, also, that the Chief of the Weather Bureau reports the reduction in expenditures to have been made without impairment of the efficiency of the work of the Bureau.
PROMOTIONS.
Important positions in the Weather Bureau were filled during the past year by competitive examinations. Some examinations were freely thrown open to all citizens. Others were only accessible to those in the lower grades of the Weather Bureau whose service ratings were the highest. ‘The results of this competitive system have been exceed- ingly satisfactory. The introduction of this manner of promoting sub- ordinate officials has been an inspiration to all the Weather Bureau observers to do their very best as forecasters. Examinations have been held for forecast officials. Doubts entertained by many heretofore, as to whether capacity in forecasting might be satisfactorily tested by examinations, have been dispelled. The Weather Bureau itself has conducted the examinations, because this method of securing suitable persons for forecast duty was altogether experimental.
PUBLICATIONS.
During the year the Weather Bureau issued two million six hundred — thousand (2,600,000) weather maps outside of Washington, and two hundred and twenty-nine thousand one hundred and twelve (229,112)
a ihe
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 29
within the city’s limits. During the same period of time the Bureau issued seventy-one thousand two hundred and sixty-six (71,266) Weather Crop Bulletins.
The observations on the general subject of publications under the head of Division of Records and Editing, regarding gratuitous distri- bution, apply with peculiar force to the publications of the Bureau.
FORCE AT THE CENTRAL OFFICE.
During the year there was a complete reorganization of the force in the Washington office of the Weather Bureau. In that time fifty-eight (58) persons, whose salaries aggregated fifty-four thousand seven hun- dred and fifty dollars ($54,750) per annum, were taken from the pay rolls of that office. During the same period forty-five (45) persons, whose salaries amounted to thirty-six thousand seven hundred and seventy dollars ($36,770) per annum, were added to its pay rolls, thus lessening by thirteen (13) the number of persons employed and redue- ing their annual pay roll seventeen thousand nine hundred and eighty dollars ($17,980). The entire number of persons on the pay rolls of the central office, June 30, 1894, was one hundred and seventy-one (171). Their salaries amounted to one hundred and seventy-eight thousand seven hundred and thirty-one dollars and sixty cents ($178,731.60) per apn.
FORECASTS.
Regular forecasts of weather, wind, and temperature have been made from the 8 a.m. and 8 p.m. observations and furnished to the press associations, telegraph companies, and newspapers throughout the United States. For forty-five (45) separate districts, covering the entire country east of the Rocky Mountains, these forecasts have been made. They are for periods each usually of twenty-four to thirty-six hours, respectively; but for longer periods when conditions seem to indicate such a necessity.
Storm warnings have been wired often to the lake and seacoast sta- tions, and to the director of the Canadian Meteorological Service at Toronto. Warnings of frost to fruit, tobacco, and cotton regions, and warnings of severe local storms, cyclones, cold waves, northers, and dangerous floods have been frequently sent to threatened districts. Such admonitions are issued whenever conditions indicate the necessity for them.
VALUE OF THE WARNINGS.
During the year the Weather Bureau warnings received, as a rule, wide distribution. There were very few disastrous storms of which
the people had not been apprised twenty-four to thirty-six hours In
advance of their culmination during the last summer. The severe
30 YEARBOOK OF THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
cyclones of August 25 to 27, and October 12 to 14, 1893, were notably well foretold. The warnings given for those dates italicized the value of the service to agriculture and to commerce.
During the year much inquiry was elicited as to the probable value of the forecast work of the Weather Bureau. It is difficult to estimate with any degree of precision or accuracy the real value of the current work of the Weather Bureau. It, however, affects almost innumerable interests. It varies from day to day in its influence upon, protection over, and conservation of, those multifarious interests. Directors of the State weather service in Ohio and in North Carolina report—the first a saving of two hundred thousand dollars ($200,000) by the warning of January 24, 1894; the latter estimated that during the season two hundred thousand dollars’ ($200,000) worth of farm products in his immediate territory was saved from frost by the same means. These estimates are conservative. They only hint at the vast possible value each year of the forecast work and warnings throughout the United States.
In January, 1894, the steamship Rappahannock was stranded, and the nearest Weather Bureau observer, at Cape Henry, Va.,immediately tele- - graphed a wrecking company at Norfolk to the effect that unless the stranded steamer lightened up enough to float at high tide on the night of the 24th she would be broken to pieces by a coming storm upon the rocks. The observer’s message was communicated to the Rappahan- nock by flag signals. This warning caused the wrecking company to exert themselves to the utmost, and they consequently discharged a sufficient cargo to enable the vessel to float that night at 10.35, and at 12.45 p.m. of the next day, just fourteen hours and ten minutes after the vessel was floated out of danger, because of the Weather Bureau warnings—an intensely severe westerly to northerly gale (which had been forecasted), with freezing temperature, rain, and a heavy sea, set in; and it is generally conceded that had the vessel continued aground until that storm struck her she would have been pounded to pieces and, with her cargo, valued at six hundred thousand dollars ($600,000), proved a total loss.
The September tropical storm of 1894 was forecasted with great accuracy and exactness. Warnings were sent very generally along the Atlantic coast. Because of the admonitions of the Weather Bureau relative to that particular storm one thousand and eighty-nine (1,089) vessels, valued at seventeen million one hundred thousand four hun- dred and thirteen dollars ($17,100,413), were retained in port. During the October tropical storm of 1894 one thousand two hundred and six- teen (1,216) vessels, valued at nineteen million one hundred and eighty- three thousand five hundred dollars ($19,183,500), were prevented from going out to sea because of the warnings issued by the United States Weather Bureau. The value of the cargoes in all this multitude of — ships which were prevented from encountering the tropical storms
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. ol
of September and October has not been estimated. It is, however, reasonable to presume that the cargoes were worth much more than the ships, and therefore safe to assume that the Weather Bureau warnings for the two months, which kept in port vessels valued in the aggregate at thirty-six million two hundred and eighty-three thou- sand nine hundred and thirteen dollars ($36,283,913), also preserved
- from the perils of those most disastrous and far-sweeping storms several
y 3
million dollars’ worth of merchandise, commodities, and other property in transit.
Besides that vast amount of value in materials, many human lives undoubtedly were preserved from jeopardy and death. The records of those vessels which disregarded the warnings of the Weather Bureau in those two storms show that they suffered severely or were utterly destroyed. The owners of the vessels remaining in port because of the
- Weather Bureau admonitions plainly say that but for those warnings
they might have been lost.
It is not practicable to estimate the value of the warnings to agri- culture and inland commerce up to this time. But data are being col- lected by the Weather Bureau which hereafter may be of great service in elucidating the value of its warnings to farmers shipping perishable fruit and root crops in the autumn and spring, as well as to those middlemen who handle such products. |
Facts and figures have been quoted sufficiently in the foregoing to prove that the Weather Bureau, when -it is properly and efficiently administered, may save to the American people, by its forecasts and warnings, many millions of dollars each year. And as the utmost expenditure for the maintenance of this Bureau at this time is less than one million of dollars annually, the investment is apparently a paying one for all the people. ‘This outlay of money may therefore come prop- erly within the functions of the Government, because it is in the line of protection to property and life.
By recent arrangement with the Postmaster-General, the warnings have been extended by the Post-Office Department to 3,608 more dis- tributing points east of the Rocky Mountains, and thus a greatly inereased number received warnings of the tropical storms of Septem- ber and October above mentioned. The actual saving of property from jeopardy by the admonition of those two months is beyond com- putation. ;
The extracts from reports of observers concerning the value of the forecasts and warnings received from the Weather Bureau in connec- tion with the September and October storms of 1894 will be published in the full report of the Weather Bureau Service over the signature of that eminent forecaster, Maj. H. H.C. Dunwoody, in his transmittal of statements to the Chief of the Weather Bureau, showing the fore- cast work of his division in regard to the prenamed storms.
32 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
THE WEST INDIES CYCLONE SERVICE.
This service is continued from July 15 to October 15 each year. Reports are rendered by telegraph and mail from Santiago, Santo Domingo, St. Thomas, and Kingston. At all these points the United States Weather Bureau maintains paid observers. During the hurri- cane season observations are taken twice each day. They are wired to the United States observer at Key West whenever an unusual meteoro- logical perturbation occurs. All approaching storms are also heralded from the West Indies stations. Voluntary telegraphic reports are received by our observers at Jupiter and Key West, respectively. When of interest they are telegraplied to Washington also from Nassau, New Providence, the Bahama Islands, and Havana. This work is carried on by the cooperation of the governor of the Bahama Islands and the superintendent of the central office of the Meteorological Marine Service at Antilles, Havana.
The attempt has been made by personal interview and correspondence to secure the voluntary cooperation of the Rev. Lorenzo Gangoite, 8. J., of Belen College, Havana, and members of the Jesuit Order in Balize, British Honduras, in rendering reports of hurricanes to the United States Weather Bureau. So far the Bureau is much indebted to the Rev. J. T. Hedrick, 8. J., of Georgetown College, Washington, D. C., for kind offices in this connection. The commercial importance aud great need of reports from Yucatan can not well be overestimated.
TELEGRAPH SERVICE.
The service rendered the Weather Bureau by telegraph companies © during the year has been reasonably prompt and generally efficient. The best record of telegraphy in this service was made on the morning of April 6, 1894, when all reports due in Washington at the central office over circuits and by special message were received by 9 a. m., that is, just fifty-four minutes after the time of filing. Not a single report was missing. These reports, be it remembered, embraced obser- vations made at 126 stations. They covered the continent from the British Possessions to the Gulf. They reached from the Atlantic to the Pacific. |
During the year a reduction in the cost of the regular “circuit” busi- ness of about 15 per cent was enected. This was accomplished by revising and reforming contracts of the preceding year. The total expense for telegraphing (May and J ine estimated) was one hundred and forty-six thousand one hundred | nd forty-seven dollars and forty- eight cents ($146,147.48), that is, for., -three thousand eight hundred and fifty-two dollars and fifty-two cents ($43,852.52) less than the allotinent. That is a saving of twelve thousand and fifty-two dollars and sixty-six cents ($12,052.66) by reassn of reduced telegraph rates. Furthermore, by readjustment of tle rates for loeal forecast and
x REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 33
cotton-region messages an additional saving of about four thousand dollars ($4,000) will result to the Bureau during the current year. Public appreciation of the warnings of the Weather Bureau and the growing importance attached to their value are very well illustrated in a recent suit against the Pennsylvania Railroad Company for the value of a canal boat wrecked during the storm of August 24 and 25, 1894. The lost boat broke loose from a Pennsylvania Railroad Com- pany tug, by which it was being towed to South Amboy, N. J. In the progress of the trial Sergeant Dunn, the Weather Bureau observer at New York City, testified that he had warned the public, including the Pennsylvania Railroad Company officials, of the approaching storm from Cape Hatteras. The question raised in the case is whether it is a legal duty of those having water craft in their charge to respect Weather Bureau warnings. The decision of the court is awaited with intense curiosity, because it involves, to a certain extent, the value of Weather Bureau warnings. It all indicates that in the near future marine insurance may contain, in every policy, a proviso by which the insurance will become inoperative and void in case of loss by a storm against which the Weather Bureau shall have sent out timely warnings.
BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
The most effective and valuable work rendered by the Bureau of Animal Industry to the commercial interests of the country during the past fiscal year has been in the inspection of meat for the export and interstate trade. At forty-six (46) abattoirs, situated in seventeen (17) cities, the number of animals inspected has increased from four million eight hundred and eighty-five thousand six hundred and thirty-three (4,855,633) in 1893 to twelve million nine hundred and forty-four thousand and fifty-six (12,944,056) in 1894. The cost of inspection has been reduced trom 43 cents per head in 1893 to 12 cents per head in 1894.
The ante-mortem and post-mortem inspection of animals intended for human consumption will soon be completely under civil-service rules and altogether in the hands of skilled veterinarians. Hereafter no person can be appointed an inspector except he shall have exhibited to the United States Civil Service Commission his diploma from a repu- table veterinary college, and also have submitted to and passed a satis- factory examination before that honofable body. Thus all export and interstate meat will have been examined scientifically by an employee of the United States Government#and by him certificated as wholesome andedible. This governmental cvurtification by skilled veterinarians is In fact a guaranty in all Europeamand other markets of the wholesome- hess of American meat. Possibly, as a sanitary precaution, it would be well for the United States to demand governmental inspection and chemical aa i of specimens oom wines, brandies, and other bever-
1
34 YEARBOOK OF THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ages which are imported from Europe, at the hands of the governments of those countries whence they are exported. If it is wisdom on the part of foreign nations to demand inspection and certification (for sani-
|
tary reasons) by the American Government of its exports to them, and — wise for us to comply with that demand, would it not be equally wise —
(upon sanitary grounds) for the United States to require governmental
inspection and certification of all foreign nations for exports into the ©
United States intended for the consumption of its citizens?
The amount of pork microscopically examined for export during the
year was thirty-five million four hundred and thirty-seven thousand nine hundred and thirty-seven (35,437,937) pounds. Butinthe year 1893 it was only twenty million six hundred and seventy-seven thousand four hundred and ten (20,677,410) pounds. In 1894, one million three hundred and seventy-two thousand four hundred and ten (1,372,416) pieces, from as many different carcasses, have been microscopically examined under the direction of this Bureau.
The cost of microscopic inspection has been diminished during the year 1894 from 83 cents per carcass or piece, in 1893, to 64 cents per capita. This indicates a reduction of nearly 25 per cent. The cost of inspecting microscopically the pork sold in Germany and France (no other European countries demand such inspection) by the United States, in the year 1893, was one hundred and seventy-two thousand three hundred and sixty-seven dollars and eight cents ($172,367.08). But during the year 1894 the quantity so inspected was increased fifteen millions (15,600,000) of pounds, and the cost of inspection was in the same twelve months reduced to eighty-eight thousand nine hundred and twenty-two dollars and ten cents ($88,922.10).
During the last half of the fiscal year the United States exported twenty-two million eight hundred and nineteen thousand two hun- dred and thirty-one (22,819,231) pounds, and the cost of inspection was thirty-six thousand four hundred and eighty-eight dollars and forty- two cents ($36,488.42),
The Secretary of Agriculture recommends that the law providing for the inspection of export and interstate meat be so amended as to compel
the owners of the meat inspected to pay the cost of the microscopic inspec- —
tion. If governmental inspection and certification widens the foreign and interstate markets for the products of any slaughtering and -packing establishment, it, by having increased the demand for those products, has enhanced their prices. It is only equitable that those pay for the inspection who are directly pecuniarily benefited thereby.
Aslong as the Government pays for microscopic meat inspection, many establishments will demand inspection which have neither inter- state nor export trade. If the inspection is worth anything at all to killers, packers, and dealers in fresh or cured meats, they should pay for it. As the law exists to-day, any slaughtering establishment, no matter how insignificant, which declares it has or expects to have
| iy
_
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 35
foreign trade in meats, has a legal right to demand governmental in-
spection and certification. it costs individuals nothing. When the killers, packers, and dealers demanding the inspection are compelled by law to pay the cost thereof, only that inspection will be called for which is necessary for the facilitation of foreign trade. No inspection will be asked merely to give employment to microscopists and others, at the expense of the Treasury of the United States. It is temptingly easy to be benevolent and generous at public cost.
The live beef cattle exported and tagged during the year numbered three hundred and sixty-three thousand five hundred and thirty-five (363,535). This is an increase of sixty-nine thousand five hundred and thirty-three (69,533) head, or more than 25 per cent, as compared with the previous year.
In the same time the employees of the Bureau of Animal Industry inspected, also for export, eighty-five thousand eight hundred and nine (85,509) head of sheep.
After the experience of supervising the transportation of export animals for some years, many modifications of the accommodations and conditions for their proper care have been insisted upon and adopted. By these innovations and ameliorations the losses in shipping live cattle have been very much reduced. In 1891 those losses were 1.6 per cent; in 1592 they were 0.75 per cent; in 1893, 0.47 per cent, and in 1894, 0.37 per cent; sheep lost in transportation during the present fiscal year, 1.29 per cent. This latter rate of loss indicates that further modifications of the reguiations regarding the shipment of sheep are desirable.
Stock yards inspection is maintained for the purpese of tagging export cattle, and for supervising their shipment to the seaboard and certifying their healthfulness at the time they leave American ports. It is further intended to prevent the dissemination of Texas fever. Southern cattle inspection is reported by the calendar year instead of the fiscal year, in order to include an entire quarantine season, which extends from February 15 to December 1. During 1893 there were inspected and placed in the quarantine pens in various stock yards one million seven hundred and thirty-seven thousand three hundred and eighty (1,737,380) head of cattle. During the same period of time inspect- ors supervised the cleaning and disinfection of fifty-six thousand four hundred and six (56,406) ears. In Great Britain the inspection of ani- mals received from the United States has been continued for the pur- pose of learning the condition in which they reach British ports and the amount of losses suffered at sea from diseases with which animals in transit are often affected, and also for the purpose of ascertaining
the adequacy of the sanitary regulations and fittings of the vessels engaged in animal transportation.
This thorough inspection, it has been hoped, would result in the rey- ocation of the British restrictions upon the American cattle trade, by
36 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
demonstrating that there is no danger, through animals of the United States, of the introduction of contagious diseases into the United Kingdom. More than two years have passed without the development of any pleuro-pneumonia or other diseases in the United States which might be, through our export cattle, made dangerous to the stock interests of Great Britain. But the hoped-for revocation of British restrictions remains unrealized.
The expense of sanitary inspection of cattle shipped to Europe has averaged 103 cents for each one exported. The cost of inspecting Southern cattle and supervising the disinfection of cars and stock shila averages 2.7 cents per animal.
During the year there were quarantined eight hundred and six (806) head of imported animals. In the same time there were imported from Canada and inspected one hundred and ninety-four (194) head of eattle, two hundred and forty thousand four hundred and twenty-seven (240,427) sheep, thirteen hundred and two (1,302) hogs, and two (2) goats.
The scientific inquiries of the Bureau of Animal Industry have pro- gressed steadily during the year, and much tuberculin and mallein have been furnished to State authorities for use in the ascertainment and treatment of tubercuosis and glanders.
The appropriation to the Bureau of Animal Industry for the year ending June 30, 1894, was eight hundred and fifty thousand dollars ($850,000). The expenditures during the year out of that appropria- tion aggregate ony four hundred and ninety-five thousand four hun- dred and twenty-nine dollars and twenty-four cents ($495,429.24). This leaves an unexpended balance of three hundred and fifty-four thousand five hundred and seventy dollars and seventy-six cents ($354,570.76).
In the appropriation bill for the current year (1894-95) tuberculosis and sheep scab are specifically mentioned among those diseases which the Secretary of Agriculture is authorized to guard against in such manner as he may think best. Endeavoring to carry out the suggest- ive provisious of the act above cited, the Department has avoided expending public funds for such purposes as private owners or the respective States ought reasonably to provide for. It is believed to be the duty of the Bureau of Animal Industry to seek, in every possible way, scientific enlightenment, to be disseminated among the agricul- turists of the country, so as to lead up to the extermination and sup- pression of the diseases of domestic animals; but it is not believed that the Department of Agriculture is justified in much other than educa- tional work. The several States of the Union ean do the necessary police work in the prevention of the spread of diseases of domestic animals within their own bounds. But very much must be left to the enlightened self-interest of the stock owners themselves.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 37
Quite recently this Department has published the result of its inves- tigations of bovine tuberculosis. These researches will be vigorously continued. Certain herds in the District of Columbia will be thor- oughly inspected, and many of the animals which respond to the tuber- eulin test may be slaughtered, and for them, by the terms of the appropriation act, their owners may be partially remunerated. But there will be only a sufficient number of animals purchased by the Department to intelligently prosecute its scientific work and for pur- poses of illustration, description, and definition.
THE STERILIZATION OF MILK.
The sterilization of milk suspected of containing the bacilli of tuber- culosis has been very thoroughly explained in a leaflet by Dr. D. FE. Salmon, the chief of the Bureau. This leaflet was issued July 24, 1894, and given general circulation throughout the country. Pending the investigation of tuberculosis, and in view of the jeopardy to human health and life which some say is constantly evolved therefrom, the sterilization of milk may be made a shield and safeguard in every household.*
OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS.
The Office of Experiment Stations, which is a part of the United States Department of Agriculture, has during the past year engaged itself almost wholly in preparing for publication works based upon the reports of Agricultural Experiment Stations and other institutions for agricultural inquiry in the United States and foreign countries. Bulletins, reports, and other publications from such stations have multiplied so rapidly that it is absolutely necessary to brief them in order to give them general circulation. Therefore, in order to reach the American farmers, the aforesaid bulletins and reports have been abstracted, sifted, compiled, and published in convenient form. Twenty-four (24) documents, making over two thousand (2,000) pages, have been issued. Among them is the fifth volume of the Experi- ment Station Record. It contains abstracts of three hundred and ten (310) reports of American stations, sixty-seven (67) bulletins of this Department, and two hundred and twenty-seven (227) reports of for- eign stations and other institutions.
The Handbook of Experiment Station Work is a digest of the published work of the American experiment stations during the past twenty years. There has also been prepared a number of farmers’ bulletins, based chiefly upon the work of experiment stations. There is now in process of publication a handbook on the culture and uses of the cotton plant. This will present a scientific and condensed state-
-*The further remarks on this subject which occurred in this report are omitted here owing to the full discussion of the same topic from the same point of view in another part of this book.
38 YEARBOOK OF THE JU, §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ment of practical knowledge. It will tend to improve the varieties of the cotton plant and advance the methods of culture and stimulate the production and use of cotton-seed products.
During the year seeds of new and rare varieties of foreign plants and vegetables have been distributed to forty (40) experiment stations and to about three thousand (3,000) farmers selected by those stations for the purpose of making full tests.
The Secretary of Agriculture in his report for 1893 called attention to the fact that the appropriations made for the support of the experi- ment stations throughout. the Union were the only moneys taken out of the National Treasury by act of Congress for which no accounting to Federal authorities was required. The Fifty-third Congress, heed- ing the suggestion, in making the appropriation for the Department for the present fiscal year provided that
The Secretary of Agriculture shall prescribe the form of annual financial state- ment required by section 3 of said act of March 2, 1887; shall ascertain whether the expenditures under the appropriation hereby made are in accordance with the provisions of said act, and shall make report thereon to Congress.
That the stations might have the earliest advice as to the intentions of the United States Department of Agriculture with regard to their expenditures, schedules for the financial reports of the experiment sta- tions were prepared and issued to them iminediately after the appropri- ation bill had passed. This new provision of law, construed with the previous legislation on the subject, gives the Secretary of Agriculture ample authority to investigate the character and report upon the expenditures of all these stations. Obeying this law, the Department of Agriculture proposes to make, through its expert agents, systematic examinations of the several stations during each year, for the purpose of acquiring, by personal presence, detailed information necessary to enable the Secretary of Agriculture to make an exhaustive and com- prehensively satisfactory report to Congress. It is due to the boards of management of the several stations to state that, with great cor- diality, they have, almost unanimously, approved the amendment to the law which provides for this supervision of their expenditures. Many of them declare that it will increase the efficiency of the stations and protect good men from loose charges of the misuse of public funds; and, furthermore, that it will bring the United States Department of Agriculture into closer and more confidential relations with the experi- ment stations, and that, acting together thus harmoniously and intelli- gently, the efficiency of their service to the agriculture of the Union will be vastly advanced.
NUTRITION.
Acting upon the recommendations contained in the report of 1893,. Congress appropriated ten thousand dollars ($10,000) “to enable the Secretary of Agriculture to investigate and report upon the nutritive
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 39
value of the various articles and commodities used for human food, with special suggestion of full, wholesome, and edible rations, less wasteful and more economical than those in common use.”
Out of this appropriation money will be used to make analyses of food materials not heretofore analyzed, and for the investigation of the dietaries of the different classes of people in different portions of the country. The relation of food supply and consumption will be elucidated. Inquiries as to the best means of improving the methods of investigations along these lines will likewise be diligently made. A large amount of preliminary work has been accomplished during the year, the results of investigations thus far made in this country and elsewhere have been correlated, and a bulletin containing a résumé of these matters is already in press.
The health of all depends largely upon the adaptability of the food consumed. The capacity for workin each human being rests upon the same foundation. But the most intelligent know very little as to the real composition of their daily food. The kinds or amounts of nutri- tive material contained in it and its value are generally matters of guesswork, if thought of at all. The cost of this ignorance is loss of health and waste of money. Unfortunately it is the poor who suffer most from the unwise purchase and improper use of food. It is too often true that the poor man’s money is the worst spent in the market, and too often true that the poor man’s food is the worst cooked and served at home. In this matter of nutrition is a verification of the Seriptural passage: ‘To him that hath shall be given, and from him that hath not shall be taken even that which he hath.”
From the hygienic standpoint also the demand for increased knowl- edge of this kind is imperative. A large part of the diseases formerly attributed to old age is due, in greater or less degree, to errors in diet.
Earnest and intelligent investigation of food and the relative nutri- tive value of various kinds is needed, and the facts found in these researches should be widely seattered among the people of the United States. And it must not be forgotten that here, as elsewhere, the knowledge which has the most immediate, practical value must be based upon research of the highest scientifie order.
Cooperation by the agricultural colleges and experiment stations will be sought in these investigations. To Mr. Edward Atkinson, economist and publicist, of Boston, Mass., and to the distinguished physiological chemist, Prof. W. O. Atwater, of the Wesleyan University at Middle- town, Conn., the Department and the American people are very much indebted because of their earnest, intelligent researches in, and unself- ish devotion to, the science of nutrients and nutrition.
If such investigations are considered by such men worthy of their diligent and untiring pursuit, how much more ought the same subjects to be of interest to the teachers and pupils of the schools of this Repub- lic! As civilization advances, the time approaches when the proper
40 YEARBOOK OF THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
use of nutrients and the correct nutrition of the human body will be regarded as indispensable to the proper education of every American boy or girl.
A farmers’ bulletin, containing an elementary discussion of the nutri- tive value and pecuniary economy of foods is now nearly ready for distri- bution. Fully one-half of all the money earned by the wage earners of the civilized world is expended by them for food. In this paper the first lessons are given in the proper selection and economy in the use of food materials. But an economy of food is not the only thing desir- able. More important than this is the question of cooking food in such manner as will in the greatest degree promote the public health.
The following extract from the farmers’ bulletin on foods, above referred to, was given to the newspapers of the United States some weeks since. It contributed to a discussion of the discrepancy between the price of flour to the baker and the price of bread from the baker, which has made better loaves and more nutriment for less money in many cities throughout the country. All eat bread—they have been benefited. Relatively few make bread, and they have not been unjustly treated:
THE COST OF BREAD.
The chief difference in the composition of flour and bread is the proportions of water, which makes about one-cighth the weight of flour and one-third that of the bread. The average composition of wheat flour and the bakers’ bread made from it is about as follows:
Comparison of flour and bread.
Nutrients. Fuel Water. | : | Sigh ile Ser Ta | eee | athotaik: | Protein.| Fats, |Carbehy-| Mineral | of one
| j
| drates. | matters.| pound. | |
| | | Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent.| Calories. Wheat flour ....-.........--- 12 | 88 | 11 1 | 75 1 2, 000
‘ | | i 1 TMOTR WPORIG. «3 me pein es o's 32 | 68 9 2 | 56 | 1 1,300
In making the bread a little butter or lard, salt, and yeast, and considerable water, either by itself or in milk, are added to the flour. The yeast causes carbohydrates (sugar, etc.) to ferment, yielding alcohol and carbonic acid in the form of gas, which makes the dough porous. In the baking the alcohol is changed to vapor and the carbonic acid is expanded, making the bread still more porous, and both are mostly driven off. Part of the water escapes with them. The amount of sugar and other carbohydrates lost by the fermentation is not very large, generally from 13 to 2 per cent of the weight of the flour used. With the increase in the proportion of water in the bread as compared with the flour the proportion of nutrients is diminished, but the addition of shortening and salts brings up the fat and minerals in the bread so that the proportions are larger than in the flour.
In practice 109 pounds of flour will make from 133 to 137 pounds of bread, an average being about 136 pounds.
Flour, such as is used by bakers, is now purchased in the Eastern States at not over $iperbarrel, This would make the cost of the flour ina pound of bread about 14
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 41
cents. Allowing one-half cent for the shortening and salt, which is certainly very liberal, the materials for a pound of bread would cost not more than 2 cents. Of course there should be added to this the cost of labor, rent, interest on investment, expense of sclling, ctc., to make the actual cost to the baker.
Very few accurate weighings and analyses of bakers’ bread have been made in this country, so far as I am aware, but the above statements represent the facts as nearly as I have been able to obtain them.
The average weight of a number of specimens of 10-cent loaves purchased in Mid- dletown, Conn., was 1} pounds. This makes the price to the consumer 8 cents per pound. The prico of bread and the size of the loaf are practically the same now as when the flour cost twice as much.
The cost of bakers’ bread is a comparatively small matter to the person who only buys a loaf now and then, but in the Kastern States and in the larger towns through- out the country many people, and especially those with moderate incomes and the poor, buy their bread of the baker. Six cents a pound, or eyen half that amount, for the manufacture and distribution seems a very large amount.
In the large cities competition has made bread much cheaper, but even there the difference between the cost of bread to the well-to-do family who bake it themselves and to the family of the poor man who buy it of the baker is unfortunately large.
DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY.
On April 26, 1894, Prof. C. V. Riley, for many years the chief of the Division of Entomology of the United States Departinent of Agriculture, submitted his resignation. That communication states: “This action, which I have for some time contemplated, is taken without suggestion from or consultation with you (the Secretary of Agriculture) or anyone else, but purely for the reasons mentioned.” Among those reasons is stated “‘a due regard for the wishes of family and for health.”
The services of Professor Riley to American entomology, extending over nearly a generation, are fully known and justly appreciated in the United States and in foreign lands. His resignation for the reasons which he cogently stated compelled its own acceptance and released him from arduous and taxing duties. Mr. L. O. Howard, who had during nearly the entire incumbency of Professor Riley been the assistant entomologist, and who had already earned a reputation as a scientific man and an economic entomologist, was promoted immedi- ately to the position of chief of the division, and then, by order of the President of the United States, the division was classified into the civil service, so as to include both the chief and assistant chief.
In the year 1894 diligent attention has been paid to ascertaining the exact localities in the several Eastern States where the San Jose or pernicious scale of California is alleged to have made its appearance. The method of the dissemination of this pest has been found, and the nurserymen concerned in its spread have been induced to make Strenuous efforts for its destruction.
Insects injurious to stored grains have also been under continuous investigation, and a full report thereupon, with results of remedial
experimentation, will soon be given to the public. 1 a4 2*
42 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Investigations of the chinch bug have been extended in certain Western States, in cooperation with the Department, and facts of practical value, bearing upon the relations of agricultural methods and climate to the propagation of the chinch bug, have been ascertained.
The insect enemies of the orange and other citrus fruits have been dili- gently studied, and much valuable material collected for an additional report upon this subject. In harmony with the provisions of the appro- priation bill, cotton inseets have been the subject of much research. Inquiries were made in the States of Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama, where results of practical value have been reached.
A new and very active enemy of the cotton crop has been discov- ered recently in Texas, where it was introduced from Mexico. Itis in the shape of a weevil, which bores into the bolls. The study of this insect has been begun. A special agent was sent to the agricultural sections of Mexico recently opened up by railways, who has forwarded to the Division of Entomology many interesting specimens and many valuable data which will serve to familiarize the people with other injurious insects which are liable to be imported from Mexico to the United States.
The experimental work against predaceous and destructive insects has been continued, mainly in the line of testing new machinery and in determining the effects of insecticide mixtures upon the foliage of plants at different seasons, and in determining the usefulness of these insecticides against the new peach scale and the San Jose or perni- cious seale of fruit trees above referred to. The publication of a series of leaflets or circulars upon insects especially dangerous to horticul- ture has been commenced. A manual of bee culture is completed, and one bulletin has been contributed to the series of the division and another to the series of the farmers’ bulletins.
DIVISION OF VEGETABLE PATHOLOGY.
The diligent study of the diseases of cereal crops and fruits has been continued by this division during the entire year. Recognizing the vast value of the cereal crops produced in this country, and the immense losses accruing to them because of the attacks of certain diseases, particularly rusts and smuts, an expert investigator was appointed early in the year to take charge of this particular line of inquiry.
In the laboratory of the division at Washington, pear blight, diseases affecting the melons of the South, diseases of cereals, and diseases of fruits of the Pacific Coast and of Florida have been investigated. It has been ascertained that a simple and inexpensive treatment used early in the spring will almost completely hold in check a disease of the leaves of the peach tree which has recently damaged fruit growers many thousands of dollars. The remedy has been tested among the
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 43
peach orchards of California and the eastern portion of the United States and has proved highly efficacious. Several other diseases of plants and fruit trees are now under investigation with excellent prob- abilities of discovering a successful remedy. A branch station of this division in Florida is particularly devoting itself to the study of the diseases of citrus fruits and other subtropical plants.
DIVISION OF ORNITHOLOGY AND MAMMALOGY.
The work of this division divides itself into two attractive subjects. The first is the geographic distribution of animals, and the second the study of injurious and useful birds and mammals. Under the first head enough data have now been collected to finally solve the problem of tem- perature control of the geographic distribution in North America of animals and plants. Their laws of distribution have been formulated, and the result of the investigation will be published in a few months. The study of life zones has extended over large areas in the West. The field work has covered twenty-five (25) States and Territories west of the Mississippi River, and also embraced Pennsylvania and three of the Southern States.
Two groups of mammals very injurious to agriculture, the California jack rabbit and the pocket gopher of the plains and the Mississippi Valley, have received attention during the year. An exhaustive study has been made of the pocket gopher, the results of which will appear in a popular bulletin on his food habits, his injury to crops, and the methods of extermination.
During the inquiry into the food of birds and mammals, three thou- sand four hundred and twenty (3,420) stomachs of birds were added to the collection, and fourteen hundred and forty (1,440) of them were carefully examined. The stomachs of many mammals were dissected in the laboratory and in the field. A report on the food habits of the kingbird, with special reference to its habits relating to agriculture and horticulture, has been prepared. There has also been completed a leaf- let on the food habits of the woodpecker, and a similar one on the food habits of blackbirds.
Some species of beautifully plumaged and useful birds are being exterminated in the United States to satisfy the barbaric demand for ornithological ornamentation of feminine head wear. By educating the public mind to a better understanding of birds, their interesting hab- its and uses to man, this division is doing much to prevent this and other similarly cruel and senseless practices which, if not arrested, will result in the total destruction of many of our most beautiful and useful American birds. | .
The eminent scientist at the head of this division, Dr. C. Hart Mer- riam, and his capable assistant have been, by order of the Pres‘dent, placed in the classified service.
44 YEARBOOK OF THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
DIVISION OF BOTANY.
During 1894 a great amount of agitation and some trepidation has existed in certain Northwestern States relative to the Russian thistle and its possible detrimental and universal dissemination throughout the Northwest. The Division of Botany, therefore, made a special effort to systematically collect information as to this newly arrived emigrant weed and to provide methods for its speedy repressment and eradication. One result of this inquiry is that the seeds of new grasses and forage plants from abroad will be hereafter, for the public protec- tion, very carefully inspected as to their freedom from weed seeds. If possible, it might be well to require certification as to freedom from weed seeds and absolute purity and vitality of all seeds imported into the United States. A laboratory has been equipped and a special assistant detailed to give his entire time to the study of seeds with regard to their purity, vitality, and improvement.
The census of 1890 shows the value of farms in the United States. which are entirely devoted to seed growing to be over eighteen mil- lions of dollars ($18,000,000). The export of clover seed alone during the year ending June 30, 1894, is estimated at four million five hundred and forty thousand dollars ($4,540,000). The export of American seeds may be vastly increased by exalting the standard of purity and ger- ininating vitality and giving all other peoples the same guaranty that we ask of them. The same course will increase the domestic use of American-grown seed. When information as to its high quality has been diffused, this course will vastly widen the world markets for Ameri- xan seed and so enhance their value by giving increasing demand every- where.
DIVISION OF FORESTRY.
The greater part of the appropriation for the Division of Forestry has been expended during the present year in investigating the strength of different timber woods and the conditions that influence their quality. The importance of such an inquiry was pointed out in the Report of the Secretary of Agriculture for 1893. Attention was also called to the unqualified commendations which had been bestowed upon this work not only in the United States but in foreign countries. The full value of the investigation will not be apparent until it has been carried to a successful termination, when the accumulated data will be carefully collated, with the intent of discovering the laws which give different degrees of strength to different varieties of timber. A knowledge of such Jaws will make the everyday use of timber in building much safer and more satisfactory than it has been. The financial and economi«¢ value of these timber examinations can hardly be estimated at the present moment.
The practice of “boxing” pine trees for turpentine, it has been dis- covered, does not decrease the strength of the lumber. This discovery alone, it is stated, will add two millions of dollars to the value of the
Pos
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 45
pineries of the Southern States which are being “ bled” for turpentine. It is further established that the long-leaf pine of the South is gen- erally far stronger than heretofore admitted, and, therefore, for strue- tures like bridges, trestles, and rooftrees made of this timber it is prac- ticable to effect a saving of 25 per cent of material without reducing the factor of safety. This saving applies to about two million M. feet of longleaf pine timber annuaily used for such purposes, and the present money value of that saving of long-leaf pine lumber can be caleulated at six millions of dollars ($6,000,000). These facts may ren- der possible the extension of the time in which our forest supplies of this most valuable timber must be exhausted. This line of work, which establishes the true value of our varieties of timber, should be pushed to a conclusion as rapidly as possible. Therefore it has been recommended that Senate bill No. 313, making a special appropriation of forty thousand dollars ($40,000) for the completion of this work, be passed whenever the people seem to demand it and the condition of the public Treasury may permit such an expenditure.
Inquiry into the rate of growth and production of the most valuable lumber trees is needed in order to properly estimate the profit that may be derived from forest management. Only the white pine and the black spruce have so far been partly examined. But the information obtained is so valuable that it makes more apparent than ever the necessity of similar investigations upon other timber trees. Inquiries have been made, and are in progress, as to the principles and effectiveness of dry kilns for lumber, and also as to the increase in the use of metal for railroad ties and other processes of economy in the use of wood for railroad construction.
Popular instruction as to the disastrous results upon adjacent agricul. tural valleys of the denudation of hills and mountains should be given in every schoolhouse in the Union. Professor Rothrock, of Pennsy]- vania, and Dr. Fernow, the chief of the Division of Forestry of the United States Department of Agriculture, have shown themselves effi- cient teachers and workers in this regard. The deforestation of the American Continent will practically be an accomplished fact within another century unless systematic and intelligent reafforestation be speedily inaugurated.
DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY.
The Division of Chemistry, in harmony with the provisions of the appropriation act, has during the past year devoted itself to the inves- tigation of the adulteration of foods, drugs, and liquors, and to the prosecution of experiments in sugar production. Examinations for the usual adulterations have been made of large numbers of specimens of meals, flours, and breads; but in no instance has there been found an adulteration of American flour with terra alba or any other material. It is gratifying to know withal that while this sort of adulteration is
46 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
practiced largely in foreign countries, it has not obtained foothold in the United States. The only deceptions in the flour trade have been found in the substitution of cheaper grades for dearer ones. In bread the chief adulterant found has been alum. That substance is added for the purpose of whitening the loaf.
Wines have been examined very thoroughly; especially have adul- terants been sought for in the coloring matter used. Itisimpossible to tell by chemical analysis whether any given amount of alcohol found in wines is natural or artificial. The Division of Chemistry has ascer- tained that the pure wines of the United States and the pure wines produced in Europe are not very dissimilar in many cases. Where there are differences, they have been carefully determined and defined.
The chemical examinations of the typical soils of the United States have been commenced, and a series of pot experiments have been begun, having for their object the practical test of the several methods of analysis heretofore adopted and the actual powers of plants to assimi- late different kinds of food inthe soil. Itis sought in this way to learn approximately the available plant food in each type of soil. In eon- junction with this, a thorough study of the nitrifying organisms of the sous has also been commenced. In addition to the above work, numerous inquiries as to the methods of analysis have been carried out, and a great number of miscellaneous samples have been analyzed.
DIVISION OF POMOLOGY.
During the year Mr. 8. B. Heiges, of Pennsylvania, a horticulturist of long experience and of practical skill, was made chief of the division, and it is to-day in better working order than ever before since its erea- tion. By order of the President it has been placed wholly in the classified civil service, from the chief and assistant chief down to the messengers.
The division is principally engaged in correspondence with fruit growers; in critical examination and comparison of specimen fruits received from them for identification, description, and illustration of such specimens as may seem worthy of record and propagation. All new and improved varieties of this sort are modeled and colored.
During the year close attention has been given to the investiga- tion of the varieties of the apple. Notwithstanding the almost total failure of the crop, some two hundred (200) specimens of new or little- known varieties of apples—some of which promise to be very valuable— have been received. Beside these many old varieties which had been catalogued and planted as new have been identified as to their origin and character.
The damaging frosts of the last week in March were made the sub- ject of investigation during the month of April, and the results were published in a special circular with the report of the Statistician for May. Important facts were developed in the course of this inquest which will
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. A7
be of great value to peach growers. Noticeable among them is the fact that certain groups or families of the Persian race of peaches bloom later than others in the South, and they are therefore less likely to have their fruit cut off by frosts. This discovery is of great value, and esti- mated to be worth, in dollars and cents, many times the expense of the investigation. Numerous scions and plants of promising varieties have been experimentally planted during the year.
Among the principal importations by the Division of Pomology are col- lections of fig cuttings from England and citron cuttings from Corsica.
DIVISION OF ACCOUNTS.
Congress appropriated to the United States Department of Agricul- ture for the year ending June 30, 1894, exclusive of the appropriation of seven hundred and twenty thousand dollars ($720,000) for agricultural experiment stations, $2,603,500. Of this amount one million seven hun- dred and ninety thousand five hundred and thirty dollars and seventy cents ($1,790,530.70) were disbursed prior to July 1, 1894. In addition to this sum there remained at that date unpaid bills aggregating $200,000. The payment of these will make the total expenditures for the fiscal year 1894 $1,990,530.70. In other words, when the accounts of the Department of Agriculture for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1894, shall have been finally adjusted there will be covered back $600,000 into the United States Treasury, or about 23 per cent of the entire appropriation.
Tor the last fiscal year 31 specific appropriations were made, and 15 subappropriations which required separate and distinct accouuts.
During the year 11,863 accounts were received, audited, and paid. They included the supplemental accounts of 1893, which amounted to $1,967,842.79. Ninety-three requisitions were drawn on the United States Treasury in liquidation of those accounts, aggregating $2,014,809.95. Those requisitions were in settlement of 19,100 checks, _ exclusive of about $450,000 paid in currency over the counter.
During the year 59 separate amounts were received from various sources from the sale of condemned Government property. That and other similarly derived moneys were deposited in the United States Treasury to the credit of “Miscellaneous receipts,” as provided by law. They aggregated $7,135.
During the twelve months ending June 30, 1894, the expenditures chargeable to the appropriations for that fiscal year were less by $386,364.83 than the expenditures during the twelve months end- ing June 30, 1893, chargeable to the appropriations for that year— an average monthly reduction of $32,197.07. Attention is called to the statement of the Annual Report of the Department of Agricul- ture submitted on the 20th of November, 1893, in which the hope is expressed that a saving may be made of 12 per cent, and to the fact that the present report justifies that hope and verifies all that has been claimed as to economy in the present management.
48 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The statements of the several divisions of the Department show that efficiency has not been sacrificed to economy, because in each division it is observable that more and better work has been accomplished during the last twelve months than during any previous twelve months of their existence.
The total appropriations for 1894-95 are less by $104,476.94 than those for the year 1893-94. And this decrease occurs notwithstanding anew appropriation of $10,000 for nutrition and the fact that the seed fund included $30,000 for farmers’ bulletins. The estimates for 1896 are less by $98,693.06 than the appropriation for the current year.
The expenses of the Department of Agriculture from July 1 to Octo- ber 31, 1894, were less by $9,418.76 than during the parallei period of last year; and by $78,852.41 than during the period from July 1 to October 31, 1892, thus realizing the hope expressed in the report of the Secretary for 1895 that the reduction then referred to would be made permanent.
-There were upon the pay rolls of the Department, in the city of Washington, on March 1, 1893, 750 persons, with salaries aggregating $54,764.82 per month.
On March 1, 1894, the rolls showed 622 names, with salaries amount- ing to $49,085.66 per month.
On November 1, 1894, there were 559 employees, with salaries aggre- gating $45,557.74 per month; a reduction of 191 in the number of employees between March 1, 1893, and November 1, 1894, and a saving in the amount of salaries of $9,207.08 per month.
Comparative statement showing amount of appropriations for the Department of Agricul-
ture for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1895, and amount of estimates submitted by the Secretary of Agriculture for the fiscal ending June 30, 1896.
eee ees for! Ierease. | Decrease. MiCO OF TNO SOCLEUBLY. 6 o.c.o che <po:nieiajoia.a'e ona s(oeiae|~,2 $91, 140. 00 $94, 140. 00.| .$3;,000800) \o opie obec Division of Accounts and Disbursements ......- 17, 300. 00 17, 509. 00 200,100 ero oe mene oes PIP ISIOM OL EIUISULCS acre ome caicareicnisisceariclss ¢ 145, 360. 00 145, 160/00 | 2.22 eee $200. 00 DI RISIOMIOL Olay te te ae de soe celtad hace di siciale 38, 609. 00 33,1800: 00714 2 tee, Semen 4, 800. 00 Dinision of MutomOlooy, 2 ae. as bo. Seine sini s «\- 29, 809. 00 29/500/00s) 2 eee 300. 00 Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy ....... 27, 369. 00 27, 560. 00 2005008 eo =~ aac ke i ES ON, ae ae a | a a 11, 300. 00 12, 590. 00 1, 2O0ORO0: [Pees contacto DEED OL MLOTOUCODY 2-5 oie 3 Sec.5 pric eine Swine 7, 300. 00 7, 300:\00¢| 7s ecko see eee Se sees Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology. 26, 100. 00 26, 500. 00 400: 00 |555 eS So dah ne BOUT ISIOT OTT MOMAARIT US one po, ¥ oyun Ae oc daee tds wets 32, 000. 00 32,000. :00,,\ soc. ane. -ed eee SOIT OF EOMNONE foes 22 sure dee ane exon ope 2d 28, 320. 00 33, 520. 00 5, 200.000 sacs opleneeete Division of Publications (Records and Editing)... 8, 109. 09 8, 300. 00 2005.00" | tpiaktes aerate pean Of Tlustrations 2.5.24. et. 8 15, 000. 00 15, 000::00 |. S10... cncec aeeereane Farmers’ Bulletins (Division of Sceds) .......... 177, 520. 00 56, 000 R003 |t <eeemceseee 121, 520. 00 Document and Folding Room.................... 5, 600. 00 9, 040. 00 8, £40: 00 |... + anen enue EES ied ens wx mperp ice ba ¥ier's veeecd yecvacuaant 5, 400. 00 6, 400.00 |... oat elev eee LADEALY 2 bch eyes SPR gS OE ENTER ar: 6, 000. 00 G; 000;(00.')2 = cet. eee es eee Agricultural experiment stations............... 745, 000. 00 750, 000. 00 5000; 005 |B ieemes seme Experimental gardens and grounds.............. 32, 090. 00 28 50000) denen ee 3, 500. 00 Furniture, cases, and repairs......--cccccccccees 10, 000. 00 10, 000/00) |. ccna eee eta eee DO lev senetecruardeveusupie ssh) sesconvecnas 5, 000. 00 > 000; 00 Weucssageeane 3, 000. 00
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. AY
Comparative stalement showing amount of ap} a iations, etc.—Continued.
| Appropzia. : ane for Increase. | Decrease. - ¥ | vere
SEMMMENT OXDOUGES. 00-06 o0 2 ecw cence secncecncs $25, 000. 00 Wi ee ae Sane Investigations with relation toagricultural soils.!.............. 15, 000. 00 | $15, 000. 00 | To acces Inquiries relating to public roads................ 10, 000. 00 10, 000: GR P25 02 2.002. Le. ese. oe. Experiments in the manufacture of sugar....... 10, 000. 00 a Ee a fee eee eersoauonimrestigations.........4...-0.--2+0054- 6, 000. 00 8, 000. 00 | DOO. OD) «rok tev eo Memerition investications:............ 000500 ccceee 10, 600. 00 | 16; 000; 00°) *\'5,; 000.00 |e. foc Le. oo.
Investigations, ctc., with grasses and forage | | SED Marne = ons ce eip nhs on sean cineepaea|sonnnaneo cise os 15, 000.00 | 15, 000. 00 cetete reese BPMN EAN WESTIGAUIONS .. 2... ccc cc seen ce cwccccesees 9; 000, 00 loo ans cles ees eee Peer | $5, 000. 00 Bureau of Animal Industry...................-.. 800, 000.00 | 800,000.00 |............ Masts, OE 12,000.00 | 12, 000,00 |............ 2 ae ape EE ee ee 876, 823.06 | 860,610.00 |............ | 16, 213. 06 a 3, 219, 023.06 | 3,120, 330.00 | 55,840.00 | 154,533. 06 IRIE Ce te oy Sie. AoE cube chott tal sslods RAE os CSAS S FOS neo ae See ee 98, 693. 06
Nore.—The amount appropriated for the office of the Secretary for the fiscal year 1895, as itemized in the bill passed August 8, 1894, was $94,140; but, by an error in printing, was stated as $91,140.
Notre.—The amount appropriated for seeds for the fiscal year 1895 was divided as follows: Purchase of seeds, $130,000; farmers’ bulletins, $30,000; salaries, $12,120; printing, $5,400.
Nore.—The amount appropriated for agricultural experiment stations for the fiscal year 1895 includes $720,000 for State experiment stations, over which the Department of Agriculture has no control. This statement also applies to the amount estimated for the fiscal year 1896.
The Department of Agriculture expended for the fiscal year 1892 $2,271,312.72; and out of that sum the total amount expended in scien- tific research was 46.2 per cent. Tor the fiscal year 1893 the expendi- tures were $2,354,809.56, and out of it only 45.6 per cent was expended in the application of science to agriculture. But for the year ending June 30, 1894, out of a total expenditure of $1,990,530.70 (estimated), the Department applied 51.8 to scientific work and investigation.
It is, therefore, very plainly observable that the economies which have been practiced in the administration of the Department have not impaired its capacity for scientific research. Comparing the expendi- tures for the fiscal years 1893 and 1894, respectively, it is noticeable that the total expenditures for 1894 are $364,278.86 less than the total for 1893. But the per cent of the total amount paid out for scientific work, as distinguished from the administration and general business, is 5.6 per cent more, in proportion to the total expenditures during the year 1894, than it was in 1892, and 6.2 more than it was in 1893. And yet during the year, as has been already shown, the new Division of Agricultural Soils has been established and the new Section of Agros- tology erected in the Division of Botany.
It has been deemed desirable to reproduce here a full statement of the expenses of this Department for a period of fifteen years, from 1878 to 1892, inclusive, showing the objects of the several appropriations and the amount appropriated to each branch of the work. This statement presents in a condensed and practical manner a full history of the devel- opment of the Department.*
“For convenience these tables are omitted from this report and will be published in the form of a circular.
50 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
DIVISION OF RECORDS AND EDITING.
The Division of Records and Editing has issued during the past fiscal year two hundred and five (205) different publications. Fifty-six (56) of these were printed at the Weather Bureau. The remainder were pub- lished at the office of the Public Printer. All editions of the above publications aggregate 3,169,310 copies. They contained 10,512 pages. Farmers’ bulletins were increased in numbers so as to make it possible to economically reach many readers. The reduction in the cost of printing for this Department during the year as compared with the previous twelve months is nearly $20,000. It is suggested, neverthe- less, that an increase in the printing fund is necessary if all the infor- mation acquired by the Department through its several divisions is to be promptly printed, published, and disseminated.
In harmony with the Report of the Secretary of Agriculture for 1893, it is urged that the vicious system of promiscuous free distribution of departmental documents should be abandoned. Public libraries, educational institutions, and the offices of States and of the Federal Government might be furnished without cost, but from all individuals applying for the publications of the Department a price covering the cost of the document asked for should be required. Thus the publica- tions and documents would be secured by those who really desire them for proper purposes. Half a million of copies of the Report of the Sec- retary of Agriculture are printed for distribution, at an annual cost of about $300,000. Many of these reports apportioned to members of the Senate and House of Representatives remain undistributed. Large numbers of the annual reports of this Department have been found cumbering the storerooms at the Capitol and the shelves of second- hand bookstores throughout the country. All this labor and waste could be avoided if payment of cost price were demanded for all Government publications.
As long as the custom or law requires the annual issuance of half a million of copies of this report, it is obviously the duty of those who make up thatdocument to strive to render it instructive, interesting, and useful to all the people. It ought to contain the results of the researches made in the various bureaus and laboratories during the year, and should be so plainly written and popular in its character as to adapt itself to the practical farmer and be held in esteem by him as a work of reference on agricultural science, practice, and statistics. Such a handbook by the Department of Agriculture, with all purely executive matter eliminated, might prove of infinite service in the advancement and exaltation of the vocation of agriculture throughout the United States.
The chairman of the House Committee on Printing favorably reported a resolution at the last session of Congress providing for the printing of the report of this Department in two parts. As it passed the House
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 51
the resolution and the report of the committee, containing a letter from the Secretary of Agriculture with reference thereto, are appended. [H. Res. 198, to print Agricultural Report for 1894. }
Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture for the year eighteen hundred and ninety-four be printed. Said report shall hereafter be submitted and printed in two parts, as follows: Part one, which shall contain purely business and executive matter which it is necessary for the Secretary to submit to the President and Congress; part two, which shall contain such reports from the different bureaus and divisions, and such papers prepared by their special agents, accompanied by suitable illustrations as shall, in the opinion of the Secretary, be specially suited to interest and instruct the farmers of the country, and to include a general report of the operations of the Department for their information. There shall be printed of part one, one thousand copies for the Senate, two thousand copies for the House, and three thousand copies for the Department of Agriculture; and of part two, one hundred and ten thousand copies for the use of the Senate, three hun- dred and sixty thousand copies for the use of the House of Representatives, and thirty thousand copies for the use of the Department of Agriculture, the illustra- tions for the same to be executed under the supervision of the Public Printer, in accordance with directions of the Joint Committee on Printing, said illustrations to be subject to the approval of the Secretary of Agriculture: Provided, That the title of 2ach of the said parts shall be such as to show that such part is complete in itself.
Passed the House of Representatives June 29, 1894.
[Report to accompany H. Res. 198.]
The Committee on Printing have considered House joint resolution No. 198, to print Agricultural Report for 1894, and report same with recommendation that it do pass.
The committee are of the opinion that it is wise to print said report in two parts, us provided in tho resolution, with contents divided as suggested. This proposed change has been submitted to the Department of Agriculture, and has the approval of the Secretary, as shown by the letter from him herewith submitted.
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY, Washington, D. C., June 21, 1894.
Sir: I believe that the Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture, distrib- uted to the farmers of the country in such large numbers, could be greatly improved by publishing it in two separate parts, as follows:
Part 1 to contain purely business and executive matter, which it is necessary for the Seeretary to submit to the President and Congress.
Part 2 to include such carefully prepared and selected matter, with proper illus- trations, as will especially interest and benefit the farmers of the country, excluding everything that belongs to Part 1 and including a general report on the work of the Department, written with special reference to the needs of the farming public.
The advantages of such a division of the report are so apparent that no argument is needed to support them. The plan will give this Department the opportunity to prepare a report which will interest and benefit the farming classes more than anything which has hitherto been issued from it.
If this division is to be made it will be necessary that this Department be notified so that it can give early instructions to the chiefs of bureaus and divisions, who will soon begin the preparation of the annual report to be submitted on the 1st of December. I would respectfully suggest, therefore, the incorporation of some provision like that inclosed in the printing bill now under consideration by your committee.
Respectfully, yours, J. STERLING Morron, Secretary. Hon. James D. RicHarpson, Chairman Committee on Printing, House of Representatives, Washington, D. C.
52 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
In view of the possibly favorable action of the Senate on the forego- ing resolution, the several chiefs of the various bureaus and divisions of the Department of Agriculture have been directed to prepare their reports in accordance therewith. It is believed that the result will supply a more useful, practical, instructive, and popular report than the late method has heretofore furnished to the public.
DEPARTMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
The constantly increasing demands for the printing of various blanks, letter heads, envelopes, circulars, ete., for use in the different divisions and bureaus has been promptly and satisfactorily met by the printing office under the control of this Department. Much of the work is needed for immediate use, and the ability to furnish it without delay demonstrates the efficiency of the present management. This office also prints the packets used in the distribution of seeds, of which, in September, October, and November, 4,747,550 were delivered to the Seed Division. During the year 1892-93, and for many years previous, the force consisted of 17 employees, working the entire year. In Novem- ber, 1893, the force was reduced to 7 employees for twelve months and 8 temporary employees for seven months. During the first six months of the present year the number of impressions amounted to 8,210,110, against 5,201,665 during the same period of the preceding year; so that, with half the force, a third more work is now done, and that, too, of an improved quality.
DOCUMENT AND FOLDING ROOM.
The manual labor in this division has been nearly doubled, owing to the largely increased number of publications which have been issued during the past year. Notwithstanding this, the work of the division has been accomplished with celerity and certainty, although the force of employees has been considerably less than during the preceding year.
A record has been kept, for the first time since the establishment of the division, during the entire year,’ which shows each and every pub- lication mailed from the Department of Agriculture. Three times as many packages were transmitted by the Department through the mails during the year as were sent out during the previous twelve months.
During the year this division committed to the mails of the United States two million two hundred thousand (2,200,000) pieces of franked mail matter.
The correspondence of the Document and Folding Room naturally increased very largely during the year, but it has been handled most efficiently by the clerical force. The entire mailing list of the Depart- ment is being revised and compiled so as to eliminate duplications from the mailing list. Already, in this readjustment of that list, dupli- cation and triplication of names have been frequently discovered.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 53
One address, indeed, has been found receiving twelve copies of each publication.
During the year there were purchased two patent mailing machines, which will very materially facilitate the addressing of documents.
DIVISION OF GARDENS AND GROUNDS.
The gardens and grounds of the Department of Agriculture, contain- ing forty (40) acres, demand the constant attention of the superintend- ent and his subordinates. Glass structures cover nearly an acre of this reservation, and necessarily require the closest daily care and labor.
Several of the glass structures are used for the propagation of plants, of which many are used to embellish the grounds; but the larger por- tion, mainly those of economic value, are distributed throughout the States and Territories. During the last year there were thus distrib- uted 75,000 plants.
The expenditures upon gardens and grounds for the fiscal year are somewhat reduced. At the present rate the salaries: are $3,000 less than those of the last fiscal year. It is impossible to make any exact estimates as to the possible miscellaneous expenditures, in the future, of this division. Exigencies may occur which can not be computed with any degree of exactness before their necessity arises. In any event the appropriation recommended is deemed sufficient for this division.
OFFICE OF ROAD INQUIRY.
October 3, 1893, in pursuance of the act of Congress appropriating ten thousand dollars ($10,000) “to enable the Secretary of Agriculture to make inquiries in regard to the systems of road management through- out the United States, to make investigations in regard to the best methods of roadmaking, to prepare publications on this subject suitable for distribution, and to enable him to assist the agricultural colleges and experiment stations in disseminating information on this subject,” the Office of Road Inquiry was instituted and Gen. Roy Stone, of New York, appointed to take charge thereof.
During the nine months of the fiscal year the work was necessarily of a tentative character. Bulletins Nos. 1 to 9, inclusive, of the Office of Road Inquiry, were collected, compiled, and published. These bulle- tins have been in such demand that first editions have, in many instances, been exhausted and reprints required.
During the year General Stone, besides attending to the literary work of the office, has attended and addressed conventions and meet- ings relative to road improvement in various States. It is proposed to increase the work of the office the coming year, to extend the inquiry
on the same lines, and to publish maps showing the mileage of improved
roads constructed in the United States during the last three years. The cooperation of the agricultural colleges aud experiment stations will be
54 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
sought, so as to advance and disseminate a knowledge of the economic advantages of good roads and of the best methods of constructing them.
DIVISION OF STATISTICS.
There is no phrase in the English language which, by implication, conveys the impression of so much vast and exact knowledge as the word statistics. Literally it means “a state of,” ‘a condition,” or “a standing.” It depicts, to one accustomed to dwell upon tabulated facts and figures, the mental image of a curious collection of valuable data and figures, caged in mathematical tables, for the purpose of elucidating facts which may be used in the further investigation of special subjects.
Statistical investigations should always be made in accordance with the rule of the theory of mathematical probabilities that ‘numerical fractions express the value of the degree of presumption in favor of the correctness of a particular event, when the causes or conditions which influenced the result are partly it and partly indeterminate.”
Under this theory statisticians arrange results in numerical tables. Facts existing in large numbers are thus compactly and clearly set forth. Statisticians, therefore, should not be content with giving deduc- tions which admit of serious doubts. It is the duty of the statistician to supply credible materials whence anyone may, by examination and reasoning, evolve his own deductions.
But statistics do not consist entirely of columns of figures. Con- clusions may be fairly drawn only from well-attested data, though in many instances they may not be susceptible of mathematical demon- stration.
The particular object of this division of the United States Department of Agriculture is the ascertainment, by diligence and care, of the actual and real condition of the farms and farmers of this country. Its duty is to seek the causes which produced that condition. The utility of ascertaining the condition is in the service which the ascertained facts may render in improving or mitigating, intensifying or repressing, that condition.
A further important utility is found in agricultural statistics, through their elucidation of the relation of the supply of farm products to the demand for farm products in the markets of the United States, and in the other markets of the world. Before the statistician begins an investi- gation in any certain line he should be sure that the agriculture, com- merce, and manufactures of this country need to know the facts which he proposes to gather. And in all researches statisticians should be ready to receive suggestions from those versed, either by experience or obser- vation, in the sabject-which they consider, and they should be always without prejudice and ready to abandon with alacrity any hypotheses which they find untenable. The statistician’s collection of materials: should be willingly submitted, on demand, to any new tests which occa- sion may offer. And no statistician of an economic subject so vast as
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 55
that of the agriculture of the United States can approximate the truth with frequency and certainty, unless he has some knowledge of the calculus or computation of probabilities.
Enough has been stated to show that no person can become a suc- cessful statistician, an assistant statistician, the chief of a section in the Division of Statistics, or even a thoroughly competent clerk in that division, who is not well posted in the literature of European and American statistics. It is quite plain also that each person engaged in making up statistics for American use, from foreign tabulations, should be perfectly acquainted with the metric system of weights and measures. In that system all foreign statistics, except those of Great Britain, are computed.
COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS.
There is no line of investigation which requires more intellectual dis- cipline, more accuracy of judgment, more patience in research, more skill in combining and correlating facts and figures, or more special training for its pursuit, than the line followed by the painstaking and successful statistician. Holding such opinions, the Secretary of Agriculture is convinced that every person employed in gathering Statistics under the chief of that division should be admitted to that work only after a thorotgh, exhaustive, and successful examination at the hands of the United States Civil Service Commission. There- fore, he has called for such examinations, by that honorable body, of candidates for the positions of assistant statistician and for chiefs of sections in the Division of Statistics. When these examinations transpire, any employees now in that division of the Department of Agriculture are at liberty, with other competitors, to test their peculiar fitness and adaptation for that work by submitting to the examination.
It is quite certain that their long experience with the facts and figures that are received from day to day in that division will be no disad- vantage to them in the contest with outsiders who have had no such
eontact. STATE AND COUNTY AGENTS.
A fundamental objection to the present system of gathering agricul- tural statistics in the United States is the fact that correspondents, who are expected to furnish reliable data, are paid nothing for their work. The Government is endeavoring to get something for nothing. The only payments (for services) made to these thousands of corre- spondents in all the counties of each State and Territory are public documents, garden seeds, and a few postage stamps.
The service has been very much better than its compensation. Inthe several States and counties have been found very many zealous and enthusiastic men anxious to do this work. But they are the exception. Human nature, as a rule, is not desirous of doing diligent duty in any line without remuneration.
56 YEARBOOK OF THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
In addition to the county agents, the Federal Government has a State statistical agent in each State and Territory of the Union. The sala- ries for these agents range from $400 to $1,200 per annum each. Asa rule they are competent and accomplished men, but the service would be vastly improved if all these appointees were placed in the classified service, so that hereafter, when a vacancy occurs, the person appointed to fill it shall have passed an examination before the United States Civil Service Commission, demonstrating his fitness and adaptability for the proper discharge of the duties pertaining to the position.
WORK OF THE YEAR.
The Division of Statistics is, for convenience of administration, divided into four sections, as follows: Compilation and foreign statistics ; answers to Congressional inquiries and all verification of agricultural Statistics are conducted in this section. Records, files, and correspond- ence; the title of this section clearly expresses the nature of the duties assigned to it. Crop reporting, which covers all investigations into crop conditions, and collecting and tabulating the reports of corre- spondents. Freights; the work of this section consists in crosscheck- ing the compilation of crop reports, computations, and freights.
The total expenditures in behalf of the Division of Statistics, includ- ing salaries of employees, during the last year,-were one hundred and- ten thousand dollars ($110,000). |
During 1894 the Division of Statistics has enlarged its work upon the crops of the United States. The data for the final report for 1893, - containing estimates as to the area, product, and value of the principal: crops, were secured by the issuance of 135,000 interrogative circulars addressed to farmers and others who were selected for their high char- acter and intelligence.
Early in 1894 the usual investigation was made as to probable changes in the areas of the principal crops of the Republic, and the results of those inquiries were published in the report for May. The annual inquest as to the quantity of corn and wheat in farmers’ hands on the first day of March was thoroughly made, and the facts found were published in the report for March. It contained also a compar- ison with the corresponding data for a number of previous years and a review of the production and distribution of the several cereals for a term of years. Since then a carefully prepared review of the ‘‘supply and distribution of wheat for twenty-five years ” was given to the public. A tabulated statement showing the wholesale prices of a number of principal agricultural products at leading cities in all sections of the United States was also presented in the report of the Statistician for March, 1894.
Careful inquiry has been made as to the cost per bushelof producing . wheat and corn. Replies from thirty thousand (30,000) farmers and four thousand (4,000) experts were received. ‘Their findings were
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 57
published by States and by sections. The State findings were those of experts, and the findings as to particular sections were by leading farmers.
Two other inquiries made by the Division of Statistics were of great interest. The first related to the average weight of wool fleeces in the United States, and the second was relative to the health of the people in the several States and Territories, and was issued for the purpose of ascertaining the diseases most prevalent in each.
The annual table of the world’s wheat crop published by this division consists in part of official figures, and in part of such unofficial estimates as are deemed worthy of confidence. This table has been gradually increasing in correctness and accuracy. Its composition is a work of great care and diligent research, involving examination of reports in many languages.
In addition to these customary reports and publications, much time was spent in the preparation of special reports on a variety of subjects of interest to farmers and business men, which, as usual, found a place from time to time in the monthly reports.
AN ANNUAL AGRICULTURAL CENSUS.
Is it not probable that satisfactory statistics of the agriculture of the United States could be better obtained through State authorities? Each Commonwealth, in its labor bureau, or in some other of the executive branches of its government, could establish a properly paid bureau of Statistics, and through county agents gather reliable data quickly. The statistics thus collected would be sent by the commissioners in charge of statistics at the several State capitals directly to the Agri- cultural Department. In that manner possibly a more thorough, reliable, and credible collection of agricultural statistics might be made. If the tables are worth making at all, they are worth making correctly and credibly. If, however, the present system is to be continued, advantages would result from an annual census of agricultural acreages and crops. It is needed as a basis for even approximate accuracy in estimating crop conditions. To give the average condition of any crop in any State certain average weights are applied to each county esti- mate. Such weights should of course be based on the acreage of each crop in each county. As a fact, they are obtained apparently from acreages reported by preceding United States census, regardless of the increase or decrease from year to year in each county of the area devoted to the several crops. This fundamental fallacy seems to have permeated the agricultural statistics for many years, and it is clear that there must be only guarded and limited faith in the possible accuracy of the erop estimates of the Division of Statistics up to a very recent period of time. Effectual elimination of all possibility of such erroneous caleu- lations is only feasible by means of such an annual census of acrea ges, which might be taken by some of the experienced men who now report
58 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. .
to the Department, provided they are paid for the work. The precise information desirable by the taking of this census is as follows:
(1) The area under each of the more important crops.
(2) The aggregate product of each of such crops.
(3) The quantity of wheat and corn in the hands of farmers at a date after the spring sowings and plantings and before the beginning of harvest; and also the quantity of cotton and tobacco remaining in the hands of planters, either at the same date or at some other designated time.
(4) ‘The number of farm animals on the 1st of January of each year.
Such a census, to be carefully made by practical men, experienced in agriculture, who may be selected out of the large number of competent persons who have been doing gratuitous work in this line for many years, is very much favored by Mr. Henry A. Robinson, the efficient chief of the Division of Statistics. He estimates that the actual cost of collecting for the census certain agricultural statistics, which may be considered abcut equivalent as regards the labor of collection to those just proposed, would be not far from five hundred thousand dol- lars ($500,000), and desires that an appropriation of that sum for the work of collecting such statistics during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1896, be made.
In Great Britain the agricultural statistics are as nearly correct as possible, because each farm is accounted for as to the amount of acreage in each crep and as to the number of domestic animals of each species. Furthermore, the yield of each sown or planted crop per acre is given, together with the number of poultry, eggs, and pounds of butter pro- duced—all of which is signed by either the tenant farmer or the pro- prietor. This exactness is reached through the revenue systems of foreign countries. It might possibly be approximated in the various counties and States of the American Union through similar agencies, or by United States revenue collectors and their deputies. *
THE GRATUITOUS PROMISCUOUS DISTRIBUTION OF SEED.
The Secretary of Agriculture calls attention to the report of this Department for the year 1893, and particularly to page 17 thereof, under the head of *‘ Distribution of seed at the public expense.”
Briefly, he recommends that the purchase of seeds for gratuitous and promiscuous distribution be utterly abolished, and that not one cent be appropriated for such distribution.
During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1894, the Seed Division gave out to Senators, Representatives, and Delegates in Congress seven million four hundred and forty thousand nine hundred and eighteen (7,440,918) papers of vegetable seeds, six hundred and forty thousand and sixty-five (640,065) papers of flower seeds, sixty-three thousand seven hundred and forty-six (63,746) papers of tobacco seed, one hundred and eighty-two thousand five hundred and forty-two (182,542) papers of turnip seed, thirty-five (35) quarts of mangel-wurzel seed,
f
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 59
five hundred and twenty-one (521) quarts of sugar-beet seed, four thousand eight hundred and seventy-three (4,873) quarts of rape seed, fifty (50) quarts of oats, twenty-five (25) quarts of sorghum, eleven thousand seven hundred and six (11,706) quarts of corn, ten thousand one hundred and sixty-six (10,166) quarts of grass seed, nine thousand two hundred and ninety-three (9,293) quarts of clover seed, and twenty- one thousand one hundred and sixty-six (21,166) quarts of cotton seed.
In that distribution there were one hundred and seventy-seven (177) varieties of vegetable seed, sixty-five (65) of flower seed, seven (7) of tobacco, one (1) of wheat, five (5) of corn, three (3) of oats, one (1) of barley, five (5) of grass, four (4) of clover, six (6) of sorghum, one (1) of Kaffir corn, one (1) of Jerusalem corn, two (2) of millo maize, two (2) of soja beans, one (1) of cowpeas, one (1) of flat peas, one (1) of serradella, one (1) of spurry, one (1) of hairy vetch, one (1) of rape, eight (8) of turnips, three (3) of sugar beets, one (1) of mangel-wurzel, one (1) of peanuts, and ten (10) varieties of cotton.
In the distribution, Senators, Representatives, and Delegates in Con- gress sent out eight million three hundred and eighty-five thousand one hundred and twenty (8,385,120) packages; county statistical cor- respondents of the Agricultura] Department, five hundred and seven thousand six hundred and sixty-one (507,661); State statistical agents of the Department, one hundred and forty-one thousand one hundred and twenty-nine (141,129); experiment stations and experimental farms, fifty-two thousand two hundred and twenty-eight (52,228); agricultural associations and miscellaneous applicants, four hundred and sixty-nine thousand one hundred and eighty (469,180). So that the aggregate number of packages of seed gratuitously distributed by the Govern- ment of the United States in the fiscal year is nine million five hundred and fifty-five thousand three hundred and eighteen (9,555,318).
The cost of this enormous distribution, not including the carriage of the packages (which amount in weight to more than three hundred tons), as dead matter by the postal service, is as follows:
For the purchase and distribution of secds........-.-...---..2--------- $111, 242. 51 Payment of statutory salaries in Seed Division. ................ Sreplp oe 12, 400. 00 I aE Fe Sh es eo rid. ub ba dass < a cussinticp dase 123, 642. 51 That total is divided as follows: 8 IS ORE EOS SO ke RS RY od CORE te ee eee $56, 968. 66 aa Gat for freight and express charges.......-..-.-..-. ----0. ee-- coon 2, 858. 97 OED AG. ooo as xn Sarin bd db esd atees ee occ Sure w omaden.< 182. 08 Paid out for salary and expenses of special agent........-....--.....-- 3, 010. 59 Cost of seed delivered at Department. ....-...- seep 25-55 Weel ase 3, 020. 36 After the reception of the seed the Department paid— For labor in the seed room (laborers’ roll)..........--.-.-.-.2.-------- $34, 690. 75 ‘Skilled BG aR Ee SEES GOR PTC aie eT ee Pe ee on a 5, 643. 99 Paper bags, twine, tags, and other supplies. ...............-....------- 7, 887.47 ee Net ce owe cg coceckcu aenm 12, 400. 00
Cost of preparing seed for distribution...........- ae eee 60, 622. 21
60 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The above statement shows that $60,622.21 was spent in preparing seeds for distribution—a suin in the aggregate lacking less than $3,000 of the cost of the seed delivered. |
The cost per package of seed distributed is 1.29 cents, against 2 cents for the preceding year.
During the fiseal year 1892-93 the number of seed packages distrib- uted was seven million seven hundred and four thousand four hundred and sixty-four (7,704,464); and during the year 1893-94 the number of packages distributed is nine million five hundred and fifty-five thousand three hundred and eighteen (9,555,318). The total expenditure for the fiscal year 1892-93, including the statutory salaries and compensation of others detailed to this work, was one hundred and sixty thousand dollars ($160,000), and for the year 1893-94 one hundred and twenty- seven thousand seven hundred and eight dollars ($127,708).
The extravagance and inutility of these disbursements are apparent to any person who will investigate the results of the expenditure. That the distribution is regarded with very little interest is evidenced by the fact that, taking nine millions of papers of seed, there is an aver- age of five papers to each person, for it is safe to say that there were 1,800,000 citizens of the United States who received seeds out of this promiscuous distribution. Out of this number nine hundred and forty (940) persons acknowledged their receipt, and in those cases it was generally with a request for more seed. The State of Iowa sent 35 acknowledgments, Kansas 30, Connecticut 16, New Jersey 2, Nebraska 33, New York 62, New Hampshire 5, Rhode Island 1. The other States indicate about the same degree of indifference, so that there are less than one thousand acknowledgments by more than one and three- quarter million recipients.
In view of the above, it is difficult to see how any practical states- man can advocate an annual disbursement of $160,000 for such a pur- pose. Educationally, that sum of money might be made of infinite advantage to the farmers of the United States if it were expended in the publication and distribution of bulletins showing, in terse and plain language, how chemistry, botany, entomology, forestry, vegetable pathology, veterinary, and other sciences may be applied to agriculture.
If, in a sort of paternal way, it is the duty of this Government to dis- tribute anything gratuitously, are not new ideas of more permanent value than old seeds? Is it a function of government to make gratui- tous distribution of any material thing?
No estimate has been made for an appropriation for the purchase of seeds for the next fiscal year. If it is deemed best to make such an appropriation, it is recommended that $500 be allotted to each one of the experiment stations of the several States and Territories, which for forty-eight (48) stations would amount to $24,000. Such a law should provide that each station purchase such new and improved varieties of seeds, cuttings, and bulbs as, after examination, Inay seem
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 61
to its director probably adaptable to the soil and climate of the State in which his station is located. If there ever was any sound states- manship in this gratuitous distribution of seed, which has already cost the Government of the United States several millions of dollars, the reason and necessity for such distribution was removed when the experi- ment stations were established in the several States and Territories. Those stations are in charge of scientific men. They are, therefore, particularly well equipped for the trial, testing, and approval or condemnation of such new varieties as may be introduced from time to time.
LIBRARY.
Since the present librarian, Mr. W. P. Cutter, who was certified by the United States Civil Service Commission, took charge of the library of the Department of Agriculture, modern methods have been introduced, for the first time, into its conduct. A dictionary catalogue has been instituted, and the books have been arranged in a regular system, in accordance with which the valuable material in it will be made avyail- able for students. The increased appropriation has been used to fill out the fragmentary sets of scientific periodicals and to purchase works bearing upon the sciences studied by the Department experts. A reading room has been arranged and increased facilities provided for the convenience of investigators. The library has been made in this manner a working laboratory instead of a miscellaneous storehouse.
OFFICE OF FIBER INVESTIGATION.
A report on the uncultivated bast fibers, such as are found upon the inner bark of plants, was completed during the year by the Office of Fiber Investigations, und also a paper on the method of tillage and manufacture of ramie, which contains careful estimates of the cost of instituting ramie plantations, with reliable figures as to the probable or possible yield. The inquiry as to the production of flax in the region of Puget Sound, Washington, has been continued. Flax grown in that region during the past season has been retted and prepared. Though the local agents engaged in this work did not—because of lack of experience—perfectly perform their duties, nevertheless, practical flax planters, who examined their product, have declared that Wash- ington flax would produce, with skillful treatment, a very fine quality of fiber.
DIVISION OF MICROSCOPY.
Studies have been continued in this division upon the edible and poisonous mushrooms. These investigations have aimed to discrim- inate between edible and nonedible varieties and to give the people of the country plain and safe directions by which they might know them. Itis hoped that in this way our neglected resources among these fungi
62 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
may become better known and more used. For the purpose of giving assistance to amateurs in mushroom culture experiments have been made to ascertain the better method of cultivating mushroom spawn.
Investigations on butter and butter fats have also been continued. Requests are constantly received from official chemists, chemists of State boards of health, ete., for information or assistance with regard to the identification of oleomargarine, butterine, and the various lard substitutes, and for discriminating between the different lubricating oils, ete.
Nearly two thousand careful measurements of the length of fibers of the cotton staple, domestic and foreign, and the average, together with the maximum and minimum lengths, has been recorded.
OFFICE OF IRRIGATION INQUIRY.
The chief of the Office of Irrigation Inquiry passed the earlier months of the year in Nevada, California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah col- iecting information as to the modes of irrigation most successfully used in those States and Territories. In that tour relations were established between this office and the people directly interested in this system of cultivation, from which it is hoped good may come in the way of addi- tional practical information. It is believed that all those engaged in farming in the arid and subarid regions whereirrigation is practiced may soon be brought into immediate correspondence with the Department.
The office has given some attention to the study of percolation and evaporation in the Rocky Mountain regions, where the annual snowfall is the source of many of the streams which fertilize the plains below.
BUILDINGS.
Neither the character nor the condition of the buildings of the Depart- ment can be truthfully commended. There aremany wooden structures in the rear of the main edifice which are a constant menace because of the combustible materials of which they are constructed. The labora- tories in and about these buildings are constantly using alcohol, gas, oils, ether, and other inflammable and explosive substances. It is there- fore imperatively necessary that such laboratories, together with all divisions which by their experiments may possibly create conflagra- tions, should be removed from these Government buildings.
In view of the tinder-box character of the subsidiary buildings of the Department, it is recommended that all the laboratories and shops be removed to rented brick buildings across the street, in the rear of the Department grounds, provided said buildings can be secured by a reasonable annual outlay of the public money.
The act creating this Department declares as follows:
Be it enacted by the Senatesand House of Representatives of the Uniled States of America
in Congress assembled, That there is hereby established at the seat of Government a United States Department-of Agriculture, the general designs and duties of which
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 63
shall be to acquire and diffuse among the people of the United States useful infor- mation on subjects connected with agriculture in the most general and comprehen- sive sense of that word, and to procure, propagate, and distribute among the people new and valuable seeds and plants.
But there was no building provided for the Department of Agricul- ture under that act, and rooms were assigned to the Commissioner and his employees in the basement of the Patent Office, where they remained six years. In 1867 one hundred thousand dollars ($100,000) was appro- priated for the present main building of the Department, and it was occupied in 1868. From that time, with a few minor changes in the interior, this building has remained practically unchanged. It is 170 feet long by 61 feet in breadth. It has a basement, three full stories, and an attic. This building contains, exclusive of halls, 6,860 square feet of available floor space in the basement; 5,800 square feet on the first floor; on the second floor, including the galleries in the library, there are 10,344 square feet; on the third floor, 2,384 square feet; and there are 4,558 square feet in actual use in the attic, aggregating in occupancy at present 29,946 square feet of floor space. The basement, two-thirds of which is below the surface of the ground, contains the boiler and fuel rooms, the storerooms of the Property Division, the laboratory of the Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy, the post- office, and the printing office; and in this ill-lighted and badly ventilated place from 25 to 30 people, including the engineers and firemen, are almost always at work.
The library requires the larger portion of the second and third floors of the building. Little space, relatively, is used for the offices of the Secretary, Assistant Secretary, and chiefs of division. The attic of the main building contains the offices and laboratories of two of the most important divisions. Excessive heat and defective ventilation are unavoidable in these apartments.
The building just described was erected to accommodate the Bureau of that date, composed of four divisions and employing fifty (50) persons. Those divisions, with the laboratory and Museum, fully occupied the building at the time of its completion. Pressure for space becoming greater from year to year, and adequate appropriations for the erec- tion of substantial buildings having failed, the Department has been forced to erect cheap wooden structures upon the grounds. In such buildings is sheltered much valuable property. The Museum building cost about ten thousand dollars ($10,000). A better building to burn could not be invented or constructed, and yet it contains a Museum which, on the market, is worth at least one hundred thousand dollars ($100,000). Annually the Government is paying more than seven hun- dred thousand dollars ($700,000) for agricultural experiment stations in the several States and Territories. The cost of a central office in this Department for collating, compiling, and publishing the reports of these Stations is each year twenty-five thousand dollars ($25,000). The chief records of the Office of Experiment Stations are compiled and stored in
64 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
this combustible wooden Museum building. In it are stored the ree- ords of the results of agricultural experiments for which the United States Government has already paid out nearly five millions of dollars ($5,000,000). The same building contains the publications of the Depart- ment and the offices of several important divisions, together with all the valuable data which each has acquired.
In wooden buildings of equally combustible character are housed the testing laboratory of the Division of Forestry; the carpenter shop; stores of seeds; soil samples, collected at no inconsiderable expense from all parts of the Republic; and all tools and implements used by the superintendent of gardens and grounds and the various scientific bureaus.
As the work of the scientific divisions multiplied it became necessary some years ago to rent two private buildings on B street SW. One of them is occupied by the laboratory of the Bureau of Animal Industry, and the other is the domicile of the Chemical Laboratory of the Depart- ment. Tor the first-mentioned building is paid $1,200 per annum rent, notwithstanding the Government preliminarily expended about $6,000 in adapting the various rooms for present purposes and fitting them with gas, laboratory desks, steam, and water. The Chemical Labora- tory building costs $75 per month rent, although the Government had expended $4,500 thereupon in making similar improvements. There is hardly a university or agricultural college in the United States which has not better constructed, better lighted, and better ventilated laboratories than those used by the Department of Agriculture.
Since its removal from the Patent Office, twenty-six years ago, and its establishment as a Department, only one hundred and fifty-four thousand dollars ($154,000) have been appropriated for buildings for its use, exclusive of the Signal Office building purchased while that office was in the War Department. During the same number of years other Departments of the Government have expended for the erection of buildings in the city of Washington, up to June 30, 1894, inclusive, $19,126,826.09. ,
In view of the fact that the Department of Agriculture is maintained to educationally supervise that industry which furnishes the solid, fecund source of the revenues whence all that vast sum of money was derived, it may not be inappropriate to suggest more commdodious accommodations for its further development and usefulness.
The Weather Bureau, at the corner of Twenty-fourth and M streets, is too remote from the Department to receive that personal daily supervision of the Secretary which its magnitude and importance require. It is evident that this valuable property which the Govern- ment now owns, and upon which the Weather Bureau building stands, could, if authorized by law, be sold very advantageously. Itis believed . that it would probably bring asum of money sufficient to erect substan- tial buildings for the Department of Agriculture, wherein the Weather
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 65
Bureau and all the other divisions and laboratories might be suitably provided for.
With the more than seven hundred thousand dollars ($700,000) saved since March 7, 1893, from the regular appropriations to this Department and covered back into the Treasury of the United States, and the amount the Weather Bureau property would certainly bring, if does seem that buildings commensurate with the relative value which agriculture bears to other vocations and pursuits might be erected at an early day.
FARM PRODUCTS AND THE MONEY THEY BRING.
It will no doubt prove a matter of infinite pride aud satisfaction to the real farmers—the practical agriculturists—of the United States to learn that, out of the total exports of this country for the fiscal year 1894, including the products of the mine, of the forest, of the fisheries, of the manufactories, together with every miscellaneous commodity— amounting to eight hundred and sixty-nine million two hundred and four thousand nine hundred and thirty-seven dollars ($869,204,937)— farm products aggregate a value of six hundred and twenty-eight mil- lion three hundred and sixty-three thousand and thirty-eight dollars ($628,363,038). All the other exports in that year from this Republic amount to only two hundred and forty million eight hundred and forty- one thousand eight hundred and ninety-nine dollars ($240,841,899). This proves that for the fiscal year 1894 the exports evolved by farmers from the farms of the United States were 72.28 per cent, in cash value, of the total exports of the American Republic for that period of time. This is demonstrated by the following table:
Amount. | Per cent. Se ae gai eaninlpts an eine dna Wein Ke aig Caisse band mc vv aaceeeed | $628, 363, 038 72. 28 EI ei a re ee nn 20, 449, 598 2. 35 a Ree ks bhai Be oe ee OR a ee 28, 010, 953 S722 ES a es ne Ee B48) Me See 4, 261, 920 .49 DE eee reef SoS AS ciate ys alam oi cha's cpa card, ons wpaic,c ose ae peice Meee 183, 718, 484 21.14 EMULE CUELIOS 28-2). \cisa © «2 aio~ c1-.0.c <= cleo ce nicigne dae v=,<.qncecme secs 4, 400, 944 .52
| 869, 204, 937 100
European markets and all the other markets of the werld are demand- ing from the American farmer the very best quality of breadstuffs and meats. They demand them inspected and governmentally certificated to be of the highest sanitary, nutritive, and edible quality. But farm products have only a specific purchasing power. They will only buy money of people who desire farm products. The farmer exchanges these results of his labors, which have a specific purchasing power, for money, which has a general purchasing power. It is important, there- fore, to farmers everywhere that they demand money for their products Which has the highest general purchasing power throughout all the
1 <A 94-——3
66 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
civilized world. It is as vital to the American agriculturist that the eurrency of his country should be on the basis of the highest and most universally reeognized measure of value as it 1s to the reputation of American farm products in all the world’s markets that they be of the most desirable quality.
FOR PRIME PORK GIVE US PRIME CURRENCY.
Would the six hundred million dollars’ worth of farm products from the United States sold last year to foreign nations have been as remu- nerative to the American farmer if they had been paid for in silver as they have been when paid for in gold or its equivalent?
When the standard coin of the Republic shall be made of metal worth as much after it is melted as it purports to be worth in coin, and the mint value and the bullion value of all coined money is nearly the same, will not the American farmer and all other citizens become more permanently prosperous? |
Tf the American farmer, laborer, and manufacturer are compelled by law to submit to the measurement of the value of the products of their efforts by a silver standard, will not the foreigner in buying those prod- ucts always use the same measure? With his beef, pork, and cereals the American farmer bwys money,and why should he not demand as superlative quality in that which he buys as the domestic and foreign purchasers insist upon in that which he sells? If those buyers demand “‘nrime” beef and “prime” pork, why should not the farmer demand “prime” eurrency, the best measure of value, the most fair and facile mediation of exchanges, in the most unfluctuating money which the world of ecommerce has ever evolved?
In closing his report for the fiscal year 1893 the Secretary of Agri- culture said:
A year from this time, it is hoped, after consultation with the Congressional com- mittees and other representative forces which are endeavoring to educationally develop and define duties for this Department, that useful progress in the right paths may be truthfully reported.
Therefore the foregoing statements as to the practical workings of the Department are this day submitted as a partial fruition of the hope then earnestly and sincerely expressed.
J. STERLING MORTON, Secretary. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Washington, D. C., November 20, 1894.
m f
THE FEDERAL MEAT INSPECTION.
By D. E. Satmon, D. V. M., Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
GROWTH OF THE INSPECTION.
The inspection of meat by the Federal Government was begun in May, 1891, under the jurisdiction of the Bureau of Animal Industry, and in accordance with an act of Congress approved Mareh 3, 1891. Considerable time was required to organize the force and systematize the work, and consequently the quantity of meat inspected in the fiscal year ending June 50, 1891, was not very large.
The law requires that the inspected meat be marked for identification, and this is accomplished by attaching a meat-inspection tag to each quarter or piece with a wire and lead seal. These tags enable the consumer to learn whether the meat which he is buying has been inspected, because if the wires are properly sealed the tags can not be removed from one piece and attached to another. The tags are also intended under the law as a means of identifying meat which may be shipped from one State into ancther State or to any foreign country.
When the law is fully complied with, only inspected meat can be used in interstate or foreign commerce. <All meat shipped abroad is now inspected, and has been since the beginning of the fiscal year 1892; but the large number of abattoirs which do an interstate trade has made it impossible up to the present time to extend the service suffi- ciently to include them all. As the inspectors and assistant inspectors were, however, recently placed in the classified service, if is probable that a larger number of reliable and competent men can be secured than under the oid system, and that the inspection service can be cor- respondingly extended.
In the fiscal year ending June 30, 1891, the inspection being enforced during the months of May and June ouly, there were inspected and tagged 66,804 quarters of beef for export and 165,378 for the interstate trade. There were also inspected and stamped 1,594 packages of canned meat, 25 of salted meat, and 28 of smoked meat, and the car- casses of 2,216 hogs were inspected microscopically.
These figures show that there was only a beginning of the inspection made in the fiscal year 1891, and that to obtain data from which con- clusions of any kind can be drawn we must begin with the fiscal year
_ 1892. The system and methods of inspection then in foree were prac-
by °
4
tically the same as are now used, but more or less important modifica- 67
68 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
tions of the details have been made from time to time as experience indicated was desirable.
In 18932 there were inspected 1,190,771 quarters of beef for export and 8,160,625 for the interstate trade. In addition there were inspected 583,361 carcasses of sheep and 59,089 carcasses of calves. The number of hog carcasses microscopically examined reached 1,267,329.
A part of the meat inspected is shipped in the careass and is identi- fied by the meat-inspection tags; but very much of the meat is canned or salted, and this is identified by meat-inspection stamps placed upon the crates or boxes in which the cured meat or cans are packed. Very often cured meats are shipped in bulk, the pieces being placed directly into the cars without covering of any kind. In this case the car forms the package and is sealed with the same seal that is used for attaching tags to pieces of meat.
There is need of a cheap and easily applied method for marking pieces of meat which are too small to be tagged. Tags are effectual in marking quarters and carcasses of meat, but are too expensive to be applied to the smaller pieces. Aniline inks are used in some countries, but the samples so far examined by the Bureau of Animal Industry have not proved satisfactory. These inks are affected by moisture and are liable to become smeared over the meat, damaging its appearance and obliterating the identifying mark.
The number of packages of meat stamped in 1892 was as follows: Canned meat, 495,577; salted meat, 142,698; smoked meat, 159,432.
During the fiscal year 1893 there were inspected and tagged 1,036,809 quarters of beef for export and 10,534,102 quarters for the interstate trade. There were also inspected 92,947 carcasses of calves and 870,512 of sheep. The number of hog carcasses microscopically examined reached 1,960,069.
The number of packages of canned, salted, and smoked meats and other meat products stamped during the year reached 1,035,569.
Previous to the fiscal year 1894 no inspection had been attempted of hogs at the time of slaughter. The carcasses of those for the export trade to continental Europe had been microscopically examined for trichine, but this inspection is, of course, insufficient to reveal any other disease with which the animals might be affected. This year the saine method of inspection before and after slaughter has been applied to hogs as has been in operation with cattle during the whole period of inspection.
During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1894, there were inspected and tagged 2,417,312 quarters and 4,022 smaller pieces of beef for export; and 10,810,202 quarters and 748 packages of fresh beef for interstate trade. The number of packages of canned meat stamped was 636,227, and of salted and smoked meat, 487,011. The number of hog careasses microscopically examined was 1,194,663, and of pieces of pork, 177,747; a total of 1,572,410 carcasses and pieces.
THE FEDERAL MEAT INSPECTION. 69
The number of animals inspected at the time of slaughter is shown in the following table:
1891. 1892. 1893. 1894.
cay d nbn wan cmon | 83,891 | 3,167,009 3,922,174 | 3,862,111 ee ns an wawenadkbwouddenwapaboudoummys cies cope ani ate 59, 089 92, 947 96, 351 See ee eee eape | §83,361 | 870,512 | 1, 020, 764 EE OE OPC EP TE EP EPEC err ET pero ne Peereeneenee Ceeeeenereee 7, 964, 850
SE ae) eke ey aoe eee eee 83,891 3,809,459 | 4,885,633 | 12, 944, 056
The meat inspection is now in operation at 46 abattoirs, situated in 17 cities.
The exports of microscopically inspected pork by fiscal years have been as follows:
|
1892. 1893. | 1894. . aaa 6S eee } Pounds. Pounds. | Pounds.
| To countries not requiring inspection .-.-......-...-..------ 16,127,176 | 12,617,652 | 16,592,818
| | To countries requiring inspection ............-.....--..----- | 22, 025, 698 | 8,059,758 | 18,845,119
38, 152, 874 20, 677, 410 39, 437, 937
A large quantity of the pork which the records show to have been exported to countries not requiring inspection was shipped to Belgium and Holland, and even to England, for reshipment to Germany and France. This was on account of the packing houses having agents in those countries, to whom large consignments were made, and these agents sold the meats in smaller quantities and forwarded them to their destination. The cases of provisions were all marked with the inspec- tion stamp of this Bureau, and were covered by certificates, so that they were undoubtedly sold as American inspected pork.
The small proportion of inspected pork which was shipped directly to countries requiring inspection in 1893 is explained by the high prices here and the decreased demand in those countries.
DISEASES DISCOVERED BY THE INSPECTION.
The number of cattle found diseased, the careasses of which were condemned as unfit for human food, was 4,127; the number of sheep carcasses condemned was 466, and the number of carcasses and pieces of pork found to contain trichine was 33,013. In the ante-mortem inspec- tion of hogs 8,624 were rejected, and in the post-mortem inspection 17,435 carcasses and 12,940 parts of carcasses were condemned.
While the number of diseased animals discovered at the abattoirs shows the necessity of the inspection, it must be admitted to be exceed- ingly small compared with the immense number of animals examined. The meat-producing animals, and particularly the bovine animals, of the United States are in better health and better condition as a whole
7) YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
when they go to market than are the animals of most other countries. Among the 3,862,111 cattle inspected, but 765, or about 1 in 5,000, were found to have tuberculosis sufficiently advanced to justify con- demnation. Actinomycosis was found in 321 cases, Texas fever in 28, while 707 animals were condemned on account of advanced pregnancy, and 1,951 for bruises received during transportation.
Among the diseases reported, the most dangerous to the consumer are those in which septic processes are in progress or likely to be devel- oped. As affected with this group of diseases cattle were condemned as follows: Septicemia, 100; pywemia, 16; gangrene, 73; peritonitis, 18; enteritis, 30; metritis,3; abscess, 53; or a total of 293.
The proportion of carcasses and pieces of pork found to contain trichinse was smaller than in the preceding year, being 2.4 per cent as compared with 3 per cent in 1892.
REASONS FOR CONDEMNING CARCASSES.
Although upon superficial consideration the meat inspector’s task may seem simple and his duty plain, there are in practice many trouble- some problems to solve. Should carcasses be condemned for all diseases, or only for those which are likely to injuriously affect the health of the consumer? Should pregnant females and those which have recently given birth to young be condemned; and if so, at what point shall the line be drawn separating these which are fit for food from those which are not? These are the most perplexing questions and the ones upon which scientific men are most divided.
In most European countries the inspection of meat is considered as a Strictly sanitary question, and a disease which is net likely to injure the health of the consumer is not accepted as sufficient reason for con- demning the carcass. Acting upon this principle, carcasses of animals affected with pleuro-pneumonia, foot-and-mouth disease, actinomycosis, pneumonia, Texas fever, and similar diseases would be considered fit for food if the carcasses show no signs of emaciation. The meat from ani- mals in an advanced period of gestation or those which have recently given birth to young would also be passed as edible. Tuberculous car- casses which would be dangerous are in some countries sterilized by heat and then sold for human food. “a
There can be no doubt that the people of the United States are more particular in regard to the quality and character of the food they eat than are those of any other country. There is an almost universal sentiment against eating the meat of animals affected with any disease, whether it is communicable or injurious to the consumer or not. There is a repugnance to the meat of female animals when parturition is approaching or has recently occurred, while the flesh of very young animals or of those which were unborn at the time the mother was slaughtered is regarded as even more offensive.
In the I’ederal meat inspection it has been considered a duty to pro-
THE FEDERAL MEAT INSPECTION. 71
tect the consumer from meat which was offensive and repugnant to him, as well as from that which was actually dangerous to his health.
This principle has been criticised by some and considered untenable by others; but asa matter of fact it has been admitted and acted upon in all countries where meat inspection is anything better than a farce. For instance, the meat of emaciated and anemic animals is generally condemned, not because their flesh produces any disease in the con- sumer, but because it is innutritious and effensive. No meat inspector would think that he could properly allow the carcasses of dogs, cats, or rats to be passed and sold for human consumption. Nevertheless, we have no reason to suppose that the meat of these animals would preduce disease in the person who ate it. A meat-inspection service, however, which does not pretect the consumers from meat so offensive to them, and which they would under no circumstances purchase if they knew its character, would not be worthy of support.
Acting upon this principle, the inspectors of this Bureau have been instructed to condemn the carcasses of all animals having acute dis- eases or high fevers, as well as the specific diseases liable to be com- municated to or to cause disease in the consumer. Females are also condemned because of approaching parturition or because they have recently dropped their young.
Though abattoirs where slanghtering is conducted exciusively for the local market are not embraced by this inspection, the consumer may protect himself against those dealers who would fraudulentiy sell the meat of such animals as have just been mentioned by assuring himself that the carcass bears the meat-inspection tag of this Bureau, attached with an unbroken seal.
A more complete protection is realized by means of a recent order requiring the inspectors to seize upon all animals and carcasses unfit for food and dispose of them in such way as to render impossible the selling of the meat as an edible preduct.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF LARGE ABATTOIRS.
Sanitary authorities favor a few large central abattoirs rather than many small ones, because the slaughtering business is then concen- trated, and the supervision may be conducted at less expense and in a more thorough manner. For this reason the small slaughterhouses which exist in nearly all cities, and which as a rule have little or no inspection, should be closed, and all slaughtering should be done at a central abattoir where inspectors are constantly present.
The small establishments are often in a filthy condition, and they are frequently operated by irresponsible and unprincipled parties who would not hesitate to endanger the health of a whole communityif by so domg they could increase their profits by a few dollars. It is at these small abattoirs, where animals are slaughtered almost entirely for lecal consumption, that the greater part of the unsound and diseased
12 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
meat which reaches the market is prepared for human food. The abomi- nations of some of these places are unspeakable, and the wonder is that they can be tolerated by any civilized community. They probably would not be allowed to continue in operation if half of their iniquities were known to those who have unwittingly consumed the offensive products.
The very large abattoirs are not without some disadvantages. They cover so much ground and are divided into so many departments that it is difficult to keep the entire plant under supervision. Diseased meat should not be allowed to accumulate, because there are too many opportunities to remove it—too many places to which it can be taken and worked up without fear of detection. The killing floor is the proper place to intercept unwholesome meat. All meat must enter the abat- toir through this channel, and here it can be carefully examined and all its defects discovered. There is one contingency which it is diffi- cult to guard against even here, and that is the slaughtering of animals outside of the regular hours, or even in the middle of the night, with- out the inspector’s knowledge. ‘To prevent this, there should be a con- stant watch, and any company found to be offending in this way should be so severely punished that a repetition of the practice would not be likely to occur.
The Federal meat-inspection law does not apply to abattoirs which do a strictly local business, and consequently the inspection at such places can only be made by the municipal health authorities. In most if not all cities this service is very inadequate. The number of inspect- ors is not sufficient to maintain a proper supervision, and too frequently the inspectors are incompetent or entirely ignorant of animal diseases aud the eftect of these upon the public health.
When the meat-inspection service is sufficiently extended so that the provision of the law requiring all meat to be inspected which is trans- ported from one State into another can be enforced, there will be protec- tion for all consumers who insist on being shown the tags and stamps which certify to this inspection. In the meantime there is much inter- state meat which is not inspected, and the purchaser has no meaus of knowing the condition of the animals from which it was obtained. The importance of extending the inspection service rapidly and thoroughly until the whole country is embraced is too apparent to need argunent. Until this is accomplished the large operators, who have the inspec- tion, are benefited at the expense of the smaller ones, who are unable to obtain it, while the public receives but inadequate protection.
THE COST OF MEAT INSPECTION.
Before the inspection service was inaugurated it was supposed that the cost would be so great that the utility of the work would be called | in question. The experience which has been gained demonstrates, how- ever, that a thorough mspection may be made at a reasonable expense.
THE FEDERAL MEAT INSPECTION, 73
Before the inspection was commenced it was estimated that the microscopic examination would cost the Government about 25 ceuts per carcass. The first month of the inspection the cost was 20.3 cents per carcass, and this was reduced the second month to 13.3 cents and the third month to 8.6 cents. Since that time the amount of work put upon the specimens from each carcass has been nearly doubled in order to increase the reliability of the inspection; but by perfecting the sys- tem and improving the methods the cost has been still further reduced, and during the year just closed has been only 6.5 cents per carcass. This is about the minimum for which a thorough microscopic examina- tion can be made.
The cost of the ordinary inspection of animals before and at the time of slaughter has varied considerably in different years. In the year ending June 30, 1893, it was 43 cents per animal, and during the last year was only 13 cents per animal. This great reduction of expense is partly accounted for by the large number of hogs examined, which require less time than cattle, and partly by modified methods which secured more work for the same expenditure.
The experience of the last year has demonstrated the possibility of maintaining a thorough and complete inspection of meats at an expense which would not be felt by the consumer. The microscopic examina- tion of pork has cost less than one-twentieth of a cent per pound, while the ordinary inspection has not cost one one-hundredth of a cent per pound. Would not every consumer prefer to pay this additional cost and purchase only inspected meat? It is probable that there is nearly a unanimous sentiment in the affirmative. How, then, can this expense be assessed against the consumer in an equitable manner?
It has been proposed to require the packers to pay this expense by charging them a fixed amount for every tag that is attached to the meat and for every stamp that is affixed to a package. It is only reasonable to suppose that the packers in turn would add this expense to the selling price of the meat, and that the consumer would finally have it to pay.
The consumer ought not to object to paying the very small additional sum which is required to inspect meat according to the system now in operation, as the protection afforded would be worth much more to him than the cost. The difficulty would be te prevent the great corpora- tions which control the meat business from exacting much more from the consumer than they had been compelled to pay to the Government. Let us suppose, for example, that the Government charges the packer one-twentieth of a cent a pound for the pork inspection; would not the packer make this an excuse to charge one-fourth of a cent a pound additional to the dealer, and would not the result be that the consumer who buys only 1 or 2 pounds at a time would be charged 1 cent a pound more than formerly? The consumer, then, instead of paying the exact cost of the inspection, which would be insignificant to him, would be
1 <A 94——3*
(4 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
taxed twenty times this cost, and consequently would be unfairly treated. Nineteen-twentieths of what he would pay for inspection would go to increase the profits of the packers and retailers of meat. We are warranted in concluding that this example is not far from what would actually occur by a consideration of the methods which the gentlemen who control this business have enforced in the past.
The problem is, therefore, how to collect the cost of inspection from the consumer, which practically means every citizen of the country, with the least expense for the collection.
The reduction in the cost of the microscopical inspection as compared with the quantity of microscopically inspected pork actually exported has been very gratifying. During the fiscal year 1893 there were ex- ported 20,677,410 pounds of inspected pork, and the cost of the inspec- tion amounted to $172,567.08, or 0.833 cent for each pound exported. For the fiscal year 1894 the quantity exported was increased to 35,437,- 937 pounds and the cost of inspection reduced to $88,922.10, or 0.248 cent for each pound exported.
A similar statement concerning the first and second halves of the last fiscal year shows that this reduction in the cost of the microscopical inspection as compared with the quantity of pork exported was pro- gressive throughout the year, and reached a much lower limit than is indicated above. That is, from July 1, 1893, to December 31, 1893, the quantity of inspected pork exported was 12,618,706 pounds and the expense of the microscopic inspection was $53,433.68, or 0.42 cent for each pound exported, while from January 1, 1894, to June 30, 1894, the quantity of inspected pork exported was 22,819,231 pounds and the cost of inspection was $35,488.42, or 0.155 cent for each pound exported. In other words, the microscopic inspection now costs the Government only i cent for each 65 pounds of such inspected perk which is shipped to foreign countries.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MEAT INSPECTION.
There are few citizens of the country who realize the importance of a rigid inspection of meats by competent inspectors. In the days when animals were killed by the local butcher, whose reliability could be determined, and who was generally known to the consumer, there was not the same reason for suspicion as to the quality of meat which exists at present. To-day the essential work in the preparation of meats is conducted at a distance from the producer of the animals, and at an equal distance from the consumer of the products.
The man who ships animals to these distant markets knows that their identity will in most cases be lost when they mingle with the enormous number of animals of the same species which arrive each day at any
of the great stock yards of the country. He therefore has not the.
reason for hesitation in shipping hogs infected with cholera, cattle with actinomycosis or tuberculosis, and sheep with any of the diseases to
THE FEDERAL MEAT INSPECTION. 75
which they are subject which he would have in trying to sell such animals for slaughter and consumption in the neighborhood where he is known.
At the stock yards we find the commission man, who desires to get the best prices which he can obtain for the animals which have been con- signed to him, and also the buyer for the packing houses, who desires to purchase as cheaply as possible. There is consequently an incentive for every man who handles the animals to use his influence to have them passed and used for the purposes which yield the best returns. The owners of the packing houses do not see the animals themselves, and would know very little about them in case they did. Each depart- ment of business is in charge of a superintendent, whose standing with the firm is probably rated by the success of his department—that is, by the money which he is able to make for the corporation. The products go to the consumer, often in distant parts of the land; frequently the identity of the goods is lost, and the final purchaser has no idea who slaughtered the animals from which they were produced, or even the city in which the slaughtering and curing was effected.
Under these circumstances both the identity and responsibility of the prineipal parties to the transaction are lost. If the meat affects the health of the consumer, it is for the most part impossible to determine whether this was on account of the animal being diseased, or because of improper curing, or carelessness in handling by the shipper or retailer. If the packer could be identified he would gen- erally be able to shift the responsibility upon the retailer. or at least to make his share of it uncertain.
The cases are comparatively rare in which any disease affecting an animal is transmitted through the meat to the consumer. Anthrax is the most dangerous malady in this respect, because the germs circulate with the blood and reach every portion of the body. They are certain to be in every particle of meat taken from the carcass. To make the matter worse, the germs of anthrax form spores when the carcass is dressed and the oxygen of the air comes in contact with the meat, These spores resist a very high temperature and may not be destroyed by cooking. There are instances on record of great mortality following the consumption of carcasses affected with this disease. Fortunately, anthrax is rare in the United States, and the affected animals die so quickly after infection that there is not much chance that they will reach the abattoirs alive.
The germs of tuberculosis, as a rule, are not found in the muscular tissues, and they are more readily destroyed by heat. While there are many tuberculous cows all over the world, the danger from the meat of such animals is not as great as is generally supposed, particularly if it is fairly well cooked.
Glanders of the horse is a disease which in the characteristics men- tioned resembles tuberculosis. When old, worn-out horses are gath-
76 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ered from all parts of the country for slaughter, it is morally certain that some of them will be affected with this disease. The slaughter of these animals without inspection is, therefore, a nuisance to the com- munity and should be prohibited.
Anthrax, tuberculosis, and glanders are three diseases of animals communicable to man, and from which he has little chances of recovery. There should, consequently, be every precaution enforced to protect the consumer from meat infected with such contagion.
Trichinosis of hogs is also a terrible and fatal disease, which, while not as common in this country as in Germany, still occurs in far too many cases. The consumer may protect himself absolutely from this disease by requiring all pork to be thoroughly cooked before it is eaten. Curing also destroys the vitality of the parasite, so that it is rarely that eases are found which have originated from eating salted pork. The eases of trichinosis in man which have occurred in this country have generally resulted from pork killed in some small local slaughter- house or on the farm. Packing-house pork has seldom been accused of causing the trouble. The reason, of course, is that pork from the packing houses is generally salted and is cooked before it is eaten, while that killed locally is frequently eaten fresh and often without being sufficiently cooked, sometimes without being cooked at all.
Were it not for our large German population, trichinosis would hardly be worthy of consideration as a sanitary question. As it is, however, cases are reported from time to time, and the terrible suffer- ing of the victims, together with the high death rate, makes it desirable to adopt, if possible, preventive measures. The microscopic inspection of all the pork prepared at the abattoirs doing an interstate trade would prevent a portion of these cases; but beyond giving consumers al opportunity to select pork free from the parasite it would probably be disappointing.
The elaborate and expensive system of microscopic inspection adopted by Germany has not fulfilled expectations, as the number of cases of trichinosis which occur from inspected pork is so large that it rather indicates the unreliability of the method than inspires confidence in it as a prophylactic measure.
There are many other diseases liable to affect animals as they arrive in the stock yards which, while not directly communicable to mankind, may, nevertheless, produce serious or even fatal illness in those who consume the meat. Animals are frequently injured in transit, and as a result may become affected with gangrene, septicemia, pyeemia, malig- nant oedema, peritonitis, or metritis, any of which conditions make the flesh absolutely unfit for food and dangerous to the health of consum- ers. In other cases there may be abscesses or actinomycotie tumors, the effect of which upon the carcass depends upon the extent of the lesions. .
It is not uncommon to find animals in a feverish condition owing to
THE FEDERAL MEAT INSPECTION. 77
bruises, local inflammations, or other causes. If the fever is very pro- nounced the carcasses should be condemned. In most countries such carcasses as these would be allowed to go upon the market, because no special disease has been traced to them. In the United States, how- ever, the people object to the flesh of animals affected with any disease which deranges the important functions of the body, and while there is such an abundant supply of healthy animals this sentiment should be respected. The flesh of feverish animals undoubtedly contains an abnormal quantity of leucomaines and in many cases of toxins, which are liable to affect the digestive organs, particularly in hot weather, and to cause illness, which is mild or serious according to the condi- tion in which the cousumer happens to be at the time he partakes of it.
The flesh of animals which have recently given birth to their young is objected to for the same reasons as is that from animals in a feverish condition. Animals shipped in this condition are very liable to inflam- mation of the uterus and septic infection, and should on no account be passed as fit for human food. Animals in advanced pregnancy are very subject to injury during shipment. They often abort if allowed to remain a few days in the stock yards, and it is not uncommon to find a dead and.partly decomposed fetus in the uterus. Even when unin- jured, animals almost at the period of parturition can not be considered as furnishing acceptable meat. The nutriment which they assimilate is diverted from their own tissues to sustain the fetus, while the waste products of the latter’s vital activity increase those already present in the mother’s circulation. The meat from such animals may not usually cause disease in the consumer, but its nutritive qualities are impaired, and there is good reason for the repugnance which the American people feel in regard to it.
These conditions and many others are daily met with in the animals shipped to the large cities for slaughter. To determine the exact con- dition, the nature of the disease, and the proper disposition of the car- cass requires expert veterinary knowledge. The inspectors should be not only competent but thoroughly honest and reliable. There should be stringent, clearly defined laws and rigid regulations from which the inspector will know his duty, and by which he will be able to dispose of diseased or unwholesome meat without being annoyed by constant appeals made by interested parties.
VESSEL INSPECTION.
The vessels carrying the exported cattle and sheep are all inspected by the officers of this Bureau in accordance with the act of Congress approved March 3, 1891, in order to secure sufficient ventilation, an adequate supply of food and drinking water, competent attendants, ‘fittings sufficiently strong to avoid unnecessary danger of washing overboard, and enough space for the animals to stand in with comfort.
78 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The regulations adopted in 1891 are still in force, but they have been amended from time to time, and the condition of the cattle in transit has been continually improved.
This improvement is shown by the marked decrease in the propor- tion of cattle lost at sea. The loss for each year since the regulations went into effect was as follows: 1891, 1.6 per cent; 1892, 0.875 per cent; 1893, 0.47 per cent, and in 1894, 0.37 per cent.
The loss of sheep has been much heavier. Of the 80,898 exported and shipments inspected in Great Britain during the fiscal year 1,059 were lost at sea. This is 1.29 per cent, and it indicates that more strin- gent regulations must be enferced to secure the humane treatment of these animals on shipboard.
STOCK-YARDS INSPECTION.
An inspection at a number of the important stock yards of the coun- try is maintained for the purpose of inspecting and tagging export cattle as near to their place of origin asis possible. After being tagged and recorded there is a supervision of the shipments, in order to prevent infection of any kind on the way to the seaboard.
In the past one of the greatest dangers during the summer months has been infected pens in the stock yards, or infected alleys, streets, or cars which have been contaminated by cattle from the Southern fever district. These cattle, though apparently healthy, may so thoroughly infect the avenues through which they pass that they will be deadly for other cattle during the remainder of the season.
It has therefore been found necessary to set apart separate pens and alleys for these Southern cattle, to prohibit their exportation, and to disinfect the cars in which they have been shipped. To secure the enforcement of these regulations constant supervision and inspection must be maintained, for otherwise infected cattle would be allowed to enter the pens in which export cattle were handled, and this would do away with any possible chance of guarding against the infection.
The stock-yards inspection is designed to guard against the South- ern fever infection, but it also embraces the inspection and tagging of export animals and the inspection of the vessels which carry them. These different lines of inspection are so closely allied that they can not be separated without detriment to the service and increased expenditures. It should be borne in mind, however, that the entire expense of the stock-yards inspection is not for the benefit of the export trade, but that the cattle which are to remain in this country, more particularly the “feeders,” are also protected.
The losses from the Southern or Texas fever have been almost entirely prevented, and cattle may now be moved through our largest stock yards without danger, while before the inspection was inaugu- rated a large part of the cattle so handled became infected.
THE FEDERAL MEAT INSPECTION. 79
This inspection, as it only continues during the spring, summer, and fall months, is reported for the calendar instead of the fiscal year. In the quarantine season extending from February 15 to December 1, 1893, there were inspected and placed in the quarantine pens 1,737,389 head of cattle. In addition to this the inspectors had 56,406 cars cleaned and disinfected under their supervision, and inspected 20,075 ear loads of infected cattle which were en route for places beyond their jurisdiction.
INSPECTION IN GREAT BRITAIN OF ANIMALS FROM THE UNITED STATES.
This inspection has been continued during the year by two inspect- ors, one being stationed at London and the other at Liverpool. The object of this inspection is to learn the condition in which animals arrive, the extent of the losses at sea, the diseases with which animals in transit are affected, or from which they die, and the adequacy of the ventilation and fittings of the vessels for the safe transportation of their living freight.
This information can only be obtained from the representatives of this Bureau who examine the animals both before and after they are unloaded from the ships. By means of this information improvements have been made by which the losses at sea have been reduced froin 1.6 per cent the first year of service to 0.57 per cent during the last fiscal year. This means a saving of 4,470 head of cattle on the exports of the last year. How much was saved by the regulations of the first year over the unregulated trade we have no data to determine, but it probably was a still larger number.
The British restrictions have not yet been removed from our cattle trade, but with the continued freedom of the United States from pleuro-pneumonia and other contagious diseases dangerous to the stock interests of that country it is probable that reasonable modifications will be made,
The entire expenses of the stock-yard, vessel, and export animal inspection for the year was $96,707.44. At least half of this expense is for the prevention of Texas fever in this country, and should not be charged against the export inspection. This would give an expendi- ture of about 103 cents for each animal exported. Considering that this covers the tagging of every animal and two inspections in the United States and one in Great Britain for the greater part of them, as well as inspection of the ships and supervision of the loading, it is seen that the service is very economically performed.
Following this estimate to its legitimate conclusion, we find that the $48,353.72 which we estimate was expended in inspecting and quaran- _tining 1,737,380 head of cattle from the district infected with Southern or Texas fever makes the cost of such inspection 2.7 cents per animal, with no allowance for the disinfection of 56,406 ears.
80 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
INSPECTION AND QUARANTINE OF IMPORTED ANIMALS.
The number of animals imported from Hurope, inspected and quar- antined on arrival, was 11 head of cattle, 565 sheep, 43 hogs, and 4 goats quarantined at Garfield, N. J., and 1 head of cattle and 179 sheep quarantined at Patapsco, Md. In addition, 3 head of cattle imported from Canada were quarantined at Buffalo, N. Y. This makes a total of 806 imported animals that were quarantined during the year.
Under the provisions of the act of Congress approved August 30, 1890, requiring the inspection of all cattle, sheep, and hogs imported into the United States from foreign countries, there were inspected, as imported from Canada, 194 head of cattle, 240,497 sheep, 1,302 hogs, and 2 goats.
Cattle from Europe and Canada are still detained in quarantine for a period of ninety days, which is necessary to protect from the conta- gion of pleuro-pneumonia, with which most Huropean countries are still infected. Sheep from Europe are detained fifteen days, a period considered sufficient to guard against the introduction of foot-and- mouth disease; if from countries on the American continent, these animals are admitted on inspection when found free from any form of contagious or infectious disease.
a ee on
i
EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES.
By A. C. Trur, Pa. D., Director of the Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
More than a century has elapsed since the movement began in this country to advance the interests of agriculture by widening the infor- mation of the farmer regarding the rational practice of his art. Near the end of the eighteenth century there was unusual activity in agri- cultural affairs, both at home and abroad. New crops and breeds of animals were being introduced. The attention of practical men was drawn to the discoveries of science, and great hopes were excited that immediate benefits of inestimable value would accrue to agriculture as well as to the other arts, especially from the application of the prin- ciples of chemistry to the various industries. The newly awakened interest in the oldest of human occupations was marked by the forma- tion of agricultural societies. In Great Britain, for example, the Bath and West of England Society and the Highland Society were estab- lished. The British Government also recognized the importance of the movement by organizing a board of agriculture. The same influences were soon felt in the New World.
ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTIONS IN THE UNITED STATES.
As far as is now known, the first society for promoting agriculture in the United States was established at Philadelphia, then the seat of the General Government, March 1, 1785, by men who were for the most part engaged in pursuits having no immediate connection with agri- culture. On the 4th of July, 1785, General Washington was elected an honorary member of this society and ever afterwards showed a deep interest insits proceedings. Benjamin Franklin’s name is also found on the list of its honorary members. In the saine year a similar society was formed in South Carolina, which had among its objects the establishment of an experimental farm. This scciety was incorporated December 19,1795. The present State Agricultural Society of South Carolina still holds the original charter. The New York Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts, and Manufactures was organized February 26,1791, and about the same time a society was formed at Kennebec, Mass. (now Maine). In 1792 the New York society pub-
lished a small quarto volume of its transactions. The Massachusetts 81
82 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Society for Promoting Agriculture was incorporated March 7, 1792, and in 1794 the Western Society of Middlesex Husbandmen was formed in Massachusetts, though not incorporated until 1803. ‘The Society for Promoting Agriculture in the State of Connecticut was organized August 12, 1794, and published its first volume of transactions, a small quarto pamphlet, in 1802.” This society still exists as the county society of New Haven.
THE FIRST PLANS FOR AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION.
In 1792 Samuel L. Mitehill, M. D., LL. D., was appointed professor of natural history, chemistry, agriculture, and the other arts depending thereon, in Columbia College, in the city of New York. The college records do not show whether he ever gave any instruction in agricultu- ral subjects, but it is almost certain that he was active in early efforts to advance agriculture through education, and that men afterwards prominent in urging the establishment of agricultural colleges were among his students. Lavoisier, who was probably the first scientist to give systematic attention to the application of chemistry to agriculture, was then the great chemist. Dr. Mitchill is credited with introducing his theories in this country, and undoubtedly referred in his lectures to the agricultural features of this science. We know that he was active in the New York Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts, and Manufactures, and that he wrote essays on the chemistry of manures. He was retired in 1801, having been elected a member of the House of Representatives.
On the 2ist of January, 1794, a committee was appointed by the Philadelphia society ‘“‘to prepare outlines of a plan for establishing a State society for the promotion of agriculture, connecting with it the education of youth in the knowledge of that most important art, while they are acquiring other useful knowledge suitable for the agricultural citizens of the State.” The committee made a report in which several alternatives for promoting agricultural education are presented to the legislature:
Whether by endowing professorships, to be annexed to the University of Pennsyl- vania and the College of Carlisle, and other seminaries of learning, for the purpose of teaching the chemical, philosophical, and elementary parts of the theory of agricul- ture; or, by adding to tho funds of the society, increase their ahjlity to propagate a knowledge of the subject, and stimulate, by premiums and other incentives, the
exertions of the agricultural citizens; or whether, by a combination of these means, the welfare of the State may be more effectually promoted.
It was also a part of the plan to make the common-school system of the State contributory to the technical education of the farmer.
The country schoolmasters may be secretaries of the county societies, and the schoolhouses the places of meeting and the repositories of their transactions, models, etc. The legislature may enjoin on these schoolmasters the combination of the sub- ject of agriculture with tho other parts of education. This may be easily effected by introducing, as school books, those on this subject, and thereby making it familiar
EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE. 83
totheir pupils. These will be gaining a knowledge of the business they are destined to follow, while they are taught the elementary parts of their education. Books thus profitable to them in the cominon affairs of life may be substituted for some of those now used, and they can easily be obtained. Selections from the best writers in husbandry may be made by the society. Tho essays of our own experimentalists or theorists and the proceedings of the society will also afford information.
This report seems to have been the first formal attempt made in the United States to urge the claims of agricultural education and experi- mentation upon the attention of a lawmaking body.
WASHINGTON’S MESSAGE TO CONGRESS.
Two years later, on December 7, 1796, in his annual message to the second session of the Fourth Congress, Washington showed his interest in agriculture by the following recommendation:
It will not be doubted that, with reference cither to individual or national welfare, agriculture is of primary importance. In proportion as nations advance in popula- tion and other circumstances of maturity this truth becomes more apparent and renders the cultivation of the soil more and more an object of public patronage. Institutions for promoting it grow up supported by the public purse, and to what object can it be dedicated with greater propricty? Among the means which have been employed to this end none havo been attended with greater success than the establishment of boards composed of public characters, charged with collecting and diffusing information, and enabled, by premiums and small pecuniary aid, to encour- age and assist a spirit of discovery and improvement. This species of establishment coutributes doubly to the increase of improvements, by stimulating to enterprise and experiment, and by drawing to a common center the results everywhere of indi- vidual skill and observation, and spreading them thence over the whole nation. Experience accordingly has shown that they are very cheap instruments of immense national importance.
I have heretofore proposed to the consideration of Congress the expediency of establishing a national university, and also a military academy.
Congress soon established the academy to promote the science and art of war, but paid no attention to the words of the great general in favor of institutions to benefit the sciences and arts of peace.
In 1797 the trustees of the Massachusetts society began the publica- tion of pamphlets, or, as we should now say, bulletins, on agricultural topics, which afterwards were developed into a regularly issued journal. A yoluntary agricultural association was formed at Stockbridge, Mass., in 1799, and probably a few other societies were organized before the close of the last century.
Near the opening of the new century (1801) a suggestion was made to the Massachusetts society that fairs should be regularly held in May and October on Cambridge Common and bounties given for certain articles. This plan included not only the exhibition of agricultural products, but also stated open markets for their sale. No action was taken by the society regarding this suggestion. In the same year this Society discussed a proposition for the permanent endowment of a professorship of natural history and a botanic garden at Harvard
84 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
College. The society took a lively interest in this matter and was enabled to carry out the suggestion in 1804, when William D. Peck was elected to fill the new chair.
AGRICULTURAL FAIRS AT WASHINGTON.
In the Report of the United States Commissioner of Agriculture for 1866, in an article on the History of the Agriculture of the United States, by Ben: Perley Poore, may be found the following statements regarding the first attempt made at the newly established seat of the National Government to promote the interests of American agriculture:
In 1804 it was suggested by Dr. Thornton, the first Commissioner of Patents, then residing in Washington, which was literally a ‘city in the woods,” that the ready sale of cattle and of domestic products could be promoted by the holding of fairs on market days, as in England, his native land. The idea met with the warm approval of the citizens, and the municipal authorities passed an act establishing semiannual fairs. An editorial article in the National Intelligencer of October i7 spoke of the coming fair as offering advantages to purchasers and to settlers, ‘‘ while at the same time it can but prove equally beneficial to the agricultural interests of our country.” The fair was held on Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday, in ‘‘ the mall at the south side of the Tiber, extending from the bridge at the Center Market to the Potomac.”
It was a decided success, and before the next one was held an attempt was made by additional legislation on the part of the city government to increase its usefulness by appropriating $50 toward a fund for premiums. The citizens raised by subscrip- tion an equal sum, so that at the fair, which began on the 26th of April, 1805, pre- miums to the amount of $100 were awarded to the best lamb, sheep, steer, milch cow, yoke of oxen, and horse actually sold. A third fair was held in November, 1805, after which they were discontinued.
Early in the year 1806 Joel Barlow, then residing at Kalorama, in the vicinity of Washington, published the prospectus of a ‘National Academy,” in which he enu- merated, among the foreign institutions to be copied in forming an American organi- zation, the agricultural societies of England and the veterinary school of France.
Meanwhile an institution had been organized by ‘‘members of Congress, officers of the Federal Government, and others, devoted to objects connected with public economy.” Meetings were held at Mr. Hervevy’s, on Pennsylvania avenue, every Sat- urday evening, from 5 until 8 o’clock, and among the subjects considered were:
Our mechanical economy, or the means of abridging labor by useful inventions, implements, and apparatus; our agricultural economy, or the means of producing the most abundanteand most reciprocal crops, under any given circumstances, with- out doing things by guess; the economy of our forests, or the best management of our latent resources there.
CATTLE SHOWS IN MASSACHUSETTS.
In the autumn of 1807 Elkanah Watson, a native of Plymouth, Mass., and a direct descendant of Governor Edward Winslow, who, in 1624, had brought to Plymouth, in the ship Charity, three heifers and a bull, “the first neat cattle that came into New England,” procured the first pair of Merino sheep which had been introduced into Berkshire County, and gave notice of an exhibition of his two sheep on the pub- lic square at Pittsfield. Hewrote that ‘many farmers and even females were attracted to this first novel and humble exhibition.” The interest
EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE. 85
excited by this exhibit led Mr. Watson to undertake a larger euter- prise, and on the 1st of August, 1810, an appeal drawn by himself and signed by twenty-six persons was published, appointing an exhibition of stock at the same place on the Ist of October. This “cattle show” was quite successful, and before many years the annual exhibit became a permanent and popular institution in Massachusetts. Mr. Watson’s report of the exhibition of September, 1511, shows the picturesque elements which were thus early introduced into these rural festivals. There was “a procession of sixty-nine oxen drawing a plow held by the oldest man in the county; a band of music; the society, bearing appropriate ensigns, each member decorated with a badge of two heads of wheat in his hat, and the officers three heads secured by a green ribbon.” Meanwhile, in 1809, a number of gentlemen interested in agriculture, residing in Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Column. bia, had formed the Columbian Agricultural Society, which may prop- erly be considered as the germ of anational organization. This society actively engaged in the work of educating the farmer through the agency of exhibitions.
HINDRANCES TO AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 1810-1840.
Various causes seem to have contributed to retard the progress of agricultural education during the next three decades. The war with England, from 1812 to 1815, undoubtedly turned the attention of our people away from the consideration of measures for the improvement of agriculture. The obstruction to commerce growing out of the wars of Napoleon, and the quarrel between England and the United States, caused the manufactures of this country to develop with wonderful rapidity. The enterprising youth were drawn in large numbers from the farms to factories, and the public mind was occupied with schemes for increasing the wealth of the country in this direction. However, in 1817, the Berkshire Agricultural Society of Massachusetts, under the enthusiastic leadership of Elkanah Watson, presented a memorial to Congress praying for the establishment of a national board of agricul- ture, in accordance with the original suggestion by President Wash- ington. A bill for this purpose was actually reported in the House of Representatives, but was defeated by an overwhelming vote. Some members opposed the bill because there was in their judgment no war- rant in the Constitution for such an institution; others based their opposition on questions of expediency, or on the general indifference of the agricultural public. It was also well known that President Madison was notin favor of the measure. The decade closed with the establish- ment of the New York Horticultural Society, the first horticultural society in the United States, in 1818, and the publication of the first distinctively agricultural periodical in this country, the American Farmer, in Baltimore, Md., in 1819. This was followed by the New England Farmer, published in 1822. ‘During this decade, also, the
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wool interest made much stir. The breaking up of the flocks in Spain, » the importation of Merino sheep into this country, and the speculation which followed, influenced agricultural fairs and societies.”
There were comparatively few events of striking interest to mark the progress of agriculture in the United States during the next twenty years. During this period the boundaries of the Republic were greatly enlarged; the introduction of steam as a motive power was already contributing largely to the movement of population from worn-out lands in the East to fertile districts further west; the demoralization of enterprise resulting from the employment of slaves was beginning to be felt in the South; questions relating to the extension of slavery, to. methods of transportation, to the establishment of new States and Territories, to public systems of free elementary education, were absorb- ing public attention. There was little heed paid to the claims of scientific agriculture or thought about the necessity for technical education. About 1825, however, there was considerable popular interest in a scheme for the culture and manufacture of silk in the United States, a matter which had had its cycles of agitation somewhere in this country in every decade since 1750. Congress responded to the demand for information by ordering the publication of a well-digested manual prepared by Richard Rust, Secretary of the Treasury, containing the best practical information that could be collected on the growth and manufacture of silk. In 1828 an edition of a Treatise on the Rearing of Silkworms, by Count Von Haggie, of Munich, was printed as a Congressional document, and several valuable reports on silk culture were made and published, until the bursting of the “‘ Morus multicaulis bubble” checked for a time this branch of agricultural industry.
REVIVAL OF INTEREST IN AGRICULTURE.
Ten years later public attention was rudely awakened to the neces- sity of doing something to prevent the rapid exhaustion of the soil, which was becoming a matter of serious concern in all States along the Atlantic seaboard. The failure of the crops in 1837-38 turned the balance of trade heavily against us and caused the importation of millions of dollars’ worth of breadstuffs. Irom this time may be dated the beginning of active interest in agriculture on the part of the National Government. At the prompting of Hon. Henry L. Ellsworth, Com- missioner of Patents, Congress, in 1839, made an appropriation of $1,000 for the “collection of agricultural statistics, investigations for pro- moting agricultural and rural economy, and the procurement of cut- tings and seeds for gratuitous distribution among the farmers.” In the two succeeding years Congress failed to make any further appro- priation, but the Commissioner of Patents did not flag in his efforts to secure recognition of the claims of the farmers by the National Legisla- ture, and in 1842 the appropriation for agriculture was renewed and has ever since been regularly made, except in 1846. The first attempt
si i
EDUCATION AND RESEARCH. IN AGRICULTURE. 8&7
to organize a national agricultural society was made at Washington in 1841 by a convention of persons desiring ‘to elevate the character and standing of the cultivation of the American soil.” It was hoped that the fund left by Hugh Smithson might be made available for the main- tenance of such an organization, but the establishment of the Smith- sonian Institution frustrated these expectations, and the ‘national society remained dormant until 1852.”
PLANS FOR AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN NEW YORK AND OTHER STATES.
The history of the early agitation in favor of agricultural education in the State of New York is very interesting and instructive. Prof. W. H. Brewer, of Yale University, who was closely identified with agri- cultural schools established in that State prior to 1860, has collected much information on this subject, and the author of this article is indebted to him for many of the facts here stated. As early as 1819, Simeon De Witt, surveyor-general of New York, to whom we are indebted for the classical names given to many towns in that State, in a pamphlet published anonymously at Albany, under the title ‘“‘Consid- erations on the necessity of establishing an agricultural college,” urged the foundation, under State authority, of an institution which he pro- posed to call “The Agricultural College of the State of New York.” This matter was thereafter never allowed to drop wholly out of sight. Allusions to an attempt to found an agricultural college in 1822 are found in the Transactions of the New York Agricultural Society and elsewhere.
In 1826 mention is made of a lyceum in Maine devoted to agricultu- ral studies, of schools in Connecticut having agricultural courses, and of efforts in Massachusetts to establish an agricultural college. The Farmers’ School Book, by Prof. J. Orvill Taylor, was published at Ithaca, N. Y.,in 1837. It was a little elementary work on science, par- ticularly chemistry, on the use of manures and on general farming, and was soon introduced in many of the district schools. About the same time the establishment of an agricultural college, probably a private speculation, was undertaken in Columbia County. Between 1830 and 1840 there was much talk about ‘manual labor schools,” a term vari- ously applied to schools in which the students were to pay for their education in whole or part by their labor, and a number of schools were started on that basis. The Oneida Institute was one of the earliest of these schools, and for a time enjoyed considerable popu- larity. So general had the agitation for agricultural education become in New York by 1838 that petitions asking for State aid in behalf of this cause, with nearly 6,000 signatures, were presented to the legisla- ture and turned over to a committee, who made a report deploring in Strong language “ that there is no school, no seminary, no subdivision of any school in which the science of agriculture is taught,” and recom-
88 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
mending the establishment of a school for this science. This matter came up in the legislature in different forms in succeeding years, and the movement seems to have steadily grown in strength and impor- tanee. It was greatly aided by the State Agricultural Society, which was reorganized in 1841, and immediately began the publication of the series of volumes of Transactions, which was continued annually for over thirty years, and less frequently since. One project of these times was that the State should maintain a lecturer who should inform the people of different localities on scientific and practical agriculture. Lectures on agricultural chemistry were delivered about this time to popular assemblies or schools in western New York, and this seems to have been done elsewhere, perhaps as far south as Georgia.
At the annual meeting of the New York State Agricultural Society in January, 1844, a committee of seven, consisting of Hon. John Greig, Governor Seward, Lieutenant-Governor Dickinson, Col. John A. King, James S. Wadsworth, Judge Savage, and Henry O’Reilly, was appointed to promote “the introduction of agricultural books and studies in the schools and libraries throughcut the State, and also for the purpose of selecting such prize essays from among the transactions of the society as may be most appropriately published in volumes of suitable size for the family and school district libraries;” and the society further resolved “That this society regards the establishment of an agricultural institute and pattern farm in this State, where shall be taught thoroughly and alike the science, the practice, and the profits of good husbandry, as an object of great importance to the productive agriculture of New York.”
This committee entered into correspondence with school superintend- ents and influential friends of agriculture in several States and presented an elaborate report the following year, in which are quoted the resolu- tions passed by the State convention of common-school superintendents held in June, 1844. The chairman of the committee which submitted these resolutions was Professor Potter, of Union College, and the com- mittee stated that in their opinion ‘the time has arrived when the ele- ments and scientific principles of agriculture should be taught in all our schools, especially to the older class of pupils.”
Between 1845 and 1850 agricultural schools were established by pri- vate enterprise in various places in the State. Among the peculiar features of these earlier schools were courses of lectures on agricultural chemistry and other topics, similar to the short or winter courses recently organized in a number of our agricultural colleges. For example, the Genesee Farmer for March, 1846, speaks of the Cortland County Agri- cultural School and of Mr. Woolworth’s “unexpected success” in deliver- ing lectures once a week to twenty-five or thirty farmers.
The agricultural school at Cream Hill, Connecticut, was established in May, 1845, by Dr. S. W. Gold and his son, T. S. Gold, and continued in successful operation until 1869, The number of pupils was limited to 20, and the object of the school was “to unite with classical and scientific education, theoretical and practical instruction in agriculture.”
EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE. 89
A course of lectures on agricultural chemistry was delivered in New Orleans on invitation of citizens during the winter of 1845-46, by B. W. Jones, afterwards a professor in Yale College.
Sufficient interest was awakened in this and other plans for the pro- motion of agriculture to make it seem to the United States Commis- sioner of Patents worth while to send a special agent to Europe to inves- tigate the movements there in the same direction. In the report of this agent, published in 1847, is contained an account of the European agricultural schools.
In 1846 John P. Norton was appointed professor of agricultural chem- istry and vegetable and animal physiology at Yale College, New Haven, Conn. B. Silliman, jr., was appointed professor of chemistry applied to the arts. This was the beginning of Sheffield Scientific School. The Lawrence Scientific School at Harvard was begun about the same time. Professor Norton began his lectures in 1847, and during the next five years also wrote extensively for agricultural journals, edited an American edition of Stevens on the Farin, and published a work of his own on the Elements of Agriculture. So great was the demand for teachers in agricultural chemistry that a regular course with a view to their preparation was established at Yale in 1848. Prof. W. H. Brewer was among the first students to take this course, and Prof. 8S. W. John- son joined him in 1849.
In January, 1849, Governor Hamilton Fish, of New York, in his annual message to the legislature of the State, strongly recommended the estab- lishment of a State agricultural college. The same year the New York Agricultural Society established at Albany a chemical laboratory for the analysis of soils, manures, etc., and an elaborate but very inaccurate chemical examination of maize was made there by Dr. Salisbury. Dur- ing the session of the legislature that year Professor Johnston, of Edin- burgh, the celebrated Scotch agricultural chemist, came to Albany and delivered a course of lectures under the auspices of the society.
In an address before the Norfolk Agricultural Society, delivered in 1849, Hon. Marshall P. Wilder urged the advisability of establishing al agricultural college in Massachusetts. The idea speedily took hold of the friends of agriculture in that State to such an extent that in 1850 the State senate of Massachusetts passed a bill to found sueh an institution, but it was defeated in the house. As a compromise meas- ure a board of commissioners was appointed to investigate the matter. The commissioners sent Professor Hitchcock to Europe to visit the agricultural schools already in operation there, and his report was transmitted to the legislature in the following year. The only imme- diate outcome of this movement was the establishment of the Massa- chusetts Board of Agriculture in 1852.
The United States Commissioner of Patents had meanwhile begun to
urge upon Congress the desirability of giving national aid to agricul-
tural education. In his report for the year 1850 he deplores the lack of
$0 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
qualified men to fill professorships in agricultural colleges, and says that “‘if a young farmer engaged in stock growing wishes te study the digestive organs, the muscles, nerves, or blood vesselsof the horse, cow, sheep, or hog, there is not a museum in all America where this can be done.” And in the two succeeding years the same official publishes in his reports letters from prominent agriculturists urging the establish- ment of a national school for the training of teachers for agricultural and other industrial schools.
Professor Prewer thus writes concerning the first industrial college established in New York:
In 1850 Mr. John Delafield, a retired banker of New York City,a graduate of Colambia College, where he may have received instruction from Professor Mitehill, was living on one of the best farms in the State, ‘‘ Oaklands,” hear Geneva, 24 the town of Payette, Seneca County. He was enthusiastic in all matters relating to agricultural progress, and was a near neighbor of John Joluston, the famous Scotch farmer, the pioneer of tile drainage in the United States. Mr. Delafield imported the first tile-making machine in 1852. He was also at one time president of the New York State Agricultural Society, and originated and carried ont an agricultural and topographical survey of Seneca County. He took a deep interest in the eause of agricultural education, and, owing to his action and energy, on April 15, 1853, the State passed an act establishing a State agricultural college. This act created a board of ten trustees, of which Mr. Delafield was president, but appropriated no money. The coilege was to be located on Mr. Delafield’s farm, in the town of Fayette, butas he died October 22 of the same year, nothing more was done about building a college there.
At this time the Ovid Academy, located some 15 miles south of Fayette, was in successful operation ; agricultural chemistry was there taught, and pubhe lectures were given upon the same subject. Rey. Amos Brown, the principal of that academy, conceived the idea of having the college charter transferred to Ovid. The agitation for this was begun in 1855, and in 1856 an act was passed providing for the loan by the State of $40,000 for twenty-one years without interest, and the citizens of the vicinity subscribed nearly $50,000 more for the carrying out of the plan. In that year the board of trustees was reorganized, and soon after a farm was purchased at Ovid and Judge Cheever was made president. Buildings were built and the college was formally opened as the New York State Agricultural College in the fall of 1860, under the presidency of Maj. M. R. Patrick. By this time the institu- tion was heavily in debt, the civil war soon broke out, Major Patrick was ealled to the army, and the college was closed, never again to be opened asa school. The land and buildings reverted to the State and are how used for an insane asylum.
Contemporaneous with this was the starting of another institution, known as “The People’s College,” to be located near Havana, N. ¥. It, too, was to be an industrial institution, but of wider scope. Its act of incorporation was passed April 12, 1853, or three days before that of . the agricultural college just mentioned. Amos Brown later became the president of this institution, and as such took an active part in the
a
j ae
EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE. 91
discussion of the Morrill bill, and was largely instrumental in securing its passage. In a letter dated December 1, 1862 (only five months after the passage of the bill), Mr. Morrill writes as follows:
The Reverend Amos Brown took such active part in securing the passage of the bill referred to whenever it was before Congress, both by his earnest and intelligent advocacy of the measure through personal interviews and by sufficient urging the attendance of members on all questions of any test votes, his services continuing for months, that itis due to him and the institution of which he is the head, whenever an official disposition of the funds shall be made, that his merit shall not go unae- knowledged by the State of New York. From an early moment after the first bill was introduced he has been unflagging in his efforts to promote the success of this great measure in behalf of agriculture, and it is a pleasure to me to acknowledge tho value of his aid and cooperation.
It is interesting to note in this connection that even before the first introduction of the Morrill bill, in 1857, and when Mr. Brown probably had no knowledge of Mr. Morrill’s intention to frame such a bill, Mr, Brown was earnestly urging that an agricultural college should be a broad institution of high grade, in which the sciences and technology should be taught along with the old studies. In talking of this matter he often expressed the sentiment, if not the very language, afterwards adopted for the seal of Cornell University.
After the passage of the Morrill act of 1862 the legislature of New York voted to give the whole of New York’s share of the land grant to the “ People’s College,” but afterwards, when that institution failed to comply with the conditions of the law, the grant was given to Cor- nell University.
THE FIRST AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.
The constitution of the State of Michigan, adopted in 1850, requires that ‘‘the legislature shall provide for the establishment of an agricul- tural school for agriculture and the natural sciences connected there- with.” In obedience to this provision an act for the establishment of a State agricultural college was adopted by the legislature of Michigan in 1855, and approved February 12 of that year, and the organiza- tion of the institution given into the charge of the State beard of edu- cation. A farm, then in the woods, of 676 acres, lying 3§ miles east of the city of Lansing, was purchased and buildings erected, and on May 13, 1857, the college was formally opened for the reception of students. The institution began with 61 students and 5 professors. To Michigan, therefore, belongs the honor of having been the first of the States to put in actual operation an educational institution for the direct promo- tion of technical training in agriculture.
The Farmers’ High School of Pennsylvania (now the Pennsylvania State College) was incorporated in 1854 and opened for students in February, 1859. Donations of land as a site for the institution were offered in several parts of the State. Funds for the erection and equipment of buildings were provided by the legislature, the State
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Agricultural Society, and private subscription. The first president, Dr. Evan Pugh, had not only studied in Germany at a time when very few American students went abroad, but had also spent several months at Rothamsted, England, working under Lawes and Gilbert.
In 1856 the legislature of Maryland incorporated Maryland Agricul- tural College.
Under this law nearly 500 philanthropic and patriotic citizens of Maryland, with a few in other States and in the District of Columbia, subscribed the minimum amount of stock provided by the act and organized the institution. The stock- holders met, elected the first board of trustees, and this body, after much delibera- tion, purchased for the college, from the late Charles B. Calvert, the estate known as Rossboro, containing 428 acres and situated in Prince George County, 8 miles from the city of Washington, and upon the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. There the cor- ner stone of the main college building was laid on August 24, 1858, and the institu- tion was opened for students in September, 1859. The opening of the college was quite an imposing event. Bishop Pinkney was chaplain and Professor Henry, of the Smithsonian Institution, was the orator of the day.
Meanwhile, in 1856, Mr. Wilder, of Massachusetts, had succeeded in obtaining from the legislature of his State a charter of ‘*The Trustees of the Massachusetts School of Agriculture,” and from Congress a charter of the United States Agricultural Society, which had been formed in 1852. It is perhaps worth while to notice that the latter was opposed in the Senate by Jefferson Davis on the ground that ‘‘Congress had no power to create corporations.”
THE FIRST MORRILL ACT.
The activity of the friends of agricultural education now began to extend itself beyond the limits of State legislation, and numerous petitions were presented to Congress asking for national aid for the establishment of agricultural colleges. The relation of this movement to that wider development of the American system of higher education due to the progress of the natural sciences and their application to the arts is thus briefly discussed by Professor Brewer, whose intimate per- sonal acquaintance with many of the leaders of industrial, scientific, and educational progress in this period eminently qualifies him to speak of the causes which led to the passage of the Morrill act of 1862.
THE EVENTS LEADING UP TO THE MORRILL ACT.
Tho Morrill act of 1862 was the outcome of a long series of events which seem either to have been imperfectly understood by many writers or to have been deemed of an importance far below what they really had. The causes which led up to this grant of land for the purpose of aiding schools of science were numerous and not so simple as they seem now. Educational demands were doubtless the greater, but others, which need not be discussed in detail here, were important and, indeed, essential factors in promoting the passage of this act. Considered even as an edu-
cational movement, it was only a part of a wide movement, of which instruction:
in the sciences of immediate and special application in agriculture was but one phase, It is true that there was a widespread and often-heard demand for agricultural
EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE. 93
colleges during the twenty years preceding the passage of that act, but this was but one feature of a general educational movement.
The period between 1840 and 1860 was a peculiar one in the history of the world’s intellectual activity and material progress. At its beginning sume of the physical sciences, more particularly chemistry and geology, were scarcely 50 years old, but they had already revolutionized some of the arts and produced great changes in agriculture. All this had taken place within the lifetime of the older workers then in the field.
Popular works on science were widely read, and had prepared the public mind to cherish hopes, perhaps exaggerated, of the benefits to come by the applications of science, and had greatly stimulated intellectual activity in this new field of knowl- edge. Liebig’s familiar Letters on Chemistry incited hopes for agriculture which will probably never be realized. Dick’s works made the moon hoax! not only pos- sible but such a great success as it never could have been before or since, and the discoveries actually taking place at that time awakened the most widespread desire to know more.
In a thousand and one ways, more in the other lines than in agriculture, discov- ery, invention, and the application of scientific laws to the arts and industries were playing a part in the development of the material resources of the civilized world and modifying the industries and occupations of men. There was then an absorb- ing interest in the growing steam transportation; railroads and ocean steamships then came into use and were made practicable; iron working, dyeing, and many other arts were being revolutionized by chemistry; commercial fertilizers were coming to be used; the electric telegraph, just invented, first came into use during this period; other events, some of them political, were profoundly affecting the current of human activity; prices, which had been falling from the decline of the production of silver in Mexico, began to rise with the discovery and production of gold in California. This was t he beginning of an era in the rise of prices and of material prosperity unexampled in the history of civilization. The vine disease in the south of Europe, the potato disease in Ireland, the revolution in Germany, all occurring just as steamships began to carry immigrants, stimulated the immigration of working people as never before.
All these influences produced a deep and lasting effect on the theories and practice of education. The ‘old education,” as it was called, did not supply the new wants. There was aloud and discordant demand for something else. The many agreed only in this, that less Latin and Greek (which had before been considered the corner stone and substance of a liberal education) be taught and in their place more science; or at least that, whatever place the old college curriculum might have in the future, new systems of education were required in this new development of civilization.
For example, great railroads were being surveyed and built; yet, aside from the national military school at West Point and personal instruction at places scattered here and there, there was but one engineering school in the United States previous to 1840.2. So itis not wonderful that the matter of training in the sciences, pure and applied, was discussed when engineers were wanted and our factories, iron works, and other industries were asking for chemists. The old education was not sufficient for the new uses, but what the new education was to be and what were to be its schools no one seemed to know.
This discussion, along with that of elective studies instead of a rigid curriculum, went on in all the colleges and universities in the land. The University of Virginia
Ss
1[A fabulous account of telescopic information regarding the moon, published in the New York Sun, in which the writer went so far as to predict that we should soon be able to study the entomology of that satellite. Many persons believed this marvelous story.—ED. ]
*Renssalaer Polytechnic Institute at Troy, N. Y.
94 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
already had elective courses. All tried in some way to expand in the direction of the physical sciences.
The agitation for education in sciences began earlier, but the profoundest meve- ment in the colleges took place between 1840 and 1850. Yale College then established its scientific and agricultural department, more agricultural than elsewhere because of the personal bent of Prof. John P. Nerton, who was really the father of that departmentin Yale. Harvard started its scientific department at.the same time—the Lawrence Scientific School—but the Lawrences, who gave the endowment of $40,000: to start it with, being prominently engaged in manufacturing, chemistry applied in the direction of the arts rather than in agriculture became there more prominent. While these old and reputable universities added scientific departments, others: modified the eurriculum in their literary courses to embrace more science. So pro- found was this movement that some very respectable institutions whose endowment did not permit of extensive expansion seriously considered the advisability of ehang- ing their plans and becoming essentially schools of science rather than of literature.
Prominent among those educators who agitated this question was Francis Wayland, then president of Brown University. Liberally educated, first at Union College, under the administration of the eminent Dr. Nott, then studying and graduating dector of medicine, later a Baptist clergyman, he became eminent as a. Baptist theo- logian, as a teacher, as a professor of moral science, but more so as a teacher and writer on educational matters.. He was president of Brown University from 1827 to 1855, and between 1840 and 1855, the period I am more especially discussing, he teok a more prominent part in the discussion of the new needs in education than any other college president of the country.
As early as 1842 he published a little beok entitled Thowght on the Present Collegiate System of the United States, in which he argues earnestly in faver of the intreduction of new subjects into the college curriculum, much more attention to the sciences, and the adeption of a system of elective studies.
In A Sketch of the History and the Present Organization of Brown University, published by the exeewtive board, Providence, 1861, we find that Wayland had come in as president in the college in the year 1826-27; that ‘‘his presidency was marked by greater changes and more numerous improvements than had been effected by either of his predecessors;”” that a science hall and a museum of geology had been added in 1840; that the college was poor and not self-supporting, and that, ‘‘despair- ing of improvement so long as the existing system was perpetuated, Dr. Wayland in. 1849 resigned his presidency ;” that he, however, consented to reconsider his purpose,. and the corporation falling in with him, ‘‘it was resolved to attempt to raise a fund for the purpose of realizing his theory of education; $125,600 was subseribed and what was called the new system was commenced.” Its main features were a provi- sion ‘‘for such new courses in science as the practical spirit of the age demanded, etc.” The four-years’ course was abolished, a three-years’ course established, and several kinds of degrees conferred. This ran from 1850 to 1855; then Dr. Wayland, “having inangurated his cherished plan,” resigned, and Dr. Sears was put in his place. Dr. Sears already had fame as a theologian, and soon under him the four- years’ course was reestablished, leading to the degree of A. B.
Going along with these changes in collegiate instruction there was much clamor for purely technical schools of special kinds. In no direction was this mere marked than in agriculture. This became the field of work for enthusiasts of various grades and a bewildering number of schemes was propesed. A few private schools were started, but the loudest clamor was for State agricultural colleges. Many were planned, a few were chartered, and three or four actually opened before 1862.
These carly agricultural colleges wero certainly not at first a success. Some were total failures (as in New York), others hardly a success (as in Michigan and Penn- sylvania). Why this was so was a matter of dispute. It is certain that they were poor in means, and to this cause many attributed the poverty of their results.
EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE. 95
We ought here to say that previous to 1850 numerous private agricultural schools of a grade lower than colleges had been established in the United States and many were for a time reasonably successful. Such, for instance, was Dr. Gold’s, in West Cornwall, Conn.
Not only were a few agricultural schools started, but also other schools in which the sciences were to bo a leading feature.
Many prominent educators, however, came to think that their failure was because their aim was too narrow; that it was too early in this country for a narrow insti- tution, supplying but a single want, to be successful; that scientific and practical institutions should be wider and with wider aims, inciting to higher culture and laying a more solid foundation; in short, that schools of science rather than trade schools were needed. Of colleges of the old-fashioned sort there were already enough and more than enough. The direction of their studies and system of instruction had been developed by centuries of experience which must not be rudely throwm aside. On the other hand, schools of science were too new and too few to show what was the best curriculum and what should be the details; consequently there was 1 wide difference of opinion as to how they might be best conducted. It was there‘ore but natural that practical success should come slowly and total failures be common.
Such was the condition of educational affairs when the Morrill act was discussed and passed. This wisely left the details to be developed in the respective schools. With a sagacity greater than that of most “educators” before and since. Mr. Morrill saw that schools grow rather than are made, and he therefore only indicated the general direction in which they should grow; that is, they were to be schools of seience rather than schools of literature—institutions where the sciences and their application in agriculture and the arts were to be studied and cherished as the lead- ing objects.
On December 14, 1857, Justin 8. Morrill, then a member of the House of Representatives, and now a venerable Senator, from the State of Vermont, introduced a bill into the lewer House authorizing the establishment of industrial colleges in every State, and granting for their maintenance 20,000 acres of the publie land for each member of Congress. This bill was referred to the Committee on Public Lands, who brought in an adverse report April 15,1858. Nevertheless, in the following session of Congress the bill passed both Houses, but was vetoed by President Buchanan.
In December, 1861, Mr. Morrill introduced in the House of Repre- sentatives his amended bill, which bestowed 30,000' acres of land for each member of Congress upon the several States for the establishment of colleges “to teach such branches of learning as are related to agri- culture and the mechanic arts, in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions in life,” and May 2, 1862, Benjamin Wade, of Ohio, intro- duced a similar bill in the Senate. On May 29 the bill was reported adversely in the House by the Committee on Public Lands, but was passed by the Senate June 10, and nine days later by the House. President Lincoln made the bill a law by affixing his signature July 2, 1862, the very day when McClellan’s army began its retreat from the Peninsula after the bleody battie of Malvern Hill. Amid the national
'The amount of land actually allotted the several States was partly determined
by the value of the land selected,
96 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
gloom which succeeded the failure of the Union’s greatest army to take the capital of the Confederacy, few paid any attention to the gift of over 11,000,000 acres to promote the arts and industries of peace. It is a Significant fact that in the amended bill it was provided that every institution receiving the benefits of the land grant should provide for the military training of its students.
As it was anticipated that the land grant would furnish a fund only sufficient for the partial support of such colleges as the several States ought to maintain for the benefit of the “industrial classes,” the act provides that ‘no portion of said fund, nor the interest thereon, shall be applied, directly or indirectly, to the purchase, erection, preserva- tion, or repair of any building or buildings.” Ten per cent of the fund might, however, be expended “for the purchase of lands for sites or experimental farms.” ‘The Federal Government,” says Dr. Blackmar, in his History of Federal and State Aid to Higher Education, ‘“‘intended the grant should form a nucleus in each of the several States around which buildings, libraries, laboratories, workshops, gymnasiums, mili- tary halls, and other educational appliances should be grouped by means of public munificence and State bounty. It was to prove a stimulus to the generosity of the people and the liberality of the States. To this test the people, through private gifts and municipal and State governments, have responded, with few exceptions, in a liberal way.”
The shares of the several States under the land-grant act of 1862 ranged from 24,000 acres for Alabama to 990,000 acres for New York. The fund arising from the sale of the lands was not, however, pro- portionate in all cases to the number of acres received by the State. Many States sought to establish colleges very soon after the passage of the act, and in other States where the land grant was given to exist- ing institutions the boards of management foolishly endeavored to convert the gift into cash at once. At the same time the homestead act, by enabling thousands of settlers to obtain land free of cost, and the extensive gifts of land to aid railroads, tended to depress the price of public lands offered for sale. The general result was that many States received small advantages from the land grant, the income from which in some cases was not sufficient to properly maintain even a single department of a college. Ina few States, like New York and Mich- igan, where the number of acres received was large and the sale-of the na, was skillfully made, large funds were obtained and strong institu- tions were established. The total fund received from this land grant amounts to about $9,500,000, aud abous 1,200,000 acres still remain to be sold. The twenty-five years succeeding the passage of the act was necessarily a period of organization and of discussion regarding the character of the institutions which would fulfill the objects of the act and meet the needs of the industrial classes in the respective com-_ munities. The language of the act is broad and easily admits of widely diverse interpretation. It was not the intention to establish
EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE. UT
agricultural colleges only, but rather institutions for “the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions in life.” Whether a farmer’s or mechanic’s boy wished to become a doctor, machinist, or farmer, he was to have such instruction as he needed in the land-grant college. At the same time, in the agi- tation which preceded the introduction of the bill, in the speeches made in its favor, as well as in the act itself, special emphasis was laid upon agricultural education. The colleges to be founded under this act were in the minds of many to be to the profession of agriculture what West Point is to the profession of war. Unfortunately, the desig- nation “agricultural colleges” was inserted in the title of the bill by the engrossing clerk and quickly passed into current use. In this way the real import of the act was obscured in the minds of the people, and the difficulties attending the proper administration of the fund were greatly increased.
It is also very important to remember in this connection that the definitions of the terms “liberal education,” ‘practical education,” “professions,” as employed in the United States in 1862, were very different from those given to the same expressions to-day. <A “liberal education” was then, in the popular mind, a medieval classical educa- tion; a “practical education” was one which fitted a man to earn his livelihood in any honest calling, and the * professions” were medicine, theology, and law. Reading, writing, and arithmetic were “ practical” studies; Latin and Greek were “liberal” studies. Technical and scientific schools as we now know them were comparatively few and weak, and the period had not yet come when the ordinary education of the schools was not a passport to remunerative employment. It may be safely said that in 1862 an industrious boy of average common sense was sure of good wages if he could only get a common-school educa- tion. There is little wonder, then, that in carrying out the provisions of this act many of the States did little more than graft certain indus- trial features on new or old institutions which in general were like all the other institutions for higher education existing in the United States. Moreover, it could be fairly claimed that all institutions which made it
- easier for members of the industrial classes to obtain an education of
any sort acted within the provisions of the Morrill act. But the land- graut colleges did far more than this. Almost all of them made more or less earnest efforts to secure agricultural students, and to provide at least a small amount of training in agricultural science. The farmers were not prepared to respond to these efforts. Many did not think there was or could be any science of agriculture worth learning. In the newer States the lands were so fertile and so cheap that farmers were highly prosperous under the most careless methods of agriculture. Moreover, when the immense volume of foreign immigration and the wonderful development of thousands of manufacturing and other industries in the United States since the civil war are considered, it
a oa ——A
98 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
will not seem strange that the American farmer’s boy of the period between 1862 and 1887 was not willing to stay on the farm, but sought the avenues leading to more rapid accumulation of wealth. It is easy to say now that the land-grant colleges ought to have resisted this tendency and held out larger inducements to pursue teehnical courses in agriculture; but when imstitutions deriving a large part of their support from the publie purse were beset by the very class for which they were established with demands for a general education, and when there was no consensus among professional educators as to what should be included in agricultural courses, it could hardly be expected that the schools would refuse compliance with such requests. On the other hand, these colleges did much to inculcate a broader view of what con- stitutes a liberal education, and undertook much pioneer and experi- mental work in the development of technical courses suited to the needs of American farmers and mechanics. Even those which may seem to have done very little to directly benefit agriculture did in some cases the most valuable kind of work in preparing teachers and seien- tists who are now in the front ranks of those engaged in the work of technical instruction and in scientific and practical investigations in the agricultural schools and experiment stations throughout the country.
During this period clearer conceptions of what is desirable in courses of instruction in the sciences and arts, including agriculture, were being formed in the minds of educators and the public. Great changes and developments were taking place in all institutions of learning. The system of elective studies was steadily making its way and opening up wider opportunities for satisfying the demands of individuality in teacher and learner. Original research, which was all the while grow- ing in importance and securing more brilliant and useful results in the Old World, began to assert its claims in the United States. Private benevolence was beginning to provide funds for the maintenance of such research in this country, and the people were gradually awaking to the necessity of promoting the interests of great industries by extending governmental aid to inquiries carried on in their behalf. Agriculture began to feel the influence of this movement. Experimental inquiries in field and laboratory were begun here and there, and very soon the regularly organized experiment station, after the German pattern, made its appearance in this country. Before proceeding to give a brief sketch of the history of the experiment stations let us consider for a moment the general status of the land-grant colleges just prior to the establishment of experiment stations under the act of Congress of March 2,1887. The report of the United States Bureau of Education for 1886-87 contains the following general statements regarding these institutions:
The number of institutions in the United States sharing in the benefit of the land grant of 1862 is forty-eight.
In thirteen States the grant was made over to universities or colleges already exist-
EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE. 99
ing, and has served to establish or augment the funds of courses, departments, or schoolsof applied science inthe same, In the twenty-five remaining States the fund has served as the chief source of endowment for new institutions, or as the nucleus around which have collected additional funds, in several cases far exceeding the amount derived from the national grant. In six States the grant has been divided. In Georgia it has been applied to the endowment of six colleges of agriculture, affili- ated to the State University; in Massachusetts separate colleges, one of agriculture, the other of the mechanic arts, have been the recipients;.in Missouri a portion of the grant has been applied to the endowment of an ‘agricultural and mechanical college,” and the rest to the endowment of a ‘‘school of mines and metallurgy,” both under the auspices of the University of Missouri; in Mississippi, South Caro- lina, and Virginia the fund has been divided between institutions for white and colored students, respectively.
Certain of the schools have developed particularly in the direction of the me- chanical arts; others are agricultural colleges, pure and simple; a few combine both departments, with large provision for theoretic instruction, while some differ in no essential particular from the ordinary classical college.
ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
While the States had been active in establishing agencies for aiding the farmer in acquiring a better knowledge of his art and in improving its practice, the National Government had not neglected to provide a central bureau for doing its part in similar work.
The establishment of a national board of agriculture was one of the measures which President Washington strongly urged upon the atten- tion of Congress. The propriety of giving national aid to agriculture was early considered by committees of both Houses of Congress, but the indifference of the farmers and constitutional objections prevented any legislative action. During the Administration of John Quincy Adams the consuls in various parts of the world were instructed to send to the Department of State rare seeds and plants for distribu- tion, and about the same time a botanical garden was established at Washington. These measures proved to be the germs from which has grown the United States Department of Agriculture. When our Goy- ernment was first organized, after the adoption of the Federal Consti- tution, the principal charge of the issuing of patents was given to the Department of State, and when seeds and plants were received from consuls they were distributed through the Patent Office. Thus it came to pass that when, on the 4th of July, 1856, the Patent Office was made a separate bureau, and Hon. Henry L. Ellsworth, of Connecticut, was appointed as Commissioner of Patents, he considered it within the proper scope of his office to help the farmers of the country by distrib- uting seeds and plants. Mr. Ellsworth had been a practical farmer in Connecticut, and, having traveled. far to the West as Indian Commis- sioner, had been greatly impressed by the fertility of the vast prairies and was deeply interested in projects for the opening of these lands to settlement. He also realized the importance of the invention of improved agricultural implements, which were then beginning to attract
100 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
public attention, and believed that great benefit might result from the establishment of a regular system for the selection and distribution of grains and seeds of the choicest varieties for agricuitural purposes. So earnest was he in this matter that, without legal authorization and outside of office hours, he secured free gifts of seeds and plants, which he afterwards distributed to farmers -in various sections of the country, with the help of friendly members of Congress, who lent their franks for this purpose. Beginning with his first annual report, dated Janu- ary 1, 1838, he strongly urged an appropriation to continue and enlarge this work, and in the closing hours of the Twenty-fifth Congress secured the passage of an act (March 3, 1839) appropriating $1,000, ““to be taken from the Patent Office fund, for the purpose of collecting and distributing seeds, prosecuting agricultural investigations, and pro- curing agricultural statistics.” From that time up to 1854 seeds were distributed and agricultural statistics were compiled with the aid of small appropriations from the Patent Office fund, except in 1840, 1841, and 1846, when Congress failed to make any appropriation for this purpose. In 1854 the policy of appropriating money from the Patent Office fund was abandoned, and in the following year the whole amount ($39,000) drawn from that fund in the interest of agriculture was reim- bursed, and thereafter the appropriations for agriculture were drawn directly from the Treasury. The same year the annual appropriation for agriculture was increased to $35,000, and has never since been less than that sum. A special agent was now employed “to investigate and report upon the habits of insects injurious and beneficial to vege- tation, especially those infesting the cotton plant.” In 1850 an arrange- ment was made with the Smithsonian Institution for procuring and publishing meteorological statistics. A chemist and botanist were also employed, and a propagating garden was begun. The first annual report of Commissioner David P. Holloway, of Indiana, is worthy of notice as the last and most complete agricultural manual issued by the Patent Office, and as containing a bold and able plea for the creation ‘of a Department of the Productive Arts, to care for all the industrial interests of the country, but especially for agriculture.” Congress adopted a portion of the Commissioner’s plan, and passed a bill estab- lishing a Department of Agriculture. This act became a law by the approval of President Lincoln on the 15th of May, 1862, and on the Ist of July of the same year the new Department was formally organ- ized in the rooms of the Patent Office previously occupied by the agricultural division of that Office. Though by the terms of the act an independent departinent of the Government was established, its chief officer was styled Commissioner of Agriculture and was not a member of the President’s Cabinet. The duties of the Department as defined in this act are, “To acquire and diffuse among the people of. the United States useful information on subjects connected with agri- culture in the most general aud comprehensive sense of that word, and
EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE. 101
to procure, propagate, and distribute among the people new and valu- able seeds and plants.” Hon. Isaac Newton, of Pennsylvania, who had been, since early in 1861, the superintendent of the agricultural division of the Patent Office, was appointed the first Commissioner of Agriculture. Mr. Newton had been a practical and progressive farmer, was one of the first and most active members of the State Agricultural Society of Pennsylvania, and had for years urged upon Congress the importance of establishing such a department as that over which he was now called to preside.
Upon assuming the duties of his office he at once proceeded to organize the Depart- ment in accordance with the liberal spirit of the act creating it. * * * The clerical force of the former agricultural division was increased; a chemist was engaged and a laboratory established; a skilled horticulturist was placed in charge of the propagating or experimental garden; greater activity in the collection and dissemination of current agricultural facts was inaugurated, and a larger quantity of seeds and cuttings was distributed. * * * Astatistical branch was organized early in 1863, and to it was committed the collection and analysis of all statistics. Lewis Bollman, of Indiana, was appointed statistician. To ascertain, at the earliest practical period, the condition of the crops, their yield, the prices obtained for them, and other facts connected with current agricultural operations, the Commissioner issued during 1863 periodical circulars to farmers in every county of the loyal States. The results thus obtained were given to the public through the medium of monthly reports, which have been continued to the present time, with such modifica- tions of their original features as time and experience have seemed to render neces- sary. The first monthly report was issued July 10, 1863. The publication in the monthly reports of monthly and bimonthly meteorological tables furnished by the Smithsonian Institution was commenced at thesame time. These tables were repro- duced in the ensuing annual report. Up to 1872 the same arrangement cdncerniug these tables continued in force, when their further publication was suspended.
The employment of a skillful gardener was one of the most auspicious incidents of the first year of Mr. Newton’s administration. He was fortunate in procuring the services of William Saunders, who has ever since given to the important duties assigned to him an intelligent and conscientious devotion.
In the second year of Mr. Newton’s administration (1863) Townend Glover was appointed entomologist. In 1864 the Government reserya- tion in the city of Washington lying between the Smithsonian Institu- tion and the Washington Monument, and embracing 35 acres, was assigned to the Department of Agriculture. For several years tliis, land was chiefly used as an experimental farm. The main building now occupied by the Department was erected on this farm, being completed in 1868, At that time the grounds were converted into a landseape garden, comprising a collection of hardy trees and shrubs arranged in their natural orders.
As the progress of agricultural science demanded new divisions of the work and the means at the disposal of the Department enabled it to widen the range of its efforts, one scientific branch after another was added. In 1884 the Bureau of Animal Industry was established to investigate and report upon the diseases of domestic animals, especially pleuropneumonia, and to devise measures for improving the animal industries of the country. The Bureau has siuce been charged with
102 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the inspection of import and export animals and of live stoek and their products slaughtered for food consumption. On the 11th of February, 1889, President Cleveland approved the act of Congress to make the Department of Agriculture an Executive Department, and nominated Norman J. Colman, of Missouri, the last Commissioner of Agriculture, to be the first Secretary of Agriculture. With the change of Adminis- tration, on March 4 of the same year, Jeremiah M. Rusk, of Wisconsin, was appointed Secretary of Agriculture by President Harrison, and Edwin Willits, president of the Michigan Agricultural College and director of the experiment station connected with that institution, was appointed Assistant Secretary. During their administration the Department was further developed by the addition of the Weather Bureau, which had been a branch of the Signal Service of the Army, and was, under act of Congress, transferred, on July 1, 1891, to this Department. | |
As at present reorganized by Secretaries Rusk and Morton, the Department of Agriculture has been divided into two grand divisions. One division embraces all branches of the Department which are more particularly charged with administrative and executive functions, and which, for that reason, are conducted under the personal supervision of the Secretary. The other division includes those branches which are chiefly engaged in investigations in agricultural science, and which are in inmediate charge of the Assistant Secretary. Under the present organization, the Secretary supervises the Weather Bureau, Bureau of Animal Industry, Divisions of Statistics, Forestry, Records and Kdit- ing, Accounts, Seeds, Garden and Grounds, Road Inquiry, and the Library. The Assistant Secretary supervises the Office of iuxperiment Stations, the Divisions of Chemistry, Entomology, Ornithology and Mammalogy, Botany, Pomology, Vegetable Pathology, Microscopy, Agricultural Soils, Irrigation, Fiber Investigations, and the Museum. The duties of the several branches of the Department are briefly described in the Appendix. While the administrative and executive functions of the Department have been greatly enlarged by recent leg- islation, the scientific and practical investigations have been pursued with increasing activity, and the results of its work are more widely distributed and more highly appreciated than ever before. The growth of the Department is strikingly illustrated in the rapid increase in the amount of information which it has disseminated during the past five years. In 1889 the Department issued 78 publications, in editions ageregating 526,537 copies. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1894, 205 publications passed through the Division of Records and Editing, all but 6 of which directly issued from this Department. The editions of these publications aggregated 3,169,310 copies.
That this Department has been a mighty factor in the education of » the farmers of this country probably no one will deny. . For our purpose,
vee EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE. 103
however, it is only necessary to observe here that the Department has developed very strongly in the direction of original research in behalf of agriculture. In considering the history of the experiment stations in the States it should never be forgotten that the Department has for many years had within itself what is practically a great experiment station, and that it is a very important feature in the great system of experimental research in agriculture which has been established in this country, very largely with the aid of funds drawn from the National Treasury.
THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS.
We have already seen how the idea that experiments with a view to improving agricultural practice should be carried on, along with instruc- tion in agriculture, had been more or less prominent in the minds of leaders in agricultural progress in this country for many years. At first it was thought that all that was necessary for this purpose was to establish experimental! farms on which new varieties of plants or new processes of culture of crops could be tested, or practical experiments in the feeding or breeding of animals could be conducted. Before the middle of this century, however, the investigations of such chemists as Liebig, in Germany, and Boussingault, in France, had shown that science could be made useful to agriculture as well as to other arts. Indeed, Liebig’s theory of fertilizers aroused extravagant expectations in the popular mind, and it was hoped that chemical analysis of soil and plant would be an infallible guide to show what manuring of the crop would produce the most abundant harvests. In the period between 1840 and 1850 Liebig’s Familiar Letters on Chemistry were printed in cheap form and widely read in this country. In 1843 Lawes and Gil- bert began, at Rothamsted, England, that remarkable series of field and laboratory experiments which has been continued under the same management for half a century.
“The beginning of the experiment station proper, the organization of scientific research with the aid of Government ‘as a necessary and permanent branch of agricultural business,’” came in 1851, when a “company of Saxon farmers joined themselves together in the little German village of Moeckern, near the city and under the influence of the University of Leipsic, called a chemist to their aid, and with later help from Government, organized the first agricultural experiment station.” As soon as agricultural colleges were established in this country experimental investigations in field and laboratory were under- taken, but for anumber of years these were carried on with small means and for the most part by the voluntary labor of professors ontside of their regular duties as instructors.
The act to establish and endow an agricultural college passed by the legislature of Maryland in 1856 contains the following section:
Sec. 6. It shall be the duty of the said board of trustees to order and direct to be made and instituted on said model farm, annually, a series of experiments upon the
104 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
cultivation of cereal and other plants adapted to the latitude and climate of the State of Maryland, and cause to be carefully noticed upon the records of said insti- tution the character of said experiments, the kind of soil upon which they were undertaken, the system of cultivation adopted, the state of the atmosphere, and all other particulars which may be necessary to a fair and complete understanding of the result of said experiments.
The records of the college show that in 1858, immediately after the college was located, and before building began, field experiments with corn, oats, and potatoes, ‘‘to test the relative value of the different manures offered for sale in the cities of Baltimore and Washington,” were commenced on the college farm. This work continued for two or three years, but was interrupted by the financial distress which soon affected the whole country and by the disturbed political condition of the State and nation. y
In 1870 the president and fellows of Harvard College began to organ- ize the school of agriculture and horticulture which had been provided for in the will of Mr. Benjamin Bussey, of Roxbury, Mass. This inter- esting document was signed July 30,1835, and was proved soon after the death of the testator, in 1842. It bequeathed half of the income of about $360,000 and 200 acres of land in Roxbury to the president and fellows of Harvard College, on condition that they establish on the farm ‘‘a course of instruction in practical agriculture, in useful and ornamental gardening, in botany, and in such other branches of natural science as may tend to promote a knowledge of practical agriculture and the various arts subservient thereto.” Owing to other provisions of the will, it was not deemed advisable to begin the formation of the Bussey institution earlier than 1870. In the same year the trustees of the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture granted to the corporation of Harvard College a considerable sum “ for the support of a laboratory and for experiments in agricultural chemistry, to be con- ducted on the Bussey estate.” The laboratory of the new institution was not ready for occupation until the last week in 1871. As soon as it was completed, however, agricultural researches were begun by F. H. Storer, the professor of agricultural chemistry, and his assistants. The first report of this work was presented to a committee of the trustees of the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, December 3, 1871. The experiments consisted of field tests of fertilizers upon the farm of the institution, and chemical analyses of commercial fertilizers. Other interesting and valuable work was done in the next few years, but the great fire in Boston in 1872 and the commercial crisis of 1873 combined to cripple the institution financially, and it has since been able to make comparatively few original investigations.
When the College of Agriculture of the University of California was organized it was understood that a part of its work would consist of experimental inquiries. In 1870 Prof. E. 8. Carr, in an address at the State Fair, made the following specific allusion: “ The University pro- poses to furnish the facilities for all needful experiments; to be the
EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE. 105
station where tests can be made of whatever claims attention.” A later report contains the following statements regarding the development of experimental inquiries in agriculture at the University:
Ex-President Gilman, in his report dated December 1, 1873, alludes to progress in this work, as follows:
*'Phe University domain is being developed with a view to illustrate the capability of the State for special cultures, whether of forests, fruits, or field crops, and the most economical methods of production, It will be the station where new plants and processes will be tested and the results made known tothe public. * * * A fine estate has been provided, well adapted to the establishment of an experiment station in agriculture, a botanic garden, an arboretum, etc.”
As is usual in the history of new undertakings, progress at first was slow and hesitating. The report for the years 1873-1875, by R. E. C. Stearns, at that time secretary of the board of regents, shows that 40 acres were prepared for planting with a view to agricultural experiments in 1874, and that during the winter follow- ing there were planted 584 named varieties of tree fruits, 73 of grapevines, aud 95 of various small fruits. * * *
In 1874 buildings were erected on the grounds set apart for agricultural experi- ments, viz: A barn 36 by 44 feet; a tool house 64 by 12 feet; two propagating houses, one 64 by 15 feet, the other 30 by 24 feet; a house for hatching fish ezgs; and in addition to these larger structures a complement of sheds and cutbuildings, hot beds, and cold frames were provided. Propagation of shrubs and trees from seed obtained abroad, and especially from other arid regions of the world, was first undertaken.
In 1874 E. W. Hilgard was chosen professor of agriculture. [Prof. Hilgard had previously been engaged for a number of years in conducting an agricultural and geological survey in Mississippi, in connection with which chemical examinations of soils, field experiments, and other agricultural investigations had been inciden- tally carried on in accordance with a plan inaugurated as early as 1857 and after- wards made the basis for the highly successful work of the California Experiment Station under his direction.] In the winter of 1875-76 the first field experiments were undertaken to determine the effects of deep culture and of the application of various fertilizers.
In 1875 the laboratory branch of the experiment station work was inaugurated, the regents making provision for the expenses thereof for the first two years; and at the end of this time the legislature opened the way for the continuation and extension of the work by liberal special appropriations from year to year.
After the fund which had been established by the sale of the land scrip donated to Connecticut under the ach of Congress of July 2, 1862, had been given to the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale College in 1863, a professor of agriculture was added to the working force of that institution. Samuel W. Johnson, M. A., the successor of Professor Norton as professor of theoretical and agricultural chemistry, and William H. Brewer, Ph. D., the professor of agriculture, have for many years taken an active ites est in all work for the promotion of agricultural science in Connecticut and elsewhere in the United States. Under their direction experimental work for the benefit of agriculture was carried on to a limited extent at New Haven more than twenty-five
years ago, and it is doubtless safe to say that “through the influence of the professors and pupils trained in this school, more than to any other single cause, is due the recognition of the importance of the
1 <A 94-——4*
106 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
establishment of agricultural experiment stations, first in Connecticut and subsequently throughout the whole country.” Prof. W.O. Atwater, the first director of the first regularly organized experiment station in this country, received a part of his training in this school.
The reports of the successful and beneficial work done in the Euro- pean experiment stations excited more and more attention on this side of the Atlantic, and the more advanced leaders in agricultural progress in this country began to ask for the establishment of similar institu- tions in the United States. In 1872, at a convention of representatives of agricultural colleges held in Washington in response to a call issued by the United States Commissioner of Agriculture, the question of the establishment of experiment stations was discussed, and the report of a cominittee in favor of such institutions was adopted by the convention. On the 17th of December, 1873, at the winter meeting of the State board of agriculture, at Meriden, Conn., Professor Johnson, of the Sheffield Scientific School, and Professor Atwater, of Wesleyan Univer- sity, urged the establishment of an agricultural experiment station in that State after the European pattern. A committee was appointed to consider the expediency of such a movement, and reported two days later that it was their “unanimous opinion that the State of Connecti- cut ought to have an experiment station as good as can be found any- where, and that the legislature of the State ought to furnish the means for its establishment.” A permanent committee was then appointed by the board to bring this matter to the attention of the public and the legislature. This committee held meetings in different parts of the State, and the following winter secured the introduction of a bill for an experiment station, which, however, was laid over until the next session of the legislature. Another year of agitation of the matter ensued. The project had many warm and enthusiastic friends, but, as might have been expected, the great mass of the farmers took little interest in the enterprise. When it had become apparent that it could not succeed, Mr. Orange Judd, the editor and proprietor of the Ameri- can Agriculturist, offered on his own part $1,000 to begin the under- taking, and on the part of the trustees of Wesleyan University, at Middletown, the free use of the chemical laboratory in the Orange Judd Hall of Natural Science. :
These offers were made on condition that the legislature should appropriate $2,800 per annum for two years for the work of the station It was thought that if by these means the work of agricultural experi- mentation could actually be begun, the usefulness of the enterprise would be so clearly demonstrated that it would speedily receive more generous and permanent support. An act making the appropriation thus proposed was unanimously passed, and approved July 2, 1875. arly in October of the same year a chemist was on the ground, and as soon as practicable two assistants were secured. Professor Atwater was made director, and thus the first agricultural experiment station
EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE 107
in America was an accomplished fact. Notwithstanding the severe financial depression of 1877, which caused serious reduction in old appropriations and utter refusal of new ones by the legislature of that year, a bill prepared by the director of the station and making a per- manent annual appropriation of $5,000 “to promote agriculture by seientific investigation and experiment” was passed unanimously. <At the end of the two years provided for in the original bill the station was reorganized under the direct control of the State and permanently located in New Haven where it has since been in successful operation, until 1882 in the chemical laboratory of the Sheffield Scientific School, and thereafter in buildings and on grounds provided by the State in the suburbs of the city.
The success which attended this first attempt to establish an organized experiment station in the United States was sufficient to attract the attention of advanced agriculturists throughout the country, and the example set by Connecticut was soon followed in other States. March 12, 1877, the State of North Carolina established an agricultural experiment and fertilizer control station at Chapel Hill in connection with the State University in accordance with an act of the legislature creating a Department of Agriculture, Immigration, and Statisties. The Cornell University experiment station was organized in February, 1879, by the faculty of agriculture of the university, as a voluntary organization. From that time until the passage of the act of Congress of March 2, 1887, the work was carried on by the different professors in such time as could be spared from other studies. For a part of that time the trustees of the university appropriated money from the uni- versity funds to pay for the services of an analyst and for the pur- chase of supplies. All the other work was done without compensation.
The New Jersey State station at New Brunswick, N. J., was estab- lished March 18, 1880, by an act of the State legislature and connected with the scientific school of Rutgers College.
The movement grew in favor with the people with each succeeding year, and in 1886 the Committee on Agriculture in reporting the Hatch bill to the House was able to make the following statements:
Since 1881 the legislatures of several States have cither recognized or reorgan- ized the departments of agriculture in the land-grant colleges as ‘‘experiment stations,” thus following substantially the course adopted by New Jersey. Such stations have been established in Maine, Massachusetts, Ohio, Tennessee, and Wis- consin. In three other States (possibly more), without legislative action, the col- lege authorities have organized their agricultural work as experiment stations. This has been done in California, Missouri, and New York. But in addition to the twelve experiment stations specifically designated by that name a very large num- ber of the colleges established under the act of 1862 are doing important work of a precisely similar kind. Many of them began such work immediately upon their establishment, and have since maintained it continuously ; others haye entered upon
it more recently. The colleges in Colorado, Indiana, Kansas, Michigan, and Penn-
sylvania are carrying on what is strictly experiment-station work as a part of their ordinary duty.
108 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The convention of delegates of agricultural colleges which met at Washington in 1883 discussed and indorsed the project for the estab- lishment of stations in connection with the colleges by appropriations from the national Treasury, in accordance with the terms of a bill already introduced in the House of Representatives by C. C. Carpen- ter, of Iowa. Congress, however, was not yet quite ready to undertake so large a scientific enterprise in this direction, and the biil was not put upon its passage. Meanwhile the number of stations was steadily increasing, and the interest of practical farmers, as well as men of science, was more and more excited by the reports of the results of the experiments which the stations had completed. On July 8, 1883, a convention of agricultural colleges and experiment stations met at the Department of Agriculture at Washington, in response to a call issued by the Commissioner of Agriculture. Almost the first thing which this convention did was to pass a resolution “that the condition and prog- ress of American agriculture require national aid for investigation and experimentation in the several States and Territories; and that there- fore this convention approves the principle and general provisions of what is known as the Cullen bill of the last Congress, and urges upon the next Congress the passage of this ora similar act.” (The Cullen bill was in its general provisions similar to the bill afterwards passed by Congress and now popularly known as the Hatch act.) So earnest was the convention in this matter that it appointed a committee on legislation, which was very efiicient in securing the passage of the amended bill.
In a later session the convention passed resolutions urging the crea- tion of a branch of the Department of Agriculture at Washington which should bea special medium of intercomimunication and exchange between the colleges and stations, and which should publish a periodi- cal bulletin of agricultural progress, containing in a popular form the latest results in the progress of agricultural education, investigation, and experimentation in this and in all other countries. Provision was also made fora permanent organization by the appointment of a com- mittee to cooperate with the United States Commissioner of Agricul- ture in determining the time of meeting and the business of the next convention, and in forming a plan for a permanent organization.
At the next session of Congress the experiment-station enterprise was again called to the attention of the House of Representatives by the bill which was introduced by William H. Hatch, of Missouri, and referred to the Committee on Agriculture. This committee made a favorable report March 3, 1886, and nearly a year later the bill was passed by Congress, and was approved by President Cleveland March 2, 1887.
The Hatch act provides that $15,000 a year shall be given out of the funds proceeding from the sale of public lands to each State and Territory for the establishment of an agricultural experiment station,
EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE. 109
which must be a department of the land-grant college, except in the ease of those States which had established experiment stations as separate institutions prior to the passage of the act.
The duties of the stations are thus defined:
Sec. 2. That it shall be the object and duty of said experiment stations to con- duct original researches or verify experiments on the physiology of plants and animals; the diseases to which they are severally subject, with the remedies for the same; the chemical composition of useful plants at their different stages of growth; the comparative advantages of rotative cropping as pursued under a varying series of crops; the capacity of new plants or trees for acclimation; the analysis of soils and water; the chemical composition of manures, natural or artificial, with experi- ments designed to test their comparative effects on crops of different kinds; the adaptation and value of grasses and forage plants; the composition and digestibility of the different kinds of food for domestic animals; the scientific and economic questions involved in the production of butter and cheese; and such other researches or experiments bearing directly on the agricultural industry of the United States as may in each case be deemed advisable, having due regard to the varying condi- tions and needs of the respective States or Territories.
In order that the funds from the national Treasury might be for the most part devoted to agricultural investigations, only $3,000 of the first year’s appropriation for each station was to be expended for buildings, and thereafter only $750 a year could be so expended.
That the farmers of the country may receive prompt information regarding the work cf the stations, it is provided that in addition to “full and detailed” annual reports of their operations and expendi- tures, ‘‘bulletins or reports of progress shall be published at said stations at least once in three months, one copy of which shall be sent to each newspaper in the States or Territories in which they are respectively located, and to such individuals actually engaged in farm- ing as may request the same and as far as the means of the station will permit.” The franking privilege is also given for the station publica- tions. Financial and other reports of the stations are to be sent to the Secretaries of Agriculture and the Treasury, but no provision is made for auditing the accounts by officers of the United States or for any Supervision of their work by the Federal authorities. It is, however, made the duty of the Secretary of Agriculture “to furnish forms, as far as practicable, for the tabulation of results of investigation or experiments; to indicate, from time to time, such lines of inquiry as to him shall seem most important; and, in general, to furnish such advice and assistance as will best promote the purpose of this act.” In the appropriation act for the Department of Agriculture for the present fiscal year it is provided that “the Secretary of Agriculture shall prescribe the form of the annual financial statement required by section 3 of the said act of March 2, 1887; shall ascertain whether the expenditures under the appropriation hereby made are in accordance with the provisions of the said act, and shall make report thereon to Congress.”
110 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS.
On the 18th of Oetober, 1887, the second convention of agricultural colleges and experiment stations convened at Washington. A perma- nent organization was effected, and the association was named “The Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Sta- tions.” George W. Atherton, LL. D., president of the Pennsylvania State College, was elected president of the association. ‘This conven- tion was deeply interested in securing the coordination of the work of the several statiens, and indorsed the action of previous conventions in urging the establishment of a central bureau. As the result of the | efforts of this association, an appropriation to enable the Commissioner of Agriculture to earry out the provisions of section 3 of the act estab- lishing the stations was included in the annual appropriation bill for the Department of Agriculture for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1889, aud the Commissioner of Agriculture instituted in October, 1888, an Office of Experiment Stations as a special branch of the Department of Agriculture.
Prof. W. O. Atwater was appointed director of the office, and contin- ued in this position until July 1, 1891, when he was succeeded by Prof. A. W. Harris, who had been assistant director, and who resigued in 1893 to become president of Maine State College. -
THE SECOND MORRILL ACT.
As the organization of the land-grant colleges proceeded and the system of technical education in agriculture and other industries was elaborated it seemed to Mr. Morrill and other friends of industrial edu- cation that the income derived from the land-grant funds, even when supplemented by liberal contributions from the States and other sources, was inadequate to the demands of modern collegiate instruction in such lines. Mr. Morrill, therefore began to formulate plans to secure addi- tional aid for these institutions from the national Treasury. Mean- while the subject of Federal aid to the common schools throughout the Union was agitated, mainly through the debate which went on for years in Congress and in the country over the propositions of Mr. Blair, of New Hampshire, to extend such aid on the basis of the relative illiter- acy in the several States. When it became evident that a general measure of this kind would not receive the sanction of Congress, Mr. Morrill introduced a bill to provide for the further endowment of the land-grant colleges, and this was passed and received the approval of President Harrison August 30, 1890. The second Morrill act provides that there shall be annually appropriated to each State and Territory, out of the funds arising from the sale ot public lands, for the more com- plete endowment and maintenance of colleges for the benefit of agri- culture and the mechanic arts established under the act of 1862, the sum of $15,000 for the year ending June 30, 1890, and an annual
EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE. 111
increase of the amount of such appropriation for ten years thereafter by an additional sum of $1,000 over the preceding year, and that then the amount shall continue at $25,000. This money can be applied “only to instruction in agriculture, the mechanic arts, the HNnglish language, and the various branches of mathematical, physical, natural, and economic science, with special reference to their applications in the industries of life, and to the facilities for such instruction.” Provision is made for separate institutions for white and colored students in such States as may desire to make such an arrangement. The Secretary of the Interior is charged with the administration of the law, and is given authority to withhold the appropriation to any State or Territory for cause, subject to an appeal to Congress.
PRESENT STATUS OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION AND INVES- TIGATION IN THE UNITED STATES.
«
Having briefly described the origin of different agencies for the edu- cation of the farmer and the improvement of his art, it remains to out- line the system for agricultural education and research as it now exists in this country. In doing this it will be necessary to exclude those general educational agencies, such as newspapers, State and local societies, farmers’ institutes, and the State departments of agriculture, which to a greater extent than ever before are disseminating valuable information and stimulating or conducting inquiries for the benefit of agriculture. Nofurther reference seems to be needed here to the United States Department of Agriculture except what is said below regarding the Office of Experiment Stations in its relations to the agricultural experiment stations in the different States.
COLLEGES HAVING COURSES IN AGRICULTURE.
Under the provisions of the acts of Congress of July 2, 1862, and August 30, 1890, 65 institutions are in operation in the several States and Territories. Of these, about 60 institutions maintain courses in agricul- ture. In 14 States separate institutions are maintained for white and colored students. The organization of these institutions is so varied that an exact classification of them is impracticable. Ina general way, how- ever, they may be classified as follows: (1) Universities having colleges” or departments of agriculture; (2) colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts; (3) colleges of agriculiure; and (4) secondary schools of agricul- ture. In these institutions the college course in agriculture leading to a degree covers four or in some cases three years, and in a number of institutions is supplemented by post-graduate courses. Shorter courses of one or two years or of a few months are also provided in many institutions. Special coursesin dairying and in other agricultural industries have been recently established at a few of the colleges.
112 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Some institutions have preparatory classes in which instruction in agricultural subjects is given. An attempt is being made to establish courses of home readings for farmers under the direction of the col- leges, the Pennsylvania State College being the first institution to introduce this feature. Ina number of States courses of lectures in farmers’ institutes held in different localities are given by members of college faculties during the winter months.
The total number of officers in the faculties of the colleges having courses in agriculture in 1894 is 1,643, and the total number of students is 21,195, of whom 3,847 ave in the courses inagriculture. The graduates from the courses in agriculture in 1894 numbered 229, and the total number of graduates in those courses since the establishment of the colleges is 3,003.
- The total revenue for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1894, was $4,458,014, from the following sources: United States—Income of land grant of 1862, $618,273; appropriation under act of Congress of 1890, $943,837; total, $1,562,110; State, $1,337,928; local communities and individuals, $195,914; fees, $357,759; farm produce, $114,167; miscel- laneous, $687,067.
The value of additions to equipment in 1894 is estimated as follows: Buildings and land, $998,632; libraries, $72,874; apparatus, $229,499; farm implements, $26,346; live stock, $10,857; miscellaneous, $77,284; total, $1,415,495. .
Owing to the complicated organization of many of these institutions and the fact that the students in agricultural courses are in many sub- jects in classes with students in other courses, and that much of the equipment is used in common by the students in all the courses, it is impracticable to show by statistics with exactness the means and facili- ties for strictly agricultural education.
The following general statements regarding these institutions are from the report of the director of the Office of Experiment Stations for 1893:
The reports received from the colleges during the past two years indicate that while the facilities for instruction in agricultural courses have been increased as the result of the act of Congress of 1890, the number of students in the regular college courses in agriculture still continues to be relatively small in many institutions. On the other hand, the short courses are increasingly popular, and wherever special courses, as in dairying, have been established they have been well attended. The success of the schools of agriculture having a curriculum of lower grade than that of the college, in Minnesota, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, is evidence that there is a demand for institutions which will receive students directly from the common schools and give them training in agricultural subjects along with those ordinarily taught in highschools. Experience in agricultural education in this country during the past thirty years shows that colleges of agriculture are mainly for those who have the means and the leisure to gain that liberal education which will fit them to be investigators, teachers, journalists, and managers of large agricultural enter- prises. Ina word, the colleges are principally useful in training the leaders in agricultural progress. Thisis a high duty, and its successful performance should entitle an institution to the gratitude andsupportof the people. But there is need
EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE. 113
that the masses of ouragricultural population should have more ample opportunities for education in agricultural lines.
The experiment stations, through their bulletins and reports, are doing much to educate the adult farmer. The colleges also are doing more each year in what may be called university-extension work through farmers’ institutes. As the demand for instruction in agriculture increases the colleges will undoubtedly shape their courses to meet the needs of the farmers as far as this is practicable. We shall then have experiment stations, college courses in agriculture, schools of agriculture, special schools in dairying, anima] production, etc., farmers’ institutes, and home readings as the complete system of education for the farmer, carried on under the auspices of the university or college.
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS.
Agricultural experiment stations are now in operation under the act of Congress of March 2, 1837, in all the States and Territories. Alaska is the only section of the United States which has no experiment sta- tion. In each of the States of Alabama, Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and New York a separate station is maintained wholly or in part by State funds, and in Louisiana a station for sugar experi- ments is maintained mainly by funds contributed by sugar planters. In several States substations have been established. Excluding the branch stations, the total number of stations in the United States is 55. Of these 51 receive the appropriation provided for in the act of Congress above mentioned. The total income of the stations during 1894 was $996,157, of which $719,830 was received from the National Government, the remainder coming from State governments, private individuals, fees for analyses of fertilizers, sales of farm prod- ucts, and other sources. In addition to this, the Office of Experiment Stations has an appropriation of $25,000 for the current fiscal year. The value of additions to equipment in 1894 is estimated as follows: Buildings, $43,822; libraries, $9,286; apparatus, $22,711; farm imple- ments, $15,824; live stock, $13,373; miscellaneous, $31,382; total, $136,901.
The stations employ 577 persons in the work of administration and inguiry. The number of officers engaged in the different lines of work is as follows: Directors, 67; secretaries and treasurers, 26; librarians, 8; clerks, 27; in charge of substations, 40; agricuiturists, 55; biologists, 11; botanists, 36; chemists, 124; entomologists, 43; geologists, 5; hor- ticuiturists, 61; irrigation engineers, 7; meteorologists, 15; mycologists and bacteriologists, 7; physicists, 3; veterinarians, 24; dairymen, 11; farm foremen, 25. There are also 28 persons classified under the head of “miscellaneous,” including superintendents of gardens, grounds, aud buildings, apiarists, herdsmen, ete.
In 1894, 54 annual reports and 401 bulletins were issued. Besides regular reports and bulletins, a number of the stations issue press bul- letins, which are widely reproduced in agricultural and county papers. The station bulletins are now regularly distributed to half a million
14. YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
arsons, who are either farmers or closely identified with the agricul- ival industry. Moreover, accounts of station work are given and dis- issed in thousands of newspapers. The New York Cornell Station one estimated some time ago that each one of its publications directly ‘indirectly reached more than half a million readers. Besides this, very large correspondence with farmers is carried on, hundreds of. iblic addresses are annually made by station officers before farmers’ eetings, and the results of station work are taught to thousands of udents in agricultural colleges.
The experiment stations are conducting a wide range of scientific search in the laberatory and plant house and an equally large amount ’ practical experimenting in the field, the orchard, the stable, and the uiry. Thirty stations are studying problems relating to meteorology 1d climatic conditions. Forty-three stations are at work upon the il, investigating its geology, physics, or chemistry, or conducting il tests with fertilizers or in other ways. Twenty stations are study- g questions relating to drainage or irrigation. Thirty-nine stations ‘e making analyses of commercial and homemade fertilizers, or are nducting field experiments with fertilizers. At least fifteen stations ther exercise a fertilizer control in their respective States or make 1alyses on which the control is based. Forty-cight stations are study- g@ the more important crops, either with regard to their composition, itritive value, methods of manuring and cultivation, and the best wieties adapted to individual localities, or with reference to systems ‘rotation. Thirty-five stations are investigating the composition of eding stuffs, and in some instances making digestion experiments. weuty-five stations are dealing with questions relating to silos and lage. Thirty-seven stations are conducting feeding experiments for ilk, beef, mutton, or pork, or are studying different methods of feed- @. Thirty-two stations are investigating subjects relating to dairying, cluding the chemistry and bacteria of milk, creaming, butter making, >the construction and management of creameries. Forty-five stations ‘e studying methods of analysis and doing other chemical work. otanical studies occupy more or less of the attention of twenty-seven ations; these include investigations in systematic and physiological otany, with especial reference to the diseases of plants, testing of seeds ith reference to their vitality and purity, classification of weeds and ethods for their eradication. Forty-three stations work to a greater > less extent in horticulture, testing varieties of vegetables and rge and small fruits, and making studies in varietal improvement nd synonymy. Several stations have begun operations in forestry. hirty-one stations investigate injurious insects with a view to their striction or destruction. Sixteen stations study and treat animal iseases or perform such operations as dehorning of animals. At least sven stations are engaged in bee culture, and three in experiments ith poultry.
EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE. 115
In general the work of the agricultural experiment stations, as organized in this country, may be classified as follows: (1) They act as bureaus of information on many questions of practical interest to the farmers of their several localities; (2) they seek by practical tests to devise better methods of agricuiture and to introduce new crops and live stock, or to establish new agricultural industries; (3) they aid the farmer in his contest with insects and with diseases of his crops and live stock; (4) they help to defend the farmer against fraud in the sale of fertilizers, seeds, and feeding stuffs; (5) they investigate the opera- tions of nature in the air, water, soil, plants, and animals in order to find out the principles which can be applied to the betterment of the processes and products of agriculture.
OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS.
As already stated above, the Office of Experiment Stations was estab- lished in the United States Department of Agriculture to render such advice and assistance to the stations as would best promote the objects for which they were established. Its main business has been the exain- ination of the work of agricultural experiment stations in this and other countries and the collation and publication of data regarding experi- mental inquiries in agriculture for the information of station workers, farmers, and others interested in the progress of the science and art of agriculture. There are now some 3520 experiment stations in operation in the different countries of the world. Besides the publications which these stations issue, very many reports of agricultural inquiries at these and other institutions are published in current periodicals. As far as practicable this office seeks to traverse this large mass of literature and to cull from it such information as will enable our station workers to keep posted regarding the progress of agricultural science, and will promptly bring to our farmers the practical outcome of these investi- gations in the different countries.
Up to January 1, 1895, the office had issued 135 documents, including 5 volumes of the Experiment Station Record, 20 bulletins, and 9 Farm- ers’ Bulletins.
The Experiment Station Record is issued in monthly parts, and con- tains abstracts of current publications of all the American stations, of the several divisions of the United States Department of Agriculture, and of reports of foreign investigations in agricultural science. Gen- eral information is also given regarding the stations and kindred insti- tutions in this and other countries, and suggestions regarding methods and lines of investigation which may usefully be followed by our sta- tions are made in articles by the editors and by distinguished experts in the different specialties at home and abroad. A detailed subject and author index is published with each volume. As the condensed form of the Record makes its language necessarily somewhat technical, it is distributed only to such persons and institutions as make a special
116 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
request for it after examination of a sample copy. The fifth volume of the Experiment Station Record comprises 1,227 pages, and contains abstracts of 267 bulletins and 43 annual reports of 55 experiment sta-
tions in the United States and 67 publications of the Department of
Agriculture. The total number of pages in these publications is 17,161. There are also 227 abstracts of reports of foreign investigations. The total number of titles abstracted is 973, classified as follows: MEO ah EL oc sc pio re 46 | Seeds’. oo eens. soe ie 2 oe 16 Su fy LL epee ae i gs aa 42 P Weeds: -o 5.0 er eae ee oe Cee 8 REEEMOUUOGE Fone. ee. Oo A La wee 4 |) Diseases’ of ‘plants: V2.7 22 SS sbecee 66 eee TE SOT SS Ss ok Ct 6 ‘| Entomology 2.2005 92. 0ul See eee CASES SE Se a he 1 | Foods and animal production ..-...- 119 SC 36. |, Veterinary scienes. 2.22... eee 18 RNEOE ANG ROIS. oc acre nine me 36. | Daityan eG. ). oc anc eee = 2-527 ere Poe ers concn ces @ 6 ews eee 72 | Agricultural engineering -....-.-.-. 18 ELT P01 Se ne oo 155, |. Technology :4. 4224... 255). PAG RIGOR DULG 5: 2a ca et eee eats: bayou - O4 | Statisties 2. c\.s:-.2i2 oie a eee 69 ROCOSUEY @ 6a 3a ne ein oa wert eee < 10
Classified lists of titles of foreign articles not abstracted are also given in each number. The aggregate number of titles thus reported is 1,514. Special articles contributed by eminent foreign workers in agricultural science were translated in the office and published in the Record. A notable feature of the fifth volume of the Record is a review of recent work in dairying, prepared by Dr. E. W. Allen, assistant director, which serves to show how large and important a feature of experiment-station work investigations on dairying are.
In connection with the exhibit of the experiment stations at the World’s Columbian Exposition the office prepared a Handbook of Experiment Station Work, which contains a résumé of the publications of the stations during nearly twenty years.
The office is also engaged in the preparation of a card index of experi- ment-station literature, which is freely distributed to the agricultural colleges and experiment stations, and is sold to a limited number of sub- scribers, the price covering the expense of printing the cards. Other indexes of the literature of agricultural science are prepared in the office for use in its work. So far as practicable, these indexes will be made available to station workers and other investigators.
Schedules for the financial reports of stations, as now required by Congress, are prepared in this office, and the office will also make an examination of the work of the stations as the basis of the report of the Secretary of Agriculture to Congress regarding the expenditures and work of the stations.
Congress having recently given the Department an appropriation for investigations on the nutritive vaiue of human food, the supervision of this work has been assigned to this office, and the investigations will be carried on in cooperation with the agricultural colleges and experiment stations.
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WHAT METEOROLOGY IS DOING FOR THE FARMER.
By MARK W. HARRINGTON, Chief of Weather Bureau, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Karly in 1891, in view of the impending transfer of the meteorolog- ical work of the Government from the Signal Service to the newly cre- ated Weather Bureau, and without any suspicion that he would be called on to carry out his own suggestions, the writer published in the American Meteorological Journal a programme of improvements and expansions in the work. These were made with especial reference to the needs of farmers, and related to the following points: The improve- ment of the forecasts—their more complete distribution, especially to the farming communities; the general dissemination of information about the Weather Bureau—its objects and methods, what could or could not be properly expected of it; the compilation and publication of the climatic data of the United States, especially the data of use in the prac- tical pursuit or study of agriculture—permitted by the accumulation of twenty or twenty-five years of observations of uniform character; the study of the scientific theory of meteorology with especial reference to the improvement of its practical application.
IMPROVEMENT OF FORECASTS.
That there has been an improvement in the forecasts is best shown by the increased popular approval indicated by the comments made on the Bureau by the press, by office correspondence, and by the increas- ing list of actual services performed in the cases of great storms. This is the result of several changes introduced into the administration of the Bureau. In the first place, there were only four expert forecasters in the Weather Bureau at the time of the transfer (July 1,1891). There are now perhaps forty good ones, and of these there are from half a dozen to a dozen who are of very high grade. This has been accom- plished by putting all of certain grades of employees, and every other employee who wished it, through a rigid course of practice forecast work at the central office, by making promotions depend on competitive tests in forecasts, and by recognizing by promotion cases of especial success in this work. The last two ideas were introduced by the present Sec- retary of Agriculture and have had great influence in fixing attention on forecasting as the chief duty intrusted by law to the Weather Bureau, and in increasing at nearly every station in the service the watchful- hess and alertness of employees. Furthermore, the forecasters were
117
118 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
given more freedom in the verbal expression of their forecasts, thus releasing them from the hard and fast lines in which the former methods of verification had bound them, and enabling them to express their forecasts for the benefit of the public rather than for the benefit of their official records. The time predicted for has been extended, mak- ing it for the next day in each of the bidaily forecasts published, thus covering thirty-six hours instead of twenty-four. . Moreover, carefal and systematic studies are now pursued in the Forecast Division, the purpose of which is exclusively the improved usefulness of the weather map in weather prediction. Mechanical improvements to inérease speed and accuracy in making the weather maps have been adopted, and all new devices which promise improvement in this direction are carefully tested with reference to their adoption.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF WARNINGS.
The distribution of warnings has been improved, but there is yet room for enormous expansion. The problem really involved is to place the bidaily forecast before each citizen who wishes it, and this may include very great numbers who are not within timely reach of the daily papers. For this purpose both visible and audible signals are used, and bulletins are posted at public places. The chief difficulty lies in transmitting the forecasts to isolated points in time to be of serv- ice. This has been much aided by gentlemen of great public spirit, often postmasters and editors, who, by means of an ingenious series of rubber stamps, rapidly duplicate the forecasts they receive aud make local centers of distribution for outlying points, and this at an insig- nificant expense to the Government. The practice of urgency warn- ings has been very much increased and put on such a footing that any thickly populated district or frequented coast may be promptly and fully warned of the approach of disastrous meteorological changes. The problem of reaching, effectively and in time, the more sparsely settled districts is still unsolved. For instance, how can we tell the isolated overseers of cattle ranges in Wyoming of the approach of a blizzard? A scheme for the use of rockets has been saggested, but it does not fully meet the requirements.
DISSEMINATION OF INFORMATION REGARDING THE WORK OF THE WEATHER BUREAU.
Vor the dissemination of information concerning the work of the Bureau there has been employed every agency that presented itself— newspaper articies, lectures, public expositions, the most broad and general distribution practicable of the weather map, the encouragement of its use in schools, etc. The development of interest is especially noteworthy in the schools, where the daily interpretation of the weather map is becoming common. The annual issue of the weather map is
seer a
be
WHAT METEOROLOGY IS DOING FOR THE FARMER. 119
about 3,000,000, and this is nearly tie full capacity of our present appli-
ances; but this number would be doubled were we able to honor all the demands made on us for this characteristic publication, forming as it does the basis of our work and the chief means of our usefulness.
THE COMPILATION OF CLIMATIC DATA.
Though a knowledge of the climatic character of a region is one of the most important elements in estimating its agricultural capacity and possibilities, the compilation of the climatic data has gone on very slowly and with infinite difficulty. The number of observations involved is so enormous, the necessity for accuracy so increases the amount of work, and after the compilation the reduction of the results into a Incid form, capable of easy reference, is itself so slow a process, and such work seems so suitable to be displaced by other work more urgent but Jess important, that progress is very slow. Nevertheless, in Bulletin C of the Bureau there is presented the compilation of the data relating to rainfall, and work is progressing on the compilation of the statistics of humidity. To indicate the quantity of work involved it may be stated that the humidity compilation is estimated to require the copying out of 60,000,000 figures now scattered through the records of twenty-five years, and that after copying they must be verified, arranged, reduced, and averaged, five distinct operations on this mass of figures. When the humidity compilation is completed it is proposed to take up the temperatures, and with that the three elements most important to enlightened agriculture (viz, rainfall, humidity, and tem- perature) will be completed.
THE SCIENTIFIC THEORY OF METEOROLOGY.
Real, permanent, and marked progress in any art depends on the knowledge of the principles involved, and in such an art as weather forecasting this knowledge can be obtained only by scientific methods. The relations of terrestrial magnetism to weather changes have long been thought to be intimate, and competent students have from time to time made brief studies of them. The prolonged study of them by a very competent member of our force will soon enable us to tell just how intimate are the relations in question. Again, the soil presents meteorological relations of great interest. The Weather Bureau follows the precipitation to the soil and might go farther and study its distri- bution in the soil. The study itself, however, leads to certain physical and chemical developments which go somewhat far afield from meteoro- logical methods, so that the soil subdivision of this Bureau is about to become an independent division of the Department. The relations of climate to crops and those of the stages of the seasons to the stages of plant life have received a good deal of attention, though in a somewhat desultory way.
120 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The details of the phenomena occurring when the vapor in the air | condenses to form raindrops, snowflakes, hailstones, or cloud elements are very imperfectly known, though of great importance in meteoro- logical theory. We have published the results of one series of brilliant researches on this subject, and another is now (February, 1895) going through the press. They afford indications of some, in part, unexpected but very important laws which are involved.
Meteorological theory is turning more and more toward the idea that further material progress in the science depends on a more exact knowledge of what occurs in the higher air. This can be investigated by mountain observations and by balloons or other methods of reaching the free air. Nearly all government meteorological services have, therefore, one or more mountain stations, and even so low an elevation as the top of the Hiffel Tower (1,000 feet) in Paris has proved to be of considerable value. The Weather Bureau reestablished the station on the top of Pikes Peak, but was able to continue it for only two years, when it was discontinued, and the observations now await discussion.
PRESENT AND PROPOSED LINES OF WORK.
The work of forecasting floods is intrusted to the Bureau by the statute which organized it. This duty was first intrusted to one official, nota regular forecaster, but later was deputed to the Forecast Division, ‘and finally also to individual forecasters and observers along the rivers in question. The science has now reached a point where it needs more detailed and precise information about the individual river basins, their contours and slopes, the possible backwaters of the rivers, their capacity at various stages, the more or less permanent bodies of snow which form their sources, the relation in time and height between quan- tity of rainfall in the basin and the stage of the stream, etc. These matters, so far as the data are collected by the Bureau, are now to be collated, systematized, and printed, when the path for further advance will become more clear.
Latterly, at the instigation of the Secretary of Agriculture, the col- lection of climatic data for the use of sanitarians has been undertaken. This appears to open up a broad fieid of usefulness.
The systematic study of clouds on new and revised principles has been undertaken by all government meteorological services in concert, and the Weather Bureau will undoubtedly take its share of the work involved.
Finally, the problem of forecasts for seasons is receiving continued attention from meteorologists, and recent developments indicate that hope of success in that direction is not so quixotic as it would have appeared five or ten years ago. It is quite possible, in the light of our | present knowledge, that such forecasts, of sufficient accuracy to be of use, can be made before many years have passed.
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THE VALUE OF FORECASTS.
By H. H. C. DuNWoopy, Assigned as Assistant Chief, Weather Bureau, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
DIVERSIFIED INTERESTS AFFECTED BY FORECASTS.
it is the object in the following pages to set forth as briefly as possi- ble the diversified interests affected directly by the forecasts, and to give some approximate values of the benefits accruing from judicious use of the same. The task is not an easy one, because the interests “indirectly” benefited may often exceed in number and commercial importance the interests “directly” affected. Again, as a general thing, a severe atmospheric disturbance affects an area greater than that occupied by any one community or interest, and the returns from one or two communities for any one storm may not fully represent the benefits received. Again, of the smaller storms, it may happen that several prevail at nearly the same time. In such cases losses in out- lying districts may escape record. Thus, on February 9, 1894, no less than 60 tornadoes were reported in various parts of the United States, including Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. It is estimated that on that day some 10,000 buildings were destroyed and 2,500 people injured. This estimate, however, is but an approximate one, for there undoubtedly occurred great losses in localities distant from centers of communication which in the general havoc and distress might easily pass without notice.
INTERESTS DIRECTLY BENEFITED BY FORECASTS.
Mention will first be made of some of the many interests benefited directly by forecasts, of both the ordinary and emergency character. After these will be given instances of great savings by special warn- ings, then statistics of the value of cold-wave and frost warnings, and finally extracts from the annual reports of various stations giving instances of special benefits noted during the year. The value of the
forecast in agriculture is self-evident, and at times of harvest, when the
labors of the year may be wasted in a day, the importance of the fore- cast is strikingly noticeable. The general questions of crop yield in 121
122 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
their relation to rainfall, temperature, etc., are treated elsewhere by themselves and may be passed over here. |
Bankers and brokers appreciate and watch closely the forecasts. Obviously whatever affects crops, commerce, or business industry affects them. Commission merchants and shippers of produce of a perishable character find the forecasts of the greatest assistance. In February, 1894, a responsible officer of one of the large beef-shipping companies stated that the forecasts were of the greatest help in locating and facili-
tating the running of beef cars between cities. The cars are regulated ©
by the forecasts of temperature. The protection of fruits, vegetables, and food products from injury by heat or cold during transportation is of such importance that the subject has been specially investigated. A car load of fruit, even after it has started, may be detained at some point on the way and thus escape extreme and trying temperatures. Besidesregulating the temperature of freight cars, the forecasts areused, especially on through trains, in regulating the temperature of passen- ger cars. The following quotation from a letter dated February 7, 1894, illustrates the practical use of the forecasts in this direction: They ‘“‘enable us to regulate the length of our trains, to arrange for extra fuel supplies, to take precautions in the care of engines and prevent freezing of water supply, etc.” Engineers, in many ways, put the fore- easts to use. In maintaining equable and comfortable temperatures in large office buildings, for example, the forecasts are of the greatest value.
The Johns Hopkins Hospital, at Baltimore, Md., covers perhaps as large an area heated from a single furnace room as can be found. The problem of heating and ventilating so many wards and rooms is far from being an easy one. Much is at stake; indeed, sometimes the recovery, comfort, and life of the patient, the successful crowning of the work of physician and nurse, depends upon this preservation of proper temperature. If it can be done in a large hospital it can be done elsewhere. Dr. Henry M. Hurd, the superintendent of the hos- pital, says:
This will give a good idea of the systematized method in use here for keeping a combined coal and weather account. There is a very direct relation between the outside temperature and the amount of coal consumed. The reports which are received from the Weather Service are of great benefit to our engineer, as by means of the prediction it is possible to give directions as to the amount of hot water which will need to be carried in order to make the heating of the wards absolutely uniform. You will notice from the temperature of the different wards that the vari- ations are very small. Thisis largely due to the fact that it is possible in many instances to prepare for changes of temperature by carrying hot water at a higher or lower temperature.
Nor is it only in large hospitals that the forecasts can be thus sys- tematically and profitably used. They can be utilized with great good by the individual physician. He will be better qualified to advise pre- cautionary measures for the ensuing day in the way of clothing, oceu- pation, and regimen.
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THE VALUE OF FORECASTS. 123
THE STORM OF MARCH 27, 1890.
In an official report of the board of trade relief committee of one of our large cities, in almost the opening paragraph, appears this state- ment:
In the afternoon papers of that date (March 27, 1890) there appeared from the Weather Service at Washington a notice of warning of severe local storms and atmospheric trouble in Louisville and vicinity. Shortly before the tornado there came a heavy rain, followed by a hailstorm accompanied by severe lightning. ‘The wind began to blow with a mournful sound, which soon increased to a frightful shriek as it swept over the doomed portion of the city. The calamity occurred about 8.30 p. m., and was over in a few minutes.
This tornado destroyed in a few moments 5 churches, the union railroad depot, 2 public halls, 3 schools, 266 stores, 32 manufacturing establishments, 10 tobacco warehouses, and 532 residences in the city limits only. The pecuniary loss was estimated by these gentlemen of the board of trade, after careful tabulation, at $2,150,000. There were 76 lives lost and over 200 people injured by the catastrophe. Such a calamity can be paralleled only in some convulsion of nature, fortu- nately of infrequent occurrence, such as an earthquake, a volcanic erup- tion, or a great tidal wave.
THE “SEA ISLANDS” AND “TROPICAL” STORMS.
The storm of August 26, 27, 28, 1893, familiarly known as the “sea islands storm,” with the accompanying rise in the waters, resulted in the loss of nearly 1,200 lives. The story of the devastation caused by that storm has been graphically told in the popular magazines, but anything like a careful estimate of the actual damage has never been published. The value of the warning likewise can not be estimated. It may be, though, that the remembrance of this storm had much to do with the ready appreciation of the warnings given this year. So widely disseminated were these latter warnings, and so promptly and intelligently were they utilized in the warned communities, that the Weather Bureau can show in the case of the tropical hurricane of Sep- tember 24-29, 1894, that 1,089 vessels, valued at $17,100,413, remained in port. In the hurricane of October 8-10, 1894, 1,216 vessels, valued at $19,183,500, heeded the warning. Within, then, a period of little more than two weeks the forecasts and warnings of the Bureau were instrumental in saving 2,305 vessels, valued at $36,283,913, or, to be somewhat more accurate, but for the warnings these vessels would probably have gone to sea, and it is but fair to presume would in such event have met with disaster. The records show that in very many instances where the warnings were disregarded heavy losses were incurred. Even these amounts, vast as they are, are but portions of the whole, for, as happened in both of these storms, ripening crops, accumulated stores and supplies, goods gathered for shipment and goods in transit were removed from exposed places to points of safety.
124 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
In calamitous storms of the types referred to it is customary to promptly institute measures of relief. No work is nobler. Surely the duty of giving warning of impending danger, antedating relief work, and giving all an opportunity to help themselves and others, is noble work, too.
Tornadoes and West Indian hurricanes are not the only atmospheric disturbances destructive to life and property. Though the loss of life is perhaps less, the destruction of property by severe wind storms, heavy washing rains, scorching hot winds, severe cold waves and frosts, being of more frequent occurrence, amounts in the aggregate perhaps to a sum in excess of the figures given. ;
THE SAVING OF PROPERTY AND LIFE.
Successful application of the forecasts, then, as the foregoing cases show, is quite possible and by no means rare. They can be nade of service in almost every occupation of life. They can be made to con- tribute to comfort or utilized in saving property and protecting life. The value of the forecasts in this last respect is strikingly shown at times of West India hurricanes and in less degree in some of the severe inland storms which sweep over the Great Lakes. The value of the warning of the gale of September 22-24, 1894, is well shown by the list of vessels held in port:
ey Cites. oF Se SA, 1) Sheboygan) 20: 2282232 eee eee 4 Chamleyoix ios. . 2h 2. BE. SEE 67) Senth Haven: - . 21.02... ee 5 Ghébopean 26.4486 0onth~1- Featen wees 1 Sturgeon’ Bay |. s:\eseen -Baeeeeee 23 ES ae ee Se eee iy Bel Tape Giby a. nim oeting B02 - ees 1 Pique hbOle gn o6 on) noe eee eee 2.) Joan ooo. ode d's oso oe 3 Men anne... soc os Sets see aa coe Oo Marquee. o.. = 22> = 2 esse eee 4 Monosna tse. 2. SU. OME WSs. Shee 07) Grand Haven. 20. >. ...32 2. eae eee 1 Menten coho fase: 2tictee he ope oe eee Sv Adpena. 20. ..255% 22 14 Wienist Oecd. wide scan cnx --Becniomesses- 20%) Porbih ron... 23-2 oe eee 28 NG a i ahs we ee 3.) Chicago: - +. ...-% te. ete 30 a ES pe 6 hg a RR oe aa 16 | Sault Ste.. Marie... ..22.-. see 27 DMN Re ee cae on ra Se on ae 4°| White Fish Point... .... 2am Sa one L EE See sl 26 a Sameniweles 21 Mass tote t- ee ss i! Grand total ...-.-...----.---- 260
In the city of Chicago the owners of the steamer City of Chicago, ready to sail with 400 passengers and cargo valued at $15,600, detained her in port for twenty-four hours. The Lehigh Valley Transportation Company held their steamer Saranac, bound for Buffalo with 2,400 tons of merchandise, until word was received that the storm was abating. Instances of this service could easily be multiplied. At the life-saving station the crew were given all information relative to the storm, and extra precautions were taken by the watcher on the tower, which resulted in the saving of the lives of four persons. The tug watcher, who is employed by all the tug companies and is in telegraphic com- munication with the tug offices, had copies of the warning given to tug captains and had one of the tugs steam out and warn the schooner
THE VALUE OF FORECASTS. 125
Libby Naw, the schooner Michaelson, and the light-house supply boat Dalia. These boats were heavily laden and were outside of the port. Upon receiving the warning they got into port without delay and escaped the storm. Inquiry at the clearance depot of the United States custom-house showed that about 50 vessels had taken out clearance papers on Saturday, and of these boats over 30 heeded the storm sigual and came to anchor inside the breakwater, where the. effects of the storm were less felt. In one case where the signal was disregarded the steamer stranded at Grand Haven. There are numerous cases where mishap has followed a disregard of signal. Along the lakes also warnings of severe cold waves are of great financial value. Thus during the early frosts of the season of 1891, just at harvest time, when the wheat crop of northern Dakota and northern Minnesota required a week or ten days to mature, extensive preparations were made by the farmers to avert injury from frost. Material for smudge fires was col- lected and made ready to be fired upon receipt of the frost warning. Through the cooperation of the telegraph service of the Great Northern and the Northern Pacific railroads, the warnings were widely dissemi- nated, and at the proper time the fires were lighted, and many million bushels of wheat saved. This in the far North. In the far South, in the same season, 75 per cent of the vegetable and fruit crop was pro- tected by smudge fires kindled atthe approach of cold weather.
Not of the least importance are the forecasts to canal interests. A large raft of lumber, for instance, is passing through a canal into a river. Warning of a cold wave is received; the raft is drawn back into the canal and thus saved from being cut to pieces by the running ice. Cattle nen find the warnings of great value. Cranberry growers, as a class, have special warnings sent to them. Fuel companies, as might be expected, find it to their interest to watch carefully the forecasts. At Pittsburg the shipment of coal by river, amounting to many million dollars, is, to a large degree, controlled by information received from the Weather Bureau. In 1890-91 ice was harvested before it had reached the average thickness because of warning of a thaw.
The forecasts of the Weather Bureau may not always be as fully verified as the conditions upon which they were based promised, but the value of forecasts verified at least eight out of ten times can not be deprecated at any time, and when special warnings are sent in times of emergency the value is fittingly expressed by the word ‘‘incalculable.”
EXTRACTS FROM ANNUAL REPORTS OF VARIOUS STATIONS.
The extracts which follow are taken from the annual reports of the stations enumerated, and furnish convincing evidence of the practical value of the forecasts of the Weather Bureau to agriculture, as well as a variety of other interests affected by the weather:
From the annual report of the station at Nashville, Tenn.:
The cold-wave warnings are probably worth $50,000 to the State.
126 YEARBOOK OF THE U. & DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
From the annual report of the station at Savannah, Ga.:
It is estimated that the money value of property saved by the cold-wave and frost warnings during the past year was between $20,000 and $25,000. The warnings have, as a rule, given general satisfaction.
From the annual report of the station at Wilmington, N. C.:
When it is known that the strawberry crop of eastern North Carolina for this year was between $250,000 and $300,000, it is thought, and without any attempt to exag- gerate, that the money value of this crop saved by the cold-wave warnings is at Jeast $25,000.
From the report of the station at New York City, N. Y.:
It would be difficult to estimate, with any assurance of correctness, the real money value of perishable goods and in other ways the saving by the cold-wave warnings; but I do not think $1,000,000 would be the full amount.
From the annual report of the station at Milwaukee, Wis.:
It is believed that it is a conservative estimate to state that the amount of money necessary to support this office is in each year saved many times over to the com- mission merchants by the information furnished them daily.
The frost warnings from this office continue to give satisfaction to the public and to materially add to the popularity of the service. The president of the Wisconsin State Cranberry Growers’ Association stated before the association, at its annual meeting last January, that rather than do without these warnings he would pay the expense of telegraphing out of his own pockets; that at one time during the past year he was waiting for the train at his station, prepared to leave on important business, but when the train came in it carried a frost signal; that he returned to his large marsh, 7 miles distant, ordered the reservoirs opened, and saved several thousand dollars’ worth of berries from destruction by frost the following morning.
From the annual report of the station at Columbus, Ohio:
As this point is the principal produce-shipping point of the State, Ihave no doubt that the value of the shipments saved by the cold-wave warnings during the season was close to $500,000.
From the annual report of the station at Charleston, S. C.:
A safe and truthful estimate of the money value of property saved to this com- munity this year is fully double that given for last year, as the warnings were dis- seminated to amore marked degree than in any other year previous, footing up $350,000. This is exclusive of the frost service rendered during February, March, and April of this year, for the benefit of those who raise early beans, peas, beets, cucumbers, lettuce, potatoes, onions, squash, and corn for shipment to Northern markets. ;
From the annual report of the station at Cape Henry, Va.:
Marked benefits result from the work of this Bureau, as in the case of the steam- ship Rappahannock, Chesapeake and Ohio Line, which vessel went ashore at a point near this place at 7p. m., January 22. The agents of this line were notified and wrecking companies called on for assistance, which was immediately furnished; on the 24th information of acold wave and high westerly to northerly winds was flagged by this office to the stranded vessel. The wreckers redoubled their efforts in light- ening her cargo so she would float at high-water tide, which she did at 10.35 p. m. An unusually severe northerly gale, with cold weather, rain, and a very high sea, set in at 12.45 a. m. the 25th. Hadthe Rappahannock not floated on the last high
THE VALUE OF FORECASTS. 127
tide, it is conceded by everyone that vessel and cargo would have been a total loss. The vessel and cargo, valued at $600,000, were undoubtedly saved through the efforts of this office in getting the weather reports to the stranded steamer.
From the annual report of the station at Dodge City, Kans.:
There was about $5,009 worth of stock saved last winter by the cold-wave signals. The value of the fruit saved is very hard to determine; a conservative estimate places it anywhere from $25,000 to $50,000.
From the annual report of the station at Alpena, Mich.:
The isiand telegraph lines have been in successful operation since July 14, 1893, and have rendered great assistance to maritime interests. Their value is being recognized by all vessel men. They have been used frequently since their comple- tion by vessels in distress, and it would be no exaggeration to say that they have fully paid for the money expended in their construction and maintenance. With few exceptions there has been uninterrupted communication. The Middle Island line was exceptionally beneficial to Gilchrist & Fletcher, of this city, during May 1894, whose raft of three and one-half millions went ashore near Middle Island. The line was used frequently every day for a week and much assistance rendered by it. Mr. Gilchrist visited the office during the time and spoke of the great benefit received from this service. Not a stick of the raft was lost, such an unusual occur- rence that comment was made about it in the Detroit daily papers.
From the annual report of the station at Baltimore, Md.:
An example of great benefit received was instanced by a Baltimore and Ohio Rail- Toad official. A train loaded with wet sand was waiting upon a siding, and, as it was not to be used for two or three days, the necessity for unloading was not con- sidered immediate. <A cold-wave warning was received, and the cars were emptied as quickly as possible. Had this not been done without delay, the sand would have been frozen in the cars and could not have been unloaded for several weeks, as the cold spell was unusually severe and long.
From the annual report of the station at Norfolk, Va.:
The total estimated value of property saved by cold-wave warnings is from $30,000 to $40,000.
During the severe storm of last August the timely storm warnings issued by the Weather Bureau were of inestimable value to the vessels then ready to proceed to sea, as many of these vessels remained in port on account of the warnings given, and rode out some of the severest gales which have been experienced along the Atlantic coast in many years. Without these warnings possibly nine-tenths of these vessels would have proceeded to sea, and in all probability would have been lost.
The reporting of passing vessels in and out at Cape Henry is one of the most important features of the seacoast line, and this work is worth thousands every year to the steamship lines running to and from Norfolk, as an incoming steamer is reported to the agent from two to three hours in advance of her arrival at the dock, thus enabling them to have everything in readiness on her arrival, and by this means effect a great saving of time, which is worth everything to those carrying mostly perishable freight.
From the annual report of the station at Montgomery, Ala.:
The cold-wave warnings of January 23 and February 11, besides being distributed by great numbers of bulletins by hand and through the mails, and published in local newspapers, were, in addition to being telegraphed to all displaymen, telegraphed at Government expense to postmasters of twenty surrounding towns, and from reliable information it is thought that these warnings, even though carly in the season, saved
128 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
at least $25,000 to farmers in this State. The warning of March 25, at a low esti- mate, saved $50,000 to the truckers of this section, and would have saved more had it come any other day than Sunday, which is a bad day for distributing information. It is safe to say that the money value saved to agriculture and shipping interests in this State by these warnings during the past year, if fully known, would aggregate over $100,000. :
From the annual report of the station at Louisville, Ky.:
The warning of January 23 was one of the most beneficial to this section ever made in the Weather Bureau. It was of especial value to the railroads, which at the time had a large amount of perishable freight on the way from the South, and much of which was protected through the warning.
The most important instance in which the records figured during the past year was that of the Phenix Bridge Company, which claimed that the destruction of two of the piers of the bridge being built by it was due to a tornado, and not to faulty workmanship, as alleged by its opponents. This case, in which several hundreds of thousands of dollars are involved, has not yet been settled, and the Weather Bureau records will have a most important bearing upon its final adjustment.
From the annual report of the station at Memphis, Tenn.:
My attention was called to a case which happened several years ago which has probably not been reported. M. E. Carter & Co., of this city, had an order for eight car loads of potatoes to be shipped to points in Arkansas.: Just before they began to load they called up the Weather Bureau and were informed that an extensive and severe cold wave was approaching, and were advised to hold the shipment over till Monday, this being Friday. They had one car partly loaded and they decided to risk thisonecar. Theresult was that every potato in the car was frozen. The other seven cars were held over and reached their destination in safety. Mr. Carter stated to me that they calculated the value of the seven cars at $2,150, all of which they considered saved from the warning of the Weather Bureau.
From the annual report of the station at Kansas City, Mo.:
The observer is unable to place a money estimate on the value of this service. A very conservative estimate would place it at $50,000, but there are such a variety of interests affected it would be impossible to give an intelligent estimate. Fruit and produce men place it in the neighborhood of $50,000.
From the annual report of the station at Buffalo, N. Y.:
The records at the station show that not a single storm of any character passed over the station during the year, especially in the fall, without ample warning having been given at least twenty-four hours in advance. The warnings given were heeded by all classes of marine men. Notwithstanding the close proximity of the central office of the Canadian Meteorological Bureau at Toronto, during the closing months of navigation daily requests by telephone and telegraph for wind forecasts were received from Canadian sources.
On November 24 special forecasts were issued to the marine men, informing them that all vessels weather bound here during the past ten days would have fair sailing weather to-morrow, and orders were given to get ready toclear. The Buffalo Courier, commenting on same, said, Sunday, November 26: ‘‘ The large fleet of vessels which has been sheltered behind the breakwater for a week or more was able to leave port. The forecasts of Friday came true, the storm abated, and by noon yesterday nearly all the storm-bound vessels were out of sight.” These vessels had been held in port . by the storm warnings.
SOILS IN THEIR RELATION TO CROP PRODUCTION.
By MILTON WHITNEY, ’ Chief of the Division of Agricultural Soils, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
TRUCK LANDS OF THE ATLANTIC SEABOARD.
Truck farming has existed as a separate agricultural industry for about thirty years. Previous to that time fruits and vegetables were grown in gardens and as part of the regular farm crops on all well- reguated farms, and in market gardens within a few miles of the larger towns and cities. People were content then to have the fruits and vegetables in the ordinary season in which they matured in their immediate locality. In recent years, however, transportation facilities have wonderfully improved, and the growing of fruits and vegetables for the early markets has developed into a distinct and special branch of farming.
A few years ago tomatoes were not expected in the Baltimore mar- kets until the local crop ripened inJuly. During the winter and spring canned tomatoes were extensively and almost exclusively used. Now, however, the Florida crop of fresh tomatoes begins to arrive in the Bal- timore market early in January in a fresh and healthy condition, as it requires only twenty-four or thirty-six hours for transportation—hardly longer than is required to bring the local crop on schooners and sloops from the lower estuaries of the Chesapeake Bay. These early tomatoes sell readily for 50 or 75 cents per dozen at the same time that Florida oranges are bringing from 15 to 30 cents per dozen, and while canned tomatoes are selling for 10 or 15 cents for a 3-pound can. This is fol- lowed by successive crops from Georgia, the Carolinas, Virginia, and the local crop of Maryland. The season for fresh tomatoes in the Balti- more market thus extends over fully nine months in the year. The same is true of other vegetables. There is a very great and increasing demand for these early vegetables, as they are put en the market in much better condition and ata lower cost than ever before, and families of very moderate means can afford to purchase them.
SOME ESSENTIAL FACTORS OF SUCCESSFUL TRUCK FARMING.
The conditions necessary for the success of this special industry of truck farming, in addition to personal qualifications and sufficient working capital, are favorable climatic conditions, light, sandy soils, in which the vegetables can be planted early, and which will force them
1 aA 94 5 129
130 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
to an early maturity, and quick, direct, and safe transportation facili- ties, with arrangements for through cars, and refrigerator cars where these are necessary.
The early truck is grown upon a peculiar class of very light, sandy soils. These soils extend along the Atlantic coast for a distance of about 1,500 miles in a narrow strip bordering the coast, bays, and rivers from Massachusetts to Florida, the line running approximately north- east and southwest. - The season advances northward along the coast at the average rate of about 13 miles per day. Lands located 100 miles south of Norfolk have the advantage of about a week in the maturity of the crops, thus commanding a higher market price, so that the truckers can afford the higher freight rates for the longer distance their products have to be hauled to the Northern markets. Similar land situated an equal distance west of Norfolk, with no direct connection with the North except through Norfolk, would have no advantage over the Norfolk crop by reason of the climate, and the added cost of trans- portation would make trucking unprofitable. A railroad, therefore, running north and south has a great advantage in developing local trucking interests over one running east and west. The high prices, due to lack of competition in the early market, afford the truck crops an opening northward without which the demand would be limited to the local market, but with the advantages of climate, quick soils, and lack of competition from the heavier and richer agricultural lands, these crops are sent to almost any point in the United States or in Can- ada with profit.
Land situated immediately on a railroad is worth several times as much as similar land situated 2 or 3 miles away, on account of the difficulty and expense of transporting the tender and bulky crop and the damage done in handling and hauling. The same is even more marked in the case of land situated immediately on the water, partly on account of its relation to transportation and partly fromits freedom from frost. The influence of the proximity to the water is very marked in theearly spring. Crops a quarter or a half mile inland may be injured or destroyed by frost while those immediately adjacent to the water are not affected. For this reason crops may be planted earlier in the spring on land near water, and consequently will mature earlier on stiffer soils at the end of a river neck, with water on two or three sides, than they will mature on soils of the same or even of lighter texture farther inland. These points must all be considered in judging of the suitability of a soil for truck farming.
The total area devoted to truck farming in the United States in 1889, exclusive of market gardening, was, according to the Kleventh Census, 534,440 acres. Of this about 61.31 per cent was located along the Atlan- tic Seaboard, distributed as shown in the table below. The ‘peninsular district” here includes the Eastern Shore counties of Maryland and Virginia, together with the State of Delaware.
RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 131
The following table gives the acreage of the principal truck crops along the Atlantic Seaboard:
Acreage and value of land and truck producis on the Atlantic Seaboard.
| Per cent of total Value of Value of District. ae of truck area| land per | truck prod- —— in United acre. ucts. States.
ee | |__|
emo mermeand 2 bMladelphia .2.---. ....-.2--n--ec-cces 108, 135 | 20. 23 $226.11 | $21, 102, 521
ec nian cinim is piaicin a nimp wmloiae 25, 714 4, 81 98. 76 2, 413, 648
Et on as ec ec Seacine ore it res was sale 37, 181 6. 93 97. 50 3, 784, 696
EE ele es 8 acre ctles omcerae cian sot aciewas sos 45, 375 8. 49 135. 50 4, 692, 859
es Re eee oe ee ee oe 111, 441 20. 85 45. 25 13, 183, 516 RT 93. Doct cages eae 326, 816 A ee ee 45, 177, 240
To produce this truck a very intense system of cultivation is prac- ticed and the expense of making the crop is very great. The value of the land ranges from $40 to $500 per acre, depending upon the soil, location, distance from market, and transportation facilities. Their average value may be placed at about $200 per acre. Before they were used for truck farming they were worth no more than from $1 to $5 per acre. Even now, when they are remote from transpor- tation lines, good truck lands ean still be purchased for this sum. The cost of labor on the different crops ranges from about $10 to $30 per acre; the cost of seeds and plants from 50 cents to $10 per acre, depending upon the kind of vegetable. The fertilizers cost from $10 to $50 per acre, while individual planters use as much as $60 to $75 worth of high-grade fertilizers per acre. Very conservative esti- mates place the necessary working capital for a small truck farm at from $6,000 to $20,000. One large firm in eastern North Carolina claims that it requires $40,000 a year to make its crop.
These figures show that truck farming is an industry in which a large amount of capital is invested and which carries great risks. A successful truck grower requires a large capital as compared with what is needed for general farming, while the risks are as great and the enterprises are quite as heavy as in ordinary commercial or industrial lines. The man who risks $40,000 annually in any business, or even a capital of $20,000 or $6,000, must be cautious and must understand very weil his conditions, opportunities, and powers.
Truck farming may be started on avery small scale, as with any other industry, but competition is so sharp and the margin of profit has become so small, while the risks are so great, that there is a distinct tendency among the larger planters to form combinations which make it more and more difficult for the smaller truckers to succeed. In this as in other industries a large planter can work on a narrower margin than a small one, providing the enterprise is not too great for him to carry with his available capital.
132 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Truckers’ associations are being organized in local centers, which receive daily market reports during the growing season from the prin- cipal markets and distributing points throughout the United States and Canada. These organizations have very great power and influence, and as they understand and appreciate these more they will exercise far more influence upon the markets than they do now. ‘Three or four of the large planters around Norfolk, by putting their potato crops sud- denly upon the New York market, can depress the price to such a small margin of profit that the smaller dealers can not afford to sell. Indeed, itis ho uncommon thing during the harvesting season for the price of potatoes in New York to fall $1 a barrel in the course of a day. The truckers’ associations try to distribute the crops through the different markets inthe North and West so as to maintain uniform prices, and as they become better trained in their responsibilities and have a better appreciation of their powers and duties they will undoubtedly main- tain more uniform prices than at present.
So close has competition become and so narrow are the margins of profit that it is stated that the difference of a cent a barrel on spinach in the present freight rates from Norfolk to New York reduces the price below the actual cost of production. The planters claim that they have such control over their crops and exercise such careful busi- ness methods in their production that the freight rates frequently determine the selling price, as is the case with many manufactured commodities.
Another factor which has had much to do with the success of truck farming has been the introduction of methods of canning or otherwise preserving fruits and vegetables for which there is no present demand, so they can be kept for winter use. This ability to preserve the crop has more than once saved the planters from what would otherwise have been disastrous seasons, when, as occasionally happens, the crops from a number of localities mature at the same time.
In truck growing an early maturity is essential to the profitable con- duct of the business, and the yield per acre and quality of the crop are minor conditions. With wheat the yield per acre is the most essential factor and the quality or time of ripening is relatively unimportant; with tobacco the quality and texture of the leaf are the chief factors, and the yield and time of ripening are of less consequence; but with early truck the time of ripening is by far the most important feature.
Early maturity is very largely dependent upon the character of the soil. Light, sandy lands are most valuable for this industry because when properly treated the crop matures much earlier than on the heavy lands. The aim of the truck planter is to get the crop to market at the earliest possible moment, or else to delay it until the
crops from the heavier soils of the State have all matured. Theheavy |
grass and wheat lands will produce three or four times as great a yield of truck as the truck soils do even under the intense and expensive system of cultivation practiced. The latter, however, mature their
RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 133
crops six or eight weeks earlier, and thus for the time are free from the competition of the richer soils.
The amount of clay present in these light truck soils has a very marked influence upon the development and time of ripening of a crop. The nature of the crop itself must be considered, of course, as all of the truck crops are not equally well adapted to the same kind of soil. Sweet potatoes and melons, for example, require a very light soil, con- taining but little clay, for they can not be forced well to an early maturity on the heavier soils. Cabbage and spinach, on the other hand, do better on the heavier soils and will mature about as early, for the reason that they can be planted in the fall and will stand the winter well on a soil containing from 8 to 12 per cent of clay in the subsoil, while they will not stand the winter so well on a soil contain- ing less than 6 per cent of clay, which is the best soil for sweet pota- toes and melons. Tomatoes will ripen a full week earlier on land hay- ing no more than 4 or 5 per cent of clay in the subsoil than they will on land having 8 or 9 per cent. They will do better and yield more per acre on the heavier land, but they are not so early and do not bring such high market prices.
With the qualification just made, soils having the smallest percentage of clay are invariably regarded as the earliest truck lands, except where heavier soils are situated directly at the point of a river neck and are thus earlier freed from frost, as already explained.
CONSTITUENTS OF TYPICAL TRUCK SOILS.
Typical truck soils of the Atlantic Seaboard contain from about 1 per cent to 12 percent of clayin the subsoil. The lighter soils, or those con- taining the least amount of clay, are better adapted to the earlier and lighter spring vegetables, while the heavier soils are better adapted to the later and heavier truck and to those crops which can be planted in the fall for the early spring market. The conditions in a soil containing 10 per cent of clay in the subsoil frequently delay the planting of a spring crop from two to three weeks later than on a soil containing only 5 per eent of clay. The principal crops may be arranged as follows to show the kind of soil best adapted to them:
Sweet potatoes.
Melons: ........- | Best adapted to lands having from 3 to 9 per cent of Asparagus ..... | clay.
Trish potatoes...
Lomatoes’......
EO ee kas = o-oo Best adapted to lands having from 6 to 12 per cent of ppimach.: ..°.... clay.
Cabbage .......
Soils having over 10 or 12 per cent of clay are too heavy and too retentive of moisture for the early truck crops. The yield per acre is larger than on the truck land, but it has to meet more competition. The whole value of the truck soils lies in the relation of these soils to moisture and in the relatively small amount of moisture they maintain
134 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
fer crops. The soils are composed mainly of moderately coarse grains of sand and contain very littie clay. The accompanying illustrations show the amounts of the different grades of sand, silt, and clay con- tained in 20 grams of two different types of truck land. The different grades of sand, silt, and clay were separated by sieves. and by slow subsidence in water, and were put into small bottles and photographed. The lighter soil, represented by figure 1, has only 4.40 per cent of elay. This is well adapted to the very early truck, such as sweet pota- toes, melons, asparagus, Irish potatoes, tomatoes, and peas, but it is too lightin texture for spinach and cabbage. The heavier soil, represented by figure 2, containing 9.16 per cent of clay, represents the heavier grade of truck lands, particularly well adapted to tomatoes, peas, spin- ach, and cabbage. itis too heavy for the earher spring vegetables.
Per Cent. Fine sil hE |
.5-.25 .25-.1
01-005. |.005-.0001
Diameter of the grains in millimeters.
Fic. 1—Mechanical separation of the gravel, Send, silt, and clay in 29 grams of subsoil of the Columbia formation at Marley, Md., adapted to early truck.
Wheat can not be economically preduced on these light truck lands, as the yield per acre under the best treatment would rarely exceed 5 bushels. A good wheat soil must contain atleast 18 per cent of clay, unless, indeed, as is the case with many Western soils, they contain a large amount of silt. Still less can grass be economically produced on these light truck soils, for a good grass land requires at least 30 per cent of clay in the subsoil to make it sufficiently retentive of moisture, unless, indeed, water is supplied through artificial means. Within these light, sandy soils, upon which truck farming has been so successfully carried on, there is very little resistance to the descent of the rainfall, and the soil readily drains itself of all but a small supply of water. Grass and wheat lands, on the other hand, contain a large
:
RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 135
amount of clay and very fine material, and offer a great resistance to the descent of the rainfall, and maintain an abundant supply of water,
As a basis of comparison, an illustration is given in figure 3 of the mechanical separation of the different grades of sand, silt, and clay in a heavy limestone soil of the Cumberland Valley, in western Maryland. This represents the very finest type of agricultural land for the staple agricultural crops.
It will be seen that this subsoil, which is adapted to both wheat and grass, has less than 5 per cent of sand, while a typical truck soil con- tains from 70 to 85 per cent of sand. If the same quantity of rain fell on this clay soil it would encounter such a resistance and there would be so much friction as if percolated through the innumerable small openings that the descent would be extremely slow and an abundant
Per Cent.
Veryfinesand.
[| Finan [ee
2-1
Diameter of the grains in millimeiers.
Fic. 2.—Mechanical separation of the gravel, sand, silt, and clay in 20 grams of subsoil of the Columbia formation at Marley, Md., adapted to cabbage and early truck crops.
supply of moisture would be maintained for vigorous vegetative growth of plants. On the light, sandy soils, maintaining a very limited sup- ply of moisture, the plants, on the contrary, are thin textured, more succulent, yield less per acre, and are forced to a very early maturity. It is upon this fact that the suecess of truck farming ultimately depends.
Examinations have been made of the soils in a number of localities in the truck area of the Atlantic Seaboard, and the character of the soil devoted to truck has been found to be remarkably uniform. The influence of the texture of the soil on the distribution of the different truck crops is very marked. A brief description of the several locali- ties, with analyses of some of the typical truck soils, will bring out these points very strongly, and will serve as a basis for the estimation of the adaptability of other soils in these localities for truck growing.
136 YEARBOOK OF THE U. § DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TRUCK SOILS OF FLORIDA AND SOUTH CAROLINA.
_ Only a few samples have been obtained of the truck soils of the far South. The mechanical analyses of three typical truck soils from
Und
Per Cent.
Rag 20 65 | SL77
eal 7
Diameter of the grains in millimeters.
SURE
Fic. 3.—Mechanical separation of the gravel, sand, silt, and clay in 20 grams of the limestone adapted to wheat and grass.
subsoil from Frederick, Md.,
Florida are given in the accompanying table, together with the analy- ses of five soils from South Carolina.
1622 1624 1620
84 82
TABLE 1.—Mechanical analyses of subsoils of truck lands.
| 4 i ' . . 3 : ao =) @ Beh A. a: & Locality. e F A e om q a Fe a8 a Bea ies me milf A) Val on | SM aS - A 2 Fa pete nN 4 : a ee B a= (oS Joc eee os 3 a ° oO 4 5 a= a Fi ie eae a FH - a gh ic ten P.ct.\P..¢t.| P.ct.| Per et.) ber ct.| Per ct.|Per ct.| P. et. | Altoona, Etonia scrub .....- 0.68 | 0.63 | 0.34 | 3.92 | 40.39 | 44.97 | 6.9% | 0.79 Eustis, high pine land....... 0.25 | 0.66 | 2.74 | 11.70 | 42.05 | 35.29 | 4.50 | 0.88 Altoona, high piue land..... 0.15 | 0.87 | 1.61 | 4.52 | 12,28 | 27.58 | 48.12 | 2.16 SOUTH CAROLINA. NY GACRNCM Gee ce eee sess emis = =: 11.32 | 5.88 | 31.45 | 27.31 | 28.14 3. 96 James Island, sandy land...|.....- 1.06 | 0.00} 0.00 | 0.67 | 90.14 3. 35 James Island, ‘‘provision NANG. 2 ose Me OA CCE 1.65 | 0.00 0.88 | 2.50 | 82.97 6. 30 PO ae ee 1.76 | 0.59 | 3.67] 4.27 | 78.88 4. 20 James Island, ‘‘clay land’’..|...... 1.62 | 0.00 | 0.54] 1.03 | 83.20 6. 44
Fine silt (.01- 005mm)
2 |
Psct. 0. 33 0. 56 0. 81
3. 97 4.78
5. 70 6. 63 Val
Clay (.005=
.0001™™),
1.16 1, 23 1.31
1The figures in this column were determined by difference, and include the total organic matter, moisture, and loss in the analysis.
RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 137
It will be seen that the Florida soils contain very little silt, fine silt, or clay, the whole amount of these three grades being less than 5 per cent. They are extremely light-textured, sandy soils, adapted to the earliest spring vegetables. Climatic conditions in south and central Florida make it possible, of course, to produce outdoor crops through- out the winter, and these lands are well adapted to the forcing of that class of vegetables.
The samples from South Carolina differ more in their content of fine material. The sample from Wedgefield has considerable coarse sand, but very little silt and clay. This soil is particularly well adapted to sweet potatoes, melons, and the forcing of early spring vegetables.
Of the several samples from James Island, the sandy land (No. 86) is considered the earliest, and is better adapted to the forcing of the early spring vegetables. The clay land (No. 82) is better adapted to the heavier and later vegetables, particularly tomatoes, cabbage, and spinach.
Owing to the difference in the location and in the climate, the truck crops of Florida are practically all marketed before the South Carolina crops come on, and the latter are harvested before the North Carolina and Virginia crops mature.
TRUCK LANDS OF EASTERN NORTH CAROLINA.
The accompanying table gives the mechanical analyses of a number of typical truck lands in eastern North Carolina:
TABLE 2.—WMechanical analyses of subsoils of truck lands.
o rs = | = ! ! a te) 4 re 1D Sila aula es (oot. Sh S84 a ae i E . : = Ph hes . ‘S| | 5 a é TE oF S ae “SA No. Locality. = e On | FA Ag aS ; = ont — cna - r me ey = n> S [=| o He 10 rol ° o mS 3 b es Bape © i = o- 3° by Fy ° ° a 5 = ie a fo) aa} oS A 3 > a | & o NORTH CAROLINA. | | 1510 | Newbern, early spring |Per ct.|Per ct.|Per ct.\Per ct.| Per ct. Per ct. ‘Per et. ‘Per ct. Per ct. Lil ee Seen 0.67 | 0.60] 0.30] 6.04] 49.63 | 32.39] 6.24 1.93 2. 80 1524 SOO 2.54} 0.00] 0.00 4.74 36.16 | 38.71 | 10.27 | 4.18 3. 40 En 0.00! 0.00] 6.37 38.34] 9.67] 7.54 | 2.35 6. 47 1566 | Elizabeth City.............. 3.14] 0.00 |} 0.00; 4.94 CLL VAS Gl! | 25a%3<| 2 F327 9. 20 0 1.57 | 0.00 | 3.91 | 22.60 | 29.03 | 22.38 | 7.08 38.16}, 10.32 SE IONE ora Sem cede dmcea ses. R900 05009) 2:46") S617 19579 R8253" | U9.G9 |. 71d 10. 35 EC 1.18 0.00} 0.00) 7.68 41.77 | 13.05 | 18.92 | 5.03| 12.37 1514 | Newbern, heavy cabbage | ES ES 1.70 | 0.00 | 2.04 | 10.57 | 10.65 |.22.75 | 30.22 8.95 | 13.12 ° . | 1519 | Elizabeth City.............. 3.34} 0.00; 0.00} 2.07 4.75 | 39.16 | 30.04 | 6.27 14, 37 }
1522 | Edenton, heavy truck land..| 2.35] 0.00 | 1.13] 6.11 | 20.58 | 27.82 | 18.37 | 7.79 | 15.85
‘Tho figures in this column were determined by difference, and are the total organic matter, moist-
' ure, and loss in the analyses.
The influence of the texture of the soil on the distribution of different
truck crops is here also very apparent. Sample No. 1510, containing
ee a
~~
138 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
2.80 per cent of clay and 6.24 per cent of silt, was taken from a field near Newbern adjoining that from which sample No.1514 was obtained. This latter, it will be seen, has 13 per cent of clay and nearly 45 per cent of the three finest grades, viz, silt, fine silt, and clay. The first sample (No. 1510) is admirably adapted to the very early spring vege- tables, such as potatoes, peas, tomatoes, sweet potatoes, melons, and asparagus. The heavier lands are adapted to the heavier and later truck, particularly cabbage, spinach, tomatoes, and peas. Crops planted at the same time on these two soils in the early spring would mature from six to ten days earlier on the light-textured soil than on the heavier soil. Samples Nos, 1524 and 1534, from Edenton and Hertford, are adapted to the very early spring vegetables. These soils are both too light in texture for cabbage. Sample No. 1522 represents the heavier soils at Edenton, well adapted to cabbage, although rather too heavy even for this crop. Sample No. 1566, from Elizabeth City, is well adapted to all truck crops. Sample No. 1519, from near the same place, would be classed asa very heavy truck soil, and adapted only to the later crops, except that, being adjacent to the water, it admits of piant- ing a week or ten days earlier, and so matures its crop about the same time as lighter-textured soils further inland.
TRUCK SOILS OF VIRGINIA.
The accompanying table gives the mechanical analyses of some of the finest truck soils around Norfolk, Va. The two samples, Nos. 1595 and 1593, represent the finest type of truck land of that locality. They are adjacent to the water and the crops are thus insured against damage from late spring frosts.
TABLE 3.—WMechanical analyses of subsoils.
- rg =} | ro | 1 | ee ie Meee ae) aa| 4 ary Or ee a | Bee aieeme Z = 7 4 = qa. | Se of S = = <# N oO Locality. 2 He Vw = wD 4 N | Las = 3 et z 12 = a+ as =u wok a i = S >S Sf b al | ot © ee ~ et a = 5 ° © A oe om fo) o 5 B= Fy > A | FH Oo ae Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Perct. | Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct. 1595 | 5 miles west of Norfolk..... 1. 36 0.00 TAZ 28. 27 38. 25 7 Sis | 15014 5. 90 Tits 1593 | 4 miles west of Norfolk..... 1. 26 0.00:| 0.64.) 24.041 41.03 5. 71-| 11.54 7:30 8. 40 1601 | 3 miles east.of Norfolk. ...-. ) 4015 0. 09 027 | 43.512 12. 96 6. 63 | 20. 20 4.79 8. 88 1599 | 24 miles east of Norfolk.....| 2.20 0. 00 2°67: |) 257 5.12 -) 10: 16) 3i045 8. 88 14. 35
These soils are both adapted to all of the early spring vegetables, but they are rather light in texture for cabbage and spinach. These crops will not stand the winter well on these light soilsand have to be set out early in the spring. Sample No. 1599, from east of Norfolk, is very much heavier in texture than those just mentioned. This is a type of a large’ area of land in that locality admirably adapted to cabbage and spinach, and these are the staple crops. They are too heavy for sweet potatoes
a
RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 139
and melons, and also for Irish potatoes. The Irish potatoes do well, but they mature nearly a week or ten days later than on the lighter soils west of Norfolk. The heavier soils are more valuable for cabbage for the reason that the plants can be put out in the fall and attain some growth during the fall and winter, and thus have an advantage over a crop which has to be planted on the lighter soils in the spring. |
c
TRUCK SOILS OF MARYLAND.
An examination has been made of soils from a number of localities in the truck area of Maryland. This area is divided into the West Shore, or southern Maryland, and the Kastern Shore, by the Chesapeake Bay. The truck lands of southern Maryland occur principally in a narrow belt bordering the rivers and bay shore. The nearer the water the more valuable the land, both on account of the freedom from frosts and the cheapness of water transportation. The samples in this table are arranged according to the amount of clay in the subsoil. As thus arranged they are very nearly in the order of their relative agricultural value. The lighter soils, that is, those containing the smallest amount of clay, are considered the earliest and best adapted for the spring vegetables. The lands containing more than 6 or 7 per cent of clay are better adapted to cabbage, small fruits, and the later and heavier truck crops. The exception to this is where the heavier lands, as is the case with No. 573, for example, are situated directly on a point of land nearly surrounded by water, which insures them against spring frosts and enables the crops to be planted a week or two earlier than would be safe further inland.
To show the effect of texture on the adaptation of these lands to the different crops, two samples from Tick Neck may be cited. No. 585 represents the lightest grade of sandy land of that locality, adapted to the early spring vegetables, while No. 587, with the same exposure and separated only by a short distance, is much later and adapted to the heavier erops because it contains more clay and is more retentive of moistyre.
TABLE 4.—Mechanical analyses of subsoils of truck lands.
ol Nae (Maas a Sn 2 oe. fee ha Ba | 8 BM: (hse i 6 S ° aA LA rth eS = 5 5 = o— eS ak aA = awe oF = 28 ~ Bu Locality. te Sh ae Ew. | as as i a A ae et ees Ye = de a a 12 n> S as ® oe = ; a S 5S 5 © = > Fa ro M2 © Pot - = a oF 3 S o~ | 4 3 = be A o oS 1d a ) > an | O \e ta \} | | oo nee SEORR). P. et.| P. ct..| Per ct. | Per ct. i et.| Perct.| Perct.| Per ct.| P. ct. Mevern River............0..._.. 3.36 | 0.63 | 3.73 | 38.01 | 28.69 | 10.31 | 10.26} 1.81] 3.20 wear Baltimore. ..:...'.......... 8.21 |'4.03 | 20.88 | 41.11 | 14.25 3.58 2. G4 1.61 3. 69 _ SSE ae ane ee 0.04 | 0.51} 1.32 | 17.84 | 55.92] 16.75] 3.03 | 0.90 | 3.7 Marley post-office............... 0.16 | 0.28 | 5.42 | 41.45 | 26.73 | 12.46 722 | 2.21] 4.07 Biewwie ms _ _ 2 AOS ey eee Ck ew 4.96 | 40.19 | 27.59-| 12.10 | 7.74 2. 23 | 4. 40 NS a eee 1 0.30 | 0. 74 7.13 | 36.21 | 22.82 | 14.15 | 9.26 4. 68 4.71
140 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TABLE 4.—WMechanical analyses of subsoils of truck lands—Continued.
e Fare) = 10 = re as Gee a2) ee Bey) ace) Sees Sil tiesies pees No. Locality. eal wo § Fig Ae a 3 eA Pee) vets pe tp ce af 8 |). b ra bot BE SS Ot se HS ° So FS a BH |e MARYLAND (WEST SHORE)—con'd.| p et. |P. ct. |Perct. |Peret. |Perct. | Per ct. 585 | Tick Neck, sandyland.......... 0,24 | 0°45 | 10:23) | 46.29) | -20.155)° 8: 17 583 | 14 miles northeast of Marley..... 0.55 | 0.28 | 6.09 | 39.48 | 23.00 | 14.69 591 | 1 mile north of Marley.......... 1.05 | 0.39 | 5.52 | 36.53 | 24.91 | 11.79 el ERE een nae ei oe was) ae 228 0.31 | 0.39 | 7.04 | 37.51 | 21.45 | 13.45 AED?) Mate PAERIO Foc o 6 cook et eee ks 0.25 | 3.47 | 12:05 | 44.06 | 18.02 | 9.59 5€5 | 2 miles west of Armiger........ 0.50 | 2.12! 8.81 | 31.35 | 22.82 | 16.76 2095) Washincton, PD: C......-2<./<. 0%. SO ey eae ool nooc Ont aia | moe OW ee eS ee ee 1.00 | 0.09 | 2.31 | 31.18 | 25. 49 | 16.92 567 | 1 mile west of Armiger......-... 1.09 | 2.46 | 13.32 | 39.83 | 14.14 | 9.34 Baoan) Marley Neck <. 22. 2262. 0285). 5 6.04 | 0.97 | 6.22 | 29.96 | 21.91 | 11.57 Ri 3y | GEIS Bee eae oO oe Se 0.2 0.44 | 6.46 | 86.73 | 19.54 | 10. 28 230 | South River Neck.............-. 0.5£ | 0.32 ; 5.81 | 40.63 | 28.93) 9.44 ad |) CCK IVECO, (GAM occ. cece cea 3.18 | 6.06 | 22.09 | 29.87 | 9.82 | 6.52 245 | Patexent River..2 72062625555 2: 1.44) 1.78 | 7.63 | 38.35 | 21.80! 6.87 577 | Magothy Neck...............--- 0.97 | 1.52 | 4.50 | 29.88 | 23.77 | 10.36 589 2 miles north of Armiger.....-.|.-.-.- 2.33 | 26.08 | 33.06 | 10.18 | 4.71 575 | Magothy Neck, loam........... 0.08 | 1.26] 8.91 | 47.84] 6.29] 6.29 i i eae OO coccweocseee ewan asmas Seen! 1. VOSA Maeod mate se | 2G. 80" 1 ave “569 | Magothy Neck...........-....-- 0.90 | 0.87 | 5.82 | 26.22 | 17.55 | 16.34 268 | South River....... oe hn eas 2.48 | 0.04 | 1.97 | 28.64 | 39.68 | 11.43 590 | 2 miles north of McCubbins’ ROCK POUib onan ence cena es omies 0.44 | 0.91 | 5.45 | 28.73 | 22.81 | 13.44 £81 | 4milenorth of McCubbins’ Rock ROME 2 atte cwaes eectaniidaeas 0.71 | 0.56 | 4.83 | 27.49 | 16.36 | 12.51 OOF 1 BRAM Oy 5 foe sabia Bee keen seni S| 187 0; 761 8..55,)635..04 | 19° 26") 8.742 BO) Wem are TETANON ose oncceeiwine ies 3.52 /12.80 | 8.36 | 20.11 | 10.72 | 10.15 573 | Magothy Neck, ‘‘ gravellyloam”.| 1.55 | 3.67 | 11.92 | 29.99 | 6.35 | 5.56
1 Including 1.08 per cent larger than 2™™,
1 I ae) =| ease id A i = S| ce [3 = A = | my o
Perct.| Peret. Pret. (11s) 25200 Asa 8.46} 2.48 | 5.01 9.89 | 4751 ce -b242
LO 720) ae te! onal 573") 1237 | 2 ore
10:19) -2.08-| 5.47
15,24 |, 4505) | 5.81
12.86} 3.82] 6.33
LOS 17 53.29") 6436
12.80 | 4.08! 6.45
137424 souGl ele 4.60 | 2.04] 7.63
10: 71. |) Sxeer) . ieoo
1730 e248" Pa. oo
17-16) eedese |e onOd
13.14 | 3.58] 8.29
15.081, 5: 76"| “8iae
215057! “9557 18239
1G. 338e\) +t. 457) 8002 4595) |, 2302) 8:49
14.77 | 4.29] 9.16
22.39 | 5.03 | 10.12
11.38 | 4.13 | 10.59
17.98 | 8.76 | 11.60 9.91 | 6.21 | 12.84
The Eastern Shore of Maryland, included in the peninsula district, has been a noted center of truck farming. The crops mature after the bulk of the Virginia crop has been marketed.
No.
1209 1198
TABLE 5.—Mechanical analyses of truck subsoils.
Locality.
| Moisture in air- | dry sample. _ Organic matter.
|
MARYLAND (EASTERN SHORE).
1 mile east of Barren Creck | P. ct.| P. ct.
es idoanes 0.22 | 1.04 Salisbury ....--ccsccsvceas 0.14 | 0.91 2 miles west of Darren
Creek Springs .......... | 0.22 | 0.87
rs
~ =|
i=} Ss
LA ae
a | of
oy ay
g | Ge
s °
Oo ie) Pct. \ Ler ct. 0.81 | 9.60 0.85 | 6,29 0.48 | 6.71
Medium sand (.5-.25™™) ,
Fine sand. (.25- ]mm)
Per ct. 25. 93 56, 66
30. 27
Very fine sand (.1-.05™m),
Per ct. Oo ia 9.77
2. 79
Per ct 2.01 4.53
4. 62
| Silt (.05-.01mm,
|
| = re Ye) ae | eee es . aie “=e spat =) 19 i=} nS oS So BS (9) -- ee A 4 ce 2)
.|\Per.ct.| P. et: 0. 94 1. 46 0. 94 1.76 1,21 2. 06
RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 141
TABLE 5.—Mechanical analyses of truck subsoils—Continued.
|
|
’ . 3 a=] rz i i Gye ee Fore pope ers. Ae! 3 Lp ne s es E LF hal No. Lecality. i a A et 0% at ae Big t m8 ~ Ba; g a nm | ms aa | # |} 2 oo Ss 2 eon ee ae ee ee: Or Ep & a oa a a = = = A 6 -G to A Fy > om | eye MARYLAND (EASTERN | | | SHORE)—continued. 1213 | 1 mile southeast of Salis- | P.ct.| P.ct.| P.ct. | Per et.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per et.| Per ct.| Per ct.| P..ct. SOM Sti wale wees Ge via a on wan 0.33 | 0.50) 1.91 6.43 | 32.95 | 33. 69 | 10.22} 9.15 | 2.08 2. 60 1192 | 2 miles south of Barren | Creek Springs .......... 0.19 | 0.85 | 0.82 6.64 | 45.21 | 29.30 3. 37 9.38 | 1.96 2. 87 Perm ONCOTO .- 2. 2.--->--+----- 0.44 | 2.02 | 0.99 6.94 | 33.29 | 31.36 9.05 | 10.24 | 2.81 2. 97 1188 | 4 mile south of Barren Creek Springs .......... 0.01 | 0.75 | 0.32 8.75 | 46.37 | 32.44 o4d° |) 8.01: | 0. 78 2.99 ize4 | New Market.............. 0.23 | 1.29 | 0.50 | 6.47 | 31.07 | 15.80 | 7.40 | 26.73 | 4.26 3. 50 1207 | 2 miles west of Salisbury..| 0.26 | 0.85 | 2.03 | 7.93 | 38.36 | 25.55 | 9.77 | 7.40] 3.33 | 4.02 1240 | 6 miles south of Preston..| 0.32 | 1.52 | 5.78 | 17.54 | 37.23 | 17.04 | 5.71] 8.40] 2.16 | 4.04 ieee) Cabin Creek ...........-.. 0.47 | 1.65 | 4.61 | 15.31 | 35.66 | 18.36 | 4.76 | 10.62 | 3.63 4, 22 1219 | American Corners ........ 0: 20°), 107 | 4,32 | 12595" 139.3 17. 49 7.09 | 10.56 | 1.98 |, 4.54 1232 | lmilewestof New Market.| 0.42 | 1.70 | 0.72] 6.41 | 31.93 | 16.70 | 11.94 | 15.82 | 7.51 4.81 1228 | 3 miles west of New LE EG) eee ‘| 0.42 | 1.10 | 2.77 | 12.02 | 34.53 | 24.30 Liars) 45 | 2.24 5. 33 12 SOS Corl hh ee a 0.61 | 2.25 | 1.06 8.39 | 21.87 | 12.73 } 12: 88 | 27.81 | 7.05 5. 35 1230 | 24 miles northwest of New ; DEER ISOU- aiein Sete ow craa = 0.47 | 1.43 | 0.89 6.92 | 27.64 | 20.48 | 10.98 | 22.04 | 3.28 5. 60 1215 | 34 miles southeast of Ss 0.25 | 1.39 | 1.36 6.02 | 28.52 | 27.95 ale Wy i ( 9.10 | 3.00 5. 61 1217 | 6 miles southeast of Salis- SEMEN Ditahestatintvenialad 2X6 1,29 | 2.84 | 1.15 6.99 | 33.52 | 17.85 | 13.19 | 12.21 | 2. 86 eae mee) Mount Wolly... .......00- OF TS) V L6ar i Zoo 8.40 | 23.07 | 14.03 | 138.54 | 24.54 | 4.41 7. 53 oe |) Tankwood. ............2... 0.85 | 1.98 | 0.52 6.11 | 28.43 | 18. 34 9.49 | 21.97 | 4.03 7.84 ioe | New Market.............. 1.15%) 2.07.) 0787 | 6.doe et, 27 |- 13,12 | 11. 16°} 22.94 | 2. 95 9. 43 fee | Mount Holly..........-.-. 0.92 | 2.03 | 0.69 | 5.97 | 22.91 | 14.68 | 12.17 | 25.19 | 3.98 | 11.19
The same marked effect of the texture of the soil on the distribution of the different classes of crops is shown in the investigations of the soils of this locality. Without considering the influence of the proximity of large bodies of water, the lighter soils, that is, those containing the least amount of clay, are invariably regarded as the earlier, and as a rule the crops mature from six to eight or ten days earlier than on the heavier truck soils. Salisbury is one of the principal centers of the trucking interest, and it will be seen that the soils around this place are very light textured and well adapted to the early spring vegetables. Barren Creek Springs is another locality where the soils are well adapted to early truck, but the industry has not yet been developed there as fully as at Salisbury. -
A number of samples in this table were taken from Caroline County, where wheat is still grown on nearly all the farms, as it was grown throughout the present truck area until the peculiar adaptation of
{42 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
these lands to truck farming and the improved facilities for transporta- tion induced the farmers to abandon wheat and take up this much more profitable industry. These samples show that the soils of Caroline County which have been examined are well adapted to early truck, and nearly all of the county would be greatly benefited if the farmers would abandon wheat and turn their attention to this special line of farming.
The accompanying table gives the mechanical analyses of a number of samples from one of the most famous centers of track farming in the country, namely, that portion of Long Island adjacent to New York City.
TABLE 6.—Mechanical analyses of subsoils of truck lands.
: co c=} cs I =| ee GN aed A a a fa = 2 — 3 a eS. — Reh S ~~ e « Aa) 3 rt Sa ee ee ae ee eR ‘ of | oh 5 dis Ae | gio 7 a a No. Locality. eo = x O19 = Ba aS l 15 x A 5 72 a 4 DO | S c aro ; 12 @ = 2 ael| & 2. Beh eae ee = mH is & 3 ro fo) Pw 3 ee ey 8 lo | ew he et el) Se =| fo) 6 bo | = - wm | D — | ! E st on P.ct.| P.ct.| P.ct.| Per ct.| Per et.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per et.| Per et.| P. ct. 616 | 1 mile south of Jamaica...| 1.08 | 1.40 | 9.09 | 21.46 | 35.75 | 16.05 | 6.18 | 5.24] 1.35] 3.29 558 | 1 milesouthof Jamaica..-.; 0.10 | 1.52 | 18.44 | 28.77 | 28.86 | 7.98| 3.95 | 5.50] 1.39] 3.37 55 | 14 miles east of New Lots.; 0.22 | 3.78 | 6.15 | 18.35 | 34.57 | 14.18 | 7.49} 9.13] 1.87) 4.13 baa.) Mabylow --...-.<--------- | 0.12 | 2.74 | 4.81 | 13.62 | 31.58 | 10.19} 7.76] 18.51 | 3.29] 6.70 539 | Jamaica ....--.----------- 0.14 25 | 9.59 ; 19.06 | 24.91} 9.65 | 10.08 | 14.10) 3.29] 7.25 8
Meta MIAtIANAS. -...040<siee spices i, 4 mileeast of New Lots ..| 0. 56 | 14 miles eastof New Lots.| 0. 43 | 1 mile east of New Lois -..| 0. OS) One. MiGeSta~. 5am. sain ooo, atop ip, 20 | 1 mile west of Flatiands..} 1.
ive) oO
.69 | 10.86 | 20.01 | 6.49 | 12.15 | 23.85 | 5.99) 7.56
aw paar
1. &0 | 22.20 | 25.58 | 8.70 | 7.32) 12°68 / 2.82] 7. 72 3 4,61 | 15.59 | 34.82 | 12.94 | 10.95 | 6.82) 3.35] 8.58 50 | 22.94 | 11.52 | 28.08 | 12.00 | 10.72 | 10.48 | 2.63 | 8.60 32 | 6.46 | 13.24] 19.14 | 8.46 | 17.20 | 21.57} 3.60 | 11.30 66 | 1.11) 3.91 | 5.98 | 4.76 | 13.15 | 40.15 | 12.10 | 12. 86
co 00 im
fom) for}
Q bo me pw po pp
io 0)
co
4
bo =
It will be seen that these soils have the same texture as the samples which have already been given from the Southern coast. The influence of the texture of the soil on the distribution of the different classes of truck crops is very marked here also. The lighter-textured soils are adapted to the early spring vegetables, while the heavier soils are better adapted to the heavier crops, such as cabbage and spinach, and to small fruits. For example, it is said that spring-planted crops can be forced to mature about two weeks earlier on soils represented by samples Nos. 616 and 558 than on the heavier soil, No. 539, the expo- sure and other conditions being nearly identical in the two places.
i RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 143
The accompanying table gives the mechanical analyses of early truck soils from Providence, R. I, and from Boston, Mass.
od
TABLE 7.—Mechanical analyses of subsoils.
@g| s si} 3.) 3./2 duit inl Re -” 5 q oe 6 z q E —— a 3 = we. = No. Locality. fe] 9 © ort é a a a, & 3 ye ‘a8 ~s ae) b =| o He = a) wnt * oo 2 n fa 3 b am rej “e Oo ee ~ a “ —S Soa | g ° ing Be o = an Sot ey Bh | Bees ee peo fae Be lbo —_ oo —_— — -_— <\- — — | —— —|—_—— egal P. ct.| P. ct. |\Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Perct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct..| F367, (0 28 0.62 | 2.50 | 1.64) 3.42 | 10.58 | 29. 32 43.93 | 4.99 | 1. 03 1. 84 7 7 Ly See ee eee 107 | 2:58 ) G85) 3558 |. 153 25°) 3 07 | 29:31 | 12.62 | 1. 52 2. 64 Carlee %, CUN 8 ge Se SEP. SE ee a gee 5.94) 1.53 6.45 | 16.06 | 19.95 29.18.\ 13. 57. | 2:40 7.45 RHODE 'SLAND. /
Geo. } Providenée!.............. 0.20 | 2.02 }10..70 | £52209. 27 FS |-Sl.07 | LOVDt | 2) 86 0. 53 1.14 7) oe 0 SSE a ae 0,99 \05. 940). 7.35.) 1102) 23. 17 | 24.52) 17.45 | 4.79 | 1. 88 | 1. 62 ReGrravél larger thaw 2°... elec 21.21 Came Cat ea ees = 5 Stee ot ea oe cia aoe oe 78. 79
100. 00
The early truck farming of the Atlantic Seaboard is confined to soils similar in texture to those whose analyses have been given. The climate of course has much to do with the actual time of harvest in each locality, but the character of the soils and the proximity to large bodies of water determine the distribution of crops in each locality, and soils and transportation facilities together define the area over which truck farming can be profitably carried on in any locality.
TOBACCO SOILS OF CONNECTICUT AND PENNSYLVANIA.
Tobacco is grouped commercially into classes, types, and grades. The class represents the use to which it is adapted, whether for cigar, cigarette, smoking, chewing, or export trade. The type is dependent upon certain qualities, such as the color, texture, and flavor of the leaf, and upon the question whether it is sun-cured, air-cured, flue-cured, ete. The grade refers to the degree of excellence of the leaves from the same type or even from the same stalk. The different grades are designated as low, medium, and good, and also with respect to the use, as fillers, binders, wrappers, and the like.
Different types of tobacco are required for cigars, cigarettes, smok- ing, and chewing, and different grades for the wrappers and fillers of cigars and for plug tobacco. Furthermore, different sections of our own country and several of the importing foreign countries require dif- ferent classes, types, and grades of tobacco for their use.
The English, German, and Italian markets require a coarse, dark, heavy type of tobacco, grown extensively in the Clarksville district of
144 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Tennessee and Kentucky. The Austrian and Swiss markets require a lighter-colored and more leafy tobacco, which is grown upon the lighter and poorer soils of the Clarksville district. The French market requires a still lighter and coarser leaf. Nearly all of the Maryland tobacco and much of the Virginia and Ohio tobaccos go to France, Holland, and Germany for pipe smoking, as it is a mild, sweet-flavored tobacco, with free burning qualities, making it specially suitable for this use. The cigarette tobacco comes principally from the bright-tobacco soils of Virginia, North and South Carolina, and eastern Tennessee.
Tobacco can be grown on almost any well-drained soil which will produce Indian corn; but the climatic conditions and the texture and physical properties of the soil so greatly modify the development of the plant as to determine the distribution of the different classes and types. Climatic conditions control, of course, the general distribution, but the influence of tle texture of the soil in modifying the effect of these climatic conditions determines the local distribution of types. Tobacco readily adapts itself to a wide range of climatic conditions, as is seen in the distribution of the plant in our own country from Florida to Wisconsin. While it adapts itself very readily to the different con- ditions of temperature and rainfall which normally prevail during the growing season throughout this wide range of territory, seasons which are either too wet or too dry very often reduce the yield per acre and impair the quality and the value of the product. The plantis, further- more, peculiarly sensitive to the conditions of moisture and heat, result- ing under existing climatic conditions from the texture and physical properties of the different soil formations, and this largely determines the local distribution of the different types of tobacco.
ADAPTATION OF SOILS TO VARIETIES OF TOBACCO.
Soils adapted to the production of the coarse shipping tobacco, suit- able for the English and German markets, will not produce fine tobacco of any variety. Soils containing a large proportion of clay, or which otherwise are very retentive of moisture, produce large, heavy plants, which cure dark-brown or red, with large quantities of oil or gum in the leaves. light, sandy soils, on the other hand, produce a thinner leaf, which cures a very bright red, mahogany, and even lemon yellow. So marked is this influence of soil upon the quality of tobacco that a fine bright-tobacco land may be separated by only a few feet from a heavier clay soil which will produce only a coarse, heavy shipping leaf. Varieties which produce an excellent quality of tobacco on soils to which they are adapted produce an entirely different type when planted on lands of a different character, and frequently fail entirely. Yellow Pryor and Orinoco grown upon rich lowlands, especially if well manured, produce a strong, heavy type of tobacco, while upon light, new land the product of the same varieties is yellow, fine flavored, thin textured, and sweet.
RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 145
Manures and fertilizers tend to increase the yield per acre, but in the case of the fine, bright tobaccos this is usually accompanied by a deterioration of the quality of the product, especially if excessive quantities of stable manure and other forms of nitrogenous manures are added to the land. With the heavier varieties of tobacco, how- ever, this increase of yield is often accompanied by a marked improve- ment in the quality of the product, as it becomes richer and contains more oil and gum, which is an advantage for the purpose to which this class of tobacco is adapted.
The distribution of the principal types of tobacco may be broadly stated as follows: The seed-leaf, or Havana, tobacco is produced in such quantities and such excellence as to give a distinct character to localities in Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Ilinois, Wisconsin, and Florida; the red shipping leaf gives a distinct character to localities in Virginia, Kentucky, Indiana, Tennessee, Iowa, and Arkansas; the white Burley gives a distinct character to localities in Ohio and Kentucky; heavy shipping tobacco for export gives a distinct character to localities in Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee; mahogany and yellow wrappers and smokers give a distinct character to localities in Virginia, North and South Car- olina, and eastern Tennessee.
The best soils for these different classes and types of tobacco are very different, ranging from the light, sandy lands of the pine barrens for the fine yellow varieties to the heavy clay soils of the limestone areas for the heavier grades of tobacco. This must always be borne in mind, as otherwise there would be apparent contradictions, since in some districts light, sandy loams, and in others strong clay soils, are described as best adapted to the variety of tobacco which gives char- acter to the locality.
The writer has endeavored to study during the past season the con- ditions maintained by the soils adapted to some of these different classes and types of tobacco for the purpose of determining those which are essential to the best development of each of these types. This infor- mation, with a knowledge of the ordinary climatic conditions, would give a basis for the classification of tobacco soils and for the improvement and modification of the conditions in many soils which are not, under present methods of manuring and cultivation, well adapted to any par- ticular type of tobacco. This work involves considerable preliminary examination of the physical conditions of the soilsin the localities which are to be selected, and then the establishment of observing stations in these different areas. It has been impossible, for various reasons, to obtain in one year records of the soil conditions from many localities and, with respect to the localities from which we have obtained records, the data are not yet all available, and will not be until the tobacco is cured.
146 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TOBACCO SOILS OF THE CONNECTICUT VALLEY.
The influence of soil upon the quality of the tobacco grown in the Connecticut Valley is very marked. Where the soilis a heavy clay loam, or for other reasons is normally very moist, the tobacco produces a thick leaf which has considerable oil and gum in its tissues, cures a dark color, and will bear sweating well, but 1s not well suited for cigar wrappers at present because light-colored, thin-textured wrappers are in demand at this time. Upon light, sandy soils the quality is very fine, the texture of the leaf is thin, and the color is light. Itis this type of tobacco which is at present in demand for cigar wrappers. A good wrapper for our domestic use at present requires a leaf of fine texture and small veins, but with plenty cf body. It must have elasticity and strength to make it pliable in working, and it must have good sweating qualities to bring out the flavor and to give it the aroma it needs when finally cured.
Samples of the soils and subsoils have been collected from a number of localities representing some of the principal types of land adapted to tobacco and several soils not adapted to this crop. Observations have been taken every day during the growing season to determine the amount of moisture in the soils in several places.
The accompanying table gives the mechanical analyses of three of the very finest types of tobacco soil in the State of Connecticut for the light-colored, thin-textured wrappers.
TABLE 8.— Mechanical analyses of subsoils of tobacco land.
= &£ yard I res rt ! ro a | I fered) 4% Sy SRE | ELAS ht OER go. || aa ais a" 3 a ere a ee SS aE = Doe ae on)? aot es [2 ieee ak ee eC ie i ae No. Loeality. ea S x Om] gn Ag AS ! ah = : ee 4 a ny ° SH ay = ie =) eb i= o Set Yen) 0 wT = R S bo QD 3 > = “rds o be ~ Oo” — eae Sp RB fos] > Re =| 4 ~~ q a ow a ra ° oO -- oO o = oe] a Ey i4) Os, os = a b a iS tS) CONNECTICUT. | | 842 | 34 miles cast of East Hart- |Perct.|Perct.|Perct. Perct. Per ct.| Per ct.| Perct.| Perct.| Percet. | Per ct. tord, “plains pene... - 170; 46 ) 2.08") "9, 05 | 5.03 | A8s3t | 25.83) S2: tetera pa Na) 2. 51 125i A POquenock so4.2.-2 =e eon, 0.56 | 1.64 | 3.22 | 7.53 | 19.64 | 23.76 | 34-50") 5,92") O78 25a0 29 | East Hartford, Podunk | Gisbriet 5. oe nd see. F 0:49 | 2.05} 0:09) 0.305) 3. 00) 69895) 52ers aoe emcee 4.00 = 2
The amount of clay in these samples ranges from 2.5 to 4 per cent. The soil of the “plains,” near East Hartford, is a very light, sandy soul, which grows a tobacco of a very fine texture and very good color, but the yield per acre is naturally low. The conditions which give this iand its characteristic value are undoubtedly to be found in the small content of clay and in the small amount of moisture which these “plains” soils maintain. No observations have been made on the moisture condition of these soils in their natural condition in the field,
The subsoil of the Poquonock lands is seen to contain about 2.53 per cent of clay, 5.92 per cent of silt, and less than 1 per cent of fine silt.
f. \ ri
i
eA,
RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 147
These soils have almost identically the same texture as the “plains” soil, and the development, texture, and color of the tobacco crop is believed to be about the same. The yield is larger in this particular locality, because the lands have been more intelligently cultivated. This is believed to represent the finest type of land of the Connecti- eut Valley for the light-colored, thin-textured cigar wrapper, which approaches the Sumatra grade. When heavy, dark wrappers are in style this soil can not compete with the heavy limestone soils of Penn. sylvania for the domestic market.
Per Cent.
oa
-
[7768 | re 3¥50 | 592
25-1 1-05 .05-.01
Diameter of the grains in miliimeiers.
Fie. 4.—Mechanical separation of the gravei, sand, silt, and clay in 20 grams of subsoil from Poqucnock, Conn., adapted to tobacco.
The amount of moisture has been determined in these soils throngh- out the growing season. ‘The results are shown in a diagram, figure 6, page 149. The figures on the left-hand side of the diagram indicate the percentage of moisture found in the soil to a depth of 12 inches from the surface. The dotted portions of the line pass through the dates where observations are missing.
The soils of the Podunk region of East Hartford and Windsor, rep- resented by No. 729, are seen to have about 4 per cent of clay and 27.73 per cent of silt, with 3.56 per cent of fine silt. The relatively large amount of silt makes these soils more retentive of moisture than the soils of Poquonock, and they are said to grow a rather heavier type of tobacco. The relative character of the crops of these two soils during the past season can not be exactly determined until the crops come out of the sweat and are finally eured, which requires nearly a year from the time the crop is harvested.
148 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
It will be seen that the soil of the Podunk district contained during the season considerably more moisture than the soil at Poquonock, and this undoubtedly accounts for the heavier and darker type of tobacco produced.
=a
Ce lhe ah
STITT uy
Diameter of the grains in millimelers.
Fic. 5.—Mechanieal separation of the gravel, sand, silt, and clay in 20 grams of subsoil of tho Podunk district, East Hartford, Conn., adapted to tobacco.
Hatfield, Mass., is another center for the tobacco industry of the Connecticut Valley, and samples have been collected from a number of localities in that vicinity. Their mechanical analyses are given in the accompanying table.
TABLE 9.—Mechanical analyses of subsoils.
|
: . - ten] loan} vw} rc peat ' | a : 5 et 4 A = a E = ile} So 2 5 : eee A we 8 S o Sa] & a ee gig! apes! a eee ek A Sg \ a EB ne of * nai ~2 og ro) =| i) = | 10d — Oo l ates £ No. | Locality. 5s 5 LS om | 2a ; ES 1 ay 4 oe > | ay O19 } 2 S | eel be SA se WN dene bo = of bs — m ~— — — oo |) f° aa PS © “4 5 = ha a iA OF oes gy A ey > a ee o ie ae =. = a = oy | MASSACHUSETTS. | orcas are Per ct.|Per ct. Per ct. Per ct.|Per ct.|Per ct.|Per ct. |Per ct.|Per ct.'Per ct.
1039 Hatfield, ‘‘2-acre lot”’.-..| 0.21 | 1.48 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 2.50 |°28,11 | 55.78 | 10.71 0. 63 0. 92 1173 | Hatfield, representing | |
average soils of this lo- |
PAGS ty sed sist esceky 0.59 | 2.71. | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.40 9.00 | 42.12 | 38.90 | 3.07 3.17 875 Hatfield, 100 feet from | | Connecticut River...... | 0.66 | 2.15 | 0.00 | 0.00] 0.12 2 315) 40;80) eae 4 Bats 4.50 901 | Hatfield, 200 feet from Connecticut River...... 0.82 | 2.50 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.21 9.13 | 88.11 | 45.09 4.76 5. 98 | Not suited to tobacco. | | 999 | Hatfield, ‘‘heavy loam’’. él 0.88 | 3.45 |} 0.00 | 0.00 } 0.10! 0.43 | 21.88 | 67.00 3. 41 2. 61 1250 | Hatfield, ‘‘meadow land’’.| 0.10 | 4.75 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.05 0.50 | 32.64 | 49.32 5. 46 6.79
i
RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION.
There are two very different types of land represented here. Sample No. 1039 came from a 2-acre lot in the town of Hatfield, considered to be of the very finest type of tobacco land of the locality. The yield per acre is small, but the color, texture, and quality of the tobacco are very superior, and the wrappers bring a high price. It will be seen
that the texture of this soil is similar to that of the Poquonock and of
a JULY. Trelrrrelisleole leclede dediode7aaiealso| 1 2 [314 5] 6|7 2] 9 pomielalrale[6 merry try tr rrr Tite. cl lh il Peer rae a a a
~~ OoON
eae HH Sisal aH AC
Fic. 6.—Curves showing the amount of moisture in the tobacco soils at Poquonock, East Hartford, and Hatfield, in the Connecticut Valley.
[= [nv lw [afalolulolofS[EIs[als{a!
| A ea bali aS ae ae
the “plains” soil at East Hartford. Sample No. 1173 represents about the average tobacco soils of the Hatfield district. This is said to pro- duce a very fine quality of tobacco. It will be seen from the analysis that the texture of this soil is quite similar to that of the Podunk dis- trict of Connecticut. Samples Nos. 875 and 901 represent what are
150 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Vv called the “river sands,” near the edge of the first terrace-overlooking the river. They have a small percentage of clay, but a rather large amount of silt. This might make them rather too retentive of moisture, but their position on the bank of the river insures perfect drainage, as the bluff is 25 or 30 feet high at this place. For this reason these soils preduce a very fine quality of tobacco, as fine in every way as does No. 1039. The importance of the bluff in securing thorough drainage to these lands is very marked. Sample No. 875 is taken about 100 feet nearer the river bank than No. 901, and the soil is considered more valuable for tobacco than the other, the product being brighter and of a finer texture. |
The other two samples were taken from different types of land. Sample No. 999 represents what is 5 locally known as a “heavy loam” Poquonock| Hartford | Hatfield | and No. 1250is from a meadow land.
74 | These two soils are said to produce tebacco the leaves of which are coarse textured and oily, do not take on a good color, and are unsuited to the present market demands; but when dark wrappers are in style these lands will be taken up and the cultivation of tobacco will be aban- doned on the light soils. These soils do not differ materially from the cther samples at Hatfield except in the large amount of silt they con- tain. Owing to this large amount of silt and to the peculiar arrangement of the silt grains, these soils are very close and very retentive of moisture, and to these soil peculiarities are due the characteristics which unfit Fic. 7.—Average amount of water maintained this tobacco for the present demand.
in 29 grams of tobacco soils at Poquonock, ‘he plants show all the symptoms of
East Hartford, and Hatficld, in the Connecti- x
out Valley. an excessive growth from an exces- sive water supply.
The accompanying diagram (fig. 6) shows: the amount of moisture maintained during a part of June and July in the soils at Poquonock, where the light wrappers are produced, in the soils of the Podunk dis- trict, and in this “heavy loam” soil at Hatfield (No. 999), which is unsuited to tobacco.
Figure 7 shows the actual amount of water maintained, on the aver- age, by 20 grams of the soil at Poquonock, and at Hast Hartford, and of this heavy loam at Hatfield, through the season. The excessive amount of moisture maintained by the Hatfield soil is strikingly apparent.
|
RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 151
It may be asked if this “heavy loam” from Hatfieid is better adapted to other types of tobacco. This is undoubtedly so, but just at present the heavy, coarse types of tobacco, which in its present condition it is adapted to grow, are worth but little. It may also be asked if the con- ditions could be modified so as to make the land better adapted to the finer types of cigar tobacco. This could undoubtedly be done. The first thing needed would be to underdrain the land by tile drains so as to remove as much as possible of the excess of water. The tobacco should be grown on high beds or ridges, which would keep the roots in drier soil and materially improve the texture and quality of the crop. The texture of the soil should be changed by judicious methods of cropping, manuring, and cultivation, making it more loamy and less retentive of moisture. The excessive growth of the plants could be checked by cultivation, or by the use of certain manures and chemicals which would prevent the plants from taking up so much moisture not- withstanding its abundance in the soil. But all this would be expen- sive, and it is a question whether it could be economically done under the prevailing conditions.
TOBACCO SOILS OF PENNSYLVANIA.
The characteristic tobacco of Pennsylvania is grown on the heavy limestone soils having a stiff red-clay subsoil. These soils represent the very finest type of agricultural land, being well adapted to both wheat and grass. They are identical in geological formation, texture, and agricultural value with the soils of the Cumberland Valley of western Maryland and Virginia and with the soils of the blue-grass region of Kentucky. There are, of course, many areas along the river, on the islands, and back in other of the geological formations of the hill coun- try where sandy soils prevail and where a light-colored, thin-textured leaf is produced. This latter type of tobacco at present has a higher market value than the crop from the heavier soils, but the type which has given character to the tobacco area of Pennsylvania is that grown upon these rich and fertile limestone soils of Lancaster and the adja- cent counties. These limestone soils produce a heavy, dark type of tobacco admirably adapted for wrappers for our domestic use when dark cigars happen to be in fashion.
The fad or fancy for light or dark cigars is difficult to explain. It causes prices to fluctuate first in favor of one and then of the other of our two principal domestic types of tobacco.
These conditions should be fully realized by the tobacco planters so that they can adapt themselves to the market demands which they can not control. They should fully. understand the important influence of the character of the soil on their crop. When the fashion calls for light cigars they should cultivate only their lighter soils and use their heavier lands for other crops. When dark cigars are in demand the lighter soils Should be diverted from this use and the heavier soils be once more
152 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
taken up. The method of cultivation also should tend to emphasize as much as possible the differences in the conditions of these two classes of soils; the lighter soils should have perfect drainage and maintain but a small amount of moisture, while the heavier soils should maintain at all times an abundant and uniform supply of moisture.
The accompanying table gives the mechanical analyses of two sub-
soils of tobacco lands from the typical tobacco area of Lancaster County.
TABLE 10.—WMechanical analyses of subsoils.
e : rs rs 3 Zz - 1 \ 2 ar wir Bier. (oR Th) Ba. a 3 pe S ue | Se | ae | Se) te ee F =| of ee ~ 3 5 os S sie, 8 No. Locality. & Om | oh ae ES as a oe - re mn Hl r nites ee Oo las Se A Ne Ae Hi oa = : 2 3S S Ee Catia i= sal = IN fe! <0 = 2 ae = ce (2) | o a] oO x A —_ ) Her Fer Skee FH - a | |o PENNSYLYANIA. Per ct.| Per ct. ‘Per et. Per ct.| Per ‘| Perct.||| Benet eer ec Ip. cl. 2300 | MaPICtiRA <s- o = mcan 5 case hs 4.36 | 0.12 | 0.22 | 0.27 | 0237 7.48 | 28.28 | 16.24] 35.80 55) 8 Oy A Aiea ea Srna se Pee ee 5. 34 0, 36 | 0. 40 | 0793)" ede 11.45) 30.55 | 10.35 | 36.30
Fine silt. . Clay. | l62¢ | 35.30
Gravel. Coerse sand. Medium sand. | Fine sand. | Veryfinesand. 7 ASF oF
1° 05-01 | .01.005
Diameter of the grains in millimeters.
Fic. 8.—Mechanical separation of the gravel, sand, silt, and clay in 20 grams of subsoil from Marictta, Pa., adapted to tobacco.
It will be seen that these subsoils contain about 36 per cent of clay, nearly as much silt, and about half as much fine silt. They contain only a very small percentage of sand. There can hardly be a greater contrast in agricultural soils than between these heavy limestone soils
adapted to grass, wheat, and the heavy types of tobacco, and the light sandy lands of the Connecticut Valley.
RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 153
The accompanying diagram (fig. 9) shows the amount of moisture maintained during the month of July by the soil at Marietta, from determinations in samples taken in the field and sent in to the labora- tory of the United States Department of Agriculture, compared with the moisture determinations at Poquonock and East Hartford, Conn., which have been given elsewhere.
Fic. 9.—Curves showing the amount of moisture in tobacco soils at Poquonock end East Hartford, Conn., and Marietta, Pa.
It will be seen that the limestone soil at Marietta maintains nearly three times as much water for tlie plants as the light soil at Poquonock, and this more abundant water supply would be expected to have just _ the effect which is apparent in the darker, heavier type of tobacco pro- duced.
154 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The Connecticut Valley tobacco competes principally with the Suma- tra, and the Pennsylvania with the Cuban tobacco. Our planters claim that the domestic wrappers from the Connecticut Valley have a better color and a better flavor than the Sumatra tobacco. The latter, pnts has an exceedingly thin leaf, hardly thicker than tissue paper,
but Sengiie tet strong, elastic, and pliable. The veins are so delicate that they do not need to be removed. The leaves are so thin and yet so strong and cut to such advantage that manufacturers can estimate very closely how many cigars a pound of wrapper will cover. It is said to cover from four to seven times aS many cigars as an equal weight of the domestic leaf. The cigars also have a smoother appear- ance and are thought to make a bet- ter appearance in the windows and
2 Marietta Poquonock Ml show eases. For these reasons
Light Wrappers |Dark Wi Cophets 3 et 7%, 18% manufacturers have been paying ica | from $3 to $5 per pound for the Sumatra wrapper rather than pay from 25 to 50 cents per pound for the domestic leaf. ‘The problem before our planters, therefore, is to make a smaller and thinner leaf, with more elasticity and strength and with much smaller veins. The peculiar character of the Sumatra tobacco must be largely due to the climatic conditions of theisland, but the same result can possibly be ob- tained here by close and intelligent attention to selection and breeding of varieties and by control of the soil conditions. The Pennsylvania tobacco is well Fic. 10.—The average amount of water in 20 adapted for cigar wrappers, but it grams of tobacco soils of Poqguoncck and x Nieskouas lacks the peculiar delicate flavor and aroma of the best grades of imported Havana. These qualities are undoubtedly due, in large part at least, to the tropical climatic conditions of the island. Whether these same qualities can be obtained in the same perfection under the existing climatic conditions in Pennsylvania, and if not, whether these conditions can be so controlled or changed as to give the desired qual- ities, can not be foretold, but offer a legitimate and promising subject for investigation. The improvement of the crop should be earried on in the lines indicated in this paper by comparing the conditions of cli- mate, especially the conditions of moisture and temperature, within the range of the best tobacco .soils of Cuba, with those conditions prevail- ing in Pennsylvania. When these are known they will form a basis,
—<—\ os
RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 155
otherwise wanting, for the intelligent control of the soil conditions or the improvement of methods of cultivation and treatment.
Tobacco is grown in Pennsylvania in rather small patches, the aver- age size of the fields being about 3 acres. A small proportion of the
farmers cultivate as much as 5 acres, but it is rather uncommon to have
more than thig, and there is a disadvantage in having more, as the crop can not be so well attended to. The crop is grown under a very inten- Sive system of cultivation, involving great care, labor, and expense. With such small areas as these there is no good reason why planters should not insure their crop against injury by drought by having small irrigation plants which would render them in a measure independent in case of any deficiency in the rainfall. The water could be obtained either from springs or streams, of which there are a great many in that limestone area, or by pumping with a windmill or small farm engine. In the arid regions of Kansas a good windmill, it is claimed, will fill a reservoir large enough to irrigate as much as 5 or 10 acres of land, even where several applications of water have to be used during the growing season. In the tobacco area of Pennsylvania probably one thorough irrigation would carry a crop over the most prolonged drought which is there liable to occur. <A reservoir 100 feet square would be sufficient to irrigate the crop, and this reservoir could be stocked with fish, which would prove a source of pleasure and profit. If it were kept constantly filled it could be drawn upon for the tobacco crop when needed, for the garden if it were conveniently located, and for other general farm purposes. The cost of such an outfit would be comparatively small; it could be made to pay by the amount of fish it would produce, if prop- erly attended to, and as a measure of precaution and insurance against loss of the crop by drought it would be a wise investment even if it were used only once in two or three seasons.
Where there are no available springs or streams and a windmill can not well be used, a small farm engine, such as would run a thrashing machine, could be very economically employed. Such an engine attached to one of the many forms of irrigating pumps would irrigate the entire tobacco field in a day or two at a very inconsiderable cost for fuel, labor, and wear and tear of machinery. The advantage of this would be that with small driven or bored wells located on different parts of the farm the engine and pump could be moved from place to place as the different fields were cultivated in tobacco in rotation from season to season.
CONDITIONS IN SOILS OF THE ARID REGION.
The so-called arid portion of Kansas and Nebraska is, broadly speak- ing, that portion of the States lying west of the one hundredth merid- ian; between the one hundredth meridian and the ninety-seventh the climate is called semiarid; and east of the ninety-seventh is the humid portion of the States. The mean annual rainfall of the western or
156 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
arid portion is from 15 to 20 inches; of the central or semiarid portion, from 20 to 30 inches; and of the eastern or humid portion, 30 inches and over. There are of course no sharp lines separating these divis- sions, nor do the boundaries approach a north and south line, for the belts of greater or less precipitation have very sinuous courses.
It is generally conceded that 20 inches of well-distriknted rainfall in Kansas will make an abundant crop of wheat or corn. That there must be some rather anomalous condition here is shown by the fact that in much of the humid portion of the eastern United States there has never been so little as 20 inches of annual rainfall within the period of reliable records, and in years of most disastrous drought the rainfall has been greater than this. ‘The fact that a crop can be made in Kansas aud Nebraska with such a small annual rainfall is particularly striking when it is remembered that, owing to the drier conditions of the atmos- phere, evaporation is very much greater there than in the Kast.
There are localities in the West where the total annual rainfall does not exceed 6 or 8 inches. It does not seem possible that with this rainfall under ordinary circumstances crops could be produced by any system of agriculture, unless water were artificially supplied. How- ever, it seems possible, outside of these exceptional cases, that with improved methods of cultivation the conditions actually existing can be so utilized as to secure reliable and satisfactory crops.
Statistics show that in the humid portion of the United States, hav- ing a mean annual rainfall of about 40 inches, 50 per cent flows off into the streams and is of no direct benefit to agriculture. This excess of rainfall reaches the streams partly by flowing over the surface of the ground and partly by slow percolation through the soil. Fifty per cent of the rainfall, or 20 inches per annum, evaporates directly from the surface of the soil or is transpired by plants.
Practically, therefore, there are about 20 inches of rainfall at the disposal of agricultural plants, and the highest art of cultivation con- sists in conserving this moisture, reducing that lost by evaporation from the surface soil to a minimum, and maintaining a sufficient amount at all times at the disposal of crops.
There is one factor which has a very important bearing upon the con- ditions in the humid as compared with those in the arid regions. In the humid region of the Eastern States the soil is continuously moist from the surface down to a depth at which it is completely saturated and from which water is constantly flowing out into wells, streams, and rivers. The water descends through the soil both by virtue of its own weight and by capillary force. According to capillary laws the water is pulled downward when the subsoil contains less water than the soil. Gravity and capillary force are both more effective in moving water through a moist subsoil than a dry one; hence there is danger in the » East of the water being pulled down below the reach of plants in time of drought, while in the West, where the subsoil at the depth of a few feet is continuously dry, this could not happen.
RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 157
Plants may be likened to a pump, which must have a steady and suf- ficient stream flowing into the well lest the surface of the water shall fall below the valve and the pump become inactive while there still remains a considerable amount of water in the well. There must be an adequate supply of water in the soil for the plants to draw upon, and this supply must be within theirreac¥. To illustrate: A plant may wilt in a soil of close texture containing 10 or 12 per cent of moisture, because with so little water present in the soil the movement of water to the roots of the plant would be comparatively slow, and the volume supplied per minute or per day would be insufficient; the plant would quickly exhaust the supply in the immediate neighborhood of its roots, and the amount necessary for its continued growth could not be pulled up from the surrounding soil rapidly enough to make good the loss. In a soil of different texture the same plant may not suffer until the sup- ply fails to 4 or 6 per cent.
ARID AND HUMID REGIONS COMPARED.
There must, therefore, be a certain minimum amount of moisture in all soils, just as there must be more water in a well than the pump will ever use. This minimum amount will depend upon the structure of the soil and the rate of movement of moisture and upon the requirements of the plant. An ordinary rainfall will have a far more beneficial effect upon the crop growing on a soil which contains this minimum amount than upon acrop growing on a soil containing less than the mininum. It must also be borne in mind, in comparing the soil con- ditions of the humid and arid regions, that the excess of moisture in the humid regions may often be of indirect value to agriculture by increasing the availability of the moisture which is to remain.
In the arid portions of Kansas, Nebraska, and Colorado, with a mean rainfall of nearly or quite 20 inches per annum, statistics of the gauging of rivers and streams show that 10 per cent, or 2 inches, of this rain- fall flows off into streams and is of no direct benefit to agriculture. This gives, broadly speaking, 18 inches of rainfall available for agricul- ture in the arid regions as against 20 inches of available rainfall in the humid portion of the United States. Statistics show likewise that the greater portion of this rainfall in the arid region comes during the grow- ing season. IT'rom April to the last of August they have an average rainfall of between 3 and 4 inches a month.
It appears at first sight a rather anomalous fact that there is nearly as much available rainfall in the arid as in the humid region; but there are several modifying circumstances that must be borne in mind. In the first place, the humidity of the atmosphere is very much less and evaporation is very much greater in the climate of the arid region. Statistics show that the annual evaporation from a free-water surface in the arid region is about 69 or 80 inches. In the humid portion of the United States the evaporation from a free-water surface is equal to
158 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
about 30 inches per annum. Roughly speaking, therefore, the amount of evaporation is twice as great in the arid region under consideration as in the humid portion of the country. Relatively more of the rain- fall would therefore evaporate from the soil and relatively less would be available to plants. I+ would also seem that plants weuld transpire much more water and would require a more abundant water supply in the arid climate. It will be remembered, too, that there is practically no excess of water in the soils as in the soils of the humid region to make these 18 inches more available to plants.
[_parra7e| i oo call
ames
2]
| _|ree7i1e9o|/eei| 1286 1892|
Fia. 11.—Average yield of corn in bushels per acre in Kansas, 16 years.
The factPemains, however, that in years of normal rainfall well dis- tributed over the growing season, small though it is, a good crop is obtained throughout the semiarid region, and even on the so-called arid plains, where the land is properly cultivated. Statistics compiled by the Kansas board of agriculture show that in the sixteen years from 1877 to 1892, inclusive, the yield of corn per acre in the State of Kansas exceeded 30 bushels in eight seasons and the yield fell below 20 bushels per acre in three seasons. This is shown graphically in the accompany- ing illustration (fig. 11).
2 ———
{
RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 159
The average yield of wheat during this same period exceeded 15 bushels per acre during seven seasons and was under 11 bushels per acre five seasons. In the arid portion of the State a fairly good season occurs about two years in five, the remaining three out of the five seasons being too dry for a good crop. The fact that they can make a erop at all with an annual rainfall of 20 inches under the conditions which have already been considered is surprising, and indicates that there must be conditions which are not strictly comparable with those in the humid region, and that there are advantages to counteract the apparently unfavorable conditions.
DEPTH OF SOIL MOISTURE.
A considerable portion of the 2 inches of annual rainfall of the arid region which finds its way into streams and rivers must flow off over the surface and not even enter the soil. The extreme and rapid varia- tion in the volume of the rivers, and the frequent torrential showers, during which the ground is flooded with water, indicate that this con- dition does in fact prevail to a large extent. Some water is retained by local depressions until it sinks, and there are undoubtedly soils of loose, light texture into which a considerable amount descends and finds its way to the rivers and streams by slow percolation; but as a rule there seems to be no connection between the surface moisture and the underlying “water table.” The natural prairie sod sheds water like a roof when it is delivered rapidly and in large volume, and it is only with a long continued, gentle rain that the soil and subsoil under the sod will absorb any considerable amount of moisture.
During a recent examination of the conditions in the soils of the plains of western Kansas, Nebraska, and eastern Colorado, no trace of moisture was found in a number of borings from just below the surface to a depth of 3 feet under the natural prairie sod, except on the light soils of the sand hills near Garden City and in a few depressions, where water had evidently been caught. The season had been exceptionally dry, but an inch of rain had fallen about a week before the examina- tions were made. Where the sod had been broker and the land had been under cultivation during the season the subsoil was quite moist, and more moist the more thorough the cultivation had been.
At Geneva, Nebr., the soil and subsoil immediately under the prairie sod was so dry that it was extremely difficult to take a saniple with an auger, both because it was hard to bore into and because the material loosened by the auger was so dry and powdery that it ran off the auger like fine, dry dust or sand. In an oat field, which had been thoroughly prepared by subsoiling two years before, the subsoil was quite moist, although the ground had not been actually eultivated for a year. In
an adjacent field which had been subsoiled the previous year, and dur-
ing the present year had been thoroughly cultivated in nursery stock, the subsoil down to a depth of 3 feet was so moist that it could be
160 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
molded in the hand. These three localities were not over a few hun- dred feet apart and had been exposed to precisely the same rainfall, but had been subjected to these different methods of cultivation.
It is a common inquiry in the arid region after a rain, how far the moisture has descended, or, generally, how far it is down to dry soil. The evidence of well-diggers is that after passing through the upper few feet of earth the underlying material is dry until they approach the water-bearing layers of sand and gravel. The fact of the accumu- lation of alkalies shows that the subsoil is not continuously wet down to the “water table,” as otherwise these would be leached out and car- ried off through the subsoil as they are formed.
Water descends very slowly and to a very limited extent in a per- fectly dry soil, while it will spread out very rapidly in a soil which is already moist, but short of actual saturation. Water may fall for days upon.a pile of dry manure and not wet the mass deeper than a few inches. Water may likewise fall upon a dry dust pile and not spread through the mass, but be contained near the surface, unless it continues to fall, in which case the whole mass of the dusty material may become saturated. Water does not readily spread through a previously dry soil, because the tension or contracting power of the surface of the water is greater than the attraction of the soil grains, which tends to cause its diffusion through the mass. One may see, therefore, a nearly saturated layer closely adjacent to a perfectly dry and dusty mass. On the other hand, if there is any appreciable amount of moisture in the soil the tension of the water surface will cause it to contract and pull water from above into the subsoil.
It would follow, therefore, that the moisture would not descend into the dry subsoil of the upland prairie until the successive depths had become so far saturated that they could no longer hold the water back, and it would pass downward very gradually into the lower depths sat- urating, or nearly saturating, each successive depth as it progressed. Unless the rainfall was so great and so continuous as to saturate the soil to a considerable depth, the water would not pass down to a great extent in the dry material. The whole supply of moisture absorbed by the soil would remain within a short distance of the surface, and when evaporation was started again from the surface or the moisture was used up by plants the water would be pulled up again from the depths to which ithad progressed rather than proceed on its downward course. There is less force to pull it down into the dry subsoil than its own con- tracting power, which pulls it up through the moist soil to the plant or to the surface of the ground.
It appears probable, therefore, that in the more retentive soils of the arid regions the whole of the 20 inches of rainfall, or as much of this as is absorbed by the soil, will be held within a few feet of the surface, within easy reach of the roots of plants. The problem should be how to conserve the moisture, diminish the evaporation from the
RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 161
soil, and maintain as much as possible of the supply for the use of crops.
Two things suggest themselves at once: The preparation of the soil must be sufficiently thorough and deep to insure the absorption of the whole wnount of the rainfall, and preparation should be so thorough and deep that this water will be carried to a sufficient depth to dimin- ish the chances of surface evaporation and prevent the saturation of the upper soil, which would be prejudicial to plant growth. The water must be absorbed as deeply as possible, so as to check surface evapo- ration, and at the sae time be maintained sufficiently near the surface to be available to plants as needed. Where water is of so much value and of such vital importance, not a drop of rainfall should be allowed to waste by flowing off over the surface. It should all be absorbed by the soil. The rains are often so torrential in character that the soil must be in a condition to absorb the water very rapidly to prevent any loss.
The conditions actually existing in these soils should be made the subject of careful and thorough investigation. The amount of mois- ture actually maintained by the soils should be ascertained by daily determinations, to give a basis for working out improved methods of cultivation or planting for the conservation of moisture. The rainfall should be followed and its whole history worked out from the time it enters the soil. In the first place, how deep does the rainfall penetrate into the different soils of the plains? This could be ascertained at different depths at intervals of a week or ten days throughout the sea- son by moisture determinations. Is any of the rainfall drawn so low as to be unavailable to plants and lost by percolation into the ‘‘ water table”? How much of the rainfall evaporates from the different types of soils, how rapid is this evaporation, and how even are the condi- tions which the principal soils maintain? What part of the moisture evaporates from the soil and what part is transpired by the growing crop? How much water does a plant transpire in the arid regions for every pound of dry matter produced as compared with the same class of crops in the humid regions? These are all fundamental questions, which will have to be understood in order to secure any intelligent improvement of the methods of cultivation and cropping.
More than half of the annual precipitation in Kansas occurs in the four crop-growing months of April, May, June, and July. During May and June especially the frequent showers induce a very rank and lux- uriant growth, and there is nearly always up to the middle or end of June the prospect of a large corn crop. It is not uncommon, however, for a dry spell in July to reduce the promised yield by 100,000,000 or 150,000,000 bushels. These dry spells last from two to four weeks, frequently resulting in great damage to the corn crop.
Wheat is usually harvested before this midsummer drought comes on, and there is less variation in the yield of wheat in the State than in
per vA. 04. 6 |
162 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the corn crop. Such crops also as turnips, millet, and sorghum do very well from the August rains. Thedrought comes frequently at the most critical time of all in the development of the corn plant—just as it is tasseling out. It should be possible to breed new varieties, maturing earlier or later, so as to secure a crop at a different stage of develop- ment during this usual summer drought.
HOT WINDS.
The very time when the crop is suffering from drought is the time of all others when hot winds are liable to occur. These winds blow at the rate of 20 to 30 miles per hour, the temperature of the air frequently ranging from 100° to 106°, with only 20 to 30 per cent of relative humidity. This vast body of dry, hot air passing over the crop induces such rapid evaporation that the roots can not possibly supply sufficient moisture, and the plants are completely desiccated, or dried out. The cells dry up to such an extent that they die, and the whole leaf struc- ture collapses and hangs limp and lifeless. The effect of hot winds upon the crop is markedly different from the effect of drought alone. In an ordinary drought the fodder dries and is cured much as if it had been cut and exposed to the sun and air, the plants, however, remain- ing erect. The effect of hot winds is much more quickly fatal to the crop; two or three days is often sufficient to destroy the most promis- ing field of corn. The evaporation from the plants under these condi- tions must be enormous. It is so excessive, indeed, that even with the soil quite moist the powers of the plant may be taxed beyond endurance.
There are several possible ways to prevent or greatly lessen the injury from hot winds. Wind-breaks diminish the injurious effects of hot winds, for when the air is quiet the evaporation from the leaves increases the humidity of the air immediately around them, and this diminishes the evaporation from the leaf. If this air is removed, however, and quan- tities of dry air are rapidly presented to the plant the excessive evapo- ration is continued. Anything, therefore, which will retard the rate of movement of the wind will tend to diminish evaporation from the plants within the area of its influence. The more moist the soil can be kept through methods of cultivation the less damage there will be to vege- tation, for the roots will have a larger supply of moisture to draw from. The hot winds rarely do much damage over irrigated fields when the water supply can be properly controlled. The most disastrous effect of hot winds, however, frequently follow a rainfall occurring after a long period of drought. During the rain transpiration from the plant is checked and the cells become excessively turgid and possibly weak- ened through distention and possibly by the presence of organic acids. When the hot winds immediately follow this abnormal condition of the | plant, the evaporation is rapidly increased, the cells lose their water and collapse and die, as possibly they would not have done if the conditions preceding the hot winds had been more normal.
BENEFIT OF UNDERSTANDING SOIL CONDITIONS.
: ADVANTAGE OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 163
f
ee a eel i
It may be asked what advantage it would be to understand soil con- ditions and what control of them is possible. As regards the first question, this knowledge will make it possible intelligently to classify the soils according to the conditions which they maintain and predict what classes of crops they will prove adapted to grow. It would sug- gest also the way in which the soil conditions should be changed to make them correspond still more closely to the requirements of the class of crops to which they are most nearly adapted. As regards the second question, it is quite possible, through intelligent methods of cultivation, of cropping, and of fertilization, to change the conditions maintained by soils by changing their physical texture. It is likewise possible that we shall be able in time to control the amount of water taken up from a soil and transpired by plants. In a soil containing much water it should be possible to prevent the plant taking an excessive amount, thus checking the too luxuriant growth of vegeta- tion, or in a soil containing a small amount of moisture to induce the plant to take up more water than it otherwise would. This control will come through the effect of fertilizers and chemicals upon the roots which will stimulate or diminish the transpiration powers of the plant.
SUBSOILING.
Where the amount of rainfall is so small it is obviously important that the soil should absorb all of the rain which falls uponit. Itis folly to allow water to fiow off the farm, incidentally causing damage by washing, and then spend large sums to put in irrigation ditches to replace it by water which others have allowed to flow off their land. Wherever a drop of water flows off the field it is an indication that the soil is not in a proper physical condition. Where this occurs in a dry soil the main preparation of the land should be as deep as possible, so that the water may be carried down and thus diminish the rapidity of the evaporation and loss from the surface. If deep plowing will not accomplish this object, subsoiling will be found invaluable in open- ing up the close and compact subsoil. A subsoil plow should be as small and light in all its parts asis consistent with the great resistance it has to encounter. The point should be small and narrow, like the point of a pick, somewhat larger at the back than at the front. It is not necessary to have this large, for any implement which could be pulled through the subsoil would break and loosen it sufficiently to change its physical texture. There are some soils where subsoiling would not only be of no advantage, but in which it might be ‘a positive injury to the land. A light, sandy soil having already an open and porous subsoil would not be benefited by having this subsoil made still more open. <A farmer should judge whether subsoiling is advisable by the character and condition of the subsoil, and particularly with a view
_ to the question whether any part of the rainfall flows off the surface.
164 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The conditions in the arid regions are so different from those in the humid portion of the country that the methods adapted to the former are not necessarily well adapted to the latter. The act of subsoiling, the breaking up and stirring the soil to a depth of 12 or 15 inches, tends to dry it out; and unless a rain follows before a crop is put in the subsoiling may work positive injury to the first crop, although the beneficial effects would be felt in the succeeding crops. To secure benefit the first season the subsoiling must be done a considerable length of time before the crop is put in, in the hope of receiving heavy and long-continued rains. It is obvious that the nature of the soil itself will largely determine the depth to which the cultivation should be extended, and the character of the season should determine at what time this cultivation should take place. It is very necessary in this deep cultivation of the soils of the arid regions that care be taken not to turn under a heavy sod or a quantity of organic matter, especially when the season or the soil is dry. In these dry soils a heavy sod or a lot of trash or stubble will not readily decay when turned under; indeed, it may remain undecayed for several years. In this condition it will break off capillary connection with the subsoil, so that if the crop is planted on the upturned sod it may actually perish for lack of moisture. It is a very common experience, nevertheless, with farmers on the plains that where the sod is broken very shallow, so shallow that the crop roots below it, the upturned sod acts as a very efficient mulch to prevent evaporation, and so increases the yield of crops.
After a soil is once deeply prepared, the after cultivation of the crop should be as shallow as possible in order to maintain a mulch of loose, dry soil over the surface to check evaporation, yet to keep this mulch as thin as possible so as not to dry out more of the soil than is abso- lutely necessary. While cultivation should thus be very superficial, it should be frequent and continued well into the fruiting period of the crop. The old rule of giving one cultivation after each rain is not sufficient.
Thorough preparation of the land, with subsoiling where this is nec- essary to break up a compact subsoil, followed by shallow but frequent cultivation of the surface, will undoubtedly make the crop much safer and surer in the arid and semiarid regions of the West.
WATER AS A FACTOR IN THE GROWTH OF PLANTS.
By B. T. GALLOWAY and ALBERT F, Woops,
Chief and Assistant Chief of the Division of Vegetable Pathology, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Of all the factors influencing the growth of plants, water is beyond a doubt one of the most important. Plant physiologists have long recog- nized this fact, but it is only recently that farmers, fruit growers, and others interested in the growth of crops have come to fully realize its importance. As an indication of the growing interest in this subject we may cite the agitation now being made in behalf of irrigation. Irrigation at one time was considered for the most part in connection with the production of crops in the arid regions or in sections where the yearly rainfall is not sufficient for the best development of our agri- cultural crops. Now nearly every section of the country is more or less interested in the subject. In Florida, where the average yearly rainfall is about 55 inches, or nearly three times as much as in some sections of the West, thousands of dollars are being spent every year for irriga- tion. The chief reason for this is that although the yearly rainfall is sufficient to grow any ordinary crop, yet it is distributed in such a way that the best conditions for plant growth are not furnished. It is here that irrigation plays an important part, for if just the right amount of water can be furnished at the proper time, other conditions being favor- able, the plant immediately responds and a better growth is the result. The whole problem of the proper use of water and its effect on the plant is a complicated one, and until it is better understood by farmers them- selves we can not hope to attain the highest development in agricul- tural pursuits.
The plant may be likened to a complicated and exquisitely sensitive machine, depending largely for its ability to do work on four factors, namely, heat, light, food, and water. If these are furnished in just the right amounts and at just the right time there is harmony in all parts of the machine, and as a result the greatest amount of work is per- formed; if, however, any one or all of the factors are deficient or excessive, then the perfect working of the machine is destroyed, and its ability to do what is required of it is impaired. In other words, certain diseases appear; or if the plant does not, strictly speaking, become diseased, the growth of the various parts may be unbalanced, resulting in a development which is so different from what is wanted as
to have little practical value. Thus leaves and wood may be produced 165
166 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
at the expense of the fruit, or the reverse may be the result of the unbal- anced condition of the factors mentioned.
In field culture, heat and light can not well be controlled, but food and water may be to a certain extent, the latter either directly, by sup- plying it artificially, as in irrigation, or indirectly, by selecting soils having a capacity for moisture best suited to the crop or crops to be grown. Our object, however, is not to discuss these questions, but rather to point out the important part that water plays in nearly every vital process of the plant, in the hope that what is said may awaken the interest of farmers, fruit growers, and others in a much-neglected line of study. We shall not give an exhaustive treatise on the subject, nor attempt to present any specially new facts. Our purpose is simply to bring together some of the knowledge already familiar to vegetable physiologists but as yet little known to those interested in the practical side of plant production.
WATER IN GREEN PLANTS.
The fact that green plants lose a large proportion of their weight in drying is familiar to all. This loss is made up largely of water, the amount of which, compared with the dry substance found in plants, is very great. Thus in every 100 pounds of fresh meadow grass there is found 60 to 80 pounds of water. In 100 pounds of red clover there is often as high as 86 pounds of water, while in such plants as lettuce, cucumbers, cabbage, onions, etc., there is often as much as 95 to 98 pounds of water in every 100 pounds of fresh material. The seeds of plants do not contain as much water as the leaves, stems, and other vege- tative parts. Wheat, rye, and oats contain about 14 per cent each, while corn contains about 12 per cent. This comparatively small amount of water contained in the seed is one of the reasons why the latter will remain dormant so long. As soon as the seeds are brought into a moist place, and other conditions for growth are present, they absorb large quantities of water and soon begin to germinate.
It is impossible at ordinary temperatures to dry out all the water held by plants. Most air-dried plants contain as much water as ordi- nary seed,and this can be removed only by a prolonged exposure to high temperatures.
We see from the foregoing that water forms a large proportion of the actual weight of all plants, and its importance, therefore, in this connection is at once apparent.
RELATION OF ROOT DEVELOPMENT TO WATER SUPPLY.
All our agricultural plants obtain their water exclusively through the roots. That leaves do not absorb water to any appreciable extent under normal conditions of growth has been so fully demonstrated as. to need no discussion here. Accordingly, it needs little argument to prove that a well-developed root system is of the highest importance
WATER AS A FACTOR IN THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 167
to the welfare of the plant. There is usually a rapid development of these organs in the early period of growth, and if the proper moisture conditions are present at this time the chances are that a root develop- ment favorable to the future growth of the plant will be attained. It should be pointed out, however, that the development of the roots and the form which they may take will be modified by other conditions, and it may be possible to take advantage of these in order to insure a proper water supply as the plant grows older. Tor example, the distribution of food in the soil may have a very important bearing on the production of roots as well as the position they assume. An interesting experiment bearing on this point was made by Nobbe, a German investigator. He grew a number of corn plants in poor clay soil, contained in glass cylinders. In each cylinder of soil a certain amount of fertilizer was put, in each case in a different position, so as to observe its effeet on the growth of the roots. When the plants were nearly four months old the vessels were placed in water and the soil carefully washed from the roots. They were then suspended in water and took nearly the same position they had in the soil. Where the fertilizer had been uniformly mixed with the soil the roots grew equally through the whole mass. Where the fertilizer was placed in a horizontal layer about an inch below the surface the roots formed a mat in this layer, those that extended through being slender and not greatly branched. Where the fertilizer was placed in a horizontal layer at about half the depth of the vessel there was a spheroidal expansion of the root system at this point. Where the layer was placed at the bottom of the vessel the roots were slender and not much branched above, but at the bottom they formed a mat. When the fertilizer was placed around the cylinder of earth next the sides of the jar the external roots were greatly branched, forming a cylindrical nest, but the inner roots were not much developed. When the ferti- lizer was put in a central vertical core the inner roots were greatly developed, while the outer ones were much less so.
These facts and others of a similar nature show the importance of studies in this direction. It would be especially valuable in the West, - and in other sections of the country liable to great variations in the _ water supply, to be able to control to some extent the character of the root systems of our agricultural plants. If this could be done by methods of cultivating the soil or of distributing the food, where food is used, there is no doubt that the water supply could in a measure be controlled. In this connection it is also important to bear in mind that the best development of the roots and of the plant as a whole is attained only when the water supply approximates a certain amount. This amount will vary with different plants, scils, temperatures, etc. For example, roots produced in very wet soil will not live when the latter dries out to any extent, and in consequence the plants grown under
such conditions will suffer. On the other hand, roots produced in dry
168 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
soil will not live long if the latter is made excessively wet for any length of time. All these things of course have a marked effect on the devel- opment of the plants and the various parts of the same. The total product is not only made to vary by the amount of water at the disposal of the plant, but the proportional amounts of the various organs are also made to vary. Thus in the case of wheat, rye, barley, and other similar plants, a certain amount of water will not only produce the ereatest yield of both grain and straw, but will also influence growth so as to give the maximum amount of grain with the minimum amount of straw.
It has been found that when the water in a soil amounts to 80 per cent or more of its water-holding capacity it is detrimental to the plants. Ordinary plants do best when the water in the soil amounts to from 40 to 60 per cent of the water-holding capacity. The water-holding capacity of a soil is the amount of water that a given weight, say 100 pounds, of the soil will contain when all the space between the grains of soil is filled with water. For example, a cubic foot of a very sandy soil has been found to contain about 40 per cent by volume of air space; when all this space is filled with water the sand will contain four-tenths of a cubic foot of water. A hundred pounds of such soil, when all the space between the grains is filled with water, contains about 20 pounds of water. Inthesame way wheat soil has been found to contain about 314 pounds of water in every 100 pounds of the fully saturated soil. The amount of water in this soil most favorable to the growth of wheat is from 40 to 60 per cent of 314 pounds, or from 124 to 19 pounds per 100. The water-holding capacity of heavy clay soils is about 44.2 pounds of water in 100 pounds of saturated soil. The most favorable condition for plant growth in such soils is when they contain from 16 to 24 pounds of water in 100 pounds of the saturated soil.
It is easy to see why the conditions in a soil having all or nearly all the space between the grains filled with water are detrimental to plant erowth. Under such conditions the roots are immersed in water and the soil is very poor in oxygen. On the other hand, when only a part of this space is filled with water the roots are not immersed, and there is a sufficient supply of oxygen. These questions, however, more prop- erly belong to the realm of soil physics, and therefore need not be dis- cussed in detail here.
STRUCTURE OF THE PLANT AND HOW IT OBTAINS WATER.
In order to get a clear idea of the absorption of water by the plant and its movement in the same, it will be necessary to consider, very briefly, its general structure. In all the plants with which we are con- cerned the roots consist of a central axis of elongated, rather thick- walled cells and vessels, as shown in cross section in figure 12. Around > this axis is a rather thick cylinder, composed of layers of soft, thin- walled cells (p), which have a great affinity for water. Surrounding
WATER AS A FACTOR IN THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 169
these and forming the outer covering of the root is the epidermis (¢); many of the cells composing the latter grow out into relatively long projections, known as root hairs (i h). These adhere closely to the particles of soil and absorb the film of water adhering to them.
—
¥ic. 12.—Cross section of root.
The absorption of water is well shown in figure 13, taken from Sachs’s Lectures on the Physiology of Plants; e, on the right of the figure, is the
bint
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@ S we MAN EAN e ( \) \ hae ] AS > Mt le u “ \\ \\ \Z \
KN = tent SAR, Wty
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Sy TIN
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y Win LO NYAS \ ‘je - “4 a \//
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Aas iy aL NS = x ANY (| AU ir ug \ ; ; \ S als ¥ ofl ’ e | \ Ni jj Sy 2 i Ale @: A ai @\\Ali 4 Fia. 13.—Root hair in the soil, showing absorption of moisture. | epidermis of the root; h is a root hair forcing its way in between the e grains of soil, s, shaded dark in the drawing; the larger rounded white
spaces, aa, represent air; and the waved lines, 7, surrounding the par- 1 <A 94——6*
170 YEARBOOK OF THE U, 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ticles of soil and inclosing air bubbles, represent water held to the grains by surface attraction. All are greatly magnified. At the points marked ¢ there is close contact of the root hair with the grains of soil. The reot hairs, like the grains of soil, are also covered with a thin layer of water, and their walls are saturated with it. Wherever the particles of soil come very close together or touch, the spheres of water sur- rounding them unite at these points, thus forming a network of the water envelopes of the soil grains. Now, if there is no disturbance in the soil due to evaporation or absorption, this network of water will be held at rest by the attraction of the soil particles; but if any portion of
Fic. 14.—Root hairs.
it is removed, the soil particles that have less will immediately draw from those that have more, so that there will be a movement of water throughout the whole system toward the point where the water is taken away. We will now suppose the root hair, h, gives up a part of its water to the cells of the main root; it then absorbs water from the layers with which it comes in contact in the soil, and there is in con- sequence a movement of the entire water system in the soil toward the root hair until equilibrium is restored. It is evident from this that a plant may draw water from a much larger area of soil than that with which the root system comes in direct contact.
WATER AS A FACTOR IN THE GROWTH OF PLANTs. 171
' Figure 14 shows a number of root hairs cut from the root and highly magnified. Most of the soil particles have been washed away, but some adhere so closely that they can not be removed without breaking the hairs. This close connection is partly due to the dissolving action which the hairs exercise on the soil grains.
It must be understood that the water absorbed by roots is not pure, but contains in solution small quantities of all the soluble compounds in the soil; some of these are absolutely necessary to the growth and maturation of the plant. Ordinary well water contains all the sub- stances absorbed by the plant in about the same degree of concentra- tion in which they are found in the soil, viz, one to two parts of solid matter to one thousand parts of water. The plant does not neces- sarily absorb the solution in this proportion; it may absorb more or less, according to circumstances. It may absorb the compounds in the soil without taking up any water, or, on the other hand, it may absorb water without taking up the compounds, depending upon certain phys- ical and physiological conditions. The compounds thus taken up are estimated in the plant as ash. The amount of ash varies greatly in different species and to some extent in different individuals of the same species. Furthermore, it may vary greatly with the age of the plant and the organ under consideration. The total amount, however, is usually very small compared with the gross weight of the plant. The amount seldom runs above 18 per cent (it is usually from 2 to 7 per cent) of the dry weight of the plant. However, it is absolutely neces- sary that the plant have certain parts of this material, and it can be obtained only as it is dissolved in water and absorbed through the roots. Ifrom the roots it passes by diffusion to all parts of the plant. In the parts of the plant above ground, i. ¢c., the stem and branches, the woody portions form a framework which supports the other tissues, made up of more or less soft-walled cells. The outer layers of these cells form the epidermis or outer covering of the plant, and this is usually developed so as to protect the underlying cells from injury, especially through the loss of water.
Through the epidermis of the leaves and sometimes also of the stems, there are minute openings into the spaces between the inner cells of the leaf, for the cells in a plant in a general way may be likened to potatoes in a sack, touching only in places, though the union is rela- tively very much closer between the cells of a plant than it is between potatoes in a sack. The sack represents the epidermis, the potatoes the cells, and the spaces between the potatoes are comparable to the intercellular spaces.
Figure 15 shows a piece cut from a common leaf and greatly magni. fied; «is the upper and / the lower epidermis; the cells with the dark _ bodies, ¢ ¢, within are the starch-manufacturing cells; 77 are the spaces between them; the little oval openings, s s, in the lower epidermis are the breathing pores (stomata); at s’ one is shown cut through, opening
172 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
into an intercellular space; the two cells bordering the opening are the guard cells.
The breathing pores allow the entrance into the plant of air and certain gases, which, through the intercellular spaces, come in contact with every cell. The intercellular spaces and the larger and older vessels are usually filled with air. The cells, however, are so closely in touch that water and whatever is in solution may pass readily from cell to cell by diffusion. If any cell lacks water, sugar, or any other material in solution it immediately takes it from neighboring cells, and these in turn take from others that have more, so that the equalization goes on throughout the whole plant, and different materials are moving toward the parts of the plant where they are used.
aso oe’ 2@e Or Qo
way
i
Fic. 15.—Section of leaf.
RELATION OF WATER TO GROWTH.
The growth of the plant is nothing more than the growth of the cells composing it. Thecells may increase in number and they may increase in size. Supposing that the cells are supplied with all the necessary materials in solution required for growth, and that the external condi- tions are favorable, there is still one very essential condition—there must be a sufficient supply of water to keep every cell thoroughly dis- tended. The cell at first may be compared to an elastic sack, but after a time its wall thus distended becomes more or less thickened, loses most of its extensibility, and the increase in size becomes fixed. If, however, before this occurs the internal pressure or turgidity of the cell is lessened by loss of water the cell shrinks in proportion to the decrease, and unless the pressure is again renewed, may become fixed in this smaller condition. This loss takes place as a result of evapora- tion from the foliage and other green parts of the plant, and goes on from the very beginning of growth. If the evaporation goes too far the cell will pass into a flaccid condition, which causes the plant to wilt
WATER AS A FACTOR IN THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 173
and unless water is furnished, so that the cells may again become tur- gid, the plant soon dies.
It is evident, therefore, that the rapidity of the increase in size of a plant depends on the degree of turgidity of the cells, other conditions being favorable. The turgidity may be just sufficient to keep the plant from wilting, in which case the growth will be very small. Plants may, therefore, suffer for water long before they show it by wilting. It has been observed that plants growing in certain kinds of sandy soils almost cease growing whenever in May or June there occurs a series of warm, rainless days, accompanied by dry winds. The development of young clover, for instance, on such soils will come almost to a stand- still, but it will not begin to wilt for a long time. It wilts on stony ground first; then in a few days the whole field wilts, and the crop is destroyed.
On the other hand, plants may, under certain conditions, absorb too much water, not only filling and distending the cells, but filtering through the cell walls into the intercellular spaces; the plant then becomes water-logged and has a more or less transparent look. If this intercellular water is not removed by evaporation the plant soon suffers from lack of sufficient oxygen and carbonic acid gas. At other times too great turgidity causes abnormal swellings on the leaves and stems. The walls stretch so far that they break, the water escapes, and the cells dry up and die. Occasionally throughout the whole plant the turgidity is so great that the cell walls stretch out of proportion to the ability of the cell contents to make new walls. The tissues therefore become thin and imperfectly formed. Such plants are easily killed by dry weather and readily succumb to the attacks of parasitic fungi and other disease- producing agents, which are usually active at just such times. In other words, the conditions least favorable to the growth of the plant or host are aS a rule the ones best suited to the rapid development of certain of its parasitic enemies.
From what has been said it is evident that turgidity must depend primarily upon the absorption of water from the soil, and as turgidity is necessary for growth there is an intimate relation between the latter and the absorption of water by the roots. The amount of water neces- sary to keep the cells at maximum turgidity would be comparatively small if it were not for the fact that evaporation is constantly lowering the quantity. The growth of the plant, therefore, depends largely on whether or not the roots are able to supply the demands made by evaporation from the foliage and at the same time keep the cells in the necessary condition of turgidity.
LOSS OF WATER BY EVAPORATION FROM THE FOLIAGE.
Under ordinary conditions plants lose very large quantities of water by evaporation, it having been shown, for example, that in a dry, hot day a grass plant will lose an amount of water equal to its own weight.
174 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Ordinary meadow grass is about 70 per cent water, and estimating the crop of hay at 2 tons per acre, the weight of the fresh grass, not count- ing the roots, would be about 6$ tons. This would represent the amount of water evaporated by an acre of grass in a dry, hot day. Hellriegel estimates from many observations that about 310 parts of water pass off by evaporation for every part of dry substance added to a plant. In 2 tons of hay there are 3,808 pounds of dry substance. According to Hellriegel’s proportion, therefore, 1 acre of hay would evaporate about 527 tons of water during the season of growth. An average crop of wheatis 720 pounds of grain and 1,500 pounds of straw to the acre;
allowing 15 per cent of water in the air-dry material, there would be
produced 1,887 pounds of dry material. During its season of growth this crop would evaporate about 261 tons of water. Other crops will lose nearly in the same proportion. One inch of rainfall per acre is equal to about 100 tons of water. The hay crop, therefore, evaporates an amount equal to only about 54 inches of rainfall, and a wheat crop about 22. This of course is only an average. In very moist times either crop would lose less in proportion to the amount of dry substance and in very dry times more. In any case, however, it is seen that plants of this class actually evaporate only a small proportion of the water that falls during the growing season.
The problem, therefore, which presents itself is how to make avail- able to the plant more of the water which falls. This may be accom- plished in four ways: (1) By methods of cultivation and of fertilization of the soil in order to keep the water from running to waste; (2) decreas- ing the evaporation from the soil by the same means and possibly also by mulching; (3) decreasing the evaporation from the plants; and (4) by conserving the water and using it in irrigation. The first two lines of investigation and the last belong particularly to the domain of soil physics; the third, while intimately connected with soil physics, belongs more especially to plant physiologists for solution. It may not be out of place, therefore, to point out some of the means by which evapora- tion from plants may be controlled.
CONTROLLING EVAPORATION.
As already shown, some of our agricultural plants evaporate 310 parts of water for every part of dry substance made. It must not be concluded from this fact, however, that the plants have to evaporate this much water in order to store the normal amount of dry material. On the other hand, it has been demonstrated in practice and by experi- ment that the amount of dry substance stored and the vigor of the plant is greater in proportion as evaporation is decreased, other con- ditions remaining the same.
Most of the water evaporated by growing plants is lost, at least in the middle and later stages of growth, through the stomata or breathing pores, situated in the epidermis of the leaves and opening into the
WATER AS A FACTOR IN THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 175
intercellular spaces, as before described and as shown in figure 15, These pores may open and close, under certain conditions, by the con- traction or expansion of the guard cells. When the stomata are open, as they usually are in bright light, there is free access of the gases in the air to the starch-manufacturing cells of the leaf. One of the gases (carbon dioxide) taken in this way is the main ingredient of starch and sugar, and in fact furnishes the material which makes up the larger per cent of the dry weight of the plant. Vegetable physiologists are agreed that the main purpose of the stomata is the admission of this gas and one other, oxygen, to the working cells of the leaf. The air in the intercellular spaces is always saturated with moisture, especially when the leaves are in bright sunlight. When the stomata are open the moisture escapes to the dry outside air, just as it may escape from a moist greenhouse when the ventilators or doors are opened for ventila- tion. We must have fresh air in the greenhouse, but we can not get it without losing some of the moisture. The rapidity with which the moisture in the greenhouse will pass out depends on the extent to which the ventilators are open, the amount of moisture already in the outside air, and the rapidity with which the air next to the ventilators, and therefore more highly charged with water from the damp air inside, is carried away by the wind. The same conditions hold for the plant. The evaporation, which may be looked upon as a sort of neces sary evil, will be less rapid in moist air than in dry air, and will be increased by air currents or wind. If we can increase the amount of moisture in the air we can decrease the evaporation from the plants with which it comes in contact. This suggests the use of trees, espe- cially in sections where hot, dry winds prevail, as a means of breaking the force of the wind and moistening and cooling the air.
Another direction in which we may possibly hope to gain control over loss of water by plants is by increasing the power of the cells of the plant to hold on to the water which they contain, and in this way to resist evaporation more effectively. For many years it has been known through the work of Senebier, Sachs, Burgerstein, Vesque, and others that the presence of various salts and acids in the soil has a marked influence, under certain conditions, on the evaporation of water from the plants whose roots were exposed to the solution of the salts. In some cases the effect was to increase evaporation and absorption, in others to decrease it. The problem needs to be reinvestigated with the practical end in view of increasing absorption and decreasing evapora- tion. Some late investigators have claimed that the water-holding power of the cells is increased by spraying the leaves with certain solutions, especially Bordeaux mixture. This 1s certainly true under some conditions, but not so in all cases. It, however, opens up another line in which we may hope to gain some knowledge of the methods of controlling evaporation.
176 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SUMMARY.
The facts presented show—
(1) That water makes up the largest proportion of the weight of green plants, indicating at once its great importance.
(2) That water, with the food which it contains, is obtained by plants exclusively through the roots, and therefore a well-developed root sys- tem is essential to the best development of the plant.
(3) That the development of root systems may be controlled in various ways, thereby increasing or decreasing their ability to absorb water and food from the soil.
(4) That a saturated soil is detrimental to the growth of roots; a soil about half saturated is most favorable to their growth and therefore favorable to the growth of the whole plant.
(5) That growth is dependent on the turgidity of the cells, and tur- gidity is dependent on the absorption of water by the roots.
(6) That the water absorbed by roots is continually being lost by evaporation from the leaves. If the loss is equal to or greater than the absorption, the plants will cease growing, and unless the absorption is increased or the evaporation decreased the plants will die.
(7) That evaporation may be controlled by increasing the amount of moisture in the air, by protection from hot winds, and by the use of certain substances in the soil or on the leaves to enable the plant to hold on to the water that it has.
Finally, then, an accurate knowledge of the relation of water to the growth of plants will enable us to control more fully the development of the plant as a whole, and also the relative growth of its parts. It will show us how to so modify the growth of the plants that they may be able most successfully to withstand adverse conditions and produce the most valuable substance for a given amount of labor.
MINERAL PHOSPHATES AS FERTILIZERS.
By H. W. WILEY. Chemist of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.
APATITES.
The earliest forms of mineral phosphate used for fertilizer were the apatites.' These phosphates occur either in a crystalline form or massive, and are of very wide distribution. In this country they are found in Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Maryland, Delaware, and North Carolina. They occur in large quantities in Canada, where immense beds exist. Apatite contains, in round numbers, 40 per cent of phosphoric acid and about 50 per cent of lime, and is usually associated with a certain quantity of fluor spar. Some beds contain a considerable amount of chlorine, and nearly all contain traces of iron, alumina, and magnesia. Some forms also contain considerable quantities of manganese. The mineral known as phos- phorite is almost the same in chemical composition as the apatites.
COPROLITES.?
Phosphate of lime occurs very largely in nodules, which are probably of organic origin, and these spheroidal masses are called coprolites. They sometimes present a spiral or other peculiar structure, due to their animal origin. The nodules are of all sizes from minute grains up to Inasses weighing as much as a ton. They consist essentially of phosphate of lime, varying from 50 to 60 per cent, and with a greater or less quantity of carbonate of lime. They also contain a considerable amount of organic matter, derived from animal remains, and the rest of the mass is made up of sand and other accidental impurities. These nodules often contain remains of marine life, such as sharks’ teeth. At the present time the coprolite phosphates are found chiefly in North Carolina, Alabama, and Florida, though it is probable that they will be discovered in many other parts of the United States.
PHOSPHATE ROCK.
Immense deposits of phosphate rock, both hard and soft, are found in many parts of the United States. The most important of these deposits, from a commercial point of view, are those of South Carolina
1'The name “apatite” is derived from a Greek word which signifies fo deceive, inas- much as, on account of the color of ‘the mineral, which is often of a blue or green tint, it was mistaken by the early mineralogists for other minerals.
2The term “ coprolite ” signifies fossil excrement. It is certain, however, that the deposits are not of that character, but are more likely bone masses rounded by the action of water. 177
178 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
and Florida, although other deposits of great promise have been found in North Carolina, Virginia, and Tennessee.
The amount of phosphate rock mined in the United States in 1893, with the value thereof at the mines, is given in the following table, taken from the Mineral Resources of the United States, edition of 1893:
Quantity. Value.
Florida: Long tons. EEA TUTTO es Se eee BSR ea oo oe memes ea aorOoram cD coco sos oat 215, 685 $1, 117, 732 Spat Og nee see Sen JR ee eS Se ae ee orannees 34-5 aoa ae 13, 675 64, 626 Tard SEE oan Se once ols we 5 ms Sep ee dS oe tere PEO 5? 86, 624 359, 127 River Povble. -- -- 0.5 -.- age nc cine n ne cnn ale iwc eo nn ne enn ecw e ees aeweee 122, 820 437,571 UI INO ene ea ee ce NN hae a nn 438,804) 1, 979, 056 South Carolina: J BAM GE te te eit ra ate ares Sia) rani = a nia anim alelnia cele lat ayae|sieleuntalet alalaietelatoleiarewete 308, 435 .1, 408, 785 BVP AO Cee Ne ee eee Ne ieee Siac cic 1c die ord arab eee wie pine clei cneais Shree rare 194, 129 748, 229 PSUR G Oe tye OS 56 ti Ce Aaa SARE 502, 564 | 2 157, 014 North Carolina: PreK Cammlomerate -. 2222s oe ne. 5 cea he os cela nae cence eens eeeeen eee 7, 000 21, 000 ag Sepa Iss Fe er ene NS ee Se deer hy ek ead ed 948,368 | 4, 157, 070
The first phosphate mined commercially in South Carolina was in 1867, amounting to 6 tons. The largest quantity ever mined in any one year was in 1889, amounting to 541,645 tons. The total amount of fertilizers, chiefly raw phosphate rock, exported to foreign countries for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1893, was 460,062 tons, valued at $3,927,343. The countries to which the chief quantities of raw phos- phates were shipped were Germany and Great Britain. The amount sent to Germany was 149,600 tons, and the amount to Great Britain 209,065 tons.
The quantity of crude phosphates and other phosphatic substances imported into the United States for fertilizing purposes in 1893 was 106,549 tons, valued at $718,871. The amount of guano, which con- sists largely of phosphate, imported in 1893 was 5,856 tons, valued at $97,889. The largest amount of guano imported into the United States in any one year was in 1868, amounting to 99,668 tons, valued at $1,336,701. The largest amount of crude phosphate and other phos- phatic substances, used for fertilizing purposes, imported into the United States in any one year was in 1882, amounting to 133,956 tons, valued at $1,437,442.
The average cost at the quarry of the phosphates mined in the United States in 1893 was $4.42 per ton.
The Florida phosphates are of four distinct types, viz, hard rock, soft rock, land pebble, and river pebble. The pebble phosphates are deposits of spherical masses of varying size, possibly of coprolitic nature, which occur either on the land or collected in cavities in the water courses, where they have been washed by the streams. Some of
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MINERAL PHOSPHATES AS FERTILIZERS. 179
the soft rock is of such a texture that it can be very easily crushed, and thus cheaply prepared, in a finely divided state, either for treat- ment with sulphuric acid for the purpose of making superphosphates or for direct application to the soil.
The Tennessee phosphates have been only recently discovered, and their exact extent is not yet known. Irom the mines already opened, however, it seems probable that these deposits are the most extensive in the United States. They are situated, so far as known at the pres- ent time, in the counties of Lewis, Hickman, Perry, and Wayne. The center of the deposit is about 70 miles southwest of Nashville. It has been estimated that within a distance of 5 miles of the Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis Railroad there are 100,000,000 tons of this phosphate rock. ‘The daily output at present is about 300 tons, but it is rapidly increasing.
At present most of the output is shipped by rail, but it is the inten- tion of some of the operators on the Duck River to open a water route to Mississippi and New Orleans by means of the Duck, Tennessee, and Mississippi rivers. When this is accomplished it is estimated that the rock can be laid down in New Orleans at a cost of transportation not to exceed $1.75 per ton.
The phosphates of Tennessee differ from those of Florida in being found in stratified veins instead of pockets and beds. Some of the rocks are quite rich in phosphoric acid. In the analyses of 30 samples of Tennessee phosphates examined in this laboratory the highest per cent of phosphoric acid found was 37.07, corresponding to 80.92 per cent of phosphate of lime. The average content was 17.70 per cent of phosphoric acid or 38.64 per cent of lime phosphate.
CONSTITUENTS OF PHOSPHATE ROCK.
In phosphate rocks the chief constituent from an agricultural point of view is phosphate of lime, chemically known as tricalcium phosphate, and often spoken of in fertilizer circulars and bulletins as “bone phos- phate of lime.” Calcium phosphate varies in quantity in commercial phosphates from 30 to 99 per cent. The latter purity, however, is very seldom reached, the great majority of the commercial phosphates rang- ing from 40 to 70 per cent of calcium phosphate.
In addition to this they contain certain quantities of carbonate of lime, small quantities of phosphates of iron and alumina, often consid- erable quantities of fluor spar, and finally sand and other impurities. There are certain phosphates, however, produced largely outside of the United States, which consist almost exclusively of the phosphates of iron and alumina, viz, such as those known as Redonda phosphates, from the island of Redonda. It is also reported that large deposits of iron and alumina phosphates have been discovered in Virginia, and that they exist already in a powdered state, well suited without further preparation, for application to the soil.
180 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The value of a natural phosphate is largely determined not alone by the percentage of phosphorie acid which it contains, but also by the amount of other materials therein. Especially is this true when the phosphates are to be used for the manufacture of that grade of fertili- zers known as superphosphates or acid phosphates, which is accom- plished by treating the natural phosphates with oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid). If a natural phosphate, for instance, contain a large quantity of carbonate of lime, this material will consume an equivalent portion of sulphuric acid and thus require a much larger quantity of this acid for conversion into superphosphate. Even if the quantity of phos- phates of iron and alumina be considerable, the sulphates of iron and alumina which are formed dry poorly and render the residue unfit for the market. The fluoride of calcium is likewise decomposed by the sulphuric acid and hydrofluoric acid set free. The most suitable material, therefore, for making superphosphates is a phosphate rich in tricalcium phosphate, containing only a moderate amount of carbonate, or one which contains as impurities chiefly sand or silica. The natural phosphates of iron and alumina are well suited for direct application to the soil when they can be obtained in a finely divided state. There is no method of grinding, however, which produces a phosphate as well suited to the nourishment of plants as the material which is pro- duced by chemical precipitation.
DIRECT APPLICATION OF PHOSPHATES.
Experiments have been conducted in this country and in Europe for many years to determine the applicability of natural phosphates in a finely divided state directly to the soil. The greatest difference of opinion still exists in regard to the availability of such phosphates. From a great amount of data which has been collected the following conclusions may be safely drawn:
(1) No kind of natural phosphate is of much value applied directly to the soil, unless in a very finely divided state.
(2) Natural phosphates which consist chiefly of the calcium salt are of very little value when applied directly to soil deficient in organic matter or containing large quantities of carbonate of lime.
(3) Natural calcium phosphates in a finely ground state can be applied with great benefit to soils consisting essentially of vegetable mold or very rich in organic matter.
(4) The natural phosphates of iron and alumina are of a much wider application directly than the phosphates of calcium.
COST OF PHOSPHATIC FERTILIZER TO THE FARMER.
It has been seen from the data given above that the actual cost of ordinary phosphates at the mines is not quite $4.50 per ton. The question may then be very properly asked, Why is the cost of phos- phates as used by the farmers so high? The increased cost of the
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MINERAL PHOSPHATES AS FERTILIZERS. 181
phosphates used as fertilizers arises chiefly from three causes: First, the cost of grinding the phosphate to a fine powder; second, the cost of treating it with sulphuric or phosphoric acid, in order to render the phosphoric acid soluble; and third, the cost of transportation.
It would be impossible to give any rule which would fix the value of a ton of phosphatic fertilizer. In many of the States the bulletins on fertilizers give the cost per pound of phosphoric acid present in any given sample. This price, however, must necessarily vary from year to year with the cost of production, cost of treatment, and cost of trans- portation. In general it may be said that at any considerable distance from the mines the value of available phosphoric acid in a superphos- phate is about 5 cents per pound.
WHAT IS MEANT BY “AVAILABLE PHOSPHORIC ACID.”
The term ‘available phosphoric acid” is one which is rather difficult to define. Presumably, it applies to the phosphoric acid present in a given fertilizer which is capable of being directly assimilated by plants. It does not include, as a rule, any of the phosphoric acid which is not in a State to be directly absorbed, although such phosphoric acid may, by natural decomposition in the soil, become ultimately available for plant nourishment. It is commonly understood now that available phosphoric acid includes all the phosphoric acid soluble in water, together with that portion which is sometimes called ‘‘reverted phos- phoric acid,” and which is soluble in a solution of citrate of ammonia of given strength and applied in a given way. It is hardly fair, how- ever, to reject as of no value at all any additional phosphoric acid which the sample may contain. Jor instance, in the case of ground bones none of the phosphoric acid present is soluble in water, and Sometimes only a very little in citrate of ammonia; yet the phos- phate of the bones is quite available and is easily assimilated by the growing plant. <A discrimination, therefore, should be made in all cases between a bone phosphate and a phosphate prepared from min- erals. Again, in mineral phosphates there is a wonderful difference in assimilability even in those forms of phosphate insoluble in water and citrate of ammonia. Some kinds of soft phosphatic rock appear to be much more readily assimilated by plants than others. For instance, the apatites seem to have very little power of nourishing plants unless they have been decomposed by sulphuric acid, while, on the other hand, certain forms of soft phosphates have a considerable nourishing power. It is therefore impossible to give any hard and fast rule by means of which the availability of phosphates can be determined. In this case it is Safe, therefore, for the farmer to rely, at least for the present, upon the data obtained by chemical analysis, and in the case of mineral phosphates to regard those only as beneficial in general which are soluble in water and citrate of ammonia.
182 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
At least this is true for ordinary soils deficient in organic matter or consisting largely of sand or carbonate of lime. If, however, the farmer have to do with peat or muck soils very rich in humus and defi- cient in phosphoric acid, the rule could hardly be regarded asrigid. In such cases any form of soft mineral phosphate, finely divided, would prove highly beneficial, even if yielding little or nothing to treatment with water and citrate of ammonia.
It is doubtful whether any of the methods now in use by the chemist can give an accurate idea of the true availability of phosphoric acid in a fertilizer. In the case of phosphoric acid soluble in water, viz, free phosphoric acid, or an acid phosphate of lime, it is almost certain that. when applied to the soil it does not long retain its solubility. This should be regarded as a fortunate rather than an unfortunate fact. Should the phosphoric acid retain its solubility in water, there would be great danger of its being removed through drainage waters by excessive rainfall. When applied to a soil which contains the usual amount of iron and alumina the soluble phosphoric acid readily unites with these bases, forming iron and alumina phosphates, or is converted into the insoluble dicaleic phosphate. These phosphates, while not soluble in water, yet yield their phosphoric acid readily to the demands of the rootlets of plants. The phosphoric acid is thus preserved in a state where it is safe from exhaustion by leaching, and yet in a condition easily available for plant food.
From a practical point of view, therefore, there is no advantage in applying water-soluble phosphate instead of a phosphate soluble in ammonium citrate. The great differences, moreover, in the ease with which phosphates insoluble in water and citrate of ammonia are decom- posed in the soil render it difficult to form any accurate judgment of the actual availability of this form of fertilizer. It is certain that the rule which is in force in many of the States, making the insoluble acid valueless for fertilizer purposes, is entirely too exclusive.
On the other hand, these phosphates in most cases can certainly not be regarded as equally available as those soluble in water and ammonium citrate. The origin of the sample has also much to do with the matter. As has already been intimated, finely ground bone, even though insol- uble in water and ammonium Be ate, will nevertheless yield a part of its phosphoric acid very readily to growing plants.
In general, it may be said that the more nearly the phosphoric acid is in an organic state the more readily available it becomes. The mineral phosphates, however, show the greatest difference in availability when insoluble. On the one hand we have an extreme degree of nonavail- ability, as is instanced in the crystallized apatites, and on the other hand a high degree of availability, as shown in the finely divided min- eral phosphates of iron and alumina. Between these two extremes the ordinary mineral phosphates will be found ranged in different degrees of availability.
MINERAL PHOSPHATES AS FERTILIZERS. 183
- Further, as has already been stated, the character of the soil to which the phosphatic fertilizer is applied has much to do with determining its availability. All of these facts must be taken into consideration in attempting to fix the availability of a phosphatic fertilizer by chemical analysis, and in no case is it safe to enforce a rigid rule which, while it might be applicable in one set of circumstances, would be found wholly at fault in another.
SUPERPHOSPHATE, OR ACID PHOSPHATE.
A brief statement of the character of fertilizers known by the name of superphosphates, or acid phosphates, may prove of utility to farm- ers. On account of the high degree of nonavailability of some of the phosphates, as mentioned in the preceding paragraphs, it has long been the custom among manufacturers to prepare these mineral phosphates, previous to their application to the soil, in such a way as to increase the availability of the phosphoric acid which they contain.
The most common method of securing this result consists in treating the finely ground phosphate with sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol). A large part of the lime contained in the natural phosphate is thus con- verted into sulphate of lime (gypsum, or Jand plaster), while the phos- phorie acid which was before in combination with the lime is secured, either in a free state or in combination with a lower equivalent of the lime. A normal phosphate of lime, such as is found in bones and in most mineral phosphates, is composed of three molecules of the oxide of calcium (lime) in combination with two molecules of phosphoric acid. Represented chemically, a molecule of bone phosphate or mineral phos- phate of lime has the composition shown by the formula (CaQ);(P.0;). The percentage composition of pure phosphate of lime is, therefore, lime (CaO), 54.19 per cent, and phosphoric anhydride (P.Q;), 45.81 per cent.
The first step in the preparation of superphosphate consists in reduce- ing the mineral phosphate to a condition of fineness which will permit its rapid disintegration when treated with sulphuric acid. In practice it is customary to grind the phosphate so it will pass a screen with 70 or 80 meshes to the inch. The finer and more uniform the grinding, the easier and more economical becomes the treatment with sulphuric acid.
Various mechanical appliances are in use for preparing the mineral phosphates for treatment with sulphuric acid. The phosphates are first broken into fine pieces, usually by a Blake crusher. The pieces should be the size of an acorn or smaller. They may then be ground between French burr millstones and the flour sifted through revolving screens, very much as wheat flour is treated. This is the simplest and oldest method of grinding the phosphate. Many modern mills have been invented for the same purpose, all depending more or less upon
the same principles. It is estimated by Dr. Francis Wyatt that the
actual cost of grinding phosphates, including all expenses for repairs, wear and tear, and interest on the investment, is about $1.50 per ton.
184 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The next step after the grinding of the material is to determine its chemical composition, because the amount of sulphuric acid required for treatment of the phosphate flour depends essentially upon its chem- ical structure. In the chemical analysis there must be determined the amount of moisture, the organic matter, the carbonate of lime, the magnesia, the amount of phosphates of lime, iron, and alumina, the quantity of sulphate and fluoride of lime, and the percentage of insol- uble matter, which is chiefly sand and silicates. With mineral phos- phates containing about 80 per cent of the phosphate of lime, from 3 to 4 per cent of the phosphates of iron and alumina, and from 7 to 9 per cent of the carbonate and fluoride of lime the quantity of ordinary sul- phurie acid required for 100 pounds is about the same in weight. For each ton of such material, therefore, 1 ton of the ordinary sulphuric acid must be employed. If the amount of carbonate of lime and other acid-consuming materials increase above the amount mentioned, then the quantity of sulphuric acid required would also be proportionately increased.
On account of the fumes of hydrofluoric acid which are emitted upon mixing the ground material containing fluor spar with sulphuric acid, the operation must be performed in a well-ventilated shed where the acid fumes can be carried away by means of some kind of a ventilator. The vessel in which the phosphate flour is mixed with sulphuric acid should be lined with lead, which is practically insoluble in sulphuric acid. The mixer, which is a revolving shaft carrying paddles made of east iron, is driven by machinery. The appropriate amount of phos- phate flour having been placed in the mixer, the sulphuric acid is let into it by means of a lead pipe connected with ine sulphuric acid tank, and the whole is thoroughly triturated. After all the acid and flour biare been placed in the mixer the shaft is driven rapidly for a few minutes until every part of it is thoroughly stirred and the bem mass is allowed to flow into an appropriate reservoir.
The mixers are very conveniently arranged so as to hold about a ton, while the reservoir into which their charges run may hold 100 tons or more. As it requires only five or ten minutes to mix one charge, when all the facilities are properly arranged, the reservoir may be filled in a day. The material in the reservoir becomes very hot, due to the chemical action taking place between the sulphuric acid and the other ingredients. The temperature rises often above that of boiling water, and it may reach as high as 240° F.
After the chemical action has ceased and the mass begins to cool, it soon becomes hard, setting something after the manner of cement or plaster of paris. At the end of two daysit is sufficiently dry and hard to be dug out with picks and shovels. When removed from the reser- voir it is piled up in heaps, where it is allowed to remain for about two days, and then is ready for being broken up and ground, This is easily accomplished by appropriate machinery, after which it can be placed in bags and it is then ready for shipment.
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MINERAL PHOSPHATES AS FERTILIZERS. 185
The superphosphates formed in this way usually contain from 12 to 14 per cent of available phosphoric acid, and this phosphoric acid exists in various degrees of combination. IT irst, there is free phosphoric acid; second, phosphoric acid combined with lime in the proportion of one molecule of lime and two of phosphoric acid; third, phosphorie acid combined with lime in the proportion of two molecules of lime to two of phosphoric acid; fourth, a little of the phosphoric acid may be left combined in the natural state, in the proportion of three molecules of lime and two molecules of phosphoric acid. The acid salts of lime also contain, in addition, water of crystallization. The free phosphorie¢ acid and the monocalcium phosphate are soluble in water, the dicalcium phosphate in citrate of ammonia, while the tricalcium phosphate which remains undecomposed is insoluble in water and citrate of ammonia.
In the above processes, which have been outlined in a general way, the actual weight of a ton of mineral phosphate is almost exactly dou- bled by being converted into superphosphate. If the original material contained, therefore, 80 per cent of phosphate of lime, the treated mate- rial contains only 40 per cent. Thus the freights are doubled and there is secured a material which, in addition to the phosphoric acid, very probably does not have a sufficient fertilizing value to warrant the pay- ment of so high a rate of freight. It is true that the sulphate of lime, which is always present in large quantities in superphosphates, is valuable in some instances as a fertilizer, and in fact is purchased for that purpose under the name of gypsum, or land plaster. It, however, might be of some advantage to the farmer to apply this substance directly instead of indirectly with the phosphate. For this reason manu- facturers have sought to make a more concentrated form of superphos- phate and thus diminish the freight charge, which is one of the chief items of cost in fertilizers delivered to farmers.
In order to obtain a high-grade superphosphate and thus dimin- ish freight charges the decomposition of mineral phosphates may be accomplished by the use of phosphoric acid itself in the place of sul- phurie acid. This phosphoric acid is obtained directly on the premises by the decomposition of the phosphates by sulphuric acid and the sub- sequent separation of the phosphoric acid from the product by well- known methods which it is not necessary to describe here. When the phosphoric acid is concentrated to the proper degree of strength, it requires from 1? to 2 pounds of it to decompose 1 pound of an ordinary mineral phosphate. The decomposition by means of phosphorie acid and subsequent treatment are very much the same as described for the direct decomposition of the phosphate flour by sulphuric acid. In this way a phosphate is produced which will yield from 35 to 45 per cent of phosphoric acid soluble in water and ammonium citrate. Such a fertilizer would be of especial value when it becomes necessary to ship long distances, especially by rail, and farmers would do well to apply to their State chemists and others in charge of the sale of phos-
186 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
phates and fertilizers to secure for them in some way a phosphate of this description.
The farmer should remember that it is not always the cheapest phos- phate which is the most valuable. What he should especially attempt would be to secure available phosphoric acid at the lowest possible rate. He may give as high as 6 cents a pound for available phos- phorie acid in a phosphate which he gets for $20 per ton, while at the same time he might purchase the same material for 44 cents a pound in a phesphate worth $40 per ton.
PHOSPHATE AS BASIC SLAG.
Another form of phosphate which is coming into extended use in this country as well as in Europe is that which is produced as a by- product in the manufacture of iron and steel. Many iron ores con- tain a notable quantity of phosphoric acid, which renders the pig iron made from them unsuitable for the manufacture of high-grade iron or steel, when the usual processes of reduction are followed. In order to utilize these pigs, which otherwise would not be very valuable, the basic Bessemer process has been invented. In Europe the process is known as the Thomas process, while in this country it is carried on chiefly under the patents taken out by Jacob Reese.
The principle of the process depends upon the arrangement of the reduction furnaces, by means of which the phosphoric acid in the pig iron is caused to combine with the lime which is used as a flux in the converters. A general outline of the process is as follows:
The pigs which contain from 2 to 4 per cent of phosphorus are melted and introduced into a Bessemer converter, lined with dolomite powder cemented with coal tar, into which has previously been placed a cer- tain quantity of freshly burned lime. For an average content of 3 per cent of phosphorus in the pig iron, from 15 to 20 pounds of lime are used for each 100 pounds of pig iron. As soon as the melted pig iron has been introduced into the converter, the air blast is started, the converter placed in an upright position, and the purification of the mass begins. The manganese in the iron is converted into oxide, the silicon into silica, the carbon into carbonic acid and carbonic oxide, and the phosphorus into phosphoric acid.
By reason of the oxidation processes, the whole mass suffers a rise of temperature amounting in all to about 1,200° I’. above the tempera- ture of the melted iron. At this temperature the lime which has been added melts and in this melted state combines with the phosphoric acid, and the liquid mass floats upon the top of the metallic portion, which has by this means been converted into steel. As soon as the process is completed the fused slag is poured off into molds, allowed to cool, broken up, and ground to a fine powder. The whole process occupies only about fifteen minutes. For each 5 tons of steel which are made in this way, about 1 ton of basie slag is produced.
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MINERAL PHOSPHATES AS FERTILIZERS. 187
In another process, in order to make a slag richer in phosphoric acid, a lime is employed which contains a considerable percentage of plos- phate. Although the slag thus produced is richer in phosphoric acid, itis doubtful whether it is any more available for plant growth than that made in the usual way with lime free from phosphoric acid. In other words, when a basic slag is made with a lime free from phosplioric acid, nearly the whole of the phosphoric acid is combined as tetrabasie calcium phosphate. On the other hand, when the lime employed con- tains some of the ordinary mineral phosphate, the basic slag produced becomes a mixture of this mineral phosphate with the tetracalcium salt. The mineral phosphate is probably not rendered any more available than it was before.
It is easily seen from the above outline of the process of manufacture that basic slags can have a very widely divergent composition. When made from pig iron poor in phosphorus, the slag will have a large excess of uncombined lime, and consequently the content of phosphoric acid will be low. When made from pigs rich in phosphorus, there may be a deficiency of lime, and in this case the content of phosphoric acid would be unusually high.
It is found also that the content of iron in the slag varies widely. In general, the greater the content of iron, the harder the slag and the more difficult to grind. If the pig iron contain sulphur, as is often the case, this sulphur is found also in the slag in combination with the lime, either as a sulphide or sulphate. No certain formula ean therefore be assigned to basic slags, and the availability of each one must be judged by its individual analysis.
The value of a basic slag to the farmer depends largely upon the quantity of phosphoric acid which it contains soluble in a 5 per cent citric-acid solution. Inasmuch as the great value of the basic slags in certain soils and for certain crops has increased the demand for it very largely, there are many imitations of it placed on the market which will be described further on.
This waste material, or phosphatic slag product, contains varying quantities of phosphoric acid, sometimes more than 20 per cent. It is reduced to a fine powder, and is then ready for application without any further treatment. In addition to the phosphoric acid it contains, there are also considerable quantities of lime and iron, usually in a low state of oxidation.
Objections have been made to the use of basic slag for fertilizing pur- poses on account of the iron which it contains. There are, however, no valid objections which can be based upon this fact. In many soils the addition of iron is a positive benefit, while in all cases the quantity of iron contained in the slag would be too small to produce any inju-
rious effects upon growing crops. The phosphoric acid in basic slag is different in chemical composition from that obtained in natural mineral phosphates and in bone. As has
188 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
already been pointed out, the phosphoric acid in the substances just mentioned is combined in a form which is known to the chemist as tri- calcium phosphate, containing three molecules of the oxide of lime, each molecule of it containing three parts of the oxide of lime to two parts of phosphoric acid. In the basic slag, the molecule consists of four parts of oxide of lime to two parts of phosphoric acid. It is there- fore known chemically as tetracalcium phosphate. Its composition is chemically expressed by the symbol (CaQ),P,0;. This form of combina- tion seems to be much more easily assimilable by plants than the other, and extended experiments have shown that, as a rule, in its application the phosphoric acid is quite as available as that which is present in superphosphates. A large percentage of the tetracalcium phosphate present in basic phosphate slags is soluble in citrate of ammonia, and a still larger quantity in free citric acid. Thus, by the ordinary chem-
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Fic. 16.—Effect of fertilizing vegetable soil with phosphates and other substances.
ical tests, it is shown to be more available than the mineral phosphates, and practical experiments in field and pot culture have shown that this is the case.
When basic slags are cooled slowly, they tend to assume a crystal- line condition, especially in the interior of the mass, and these crystals represent, more nearly than the other portions, their true composition, but being harder are not so well suited to fertilization.
In figures 16 and 17 are shown the results of experimental fertilizing with phosphates and other substances on the growth of oats in muck soils. In figure 16, pot No. 1 was unfertilized; pot No. 5 had received fine-ground Florida phosphate at the rate of 500 pounds per acre; pot No. 9 the same quantity of fine-ground phosphate, and 300 pounds each of sulphate of ammonia and sulphate of potash per acre; pot No. 10 the same quantity of fine-ground phosphate and 4,000 pounds of lime per acre.
MINERAL PHOSPHATES AS FERTILIZERS. 189
In figure 17, pot No. 23 was unfertilized; pot No. 17 had received fine-ground phosphate, pot No. 18 basic slag phosphate, and pot No. 19 acid phosphate, all at the rate of 500 pounds per acre.
In figure 16 it is seen that the phosphate alone, No. 5, produced as good results as when mixed with other fertilizers, No. 9, and the addi- tion of lime, as shown in No. 10, was a positive injury. In figure 17 it is seen that the fine-ground phosphate, pot No. 17, and the acid phos- phate, No. 19, gave the best results, closely followed by the basic slag, No. 18.
In such soils as these, therefore, a fine-ground, soft phosphate is the only fertilizer necessary for oats.
The soil used in the experiment shown in figure 16 had been in culti- vation for three years, while that used in the experiment shown in figure 17 was a subsoil which had never been in use.
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Fic. 17.—Effect of fertilizing muck soil with different phosphates.
In other soils deficient in lime and iron there is every reason to believe that the application of basic phosphate would at times give better results than that of a superphosphate, on account of the additional quantity of lime and iron conveyed to the soil in the fertilizer employed.
On account of the fact that the basic slag is a by-product in the man- ufacture of iron and steel, and that it requires no treatment with sul- phuric or phosphoric acid to render it available, and that the only expense connected with its manufacture consists in its grinding and in the additional expense of the furnace linings required for its produc- tion, it is found that the available phosphoric acid contained therein ean be placed upon the market quite as cheap, if not cheaper, than a similar quantity of available phosphoric acid produced by the old process.
190 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
It must not be forgotten, however, that the quantity of basie phos- phate Benne is limited, not by the demand for it as a fertilizer, but by the market for the iron and steel which is the direct product of the
manufacture of which the basic slag is only a by-product. Thereis not much prospect, therefore, of its ever assuming a place in the markets of the world for fertilizing purposes to the exclusion of bone and min- eral phosphates.
The quantity of basic slag manufactured and consumed in Germany in 1893 was 750,000 tons, quite equal to the consumption of superphes- phates. The quantity of slag produced in England for the same time was about 160,000 tons, and in France about 115,000 tons, making the total pr ee of central preg about 1,000,000 tons, a quantity sufficient to fertilize nearly 5,000,000 acres. The only place in this country where basic slag has ieee produced is Pottstown, Pa., and - factory there is not in operation at the present time.
In regard to the amount to be used no definite rule can be given, but from 300 to 500 pounds per acre will usually be found sufficient.
ADULTERATION OF BASIO-SLAG PHOSPHATES.
By reason of the high agricultural value of the basic phosphate slags, it has proved to be very profitable to imitate them by the manufacture of substitutes. These substitutes are essentially fraudulent. They con- sist chiefly of mineral phosphates of lime or of iron and alumina. It is true they all contain a greater or less per cent of phosphoric acid, but this acid is present in practically an unavailable state. These imitations can be distinguished from the genuine by the solubility of the phos- phoric acid which they contain and by microscopic examination. The farmer should at least insist that 75 per cent of the phosphoric acid in a basic slag offered him should be soluble in a 5 per cent solution of citric acid. It should not be forgotten, moreover, in this connection, that genuine slags may differ very greatly among themselves in avail- ability. In one case all the phosphoric acid in the slag may be present as tetracalcium phosphate, of which a considerable quantity is soluble in ammonium citrate, and nearly all of it in a 5 per cent solution of citric acid. Another sampie of slag, having the same general appear- ance and approximately the same percentage of phosphoric acid, may give up only a little of its acid to ammonium citrate, and not more than a quarter or half of it to citrie acid. The mere faet, therefore, that a given sample of fertilizer is composed wholly of basic slag is not an absolute guaranty of the complete availability of its fertilizing principles.
Attention has already been called to the importance of the nature of the soil when judging of the availability of phosphatic manures in general, and this rule applies with equal force to basic slags.
It is undoubtedly true that these slags are superior in value to super- phosphates in all cases where they are to be applied to naturally wet,
MINERAL PHOSPHATES AS FERTILIZERS. 191
peaty, or marshy soils. Inasmuch, however, as they are soluble in water only to a slight degree, basic slag should in all cases be plowed under, so as to be placed in a portion of the soil where the rootlets of the plants will have access to it.
PHOSPHATES IN MARLS.
The term “marl” itself is of rather wide application. In general it is applied to any pulverulent or semipulverulent deposit containing notable quantities of lime carbonate and existing in a condition fit to apply directly to the field, or to be applied after a simple crushing.
The chief agricultural constituent of a marl is always lime carbonate, although some samples of marl which are placed on the market may have only a small per cent of this material. In so far as the fertilizing properties are concerned in a general way, however, they must be ascribed principally to the carbonate of lime. It is for this reason that marls act in such a beneficial way when applied to stiff clay soils and other soils deficientin lime. Many of the Virginia marls, however, are found to contain, in addition to the lime, considerable quantities of potash and phosphoric acid, while marls from other localities contain also potash and phosphoric acid, the potash being usually in the form of silicate.
The percentage of phosphoric acid in phosphate-bearing marls varies from a mere trace to as much as 4 or 5 per cent. Usually, however, the marls contain from 1 to 2 per cent of phosphate. When marls contain over 5 per cent of phosphate they can hardly be considered under the name of marls, but should then be transferred to the place of natural phosphates. As a rule the farmer can not expect much benefit from the phosphate content of a marl. On account of the small proportion of plant food in marls, they will not bear transporta- tion to any great distance. There are very few marls that are worth, when placed upon the field, more than $4 or $5 per ton, and in the great majority of cases the value is not even so great.
RULES FOR THE APPLICATION OF PHOSPHATIC FERTILIZERS.
It is not possible to give any rigid rule for the use of phosphatic fertilizers applicable in all cases. The character of the soil is, of course, the first thing to be taken into consideration. In most soils there is a sufficient quantity of phosphoric acid already present, if it could only be secured in an available form. In other eases there may be an actual lack of the phosphate in the soil, and this is notably the case in soils composed chiefly of sand, such as are found in many parts of Michigan, New Jersey, and Florida. 3
A. chemical analysis, therefore, does not always give an indication of the actual need of a soil for phosphorus. The analysis may indicate a fair proportion of phosphorus in the soil, and yet it may not show its State of composition and degree of availability... A content of from 0,2
192 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
to 0.5 per cent of phosphoric acid in the soil shows an ample supply of that material. It would be useless to state dogmatically a minimum content of phosphoric acid which would render absolutely necessary the use of a phosphatic fertilizer. In general, however, it may be assumed that authorities on analytical chemistry would regard a per- centage of less than 0.12 of phosphoric acid as indicating a less than minimum amount necessary to proper plant growth. In soils of good fertility the usual content of phosphoric acid is from 0.2 to 0.4 per cent.
The quantity of a phosphate which is added, however, in a fertilizer although it might be sufficient for the needs of a growing crop, would increase almost infinitesimally the percentage of phosphate in the soil. As a rule phosphate fertilizers are applied in amounts varying from 300 to 500 pounds per acre, except in rare instances of intensive culture, as in gardens and truck farming. If the fertilizer employed contain an average of 20 per cent of phosphoric acid, which may be allowed as a rule, then in the application of 500 pounds there would be only 100 pounds of phosphoric acid added per acre. When the total weight of soil, taken to the depth of 6 inches, covering an acre, is considered, it is seen that this addition of phosphoric acid would add almost infini- tesimally to the percentage. The principle of the use, therefore, of phosphoric acid in the form of fertilizer is based on the assumption that it gives to the rootlets of the plant the phosphate in a form readily available, and not that it increases to any appreciable extent the actual phosphoric-acid content of the soil.
It could easily happen that a field might receive annually 100 pounds of available phosphoric acid per acre without showing at the end of ten years any marked increase in the percentage of this substance in the soil itself. The best rule for the farmer to follow, therefore, is to make an actual test of the needs of his fields by applying fertilizers of different descriptions to small measured areas. Itis not possible for every farmer to secure an analysis of the soil of his fields, nor would an analysis of the
soil of one field be a fair indication of the needs of another. Where the ©
direct method of experimentation mentioned above, however, could be combined with chemical analysis, together with a study of the physical conditions of the soil, the farmer would have at hand complete data for
judging of the actual needs of his fields. It is undoubtedly true that.
thousands of farmers are paying out annually large sums of money for phosphatic fertilizers and applying them to fields in which there is no deficiency of phosphorus. These phosphatic fertilizers are frequently mixed with other fertilizing materials containing potash and nitrogen, and the good effect produced by the fertilizers may be due to the other materials and not to the phosphorus; but by testing small measured areas with phosphoric acid, with potash, and with nitrogen, or by com- binations thereof, the farmer in a year or two can reach a reliable conclusion in regard to the needs of his soil.
FERTILIZATION OF THE SOIL AS AFFECTING THE ORANGE IN HEALTH AND DISEASE.
By H. J. WEBBER,
Assistant in Division of Vegetable Pathology, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Probably the most important question which concerns the orange grower is how to fertilize his trees. In Florida, where the orange soils are mostly very sandy and sterile, and require to be fertilized regularly, it is highly important to understand what elements should be used in fertilization and in what forms it is best to use them. No plant will long withstand improper treatment. In case of slow-growing plants like the orange, where proper treatment prolongs growth and produc- tiveness for centuries, it becomes particularly necessary that correct methods of manuring be used. The condition of tree reflects largely the cumulative treatment of years; in crops which are replanted each year, however, the effect of improper fertilization is probably less notice- able, especially so far as the development of disease is concerned.
In growing annual plants one can early notice results and may profit by experience. A few seasons will suffice to determine about the kind and quantity of fertilizer necessary for them on a particular soil. In the fertilization of the orange, however, the matter is not so easily determined; only the observations of a series of years will give results which can be depended upon. An orange grower may fertilize with one element one year and get good results, but this is no evidence that the same element used the next year or year after year will prove ben- eficial; it may, indeed, in prolonged treatment, lead to deterioration and disease. It is this difficulty in experimenting and drawing correct conclusions that accounts for the present poor understanding of rational methods of manuring the orange.
The orange appears to be very sensitive to methods of treatment and fertilization, and several of the most serious diseases are either caused or aggravated by errors in these. The present paper is based largely on the experiences of intelligent orange growers and upon such obser- vations as the winter has been able to make in the course of investiga- tions of orange diseases.
FERTILIZING FOR GROWTH AND FRUIT.
Primarily the orange grower desires to know how to fertilize so as to ‘stimulate either growth or fruit production, With oranges, as with many other agricultural plants, one may fertilize in such a manner that 1 A 94 7 193
194 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
excessive growth is stimulated at the expense of fruit production. A strong nitrogenous fertilizer results usually in much growth and little fruit. This seems to be particularly true if the ammonia is added in an organic form. While trees are young it is probably well to favor the growth of wood principally, but at an age of seven or eight years from the bud, the tree, if it has grown properly, will have attained sufficient size to begin to produce a fair quantity offruit. It should then be given a slightly modified fertilizer, containing more potash and phosphorie acid and less nitrogen, to stimulate fruit production as much as possible. The so-called chemical manures appear to be much more active in stimulating fruit production than organic manures.
EFFECT ON QUALITY OF FRUIT.
The experience of many orange growers indicates that the quality of the fruit may be largely controlled by fertilization. As oranges are purchased very largely on their appearance and quality, this becomes an important consideration in manuring. Many intelligent growers are coming to believe that the best results can be obtained by giving the trees an application of that element only which seems to be lack- ing, and not using, as the majority do, a complete fertilizer, in definite proportions, regardless of whether all the elements are needed by the plant or not. Ifit can be determined by the appearance of the tree and fruit what element is lacking, this would seem to be the most rational way to fertilize.
It seems reasonable to suppose that by careful study pathological characters induced by starvation might be found, which would serve to indicate clearly the lack of any particular element. Some growers claim to be able to recognize these characters now, and are fertilizing largely on this modified plan, taking advantage of what we might call the sign language of the tree. Some of these characters will be men- tioned below under the cousideration of the different elements used.
EFFECT ON SOIL MOISTURE.
In fertilization at least two factors must usually be considered, the element of plant food supplied and the effect of this upon the soil as aiding it in supplying the plant with moisture. The heavy application, in late fall or early spring, of an organic manure, like blood and bone, which is extensively used in Florida, is liable to lead to injurious effects during the spring drought, if the trees are on high and dry land. On the other hand, such soils might be ameliorated by using substances which attract water and increase the surface tension of soil moisture. Nitrogen, for instance, used in the form of nitrate of soda, and potash, in the form of kainit, would tend to draw up the subsoil moisture and probably aid largely in supplying the necessary moisture during this trying season. The use of organic manures, on the contrary, would only exaggerate the damave produced by drought. If groves are on very
EFFECT OF SOIL FERTILIZATION ON THE ORANGE. 195
moist land, as is frequently the case in Florida, where the necessity is to lessen the moisture rather than to increase it, some form of organic manure, as muck or blood and bone, might be found of benefit.
EFFECT OF FERTILIZERS ON THE ORANGE IN HEALTH,
The elements which need to be supplied in fertilization to most Florida orange groves are nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus; or, using the terms in which they are expressed in most analyses of ferti- lizers, ammonia, potash, and phosphoric acid. The application of lime would also prove of benefit to many groves. Probably no element of plant food used in the fertilization of orange groves should be more carefully considered, with respect both to form and quantity, than nitro- gen. It is the most costly and at the same time the most dangerous element to use, as excessive applications are liable to result in extensive dropping and splitting of the fruit or in the production of the serious disease known as die-back, which will be discussed below.
EFFECT OF NITROGEN.
A grower may with considerable certainty determine by the appear- ance of his trees the condition of his grove in respect to the supply of nitrogen available in the soil. An abundance of nitrogen is indicated by a dark green color of the foliage and rank growth. The fruit shows the effect of an abundance of nitrogen by being, in general, large, with a thick and comparatively rough rind. If the trees have a yellowish foliage, with comparatively small leaves, and show little or no growth, there is probably a lack of nitrogen. In this case there is but little frnit formed, and that formed is small and usually colors early. If the tree is starving from a lack of nitrogen, the foliage will become very light yellow and sparse, and the small limbs will die, as will also the large limbs in extreme cases. If the starvation is continued, no fer- tilizer being added, the tree will finally die back nearly to the ground and probably die out entirely. The extreme symptoms of general star- vation from lack of all elements are probably nearly the same. The nitrogen used in fertilization is commonly derived from mineral or organic sources. Of the former, sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of soda are the forms most used; of the latter, muck, dried blood, blood and bone, cotton-seed meal, tankage, fish scrap, stable manure, etc., are the forms most commonly employed.
INJURIOUS ACTION OF MUCK.
Muck is very commonly applied in considerable quantities either in a raw state or composted with sulphate of potash, ete. Many growers rather fanatically hold to what they term natural fertilization. By this is usually meant giving the tree nourishment in the form in which they Suppose it to bederived in nature. It is contended by many that muck is principally decaying vegetable matter, and that as this is the form
196 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
of nourishment which the trees obtain in nature, it must be a good fer- tilizer to use in cultivation. But it must be borne in mind that orange trees as we cultivate them are decidedly not in a state of nature, except that by the cultivation of centuries we havemade cultivation and manur- ing natural conditions which the plant demands. ‘Trees in nature bear fruits for seed to reproduce the species; on the contrary, we grow fruits for market and favor a seedless variety. We want a smooth, thin- skinned, tender, juicy fruit that will sink in water. Nature does not pay particular attention to these characters, so we watch for freaks and sports, abnormal plants, which have the characters we desire, and when found we render these characters permanent by budding. Our aim in cultivation is not to produce the fruit we find in the wild state, but to modify that fruit to suitour purpose. Oneof the most efficient methods of accomplishing this is to vary the fertilization.
While it can not be denied that muck has in some cases given excel- lent results, it must be conceded that its extensive use has usually been of doubtful benefit and often has done positive injury. Groves which have had liberal dressings of muck are frequently much diseased and produce light crops; the oranges are usually coarse, thick-skinned, and sour; the productiveness is often lessened by extensive premature drop- ping of the fruit; the tendency seems to be to bring on die-back, a disease which is of frequent occurrence in groves heavily fertilized with muck. What has been said of muck applies to a greater or less extent to the various forms of organic nitrogen used. The tendency of all organic manures rich in nitrogen is to produce a large growth whieh is weak and sickly. Growth and not frnit is stimulated, and the fruit resulting is usually of poor quality, inclined to be large and rough, with a thick rind and abundant rag.!
STABLE MANURE OF DOUBTFUL UTILITY.
Barn manure is largely used by many growers, who still hold to the tradition that chemical manures are injurious to the plants. The ben- efits of barn manure in an orange grove are in serious question. The fruits produced by nitrogen from this source are, as above stated, usually large, coarse, thick-skinned, with abundant rag, and of inferior flavor. If barn manure is used—and most growers have a limited quantity and desire to use what they have—it should be spread over the grove lightly, so that each tree receives only a small amount. Where such manure is depended upon as the main element of fertilization, liberal dressings of potash should be occasionally applied; this will tend to correct the evils of an overbalanced nitrogenous fertilizer. What has been said as to the effect of muck and barn manure on the quality of the fruit applies equally to the effects produced by cotton-seed meal, blood and bone, tankage, ete.
1A term applied to the pithy axis of the orange fruit and the membranes separating the sections.
EFFECT OF SOIL FERTILIZATION ON THE ORANGE. 9%
In general, organie fertilizers do not stimulate fruiting to the same extent as the mineral fertilizers. It is probably better economy to apply such fertilizers to annual crops, cereals, garden truck, ete.
MINERAL NITROGEN.
The mineral nitrogen manures, nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia, apparently stimulate production of fruit more than organic manures and yet promote a fair general growth. The fruit produced by fertilization with these salts, used in correct proportions with the other elements which it is necessary to apply, is usually of good quality, being solid, juicy, and rich, with thin skin and little rag. Sulphate of am- monia has the effect, growers testify, of sweetening the fruit to a consid- erable extent. There seems to be little doubt as to the correctness of this view, but why it is soremainsin question. The sweetening is prob- ably more marked if there is a slight deficiency of potash. The use of very large quantities of either sulphate of ammonia or nitrate of soda nay result disastrously, acting as ‘¢chemical poison,” killing the trees out- right and causing them to throw off their leaves. Here again the exact action is not, to my knowledge, understood. The following may be the explanation: It is well known that plants growing on the seacoast, in soil saturated with the salty sea water, are, in some respects, under almost the same conditions as in deserts, having great difficulty in obtaining sufficient water, though surrounded by water. The root hairs have difficulty in extracting the water from the strong salty solutions. The plants thus have various devices to prevent excessive evaporation or transpiration of water from the leaves, similar to those developed by desert plants. The injurious effect of the nitrogen salts may in this case be caused by simply producing such a strong solution of the salt in the vicinity of the plant that the roots are not able to absorb the necessary moisture, and thus the plant is compelled to cut off its leaves to prevent the transpiration of the water which can not be replenished by further absorption. .
Sulphate of ammonia has been very widely used among orangé grow- ers. Nitrate of soda has been but little used thus far, but is apparently growing in favor. Its insecticide and water-attracting properties are probably much greater than those of sulphate of ammonia.
POTASH FERTILIZERS.
In fertilizing the orange, potash is most frequently used either in the form of the sulphate or of wood ashes. While sulphate of potash has been most widely used, there is apparently little evidence that it is in aly way superior to other forms. Muriate of potash, containing the equivalent of about 50 per cent of actual potash, the form probably most used in the apple and peach orchards of the North, has been little used in orange groves. Apparently those who have used this form have obtained uniformly good results. Kainit, or German potash salt,
198 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
which is a crude double salt of magnesium sulphate with calcium chlo- ride, containing the equivalent of from 12 to 14 per cent of actual pot- ash, is a form much used in Northern orchards and is promising for use in orange groves. Its very active effect in increasing the surface ten- sion of the soil moisture and thus attracting water to the trees, might make it an excellent form to add in early spring to aid the plant in withstanding the spring drought, which is so frequently injurious to the orange tree, and sometimes fatal to the fruit crop. Growers not sup- plied with facilities for irrigation would, undoubtedly find it profit- able to consider carefully points of this nature in fertilization. The noticeable effect of potash on the orange tree appears to be its aid in completing and maturing the wood. Apparently an insufficient amount of potash is shown by an excessive growth of weak, immature wood, which dees not harden up as winter approaches and is liable to be ace by frost.
An abundance of potash, in the form of sahseata of potash or tobacco stems, is said by many growers to produce excessively sour fruit. That potash is very necessary in fruit, production is shown by the fact — that the fruit contains a large percentage of this element. An average of fifteen analyses of different varieties of Florida oranges shows 52.05 per cent to be about the usual amount of potash in the ash of the orange fruit. The ash in these fifteen analyses averaged 0.916 per cent, or less than 1 per cent of the total weight of the fruit.
PHOSPHORIC ACID.
Phosphoric acid, which is a very necessary element of fertilization on Florida orange lands, is mostly used in the form of dissolved bone- black, acidulated bone or phosphate rock, soft phosphate, raw bone, guano, ete. The immediate effect of phosphoric acid on the orange tree and fruit is little understood. Several intelligent growers claim to be able te recognize the effect of phosphorous starvation by the appear- ance of the new growth of leaves. If these, when they first push out or while they are still young and tender, present a slightly variegated appearance, mottled with light and dark green, it is claimed that they are suffering from lack of phosphorus, and that if a liberal application of some soluble phosphate is applied this appearance may be checked. If this can be shown to be true it will prove a valuable index to the available quantity of phosphoric acid in the soil. A similar appear- ance, may, however, appear in light cases of the so-called “frenching,” a disease, or probably more properly a symptom of disease, which is not uncommon. Phosphorous starvation, it is true, may have some effect in inducing this disease.
LIME.
Lime, it is usually supposed, is present in sufficient quantities in most of our soils. Itimay be questioned, however, whether the common high pine land and scrub land, and indeed much of the flat woods and ham-
EFFECT OF SOIL FERTILIZATION ON THE ORANGE. 199
mock of the interior of Florida, might not be benefited by dressings of lime. From the superiority of oranges grown on soils which are known to be rich in lime it would seem that this is probably a very desirable and necessary element for the production of superior fruit. The fine, smooth-skinned, and deliciously flavored Indian and Halifax River oranges, with their characteristic aroma, are grown largely on soils rich in lime from shell mounds and coralline and coquina rock. The oranges produced in the noted Orange Bend Hammock, which are of distinctive quality, with delicate, rich aroma, and thin, smooth rind, are produced on a soil underlaid by a marlrichin lime. Lime soils are in many orange countries considered superior for orange growing. Dr. A. Stutzer, in his work on the Fertilization of Tropical Cultivated Plants, writes: “The orange and citron fruits desire a deep, porous, dry soil, rich in lime. If sufficient lime is not present the fruit will be thick-skinned and not have a fine aroma.” It appears also that the effect of abundant lime is to hasten to some extent the time of ripening. Fruits grown on soils rich in lime appear to color and become suitable for shipping some-
Fie. 18.—Orange twigs showing effects of die-back.
what earlier than those grown on soils containing but little Jime. To secure a good quality of fruit the regular application of lime may be found very desirable in many groves.
FERTILIZATION AS AFFECTING DISEASE,
Probably the most common cause of injury to orange trees is a lack of fertilization, yet itis not infrequent for disease to be induced or aggravated by excessive or improper fertilization. This may, indeed, be of much more importance than we are at present inclined to believe. One of the forms of die-back, a common and destructive disease of the orange, is quite evidently due to errors in fertilization. In other cases the disease appears to be caused by planting in improper soil.
DIE-BACK.
Die-back manifests itself by a number of striking characters. The foliage becomes very dark green, the vigorous growth remains angular and immature and frequently becomes strongly recurved, and the tips turn up slightly, forming S-shaped curves. In the spring trees affected
200 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
with this disease start out a very vigorous growth, which may con- tinue for several months. Finally a reddish brown resinous substance exudes on the twigs, forming the so-called die-back stain, which is very characteristic, and they begin to die back. This death of tissues may include the entire new growth or only a portion of it. Under the bark of the young limbs gum pockets form and burst out, causing large, unsightly eruptions on the twigs, as shown in figure 18.
Larger gum pockets frequently form at the nodes, producing large swellings. Ifa tree is badly affected no fruit is formed; if moderately affected an abundance of fruit sets, but the larger portion of this turns to a lemon-yellow color before half grown, becomes stained by the
Fia. 19.—Orange fruit showing effects of die-back.
characteristic reddish exudatious like that occurring on the branches, and prematurely falls. J'ruit which hangs on the tree till nearly ripe is large and coarse and is frequently stained. It usually splits and falls before thoroughly ripe. The fruit on a slightly affected tree is very large and coarse, with very thick, rough rind. Much of it is ren- dered unsalable by the reddish die-back stain. It is very prone to split and fall before mature. <A split fruit of this character, showing also the die-back stain, is illustrated in figure 19.
Frenching, or variegation of the foliage, frequently accompanies die- back and seems to be a symptom of the disease. The very dark green coloration which some growers believe to be an indication of a healthy grove, may, on the contrary, denote a condition verging on die-back. A lighter green would probably indicate better general health.
EFFECT OF SOIL FERTILIZATION ON THE ORANGE. 201
DIE-BACK A DISEASE OF INDIGESTION,
Die-back appears to be a form of indigestion, due to an overfed con- dition of the plant. It occurs apparently wherever excessive quanti- ties of nitrogenous manures from organic sources are applied or become available to the plant. Trees near closets or barns or in barnyards almost invariably have die-back. When chickens roost on a tree for any length of time, so that the droppings fall on the soil beneath, the disease usually results. Many cases are known to the writer where it has apparently been caused by excessive applications of cotton-seed meal, blood and bone, barn manure, ete. Indeed, all organic manures in excessive quantities appear to give rise to it. If organic fertilizers are used they must therefore be applied with considerable caution to avoid an excess. No safe rule can be given as to the amount of manure that can be used with safety; this depends upon the size and condition of the tree, previous treatment, and soil conditions.
Whether the chemical manures, nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia, will produce the disease if used in excessive quantities, is questionable. We have not been able to learn of any instance where this has occurred. Several cases are known where nitrate of soda was used of sufficient strength to cause the leaves to fall without producing any sign of this disease. Frequently the method of cultivation has considerable to do in causing die-back, excessive cultivation appearing to aggravate it very greatly.
MAL-DI-GOMMA.,
The much-dreaded disease of foot rot, or mal-di-gomma, is probably not produced primarily by improper methods of fertilization, but seems to be considerably affected by the use of fertilizers and methods of cultivation. Groves in which cow-penning! has been practiced to a considerable extent are frequently affected with foot rot. This is so generally the case as to admit little doubt that this practice has con- siderable to do in inducing the disease. The extensive application of organic manures appears also to aggravate the malady to some extent, and their use in infected groves should be discouraged.
INSECT DISEASES.
With regard to the effect of fertilization upon insects which infest the orange, it may be said that the question is little understood. A general impression exists among the growers of the State that groves fertilized with blood and bone or barn manure are more liable to be badly infested with injurious insects than those fertilized exclusively with chemical manures. This appears to be especially true in the case of the six-spotted mite (Tetranychus 6-maculatus) and the purple scale
'A term used to designate the practice of penning cattle in orange groves over night, using a movable pen, the position of which is changed every few days.
[ieee ey
02 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Uytilaspis citricola); judging from observations on many groves which ave been fertilized with chemical manures only, it certainly seems that tis belief is well founded. There is some evidence that the muriate of otash aids to some extent in preventing the ravages of the rust mite. ry. Smith, of the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, has und nitrate of soda and kainit to be very active insecticidal fertilizers. hese have not been used to any extent in fertilizing orange groves in lorida, and no data have been obtained as to their effect on orange sects. Itis probable that they would prove more effective than sul- hate of ammonia or sulphate and muriate of potash, and they shouid be ioroughly tested to determine their value as fertilizers tor the orange.
SUMMARY.
Summarizing, it may be said:
(1) By a proper combination of the various elements used in fertiliza-
on one can undoubtedly largely govern the quality and flavor of the uit.
(2) To obtain a fruit with thin rind, use nitrogen from inorganic yurees in moderate quantities, with considerable potash and lime.
(3) To sweeten the fruit, use sulphate of ammonia in considerable oundance, decreasing the amount of potash.
(4) To render the fruit more acid, increase the amount of potash and se nitrogen from organic sources.
(5) If it is desired to increase the size of the fruit, as is sometimes the se, apply a comparatively heavy dressing of nitrogen in some organic rm and slightly decrease the other elements. In the case of the tan- srine and mandarin, where a larger size is usually desired, a heavy ressing of nitrogen fertilizers would favor this end, and is not objec- onable unless carried to excess.
(6) Fertilization has an important bearing on diseases.
(7) Die-back, a serious malady, is in all probability the result of over- eding with nitrogenous manures from organic sources. These manures used at all should be applied with great caution.
(8) Foot rot, although not primarily due to improper methods of fer- lization, is no doubt considerably influenced by this cause.
(9) Insect diseases are also apparently influenced by the use of fertili- ars, organic manures rendering the trees more liable to injury from this yurce than chemical fertilizers.
:
age eS ee
THE GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS IN NORTH AMERICA.!
By C. HART MERRIAM,
Chief of the Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy, U. S. Department of Agriculiure.
IMPORTANCE OF A KNOWLEDGE OF THE GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES.
An accurate knowledge of the areas which, by virtue of their climatic conditions, are fitted for the cultivation of particular crops is of such obvious importance to agriculture that the Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy was early led to make a special study of the geographic distribution of the land animals and plants of North America; for the boundaries of areas inhabited by native species were believed to coin- cide with those suited to the production of particular kinds of fruit, grain, and tubers, and for the rearing of particular breeds of domesti- cated animals.
When the boundaries of the life zones and areas are accurately mapped, the agriculturist need only ascertain the faunal area to which a particular crop or garden plant of limited range belongs in order to know beforehand just where it may be introduced with every prospect of success, suil and other local modifying influences being suitable; and, in the case of weeds and of injurious and beneficial mammals, birds, and insects, he would know what kinds were to be looked for in his immediate vicinity, and could prepare in advance for noxious species that from time to time suddenly extend their range. Persons living within the area likely to be invaded could escape by planting crops not affected, while those living outside might largely increase their rey- enues by giving special attention to the cultivation of the crops that are affected in the adjacent life zone.? In short, a knowledge of the
‘A review of the work undertaken and of the results accomplished by the Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy. ;
*This prediction was made in the annual report of the Ornithologist for 1888 (pp. 482-483), and has been recently verified in a most gratifying manner. The distribu- tion of certain noxious insects has been mapped by the Division of Entomology; the resulting areas conform to those of particular life zones as previously mapped by the Division of Ornithology. For instance, in writing of the San Jose orange seale insect, Mr. L. O. Howard states: ‘It may prove to be a significant fact that, although nursery stock affected by this scale has for six or seven years back been sent to all the fruit-growing regions of the Eastern States, according to our present information the scale has established itself only in regions contained within the so- called Austral life zone. Mapping the points of establishment, it is very interesting
203
204 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
natural life areas of the United States and of their distinctive species and crops would enable our farmers and fruit growers to select the products best adapted to their localities, would help them in their battle with harmful species, and would put an end to the present indiscrim- inate experimentation by which hundreds of thousands, if not millions, of dollars are needlessly expended each year.
The division has undertaken to furnish this information. When it began the study, ten years ago, little was known of the number or extent of the natural life areas of the country or of the laws limiting the dispersion of species. The faunal areas east of the Mississippi Valley had been recognized and in a general way defined, and attempts had been made to divide the country as a whole into areas of higher grade. Most zoological writers had agreed in apportioning the United States into three primary provinces or regions—an Eastern, reaching from the Atlantic to the Plains; a Central, from the eastern edge of the Plains to the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range; and a Western or Pacific, from the latter to the Pacific Ocean—but botanical writers were at variance both as to the number and boundaries of the divisions they sought to establish. The division began by collecting all avail- able data on the distribution of North American mammals and birds. The facts brought together were platted on maps as the first step in the investigation.
AN EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGICAL SURVEY.
It soon became apparent, however, that in order to gain a clear con- ception of the facts and phenomena of distribution a careful study of the subject must be made in the field, where the actual range of mam- mals, birds, reptiles, insects, and plants could be ascertained and the distinctive areas contrasted. With this object in view, and with the sanction and approval of the Hon. J. M. Rusk, Secretary of Agriculture, and the Hon. Edwin Willits, Assistant Secretary, an experimental biological survey was made in the summer of 1889. The area selected was the San Francisco Mountain region in Arizona, which, because of its isolation, altitude, southern position, and proximity to an arid desert, was believed to offer unusual facilities for a successful study of the problems involved. That this expectation was more than realized
to see how accurately this distribution has been followed. * * * This fact will relieve New England fruit growers north of southern Connecticut; those inhabiting the greater portion of Pennsylvania, except in the southeastern one-fifth and a western strip; those in New York, except for the strip up the Hudson River, and the loop which comes in from the northwest and includes the counties bordering Lake Ontario on the south, as well as those inhabiting the northern portion of the lower peninsula of Michigan and all of northern Wisconsin, from any fear of this insect. Such a condition of affairs would seem almost too good to be true, but the possibility of its truth is suggested by what we know up to the present time.” (Insect Life, VII, No. 4, March, 1895, p. 292.)
GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 205
may be seen by reference to the report of the expedition.! The area of which a careful survey was made comprises about 5,000 square miles, and enough additional territory was examined to make in all nearly 12,000 square miles, of which a biological map was published.
One result of this first survey was the complete overthrow of the principal faunal areas previously recognized in the United States, and a radical change in our conception of the principles involved. In ascending the mountain a succession of climatic belts were traversed, similar to those encountered in journeying northward from the Southern States to the polar sea, and each belt was found to be inhabited by a distinctive set of animals and plants.
The more important results of the survey may be briefly summarized as follows:
(1) It was demonstrated that terrestrial mammals, birds, reptiles, insects, and plants coincide in distribution, so that a map showing the boundaries of an area inhabited by an association of species in one group serves equally well for the other groups.
(2) Seven distinct belts or zones of animal and plant life were recog- nized between the Desert of the Little Colorado and the summit of San Francisco Mountain: A Desert area, a Pifion belt, a Pine belt, a Canadian belt, a Hudsonian belt, a Timber-line belt (afterwards merged with the Hudsonian as a subdivision), and an Arctic-Alpine area. No attempt was then made to propose a system of nomenclature for these several zones, but the important fact was recognized that they should be classed in two principal categories, a northern or Boreal, and a southern or Sonoran. The Alpine, Timber-line, Hudsonian, and Cana- dian were referred to the Boreal, while the Pine, Pifon, and Desert were referred to the Sonoran.
(3) On comparing the principal facts of distribution on this mountain with corresponding facts over the country at large, three important truths became apparent: (a) That the several life zones of the mountain could be correlated with corresponding zones long recognized in the eastern United States; (b) that these same zones are really of trans- continental extent, though never before recognized in the West; and (c) that the faunas and floras of North America as a whole, and, for that matter, of the Northern Hemisphere north of the tropical region, are properly divisible into but two primary life regions, a northern or Boreal, and a southern or Austral (then termed Sonoran), both streteh- ing across the continent from ocean to ocean.
The report of the expedition was accompanied by colored maps show- ing in detail the geographic and vertical distribution of animals and plants on the mountain, and also by a colored provisional biological map of North America showing the general facts of distribution then available, arranged in accordance with the principles discovered in studying the San Francisco Mountain region.
‘Results of a Biological Survey of the San Francisco Mountain Region in Arizona, North American Fauna, No. 3, September, 1890,
206 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The results of this experimental biological survey were so important nd far reaching as to completely revolutionize current notions of dis- ribution. It was perceived that the Austral as well as the Boreal ements in the fauna and flora are distributed in transcontinental elts; hence the arbitrary and irrational division of the United States nto Eastern, Central, and Western “provinces” gave way before a ‘ational system, based on a knowledge of the actual facts of distribu- ion, which were found to conform to the general principle of temper- ture control early recognized by Humboldt and others.
PROVISION FOR A SYSTEMATIC BIOLOGICAL SURVEY.
Since the primary object of mapping the geographic distribution of pecies is to ascertain the number, positions, and boundaries of the jatural life areas—areas fitted by nature for particular agricultural roductions—the practical importance of the subject outweighed, if pos- ible, its scientific interest. This was clearly set forth in the annual eport of the division for 1889, and Congress was urgently recom- nended to enlarge the scope of the work so that the division might arry on a systematic biological survey. The work on distribution 1ad been previously restricted to a study of mammals and birds. In ompliance with this recommendation, the restriction was removed by Yongress, and in 1890 the division was authorized to undertake a omprehensive investigation of the geographic distribution of animals nd plants. Congress having thus in effect established a biological urvey, the task of mapping the distribution of species and ascertaining he boundaries of the natural life zones was given greater prominence nd has been pushed as rapidly as the means at hand permitted.
In 1890 a biological reconnoissance was made of south-central Idaho, he area covered comprising about 20,000 square miles. The zones ecognized were the same as in the San Francisco Mountain Survey, xcept that the lowermost was absent. In the report on this expedi- ion! the courses of the several zones were described and the charac- eristic species of animals and plants enumerated. The Pine or Neu- ral Zone of the San Francisco Mountain Survey was named the Transition Zone, and the upper division of the Sonoran was formally ecognized as the Upper Sonoran Zone.
THE DEATH VALLEY EXPEDITION.
In 1891 the most comprehensive and thorough biological survey ever ndertaken was made by the division. An area embracing 100,000 quare miles, stretching from the Pacific Coast to the one hundred and hirteenth meridian and from latitude 34° to latitude 38°, was chosen as he field of operations.
1 Report on a Biological Reconnoissance of South-Central Idaho. North American ‘auna, No, 5, July, 1891.
GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 207
This area comprises the greater part of southern California and Nevada, southwestern Utah, and the northwestern corner of Arizona, thus including all of the torrid desert valleys and ranges between the Sierra Nevada and the Colorado Plateau. It embraces also the highest and lowest lands within the United States—from Death Valley, nearly 500 feet below the level of the sea, to the lofty snow-capped peaks of the high Sierra, culminating in Mount Whitney at an altitude of nearly 15,000 feet. The region was selected because of the exceptional advan- tages it offered for studying the distribution of animals and plants in relation to the effects of temperature and humidity at different altitudes. The close proximity of desert valleys and lofty mountains brings near together species which in a more level country are characteristic of widely remote regions. Thus, in one place on the east side of the Sierra all of the life zones of North America, from the table-land of Mexico to the polar sea, may be crossed in a distance of only 10 miles.
The expedition, which came to be known as the Death Valley expe- dition, determined the distinctive species of each zone, traced the courses of the several zones from California to the Colorado Plateau, and made large collections of the mammals, birds, reptiles, insects, and plants, which are now deposited in the United States National Museum. One of the special objects of the expedition, and one early accomplished, was the location of the northern boundary of the Lower Sonoran Zone, a matter of considerable importance, because it marks the northern limit of suecessful raisin production and of profitable cultivation of cotton and several “subtropical” fruits. The valleys and deserts of this zone were determined from a study of the native animals and plants, and were enumerated in the annual report of the division for the same year (1891).1. The results of this biological survey fill three volumes, two of which have been published and distributed;? the third has not yet gone to press.
CORRELATION OF THE LIFE ZONES.
A sufficient body of facts had now been brought together to justify amore comprehensive treatment of the subject than had before been possible. Therefore, in the spring of 1892 the writer published an essay on “The geographic distribution of life in North America, with
1The valleys and deserts of the Lower Sonoran Zone in California, Nevada, and Utah are: In California, the San Joaquin Valley, the whole of the Mohave and Colorado deserts, the San Bernardino, San Gabriel, and Santa Ana valleys, and the coast region to the southward except the mountains, the southern end of Owens Valley, Saline, Salt Wells, Panamint, and Death valleys; in Nevada, the Amargosa Desert, Pahrump, Indian Springs, Vegas, Ivanpah, and Virgin valleys; and in Utah, the St. George or lower Santa Clara Valley. (Rept. Ornith. and Mam. for 1891, p. 270.)
2North American Fauna, No.7, May, 1893; and Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, Vol. [V, November 29, 1893.
208 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
special reference tothe mammalia.”! In this essay the continuity of all the zones, Austral as well as Boreal, was clearly established, tables of distinctive species were published, and the actual courses of the zones were shown on a colored map—the author’s second provisional biogeo- graphic map of North America. The following statement was made respecting the affinities and transcontinental character of the several zones and areas:
The time has now arrived when it is possible to correlate the Sonoran zones of the West with corresponding zones in the East, as was done two years ago in the case of the Boreal zones, and as was intimated in the case of the Neutral or Transition Zone. It can now be asserted with some confidence, not only that the Transition Zone of the West is the equivalent of the Alleghanian of the East, but also that the Upper Sonoran is the equivalent of the Carolinian and the Lower Sonoran of the Austro- riparian, and that each can be traced completely across the continent. Thus all the major and minor zones that have been established in the East are found to be unin- terruptedly continuous with corresponding zones in the West, though their courses are often tortuous, following the lines of equal temperature during the season of reproduction, which lines conform in a general way to the contours of altitude, rising with increased base level and falling with increased latitude.
The zones were segregated into the two great transcontinental re- gions—Boreal and Sonoran ?—that had been recognized two years pre- viously, except that the Transition Zone was allowed to stand between the two without being referred to either. This latter action was criti- cised on the ground that it was illogical to interpose a belt of minor rank between two major regions, although it was conceded that the belt was one in which northern and southern types overlap. At the same time its affinities with the Austral seemed closer than with the Boreal, and it was afterwards allowed to go with the former, as its northern- most subdivision. The arid and humid subdivisions of all of the south- ern or Austral zones were recognized and shown on the map.
RECENT FIELD WORK.
In 1892 the northern boundary of the Lower Sonoran Zone was traced from New Mexico eastward across Texas, Indian Territory, and Arkan- sas to the Mississippi River, and sporadic field work was done in other States.
iPresidential address before the Biological Society of Washington, delivered Feb- ruary 6, 1892. <Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., Vol. VII; April, 1892, pp. 1-64, with colored map.
2The term ‘‘ Sonoran” was still used for the Austral element in the fauna and flora which enters the United States from the table-land of Mexico, to avoid the introduc- tion of a new name, the consideration of the nomenclature of the zones and regions being purposely deferred. The next year, however, the term “‘dustral” was formally used for this region, and the term ‘‘Sonoran” was restricted to its arid or western division. The first public use of the word “Austral” in the sense of a primary life region, was on the models and maps accompanying the exhibit of the Division of Ornithology at the World’s Fair at Chicago in May, 1893, and in the annual report of the division for the same year (p. 228).
GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 209
In 1893 a biological reconnoissance was made of Wyoming, a large part of which was found to be from 1,000 to 3,000 feet lower than repre- sented on current maps, and consequently to have a warmer summer climate than was supposed, and to belong to the Upper Sonoran instead of the Transition Zone. The Wind River and Big Horn basins and the plains east of the Big Horn Mountains were found to be Upper Sono- ran. Other work was done on the Great Plains in Kansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotas, and also in Utah, and on the table-land of Mexico.
During the year now drawing to a close (1894) a biological recon- noissance was made of the larger part of Montana, with special refer- ence to the determination of the boundary between the Upper Sonoran and Transition zones. Other work was done in South Dakota and in the plateau region of Arizona. In the latter region two sections were run from the plateau southward to the Lower Sonoran deserts.
THE SEVEN LIFE ZONES OF NORTH AMERICA,
In the annual report of this division for 1893 the seven life zones of North America, including the tropical, were characterized with special reference to eastern North America, and some of the more important crops adapted to each were mentioned. Beginning at the north, these zones may be described as follows:
(1) The Arctic or Arctic-Alpine Zone lies above the limit of tree growth, and is characterized by such plants as the Arctic poppy, dwarf willow, and various saxifrages and gentians. The snow bunting, snowy owl, white ptarmigan, polar bear, arctic fox, and barren-ground caribou or reindeer are characteristic animals. The zone is of no agricultural importance.
(2) The Hudsonian Zone comprises the northern or higher parts of the great transcontinental coniferous forest—a forest of spruces and firs, stretching from Labrador to Alaska. It is inhabited by the wol- verine, woodland caribou, moose, great northern shrike, pine bullfinch, white-winged crossbill, white-crowned sparrow, and fox sparrow. Like the preceding, this zone is of no agricultural importance.
(3) The Canadian Zone comprises the southern or lower part of the great transcontinental coniferous forest. It comes into the United States from Canada and covers the northern parts of Michigan, Ver- mont, New Hampshire, and Maine. Farther south it is restricted to the summits of the higher Alleghanies. Among the characteristic mammals and birds are the porcupine, varying hare, red squirrel, white-throated sparrow, and yellow-rumped warbler. Counting from the north, this zone is the first of any agricultural consequence. Here white potatoes, turnips, beets, the Oldberg apple, and the more hardy cereals may be cultivated with moderate success.
(4) The Transition Zone is the belt in which Boreal and Austral elements overlap. It covers the greater part of New England, New York, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, and southern Michigan, and pushes
910 YEARBOOK OF THE U. &. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
south along the Alleghanies to extreme northern Georgia. Here the oak, hickory, chestnut, and walnut of the south meet the maple, beech, birch, and hemlock of the north. Thesame overlapping is found among the mammals and birds, for the southern mole and cottontail rabbit,
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the oriole, bluebird, catbird, thrasher, chewink, and wood thrush live in or near the haunts of the hermit and Wilson’s thrushes, solitary vireo, bobolink, red squirrel, jumping mouse, chipmunk, and star-nosed
GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 211
mole. In this zone we enter the true agricultural part of our country, where apples (Oldberg, Baldwin, Greening, wealthy, seek-no-farther, and others), blue plums, cherries, white potatoes, barley, and save attain their highest perfection.
(5) The Carolinian Zone covers the larger part of the Middle States except the mountains; on the Atlantic coast it reaches from near the mouth of Chesapeake Bay to southern Connecticut, and pushes still farther north in the valleys of the Hudson and Connecticut rivers. It is the region in which the sassafras, tulip tree, hackberry, sweet gum, and persimmon first make their appearance, together with the opossum, gray fox, fox squirrel, cardinal bird, Carolina wren, tufted tit, gnat- catcher,and yellow-breasted chat. In this zone the Ben Davis and wine- sap apples, the peach, apricot, quince, sweet potato, tobacco, and the hardier grapes (such as the Concord, Catawba, and Isabella) thrive best.
(6) The Austroriparian Zone covers the greater part of the South Atlantic and Gulf States, beginning at the mouth of Chesapeake Bay. The long-leafed pine, mngniolias and live oak are common on uplands, and the bald cypress and cane in swamps. Here the mocking bird, painted bunting, red-cockaded woodpecker, and chuck-wills-widow are characteristic birds, and the cotton rats, rice-field rats, wood rats, little spotted skunks, and free-tailed bats are common mammals. Thisis the zone of the cotton plant, sugar cane, rice, pecan, and peanut; of the oriental pears (Le Conte and Kieffer), the Scuppernong grape, and of the citrus fruits—the orange, lemon, lime, and shaddock. In its west- ern continuation (the Lower Sonoran) the raisin grape, olive, and almond are among the most important agricultural products, and the fig ripens several crops each year.
(7) The Tropical Region, within the United States, is restricted to southern Florida, extreme southeast Texas (along the lower Rio Grande and Gulf coast), and the valley of the lower Colorado River in Arizona and California. Among the tropical trees that grow in southern Florida are the royal palm, Jamaica dogwood, manchineel, mahogany, and man- grove; and among the birds may be mentioned the white-crowned pigeon, Zenaida dove, quail doves, a Bahaman vireo, Bahama honey- creeper, and caracara eagle. The banana, cocoanut, date palm, pine- apple, mango, and cherimoyer thrive in this belt.
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION,
It now remains to discuss the causes of distribution, or rather the causes, other than absolute geographical barriers, that restrict species to definite areas or belts.' The fact has been long recognized—since the time of Humboldt at least—that animals and plants are not univer. Sally distributed over the earth, but disappear along certain more or less definite lines, which lines indicate a change in temperature uncon genial
' By permission of the Hon. J. J. ‘Sterling Mo: Morton, Secretary of . Agri ieulture, a prelim- inary announcement of the “ Laws of temperature control of the geographic distribu- tion of terrestrial animals and plants” was published in the National Geographic Magazine, Vol. VI, December 29, 1894, pp. 229-238, illustrated by 3 colored maps.
212 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
to the species; but exactly what temperatures exert the controlling influence, and how they can be measured, have only recently been dis- covered. Until the past year the mistake was made of assembling all the temperature data in accordance with a single hypothetical law. Then a radically different plan was tried: The temperature data were platted in accordance with two widely different principles—one with reference to the northern, the other the southern, boundaries of the zones. This departure was suggested by a Somewhat tardy recognition of the fundamental facts of distribution discovered in 1889, namely, that animals and plants are themselves distributed from two directions— Boreal species from the north, and Austral species from the south. It seemed reasonable to infer, therefore, that northward distribution should be governed by one set of temperatures, and southward distri- bution by another. The temperature selected as probably fixing the limit of northward distribution is the sum of effective heat for the entire season of growth and reproduction, for it has been proved experiment- ally and long recognized by phenologists that many species of plants require a definite sum total of heat in order to successfully perform the several vital functions of leafing, blossoming, and fruiting, and that such plants can not mature their seeds until a particular sum of heat is attained. Since plants are unaffected by temperatures below and immediately above the freezing point, a minimum of 6° C. or 43° F. was assumed to represent the inception of the period of physiological activity in spring, and hence was used as a Starting point in adding the normal daily temperatures for the entire period in question. Beginning at 43° T’., all mean daily temperatures in excess of this were added together, the end of the period in fall being the time when the temperature fell to the same initial point. In this way it became possible to ascertain the total quantity of heat required for each species experimented upon.
When the sums of the positive temperatures for a large number of localities in the United States were platted on a large scale map it was found that isotherms (lines showing an equal quantity of heat) could be drawn that correspond almost exactly with the northern boundaries of the several zones. In the case of the southern boundaries a greater difficulty was encountered, for no data had been published bearing on the temperature control of southward distribution. At the same time it seemed evident, from data previously collected by the division, that Species are limited in their southward distribution by the mean temper- ature of a brief period during the hottest part of the summer. For experimental purposes the mean normal temperature of the hottest six consecutive weeks of summer was assumed to be the factor desired, and this temperature was platted for a large number of localities. Isotherms were then drawn which marked the southern boundaries of the several zones along the Atlantic coast, and it was found that in ranging west- ward these isotherms conformed throughout to the tortuous boundaries of the Boreal, Transition, and Upper Austral zones, previously mapped from a study of the actual distribution of animals and plants.
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GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 213
While it is not for a moment supposed that the subject has been dis- posed of in all its details, it is confidently believed that the principles controlling the geographic distribution of terrestrial animals and plants have been discovered and that they may be expressed as follows:
In northward distribution terrestrial animals and plants are restricted by the sum of the positive temperatures for the entire season of growth and reproduction.
In southward distribution they are restricted by the mean tempera- ture of a brief period during the hottest part of the year.
It is believed that these two principles cover the fundamental facts of distribution.
RECAPITULATION.
When the division undertook the study of the geographic distribu- tion of life in North America, the transcontinental or zonary character of the principal life areas was not recognized, and the laws governing distribution were unknown. Zoologists and botanists had always worked independently; the maps each had published differed radically among themselves, and no agreement could be found between the two series. The divisions commonly adopted by zoologists were three—an Eastern, a Central, and a Western or Pacific province or region. In addition to these, some authors had recognized a transcontinental Boreal region, which was clearly shown on a map published by Dr. A. S. Packard in 1878.!
The first biological survey undertaken by the division (in 1889) estab- lished the important facts that the same laws govern the distribution of both animals and plants, and that the resulting areas of distribution are essentially coincident. It showed also that the life areas of North America and of the Northern Hemisphere as a whole take the form of a definite number of circumpolar or transcontinental belts, and that these belts or zones naturally arrange themselves in two principal cat- egories or regions—a northern or Boreal and a southern or Austral.
The work accomplished by the division up to the present time may be briefly summarized as follows: The continent of North America has been divided into three primary life regions—Boreal, Austral, and Tropical—each of transcontinental extent. Their boundaries are sin- uous, conforming to the distribution of temperature.
The Boreal Region stretches from Nova Scotia and Newfoundland westward to the Pacific Ocean, and from northern New England and the Great Lakes northward to the pole and southward over the prin-
‘Dr. Packard’s map was a decided advance over those of his predecessors, inas- much as it showed the Boreal region to extend southward over the three great mountain systems of the United States—the Alleghanies, Rocky Mountains, and Sierra-Cascade. The remainder of North America, as shown on Dr. Packard’s map, was divided between the three commonly recognized regions above mentioned—the eastern, central, and western or Pacific—to which were added on the south a Central American region and an Antillean region.
14 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
pal mountains of the United States and Mexico. It is subdivided ito three principal belts or zones, Arctic, Hudsonian, and Canadian. ) The Arctic or Arctic-Alpine belt comprises Arctic America above ie limit of tree growth, including Greenland and a narrow strip along 1e coast of Labrador and Newfoundland, and also the summits of the igher mountains above timber line throughout the United States and fexico; (2) the Hudsonian Zone embraces the northern half of the reat coniferous forest that reaches across the continent from Labrador » Alaska; (8) the Canadian Zone embraces the southern half of the reat coniferous forest, stretching westward from northern New neland and Nova Scotia to British Columbia.
The Austral Region is likewise subdivided into three transconti- ental zones: (1) A Transition Zone; (2) an Upper Austral Zone; (3) a ower Austral Zone, all stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific
nd winding about sufficiently to cover areas of equal temperature.
ach of the three Austral belts may be subdivided in an east and est direction into two or more areas, some of which are based on umidity instead of temperature. The eastern ends of these three elts have been long recognized by zoologists, and are known as the Nleghanian, Carolinian, and Austroriparian faunas. It was early nown by the division that the Austroriparian is the direct continua- on of the arid Lower Sonoran fauna of the table-land of Mexico and 1e southwestern United States, and that this same faunal belt occu- ies the interior valley of California and most of the peninsula of ower California.
The Tropical Region comprises Central America, the greater part of 1e coastal lowlands of Mexico, and the Antilles. It enters the United tates at three points, southern Florida, the lower Rio Grande region 1 Texas, and the valley of the lower Colorado River in western Ari- ona and southeastern California.
The various zones liave been studied in the field by the division and heir boundaries located and mapped over extensive areas. Summary.—The principles of geographic distribution of terrestrial nhimals and plants in the Northern Hemisphere were clearly recog- ized in 1889; the correlation of the life zones was completed in 1892; he laws of temperature control were formulated in 1894. The work emaining undone relates to details and may be classed under four eads: (1) Completion of the boundary surveys of the several zones; 2) subdivision of the zones into minor faunas and floras; (3) tabulation f the distinctive species of each zone and its subdivisions; (4) formu- ition of the subordinate laws governing the restriction of species to articular areas within the principal zones.
It appears, therefore, that in its broader aspects the study of the eographic distribution of life in North America is completed. The rimary regions and their principal subdivisions have been defined nd mapped, the problems involved in the control of distribution have een solved, and the laws themselves have been formulated.
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HAWKS AND OWLS AS RELATED TO THE FARMER.
By A. K. FIsHer, M. D., Assistant Ornithologist, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
CAUSE OF THE PREJUDICE AGAINST BIRDS OF PREY.
The old saying that ‘a little knowledge is a dangerous thing” is exemplified in the way our hawks and owls are looked upon by a large majority of mankind. The farmer sees a hawk strike a fowl which has wandered from the farmyard; the sportsman, while planning the cap- ture of a covey of quail, finds the mutilated remains of a game bird and feels sure it is the unlawful prey of a thieving owl—without further investigation both men condemn birds of prey as a class, and lose no opportunity to destroy them and their eggs and young.
The ill feeling has become so deep rooted that it is instinctive even in those who have never seen any depredations. How are we to account for this hatred against birds of prey by the class of men who should be the first to clamor for their protection? The prejudice is largely due to lack of discrimination. Since they know that hawks and owls attack poultry, they do not stop to think that these depredations may be made by a few species only, but make a sweeping condemnation of the whole family. The reasoning is much the same as that of an Indian or fron- tiersman, who, being wronged by one individual, condemns a whole race. It would be just as rational to take the standard for the human race from highwaymen and pirates as to judge all hawks by the deeds of a few. Even when the industrious hawks are observed beating tirelessly back and forth over the harvest fields and meadows, or the owls are seen at dusk flying silently about the nurseries and orchards, busily engaged in hunting the voracious rodents which destroy alike the grain, produce, young trees, and eggs of birds, the curses of the majority of farmers and sportsmen go with them, and their total extine- tion would be welcomed. How often are the services rendered to man misunderstood through ignorance! The birds of prey, the majority of which labor day and night to destroy the enemies of the husbandman, are persecuted unceasingly, while that gigantic fraud—the house cat— is petted and fed and given a secure shelter from which it may emerge in the evening to spread destruction among the feathered tribe. The difference between the two can be summed up in a few words—only
three or four birds of prey hunt birds when they can procure rodents for 215
216 YEARBOOK OF THE U, S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
food, while a cat seldom touches mice if she can procure birds or young poultry. A cat has been known to kill 20 young chickens in a day, which is more than most raptorial birds destroy in a lifetime.
It is to be lamented that the members of the legislative committees who draft the game laws of various States have not a better knowledge of the life histories of raptorial birds. It is surprising also that gun clubs should be so far behind the times as to offer prizes to those who kill the greatest number of birds of prey; for in clubs of any impor- tance, there must be naturalists whose counsel ought to prevent such barbarity. That the beneficial species of hawks and owls will eventu- ally be protected there is not the slightest doubt, for when the farmer is convinced that they are his friends he will demand their protection; and already the leading agricultural papers and sportsman’s journals are deprecating their indiscriminate slaughter.
SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF RAPACIOUS BIRDS.
The rapacious birds are slow breeders, rearing only one brood a year, though of course if the first set of eggs is destroyed another will be deposited. The young grow slowly and need a relatively large amount of food to develop properly. To satisfy their enormous appetite requires constant foraging on the part of the parents, and the strain of bringing up the family is probably twice that of any of the other land birds. Even the adults are large eaters, gorging to the utmost when the opportunity presents; and as digestion is very rapid and assimilation perfect, a great quantity of food in relation to the body weight is con- sumed each day. Taking more food than necessary for immediate wants enables them to store up force for future emergencies, for they are often required to withstand great exposure and long-protracted fasts, especially during inclement weather.
Hawks and owls are complementary to each other. ‘While hawks hunt by day and keep diurnal mammals in check, owls, whose eyesight is keenest during twilight and the early hours before dawn, capture nocturnal species which the former is not apt to obtain. Again, the owls are less migratory than the hawks, and during the long winter nights they remain in the land of ice and snow to wage incessant war- fare against the little enemies of the orchard, garden, and harvest fields.
Although much may be learned about the food from observing the habits of the live birds, the only way to find out the full range and relative percentages of the food elements is by examination of the stomach contents. Sometimes, in the case of birds of prey, a moder- ately complete and reliable index to the food can be obtained by exam- ining the “pellets.” Hawks and owls often swallow their smaller victims entire and tear the larger ones into several pieces, swallowing each fragment as it is detached. After the nutritious portion of the food has been absorbed, the indigestible parts, such as hair, feathers, scales, bones, and other hard parts, are rolled into a solid ball by the
HAWKS AND OWLS AS RELATED TO THE FARMER. 217
action of the muscles of the stomach. These masses, kuown as ‘pel- lets” are regurgitated before fresh food is taken. The movements of the stomach so shape the “pellets” that the sharp pieces of bone which might otherwise injure the mucous membrane are carefully enveloped in a felty covering of hair or feathers. The pellets contain everything necessary to identify the food, and in the case of some of the owls which have regular roosting places the vast number of pellets that collect underneath give an almost perfect record of the results of their hunting excursions,
FOOD HABITS OF THE PRINCIPAL BIRDS OF PREY,
It is the object of the present paper to review more or less briefly the food habits of the principal birds of prey of the United States, so that those who are most interested in the subject imay be able to distinguish between enemies and friends, and hence be saved the humiliation of wronging the latter while endeavoring to destroy the former.
Hawks and owls may be divided arbitrarily into four classes, accord- ing to their beneficial and harmful qualities:
(1) Species which are wholly beneficial.
(2) Those chiefly beneficial.
(3) Those in which the beneficial and harmful qualities about balance.
(4) Harmful species.
It should be stated here that several of the species may belong to one or another class according to the locality they frequent. A hawk or owl may be locally injurious because at that place mice, squirrels, insects, and other noxious animals are scarce, and consequently the bird has to feed on things of more or less value to man, while in other regions where its favorite food is obtainable in sufficient quantity it does absolutely no harm. <A good example of this kind is given under the head of the great horned owl in a subsequent part of this paper.
To the wholly beneficial class belong the large rough-legged hawk, its near relative, the squirrel hawk or ferruginous roughleg, and the four kites—the white-tailed kite, Mississippi kite, swallow-tailed kite, and everglade kite.
The chiefly beneficial class contains a majority of the hawks and owls, and includes the following species and their races: Marsh hawk, Harris’s hawk, red-tailed hawk, red-shouldered hawk, short-tailed hawk, white-tailed hawk, Swainson’s hawk, short-winged hawk, broad-winged hawk, Mexican black hawk, Mexican goshawk, sparrow hawk, Audu- bon’s caracara, barn owl, long-eared owl, short-eared owl, great gray owl, barred owl, western owl, Richardson’s owl, Acadian owl, screech owl, flammulated screech owl, snowy owl, hawk owl, burrowing owl, pygmy owl, ferruginous pygmy owl, and elf owl.
The class in which the harmful and beneficial qualities balance includes the golden eagle, bald eagle, pigeon hawk, Richardson’s hawk, Aplomado falcon, prairie falcon, and great horned owl.
218 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The harmful class comprises the gyrfalcons, duck hawk, sharp-shinned hawk, Cooper’s hawk, and goshawk.
HARMLESS SPECIES OF HAWKS AND OWLS.
We will now take up each class and examine the species more or less in detail so as to show briefly the character of the food. The harmless species include the four kites, which, if not as beneficial as some of the hawks, are at least perfectly harmless. The everglade kite is found within our borders in Florida only, where it is restricted to the middle and southern portions. It feeds exeiusively ona large fresh-water snail,
Fia. 21.—Swainson’s Hawk (Buteo swainsoni).
which abounds in the shallow lakes and overflowed sections grown up with grass and other herbage. The swallow-tailed, Mississippi, and white-tailed kites feed largely upon reptiles and insects, and never as far as known attack birds. The szallow-tailed is reported as feeding quite extensively on the cotton worm during the summer and early fall. If this is a common habit, it brings the bird at once into prominence as of economic importanee and of great value to the Southern planter. The Mississippi kite and its white-tailed ally devour large numbers of lizards, small snakes, and insects; of the latter, grasshoppers and beetles are most frequently taken.
HAWKS AND OWLS AS RELATED TO THE FARMER. 219
WHOLLY BENEFICIAL HAWKS.
The rough-legged hawk, and the ferruginous roughleg, or squirrel hawk, as it is sometimes called on aecount of its great fondness for the ground squirrels so destructive in the West, are among our largest and at the same time the most beneficial hawks. The former breeds wholly north of the United States, migrating south in September and October and remaining until the following April. The latter breeds extensively through the Great Plains region. The winter range of the roughleg is determined more by the fall of snow than by the intensity of cold, the main body advancing and retreating as the barrier of snow melts or accumulates. Meadow mice and lemmings form the staple food of this bird. In this country the lemmings do not reach our terri- tory except in Alaska, but in the north of EKurope they occasionally form into vast, migrating, devastating hordes which carry destruction to all crops in the country passed over. The vole, or meadow mouse, is common in many parts of this country, and is, east of the Missis- sippi River, without doubt, the most destructive mammal to agricul- ture. It destroys meadows by tunneling under them and eating the roots of grass. In many meadows the runways form networks which extend in every direction, giving an idea of the animal’s abundance. This mouse also destroys grain and various kinds of vegetables, espe- cially tubers, but probably does even more damage by girdling young fruit trees. In 1892 considerable areas in southeastern Scotland were overrun by meadow mice and a large amount of property was destroyed during the ‘‘vole plague.” Just such invasions might be expected in any country where predaceous mammals and birds are reduced to a mini- mum in the supposed interest of game preservation. This wholly upsets nature’s balance, and the injurious rodents are left practically without an enemy to control their increase. We lave little reason, however, to exult over the older country, for in many portions of the United States the people, if they had the power, would follow the same shortsighted policy, causing inestimable damage to the agriculturist. Attempts have been made in some States to reduce the number of hawks and owls by offering bounties for their heads, but fortunately the work has not been carried far enough to do the harm that has been done by the long- continued efforts of gamekeepers in Great Britain.
The roughleg is one of man’s most important allies against meadow mice, feeding on little else during its six months’ sojourn in the United States. It thus renders important service in checking the ravages of these small but formidable pests. The roughleg is somewhat crepuscu- lar in habits, being on the alert during twilight and early dawn, when small mammals are most active. Other mice, rabbits, and ground- squirrels are taken occasionally, and some of the older writers state that waterfowl are captured by this bird. The writer has made careful inquiries of a considerable number of persons who have had extensive
220. YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
field experience where these birds are common and in no instance has he heard of their attacking birds. Even better evidence is found in the fact that stomachs of specimens shot in locations teeming with water- fowl contained nothing but the remains of meadow mice.
The ferruginous roughleg is as fully beneficial as its relative, though the character of its food differs somewhat. In many parts of the coun- try inhabited by it, the meadow mice which play such an important part in the economy of the other bird are scarce or wanting, but are replaced by nearly as destructive rodents, the ground squirrels. Upon these this large and handsome hawk wages a continuous warfare, and
great is the service it performs in keeping their numbers in check.
Rabbits, prairie dogs, and occasionally pouched gophers are eaten. It is humiliating to think how many of these two noble hawks are ruth- lessly murdered, and to reflect that legislators put bounties on their heads to satisfy the ignorant prejudices of their constituents.
HAWKS AND OWLS MOSTLY BENEFICIAL.
Nearly two-thirds of the birds of prey inhabiting the United States belong in the second class, which comprises such hawks and owls as are mainly beneficial. A few of the most useful and well-known species will be considered in detail.
The marsh hawk is one of the most valuable in the class on account of its abundance, wide distribution, and peculiar habits. It is more or less common throughout the United States and may be easily recog- nized by its white rump, slender form, and long, narrow wings, as it beats untiringly over the meadows, marshes, and prairie lands in search of food. If it were not that it occasionally pounces upon small birds, game, and poultry, its place in the first class would be insured, for it is an indefatigable mouser. Rodents, such as meadow mice, rabbits, arboreal squirrels, and ground squirrels, are its favorite quarry. In parts of the West the latter animals form its chief sustenance. Liz- ards, snakes, frogs, and birds are also taken. Among the birds most often captured are the smaller ground-dwelling sparrows, of least use to the farmer.
From its abundance, wide distribution, and striking appearance, the red-tailed hawk is provably the best known of ali the larger hawks. Since it is handicapped by the misleading name “hen hawk,” its habits should be carefully examined. There is no denying that both it and the red-shouldered hawk, also known as “hen hawk,” do occasionally eat poultry, but the quantity is so small in comparison with the vast num- bers of destructive rodents consumed that it is hardly worth mention- ing. While fully 66 per cent of the red-tail’s food consists of injurious mammals, not more than 7 per cent consists of poultry, and it is prob- able that a large proportion of the poultry and game captured by it and the other buzzard hawks is made up of old, diseased, or otherwise disabled fowls. It is well known to poulterers and owners of game
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HAWKS AND OWLS AS RELATED TO THE FARMER, 221
preserves that killing off the diseased and enfeebled birds, and so pre- venting their interbreeding with the sound stock, keeps the yard and coveys in good condition and hinders the spread of fatal epidemics. It seems, therefore, that the birds of prey which catch aged, frost-bitten, and diseased poultry, together with wounded and crippled game, are serving both farmer and sportsman.
Abundant proof is at hand to show that the red-tail greatly prefers the smaller mammals, reptiles, and batrachians, taking little else when these Gan be obtained in sufficient numbers. If hard pressed by hun- ger, however, it will eat any form of life and will not reject even offal and carrion; dead crows from about the roosts, poultry which has been thrown on the compost heap, and flesh from the carcasses of goats, sheep, and the larger domesticated animals being eaten at such times. The immature birds are more apt to commit depredations, the reason probably being that they lack skill to procure a sufficient quantity of their staple food. <A large proportion of the birds captured consists of ground-dwelling species, which are probably snatched up while half concealed in the grass or other vegetation. Among the mammals most often eaten and most injurious to mankind are the arboreal and ground squirrels, rabbits, voles and other mice. The stomachs of the red-tailed hawks examined contained Abert’s squirrel, red squirrel, three species of gray squirrels, two species of chipmunks, Say’s ground squirrel, plateau ground squirrel, Franklin’s ground squirrel, striped ground squirrel, harvest mouse, common rat, house mouse, white-footed mouse, Sonoran white-footed mouse, wood rat, meadow mouse, pine mouse, Cooper’s lemming mouse, cotton rat, jumping mouse, porcupine, jack rabbit, three races of cottontails, pouched gopher, kangaroo rat, skunk, mole, and four kinds of shrews. The larger insects, such as grasshop- pers, crickets, and beetles, are sometimes extensively used as food.
The red-shouldered hawk, or,as it is sometimes incorrectly called, the ‘hen hawk,” is a common bird, and a very valuable one to the farmer. It is more omnivorous than most of our birds of prey, and has been detected feeding on mice, birds, snakes, frogs, fish, grasshoppers, cen- tipedes, spiders, crawfish, earthworms, and snails. As about 90 per cent of its food consists of injurious maminals and insects, and hardly 1$ per cent of poultry and game, the reader may draw his own couclu- Sions as to the appropriateness of the title “hen hawk,” so often mis- applied to this species. A pair of these hawks bred for successive years within a few hundred yards of a poultry farm containing 800 young chickens and 400 ducks, and the owner never saw them attempt to catch a fowl. Besides mice, squirrels, shrews, and insects, which form their principal food, frogs, snakes, and crawfish are also taken.
Such facts as these must convince intelligent persons not only that it is folly to destroy this valuable bird, but that it should be every- where fostered and protected.
222 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The food of Swainsen’s hawk (fig. 21) is of much the same character as that of the two preceding species, except that more insects and fewer birds aretaken Soon after the breeding season the hawks collect in the foothills and on the plains of the West, forming flocks, some of which contain hundreds of individuals, and feed almost exclusively on grass- hoppers and erickets. If we assume that 100 grasshoppers, which is only three-quarters of the number actually found in a stomach after a single meal, is the daily allowance for one hawk, we have a grand total of 900,000 for the work of a flock of 300 birds in one month. The weight of this vast number of insects, allowing 15.4 grains for the weight of each, amounts to 1,984 pounds. An average of a number of estimates given by entomologists places the quantity of food daily devoured by a grasshopper as equal to his own weight; consequently if these grasshoppers had been spared by the hawks the farmer would have lost in one month nearly 30 tons of produce. The above estimate is probably much too low; for each hawk doubtless eats at least 200 grasshoppers daily, which would double the amount, making the loss 60 tons instead of 30. This is the work of a month for only 300 hawks. What estimate can be placed on the services of the hundreds of thousands which are engaged in the same work for months at a time? In many places hawks are all that are left of the mighty army which once waged war against these insect pests and so kept them in check. The game birds, such as the wild turkey, prairie chicken, grouse, and quail, have been swept away by the ruthless hand of man, and even the skunks, foxes, and snakes are rapidly following. To make matters worse, at least one Western State passed a bounty act which paid for the destruction of hawks and owls, as a result of which thousands of grasshopper-eating hawks were destroyed at the public expense. Is it a wonder that after their enemies were reduced to a minimum the grass- hoppers increased and spread destruction before them?
All naturalists who have written on the habits of Swainson’s hawk affirm that it is a great enemy to the ground squirrel and other inju- rious rodents which infest the West and torment the farmer. The evidence shows that it rarely touches poultry, game, or small birds. In the Southwest the writer has often seen the nests of small birds in the same trees and in close proximity to the nests of the hawks, the birds apparently living in perfect harmony. Other observers have noticed the same thing.
The broad-winged hawk, a medium-sized species, common throughout the eastern United States, feeds largely on insects, small mammals, snakes, toads, and frogs, and occasionally on small birds. It is espe- cially fond of the larve or caterpillars of the large moths which feed upon the leaves of fruit and shade trees. These insects are too large and formidable for the smaller insectivorous birds to attack; hence their principal enemies are the hawks, of which the one under consid- eration is the most important. It also feeds extensively upon grass-
HAWKS AND OWLS AS RELATED TO THE FARMER. 223
hoppers, crickets, cicadw, May beetles and other coleoptera. Like the other buzzard hawks (Buteo), it is fond of meadow mice, and also takes considerable numbers of chipmunks, shrews, red squirrels, and occa- sionally rabbits and moles. Probably the greatest damage done by this hawk is the destruction of toads and snakes, which are mainly insectivorous and hence beneficial to the farmer.
The sparrow hawk, which is found throughout the United States, is the smallest and handsomest of our birds of prey, and, with the pos- sible exception of the red-tail, the best known. Itis the only one of the true falcons which can be placed in the “mainly beneficial” class. At times it follows the example of its larger relatives and attacks small birds and young chickens, but these irregularities are so infrequent that they are more than outweighed by its usual good services in destroying insects and mice. Grasshoppers, crickets, and other insects form its principal food during the warm months, while mice predomi- nate during the rest of the year. in localities where these insects are abundant it congregatés, often in moderate-sized bands, and feeds almost continuously on them. Terrestrial caterpillars, beetles, and spiders are also eaten to aconsiderable extent. As might be expected, a very large proportion of the birds captured is taken while the hawks are busy hatching their eggs and rearing the young, thus having less time to procure their favorite food. It is also at this time that we hear complaints of their depredations in poultry yards. During the late fall and winter months the meadow mice and house mice form a large part of their food, the former being taken in the fields and meadows, and the latter around the corn stacks and about the barns and out- buildings. On account of the sparrow hawk’s confidence and lack of fear, it is one of the species which suffers most from the unjust bounty laws. Any vandal who can carry a gun is able to slaughter this little hawk. Mr. W. B. Hall, of Wakeman, Ohio, writes us that while the hawk law was in force in Ohio he was township clerk in his native village and issued 86 certificates, 46 being for sparrow hawks. He examined the stomachs and found 45 of them to contain the remains of grasshoppers and beetles, while the remaining one contained the fur and bones of a meadow mouse. Mr. H. W. Henshaw, visiting Colorado in 1883, after the bounty act had been in force for some time, found that the sparrow hawks had been almost exterminated in districts where several years before he had found them exceedingly numerous,
It is a question whether the slightly harmful owls should not be placed among the wholly beneficial species, for the injury done in destroying birds and poultry is insignificant compared with their good work. The barn owl is a southern species, rarely occurring with regu- larity in the northern half of the United States except west of the Sierra Nevada. Its food is made up almost entirely of mammals, with now and then a few insects, and occasionally a bird. Among the former are several species of rodents which, from their great numbers
224 YEARBOOK OF THE U, S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
and destructive habits, are a curse to the country they inhabit. Of this group the pouched gopher is one of the most destructive, not only to vegetables and grain crops but also to shade and fruit trees. The injuries to trees are the most serious, as the animals sometimes gnaw off the roots and destroy entire groves and orchards. In California, where this mammal is common, the barn owl feeds very extensively ou it. In the South Atlantic and Gulf States the owl feeds extensively on the cotton rat, a mammal of destructive habits found abundantly in the bottom lands and near water. The common rat is also greedily devoured. The writer has examined the contents of 200 pellets taken from the nesting site of a pair of these owls in one of the towers of the Smithsonian Institution. Of the total of 454 skulls contained in these pellets there were 225 meadow mice, 2 pine mice, 179 house mice, 20 rats, 6 jumping mice, 20 shrews, 1 starnosed mole, and 1 vesper spar- row. This examination gives a pretty complete index to the class of food taken by this species in the East, along the northern border of its range.
The long-eared owl is an industrious mouser, and molests compara- tively few birds. Several years ago we examined 107 stomachs of this owl, of which 15 were empty. Of the 92 remaining, 86, or over 93 per cent, contained the remains of small mammals. As the bird oceurs in suitable localities all over the United States and is one of the com- monest owls, the good it does must be very great. Like the sparrow hawk, this owl is easily destroyed, and so is one of the greatest suf- ferers when laws are enacted for the destruction of birds of prey, and many a bounty has been paid for its head.
The short-eared owl is another common species, but is not so well distributed as the preceding. It is found in more open country, and in fall and winter often congregates in large bands about meadow lands and the larger marshes. Fully 75 per cent of its food consists of mice; as many as six of these mammals have been found in one stomach. It probably also feeds on the smaller ground squirrels in the West, but we have been unable to procure much positive data on the subject. Among birds, the sparrows inhabiting the meadows and prairies are most often taken. In an interesting article by Mr. Peter Adair, in the Annals of Scottish Natural History for October, 1893, on the disap- pearance of the short-tailed vole, which caused the vole plague in Scot- land in 1890-1892, the statement is made that farmers and shepherds attribute its disappearance largely to the action of its natural enemies, stress being laid on the services of the owl, kestrel, rook, and black- headed gull among birds and the stoat and weasel amoung mammals. These men are also of the opinion that the recent vole plague is a result of the destruction of birds of prey. When the plague first commenced the short-eared owl was hardly known in the district, but, swarming . thither, it bred till it was so numerous that it became an important fac- tor in reducing the number of voles. In speaking of an enemy of the
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HAWKS AND OWLS AS RELATED TO THE FARMER. 225
owl, Mr. Adair recorded an interesting fact. A fox which had acquired a taste for lamb had to be disposed of. In the lair with its 5 young were found 76 dead short-eared owls, a number of grouse, black game, partridges, ducks, curlew, plover, rats, voles, and lambs. This was in May, and of this great number of owls 8 were adults and 68 were young. During a number of vole invasions of Great Britain in previous years short-eared owls had been observed to increase rapidly and do good work in destroying the pests.
The barred owl is one of the larger common species in eastern North America. It has the reputation, especially among the older writers, of being very destructive to poultry. Ourexamination of 100 stomachs shows that about 44 per cent of its food consists of poultry and game. Half-grown fowls which roost among the trees and bushes away from the farmyards are the ones that suffer. If the chickens were shut up in the yard at night the owl would not be tempted to depart from its regular diet. The barred owl is more given to cannibalistic habits than any of the other species. Of 109 stomachs which passed under the writer’s notice, 7 contained the remains of smaller owls. Numerous accounts of similar instances have appeared in various journals. Insects, such as grasshoppers, crickets, May beetles and other coleoptera, are fre- quently taken. In some localities crawfish form a considerable portion of this owl’s food, and frogs and fish are occasionally taken. The major- ity of its food, however, consists of small mammals, among them some of the most destructive rodents the farmer has to contend with. The following list shows the species of mammals positively identified in the stomach contents: Meadow mouse, pine mouse, short-tailed shrew, chipmunk, red squirrel, flying squirrel, cottontail rabbit, golden mouse, white-footed mouse, red-backed mouse, common mole, Cooper’s lemming mouse, and common rat. In summing up the facts relative to the food habits of this owl, it appears that although it occasionally makes inroads upon poultry and game, it destroys large numbers of injurious mammals and insects, and hence should occupy a place on the list of birds to be protected.
The little screech owl is well known throughout the greater part of the United States. With the exception of the burrowing owl, it feeds more extensively on insects than any of the other species. It is also a diligent mouser, and feeds more or less frequently on crawfish, frogs, toads, scorpions, lizards, and fish. Of 254 stomachs examined, birds were found in about 15 per cent. Fully one-third of these consisted of English sparrows, and a large proportion of the rest were ground-dwell- ing sparrows, which feed largely on seeds and are of little economic importance. Among insects, grasshoppers, crickets, beetles, and cut- worms are most often eaten. As many as 50 grasshoppers have been found in one stomach, 18 May beetles in another, and 13 cutworms ina third. During the warmer parts of the year it is exceptional to find a stomach not well filled with insect remains, Meadow mice, white-
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226 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
footed mice, and house mice are the mammals most often taken, while chipmunks, wood rats, flying squirrels, and moles are less frequently found. The screech owl is fond of fish and it apparently catches many, especially in winter. At this time it watches near the breathing holes in the ice, and seizes the luckless fish which comes to the surface. Most of the birds destroyed by this owl are killed either in severe winter weather or during the breeding season, when it has hard work to feed its young. As nearly three-fourths of the owl’s food consists of injurious mammals and insects, and only about one-seventh of birds (a large proportion of which are destructive English sparrows), there is no question that this little owl should be carefully protected.
The snowy owl is a large arctic species which in winter occasionally occurs in considerable numbers in the United States. On account of
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its large size it is capable of doing great good in destroying nox- ious mammals. The stomachs which we have examined were collected between the last of October and March, and make a very good showing for the bird. Although a number of water birds were found, a large proportion of the contents consisted of mammalremains. One stomach contained 14 white-footed mice and 3 meadow mice, and in others as many as 5 to 8 of these little rodents were found. The common rat occurred in a number of stomachs and appears to be considerably sought after. Itis a lamentable fact that this useful bird is slaughtered in great numbers whenever it appears within our limits. According to Mr. Ruthven Deane, as many as 500 were killed in New England during the winter of 1876-77,
HAWKS AND OWLS AS RELATED TO THE FARMER. 227
Although the little burrowing owl is preeminently an insect-eating bird, it also feeds on small mammals and rarely on birds. It is common throughout the plains of the West, where it is usually a permanent resi- dent. During the warmer months it feeds almost exclusively on insects and scorpions, and at other times on small mammals. In regard to its habit of eating scorpions, Mr. George H. Wyman, of St. George, Utah, states, in Forest and Stream for March 3, 1887, that during the summer the owl comes quietly about the house at dusk and picks up the scor- pions by scores. Usually it has a place near by where it retreats to eat such portions as are desired. It devours the soft parts of the scor- pion, leaving the head, claws, and tail, until a quart or more of such remnants may be found at the place of banquet. Among insects, grass- hoppers, crickets, beetles, and caterpillars are taken in large quantities, and the birds may be seen pursuing the more agile species even at mid- day. The burrowing owl (fig. 22) is a beautiful, harmless bird, and should be protected by law.
The golden eagie, bald eagle, pigeon hawk, Richardson’s hawk, Aplo- mado falcon, prairie falcon, and great horned owl belong to the third class, which includes those whose beneficial and noxious qualities about balance each other. Still at times any one of them may become decid- edly beneficial in localities infested by some of the numerous rodents which injure crops. The golden eagle, an inhabitant of the Northern Hemisphere, is found in most parts of the United States, though it is more common in the West. The food consists of game, such as fawns, rabbits, woodchucks, prairie dogs, and ground squirrels, among mam- mals, and turkeys, grouse, and waterfowl, among birds. At times it also troubles the young of domesticated animals, notably lambs, pigs, goats, and poultry. It has been known to attack calves and colts, but these instances must be exceptional and when the birds are hard pressed by hunger. Over extensive areas of the West the golden eagle and other birds of prey unite in keeping many species of noxious rodents in check, and must be considered beneficial. In the more thickly inhabited regions, however, where such food is searce, they often do great damage by carrying off lambs, young pigs, kids, and poultry. As many as four hundred lambs are reported to have been taken from contiguous ranges in one season. It thus will be seen that in one instance the bird should be protected, and in the other kept in check.
The bald eagle, the emblem of our country, is found in suitable localities throughout the United States, though it is more common near large bodies of water than elsewhere. Its favorite food is fish, and when they can be obtained either by capture or in the shape of offal it will touch little else. A considerable proportion of the fish secured is taken from the osprey or fishhawk; still the eagle is fully capable of fishing for itself when necessity demands. Where fish are searce or for any reason hard to procure, it will feed on waterfowl from the size
228 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
of large swans down to the smaller ducks and coots. Like the golden eagle, it preys on many of the destructive rodents in the West and is there considered a beneficial bird. Unfortunately, it is fond of lambs, pigs, and poultry, and probably does as much damage as the golden eagle in the more thickly inhabited regions. A great deal of sensa- tional matter has appeared from time to time in the various newspapers about eagles attacking and carrying off children. Few of these stories
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have any foundation in truth, though in olden times, when eagles had less fear of man, they may have picked up an unguarded infant.
The pigeon hawk, Richardsows hawk, and Aplomado falcon are all true falcons. Though they feed on the flesh of birds, they destroy enough insects and noxious mammals to partially offset the injury they do. The prairie falcon inhabits the dry Western plains and neighbor- ing mountains, in the cliffs of which it builds its nest. Throughout a large portion of the country inhabited by this species, poultry is scarce, as most of the ranchers do not yet attempt to raise it, Although this
HAWKS AND OWLS AS RELATED TO THE FARMER. 229
falcon feeds extensively upon waterfowl, quail, prairie chickens, and other game, it also attacks various kinds of injurious mammals, notably the smaller ground squirrels, such as the striped, Franklin’s, Richard- son’s, Harris’s, and the allied species, which abound in many sections of the country included in its range. In this respect it is of considerable service to the agriculturist, and probably offsets the injury done by destroying game; but, unfortunately, the data at hand are insufficient to show just how extensively it preys on these’ animals; hence the benefit done can not be correctly estimated.
One or other of the races of the large and handsome great horned owl is found throughout the United States where suitable timber exists for its habitation. It is a voracious bird, and its capacity for good or evil is very great. If we could pass over the more thickly settled dis- tricts where poultry is extensively raised. and see the bird only as it appears in the great West, we would give it a secure place among the beneficial species, for it is an important ally of the ranchman in fight- ing the hordes of ground squirrels, gophers, prairie dogs, rabbits, and other rodents which infest his fields and ranges. Where mammals are plenty it does not seem to attack poultry or game birds to any con- siderable extent, but in regions where rabbits and squirrels are scarce it frequently makes inroads among fowls, especially where they are allowed to roost in trees. Undoubtedly rabbits are its favorite food, though in some places the common rat is killed in great numbers; we have one record of the remains of over one hundred rats that were found under one nest. The following is a list of the mammals we have found in the stomachs examined: Three species of rabbits, cotton rat, two species of pouched gophers, two species of wood rats, chipmunk, two species of grasshopper mice, white footed mouse, plateau ground squirrel, Harris’s ground squirrel, muskrat, fox squirrel, five species of meadow mice, one short-tailed shrew, the house mouse, common rat, black bat, red-backed mouse, flying squirrel, shrew, and kangaroo rat. Besides mammals and birds, insects (such as grasshoppers and beetles), scorpions, crawfish, and fish are also taken. The great horned owl (fig. 23) does a vast amount of good, and if the farmers could be induced to shut up their chickens at night instead of allowing them to seek shelter in trees and other exposed places, the principal damage done by the bird would be prevented and the beneficial effects increased accordingly.
HARMFUL HAWKS AND OWLS.
We come now to the fourth class, the species of which are harmful, feeding, to a marked degree, on poultry and wild birds. In olden times, when falconry was a fashionable pastime, there were two types of hawks, each of which had its devotees. One, the true falcon, represented by the large gyrfalcon and the peregrine falcon, captured their quarry by Superior power of flight in open country; while the other, the accipi-
93() YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
trine hawks, represented by the goshawk, although strong fliers, suc- ceeded in capture less by long flights than by short rapid dashes or by skillfully turning upon its unsuspecting prey. In the United States the injurious hawks belong to these two classes and are represented by closely allied species. The gyrfalcon and duck hawk are true falcons; while the goshawk, sharp-shinned, and Cooper’s hawk are accipitrines. The gyrfaleons will not be considered, as they are northern species which very rarely enter the United States. The duck hawk also is so
Fig. 24.—Cooper’s Hawk.(Accipiter coopert).
uncommon, except about large bodies of water, that it plays an unim- portant part in depredations upon poultry and upland game birds. During the migration of waterfowl along the seacoast, estuaries, large rivers, and lakes, the duck hawk has an abundant supply of food, feed- ing upon ducks, coots, waders, and even at times on gulls and terns. It is only during the breeding season that this falcon is ever trouble- some to the farmer. An isolated pair may nest among the cliffs or in the giant trees of river bottoms near enough the agricultural districts to make daily inroads upon the farmyard, These cases are uncom-
HAWKS AND OWLS AS RELATED TO THE FARMER. 231
mon, however, and usually by patient watching the robber can be cap- tured before much harm is done.
One may find in the group of hawks embracing the goshawk, Coop- er’s hawk, and sharp-shinned hawk the probable cause for the unjust hatred and suspicion with which our birds of prey, as a whole, are held. All three species feed very largely upon the flesh of birds, of which game and poultry form a considerable part. As above mentioned, they capture their prey not so much by swift, long-continued flight in the open as by quick turns and rapid dashes from cover, the victim being grasped before the hawk’s presence is really suspected. Fortunately, the goshawk, the largest of the three, is a northern species, and conse- quently is rare in most parts of the United States, except in fall and winter. It is a large, powerful bird, easily killing and carrying off a full-grown fowl, ruffed grouse, or hare. Many are the accounts told of its audacity in attacking poultry, taking it almost from under the very feet of the owner, and even entering inhabited houses in pursuit of its intended victim. It also has been known even to attack a person. A case of this kind happened to Dr. C. Hart Merriam, in northern New York. While in pursuit of a warbler with a small 22-caliber rifle, loaded with a light charge of dust shot, he heard a hen ery out in distress from behind a pile of stones. Guided by the sound, he soon reached the spot, and found a goshawk perched upon an old hen, not more than 10 feet distant. Aiming at its breast, he fired, but with no other effect than to arouse its wrath, for it immediately darted at his head with great fury. He struck at the hawk while on the wing and loosened a tail feather, but failed to knockit down. Meanwhile, the hen was mak- ing off, so, leaving the doctor, the hawk gave chase. She ran into some bushes which were so thick that the hawk could not fly between them, when, closing its wings and dropping to the ground, it followed in a succession of long, rapid hops, and quickly overtook her and pounced upon her back. She ran, carrying the hawk for nearly 100 feet. The doctor soon caught up and struck at the hawk with his empty gun, which it dodged by dropping on its back, after which it escaped to a neighboring tree and flew off. ’rom the persistency with which this species hunts the ruffed grouse in many of the Northern States, it has received the name “partridge hawk.” Mammals from the size of a full-grown hare down to the smaller mice are also captured, and it is stated that in the far north it feeds largely on lemmings.
Cooper’s hawk is preeminently a “chicken hawk,” and is by far the most destructive species we have to contend with, not because it is individually worse than the goshawk, but because it is so much more numerous that the aggregate damage done far exceeds that of all other birds of prey. Although not so large as the goshawk, it is strong enough to carry away a good-sized chicken, grouse, or cottontail rab- bit. It is especially fond of domesticated doves, and when it finds a cote easy to approach without being observed, or near its retreat or
932 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
nesting ground, the inmates usually decrease at the rate of one or two a day until the owner takes a hand in the game. Some of these hawks have learned that safe and easy foraging is to be found in many of the large cities, where the use of firearms is prohibited. This is particu- larly the case in winter, when they congregate among the evergreens of the parks or shrubbery in the suburbs and sally forth upon the unsuspecting doves and English sparrows. If they confined their attentions to the pesky little sparrow they would be public benefactors, as the problem of keeping that imported nuisance in check might be easily settled. Among the mammals which are eaten by Cooper’s hawk, the arboreal and ground squirrels appear to be most frequently taken. Remains of chipmunks, red squirrels, and gray squirrels have been found in the stomachs.
The sharp-shinned hawk, an almost perfect miniature of Cooper’s hawk, is fully as destructive to bird life asits larger congener. Although rarely attacking full-grown poultry, it is very partial to the young, and often almost exterminates early broods which are allowed to run at large. No birds, from the size of doves, robins, and flickers to the smallest warblers and titmice, are safe from its attacks. In our previ- ous examinations of the stomachs of this hawk, the remains of nearly fifty species of birds were recognized, and the list is of so much interest in showing the variety of kinds that it is here repeated: Arizona quail, mourning dove, downy woodpecker, red-shafted flicker, yellow-shafted flicker, chimney swift, cowbird, orchard oriole, grackle, housefinch, goldfinch, savanna sparrow, western savanna sparrow, white-throated sparrow, field sparrow, chipping sparrow, tree sparrow, junco, song sparrow, fox sparrow, English sparrow, Abert’s towhee, red-eyed vireo, black and yellow warbler, black-throated green warbler, yellow-rumped warbler, bay-breasted warbler, blackpoll warbler, pine-creeping war- bler, ovenbird, Maryland yellowthroat, blackcap, western blackcap, Canada warbler, mockingbird, catbird, crissal thrasher, cactus wren, Carolina wren, red-bellied nuthatch, chickadee, ruby-crowned kinglet, gray-cheeked thrush, hermit thrush, robin, and bluebird. To show how universally this species feeds on small birds, it is only necessary to say that of 107 stomachs containing food, 103, or 964 per cent, con- tained the remains of birds. Mammals and insects seem to be taken rarely, and when they are, mice and grasshoppers are the ones most frequently chosen. This species, like the Cooper’s hawk, has increased during recent winters about the large cities of the East, doubtless because it finds the sparrows numerous and easy to procure.
THE CROW BLACKBIRDS AND THEIR FOOD.
By F. E. L. Brat,
Assistant Ornithologist, U. S. Department of Agricullure. GEOGRAPHIC RANGE.
Throughout the Eastern States and Mississippi Valley the grackle or crow blackbird is one of the most familiar and conspicuous birds. It appears in spring and early summer about farmhouses and villages, where it finds its favorite nesting places. Five different kinds occur within our borders, but the present paper is concerned only with the common purple grackle (Quiscalus quiscula) and its two subspecies,
Fig. 25,—The Crow Blackbird.
the bronzed grackle (Quiscalus q. eneus) and the Florida grackle (Quis- calus q. agleus). The purple grackle is abundant in the region east of the Alleghanies as far north as New York, and is found sparingly in New England. The Florida grackle is distributed over the region ex- tending from the coast of South Carolina southward into the peninsula of Florida and westward to Louisiana. The bronzed grackle occupies the Mississippi Valley and Great Plains as far west as the Rocky 233
234 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Mountains, ranges northward to Great Slave Lake and southern New- foundland, and east to the coast of southern New England (fig. 25).
In Canada and the northern United States the crow blackbird is only a Summer resident, but in the Southern States it is present throughout the yéar, and in winter its numbers are increased by millions of migrants from the north which find here a congenial winter home. It does not occur south of the Gulf States, and stragglers have been found during the cold months as far north as Illinois, and even Minnesota.
At the first approach of spring, the crow blackbirds begin to move northward, closely following the retreat of winter. During the sum- mer months they cover the whole of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains, except New England, though they are most plenti- fully distributed over the great grain-raising States of the Northwest. In New England crow blackbirds are of local occurrence. They are tolerably abundant in Connecticut, but in the more northern States breed in certain favored localities only, and are entirely absent from large areas.
In the northern United States the southward movement begins about the end of September, although the habit of collecting in flocks imme- diately after the breeding season confirms the belief that the birds dis- appear from many localities during the month of August. It thus appears that their stay in the northern part of the country is limited to the six warmest months of the year; hence whatever they do that is either beneficial or injurious must be accomplished during that time. In the South, on the contrary, they are found throughout the year, and in largely increased numbers during the winter. Fortunately, how- ever, this is not the season of growing crops, so that the damage done is principally confined to the pilfering of grain left standing in the shock. It is probable, however, that at this season they feed largely on weed seeds, mast, and waste grain scattered in the field.
The crow blackbird is a gregarious species, usually breeding in colo- nies and migrating in flocks. In fall the young and old collect in large assemblages, which in the Mississippi Valley often grow to enormous size. The redwing (Agelaius pheniceus), Brewer’s blackbird (Scoleco- phagus cyanocephalus), and rusty blackbird (S. carolinus) often asso- ciate with them.
Moving southward, immense flocks cross the Red River Valley be- tween Texas and Indian Territory. In September, 1886, Mr. George H. Ragsdale reported that at Gainesville, on the Texas side of the river, ‘‘the flocks were of such size that the roar of their wings could be heard for a quarter of a mile;” and, according to a statement published in a local paper, one person had on hand 8,000 blackbirds which had been netted for the use of gun clubs. Mr. Ragsdale stated that at the same time the grass worm was destroying the crab grass and purslane, and attributed the unusually large flocks of blackbirds to the fact that the early fall migrauts, finding so many worms, had halted until the
CROW BLACKBIRDS AND THEIR FOOD. 235
bulk of the birds drifted southward. About the first of October the worms and birds disappeared simultaneously.
Crow blackbirds are well known to the farmer as foragers about the barnyard and pigpen. When they arrive in spring, after their long journey from the south, they are apt to depend on the cornerib for some of their first meals, but when the plow begins its work they are on the alert, and follow it up and down the furrows, seizing every grub or other insect that may be turned up. Their industry in this respect is very noticeable, and if not disturbed or frightened in any way, they often become so tame as scarcely to get out of the way of the team in their eager search for food. Very soon a nest is built, and in a short time four or more gaping mouths demand to be filled, and the parent birds must then work harder and go farther afield to provide for the increased number of stomachs. When the cherries and other early fruits ripen the birds take a share for themselves, thinking no doubt that they are fairly entitled to them for the good work they did earlier in the season. When the corn ‘*comes into the milk” they also take a portion.
OBSERVATIONS REGARDING THE DIET OF THE CROW BLACKBIRD.
In the selection of food the crow blackbird is almost omnivorous. Its partiality for corn, wheat, rice, oats, and other grain is well known, and is the cause of nearly all the complaints aboutits depredations. This diet is supplemented by various fruits, berries, nuts, seeds, and insects, the latter in large proportion. But the character of: the food varies mate- rially with the season. During the fall and winter blackbirds subsist largely on seeds and grain; as spring approaches they become more insectivorous; in summer they take small fruits, and in September they attack the ripening corn, but at all seasons they undoubtedly select the food that is most easily obtained.
To this varied diet are due the conflicting statements respecting the useful or noxious habits of the species. When feeding on grain the birds are usually in large flocks, their depredations are plainly visible, and they are almost universally condemned. When breeding they are less gregarious, and the good work they do in the fields is scarcely noticed, although at this season the grubs and other insects devoured compen- sate in large measure for the grain taken at other times. As Mr. N. W. Wright, of Farmland, Ind., aptly says: ‘It is hard to tellon which side to place the crow blackbirds, for we can see the damage done, but not the benefits.”
During the spring they destroy many noxious insects. Prof. D. BE. Lantz states that at Manhattan, Kans., from the time of their arrival until August they feed almost entirely upon cutworms, and Prof. Her- bert Osborne, of Ames, Iowa, reports that during the spring of 1883 he saw them destroy great numbers of the May beetle (Lachnosterna Jusca), and found them feeding on it for several weeks. Grasshoppers,
236 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
crickets, locusts, and other insects are also largely eaten. Mr. J. Perey Moore, of Philadelphia, Pa., wrote in 1885:
During the recent visit of the 17-year cicada this species (the purple grackle) devoured immense numbers of pupx and imagos. It also ate large numbers of the grubs of the June bug, which it generally obtained by searching in the furrows in newly plowed fields, and all stages of the Carolina and other grasshoppers, the com- mon white butterfly (I saw one catch several of this species on the wing May 26, 1885), and other species not identified.
Mr. W. B. Hall, of Wakeham, Ohio, gives an interesting account of some young grackles which were kept in captivity. He says:
I have captured the young and confined them in a cage in such manner that the old bird could not reach the mouth of the young. The food brought consisted largely of larve of Coleopterous and Lepidopterous insects, with an occasional beetle. It freshly plowed fields were in the vicinity the food consisted largely of the white grub and cutworm, a few tent caterpillars, one worm that I took to be a small Attacus, and beetles of the genera Galerita, Cetonia, Lachnosterna, and their kindred.
Recently an estimate of the amount of food required to support a large flock of blackbirds has been made by Mr. H. H. Johnstin, of Lon- don, Ohio. During the present autumn (1894) he counted 1,100 black- birds one morning as they left their roosting places for the feeding grounds, and estimated that the birds which flew by would number 50,000. Allowing 2 ounces as the quantity of food collected by each bird during the day, he arrived at the conclusion that 6,250 pounds, or more than 3 tons, of food was consumed by this army of blackbirds in a Single day. Even if the number of birds in this case is not overesti- mated, the amount of food per bird is undoubtedly too great. The species of blackbirds to which these notes refer are not stated, but it is safe to assume that the flocks were made up of redwings (Agelaius) and crow blackbirds (Quiscalus). A full stomach of the crow blackbird, selected at random from specimens in the collection of the United States Department of Agriculture, was found to weigh 0.158 ounce, or 2.25 drams, while the contents of another stomach weighed only 0.116 ounce, or 1.85 drams. The average of two full stomachs of red-wing blackbirds was 0.049 ounce, or 0.78 dram, and the stomach contents of a third weighed only 0.021 ounce, or 0.33 dram. While of course these figures do not give the quantity of food a bird consumes in twenty-four hours, they show that the full stomach of a blackbird weighs comparatively little. In order to consume 1 ounce of food per day acrow blackbird must eat six or eight full meals, depending on the kind of food, and the redwing twice as many. Even with this estimate, the amount consumed by the flock of 50,000 birds would still be more than a ton and a half per day. Although these figures are probably still too large, they serve to give some idea of the quantity of grain a large flock could destroy.
3riefly stated, the accusations against the crow blackbird relate mainly to the destruction of grain, especially corn, soon after planting
bs
CROW BLACKBIRDS AND THEIR FOOD. 237
in the spring, and again in the autumn, when the corn is in the milk and nearly ripe. In the Southern States the grackles destroy rice also. In some sections they are said to feed upon young grain in such quan- tities as seriously to injure the value of the crop, and for this reason they are poisoned in large numbers. <A more effectual method is to prevent the birds from taking the seed by tarring the corn before it is planted; this is better, simpler, and cheaper than the wholesale destruc- tion of the birds.
Mr. 8. T. Kimball, of Ellington, Conn., gives his experience with the crow blackbird, as follows:
As a rule, farmers here tar their corn, but last June I sowed some without tarring, and the result was that by the time it was out of the ground the blackbirds had attacked it. They worked all day, carrying their bills full—load after load—to a
cemetery where there is quite acolony. They kept this up till the corn was entirely absorbed by the stalk, although I shot some five or six of them.
Mr. George K. Cherrie states that in Monona County, Iowa, during the spring of 1884, both the crow blackbird and the yellow-headed black- bird did considerable damage by pulling the corn just as it came through the ground, and were poisoned in great numbers by corn which had been soaked in water containing arsenic. Similar depredations are sometimes committed in the rice fields of the South.
According to Mr. W. C. Percy, jr., of Bayou Goula, La., the crow blackbirds destroy rice and corn toa great extent, and would do so totally were not men stationed with guns. ‘They eat it in planting time only.
Mr. 8. Powers, of Lawtey, Fla., writes: In this climate corn is left on the stalk as long as possible, to escape the weevils, and the black- birds eat the ends of many ears, sometimes one-third of their length.
In the autumn, when the corn begins to ripen, the fields are again visited by blackbirds in larger flocks than in the spring, and, to the dismay of the farmer, the birds renew their work of destruction. Mr. Daniel S$. Wardsworth reports that in a field of 2 acres near Hartford, Conn., the grackle has been known to ruin from one-third to one-half of a crop of corn in the milk or when ripe. A similar complaint was made by Mr. George H. Selover, of Lake City, Minn.
Another accusation often made against the crow blackbird is that it destroys the eggs and young of other birds. It will be well to examine the testimony on this point with some care, because the charge is often repeated and because the examination of a large series of stomachs does not substantiate it except in an exceedingly small percentage of cases. A cursory examination of the statements of writers shows that very few are based on original observation; the majority are either repeated from the observations of others or are taken from published accounts of the bird’s habits. The following extracts from letters are from reliable persons who have actually seen the blackbirds destroy the eggs or young of other birds,
238 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Mr. H. Nehrling, writing from Freistatt, Mo., on December 5, 1885, Says:
Sometimes they breed in orchards, where they become great enemies of our small birds. I have observed them destroying eggs of bluebird, cat-bird, and flycatcher
(Empidonax pusillus), and have seen them carry off the young of the field sparrow and other small birds.
Mr. George H. Selover, of Lake City, Minn., writes:
Several times each season I have seen the bronzed grackle steal the eggs of the chipping sparrow and other small birds, but have not observed them take the young. Have never known them to drive off other birds.
Mr. P. L. Ong, of Hennepin, II, says:
The crow blackbird has been seen to throw young robins out of the nest and tear the nest in pieces. It has not driven any birds from this neighborhood, and does not seem to make a business of destroying the eggs and young.
Mr. W. F. Hendrickson, of Long Island City, N. Y., states: I have known purple grackles to eat robins’ and thrushes’ eggs, and in at least one instance the young of the robin.
Mr. Morris M. Green, of Syracuse, N. Y., says: I have seen the crow blackbird attack robins’ nests and break the eggs.
These observations have been selected from notes contributed by sev- eral hundred observers, and are quoted in full to show the extent to which the grackle is said to injure other species. Irom such statements it can not be doubted that these birds do occasionally destroy the eggs of the robin, bluebird, chipping sparrow, small flycatchers and other species, and more rarely the young of the robin. Let us see what the stomachs themselves show. Of the 2,258 stomachs examined, only 37 contained any trace of birds’ eggs, and 1 contained the bones of a young bird. These were distributed as follows: In April, 9; May, 9; June, 7; July, 7; and August, 5. The greatest quantity of eggshell was found in May, aggregating forty-six one-hundredths of 1 per cent of the food for that month. This certainly does not show that the blackbirds are much given to robbing their neighbors. Still further, the eggshells found in a number of stomachs were identified as those of domestic fowls, probably obtained from compost heaps, where they had been thrown. Hence it seems fair to infer that the grackle indulges its nest- robbing proclivities only occasionally, and that the prevalence of the habit has been considerably exaggerated.
EXAMINATIONS OF STOMACH CONTENTS.
It may be well now to take up the results of actual examinations of the stomach contents in other cases, and see how far the observations made in the field are borne out by the studies made in the laboratory.
Nearly 2,300 crow blackbird stomachs have been examined, of which 2,258 contained food; the remainder wereempty. These stomachs were
obtained from twenty-six States, the District of Columbia, and New
CROW BLACKBIRDS AND THEIR FOOD. 239
Brunswick. Kansas and Dakota are the most westerly States in which any were collected, and Tennessee and Virginia the most southerly, except Florida. They were taken during every month in the year except January, but as the great body of the species leaves the North- ern States in October and does not return until March, but few stomachs could be procured in November, December, and February. Great pains were taken to secure a large number during May and June, the breed- ing months, with the result that alittle more than half of the whole col- lection was obtained in these months. Observation has shown that the food of young birds often differs materially from that of the adults, and in order to test this point in the present species 486 nestlings were col- lected in May and June, and have contributed their quota to the final result.
The first step in the determination of the food is to separate the stomach contents into its three most important categories, viz, animal, vegetable, and mineral matter, and to estimate the percentage of each. In the present case the result for the food of the whole year, taking into account the entire number of 2,258 stomachs, young and adult, was: Animal food, 48 per cent; vegetable, 48 per cent; mineral, 4 per cent. The animal food was found to be composed of the following elements: Insects, spiders, myriapods, crawfish, earthworms, sowbugs, hair snakes, snails, fishes, tree toads, salamanders (newts), lizards, snakes, birds’ eggs, and mice.
The insect food constitutes 46 per cent of the entire food for the year, and is the most interesting part of the bird’s diet from the economic point of view. For convenience, spiders and myriapods (thousand- legs) are here classed with the insects. In examining the insect food month by month, we find the smallest quantity in February, when it is less than 6 per cent of the whole food; but as only three stomachs were taken, the result can not be considered as very reliable. In March the insect food rises to one-fifth, and steadily increases till May, when it reaches its maximum of five-eighths of the whole. It then decreases until in October it is only one-eighth. It appears to rise in November and December, but the number of stomachs taken in those months is too small to warrant any general conclusions. The great number of insects eaten in May is due in part to the fact that the young which are hatched in that month are fed largely on that kind of food.
VARIOUS ARTICLES OF BIRD DIET.
An analysis of the insect component of the food presents many points of interest. Let us first consider the beetles, an order of insects known to everybody, and easily distinguished in most cases by the hard outer wing covers. Among the most important families are the Scarabzeids, every member of which is or may be injurious to agriculture, either in its early stages as a grub, or after coming to the adult form, or, as is often the case, in both. The common June bug or May beetle and
240) YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the rosebug are familiar examples of this family. The well-known grubworms, so often turned up by the plow in spring, are the young or larval forms of these beetles. An examination of the stomachs of blackbirds shows that these insects were eaten, either as beetles or grubs, in every month from March to October, inclusive. In May they constituted more than one-sixth and in June one-ninth of the entire food. The habit these birds have of following the plow to gather grubs is a matter of common observation which has been fully confirmed by the stomach examinations. Many stomachs were found to be literally crammed with grubs, and in many more, where other food predomi. | nated, the presence of their hard jaws showed that grubs had formed a goodly portion of a previous meal.
The curculios, snout beetles, or weevils constitute another family of beetles unfortunately well known to fruit growers, the plum curculio being a too familiar example. Like the Scarabeids, these beetles were eaten in every month from March to October, and while taken in great numbers, the individuals are so small that the percentage of bulk does not rise as high as in the case of the Scarabeids. The maximum is reached in June, when the weevils constitute 6 per cent of the total food, with a gradual decrease in the succeeding months. Insects of such small size could hardly be obtained except by diligent search, and their presence in so many stomachs (772), and also the large numbers in single stomachs (sometimes reaching 30 or even 40), warrants the conclusion that they are sought as choice articles of food.
Many other beetles were found in the contents of the stomachs, but with one exception, in quantities too small to be of much economic interest. The Colorado potato beetle was not present, but several spe- cies belonging to the same family were identified. The one exception referred to above is that of the Carabids or predaceous beetles. These insects, from their habit of preying upon other insects, have always been reckoned as beneficial to agriculture, and this is no doubt a true ver- dict; hence the bird which eats them is, to that extent, doing the farmer an injury. Now, we find that the blackbirds have eaten Carabids in every month from March to November, inclusive, and although there is considerable variation in the quantity during the several months, the variation is less than in any other insect. They begin by eating more than 4 per cent in March, attain a maximum of 13 per cent in July, and end with alittle over 1 per cent in November. [rom these figures it would seem that the predaceous beetles are highly prized by the black- birds as an article of food, and, although this may be true, there are other facts that have a bearing on the case. Most of these beetles are of fair size and easily seen, and many of them are quite large; more- over, they live upon the ground and are much oftener seen running than flying. They are the first beetles observed in spring, and are usually abundant at all times when insects are to be found. When we consider that the blackbirds seek a great portion of their food upon the ground,
CROW BLACKBIRDS AND THEIR FOOD. 241
itis at once apparent that these beetles must naturally fall in their way oftener than any others.
The above remarks are not intended to vindicate the birds in the habit of eating useful insects, but merely to suggest that such insects may be eaten more from necessity than from choice. It does not neces- sarily follow that birds are doing harm by eating insects that are classed as useful on account of their food habits. This point has been enlarged upon in another place, and has been more fully elucidated by other writers, notably by Prof. S. A. Forbes (Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. I, No. 3).
Next in importance to beetles as an article of blackbird diet are the grasshoppers. For convenience, grasshoppers, locusts (green grass- hoppers), and crickets are considered in the same category. Of the three, the true grasshoppers are by far the most numerous in the stomachs, and were eaten in all months in which stomachs were taken except December. In February they constitute 2 per cent of the total food, and the fact that they were found at all in this month indicates that the birds are keen hunters, for it would puzzle an entomologist to find grasshoppers in February in most of the Northern States. It is possible that some of those eaten in February and the succeeding month were dead insects left over from the previous year. The proportion of grasshoppers in the stomachs increases with each month up to August, when it attains a maximum of nearly one-fifth of all the food. It is worthy of note that crickets, considered apart from grasshoppers, reach their maximum in June, when they form something over 5 per cent of the monthly food.
After August the grasshopper diet falls off, but does not entirely disappear, for even in November it still constitutes 6 per cent of the total for the month. The frequency with which these insects appear in the stomachs, the great numbers found in single stomachs (often more than 30), and the fact that they are fed largely to the young, all point to the conclusion that they are preferred as an article of food and eagerly sought at all times. The good that is done by their destruc- tion can hardly be overestimated, particularly as many of the grass- hoppers found in the stomachs were females filled with eggs.
Another interesting element of this bird’s food is the caterpillars or laryx of butterflies and moths. These were found in every month in which stomachs were taken except November, while December, curiously enough, showed the highest percentage; but as this result was obtained from only two stomachs the result may be discarded as unreliable. The quantity of caterpillars and larve consumed was about 14 per cent for each month except May, June, and August. In May a maxi- mum of something more than 9 per cent was reached, followed by a little over 4 per cent in June, and falling to a minimum cf less than 1 per cent in August.
1 aA 94 9
242 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Most persons who have picked and eaten berries directly from the bushes have had the disagreeable experience of getting into their mouths a small bug which is a little too highly flavored to suit the taste of the human race, but which is eaten by our feathered friends in every month from February to October, inclusive. They are not, however, consumed in large quantities, probably for the reason that great num- bers can not be found; still, traces of them appear in many stomachs, indicating that the birds eat as many as they find.
In addition to the insects specified, representatives of several other orders were found in the blackbirds’ stomachs, but not in such large or regular quantities as to render them an important element of food. Spiders and myriapods (thousand-legs) were also noted in sufficient numbers to demand recognition. They were eaten to some extent dur- ing every month, but not, as a rule, in large quantities. The spiders attain a maximum of 6 per cent in May, and not only the spiders them- selves but their cocoons full of eggs appear to have been taken when- ever found. The myriapods were eaten somewhat less frequently, but appear in nearly every month.
GRAINS AND FRUITS AS BLACKBIRD FOOD.
The vegetable component of the stomach contents is as variable and diversified as the animal food, showing plainly that when one article of diet is wanting, the bird can make up the deficiency by eating something else which is more easily obtained. The following list includes all the vegetable substances identified in the 2,258 stomachs, but there were, of course, some that could not be positively determined. The pulp of fruit, when unaccompanied by seeds and already half digested, is difficult to distinguish with precision, and the same is true of the hulls or skins left after kernels of grain have been digested and have passed away, but the total of such unrecognized matter is not great.
List of vegetable substances found in stomachs.
Corn. | Oats. Wheat. Rye. Buckwheat. Blackberries and raspberries (Rubus). Strawberries (Fragaria). Cherries (cultivated). Mulberries (Morus). Currants (Jtibes). Grapes. Brits. 20.020 cae rene cece Apples. Blueberries and cranberries (Vaccinium sp. ). Huckleberries (Gaylussacia sp.). ! Dogwood berries (Cornus sp.). Elderberries (Sambucus sp.). June or service berries (Amelanchier canadensis). Hackberries (Celtis occidentalis).
CROW BLACKBIRDS AND THEIR FOOD. 243
List of vegetable substances found in stomachs—Continued.
Poison ivy (thus radicans).
Harmless sumac (Rhus glabra et al.).
Wax or bayberries (Myrica cerifera).
Hornbeam ( Ostrya virginiana).
Chestnuts and chinquapins (Castanea dentata and pumila). Beechnuts (Fagus alropunicea).
Acorns (Quercus).
| Ragweed (Ambrosia). (
Seeds and nuts of shrubs ea 2: 5/15 Uae sop eae
Barn grass (Setaria). Gromwell (Lithospermum). Smartweed (Polygonum). Pokeweed (Phytolacea). Sorrel (Rumez).
¢ Small bulbs or tubers, Galls containing larve.
| Pieces of pliant stems. Bits of grass and leaves. Thorn of locust (Robinia).
L Pieces of rotten wood.
Miscellaneous ..-.....----
Of all these various articles of diet the chief interest centers about the grain and fruit, for it is through these that the blackbirds inflict the greatest damage upon the farmer; in fact, the worst that has been said of them is that they eat large quantities of grain. Of the five grains named in the list, corn is the favorite, having been found in 1,218 stomachs, or more than 53 per cent of the whole number. It is eaten at all seasons of the year, and in every month except July and August amounts to more than one-half of the total vegetable food. The corn obtained in winter and until planting in the spring can be but little loss to the farmer, as it must be mostly waste corn. This view was fully confirmed by the contents of a series of stomachs taken in early spring, which contents consisted to a great extent of corn that had evidently been wet and frozen, and had lain out all winter. After February there is a steady decrease in the quantity of corn eaten until July, when it reaches a minimum of 7 per cent. The month of May does not show any increase over the preceding months, although it is the time for planting; nor is there an increase in June, which in the north is the month of sprouting corn. In fact, very little evidence was found to indicate that blackbirds pull up sprouting grain. In this respect they differ conspicuously from the crow. In August the corn amounts to one-eighth of the whole food, and it, together with a part of that taken in September, was green corn “in the milk.” The maximum amount, nearly 53 per cent, is eaten in September, and this is undoubtedly wholly taken from the fields of standing corn, repre- senting so mueh good grain contributed by the farmer. The same is true for October, when the quantity eaten is nearly as great as in Sep- tember (47 per cent), and in the Middle and Western States, where grain often stands in the fields until December; this must also be the case up to the end of November. |
244 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Next to corn, but far behind it in importance, come oats, which were eaten in very irregular quantities in every month except November and ~ December. They appear in the greatest amount in April, when they constitute a little more than one-eighth of the total food. They fall to less than 1 per cent in June, but rise to over 8 per cent in August: The oats eaten in April are probably picked up from newly sown fields, aud those taken in August and September are probably gleaned from fields after harvest, while those found in the other months are acci- dental and of no importance.
Wheat was eaten in every month from April to October, inclusive, - but makes very little showing except in July and August. In these two months it formed, respectively, about 19 and 17 per cent of the whole food, these being the only months in which it reached a higher percentage than corn or any other item of vegetable food. As July and August are the months of the wheat harvest, it is easy to account for the large amount eaten by the blackbirds at that time; but whether the grain so eaten is taken from the standing crop, or is merely the scattered kernels gleaned after the harvest, must be left for the obsery- ing farmer to find out. Probably the birds take whichever is more accessible.
Rye was found in only 1 stomach, and buckwheat in 9. The former was from a bird taken in May in Pennsylvania, and is evidently not a favorite food. Three birds taken in New Jersey in February were found to have eaten a small quantity of buckwheat. <A single bird from New York, killed in July, and one from Iowa, killed in September, had also eaten this grain, as had another lot of four birds from New Jersey taken in November at the same time and place. The buckwheat eaten in February and November must have been waste grain, and the fact that birds from the same localities, taken at the time when this grain was harvested, had not eaten it, indicates that it is not a desirable food, and is only eaten under stress of hunger.
It is unfortunate that the collection contains so few stomachs from the Southern States, where crow blackbirds remain through the winter months. In reports received from this region it is stated that the crow blackbird preys upon the rice fields, in company with other blackbirds and the bobolink, the latter being the well-known ricebird of the South.
Although fruit of some kind was eaten in every month from March to December, inclusive, it does not become of importance until June, July, and August, when it reaches 6,14, and 11 per cent, respectively. This aggregate is made up from a number of elements, as will be seen by referring to the list on page 242. Of these the only ones likely to possess any economic interest are blackberries, raspberries, cherries, currants, grapes, and apples. Apple pulp was found in 3 stomachs, grapes in 3, currants in 1, cherries in 37 in June and 14 in July, and strawberries in 7. The blackberries and raspberries were the favorites, and made up the great bulk of the fruit eaten. They were eaten from
CROW BLACKBIRDS AND THEIR FOOD. 245
May to September, inclusive, but oniy a few in each month, except in July and August, when they were found in 96 and 68 stomachs, respee- tively. When we consider that these last-mentioned fruits are much more abundant in the wild than in the cultivated state, and bear in mind the small number of birds that eat other fruits, it certainly must appear that the damage the blackbirds do by eating fruit is of no great moment. None of the wild fruits mentioned in the table were found in large quantities or in many stomachs.
Mast, under which term are included chestnuts, chinquapins, acorns, and beechnuts, forms quite an important element of food in the fall and early spring months. In March it constitutes nearly one-tenth of the food, and in September it reaches nearly one-seventh, being, after corn, the most prominent vegetable constituent in that month. In October it amounts to one-eighth of the whole food.
SEEDS AS BIRD FOOD.
The seeds of the various plants included under the head of ‘‘ weeds” in the list on page 243 form another interesting element of vegetable food, and are of considerable importance in the colder months. Begin- ning in February, they form one-eighth of the food, and gradually dimin- ish in quantity until June, when they almost disappear. They then increase until October, when they attain a maximum of over one-eighth, forming, next to corn, the largest percentage of vegetable food in that month. As all the plants included in this category are nuisances, it is perhaps needless to say that by eating weeds the birds are doing a good work.
The mineral component of the food does not possess much if any economic interest, but it is curious to note how many different things a blackbird can pick up. Sand, gravel, pieces of brick, bits of mortar, plaster of paris, charcoal, hard coal, and cinders were the most common of the various hard substances which helped to line the mill in which their corn was ground.
FOOD OF THE YOUNG.
As previously stated, 486 nestlings are included in the 2,258 birds whose food has been already discussed. <A separate study was made of these in order to ascertain in what respect, if any, their food differed from that of the adults. It would have given more satisfactory results if it had been possible to separate the younger nestlings, say those under 1 week of age, from the older ones, for it was noticed that as the young approach maturity and get ready to fly their food becomes more like that of their parents. The young were collected from May 22 to June 30, inclusive, and represent every age, from the newly hatched to those about to leave the nest. The whole stomach contents, when Separated into its three principal components, was found to be as
246 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
follows: Animal matter, 70 per cent; vegetable, 25 per cent, and min- eral, 5 per cent. The much higher percentage of animal food in the young as compared with the adults (48 per cent) is at once noticeable, although it may be insisted that the food of the young should be com- pared with that of the adults in the corresponding season; that is, in the months of May and June. If this view be taken, the difference is not so great. The percentage of mineral matter also is a little greater than in the adults.
The animal food is practically the same as that of the parent birds and likewise consists chiefly of insects. These amount to 66 per cent, 20 per cent more than in the adults. The animal food other than insects, amounting to less than 5 per cent, is not important enough to merit attention. The insect food is made up of about the same kinds as are eaten by the old birds, but in somewhat different preportions. Adult beetles, on account of their hard shells, are not fed to very young birds, but a few are given to the older ones. “ Grubworms,” the larve of Scarabeeids, are fed freely after the first or second day. A little more than 14 per cent of the food of the nestlings consists of this family of beetles, and for the most part in the form of the larve or grubs. Predaceous beetles (Carabids) constitute about 74 per cent of the food, weevils a little more than 3 per cent, and there were traces of five or six other families, none of which reached 1 per cent.
Grasshoppers and crickets, the former predominating, are a favorite food for the young, being softer and more easily digested than beetles. They constitute about one-fifth of the total food, that is, as much as the parent birds consume in August, and nearly three times as much as _ they eat in May and June, when they are feeding the young. This shows that they select the grasshoppers and other soft insects for their offspring, while they eat beetles and other hard things themselves.
Caterpillars constitute something over 6 per cent of the food of the young birds, which is not as much as might be expected when we con- sider how soft and apparently well adapted they are for this purpose.
Besides the insects already mentioned, small quantities of ants, flies, bugs, May flies, myriapods, and spiders were given to the young. These last merit a special notice from the fact that they form the earliest food of the bird. A number of tiny stomachs were examined, evidently taken from birds less than 24 hours old. In nearly every case they contained either a single spider or several very small ones— undoubtedly the bird’s first meal. The very young stomachs are thin, almost membranous sacs, entirely unlike the stout, muscular gizzards of the adult birds, which explains why soft, easily crushed food is required for the newly hatched young. It is only after they have attained considerable growth and the stomach walls have become somewhat muscular that they are able to digest such food as hard beetles and corn.
CROW BLACKBIRDS AND THEIR FOOD. 247
The vegetable food of the young consists of corn and fruit, with mere traces of half a dozen other things. Corn amounts to over one- eighth of the total food, but is fed only to the older birds, whose stom- achs have acquired the requisite muscular strength to digestit. Fruit constitutes about 64 per cent of the food, almost exactly the same quantity as was consumed by the adults in the month of June, and consists of the same varieties.
A number of substances are found in the blackbirds’ stomachs that ean hardly be considered as food. These are usually reckoned under the head of “‘rubbish,” and are probably for the most part taken acci- dentally. Such are bits of dead leaves, pieces of bark, rotten wood, bits of plant stems, and dead grass, all of which might be carelessly swallowed in picking up a kernel of corn or seizing an insect. The quantity of refuse eaten by the adults varies from 1 to 2 per cent of the whole food in each month, but, curiously enough, the stomachs of the young contain more, amounting to nearly 4$ per cent. It would seem that while the old birds are very judicious in selecting a suitable diet for their nestlings, they are less particular in rejecting the substances that accidentally adhere to the food.
SUMMARY.
From the foregoing results it appears that if the mineral element be rejected as not properly forming a part of the diet, the food of the crow blackbird for the whole year consists of animal and vegetable matter in nearly equal proportions. Of the animal component twenty-three twenty-fourths are insects, and of the insects five-sixths are noxious species. The charge that the blackbird is a habitual robber of other birds’ nests seems to be disproved by the stomach examinations.
Of the vegetable food it has been found that corn constitutes half and other grain one-fourth. Oats are seldom eaten exceptin April and August, and wheat in July and August. Fruit is eaten in such moder- ate quantities that it has no economic importance, particularly in view of the fact that so little belongs to cultivated varieties.
The farmer whose grain is damaged, if not wholly ruined, by these birds may attempt to count his loss in dollars and cents, but the good Services rendered by the same birds earlier in the season can not be estimated with sufficient precision for entry on the credit side of the ledger. Thoughtful students of nature have observed that there is a certain high-water mark of abundance for every race or species beyond which it can not rise without danger of encroaching upon and injuring other species, not even excepting man. This is true of every species in nature, whether it be one which, at its normal abundance, is beneficial to man or otherwise. To no group does this apply with more force than to the insects, many species of which frequently exceed their ordinary bounds and spread destruction among crops. The same argument ap- plies to the birds. However useful they may be in a general way, there
948 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
is danger that they may become too numerous. While the destruction of a noxious insect is greatly to any bird’s credit, still it is believed that the principal value of the useful bird lies not so much in this special work as in keeping the great tide of insect life down to a proper level. The examination of the food of the blackbirds has shown that they do a good share of this work, and are therefore most emphatically useful birds. This does not mean that they do no harm, or that they should be permitted to do all the harm they wish without restraint. It is not probable that the grain eaten by blackbirds under ordinary circum- stances occasions much loss to the farmer, because so much of it con- sists of scattered or waste kernels. When, however, they descend upon a corn or wheat field in flocks of hundreds or thousands they inflict a real damage; and this simply shows that the species is too abundant and ought to be reduced, or that the birds have assembled from all the surrounding country and have become too crowded in one restricted locality. In either case the farmer should protect himself by any prac- ticable means and should not submit quietly to being robbed merely from a sentimental idea of the bird’s past or probable future usefulness. If the crop and the birds’ lives can both be saved, well and good; but if not, let the extreme penalty be paid.
Upon the whole, crow blackbirds are so useful that no general war of extermination should be waged against them. While it must be admitted that at times they injure crops, such depredations can usually be prevented. On the other hand, by destroying insects they do ineal- culable good. 7
SOME SCALE INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD.
By L. O. Howarp, M.S., Entomologist, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
INTRODUCTORY.
For many years prior toa recent date our Eastern orchards were com- paratively free from serious damage by scale insects, or ‘bark lice,” as they are indifferently termed. Barring the old and well-known oyster- Shell bark louse of the apple, orchardists were not often compelled to fight any insects of this group, and even this species, abundant and widespread as it is, had come to be considered, as it still is, a rather unimportant factor in apple raising, seidom necessitating treatment in otherwise healthy and vigorous orchards.
Within the past few years, however, conditions as regards scale insects in general have changed. The San Jose, or pernicious, scale of the Pacific Coast has come east and threatens great damage; the new peach scale has made its way across to Florida from the West Indies, and is now destroying trees as far north as the District of Columbia; the peach Lecanium has apparently increased and spread, and has caused considerable alarm in several large nurseries; the so-called walnut scale has transferred its attentions to the pear and peach in the South and Southwest, and the greedy scale, although found, until recently, only on the Pacific Coast and in the far Southwest, levies a heavy annual tax on the fruit growers of those regions, and has the present season made its appearance in Mississippi and Texas.
A popular article upon these insects, describing them in such a way as to enable the fruit grower readily to identify any form which he may have upon his trees, and giving some account of the best remedies which may be used, will be timely, and such the present article aims to be. It is confined to the scale insects of deciduous fruit trees for the reason that the insect enemies of citrus fruits will receive full treatment at the hands of Mr. Henry G. Hubbard, an assistant in the Division of Entomology, who is preparing an elaborate revision of his report on the insects affecting the orange, the publication of which may be brought about before many months. There are several additional important scales which affect small fruits like the raspberry, blackberry, grape, and currant, but these are excluded from this consideration simply from want of space. Several of the scales treated, however, although more commonly found upon orchard trees, attack also these
small fruits. 249
250 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
LIFE HISTORY AND HABITS OF SCALE INSECTS IN GENERAL,
In respect to life history, the family Coccide, which includes all of the so-calied scale insects, is very abnormal. The eggs are laid by the adult female either immediately beneath her own body or at its pos- terior extremity. Certain species do not lay eggs, but give birth to living young, as do the plant lice. This abnormal habit is not charac- teristic of any particular group of forms, but is found with individual Species in one or more genera. The young on hatching from the eggs
are active, six-legged, mite-like creatures which crawl rapidly away
from the body of the mother, wander out upon the new and tender growth of the tree, and there settle, pushing their beaks through the outer tis- sue of the leaf or twig and feeding upon the sap. Even in this early stage the male insect can be distinguished from the female by certain differences in structure. Asa general thing, the female casts its skin from three to five times before reaching the adult condition and begin- ning to lay eggs or give birth to young. With each successive molt the insect increases in size and becomes usually more convex in form. Its legs and antenne become proportionately reduced, and its eyes become smaller and are finally lost. Asa general thing, itis incapable of moving itself from the spot where it has fixed itself after the second molt, although certain species crawl throughout life. The adult female insect, then, is a motionless, degraded, wingless, and, for all practical purposes, legless and eyeless creature. In the armored scales she is absolutely legless and eyeless. The mouth parts, through which she derives nour- ishment, remain functional, and have enlarged from molt to molt. Her body becomes swollen with eggs or young, and as soon as these are laid or born she dies.
The life of the male differs radically from that of the female. Up to the second molt the life history is practically parallel in both sexes, but after this period the male larva transforms to a pupa, in which the organs of the perfectly developed, fledged insect become apparent. This change may be undergone within a cocoon or under a male scale. The adult male, which emerges from the pupa at about the time when the female becomes fuli grown, is an active and rather highly organized creature, with two broad, functional wings and long, vibrating antenne. The legs are also long and stout. The hind wings are absent, and are replaced by rather long tubercles, to the end of each of which is articu- lated a strong bristle, hooked at the tip, the tip fitting into a pocket on the hind border of the wings. The eyes of the male insect are very large and strongly faceted. The mouth parts are entirely absent, their place being taken by supplementary eye spots. The function of the male insect is simply to fertilize the female, and it then dies. The num- ber of generations annually among bark lice differs so widely with dif- ferent forms that no general statement can be made.
Ta . ~~ —_
SOME SCALE INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. 251
CLASSIFICATION,
All Coccide are divided into five subfamilies. The species most com- monly met with in this country belong to three of these subfamilies, and the majority of them to one, viz, the Diaspinze—the armored, or shield-bearing, bark lice. These insects, as their name indicates, are all protected by a shield-like covering, which is composed of wax secreted from the back of the insect. This shield, with the adult insects, becomes more or less completely detached from the body, and forms a perfect covering, not only for the body, but, in the case of the female, for her eggs. The insects of the other principal subfamily, but two species of which will be considered here, may be familiarly known as naked scales, and the subfamily group name is Leecaniine. These insects are suffi- ciently characterized for our present purpose by the absence of the scale just mentioned.
SPECIES TO BE CONSIDERED.
Hight species will be treated in this article, and these comprise all of the forms which are especially destructive to deciduous fruit trees in the United States. They are the scurfy bark louse (Chionaspis furfurus, Fitch), the oyster-shell bark louse (Mytilaspis pomorum, Bouché), the San Jose, or pernicious, scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus, Comstock), the walnut scale (Aspidiotus juglans-regie, Comstock), the greedy scale (Aspidiotus camellie, Signoret=rapax, Comstock), the West Indian peach scale (Diaspis lanatus, Morgan & Cockerell), the peach Lecan- ium (Lecanium persice Modeer), and the plum Lecanium (L. prunastri, Fonsce.). The illustrations given under the specific consideration of each insect will, it is hoped, render them recognizable; but to further assist the use of the following synoptic table is recommended:
A. Insect covered with a scale; nearly flat. (a) Female scale shaped like an oyster shell. Scale narrow, grayish brown to blackish in color; male and female
Seales OL Game shape... 2.5... -4.-.. sbe2.-s---J Mytilaspis pomorum Female scale broad behind; dirty white or pure white in color; male seale much smaller and with parallel sides....Chionaspis furfurus
(b) Female scale round; male scale shaped like the female, but smaller. Wood of affected new growth or skin of fruit stained about the insect with a reddish color-....-...-..-.... Aspidietus perniciosus Wood not stained; scale rather convex, whitish in color........-... Aspidiotus camellia Wood not stained; scale flat, dark gray in color....-....-..---.---- Aspidiotus juglans-regia e (c) Female scale round; male scales white, nearly parallelogrammatic in shape, with a central longitudinal ridge -......--- Diaspis lanatus B. Insect naked in all stages; not covered with a scale. Brown in color; hemispherical in shape; winters as nearly full- grown female i.) ves lili Si is... Decanium persica Winters as larva... <2... 2.202... ..-...-..---... Lecaniam prunastri
252 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Of these species those found upon apple are Mytilaspis pomorum, Aspidiotus perniciosus, A. camellia, and Chienaspis furfurus.
The same species are also found upon pear, with the addition of Aspidiotus juglans-regie.
The species found upon peach are Aspidiotus perniciosus, A. juglans- regie, Diaspis lanatus, and Lecanium persice.
The same species are found upon nearly all varieties of plum.
The species found upon cherry are the same as those found upon apple, but they affect the cherry more rarely.
The quince scales are practically identical with the apple scales, and the apricot scales with the peach scales. Upon quince occurs another species which does not receive specific treatment in this article on account of its comparative rarity, viz, Aspidiotus cydonie.
NATURAL ENEMIES OF SCALE INSECTS.
Outside of predaceous and parasitic insects, scale insects have few naturalenemies. Some years ago there appeared in an English journal the statement that mice had cleared the peach Lecanium from some climbing peach trees trained against the side of a house in England, and in South Africa there is a little bird known as the white-eye (Zos- terops capensis) which has achieved a reputation as a scale destroyer, but confines itself to the larger species, such as the Lecaniums, the fluted scale, and the like. Among insects there are many species which prey upon bark lice, and their work is undoubtedly of great value. It is their work which unquestionably holds many species of scale insects down to comparatively uninjurious uumbers, but when we have said this we have said the larger part of what can be said in their behalf. The ideas of the value of natural enemies which have become preva- lent since the introduction of Vedalia cardinalis from Australia into Calitornia to feed upon the fluted scale are in a measure exaggerated, and it is not likely that another equally successful instance of the prac- tical handling of natural enemies will soon be brought about. It is true that late reports from California show that one of the ladybirds imported by Mr. Koebele on his second Australian expedition is doing good work against the black scale of the olive and orange, as well as against the greedy scale and the purple scale of the orange; but it is too early as yet to judge fully of the permanent value of this species, important as it seems at present, while of the dozens of other species imported at the same time none seem to have increased to any very great extent. With the species of scale insects which we shall con- sider in this article, parasitic and predaceous insects of different kinds undoubtedly limit their increase to a greater or less degree; but the work of these natural enemies is hardly sufficiently marked to justify us in taking them into serious consideration at the present time in dis- cussing remedial ineasures. Itis well, however, to know what they are.
SOME SCALE INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. 253
Among the larger ladybirds the most abundant and most active destroyer of the armored scales in this country is the so-called twice- stabbed ladybird (Chilocorus bivulnerus). This species extends all over the country, is many-brooded in the South, and frequently multiplies to such an extent as to destroy the majority of the scales ona given tree. Itis readily recognized by its glossy black color, with two red spots on the wing covers. The larvais a black, very spiny creature, which is more efficacious in the work of destroying scale insects than is the adult beetle. Other important scale-destroying ladybirds are figured upon Plate X VIII of the Annual Report of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1881-82. There is a group of smaller ladybirds, the work of which has been to a certain extent overlooked in the older works on economic entomology, but which are among the most important. These are the minute species of the genus Scymnus and its allies. An important species which has been found destroying the San Jose scale in the East is Pentilia misella, which is illustrated in all its different stages upon Plate [of the Annual Report of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1893. This insect, which is not a member of the fauna of the Pacific Coast, has been sent to Berkeley, Cal., for the purpose of ascertaining whether it will become established there and prove beneficial as a practical enemy of this destructive scale.
The Jarve of Syrphus flies and of lace-winged flies are of some benefit in destroying the newly hatched larve of the armored scales and the larger individuals of the naked scales, but their work is of no serious importance.
Concerning the mites we have little definite information. A number of species are always to be seen upon trees affected by scale insects. One form which for many years has been considered a true enemy of the oyster-shell bark louse of the apple, namely, Tyroglyphus malus, first described by Dr. Shimer and afterwards referred to by Walsh and fig- ured by Riley, has lately been decided by M. J. Ligniéres to feed only upon the cast skins and eggshells of the bark louse, and upon these only when they are somewhat moist. M. Ligniéres, however, describes a mite which he calls Hemisarcoptes coccisugus, which attacks the eggs of the oyster-shell bark louse and forms the most formidable enemy of this species in France. Mr. Hubbard mentions several species which feed upon the eggs of bark lice in Florida, one of the most important of which is Tyroglyphus (%) gloverit Ashm.
A few predaceous bugs also prey upon scale insects, and probably the most important among them are two little Capsids known as Campto- brochis nebulosus and C. grandis. The latter is figured upon Plate V of the annual report of the Entomologist in the Annual Report of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1892.
254 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
A table of the true internal parasites of the species under considera- tion follows.
Table of parasites of the foregoing species.
Host insects. Parasites.
Mytjlagpis, pomorunm (Benches) .<. <n nce weenie s+ wa ncn Aphelinus mytilaspidis LeB. Anaphes gracilis How. Aphelinus abnormis How. Aphelinus fuscipennis How. Chiloneurus diaspidinarum How.
Chiensspis facforns iP iieh) «2: . 038 eee. adhoc aneawne ans ae Ablerus clisiocampa@ (Ashm.). GOAT TGreIES CATON ASEM on ae ee a ewe wae nese geese Aphelinus fuscipennis How. Peonhotas juplans-recia Comet. cot. ice ane cece cececesce Encyrtus ensifer How.
Prospalta aurantii (How.). Aphelinus diaspidis How. Signiphora occidentalis How.
EGE PANGS, WEEE ee COE oan is estes Sleep no omeeine eas © None.
Aspidiotus “perntciosns Comst. 222+. (ieee. sb ls css stews cee ee ce Aphelinus fuscipennis How. Aphelinus mytilaspidis LeB. Aspidiotiphagus citrinus (Craw.). Anaphes gracilis How.
EpeRRIEN SICA UNE 50 diate aetemn nee omer tche Be abemcees Coccophagus fraternus How.
Coccophagus ater How. Coccophagus lecanii (Fitch). Prospalta aurantii (How.). Astichus minutus How. (probably sec- ondary).
Comys fusca How.
The majority of these parasites, when affecting armored scales, feed upon the eggs of the female late in the season and earlier upon her body. The work of the later broods against the eggs is not complete. Thus we have found upon examination of a large number of the scales of the oyster-shell bark louse in late winter and early spring that from 2 to 18 eggs under scales containing parasites escaped destruction, the average number of eggs in uninfested scales being from 65 to 70. In two cases, where a parasite had issued late in the fall, 11 and 5 sound eggs, respectively, were found. In other scales, from which the para- site had not yet issued, sound eggs were found as follows in each of 10 scales, respectively: 2,3, 4,7, 10,12, 14,15,17,18. From these facts it is perfectly obvious that these parasites will not accomplish complete extermination.
THE OYSTER-SHELL BARK LOUSE.
(Mytilaspis pomorum Bouché. )
Original home and present distribution.—This is probably the com- monest and most widespread, and consequently the best known, of any of the orchard seales. It is found all over the world. It was probably a European insect originally; at all events it was known in EHurope
ad
SOME SCALE INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. 255
during the last century, and was probably imported into this country on nursery stock by the early settlers. Itis found in the United States practically wherever apples and pears are grown, more abundantly at the North than at the South, and has often received treatment at the hands of writers on injurious insects, the most important articles being that by Professor Riley in his Fifth Report on the Insects of Missouri, and that by Prof. J. H. Comstock in the Annual Report of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1880. Actual localities in the United States from which specimens have been received at this office during the last few years are as follows: Bridgewater, N. H.; Norwalk, Conn.; Providence and Kingston, R. I.; Rye, Irvington, Monticello, Ithaca, Roslyn, and Maine, N. Y.; Walnut Hill, Hoppenville, and West Newton, Pa.; La Fayette, Ind.; Champaign, Ill.; Agricultural Coilege, Vogel Center, and Alpena, Mich.; Westfield and Grand Rapids, Wis.; Andersonville, Tenn.; Olden and Louisiana, Mo.; Lawrence and Empo- ria, Kans.; Wirth, Ark.; Omaha and Nebraska City, Nebr.; Lewiston, Idaho; Pullman, Wash.; San Francisco, Cal.; Baltimore, Lutherville, and Aberdeen, Md.; Washington, D.C.; Alexandria and Arlington, Va.; Liberty and Charleston, 8. C.; Atlanta and Lovett, Ga.; Pronto, Ala.
It is impossible, at this late date, to trace with absolute accuracy the course by which the insect has spread over the country. Mr. Enoch Perley, of Bridgton, Me., in a paper written in 1794 and published by the Massachusetts Agricultural Society in 1796, gives the first Ameri- can account of the insect, and it is impossible to state how far prior to this date the insect was introduced into the New England colonies. In Harris’s time it was extremely common in Massachusetts. Fitch, in 1854, showed that it was already abundant throughout most of the Northern States, and quotes from a Wisconsin observer, showing that it was introduced into that State (at Kenosha) in 1840. At the date of Fitch’s writing the insect did not appear to have penetrated west beyond the districts bordering upon Lake Michigan. The orchards upon the Mississippi River were free from it, as were those which he examined less than 100 miles west of Chicago. Walsh, writing in 1867, Showed that it reached northeastern Tlinois about 1852, and thence spread gradually westward and southward, reaching the Mississippi a few years previous to date of writing. Riley, late in 1868, stated that it had invaded Iowa and northern Missouri, but anticipated that it would not spread to the southward. This hope was not well grounded, however, for, as he himself showed in 1872, it had extended south through Missouri and even into Mississippi and Georgia, while toward the west it had made its appearance in several orchards near Lawrence, Kans. At the present time, in several of the Western States, where apple growing is a comparatively new industry, and in certain locali- ties, the oyster-shell bark louse has not yet obtained a firm foothold. Thus Mr. Marlatt states that in 1888 he had not noticed it at Manhat- tan, Kans.; Mr. Bruner, that it is yet rare in Nebraska; Mr. H. A,
256 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Morgan, that he has not found it in Louisiana, and Mr. Cockerell reports that it has not yet made its appearance in the orchards about Las Cruces, N. Mex. In California it is present, though rare. Professor Popenoe has reported it the present year from Crawford County, Kans.
Food plants.—The insect is found, in the District of Columbia, upon the apple, pear, quince, hawthorn, buckthorn, raspberry, currant, lin- den, hop tree, bladder nut, horse-chestnut, maple, water locust, honey- suckle, ash, elm, hackberry, cottonwood, willow, poplar, and upon an exotic Amorpha growing in the Department grounds at Washington. Some doubt has been expressed as to the specific identity of the oyster- shell bark louse upon some of these plants with the species occurring upon the apple, but so careful a student of the Diaspine as Prof. J. H. Comstock was unable to find any structural differences. One peculiar difference in habit, however, was pointed out by Professor Comstock, in that, while the male scale is rare upon apple, it is not at all scarce upon the other plants mentioned.
Specimens received at the United States Department of Agriculture indicate that the insect occurs elsewhere in the United States upon the following plants: Apple, pear, plum, wild red cherry, rose, wild grape, spirea, fig, bittersweet (Celastrus), red maple, striped maple, Juneberry, black ash, white ash, white birch, red birch, swamp willow, and poplar.
So long as no valid structural differences can be found between the forms living upon this great range of food plants, they must be con- sidered as ali belonging to a single species; but one can hardly avoid the strong suspicion that certain of these forms will not interbreed and that eventually distinguishing characteristics will be found.
In England, according to Mr. J. W. Douglas, this scale is known to occur upon dogwood, plum, currant, heather (Callwna), and heath (rica), in addition to apple. In France, as we note from specimens received by Dr. Riley in 1882 from I’. Richter, of Montpellier, it occurs upon Cra- tegus oxyacantha, Cornus sanguinea, Ulmus campestris, and Lepidium graminifolium, while Boisduval and Taschenberg record it from dog- wood, elm, whitethorn, medlar, and currant. In New Zealand Maskell Satta it as occurring upon many plants.
Life hastory and habits.—If, during the winter, one of the female scales be lifted, it will be found to contain the shriveled body of the dead female, onder the anterior or more pointed portion, while behind this the yellowish white eggs are thickly massed together back to the extremity of the scale. In number, the eggs under each scale vary in our experi. ence from 42 to 86. The young hatch from these eggs in most of the Northeastern States during the latter part of May or early in June, wan- der out upon the twigs, and settle at once. With this species the young twigs are generally the only parts of the tree seriously affected. Older twigs, however, are also attacked, and many specimens of the insect
SOME SCALE INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. 257
may be found upon the trunk. There is but one annual generation in the North, and, owing to this fact, the leaves are not attacked. The writer does not remember, in fact, to have ever seen specimens of this scale upon theleaves. Upon the fruit itis almost equally rare, although an occasional specimen is found in such a location. At the meeting of the Association of Economic Entomologistsin Brooklyn, in August, 1894, Mr. William Saunders exhibited a small green apple which was covered with these scales. This instance was exceptional in the experience of all the entomologists present, but in late September apple skins were received at the Department of Agriculture from Bridgewater, N. H.,
FiG.26.—Mytilaspis pomorum: a, female scale from below, showin b, same form above—greatly enlarged; c, female scales; d, male scale —enlarged (original); e, male scales on twig—natural size.
recos: > eggs;
bearing numerous specimens of the scale, and it was noticed later that Dr, Lintner, in his fourth report as State entomologist of New York, mentions having seen a pear bearing specimens of the same. More- over, Mr. J. W. Douglas, in The Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine (XXV, p. 16), records it as met with upon Tasmanian, Canadian, Brit- ish, and American fruits, though rarely. The interesting point about both these recent American instances is that both were from points far north, and that the occurrence of the scale upon the fruit meant the certain death of the insects and their possible offspring. In the South, however, the insect is two-brooded, and the adults of the first genera-
1 <A 94-——10
258 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
tion could occur upon the fruit or the leaves without danger, since their offspring could crawl back to the permanent portions of the plant before fall. As a matter of fact, however, we have never seen the insect upon the leaves and very rarely upon the fruit in the South. The question of the single-broodedness of the insect at the North has been doubted by Lintner, on the ground that specimens occurring upon fruit must belong to a second generation; but it seems that they are much more likely to be late hatching individuals of the single generation, although the possibility of an occasional exceptionally warm autumnin which early laid eggs might hatch out of season is not denied.
After inserting its beak and settling, the female molts twice, and begins the formation of the scale, which is secreted mainly from the
ARES -
oh faut . : wn KN 2 oe; > a
Fie. 27.—Mytilaspis pomorum: a, adult male; b, foot of same; ¢, young larva; d, antenna of same; e, adult female taken from scale—a, ¢, e, greatly enlarged; b, d, still more enlarged (original). hinder portion of the body and extends backward, the two cast skins remaining in an overlapping position on the anterior portion of the scale.
The male scale is much smaller than the female scale, as indicated in the figures, and is otherwise distinguished by a few structural pecul- iarities. In the first place, there is but one cast skin at its anterior extremity, and in the next place, the hinder portion of the scale is hinged in such a way that it lifts up like a flap, permitting the escape of the adult male. The different stages and structural details of the insect are so well shown in the figure as to require no further description. The only careful observations as to rate of growth with this species have
SOME SCALE INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. 259
been made by Professor Riley, who records, in his First Report on Insects of Missouri, that in Cook County, IL, the eggs hatch on or about June 6; the females reach full growth August 1, commence to lay eggs August 12, and finish egg laying by August 28. In his fifth Mis- souri report the same author records the discovery that the species is double-brooded in southern localities. He shows that in Wright County, Mo., the eggs hatch early in May, and makes a Mr. Palmer responsible for the statement that there are two broods, while Dr. Riley himself received hatching eggs from Leake County, Miss., about September 1.
THE SCURFY BARK LOUSE. (Chionaspis furfurus Fitch.)
Original home and present distribution.—Unlike the oyster-shell bark louse, the scurfy bark louse is a native of North America. It has been reported by previous authors from the States of Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Maryland, southern California, and Mis- souri. It has been sent to the Department of Agriculture from New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Dela- ware, Maryland, District of Co- lumbia, Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, Iowa, Tennessee, Georgia, Kansas, Nebraska, and South Dakota. It seems, on the whole, to flourish in rather warmer localities than the oyster-shell bark louse. In Mis- souri Professor Riley records the southward extension of the oyster- Shell species into regions previ- ously inhabited only by the scurfy bark louse, and we believe with Walsh that the Mytilaspis is the 7%, 22—Chmaonis susurus: a, o fomalen; nd hardier form of the two, and will, in localities where both species are found, gradually supersede the Chionaspis, just as the purple scale of the orange in Florida has replaced the long scale during recent years, and, as Mr. Cockerell has pointed out, is true with certain West Indian scales. Walsh, in his report as acting State entomologist of Illinois (1867), stated that on all of his apple trees, which were a year or two previously infested by the scurfy scale, the native species was being gradually supplanted by the oyster-shell bark louse, “just,” he wrote, ‘as the white man is supplant- ing the red man in America, or as in New Zealand the European house fly and the brown Norway rat are driving out the native fly and the native rat.”
260 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Two years ago the scurfy bark louse was found in England, when Dr. T. A. Chapman took specimens on a red currant bush at Hereford.
Food plants.—The scurfy bark louse occurs abundantly upon apple and pear, and is also found upon crab apple, quince, black cherry, choke cherry, currant,and mountain ash. Upon the last-named plant the writer has seen it occurring so abundantly in the Catskill Mountains that hardly a twig or branch was found uninfested. It has also been received on peach twigs from two localities in Georgia, and occurs abun- dantly on the Japan quince at Washington.
Life history and habits.—As is the case with the preceding species the female scale, if lifted in the winter, will reveal the shriveled body
: hy EQWY Ze:
Fic. 29.—Chionaspis furfurus: Adult male above; b, foot; h, tip of antenna of same; c, larva; d, antenna; e,leg of same; f, pupa; g,adult female re- moved from scale—all enlarged; b, d, e, h, much more than the others (original).
of the insect in front and a mass of eggs behind. 'The eggs, however, instead of being yellowish in color, as with the preceding species, are purplish-red, Theeggs, numbering from 10 to 75 to each scale, hatch quite uniformly about the middle of May in the latitude of Washington, and the life history of the insect is substantially identical with that of the oyster-shell bark louse. The male insect, however, differs quite radically from that of the preceding species in the character of the scale which it forms. This scale, instead of resembling that of the female in colorand general shape, is very much smaller, brilliantly white, rather delicate, having nearly parallel sides and three elevated longi- tudinal ridges, one on each side and onein the center. At the anterior
SOME SCALE INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. 261
end the yellowish brown cast skin of the first molt is very evident, through its color contrasting so strongly with that of thescale. There is no record as to the number of generations annually, but, as with the preceding species, there is probably but one at the North, and two, or perhaps more, at the South, as also in California. The collee- tion of the United States Department ot Agriculture contains males reared from California scales which issued from August 17 to Septem- ber 4, and eggs from the same lot of scales which must have been laid about September 1. At Washington the eggs hatch from May 15 to June 1, the males issue during September, and the last females have laid their overwintering eggs by October 15. In Illinois Walsh (Trans. Ills. Hort. Soc. 1867, p. 54) found that the young hatch June 5 to 12, that the mature scale is not formed until about the middle of Septem- ber, and that the eggs are not laid ‘until the end of September, or sometimes in October.”
THE GREEDY SCALE.
(Aspidiotus camellia Sign. =rapax Comst, )
Fie. 00.—Aspidiotus camelliw: a, female scale from above; b,same from below; c,mass of scales as appearing on bark; d, male scale; e, male scales on twig; f, female scabs on twig— eand f, natural size; c, considerably enlarge; a, b, d, greatly enlarged (original).
Original home and present distribution—The greedy scale was first described in this country by Prof. J. H. Comstock under the name Aspidiotus rapax in the Annual Report of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1880, from specimens which he himself collected in California in the spring of that year. It always seemed probable that this was not an indigenous Californian insect, but a good guess could not be made as to its original home until, in 1889, Mr, A. ©. F. Morgan
262. YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
established its identity with the European Aspidiotus camellia. Under this name, considering it erroneously as identical with one of Boisduval’s species, Signoret described this insect as common around Paris. Mr. Morgan records it as abundant in Portugal, and Mr. J. W. Douglas has found itin England. Under the same name Mr. Maskell reports the species as very common in New Zealand, where Mr. Koebele also found it in 1891. It is also recorded as appearing in Australia, in the Agri- cultural Gazette of New South Wales for September, 1892, in a note by Mr. A. Sidney Olliff. Specimens have also been received from Hawaii. In this country it is found over a wide range of territory on the Pacific Coast, extending north at least to Olympia, Wash., according to Mr. Trevor Kincaid, and south to Guadaloupe Island, off the coast of Lower California. It occurs also in New Mexico and Florida, while Professor Comstock, in the second report of the Department of Entomology, Cor-
Fic. 31.—Aspidiotus camellie: a, young larva; b, adult female removed from scale and seen from below—greatly enlarged (original).
nell University Experiment Station, for 1883, incidentally mentions that it is found “in hothouses in the North.”
From this somewhat complicated geographical distribution the writer is inclined to believe that the species is native to south Europe and has been carried by commerce to Australia and New Zealand, and thence to California, whence it has begun to spread toward the east.
Food plants.—In California Mr. Coquillett has found full-grown speci- mens of this insect upon the following plants: Apple, pear, loquat, Myosporium, birch, English laurel, maple, South African silver tree (Leucadendron argentewm), Rhamnus croceus, California walnut, English holly, fuchsia, cottonwood, Japanese camellia, orange, and lemon. Pro- fessor Comstock received it in 1880 from Dr. R. 8. Turner, who found it upon stems of Huonymus japonicus at Fort George, Fla., and himself found it in great abundance and very destructive in California upon
SOME SCALE INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. 263
olive, mountain laurel, almond, quince, fig, willow, eucalyptus, acacia, and locust. In Australia Mr. Olliff notes it “‘ chiefly on apple and pear twigs, but sometimes on native plants, such as the black wattle (Calli- coma serratifolia), and several species of eucalyptus.” In France it is found abundantly in the greenhouses in which camellias are grown, and in Portugal it occurs, according to Mr. Morgan, very commonly out of doors and in great abundance on camellias *‘ and other plants.” Messrs. Maskell and Koebele state that it occurs on ‘many trees and shrubs in New Zealand.”
During late years we have received it on the fruit of orange and apple from San Diego, Cal., on palm nuts from Guadaloupe Island, and on apple from New Mexico, as well as upon many of the above-mentioned plants from California.
Fig. 32.—Aspidiotus juglans-regie: a, female scale; b, male scale; c,malechrysalis; d male scales on twig; e, female scales on twig—a, b, ¢, enlarged; d, e, natural size (original).
’
Life history and habits —The adult female scale of this species is very convex, with the exuvia between the center and one side, and covered with secretion. In color the scale is gray and somewhat transparent, so that it has a tendency to appear yellowish when it covers the living female. If the scale be carefully removed from the twig or fruit, a snowy white and usually complete lower scale is found. The insect seems to hibernate indifferently in the egg state, as adult female or as young. The eggs and the newly hatched larve are yellow in color. There are no observations upon record which indicate the number of annual generations, and the very fact that the insect passes the winter in several different stages would make such observations very difficult; it also complicates the question of remedies. The insect has, in fact, been studied only in California, and there it may be found in all stages at almost any time of the year.
264 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
THE ENGLISH WALNUT SCALE. (Aspidiotus juglans-regie Comstock—figs. 32 and 33.,
Original home and present distribution.—This hitherto comparatively rare species was originally described by Professor Comstoek from speci- mens found upon the bark and larger limbs of an English walnut tree at Los Angeles, Cal. In view of the somewhat interesting diversity of food habit, both the specific name and the popular designation which Professor Comstock gave it are unfortunate, as will be shown in the next paragraph. Professor Comstock also recorded the species from New York and the District of Columbia, and it has recently been found by Prof. H. A. Morgan in Louisiana, while Mr. T. D. A. Cockerell has shown that it also occurs at Las Cruces, N. Mex. Twelve years ago specimens were sent to the United States Department of Agri-
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Fic. 33.—Aspidiotus juglans-regie: a, newly hatched larva; b, antenna of same; c, foot of same; d,female just before last molt; e, full-grown male larva; f, adult male; g, adult female—all greatly enlarged (original).
culture by Mr. H. G. Hubbard, Crescent City, and Dr. J. C. Neal, Archer, Fla., and it has also been received from J. L. Hardy and W. R. Howard, Stuebner and Fort Worth, Tex., and H. Korner, Bay St. Louis, Miss., as well as from I’. W. Mally, Dickinson, Tex. The New Mexican specimens are, however, light colored, and among them Mr. Cockerell has found a new variety, which he calls Aspidiotus juglans-regie var. albus. The Florida specimens from Mr. Hubbard are referred to at page 13 of Bulletin 5 of the Division of Entomology (1885) as Aspidiotus corticalis Riley MS. It is possible that the eastern and western forms of this species may prove distinct, and that the former will prove synonymous with Aspidiotus ostrewformis of Europe, as pointed out by Comstock and Douglas in The Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine for March, 1887.
SOME SCALE INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. 265
Food plants.—In California the insect has been found only upon Eng- lish walnut; in New York and the District of Columbia it occurs upon pear, cherry, and locust; in Florida, upon peach and wild plum; in New Mexico, upon ash, pear, apple, apricot, and plum; in Texas, upon peach; and in Louisiana, upon peach and Japan plum. Concerning the Louisi- ana occurrence, Professor Morgan wrote that the insect was new to fruit growers about Baton Rouge and is doing considerable damage. In Mississippi it occurs on pear and peach, as also in Texas.
Life history and habits.—The female scale resembles that of the other species of the genus, with the exuvia one side of the center. It is a pale grayish brown in color, with the exuvial spot pink or reddish brown. There is no complete ventral scale, such as A. rapax has. The color of the full-grown female found under the scale is pale yellow, with irreg- ular orange-colored spots. The scale of the male resembles that of the
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female in color, and with the male there is a rudimentary ventral scale. No definite observations are on record regarding the number of gener- ations or the method of hibernation. The office notes are not fall, and simply show that in Florida adult females were taken under the scales in January, males issued June 1, and eggs were found June 15, which hatched June 18. Specimens received June 12 and 18, from New Mex- ico and Louisiana, were all full-grown or nearly full-grown females, as were also specimens received from Texas September 4. There must be several annual generations, probably about three, and the adult female hibernates.
THE NEW PEACH SCALE. (Diaspis lanatus Morgan & Cockerell—figs. 34-37. )
Original home and present distribution.—In all probability the original home of this species is the West Indies. It has been found in Jamaica by Mr. Cockerell and his correspondents, in Trinidad by Mr. F. W. Urich ;
266 YEARBOOK OF THE U, 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
in Martinique by Mr. E. G. Nolet, on the island of Grand Cayman by Mr. H. McDermott, and in Barbados and San Domingo by Professor Riley. It also occurs in Ceylon, and what is probably this species has been received from Japan. In this country the insect is known to occur in an orchard at Molino, Fla., and in another at Bainbridge, Ga. It was first discovered in this country on some young seedling peach trees in the grounds of the United States Department of Agriculture at Washington in 1892. As is shown in Insect Life (Vol. VI, No. 4), efforts were made to learn the origin of the insect upon these trees, but these efforts were unsuccessful. In the fall of 1894, however, it was discovered that the same
7) insect was to be found upon
a. isolated peach trees in door-
yards (usualiy in back gar-
dens) in many parts of
2 Washington. Old trees
S Q €e BD were found to be affected
in such a way that the in-
- sect must have been pres-
ent in the District of Columbia, although not ob- served by entomologists, for a number of years. Its presence upon seedlings in the grounds of the Depart- ment, then, is probably due to the chance introduction of young larve by means of birds or winged insects. The fact that in the three localities in the United States, as well as in the single locality in Ceylon, Fic. 35.—Diaspis lanatus : adult female removed from scale— the jnseet seems very re- greatly enlarged (original). st rict ed in its r range of
food, as well as in its geographical range, while in the West Indies it is widespread and possesses many food plants, seems to indicate, without much doubt, that the species belongs to the West Indian fauna. Food plants.—In the District of Columbia the insect is found only upon peach. In Florida and Georgia it has been found upon peach and plum. In Ceylon it occurs upon geranium; in Jamaica, upon grape, bastard cedar (Guazuma ulmifolia), Cycas media, capsicum, Argyreia speciosa, the bark and twigs of an undetermined malvaceous plant, Bryophyilum calycinum, peach, Pelargonium, Jasminum, stems of cotton, Calotropis procera (French cotton), and Hibiscus esculentus, On the
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SOME SCALE INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. 267
island of San Domingo Professor Riley found it abundantly upon Zizy- phus, and in Barbados he collected it upon Cycas.
Life history and habits.—During winter this insect is found in Wash- ington, D. C., only in the condition of the mature female. The eggs are deposited early in May, and the young larvie hatch by the middle of the month. The males begin to issue the middle of June and impreg- nate the females, and the latter begin egg laying by the end of the month. The second generation is full grown by the middle of August, and the third egg laying begins at this time. In this latitude the development is comparatively regular.
The seale of the adult female is gray in color, and is not readily dis- tinguished. It occurs abundantly, upon larger twigs than is customary with other scale insects, and frequently appears to be almost covered by the outer bark of the twig. The males have a white scale and, as a rule, cluster on the lower parts of the branches of young trees and at
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Pia. 36.—Diaspislanatus: adult male—greatly enlarged, with tarsus Fig. 37.—Diaspis lanatus: at a@ and poiser at b still more enlarged (original). larva—greatly enlarged (original).
the base of the trunk. Where the insect is abundant the trees fre- quently appear as though whitewashed, from the masses of these male seales.
THE SAN JOSE, OR PERNICIOUS, SCALE. (Aspidiotus perniciosus Comstock. )
Original home and present distribution.—The original home of this important scale insect is stillin doubt. It has been supposed that it came to America from Chile, but recent investigations by the writer seem to show that it was taken to Chile from the United States. It occurs in Hawaii, but it was brought to this point also from California. It made its first appearance near San Jose, Cal., twenty years ago, at a time when many trees were being imported from many parts of the world. It may have come from Australia, since it is known to occur there, though rarely, or it may have come from some Pacific island or possiblyeven fromChina. It has been carried north to British Columbia
268 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
and has extended by natural spread eastward to Idaho on the north, and Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico on the south. Chance impor- tation of California nursery stock has within the past few years resulted in its establishment at many points in the East, and particularly in the States of New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Ohio, Indiana, Virginia, Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, and Florida. food plants.—This species is a rather general feeder. Fortunately it does not seem to attack citrus trees, but it is found upon almost every variety of deciduous fruit trees. In California it has a very long list of food plants, including with the above, among plants of economic impor-
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Fic. 38.—Aspidiotus perniciosus on pear fruit and twig, with enlarged male and female scales (original).
tance, the apricot, prune, almond, and English walnut, and EHuonymus, rose, and other ornamental shrubs. In the East its principal damage has been done to pear and peach. It occurs, however, in abundance upon apple, plum, cherry, persimmon, and currant, as well as upon Japanese quince, and in one remarkable instance it has been found in great numbers upon a young elm, which was brought from I’rance acci- dentally with some young pear trees and was planted in a nursery close to some young stock affected with the San Jose scale. There seems to be a marked selection of varieties by the scale. The Bartlett and Duchesse d’Augouleme are almost invariably seriously affected, while
SOME SCALE INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. 269
the Kieffer is practically exempt. In New Jersey Professor Smith has found that the varieties affected range in about the following order: Idaho, Madame Van Garber, Lawson, Seckel, Lawrence, and Bartlett Kieffers alone, in his experience, are absolutely exempt, and the Leconte is also nearly exempt. One tree which he especially mentions, and which the writer has had the pleasure of examining, was grafted with Lawson and Kieffer, and the Lawson branch and fruit were cov- ered with scales, while the Kieffer was entirely free. Life history and habits.— The full life history of the insect was not known until the summer of 1894, when the occurrence of the scale in the East gave opportunity for a careful series of observations in the Insectary of the De- partment of Agriculture. From these observations it appears that the insect is viviparous, i. e., gives birth to living yeAne and does not Fic. 39.—Aspidiotus perniciosus: ¢, adult female removed lay eggs. It passes the win- from scale, showing embryonic young—greatly enlarged ; ter as a half-grown or nearly d, anal plate—still more enlarged (original). full-grown female. About the middle of May the female begins giving birth to living young, and continues to do so, day after day for six weeks. As soon as the young larva is hatched, it wanders about until
uff 4 i ys
el P
Se it reaches a favorable spot, when it = oe Pree :
Pax o ger settles, and within forty-eight hours as Y begins the secretion of its scale. mite. Y, This secretion is white and. fibrous, Rae ae and the insect becomes invisible in
eae about two days. At thirty days caps Xo Cy oz | ANS} the female becomes full grown, the
fKEX\ males having issued at twenty-four y »
days. At about forty days the fe-
Lo} | \ males begin to give birth to young. \ | } The constant daily birth of the
Fia. 40.—Aspidiotus perniciosus: adult male— young insects gives rise to a great eee er see: ferienaly. confusion of generations, which ren-
ders observations upon the life history of the species extremely difficult, and only to be accomplished by the isolation of individuals. It also seriously complicates the matter of summer remedies, as a Spraying oper- ation at any given time will destroy only those larva which happen to
270 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
be at that particular time less than three days old. The young larve are not great travelersand seldom wander more than afewinches. There seem to be in the latitude of Washington five generations annually. As indicated in the little analytical table of the species considered in this article, the San Jose scale differs from all others in the peculiar reddening effect which it produces upon the skin of the fruit and of tender twigs. This very characteristic feature of the insect’s work renders it easy to distinguish. Around the margin of each female scale is a circular band of this reddish discoloration, and the cambium layer of the young twigs, where the scales are massed together, fre- quently becomes deep red or purplish. When occurring in winter in large numbers upon the bark of a twig, the scales lie close together, frequently overlapping, and are at such times difficult to distinguish without a magnifying glass. The general appearance which they pre- sent is of a grayish, ‘very slightly roughened, scurfy deposit. The rich
HN Bry
Fia. 41.—Lecanium persice: Newly hatched larva at right; unimpregnated female next; twig with full-grown females next; female form above and below and cut longitudi- nally—all enlarged except specimens on twig (original). natural reddish color of the twigs of peach and apple is quite obscured when these trees are thickly infested, and they have then every ap- pearance of being coated with lime or ashes. Even without a magnify- ing glass, however, their presence can be readily noted if the twig be scraped with the finger nail, when a yellowish, oily liquid will appear, resulting from the crushing of the bodies of the insects. A more detailed account of the life history of the insect will be found in Insect Life (Vol. VII, No. 4).
THE PEACH LECANIUM. (Lecanium persicw Modeer—figs. 41 and 42.)
Original home and present distribution.—This insect is European in its origin. Its natural history was detailed at some length one hundred and fifty years ago by Réaumur, and it has since been mentioned many times by European authors. It is at present widespread in this coun- try, but the date and manner of its introduction can not be definitely
SOME SCALE INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. 271
ascertained. Actual receipt of specimens at the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture shows that it occurs at Jamaica, Ithaca, and Shell- drake, N. Y.; Chambersburg, Columbia, Leechburg, and Lancaster, Pa. ; Newark, Del.; in many localities in Maryland; Washington, D. C.; Cresson, Va.; Holidays Cove, W. Va.; Hast Carmel, Ohio; Kirkwood, Mo.; in Jasper and Jefferson counties, Mo.; Mammoth Springs, Ark.; and at Las Cruces, N. Mex. If it occurs elsewhere than in Europe and North America the fact is disguised by synonymy.
Food plants.—As its name indicates, this insect is a specific enemy to the peach. It clusters upon the twigs and smaller limbs of peach trees in such masses as completely to cover the bark, and frequently to cause the death of young trees.
Life history and habits.—As above stated, the life history of the insect was described in some detail by Réaumur. Bouché described the male insect, which he stated was found in April, but Signoret never met with it. The different stages of the insect are well illustrated by the figures, and most of the stages may be found at different times during the suin- mer months. The insect appears to overwinter mainly in the advanced female condition, in which stage it is a hemispherical, slightly elon- gated, brown, rather hard object, 2.5 to 4 mm. in diameter. During the summer of 1893, at Professor Riley’s direction, Miss Murtfeldt, at Kirkwood, Mo., studied the life history to some extent, and her obser- vations are recorded upon pages 41-44, Bulletin 32, of the Division of Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture. She shows - that the eggs are fully formed by the 20th of May. They are half a milli- meter long, pale yellow in color, and rest free in the mass. The young began to hatch June 10, and continued to hatch for nearly a month. By July 15 hatching was completed, and in the meantime those first hatched, of which part were separated and kept on fresh twigs in a rearing jar, had nearly all become stationary on the leaves and trans- formed to male pup. Twigs from the living tree at this date had the foliage covered with the young in all stages. On the 22d July winged males appeared, the pupal period being about one week. The males remained alive for about a week. Their most striking peculiarity con- sists in the apparent lack of poisers, or rudimentary hind wings. The female scales were nearly half grown at this time, and later darkened in color, thickened, and became centrally elevated. There seemed to be but a single generation annually, and the best time for remedial work against the young will, therefore, be from the end of the first week in June until a month from that time.
Where the insects crowd the twigs abundantly a perceptible amount of honeydew is found to be excreted. A smut fungus develops upon this honeydew, which eventually covers the scale mass, and many of the scales are destroyed. On one tree which has been under the writer’s observation the scales clustered most abundantly on the underside of the twigs. The honeydew secreted by these individuals dropped upon the upper surface of the twigs immediately beneath. This upper sur-
272 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
face of the twigs, therefore, while comparatively free from scales, was covered with the fungus, which gradually extended around to the underside and affected the rows of scales, which themselves were drop ping honeydew upon other still lower twigs. In October, 1894, it was with difficulty that a single living scale was found, but the entire tree had become greatly enfeebled from their earlier attacks.
THE NEW YORK PLUM LECANIUM.
(Lecanium prunastri Fonsc.)
There are certainly three distinct species of the genus Lecanium which aftect the plum in the United States. Two of these pass the winter in the flat larval condition, attached to the twigs, and the third hibernates, like the peach Lecanium, as a nearly full-grown, rounded female. One of these three species has, within the last two years, attracted a great deal of attention in western New York, and has done a great deal of damage. It has been decided by Mr. Newstead, of Chester, England, that it is identical with the European species above named. It has been closely studied by Mr. Slingerland, of the Cor- nell University Experiment Station. From the bulletin which he has published about it, as well as from specimens sent to the writer by New York correspondents, it appears that while the species is quite widely spread throughout New York, it exists at present in alarming numbers only in several large orchards near Geneva, Rochester, and Lockport. In July the young scales hatch, and remain small in size throughout the remainder of the summer, autumn, and winter. They spread out upon the leaves at first, and toward fall return to the branches. In April they resume activity, and soon begin to grow with considerable rapidity. The males and females resemble, in general, the peach Lecanium shown in the figures illustrating the preceding species. About the end of May the females begin to lay their eggs, which hatch, as before stated, about the first of July.
REMEDIES FOR ORCHARD SCALES.
The washes which have been used against scale insects have been almost innumerable. Lye, soda, tobacco water, dry ashes, tar, fish brine, potash, sulphur, common brine, soap, quassia, and aloes solutions, the ammoniacal fumes of sheep manure, and compounds of two, three, and four of these ingredients, were mentioned by Walsh as having been recommended before his time. He proved, by an elaborate series of experiments, that a strong solution of soap will kill the oyster-shell bark louse shortly after it hatches out. Petroleum or kerosene, he stated, would kill the eggs. He further speaks of the experience of many prominent fruit growers of the time, among them that of Mr. J. L. Budd, who had found that ten parts of benzine and four of soap afforded a good remedy against bark lice. Here was evidently an early though imperfect emulsion. The recommendations of Comstock in 1880 followed rather closely the results of California experiments.
SOME SCALE INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. 273
His efforts to make a good kerosene-milk emulsion, on the recommenda- tion of Riley in the Scientific American of October 16, 1880, were unsatisfactory. The two remedies which he urged most strongly were, first, whale-oil soap at three-fourths of a pound to a gallon of water, applied warm, and 1 pound of concentrated lye, 1 pint of gasoline or benzine, half a pint of oil, 5 gallons of water. The whale-oil soap he experimented with himself with good success, while of the lye-ben- zine-kerosene mixture he simply saw the results in the orchard of Mr. V.C. Mason, of California. The scale upon which these experiments were made was the California red scale of the orange. In the Annual Report of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1881-82 Professor Comstock recommended the use of 1 pound of lye to 5 gallons of water, and quoted the experience of S. F. Chapin and Matthew Cooke in support of his recommendation. In the ineantime the im- portant work of Mr. H. G. Hubbard in the perfecting of kerosene-soap emulsions against the scale insects of the orchard had been begun tinder
Fic. 42.— Lecanium persice ;: full-grown male seale at right; pupa next; adult male next; leaf with young male scales at left—last, natural size, other figures greatly enlarged (original). the direction of the former entomologist, Professor Riley. These emul- sions, and particularly the one which has become adopted under the name * Riley-Hubbard formula,” proved in the course of long experience to be perfect destroyers of newly hatched seale insects of all kinds, and, indeed, when the problem simply concerns the destruction of unprotected
young we need look for no better or cheaper remedy.
The kerosene emulsions, however, fall short of being perfect scale- insect remedies for the reason that certain scale insects do not give birth to their young at a definite or nearly definite time, and the spraying will have to be repeated frequently as more young hatch. This is par- ticularly the case with the San Jose scale, the new peach scale, and the greedy scale. The desideratum is a wash which by one or at most two applications will kill the insect. The young hatch in the summer time? and applications at this time of the year have to be comparatively weak
12344 94——11
274 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
in order not to injure the foliage. Winter washes, therefore, are the ones to be desired. In the application of winter washes Californians have had a great deal of experience, but experience in California is not a safe guide for orchardists in the East. The long dry spells in Cali- fornia admit of the application and efficacious work of washes over long periods during which they will not be washed off by rain. This faet operates in the East against the work of resin washes, which have been proved to be efficacious in many cases in Culifornia. Moreover, the California winter is much milder than that of our more northern and eastern States and there is no perfect hibernation of scale insects. Their winter dormancy is by no means as complete as it is with the same species in the East. This more perfect dormancy in the East renders the insect much more resistant to the action of washes. From these facts it results that not only are the resin washes of little avail for winter use in the major part of the country, but also that the lime, salt, and sulphur, and lime, sulphur, and blue vitriol washes, so highly recommended on the Pacific Coast, have by no means the same effect east of the Rocky Mountains.
Two of our common orchard seales, viz, the scurfy bark louse and the oyster-shell bark louse, hibernate in the egg state, and their hatching is comparatively uniform. The approximate date throughout the mid- dle belt of the country is from the middle to the end of May. More- over, the larve are comparatively slow to settle, ana the scale at first is not very dense. Therefore one, or at the most two, applications of kero- sene-soap emulsion, diluted with ten parts of water, made about the first of June, will hold these two species well in check. Both species hibernate in the egg state, and the eggs, particularly of the oyster- shell species, are difficult to destroy. The emulsion spray for the young is, however, sufficiently efficacious, so that the winter wash for the eggs is not necessary.
The same condition of affairs holds to a great degree with the peach Lecanium. Here the insect does not hibernate in the egg state, and a strong winter wash will be more or less efficacious; but as the eggs are laid and the young hatch quite uniformly through June, and as the young do not form scales, the kerosene-emulsion spray will here again prove the best solution to apply.
With the San Jose scale, the greedy scale, and the new peach stale, and possibly with the walnut scale as well, the most satisfactory work can be done only with a winter wash. All of these species may be found in various stages of development at any time through the sum- mer months, and an emulsion spray at any given time will kill only a small proportion. Moreover, with the San Jose scale in particular, the young larva settles almost at once, and immediately begins secreting a dense scale which after forty-eight hours is practically impervious to the ordinary emulsion, diluted so as not to injure the foliage. It is true that from one locality it has been reported to us that a single spraying with the emulsion in June has rid a certain number of trees of the
SOME SCALE INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. 275
insect, but in the light of our own experience this seems incredible. On the contrary, we have known during the past summer three sprayings with the emulsion to be made, beginning with the last week in May and covering a period from that time to the end of July, with the result that at the close of the season the trees were almost as badly infested with living insects as they were the previous winter.
The question arises, in the case of these scales, What winter wash Shall be applied? Many different washes, in varying proportions, have been tried with great care during the winter of 1894-95. Up to the present writing but one absolutely satisfactory winter wash against this insect in this locality has been found. This is whale-oil soap, a pound and a half or 2 pounds to the gallon of water. This mixture killed every insect upon the trees to which it was applied, as was proved by a very thorough examination. Good whale-oil soap can hardly be bought for less than 4 cents per pound by the barrel, and this makes satisfactory winter treatment an expensive matter. The best recom- mendation that can be made from the present outlook, however, is to use this mixture soon after the leaves fall in the autumn, and then, if examination shows any survivors, to repeat it shortly before the buds open in the spring. It is very possible that at these two periods a somewhat weaker wash will suffice, but at the present writing satis- factory experiments in this direction have not been made. <A good fish-oil soap may be made at home, which will be almost as satisfactory as whale-oil soap, but it will be found quite as expensive to make it as to buy it.
The New York plum Lecanium may also be best treated by a winter wash, since it hibernates in the perfectly unprotected larval condition. The New York experimenters have found that a kerosene emulsion, in the proportions of one part of the standard emulsion to four parts of water, will answer if it is applied about three times. The recommen- dation is to spray once before winter closes in, and again in the spring, before April1. If possible, spray also once during the interval.
To recapitulate: From our present information the best results in the Eastern States against San Jose scale, the West Indian peach scale, the greedy scale, and the walnut scale will be obtained by the thorough application of a fish-oil or whale-oil soap solution at the rate of 2 pounds to a gallon of water. The application should be made soon after the leaves fall in the autumn.
For the oyster-shell bark louse, the scurfy louse, and the peach Leca- nium, one or two applications of kerosene-soap emulsion, diluted one part to ten of water, from the first to the last of June, will kill the young lice and prevent undue increase of the species.
The gas treatment, which has been frequently mentioned in the pub- lications of the Division of Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture, will seldom be used inthe East. It was tried in the spring of 1894 at Charlottesville, Va., against the San Jose scale. The. Cali- fornia method, as adopted by Mr. D. W. Coquillett at Los Angeles, was
276 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
used. The operation was at first supposed to be perfectly successful, but in the fall of 1894 a few scales were found to have escaped suffoca- tion. Moreover a certain number of the trees were injured more or less seriously by the operation. The only use which Kastern fruit growers will have for the gas treatment will probably be in the fumigation of affected nursery stock. The process is described in Farmers’ Bulletin No. 19 of the United States Department of Agriculture,
PREVENTIVES—INSPECTION AND QUARANTINE LAWS.
One who has read the foregoing account of our eight principal scale- insect enemies to deciduous orchard trees can not fail to be impressed by the unrestricted ease with which these insects are spreading and have spread through the country. Orchardists do not seem to have examined new nursery stock, and by this neglect have laid the foundation for great future damage, not only to their own tree property but to that of their entire neighborhood. Nurserymen seem to have been equally careless in sending out stock without prior examination or treatment. Moreover, five of the eight species mentioned have been imported from abroad. In the Hastern and Mid-western States there are absolutely no restrictions to the free spread by commerce of injurious insects of all kinds. California, a number of years ago, saw the danger in unrestricted commerce in fruits and nursery stock. She established a horticultural commission and her legislature passed a wise law, which, if perfectly enforced, would protect that State in large degree from such evils. Her example has been followed by Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and Colorado. British Columbia has lately enforced such regulations, and several of the Australian colonies, as well as New Zealand, have put in operation legal regulations which will bring about the desired result. Agricultural and horticultural societies are beginning to agitate the question of protection in the Eastern States. The United States Depart- ment of Agriculture has just issued a bulletin (No. 33 of the Division of Entomology) in which the insect laws of the Western States have been brought together. Using any of these laws as a guide, committees of State horticultural societies can draft resolutions calling upon State Jegislatures for action in this direction.
In the meantime all persons purchasing nursery stock are advised to require, from the dealers from whom they purchase, guaranties as to the freedom of the stock from injurious scale insects at least; and it is further advised that nurserymen take such measures as will enable them advisedly to give such guaranties. The nurseryman who first advertises that all of the nursery stock which he sends out has been thoroughly fumigated with hydrocyanic-acid gas, or who can furnish a certificate from his State entomologist as to the freedom of his estab- lishment from injurious insects, will not only have done a good stroke of business directly, but will have the prestige of a pioneer in a wise and patriotic movement.
THE MORE IMPORTANT INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAIN.
By F. H. CHITTENDEN,
Assistant Entomologist, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
After the grain has escaped the ravages of its many insect enemies in the field, and is harvested and in the bin, it is subject to the attack of insects of several species popularly known as weevils.
The experience of many years, including the present, shows that thereis great need among farmers and others of information in regard to the insects that are destructive to stored grain, and of the measures that may be employed for protection and remedy against them. To supply this want is the object of the present article. In its preparation published information has been drawn upon, and there have been incor- porated new data from the records of this division and from personal observation and experiment. Technical matter has been excluded, and with the aid of the accompanying illustrations and simple descriptions the intelligent farmer, miller, or merchant who handles grain, will be able to recognize the different grain-feeding species in their various stages, and with the brief accounts given of their habits and the nature of their injuries will be prepared to guard against these insects and to destroy them when present in the granary, mill, or storehouse.
Of the two score species of insects of most common occurrence in stored cereals and cereal products, there are three that live in their ado- lescent stages entirely within the kernel or grain. These are the gran- ary weevil, rice weevil, and Angoumois grain moth, the commonest and most injurious species, both in America and abroad. The remainder live on grain, both in the kernel and when ground up into flour and meal and feed also on various other stored products.
ORIGIN, INTRODUCTION, AND HABITS OF THE SPECIES.
Of the species known to attack stored cereals in the United States nearly all have been introduced and are now cosmopolitan, having been (distributed by commerce to all quarters of the globe. In fact, no insects are more easily carried from one land to another, since they breed con- tinuously for years in the same grain, and are transported when in an immature state in the kernels.
In their native homes in the tropics, and even in our Southern States, these insects live an outdoor life, but in the colder countries of the temperate zone and in our Northern States they lead an artificial
O77
aid
278 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
or domestic existence, the beetles, particularly, with few exceptions, passing their entire lives wholly within doors, being, therefore, depend- ent upon man for their subsistence.
The various species of insects that attack stored grain as well as pease and beans are indiscriminately but erroneously called weevils, or simply ‘‘weevil,” but the only true grain weevils are the rice weevil and granary weevil.
When it is considered that grain constitutes the chief article of diet of man, and that these insects have found their way to every tropical , and temperate region where grain grows, it may be said without fear of contradiction that they are entitled to front rank among noxious insects.
NATURE AND EXTENT OF DAMAGE.
In addition to the loss in weight occasioned by these insects, grain ~ infested by them is unfit for human consumption, and has been known to cause serious illness. Nor is such grain desirable for food for stock. Horses, it has been experimentally proved, are injured by being fed with “‘weevily” grain, and it is Somewhat doubtful if such material is fit even for swine. Poultry, however, feed upon it with impunity. “Weeviled” grain is also unfit for seed stock, as its use is apt to be followed by a diminution in the yield of a crop.
As regards the insect injury to stored grain in this country, one writer has estimated that there is “an annual loss of over $1,000,000 from weevils in Texas alone,” and that nearly 50 per cent of the corn in that State is annually destroyed by weevils and rats. Another writer has expressed the opinion that the annual loss to Texas from the injury to grain in the field and in the bins will amount to hundreds of thousands of dollars. The loss from granary insects to the corn crop in Alabama in 1893 was estimated at $1,671,382, or about 10 per cent.
PARASITES AND NATURAL ENEMIES.
It might be supposed that insects which live a retired indoor exist- ence would be comparatively free from parasitic and other enemies, but such is not the case. :
It has been estimated of one species, the granary weevil, that one pair in the course of a year would produce 6,000 individuals. The moths are still more prolific, and as there are six or more broods of some species annually, it will be seen that if all the eggs of one ind1i- vidual and her offspring develop there would be produced in one year a whole myriad of the insects, sufficient to destroy many tons of grain.
Fortunately, there are several natural checks to the undue increase of these insects. One of them is a diminutive mite which preys upon
rarious species. The spiders that inhabit mills and granaries entrap the moths, and in the field they are preyed upon by nocturnal insects as well as by birds and bats.
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INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAIN. 279
The grain weevils are often parasitized, three or four chalcis flies having been recognized as their enemies. The Angoumois moth has a specific parasite, as has also the saw-toothed grain beetle; two or three parasites are known to prey upon the Mediterranean flour moth; another infests the Indian meal moth and wolf moth, and several other granary insects are known to have parasites.
The good work that is sometimes done by parasites in limiting the multiplication of their grain-feeding hosts is exemplified in a case cited of Ephestia kuehniella being destroyed by a parasite when other means had failed to dislodge it in the warehouses which it had invaded.
THE GRANARY WEEVIL. (Calandria granaria Linn.)
The granary weevil is the “cureulio” and “weevil” of early writings, and in the Georgics of Virgil there is evidence that the insect and its ravages were known before the Christian era. It is probable that this, as well as some other cosmopolitan species that are generally supposed to have originally inhabited the Ori- ent, is native to the Mediter- ranean region. Having be- come domesticated ages ago, it has long since lost the use of its wings, which are pres- ent only as mere rudiments and useless as organs of flight. It is strictly a gran- ary insect, and is apparently perfectly naturalized in re- gions much farther north than are inhabited by the rice weevil.
The adult eranary weevil Fia. 43.--Calandra granaria: a, adult beetle; 0, larva; ce, pupa; d, Calandra oryza, beetle—all enlarged (original).
is a small, flattened snout- beetle of the family Calandridw, measuring from an eighth to a sixth of an inch, being on an average a trifle larger than the rice weevil, from which it differs in being of a uniform shining chestnut- brown color, in having the thorax sparsely and longitudinally punctured, as indicated at figure 43, a, and in being wingless. The head is prolonged in front into a long snout or proboscis, at the end of which are the mandibles; the antenne are elbowed and are attached to the proboscis. The larva is legless, considerably shorter than the adult, white in color, very robust, fleshy, and of the form shown in the illustration (b). The pupa, shown at ¢, is also white, clear, and transparent, exhib- iting the general characters of the future beetle.
280 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The female punctures the grain with her snout and inserts an egg, and from this is hatched a larva which devours the farinaceous interior and undergoes its transformations within the hull. In wheat, barley, and other small grains a single larva inhabits a kernel, but a kernel of maize furnishes food for several individuals.
The time required for the completion of the life cycle varies with the season and climate, and the number of generations annually produced is consequently dependent upon temperature. As aresult, writings on this subject show a noticeable disagreement. One writer says that the period of development for the rice weevil varies from three to eight
weeks, and that there are probably at least eight generations annually.
There is one case on record in which, in England, thirteen weeks were consumed in the development of a single generation. The earlier Kuro- pean writers agree that there are but two broods of the granary weevil annually in that quarter. It is not probable that there is much varia- tion in the development of these two species. The writer has carried both species through from egg to adult in shelled corn in forty-one days, or about six weeks, but it is possible that under exceptionally favorable conditions this period may be somewhat shorter. There are probably four or five broodsin this latitude and six or more in our Southern States.
The chief injury done by the granary weevil is to wheat, maize, and barley, but it also attacks other grains and is very partial to pearl barley and to the chick-pea (Cicer arietinum), a leguminous seed culti- vated for food in the tropics.
Unlike the moths which attack grain, the adult weevils feed also upon the kernels, gnawing into them for food and for shelter, and, being quite long lived, probably do even more damage than their larve.
The writer has kept the beetles alive for several months, and others claim to have kept individuals under observation for upward of a year. Egg laying continues over an extended period, and it will be seen that a Single pair and their progeny are capable in a short time of causing considerable mischief.
THE RICK WEEVIL.
(Calandra oryza Linn.)!
The rice weevil derives both its popular and Latin name from rice (oryza), in which it was first found by its discoverer. It is conceded to have originated in India, whence it has been diffused by commerce until itis now established in most of the grain-growing countries of the world. There is no record of the occurrence of this insect in Hurope earlier than 1763, when the species was described by Linneus, but it was probably imported into southern Europe many years prior to that time. From Europe it was introduced into America, and at the present
1 The specific name of the rice weevil has uniformly been spelled “oryz@” by all writers since the time of Linnwus, but the original spelling is oryza. (See Amon Acad., Vol. VI, p. 395.)
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INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAIN. 281
time is as widely distributed and injurious as any known insect. It is a serious pest in the Southern States, where it is commonly, though erroneously, known as “black weevil,” but farther north it is of less importance. It occurs, however, in every State and Territory in the Union and occasionally invades Canada and Alaska,
In olden times long voyages were necessary in importing grain from the East, and damage by the rice weevil, when whole cargoes were often lost, was much heavier than at present. But the losses occa- sioned by this insect are still enormous, particularly in India, Mexico, South America, and other tropical countries.
The rice weevil resembles the preceding species in size and in general appearance. It is dull brown in color; the thorax is densely pitted with round punctures; the elytra, or wing cases, are ornamented with four more or less distinct red spots, arranged as in the illustration (fig. 44, d), and it has well-developed and serviceable wings. The larvie and pup are also similar to those of the granary weevil, and in habits and life history it does not differ materially from that species.
The question whether or not this insect ever lays its eggs in grain in the field has been the occasion of some discussion and of unsatisfactory experiment abroad, but we have the testimony of several experienced entomologists that the insect is of very common occurrence in grain fields in the South, remote from granaries.
Although the rice weevil feeds upon the grain of rice, it thrives equally well, seemingly better, on wheat, particularly the soft varie- ties, and on maize. It also breeds freely in the cultivated varieties of sorghum (Andropogon sorghum), known variously as Guinea corn, Kaffir or Jerusalem corn, millet, etc.; in barley, rye, hulled oats, buckwheat, chick-peas, and Job’s tears (Coixa lachryma). Unhusked rice is particu- larly exempt from its attacks, and the husk of oats similarly protects this cereal. Corn in the ear and unhulled barley are not so exposed to infestation as the shelled or hulled seed, but are by no means exempt, as has been stated by some writers.
The adult beetles attack a great variety of food products not affected by the larve. When abundant in storehouses and groceries they in- vade boxes of crackers, cakes, yeast cakes, macaroni, and other bread- stuffs, barrels and bins of flour and meal, and can subsist for months on sugar. They are even said to burrow into ripening and overripe peaches, grapes, and mulberries, and to attack hemp seed, chestnuts, and table beans.
THE ANGOUMOIS GRAIN MOTH. (Gelechia cerealella O1.)
The Angoumois grain moth derives its name from the province of
- Angoumois, France, where it is said to have been injurious for nearly a
century and a half. It probably originated, with the granary weevil, in the Mediterranean region, and possibly in southern Europe. In this country it is familiarly but incorrectly called the ‘fly weevil.”
282 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The history of this insect in Europe dates back to 1736, when Réau-
mur found it damaging stored barley in France, but the moth was not
described until 1789. In America an account by Col. Landon Carter, published in 1771, brought out the fact that injuries from this species began in North Carolina as early as 1728.
From the seat of its original introduction this moth has spread to neighboring States in the South, where it does incalculable damage, and to the southern portions of the Northern States, where it is less injurious. It is occasionally troublesome as far north as Canada, and has been reported as doing serious damage in Australia and India. The work of the writer at the Columbian Exposition would indicate that it has now become cosmopolitan, as it was found there in a majority of the cereal exhibits of the tropical and warmer temperate countries. |
In Europe the favorite food of the Angoumois moth is said to have been barley; in America its chief injury is to corn and wheat, but it infests also all the other cereals, as well as buck- wheat, chick-peas, and, it is said, cowpeas. It has been estimated that in six months erain infested by this moth loses 40 per cent in weight and 75 per cent of farina- ceous matter. In addition to the loss in weight, the
Fic. 44.—Gelechia cerealella: a, larva; b, pupa; ¢, 9 moth; erain is totally unfit for food,
e, egg; f, kernel of corn opened, showing larva feeding;
h, anal segment of pupa—all enlarged except f. (From and it has been said that
Riley in Ann. Rept. Dept. Agr., 1884.) bread made from wheat injured by this moth was the cause of an epidemic in certain regions of France infested by the species.
This insect is a small moth of the family Gelechiide and resembles somewhat our familiar clothes moths, for which species, indeed, it is often mistaken. It is light grayish brown in color, more or less lined and spotted with black, and measures across the expanded fore wings about half an inch (see fig. 44, ¢). The hind wings are bordered with a long, delicate fringe.
The moth normally deposits its eggs in standing grain, singly or in clusters of from 20 to30. The eggs, shown at figure 44, e, are red in color and hatch in from four to seven days, when the minute caterpillars burrow into the kernels and feed on the interior. A single larva inhabits a grain of the smaller cereals, but in maize sustenance is afforded for two, three, or more individuals. ITigure 45 represents an
ear of pop-corn infested by this moth. In about three weeks’ time |
the caterpillar attains full growth (see fig. 44,a), when, without leav- ing the kernel, if spins a thin, silken cocoon in which it transforms toa
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INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAIN. 283
chrysalis (fig. 44, ), the moth emerging a few days later, the entire period from egg to adult embracing in summer from four to five weeks. After copulation, the moth soon deposits her eggs for another brood, and in this manner several generations of the insect are produced in the course of a year. The older writers believed that the species was normally double-brooded, but as the insect breeds con- tinuously in the harvested grain, there is now an irregular development which is influenced by temperature. In this latitude there are probably five or six generations annually. Mr. H. EK. Weed estimates that in the warmer cli- mate of Mississippi, where the insect can breed uninterruptedly during the winter months, there are at least eight generations.
In some respects the Angoumois grain moth is more troublesome than any of the other granary insects. Kven as far north as central Pennsylvania it lays its eggs on grain in the field, and it is, therefore, impossible to entirely prevent infestation.
~The custom of leaving the harvested grain in stack in the field for weeks before thrashing, in vogue in some parts of our country, is the cause of perhaps the greatest proportion of infestation. The introduction of the insect into the granary through this channel may be practically prevented in the case of the smaller cereals by harvesting and thrashing as soon as possible after the grain reaches maturity. If, after the removal of the old grain from bins, these are thoroughly cleaned and fumigated before the introduction of fresh grain, the chances of injury are reduced to a minimum.
This, as well as the other granary moths is soft, delicate, and easily crushed, and is unable, when buried beneath a large mass of grain, to extricate itself; hence storing the grain in bulk and stirring, shoveling, or agitating by other means is productive of the best results with this insect.
Fia. 45.—Ear of pop-corn showing work of Angoumois grain moth. (From Riley in Ann. Rept. Dept.
THE MEDITERRANEAN FLOUR MOTH. (ELphestia kuehniella Zell.) am eti5 AERA: )
This scourge of the flour mill, as it is called, has attracted much attention of recent years and has been the subject of many articles and bulletins. Until the year 1877, when the moth was discovered ina
284 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
flour mill in Germany, it was comparatively unknown. In later years it invaded Belgium and Holland, and in 1887 appeared in England. Two years later it made its appearance in destructive numbers in Canada.
That the Mediterranean flour moth has become so formidable in recent years is due to the higher and more equable temperature maintained in modern mills, a condition highly favorable to the development of the insect.
Previous to the Canadian invasion this moth was generally believed to have reached Europe from America, but, as a matter of fact, the species had not been recognized here until 1889. Danysz has traced its occurrence in this country back as far as 1880. He mentions also an outbreak in Constantinople in 1872 and presents evidence thatit was probably known in Europe as early as 1840. Until the present year this insect was known as injurious on this continent only in Canada and California, but in the American Miller of May 1, 1895, Mr. W. G. Johnson states that it has appeared in New York State. Itis recorded also from North Caroli- na, Alabama, New Mex- ico, Colorado, Mexico, and Chile, and probably occurs in Australia.
The adult moth has a wing extension of a lit- tle less than an inch; the fore wings are pale Fig. 46.—Ephestia kuehniella: a, moth; b, moth, from side, resting ; leaden ere with trans:
c, larva; d, pupa—enlarged,; ¢, abdominal joint of larva—more VELrS€ black markings of
enlarged (b, c, e, from Insect Life; a and d, original). the pattern shown inthe accompanying illustration (fig. 46, a); the hind wings are dirty-whitish, semitransparent, and with a darker border. The caterpillar is ilus- trated at c, e, and the chrysalis at d.
The caterpillars form cylindrical silken tubes in which they feed and transform to chrysalids, and it is this habit of web spinning that ren- ders the insect so injurious where it once obtains a foothold. The flour becomes felted together and lumpy, and the machinery becomes clogged and necessitates frequent and prolonged stoppage, resulting in a short time in the loss of thousands of dollars in large establishments. Upon attaining full growth the caterpillar usually leaves its original silken domicile and forms a new web, which becomes a cocoon, in which to undergo its transformations to pupa and to imago.
Although the larva prefers flour or meal, it will attack grain when the former are not available, and it flourishes also on bran, prepared cereal foods, including buckwheat grits, and crackers. It has recently been discovered that this moth is inquilinous in the nests of a wild bumblebee in California, and Mr. D. W. Coquillett reports that it also occurs in the hives of the honey bee.
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAIN. 285
M. Danysz has demonstrated that the insect is able to complete its life cycle in from two to two and a half months, but from experiments conducted during the year at Washington it is estimated that under the most favorable conditions, i. e., in the warmest weather, the life cycle consumes about five weeks. In its outdoor life there are proba- bly not more than two or three broods in the year, but in well-heated mills or other buildings six or more generations may be produced.
This insect is rapidly becoming distributed throughout the civilized world, but as yet its range is limited. As might be inferred from its alarming destructiveness in Great Britain and Canada, this moth is peculiarly qualified for an indoor existence in much colder climates than most other grain insects.
When a mill is found to be infested, the entire building should be fumigated, and in case a whole district becomes overrun, the greatest care must be observed not to spread the infestation. Uninfested mills should be tightly closed at night and every bushel of grain, every bag or sack, brought into the mill, subjected to a quarantine process, being disinfected either by heat or bisulphide of carbon.
THE INDIAN-MEAL MOTH.
(Plodia interpunctella Huebn. )
‘A phycitid moth allied to the preceding and known as the Indian- meal moth is widely distributed and injurious to a great variety of edibles. Itis nearly omnivorous, feeding on grain and farinaceous products of all kinds, dried fruits, seeds and nuts of various sorts, condiments, roots, and herbs. It iS even injurious to dried insects in cabinets, and is said to feed on sugar, jellies, and yeast cakes, and is occasionally troublesome in bee hives. In short, this chad
f : Fic. 47.—Plodia interpunctella: a,moth; b, chrysalis; moth is an all-around nuisance c, caterpillar—somewhat enlarged; d, head, and e, in granaries and stores and in first abdominal segment of caterpillar—more en- the household. It is the cater. "8°! sina). pillars of this species which are so often found in dried apples, currants, raisins, English walnuts, ete. |
The adult moth, as will be seen by reference to the accompanying illustration (fig. 47, a), resembles in general contour Ephestia kuehniella. It measures across the expanded wings between a half and three-fourths of aninch. Theinner third of the fore wings is dirty whitish gray, and the outer two-thirds is reddish brown, with a dull coppery luster. The caterpillar is shown at c, e, and d, and the chrysalis at b.
Aside from its omnivorousness, the habits of the Indian-meal moth are essentially the same as those of the preceding species. The larvee
286 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
surround themselves with cylindrical silken webs, in which they feed and undergo their transformations.
Experiments conducted during the past year show that the insect is capable of passing through all its several stages, from egg to adult, in thirty-three days, which furnishes a possibility of six, seven, or even more generations in the heated atmosphere in which it habit- ually lives.
THE MEAL SNOUT-MOTH. (Pyralis farinalis Linn.)
A moth belonging to the family Pyralide often occurs in barns and other buildings wherever farinaceous products are housed. In Europe, where it is known as the “meal moth,” it has long been known as a domestic nuisance, and in this country it is evidently on the increase.
The meal snout-moth is slightly larger than any of the species pre- viously mentioned, having a wing expanse of nearly an inch. The eround color is light brown, with reddish reflections; the thorax and the dark patches at its sides and near the tips of the fore wings are darker brown. The wavy, transverse lines of the wings are whitish, and form the pattern indi- cated in the illustration (fig. 48, a). The caterpillar and chrysalis are figured, Fia. 48.—Pyralis farinatis: a, adult moth ; paratal ate ab aand 2 Desperate
taree a fevnaias a a sive S The habits of the meal snout-moth are
head of larva; e, analsegment of same; similar to those of the two preceding
la das ela is: opka i species. The caterpillar constructs long tubes of silk and particles of the meal or other food in which it lives, and when present in mills hides away, particularly in the pupating season, in machinery and other places where it would be objectionable. European authorities state that the insect is biennial in development, but this is a subject requiring further investigation. It lives on cereals of all kinds and in ali conditions, either in the kernel or in the form of flour, meal, or bran, and even, it is said, in the straw. It also attacks other eae 5, and dricd een in ear and injures hay after the
manner of the related clover-hay worm (Pyralis costalis). Very recently
it has been reported injurious to potatoes.
THE WOLF MOTH. (Tinea granella Linn. )
Still another moth, known as the wolf moth or little grain moth, does considerable injury to stored cereals in EKurope; but as it is not partic- ularly destructive in America, requires only passing mention. This species is of about the size of the Angoumois moth, creamy white in color, thickly mottled with brown. Like the latter, it is known to ovi- posit in grain in the field. It infests cereals of all sorts, and a single
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INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAIN. 287
caterpillar is capable of great damage, as it has a habit of passing from one grain to another, spinning them together with its webs as it goes until twenty or thirty grains are spoiled. When full grown the caterpil- lars crawl all about the infested mass, leaving their webs everywhere, thus injuring even more than they consume.
THE SAW-TOOTHED GRAIN BEETLE, (Silvanus surinamensis Linn. )
This little beetle is widely distributed over the entire globe, and is of common occurrence in granaries, in groceries, in dwelling houses, and in barns, and, in fact, almost everywhere where edibles are stored. It is nearly omnivorous, infesting grain and seeds of all sorts, flour, meal, bran, screenings, breadstuffs, and other comestibles. It has been reported as specially in- jurious in different years in Michigan, Mississippi, Oregon, Delaware, and other States, and has been the subject of .a series of experiments at the Ore- gon and Delaware experi- ment stations.
The insect is a clavi- corn beetle of the family Cucujide. It is very small, only about one- tenth of an inch long, Vic. 49.—Silvanus surinamensis: a, adult beetle; b, pupa; e¢, slender, much flattened, larva—all enlarged; d, antenna of larva—still more enlarged and of a dark chocolate. "si"? brown color, The antenne are clavate, and the thorax has two shal- low longitudinal grooves on the upper surface and bears six saw-like teeth on each side, as shown at figure 49, a.
The larva, as will be noticed by reference to the illustration (¢), has six legs. It is exceedingly active, and does not pass its life wholly within a single seed, but runs about nibbling here and there. After attaining its growth the larva attaches itself to some convenient surface and constructs a covering by joining together small grains or fragments of infested material by means of a silken substance which it secretes, and within this case the pupa (b) and afterwards the adult states are assumed. From data acquired by experiment during the year it is esti- mated that there are six or seven generations of this insect annually in the latitude of the District of Columbia. During the summer months the life cycle requires but twenty-four days; in spring, from six to ten weeks. At Washington, it has been learned, the species winters over, in the adult state, even in a well-warmed indoor atmosphere.
288 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
THE FLOUR BEETLES.
During the past year two little tenebrionid beetles, popularly known as “ flour weevils,” viz, Tribolium confusum and T. Jerrugineum, have occasioned considerable alarm among millers, flour and feed dealers, grocers, and dealers in patent foods. The two species resemble each other so closely that it is only with the aid of a magnifying glass that a differ- ence can be detected, and their habits are also very similar.
For many years these insects have been known in Eu- rope aS enemies of meal, flour, grain, and other stored products, and even
|| -ZANS = ZY Sai
Fie. 50.—Vribolium confusum: a,adult beetle; b, larva; e, pupa—all rf enlarged; d, lateral lobe of abdomen of pupa; e, head of beetle, as pests in the mu- showing antenna; jf, same of T. ferruginewm—all greatly enlarged gseums. A] tho ugh
pe they live in grain, their chief damage, probably, is to flour and to patented articles of diet containing farinaceous matter. The eggs are deposited in the flour, and these and the young larvie, being minute and pale in color, are not noticed; but after the flour has been barreled or sealed up in boxes and left unopened for any length of time the adult bee- tles make their appearance, and in due course the flour is ruined. A part of the trouble caused to purchaser, dealer, and manufacturer is due to the fact that the insects are highly offensive, a few speci- mens being sufficient to im- part a disagreeable and _ per- sistent odor to the infested substance.
In addition to the two spe-
cies of Tribolium, there is Fig. 51.—Kchocerus mazillosus: a,larva; b, pupa; ¢, adult another similar beetle that male—all enlarged (original). attacks grain, viz, the slender-horned flour beetle (Hchocerus mavil- losus), which will be mentioned hereafter.
The confused flour beetle (Tribolium confusum Duy.) is a minute, reddish-brown beetle, elongate and depressed, of the appearance repre:
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INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAIN. 289
sented in the illustration (fig. 50, a), and the size indicated by the hair line. It is separable from ferrugineum chiefly by the structure of the antenna, which is gradually clavate, as may be seen ate. The head, it will be noticed, also differs from that of ferrugineum, shown at f. The general characters of the larva are illustrated at b, and the pupa atc and d,
From experiment during the year it was learned that this species, in an exceptionally high temperature, is capable of undergoing its entire round of transformations in thirty-six days, but in spring and autumn weather it requires a much longer time. In well-heated build- ings, at this rate, there are at least four, and possibly five, broods during the year.
The injuries reported of this species, as noted down in the records of the division, far outnumber those due to any other farinivorous insect. During the year the species has been received in a patented food pur- chased at a local grocery, in wheat from New Mexico, in flour from Massachusetts, in oatmeal, in flour and meal from Indiana, and in corn, peanuts, and seeds. We have also notes upon its feeding upon snuff, orris root, baking powder, rice chaff, grahain flour, red pepper, and upon dried insects. During August this insect was reported as very destructive in western Massachusetts to flour received from different sources in the West, having been the cause of extensive damage and much annoyance to the interested parties. A Western miller having dealings in the Kast stated that he had also been troubled with this insect at Portland, Me., Boston, and New York.
The rust-red flour beetle (Tribolium ferrugineum Duy.) resembles in general appearance the preceding species, but may be distinguished by the antenna having a distinct terminal three-jointed club (see fig. 50, f). The larva and pupa also strongly resemble those of confusum. Within the year it was found to have damaged two lots of imported cotton seed at the Department. At the Columbian Exposition it was present in injurious numbers in most of the cereal exhibits from the tropics; also in cakes, yams, nuts, and seeds of many kinds. The spe- cies is widely distributed, and is common in the United States, par- ticularly throughout the South.
The slender-horned flour beetle (Hchocerus maxillosus Fab.) has habits similar to those of the two preceding species, and is of common occur- rence in the Southern States, where it lives on grain in the field as well as in the granary, and even under the bark of trees. This species is probably a native of tropical America, and although not positively known to have established itself north of southern Ohio, is gradually extending northward. It has recently been found in Washington breed- ing in Shelled corn. It lives also in flour and meal.
This beetle resembles Tribolium, but is lighter in color and a little Smaller, measuring a trifle over an eighth of an inch in length. On
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290 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the head, between the eyes, are two pointed tubercles, and the man- dibles in the male are armed with a pair of slender, incurved horns. The insect in its several stages is illustrated at figure 51.
THE SQUARE-NECKED GRAIN BEETLE. (Catharius gemellatus Duy.)!
An insect of some importance in the South is the square-necked or red grain beetle. It is undoubtedly identical with a Kuropean species, and in the United States occurs as far north as New York.
The beetle is of about the same length as the saw-toothed species, to which it is nearly related and somewhat resembles; but the head and thorax are nearly as broad as the abdomen; the thorax is nearly square, not serrated on the sides, and the color is shining reddish-brown.
This species has received special mention by Townend Glover (Pat. Off. Rept., 1854, p. 66), and is treated in bulletins on grain insects recently issued by the Mississippi and Maryland stations. It breeds in corn in the field as well as in cotton bolls, and continues breeding in harvested grain. The eggs are laid at the base of the kernels, into which the larve bore, and afterwards complete their transformations. Glover states that corn injured by this species has little chance of ger- minating, as the germ is nearly always first destroyed, and that this fact may, in some degree, account for the numerous failures of seed corr to grow, of which Southern planters so often complain.
THE CADELLE. ( Tenebroides mauritanicus Linn.)
An account of the insect enemies of stored grain would not be com- plete without reference to Tenebroides mauritanicus, the larva of which is called by the French “cadelle.” It has long been known to feed upon stored grain in Europe, where it is said to be extremely injurious, In this country it has never been reported as especially destructive, although of common occurence everywhere in grain infested with other insects. It is not, however, so injurious as many of the preceding species, as its predaceous habits partially offset its destructiveness, The question has been raised as to whether or not this species fed upon stored grain, the claim being made that it was strictly predaceous, Experiments conducted by the writer prove that the larva not only feeds upon grain, but is capable of very serious injury to seed corn from the habit it has of devouring the embryo or germ, going from kernel to kernel and destroying many more seeds than it consumes. It is also predaceous, both in the larval and adult stages, and even destroys its own kind.
‘Some confusion exists in regard to the synonymy of this species. It is the Sil- vanus quadricollis Lec., and has been incorrectly referred to S, cassie Reiche.
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAIN. 291
The adult cadelle is an elongate, oblong, depressed beetle of a dark brown color and about a third of an inch in length. The larva is fleshy and very slender, and measures when full grown neary three-fourths of an inch. In color it is whitish, with a dark brown head. The three thoracic segments are also marked with dark brown, and the tail ter- minates in two dark, horny points.
REMEDIES.
The measures to be observed in the control of insects in stored grain are both preventive and remedial, but before taking up the considera- tion of the various remedies that may be used with more or less beneiit, and the precautionary measures that may always be observed with profit, it should be borne in mind that we have in the bisulphide of carbon a nearly perfect remedy for all insects that affect stored produce.
A. few words must be said in answer to a question that is often asked, viz, What varieties of grain are the least susceptible to ‘ weevil” attack? There is no weevil-proof grain. Unhusked rice, oats, and buckwheat are practically exempt, but unhulled barley is attacked with avidity. Husked, shelled, or hulled grain is still more liable to attack. The soft varieties of wheat are greatly preferred, and the small, hard-grained varieties are little troubled with insects. Corn, when shelled, is more susceptible to the attack of most species than when on the cob, but appears to be preferred by the Angoumois moth in the latter condition. The hard, flinty varieties and such as have a closely fitting husk are not so liable to insect attack, and corn has been kept for years nearly exempt from infestation by this moth Py. being housed in the husk or shuck.
Exclusion of the insects from the granary.—The measures that may be observed to prevent the infestation of the grain are manifold. As has already been said in treating of the Angoumois moth, it is impossible entirely to prevent this insect from entering the grain in the field. The Same is true to a limited extent of a few of the other species in the extreme South; still all but a very small percentage of damage from this source may be prevented—first, by harvesting as soon as the grain is ripe; second, by thrashing as soon afterwards as possible.
In the process of thrashing many of the infested kernels will be blown out with the chaff and dust, and the insects killed by the agi- tation which the grain receives. The moths and many weevils are destroyed in the thrashing, but the eggs, larve, and pup, many of them, survive this treatment, and further measures are required for their destruction. In France, where the Angoumois moth is so inju- rious, a number of machines have been devised for the treatment of infested grain. Into these the grain is poured, and either revolved while exposed to heat or subjected to a violent agitation which kills the contained insects. A new machine for the destruction of grain insects in mills is figured and described in Insect Life (Vol. VII, p. 263),
292 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Better, however, than these devices, simpler and less expensive, is the establishment of a quarantine bin, as nearly air-tight as possible, in which the newly thrashed as well as the infested or suspected grain may be placed, before being disposed of for more permanent storage, and fumigated with bisulphide of carbon according to the directions which will be given in the closing chapter.
Prevention of infestation to fresh grain.—The next precaution to be observed is that the grain after thrashing be not exposed to infestation from being placed in bins that contain infested grain, or even housed under the same roof with such grain.
The granary should be built at some distance from other buildings and the rooms in which the grain is to be stored should be constructed so aS to be as near vermin-proof as possible. The doors should fit tightly, the windows should be covered with frames of wire gauze to prevent the entrance of insects from without and the escape of those within to the fields, and the floors should be oiled, painted, or white- washed.
Before storing fresh grain in old bins that have been badly infested they should be thoroughly cleaned, all the old grain removed, and the floors, walls, and ceilings brushed and scrubbed.
The natives of India store their wheat in air-tight pits to preserve it from the rice weevil, and condemn ventilation. In the colder countries of Hurope and in North America, on the contrary, ventilation is prac- ticed, and with decided benefit.
The practice of storing grain in large bulk is also to be commended, as the surface layers only are exposed to infestation. This practice is particularly valuable against the moths, which penetrate only a few inches beneath the surface. Frequent handling of the grain by shovel- ing, stirring, or transferring from one receptacle to another is also destructive to the moths, as they are unable to extricate themselves from a mass of grain, and perish in the attempt. The rice and granary weevils, however, penetrate more deeply, and, although bulking is of value against them, it is not advisable to stir the grain, as it merely distributes them more thoroughly through the mass.
It is advisable to remove the surface layers before grinding.
Impractical, useless, or unnecessary remedies are often recommended, and a few words concerning these may not be amiss, if only to point out the defects of such as are worthy of notice.
Repellants, counter-odorants, and lure traps.—On the hypothesis that insects are extremely sensitive to odors, the use of many aromatic sub- stances has been recommended for deterring insects from entering the grain, in driving them from it, and as baits for luring them away. Among such substances are garlic, “jimson” weed, coriander, fennel, aniseed, hemp, larkspur, ivy, box, rue, lavender, tansy, hops, worm- wood, elder and pecan flowers, China berries and twigs, neem leaves, tobacco leaves and stems, and oil of turpentine. Admitting that any
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAIN. 293
of these are of substantial value, and this is doubtful, they must be used in tight receptacles and in large quantity to be effective. Among substances that have been employed with more or less benefit are salt, powdered sulphur, naphthalene, camphor, pyrethrum, and air- slaked lime. These, when sprinkled about in tight bins, have been pro- ductive of beneficial results in keeping out insects. In the preservation of samples of all sorts of products subject to insect attack, naphthalene, either in crystal or in the form of ‘‘camphor tar” or ‘‘moth balls,” is very extensively employed, and when used in air-tight receptacles is an almost perfect preservative. It can not be recommended for grain that is to be used for food on account of its powerful and permanent odor. Heat and cold, and other remedies.—Until the adoption of the bisul- phide of carbon as a fumigant, heat was relied upon as the best agent in the destruction of these insects. It has been ascertained by experi- ment that a temperature of 140° F., continued for nine hours, literally cooks the larva and pupa of the Angoumois moth, and that a tempera- ture of from 120° to 130° F., continued for four or five hours, is fatal. It has also been experimentally proven that wheat can be subjected to a temperature of 150° without destroying its germinating power. Kiln drying, at a still lower degree of heat, has been found effective. A low temperature is equally destructive, and in colder climates these insects may be successfully dealt with by stirring or turning the infested grain, or by filling the building with steam and then throwing open the windows of the building at night and exposing the insects to frost. Tobacco, sulphur, chlorine, benzine, and naphtha have been recom- mended and tried as fumigants against grain insects, but none of them produce entirely satisfactory results, their vapor being insufficient for the destruction of the adolescent stages of our most injurious species, which breed wholly within the kernel, while all of these agents possess an offensive odor which is more or less persistent in the grain after treatment. The vapor of benzine and naphtha is also inflammable. * Sulphur, properly applied, may be used with benefit in buildings where for any reason the use of bisulphide of carbon is not advisable, and steam and sulphur combined are very destructive to insect life.
THE BISULPHIDE OF CARBON TREATMENT.
The simplest, most effective and inexpensive remedy for all stored- grain insects is the bisulphide of carbon. This is a colorless liquid with a strong, disagreeable odor. It vaporizes abundantly at ordinary temperatures, is highly inflammable, and is a powerful poison.
A number of methods for the application of the bisulphide of carbon have been suggested and tested, but the most effective manner of apply- ing the reagent in moderately tight bins consists in simply pouring the liquid into shallow dishes or pans or on bits of cotton waste and dis- tributing about on the surface of the grain. The liquid rapidly vola- tilizes, and, being heavier than air, descends and permeates the mass of grain, killing all insects as well as rats or mice which it may contain,
2994 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The bisulphide is usually applied in tight bins at the rate of a pound toa pound and a half to the ton of grain, and in more open bins a larger quantity is used. Mr. H. E. Weed, who has experimented with this insecticide in Mississippi, however, claims that 1 pound to 100 bushels of grain is amply sufficient to destroy all insects, even in open cribs. Bins may be made nearly air-tight by a covering of cloths or blankets Oileloth and painted canvas are excellent for this purpose.
Mills and other buildings, when found to be infested throughout, may be thoroughly fumigated and rid of insects by a liberal use of the same chemical. A good time for fumigating an entire building is during day- light on a Saturday afternoon or early Sunday morning, closing the doors and windows as tightly as possible and observing the precaution of stationing a watchman without to prevent anyone from entering the building. It is best to begin in the lowest story and work up, in order to escape the settling gas. The building should then be thoroughly aired early Monday morning. ‘The bisulphide is usually evaporated in vessels, one-fourth or one-half of a pound in each.
Certain precautions should always be observed. The vapor of bisul- phide is injurious to al! animal life, but there is no danger to a human being in inhaling asmall quantity. It is also explosive, but with proper care that no fire of any kind, as, for example, a lighted cigar, be brought into the vicinity, no trouble will be experienced.
Infested grain is generally subjected to the bisulphide treatment for twenty-four hours, but may be exposed much longer without harming it for milling purposes. If not exposed for more than thirty-six hours its germinating power will be in no wise impaired. In badly infested buildings it is customary to repeat this treatment about every six weeks in warm weather.
Bisulphide of carbon is for sale at drug stores at from 20 to 30 cents a pound, but at wholesale in 50-pound cans it may be obtained at the ‘ rate of 10 or 15 cents a pound.
A grade known as “ fuma bisulphide,” for sale at 10 cents a pound, is said by experienced entomologists and others who have experi- mented with it to be much more pia ebs than the ordinary grades on the market.
The cost of treatment is thus only 10 cents a hundred bushels. .
THE DAIRY HERD: ITS FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT. By Henry E. Atvorp,M. §&., C. E.
The pursuit of dairy farming depends for its suecess upon certain fundamental conditions. First, the owner of the business himself, or otherwise the agent or manager who has the immediate control and personal direction of the work, must have a natural fondness for animals, prompting to generous and kind treatment, as well as good judgment in selection, breeding, and care. It is not sufficient that he should be a horseman, or fond of cattle in general; for best results he should have a special liking for the dairy cow, over and above all other animals. Second, the cattle must be good of their kind and of a variety suited to the work. They must be truly dairy cattle; but of this more presently. Third, the farm should be specially adapted to the branch of husbandry in view. <A good dairy farm is pretty certain to be good for general farming, but many good farms in general are
not suited to dairying. The dairy farm should be carefully selected,
all the requirements of the business being well considered. Yet many disadvantages so far as the farm is concerned may be successfully overcome by the skillful dairyman, and dairying in some forms is profitably conducted without any farm, so that this condition, impor- tant as it is, can not be regarded as essential. Fourth, it is well to study the character of the accessible markets and the means of com- munication; location and the line of dairying to be followed may be largely controlled by the markets. In some cases the markets form an essential condition, but modern facilities for transportation make the location of the dairy farm with relation to its markets compara- tively unimportant. The first and second above remain as the essen- tial factors—the owner and the cow. Assuming that the dairyman is all he should be, it is proposed to consider in the following pages the dairyman’s main stock in trade, upon which depends his success—the dairy herd, its formation and management.
Like almost all other occupations at the present day, dairying has become divided into several distinct and special lines. These differ mainly as to the form of product and the manner of disposing of it. Milk or cream may be produced for delivery to consumers, and this delivery may be direct or indirect. The same products may be deliv- ered to a factory for manufacture into butter or cheese, or the milk product of the herd may be worked up at home and there converted
into butter or cheese. The prudent dairyman should first consider 295
2996 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
which line of business he will pursue. In so doing he must have regard for all his cireumstances—the location, markets, farm, build- ings, water and ice supply, the labor at his command—and his own preference, and prospects for profit. Upon his decision as to the par- ticular kind of dairying to be followed should depend the character and composition of his herd of cattle.
DAIRY CATTLE FOR THE DAIRY.
In making up a herd for this business, no matter what the special line, only such animals as are truly dairy cattle can be considered. Everyone now admits that there is a distinct type or class of cattle | specially adapted to dairy purposes. This class includes various kinds, families, and breeds, but all have the marked characteristics which dis- tinguish the milk producer from the beef producer. To succeed in his business the dairyman should select his herd, or its foundation, solely from this class—from dairy cattle. There are some people who seem to still really believe in the possibility for profit of an animal combin- ing qualities for producing milk and butter and beef all in one hide. These good people are still searching for ‘“‘the general-purpose cow.” When found, this animal will be like the “Jack at all trades—good at none.” There may be good carpenters who are ready to argue the economy of a single saw for all purposes, but very few will be found to practice this preaching; every workman of experience who knows his own interests has his crosscut and his ripper, and never attempts to make either do the work of the other. The writer has been too long a dairyman and has become too strongly impressed with this phase of the subject to spend time in further argument. In all work, with rare exceptions, the best results come with the best tools or instruments. The dairyman seeking best results will buy, breed, and feed only such cattle as are of marked dairy type and belonging to families of estab- lished dairy excellence.
SPECIAL ADAPTATION,
Within the general class of dairy cattle one can find great variety; one is thus enabled to select breeds or families well adapted to the special needs in view. Some dairy cattle are noted for the quantity of milk they produce; others for the high quality or richness of their milk, which meaus butter producers. Some combine quantity and quality in a specially economical way, under some circumstances. There are cows of active habits, which forage well on a wide range of scanty pas- ture, and will profitably work up the coarser kinds of food in winter. There are others which have proved their capacity for making good returns when more closely confined and subjected to high feeding. Some cows give a great flow of milk for a comparatively short season, and others are noted for an even, steady yield of milk the year through. The dairyman can easily find cattle, therefore, adapted to his particular
MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY HERD. 297
wants. Asa rule, the different dairy characteristics named pertain to different breeds, so that every dairyman is likely to find some one breed of dairy cattle better suited to his wants than any other.
This is not the place to revive the never-ended “battle of the breeds.” No matter how strong one’s convictions, discretion must be exercised. Pronounced opinions and direct advice as to the several recognized dairy breeds are here unnecessary. Evidence abounds on every side, and every dairyman that is, or is to be, can satisfy himself as to the cattle he should adopt, if he will but make a proper study of the subject. He need not go far in this country to find the best kind or breed of cows for milk supply, the best for butter making, or the best for the cream trade. There is no special cheese-making cow; the best butter cow is also the best for cheese; this fact has been demonstrated beyond dispute.
“FORMATION OF THE DAIRY HERD.
There are two very different ways of forming a dairy herd and of maintaining its size and quality. It may be done by buying or by breeding, and these two methods may becombined. The purchasing plan is practiced to a considerable extent by those who produce milk for town and city supply. In a few cases it has been known to be sue- cessful where the work of the herd was tomake butter. Appliedin its extreme form, cows are bought when mature and at their prime, judged almost exclusively by their milk yield, are highly fed so as to keep steadily gaining in flesh, and are sold, usually to the butcher, as soon as they cease to be profitable as milkers. The bull may be of any kind so long as he gets the cows in calf, and the calves are valued only as causing ‘fresh” cows, and are dispensed with as soonas possible. The first modification of this system is to keep extra good cows for several seasons and the next to raise heifers from some of the best milkers to replenish the herd. This way of making up a herd and keeping good its numbers requires abundant capital and rare judgment in buying and in selling. It can not be recommended to one lacking experience, and even the shrewdest buyer runs great risk of bringing disease into his herd.
The other extreme is to begin with a few well-selected animals as a foundation, and gradually build up the herd to the size desired by judi- cious breeding and naturalincrease. This method takes time, and time which may be money, but it is by far the safer and more satisfactory in its results, and it must be recognized as a higher grade of dairy farming.
A. desirable combination, in starting, is to buy the number of cows desired, and good animals of the sort determined in advance. If one’s means will permit, include a few superior cows, and a first-class bull at any rate. Let the cows selected be such as have had two calves, and perhaps three, so that they may be judged by their own development
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and yet be young enough to improve and be in full profit for some years. With a herd thus formed, begin at once the work of improvement by breeding and selection. Sell promptly any cow which proves unsatis- factory and replace her by the best increase of the herd, or purchase occasionally an animal which will raise the average quality.
PURE-BRED DAIRY CATTLE AND GRADES.
A dairyman ean hardly be advised to buy at once a full stock of pure- bred cattle of any breed, if his sole object and dependence for profit is to be the dairy product of the herd. Such a venture will necessitate large investment, and should include the breeding of registered ani- mals, for sale at remunerative prices, as a part of the business. Well- bred and well-selected grade cows, of the line of blood desired, seem to be the most profitable animals for the practical dairyman, or at least the best to begin with. If enterprising and progressive, the owner will hardly be content with grades only. He may begin with only his bull pure bred; presently he will want a registered cow to match, then one or two more. Thus he will be steadily and properly working toward a purely bred herd. If the breed chosen is the right one for the object sought, it will soon be found that the more of this blood the herd con- tains the better. Starting with half-bred cows (the offspring of pure- bred bulls and dams of mixed or uncertain blood), the next grade, three-fourths pure, will prove better dairy stock, if the bull is what he should be and the increase has been culled. Another step higher is better still, better for the dairy, and so the grading goes up and improve- ment goes on until the blood of the herd is practically pure. The best dairy results may thus be reached, but the herd has a taint. It lacks pedigree. Its increase, however excellent in dairy performance, must pass and sell as grades. The owner feels this, and is pretty sure to gradually replace his well-bred cows, almost pure bred, with fully pedi- greed and registered animals. This end is reached sooner and easier by starting with one or two registered females, and, of course, a regis- tered bull. Moderate investment and the lessened risk of loss in the hands of one unaccustomed to handling registered stock, and finding a market for the surplus, doubtless favor grades for the dairy herd. The argument and the probabilities of success, based upon the fixed princi- ples of breeding, are on the side of pure-bred, registered stock. In the hands of experienced men the latter prove the more profitable in actual practice.
In these days any dairyman who wants registered animals of any of the approved breeds can get them if he will but make the effort. The beginner in registered dairy stock can not be too strongly urged to buy and breed on the basis of individual and family merit and dairy record, and not upon pedigree alone. Pedigree is of value and should be well studied; it is the best guaranty that the calves to come will make good cows. But the pedigree should be supported by uniform excel-
MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY HERD. 299
lence in the family and by evidence of merit in the particular animals bought. Although the investment is greater, there is greater certainty of good results if mature cows are bought which show what can be expected of them, if they have not already made a record, than if calves or undeveloped heifers are selected. It is also economy, having chosen the right breed, to purchase good representatives of that breed, rather than be content with only average or even ordinary animals. Suecessful dairying has proved that the greater profit comes from the best cows, whatever their kind. This is as true of pure-bred or regis- tered stock as of common cows. It is better to pay $300 for three excellent cows than to pay the same for four good cows or five which are only fair. A really superior dairy cow of a superior family, with pedi- gree which gives assurance of calves equal to the dam, if not better, is always worth a large price. Such an animal adds much to the average value of any dairy herd. In buying registered cattle deal only with men of reputation as breeders and of strict integrity; “the best part of a pedigree is the name of the breeder.”
THE BULL AND HIS TREATMENT.
With any dairyman who depends upon breeding and rearing calves for the maintenance of his herd and its improvement, the choice of a bull is a matter of prime importance. The bull is constantly referred to as ‘‘the head” of the herd, and that trite saying, ‘The bull is half the herd,” should never be forgotten. Every calf added to the herd takes half its blood from the bull. Often this is the more important half. The bull is always the main dependence for raising the average quality of the herd, and should be chosen with this object in view. This is especially true if the cows are grades and “grading up” is in progress. The grade dam may be selected and largely relied upon to give size, form, constitution, and capacity of production to her heifer calf; its dairy quality, the inbred power to increase the richness of milk, is derived from the pure-bred sire. One cow may prove a poor dam, or fail to breed, and still give a profit in milk. Such a loss is compara- tively trivial and the fault easily corrected. But if the bull fails, or proves a poor sire, the entire increase of a year may be lost. In get- ting a bull, get the best. At least approach that standard as nearly as possible. Make a study of the animal’s pedigree and the dairy history of his ancestors, and especially of the females among his nearest of kin. Then see that the good qualities of his progenitors appear to be reproduced in the animalin question. A common error among dairy- men is to use immature bulls and to dispose of good ones before their merit as sires has been fairly proven. Bull calves are cheap, and young bulls are considered much easier to handle. But it is good advice to the buyer to purchase a bull of some age, whose progeny prove his value as a breeder, rather than a calf of exceptional pedigree; and to the owner, having a sire of proved excellence, to keep him and use him
300 YEARBOOK OF THE U, S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
for years, or as long as he shows himself potent and prepotent. (Of course the question of too close inbreeding is not forgotten and must not be overlooked by the breeder.) The writer is a thorough believer in the use of mature bulls of known value as sires.
The chief objection made to bulls of some age is that they are likely to be vicious and dangerous. Everyone recognizes the difference in temperament between the fleshy, beefy bull and the one of pronounced dairy character; but experience and observation have taught that the bulls of marked dairy type are much alike in disposition, regardless of breed. In all the breeds (as among men) some bulls will be found of naturally bad temper, but it is believed that the great majority of bulls, | of all the dairy breeds, can be safely kept until too old for service and handled without serious trouble, if only properly reared and judiciously managed.
In rearing a bull, accustom it to being handled from calfhood, but without fondling or encouraging frolic. Give it kind, quiet, firm, and unvarying treatment, and keep it always under subjection, that it may never know its strength and power. Insert the nose ring before it is a year old, keep this renewed so as to be always strong, and always lead and handle the animal with staff in the hands of a discreet and trusty man, The bull should never run loose in yard or pasture, but should be provided with abundant and regular exercise, always under restraint and full control. The “walk around” arrangement, like the sweep horse power, affords a fair degree of voluntary exercise, but is hardly sufficient. The best plan seems to be to provide a suitable tread power with a governor attached, place the bull in this daily, and let him walk a fixed time or known distance. The main object should be regular and sufficient exercise for the bull. Incidentally, he may be made to run a fodder cutter or a cream separator and perform valuable service. As age and strength increase, let the staff be supplemented by strap, chain, or rope attached to a second ring. To this may well be added some hitching or leading chain with a strong strap around horns or neck. Let there be always a double hitching device, so that the bull may never by accident find himself loose when he should be tied. If restiveness and temper are shown, add to the exercise, in duration or quantity, without violence; a bull physically tired may be depended upon to be quiet and easily managed.
It is much better to keep the bull as much as possible in the presence or in full sight of the herd than stabled by himself in a lonely place. Let him be in the same room with the cows during the stabling season, and at milking times the rest of the year.
INDIVIDUALITY AND CULLING THE HERD BY ITS RECORD.
As soon as the herd is established and in working order, the study of every individual animal should begin. To guide rational treatment and insure greatest profit, the owner must become familiar with the
MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY HERD. 301
characteristics of every cow. Peculiarities of temperament, suscepti- bility to surroundings and varied conditions, and especially the dairy capacity of the animal, should be matters of observation, deliberation, and record, not merely of conjecture and memory. The record of the herd is a matter of utmost importance. The system of record should conform to the circumstances of the case and extent of the business. (It is desirable to reduce the labor of bookkeeping to a minimum, and yet accuracy and sufficiency of record must be secured. Fortunately, inexpensive forms can now be found for sale, which are based upon long experience, and in variety to suit different wants.) The record should include a concise history and description of every member of the herd, with a summary of the dairy performance. The latter requires a daily record of the milk yield of every cow, with notes explaining irregulari- ties or occurrences of interest. If the quality of the milk is a matter of any importance, as it is in most cases, and ought to be, however the milk is disposed of, a fat test should be made of the milk of every cow, for several consecutive milkings, as often as practicable. Some form of the Babcock tester is the simplest and now within the reach of every dairyman. According to the size of the apparatus, a certain number of milk samples can be tested at one time, and thus the record of a large herd can be completed in a few days. It is well to make this test and record of the quality of every cow’s milk at least once a month. The most satisfactory practical record is the average percentage of fat found in the milk of several successive milkings, samples from which may be mixed and this “composite sample” tested, thus obtaining the aver- age; the method is easily learned and practiced. This record of qual- ity, taken periodically, joined with a summary of the daily quantity of milk, gives a full dairy record of the cow, upon which her value can be readily computed. ‘To give the owner a more complete knowledge of his operations, there should also be a record, of at least approximate accuracy, of the food of every cow, with monthly summaries of quan- tities or value, so that the economy of production may be shown. Such records are far more easily made than the description may indicate, and are well worth all they cost. They form the only aceu- rate and safe basis for judging of the individual merits of the different animals. The improvement of every herd, which should be the con- Stant aim of its owner, depends upon periodical culling and getting rid of unworthy members. No one can afford to do this upon guesswork alone. One well-authenticated example of the value of keeping such record follows: A dairyman of wide reputation, president of a State association for years, concluded to adopt the daily milk record, rather because of those who advocated it than of any conviction of needing it himself. His herd was of his own breeding; he had handled every cow from its birth, and he and his sons did the milking. Before beginning the record he made note of the joint opinion of himself and |
302 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
sons as to the half dozen best cows in the herd and an estimate of their season’s milk yield. When the year’s record was completed it was found that in order of actual merit the cows actually stood thus: First, his fifth; second, a cow not on his merit list; third, his fourth; fourth, his first; fifth, his sixth; sixth, like the second; and his second and third still lower on the list. These facts were verified by subse- quent records. Still more remarkable, this experienced owner proved literally “by the book” that about one-fourth of his cows were being kept at an actual loss, while others barely paid their way.
Good judges believe that in the entire country one-third of the cows kept for their milk do not pay for their cost of keeping, and nearly a — third more fail to yield annual profit. As a matter of ordinary busi- ness prudence and a condition essential to best results, every dairyman should study the individuality of his cows, keep a sufficient record of quantity and quality of milk product, know approximately the cost of production, and systematically weed out his herd. After proper con- sideration and practical tests as to possibilities, set a standard for a satisfactory cow and maintain this standard by promptly disposing of the animals which fail to attain it, unless reasonable excuse appears, with the prospect of better conduct in future, and gradually but persistently raise the standard.
ACCOMMODATIONS FOR THE HERD.
The large and iofty barn, in which to keep the cattle and the crops, the manure and farm implements, all within four rectangular walls and under one roof, can no longer be regarded as perfection. No matter how well arranged and how thorough the ventilation, the danger of loss and damage is too great. It is well to house all the forage, and a large storage building may be necessary. Economy of labor requires the forage to be easily placed before the cattle. The best modern prac- tice calls for a separate or slightly attached building for the cows, with no manure cellar under them and no large quantity of forage above them, and preferably none at all. The best provision for such manure as can not be at once applied to the land is an open shed or covered yard. The cow house should be on the ground ievel, rather than in a basement, and be light, dry, and roomy. A room open to the roof, which is fairly high, is better than a low, level ceiling above the cows. The former may involve a little more work to keep free from dust and cobwebs, but it affords the air space needed for health and comfort. . The latter necessitates special arrangement for ventilation, and these, constructed on the best plans, often fail to work in practice. Sanitary authorities advise 600 cubic feet of space for every animal, but the best cow house the writer has seen allows double this quantity, and it appears none too much. Where the climate will permit, there is no better plan than to let cows stand upon the ground, the clay or earth being packed
'MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY HERD. 303
hard and raised somewhat above the level around the building; shallow gutters behind the cows, and a feeding floor in front of them. More durable floors, and quite expensive, are made of grouting and cement, or of brick on edge; but such are damp and cold, causing rheumatism and other ailments, unless covered with a false floor of wood or pro- vided with an unusual abundance of bedding. Box stalls are undoubt- edly the ideal for cows as wellas for horses; in a box 8 to 10 feet square a cow may be left untied, and if supplied with enough bedding she will keep clean and well, although the stall is not cleaned out for months at a time. But such boxes for a large herd require too much room. Every cow should have her own stall, however, wide enough for com- fort of cow and milker, and well protected from the neighbors on either side; 34 feet width is little enough and 4 feet is better.
From the great variety of cattle ties one should be selected which com- bines, in greatest measure, freedom of movement, comfort, and cleanli- ness. There are serious objections to all stanchions; if some form of this device is insisted upon, let it be one which is so hung as to move a few inches in any direction. A desirable substitute for a stanchion is a wide strap or light chain around the neck, with a ring at the throat (this part to be always worn by the cow), and a snap, with a few links of chain, attached to an iron ring which moves freely upon a 3 or 4 inch post, fastened upright at the middle of the side of the feed box next to the cow. An excellent patented device consists of a flattened bow of metal or wood, shaped like a widely spread letter U, the ends hinged at the front corners of the feed box, the bow resting on the back edge of the box, and the neck strap fastened to this bow at its middle; this gives much freedom of movement and causes the animal to move backward a little when it lies down and forward when it rises. An open, level feeding floor in front of the cows seems to be better than any form of boxes; if boxes are used, they should be as large as possible and yet have every part within reach of the cow as tied, and they should be so constructed as to be easily cleaned. A manure gutter behind the animals aids in cleanliness, but while it should have good width, 16 to 24 inches, it should not be too deep; if enough to hold the droppings of a night, that is sufficient. ‘Self-cleaning” stalls and gutters have not proved successful. The length of stall from fastening to gutter should suit the size of the cow; it is bad practice to have them so long as to induce filthy udders and legs, and also to have them so short that cows stand habitually with hind feet in the gutter. Arrangements should be convenient for removing the manure and for supplying absorbents for the urine, and a limited quantity of bedding. Liberal use of land plaster about the gutters and the floors over which the cattle pass is very desirable as a disinfectant and conserver of ammonia. Lime should be used with equal freedom, as whitewash on the walls of the cow house, but not on its floors.
3804 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The stable should be provided with windows to admit light and air abundantly, and arranged to let sunlight as nearly as possible into every portion of the apartment where the cows stand during some hour of every clear day. Yet the windows should be shaded when desired, and they should be fixed to open partly without subjecting the cows to direct drafts of air.
The extremes in providing water for the cows are to be avoided. A long walk to get water, in all weather, is certainly objectionable. And all the devices for ane water constantly before every cow, or sup- plying it at the stalls, at will, are open to serious objections. Some medium course is advised, and the best plan seems to be to provide one or more tanks in the yard and one or more inthe stabie, at each of which but one cow should drink ata time. These should fill quickly after use and freely overflow, that every cow may find the surface fresh and clear. The evidence is conclusive that water for milking cows should not be too cold, and that it is profitable to bring water in severely cold weather to a temperature of about 50° F.,if it can be cheaply done. Warming to blood heat has not been found advantageous.
Attached to the cow house should be an exercise yard for the daily use of cows during the stabling season. Roomy open sheds should form a part of this inclosure, and the whole may well be roofed over, if arranged for the free circulation of air and for admitting sunshine to a large share of it, while excluding wind and storm.
HEALTH OF THE HERD.
There is no point of greater importance in selecting animals for the foundation of a herd, or in making purchases of additions, than to get perfectly healthy stock. Animals chosen should be critically examined by a veterinarian if convenient, and should afford evidence of being strong in constitution and of healthful vigor. Besides the robust character of the individuals, the breeding stock from which they are descended, and the herd, stables, and farm from which they come, should be closely examined, on the score of health. Breeding and rearing the animals needed to replenish and increase the herd, and refusing to allow strange animals on the farm, are the best safeguards against the intro- duction of disease. If purchases must be made, let the new stock be strictly quarantined for at least one month before mingling with the herd. On every farm of any size a well-secluded building for a stock quarantine and hospital, suitably arranged and equipped, is a most useful adjunct. This is not needed for calving cows, or for cases of lameness or ordinary accident, but for cases of acute sickness, retention of afterbirth, abortion, or any symptoms of contagious disease, it is essential. Of course, the building itself, its care, and the attendance upon its occupants must be subjected to regulations suited to any hos- pital or quarantine.
MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY HERD. 305
There are many of the ordinary accidents and ailments to which domestic animals are subject which can be managed by an intelligent owner, or under his direction, without professional assistance. ‘ Every man his own cattle doctor” is a very delusive title; one may well follow this suggestion within reasonable limits, but there is always a point, hard to define, at which professional aid should be promptly summoned. So long as an owner is certain as to the difficulty, and has knowledge and experience as to treatment or remedy, he may depend upon home resources. But in a case of obscurity, uncertainty, or complications, the owner of a good cow disregards his own interests and his moral obligations if he fails to summon a veterinarian, as much as if he neg- lected to secure proper medical service for a sick child. And the vet- erinarian should be selected with the same care one exercises in choosing a family physician.
Close confinement, with impure air and lack of exercise, is as preju- dicial to the health of milch cows as to that of human beings. Some recently promulgated theories of dark, warm stables and no exercise for profitable milk production are without rational basis and certain to lead to disastrous results sooner or later. Exposure to storms and cold is equally injurious to the health and profit of cows. <A judicious mean is the provision for moderate exercise in the open air and sunshine, and the application of the same common-sense care for the comfort of cows which one would approve for members of his own household.
Every member of the herd, young or old, should pass under the crit- ical eye of the owner or his trusty assistant daily, and preferably twice aday. The least symptoms of disorder, like dullness, loss of appetite, rough coat, and irregularity of milk, manure,or urine, should be noted and promptly receive the attention which it deserves. Experience is needed on the part of the care taker to detect and correct the begin- nings of trouble, and thus maintain the general health of the herd.
FALL-FRESH COWS MOST PROFITABLE.
Much has been written upon the best season for cows to drop their calves. Opinions still differ, and by far the greater number of milch cows are allowed to follow the most natural course, and either by indif- ference or intention they “come in” in the spring. The producer of milk for sale, if he has an even trade, may want to have about an equal number of fresh cows every month in the year. If the bull is kept up and service controlled, this can be regulated as a rule, although unpleasant irregularities in breeding will sometimes occur and stub- bornly resist correction. But if the prime object is to produce the greatest quantity of milk of the best quality and at the greatest profit from any given number of cows within a year, the evidence is over- whelming that the cows should be managed so as to calve in the autumn months. For like reasons, September is the best month, in most parts
306 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
of the country, for a heifer to drop her first calf in order to best develop as a cow, and this almost regardless of the age of the animal at first ealving. Calves born in the fall are easier reared and make better cows than those born inthe spring or summer. It seems needless to rehearse the stock arguments on this subject, based upon the long. experience of successful dairymen, but a brief recapitulation may be useful. The cow or heifer calving in the fall needs the most healthy and nutritious pasturage just following the strain and while coming into full flow. Just at the time when some falling off is likely to occur, the animal is brought to the stable and receives good care; the winter feeding and the returns from it may be depended upon to exceed the midsummer — results for any like period. At the stage of milking and of gestation, when another dropping off in the milk yield may be looked for, the fresh pasturage induces a fresh flow, lengthens the milking season, and increases the year’s total product. December and January are good months in which to control and supervise the service of the bull. Mid- summer and the dogdays are a good time for the cow to be dry and preparing to calve again, and a most unprofitable and annoying time to make milk or handle it. The greatest product and the richest comes at the season when milk and butter are always comparatively high in price. In actual practice four fall-fresh cows have been found to equal five which calved in the spring, in twelve months’ product, and at about four-fifths the cost.
DRYING OFF COWS AND CALVING TIME. :
It is not unusual to find a cow which shows no inclination to dry off at any time after dropping her first or second calf. Such an animal shows an excellent dairy trait—persistence in the milking habit—but it is doubtful if continuous milking is profitable. Better results are believed to be obtained from cows which are inclined to take an annual rest, if not too long. A month is long enough; three weeks will do in most cases, and six weeks should be the longest time encouraged or allowed for a cow to be dry before calving. An accurate record of serv- ice by the bull is essential to preparations for drying off cows at the right time. A table should be kept of the dates when cows of the herd are successively due to calve, with notes as to the milking habit of every one. When the time comes for drying off a cow the grain food should be gradually withdrawn. This may of itself cause milk to cease forming. If not, omit one milking a day, then milk but once in two days, and thus extend the drying period over two weeks. The udder must be watched, and if any hardening or unnatural heat is shown regular milking must be resumed. If a cow continues to secrete milk it must be drawn. No cow should be forced to “go dry” against manifestly natural resist- ance to so doing. On the other hand, if an unpleasantly pungent or “smoky” taste appears in a cow’s milk she may as well be dried at once, regardless of dates, as her milk will not be good until she is fresh again.
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MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY HERD. 307
The dry cow may be kept on pasture alone, not too luxuriant, or on a low stable diet, mainly of coarse forage, until about two weeks before calving. Yet the ration, while comparatively ‘ wide,” should be nutri- tious, and it should include a share of succulent food—roots or silage. Then a slow but steady increase of feeding may proceed, of a nourish- ing, cool, and laxative kind, so as to become narrower in ratio. Wheat bran is a good material to use at this time, but new-process linseed meal is better. Experience has led the writer to endeavor to have his cows calve on an upgrade, as it were, while daily gaining in strength and vigor, on a judiciously prepared, nourishing diet, but without high feed- ing or plethora. A week before calving remove the cow to a roomy, comfortable, quiet box stall, preferably within hearing of the herd, if not in sight. Be sure the bowels are quite loose and moving freely for two days before calving. Watch for the event, but do not disturb the cow or interfere unless something goes wrong or assistance is mani- festly necessary.
ABORTION AND MILK FEVER.
In herds the best regulated and cared for there will occasionally occur a physical accident or some sudden fright which causes a cow to prematurely drop her calf. The herds should be constantly watched for symptoms of abortion, which will generally be recognized by the experienced herdsman. Should such symptoms appear the suspect should be immediately removed to hospital until the case is over or the Signs disappear. In case abortion occurs in stable, yard, or pasture, despite precautions, and wholly without warning, as is sometimes the case, take the animal to hospital at once and use every exertion to thoroughly clean and disinfeet the place where the accident occurred. The aborted cow should be carefully nursed and the genital organs freely dressed with antiseptic solutions. The animal should not return to the herd until fully cured, clean, and free from ail vaginal discharges. Be on guard for a seeond case following the first in a few days or within three weeks; if a month elapses recurrence is not to be expected. But “sympathetic” (?) cases are likely to soon follow the first, and the disease may appear in a neighborhood or on a single farm as an epi- demic, run its course, and disappear. Extended and expensive investi- gations have failed to give any satisfactory explanation of this dread disease or prescribe means for preventing it. It seems probable that it belongs to the class of germ diseases which requires further research.
Milk fever, “dropping,” or parturient apoplexy is another scourge of the dairy, twin to abortion. It is an affection which comes without warning, attacks the deepest and richest milkers, is sudden in attack, rapid in progress, and generally fatal. The symptoms are a chill, twitching of the head muscles, failure to eat, chew the cud, or pass manure, distended udder without milk, insensibility of the hind quar-
308 YEAKBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ters when pinched or pricked; later the cow becomes unsteady on her hind legs, and presently drops. Good cows should be carefully watched for forty-eight hours after calving, and if such warnings appear a vete- rinarian can not be called too soon. Preventive measures form the best assurance of the owner against losses from this cause. The cow should have abundant exercise up to the week before calving, and then quiet and good care, with daily grooming and active rubbing. Keep the bowels active with proper food, or purgativesif necessary. Insure com- fort, guard against cold, and endeavor to maintain active circulation on the surface of the body. A strong dose of physic and brisk groom- ing may be used immediately after calving in the case of cows believed to be predisposed to milk fever.
CARE OF CALVES AND YOUNG STOCK.
Among dairy cattle the best practice is to remove the calf from the cow within twenty-four hours after its birth and at once teach it to drink. ‘This separation may be delayed until the dam’s milk assumes the normal condition, but as a rule the earlier the calf is taken in hand and its feeding regulated, the better for the calf. The younger it is, the easier it learns to drink. It is also better for the dairy cow to be regularly milked by hand than to suckle a calf. The miik of good cows is often too rich for their calves, and the latter are apt to take too much if left to help themselves. The calf should have the milk of its dam or some other fresh cow, and receive it while warm, and at least three times a day (preferably four) for a week or month. During this time, if the milk is rich, it should be diluted with warm water one-fifth to one-third its own bulk, according to the richness, or the milk may be kept a few hours, the best of the cream removed, and then warmed and fed. To make a good calf, three feedings a day should be kept up fora month or six weeks, and the milk should be fed warm for a longer period, especially if the weather is cold. But after ten days or so milk set twelve hours and lightly skimmed will do, and after ten days more the skimming may be gradually made closer, until at the end of a month or soon after a skim-milk diet is reached. No rule can be given for quantity in feeding calves; they differ so much in size and food require. ments. Judgment must be used, the feeding effects observed, and the calf given enough to thrive and be active, but not too much. More calves suffer from overfeeding than from scant diet. Keep the calf a little hungry and eager for more rather than fill it to dullness. The endeavor should be to prevent the beginning of indigestion, which leads to scouring and perhaps fatal diarrhea. Nothing causes indi- gestion sooner than overfeeding or irregularity in the quantity, time, and temperature of the milk, especially while the calf is young; and absolute cleanliness about the feeding vessels is essential, with frequent scalding. If it can with certainty be kept equally clean, some feeding
MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY HERD. 309
device which compels the calf to suck its milk instead of swallowing rapidly is preferable to the open pail; but, all considered, the latter is usually the best utensil. If gritting the teeth or other symptoms of indigestion appear, a little limewater in the milk or a little baking soda will usually prove a correction. Keep the calf dry and clean, fairly warm, but in pure air, and allow it to exercise. If its box is small, turn it daily into a covered yard or small paddock. Young calves like company, but if kept together are likely to learn bad suck- ing habits. Every calf had better have its own box until a month or two old, and then be tied up out of reach of neighbors; but several may exercise together if not turned out until an hour after taking milk.
The calf here referred to is not supposed to be for veal, but to be raised for a dairy cow. The foregoing treatment should be accompanied by early lessons inducing it to eat sweet hay and a little grain. The sooner it learns to eat hay or other rough forage and the more it eats, the better; but keep up milk feeding as long as possible, if only once a day. Grain should be used sparingly, oats and bran preferred, perhaps a little linseed, and always to judiciously supplement the other food. Do not turn it on to grass too soon. If aspring calf, carry it over to the second summer without pasturage. A fall calf will be in good shape to get its living from pasture its first summer.
_ Fall calves are generally better cared for, thrive better, and make better cows than those dropped in the spring; another reason for hav- ing cows calve in theautumn. The writer feels certain of getting better results, in the end, from raising four calves dropped at the season advised than from five born in the spring, and is inclined to make the comparison stronger.
_From the time milk ceases to be the main food of the calf until the heifer drops her first calf (at which time she becomes a cow, if ever, regardless of age) the feeding of the animal should be with a view to nourishment and growth, without accumulation of flesh. When pas- turage is good, after the calf is six months old, there can be no better food; if grass is short or dry and growth slackens, supplement with clover hay, wheat bran, or oats. At other times let the food be mainly the coarser and more bulky kinds of forage; the digestive apparatus needs to be developed and become accustomed to working up large quantities of food. <A big belly may result, but no matter. If accom- panied with a well-sprung rib, a strong back and loin, depth of flank, and other marks of constitutional vigor, a big belly is to be desired, indicating capacity as a feeder and user of feeds. Give long forage, fodder, or “roughness” the preference with young stock, and use grain sparingly as needed to balance the ration and promote growth and thrift. A fall calf, well bred and healthfully grown, should ‘come in” when just about two years old, and ought to make a good cow.
310 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ATTENDANCE AND MILKING.
A herd of good dairy cows deserves to have good care, and this can only be insured by having the right kind of attendants. If the owner is unable to either attend the cows himself or give the matter personal supervision twice a day or more, it is to his interest and profit to be certain that his employees are trustworthy and fit to be cow keepers. Everyone should be quiet, even-tempered, gentle, and regular and cleanly in his habits. A cow abominates an unclean man. Tobacco in all its forms is obnoxious to every department of dairying. AI! the work about the herd should be done with the utmost system and regu- larity—stable cleaning, grooming, exercise, watering, feeding, milking; a fixed time for everything and everything at its time—‘on the dot.” Nothing has been produced which begins to compare with the human hand as a milking machine. Cleanliness and regularity are the first requisites in good milking. Next, quiet and gentleness should be accompanied by quickness. Two milkers, one rapid and the other slow (the cow being accustomed to both), will get about the same quantity of milk in any given number of days, but the former will get the more fat. The quicker the milking, the richer the milk, if the work is done well and completely; the difference may not be great, but it is measur- able in butter or money. Again, two men milking like quantities in like time, from the same cows or animals giving milk usually just alike, will get different results as to richness, and if they change places the richer milk is secured by the same man. The milk fat or butter fat comes from the cow, but it is the expert milker that gets the most of it. There seems to be an undefined and yet conclusively proved relation between some milkers and the cows they handle which produces this result. It is certain that change of milkers, manner or time of milk- ing, irregularity, or any disturbance at milking time may be expected to cause loss of butter fat in the milk. In short, it pays, and pays well, to have milking done in the very best way, by the very best milkers that can be found. A superior milker should be appreciated and retained as persistently as a superior cow; the former is the more diffi- cult to replace.
A very good practice, although uncommon, is to take every cow to. a particular place to be milked, apart from where she usually stands; this to be a clean and airy place, like an open shed. The milking shed or room being kept scrupulously clean, with free movement of pure air, there is an almost certain exemption from what are usually called “ ant- mal odors” in milk, but which really are stable odors or odors from the milker. It may be stated as a fact, and should always be remembered, that milk as it comes from the healthy cow is perfectly pure. It has by nature no unpleasant taste or smell (except an occasional result of peculiar food), and all those odors and flavors which are often so
MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY HERD. 311
objectionable get into the milk after it is drawn from the udder of the cow. They come from the uncleaned body of the cow herself, or from her surroundings, the air of the stable, the milk vessel, or the cloth- ing or person of the milker. These troubles are all avoidable; they are not to be charged to the cow, but to the man, her keeper.
With the exception of some extraordinarily large milkers, or for short periods when the yield is largest, there is no gain in milking cows more than twice a day. Within limits, it is true that, if properly done, the oftener a cow is milked the richer will be the milk; but the difference is very slight, and seldom, if ever, enough to pay for the extra labor. In one of the most noted and fully authenticated cases of immense milk production by one cow (a ton or more of milk a month for a year), the cow was milked every six hours for 365 days, every time by the same man, and always within two minutes of the right hour. This remark- able record was without doubt largely due to the milker, who was the feeder of the cow as well; indeed, the year’s performance by the man was as noteworthy as that of the cow.
THE PASTURE SEASON AND SOILING.
As soon as the spring grass gets high enough for the cows to get a bite, let them haveit. At first the time daily on pasture should be very short, for the good of both pasture and cow. The latter should be gradually changed from stable feeding to pasturage, especially if the feeding has been of dry material or mostly so. And the stable feeding should continue unchanged, undiminished, until the cow herself indi- cates that she is getting enough grass to replace a part of the stable ration. Then, as the pasturage improves, indoor feeding may be les- sened and finally discontinued. If a pasture furnishes an abundance and variety of grasses, there can be no better food found for the milch cow. The nutritive ratio for mixed pasturage is about 1 to 5, which can not be improved for succulent food. But the best of pasture grasses contain from 65 to 75 per cent of water, sometimes more, and the cow must procure a large quantity of this material, 100 pounds or so in the course of a day, to secure the food material required. Shade and water should be carefully looked after in connection with pasturage, as well as the grass. In very large pastures there should be watering places in different parts of the inclosure, as well as shade, that the cows may not be compelled to travel far to find either. F
Until flies become bad, cows had better stay in pasture by day and in stable by night, or be left out all the time. But in the worst fly time, and perhaps when the sun’s heat is greatest, it is good practice to stable the herd during the day in an airy but shaded cow house, and turn it on pasture at night. If the pasture has not abundant shade and water this course should certainly be followed. Heat and flies reduce both quality and quantity of milk product. The trouble from
312 YEARBOOK OF THE’U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
flies can be largely remedied by spraying the cows with a very weak mixture of water and some one of the approved sheep-dip preparations. Such a spraying will last a week or ten days, unless there are hard rains meanwhile. The entire interior of the cow house should be sprayed with a solution of this kind, and strong enough for an insecti- cide, weekly throughout the summer.
There is ample evidence that, although milk yield may be increased by feeding grain to cows at pasture, the gain no more than pays for the extra food, and seldom does that. ‘There may be in some cases a small margin for profit in improving the pastures by less grazing and richer manure. But if pasturage is short, even temporarily deficient, the cows should be fed enough of grain, hay, silage, or green crops to supply the deficiency.
The dairyman who has most of his cows dry during drought, fly time, and “dog days” appreciates the advantages of ‘bringing in” his cows in the fall. .
Soiling—The advantages of soiling over pasturage are so great, especially where dairying on high-priced land, that every dairyman should carefully study the question of adopting this system. Much depends upon the supply, character, and cost of labor at one’s com- mand. It may be profitable to practice partial soiling where it wiil not be to do more. Careful trials have shown that by feeding cows wholly on green forage crops in the stable from two to five times as much milk can be produced from an acre as from pasturing the same land. Of course, farms often contain many acres of pasture land that can not be tilled, but for tillable land the profit in soiling’is great. Many more cows can be kept on a given area and the productive capacity of the land ean be rapidly increased. The saving of manure and its applica- tion to best advantage is one of the great gains in soiling.
For this system of feeding stock a variety ot green crops is necessary, grown so as to come to best feeding condition in well-arranged succes- sion throughout the growing season. There must be no breaks; the supply must be certain and sufficient. It is well to aim to grow about twice as much of every crop as one expects to use; any surplus can be saved by drying or putting in a silo. Crops well adapted to soiling in most parts of the country are these: Red clover and timothy, sown sep- arately in July and August; crimson clover and barley, sown in August and September; and wheat and rye, sown in September and October— all these for use in (an open) winter and early spring. Oats, spring barley, and pease sown early in the spring; vetches, also corn and soja beans, planted or sown in May; cowpeas, corn, millets, and Hungarian grass, sown in June—these for cutting in the summer and fall. The first and second crops from the regular mowing lands of grass and clover will fill in the gaps.
A good deal of skillful management is needed to bring on the crops at the right time in proper succession and in sufficient quantity. At least
MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY HERD. 313
110 pounds of green forage should be provided daily, on the average, for every 1,000 pounds’ weight of cow; the quantity will vary much with the character of crop. By the soiling system, well managed, 1 acre may feed two cows for five or six months, and 3 acres for five cows is a conservative estimate.
Oneof the points of gain by soiling is saving the food expended by the animal in its exertion to procure its food at pasture. But moderate exercise Should accompany soiling, and a small pasture lot or large pad- dock should be provided convenient to the cow house for use of the herd, especially at night.
THE STABLING SEASON.
Up to a certain point fall pasturage is as good as in any other part of the year. But after one or two hard frosts it is well to offer the cows some nice hay when they come in at night, and if they eat it with rel- ish,one may be pretty certain the season has arrived to gradually change the herd from pasture to stable for the winter. The cows should not be left out at night after it becomes chilly, or be exposed to cold autumn storms. They may be allowed in the field a few hours on ail pleasant days until snow flies, but without expecting them to get much besides water and exercise. Before keeping them steadily at the stable and yards the feeding should be, by gradual steps, completely changed to the full stable diet.
Meanwhile, or on leisure days earlier in the year, the cow house should be prepared for its occupancy by the herd throughout the sta- bling season. Boxes, stalls, and feeding troughs or floor should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected, so that no animal can discover or be subjected to any unpleasant traces of another and previous occu- _ pant of the place. Then assign every cow her particular place for the winter, and gently insist upon every one being always iy the right place. The bedding, absorbents, and disinfectants should be provided in abundance and in ample time for all to be quite dry. Use no damp material under a cow, no rotten straw, and no moist earth or sawdust. In order of efficiency, the best absorbents are peat, spent tanbark, saw- dust, wheat straw, forest leaves, and dry earth. If earth alone is used, from 30 to 40 pounds per cow will be needed daily—a big shovelful. if Straw alone, provide 9 or 10 pounds a day, and lessif cut short. A good combination is 5 or 6 pounds of straw and 10 or 12 of earth or saw- dust. An excess of* bedding or litter is undesirable. If the floor on which the cow lies is dry and not cold, very little litter is needed for true bedding. Its chief use is as an absorbent, and if more than neces. sary for this object is used, the manure becomes too dry and bulky, and is lessened in value per load. Land plaster is a very satisfactory dis- _ infectant or deodorizer about a cowhouse. If one takes good care of the manure and intends to add chemical fertilizer, the latter may be
314 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
_ used in the stable, in some forms, instead of piaster. <A refuse of the
‘double phosphate” works is an article called phospho-plaster. This can often be got at about the same price as common plaster, and as it contains about 1 per cent of phosphoric acid, it is a good addition to
the stable manure, while also an efficient disinfectant. Kainit, about
the lowest grade of German potash salt, is a good substitute for plaster in the stable. It costs half as much again, sometimes twice as much, but less of it may be used, and the potash it contains (11 to i3 per cent) is a very desirable addition to the manure in several ways. From 1 to 2 pounds of kainit or plaster per day to each cow can be profitably used, scattered in the litter and along the gutters of the cow house throughout the stabling season.
It is a mistake to be satisfied with watering the herd but once a day. If they can be induced to drink twice or three times a day, it should be done. Cows need much water. It has been found that the average milech cow requires about 81 pounds of water a day while in milk (nearly 10 gallons), and about 53 pounds while dry. Of this, the cow in milk takes rather more than two-thirds (say, 7 gallons) as drink, and the rest in her food, while the dry cow takes rather less than two-thirds as drink, and a little more than one-third in the food.
FEEDING THE HERD.
The first advice is not to feed the herd asa herd. Cows differ in their tastes and in their requirements in the way of food just as human beings do, although perhaps not to the same extent. To feed all the cows in a herd alike, day after day and month after month, as is so often done, is an absurd and wasteful practice. Some are sure not to get enough for greatest profit, and others are likely to get more than
they will use to advantage. This as to quantity only; but differences *
in kind of “feed may be equally desirable. In a thorough study and comprehension of the question of feeding lies the greatest opportunity for the exercise of real economy in the management of the dairy herd. Scientific feeding means simply rational feeding, a common-sense application of a good understanding of the objects of feeding, the char- acter of food materials, their proper relations, combinations and effects, and the needs and characteristics of the animals in hand. The principles of scientific feeding, the composition and digestibility of feeding stuffs, the food requirements of animals for various purposes,
aud the calculation of rations have been explained in Farmers’ Bul-—
letin, No. 22, issued by the Department of Agriculture. The composi- tion of a large variety of feeding stuffs grown and employed in this country is also given in an appendix to this volume. To these, there- fore, the student of the great feeding problem is referred, as that is much too big a subject to discuss in detail here.
In practice it is more common and convenient to measure grain food than to weigh it when mixing rations for cows. Yet one may want to
MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY HERD. 315
keep weights in mind at the same time. For this purpose the folloy- ing little table is handy and approximately correct:
Grain foods—relations of weights and measures,
Food stuff. Half bushel, One quart
weighs— weighs— Pounds. Lbs. Oz. MMR ere Seas 2 ci 2 Adana c Satay sats oes a ern ace ae eae es a Awe ea wa beware 30 ti Te ERRORS SEN eee cco a ater ae are abn wet a eae te an Ae Anansi Te wale Sciwwlsbe one 28 Was MEME ees ara etc. cars idaler Mee ations ae eeeks ob ctaag ws Tamia he gee as 26 to4 NOEs orcigaca pia cin wa nba aae Hoda ab ald Ad pa doae oak ame bees ale st au ee 253 1 9 I ees Sa ae Ae a ce chee FY, aha cle lnieialy Stade mall aiebubeiewiileiwimalavihd nn aie 234 ” er ela he on aXe inte ~ = nd asia bbe one Sbad ane dann n denen <xniio} 22 1 6 sarc Sida ae Pitas Sleiman Oa g's Pelle ine bores hme Okman eee Meas z 18 ae. ree wen apes 2 Sine aim aorael is » So ed Balan doe Boni ta tee eam / 16 I ete ne RS oe a oo Gn nen Solas tnt bnar ataae obs cisteas aeige news 12 0 12 Rae oa Po sh rls a cya = wo, rw mote tm, eueianmya nerds. olasa aiBlavee ie. ccna baw, Bos | 10 0 10
Some of the articles named are quite variable in weight, however, wheat bran especially, and weighing is always the safer way. No cow house is properly equipped without its seales for weighing feed stuffs and milk, and its book, paper, or slate, with pencil for making notes and records in connection with the feeding, the milk product, and all facts of interest and desirable for preservation.
GENERAL NOTES.
There are various other questions which arise in the consideration of the problem of feeding the dairy herd which have not been touched upon, and but a part of which can even be mentioned here. On the practical side, one should ascertain the kind and quantity of feeding stuifs which have been produced and are available on the farm, the best way of preparing these for the cattle, and the matter of markets in its relation to getting those articles which it seems desirable to buy in order to supplement the home supplies and balance the rations. On the scientific side, there are a good many additional points which deserve careful attention—the relatious of breed and feed in the economy of dairy practice; the effects of different foods upon the production of milk and butter, in quantity and in quality, having the item of flavor prominent; effects of food upon the economy of churning or “the ehurn- ability” of the cream; and the comparatively new subject of bacteri- ology in its bearings on dairying, the health and cleanliness of the cow hause, and the preservation of products.
The whole subject of animal nutrition is under investigation and discussion, and by watching the publications of American experiment Stations and the reviews of foreign work new suggestions of practical application will be found appearing at intervals.
316 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The manure from a well-fed dairy herd is a matter of great conse- quence, and its proper management requires judgment. The better the feeding, the better the manure. While all manure is worth good care, the better the manure the more important it is to handle it well to prevent heavy losses. The best single piece of advice as to handling stable manure is to get it from the stable to the land where wanted, and there spread it with the least labor and the least delay possible. Yet this general plan must be modified at times, and according to circum- stances.
A few publications may be here named which the manager of a dairy
herd will find of interest and useful for reference:
Report on Diseases of Cattle, Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, 1892; and especially ‘‘ Cattle feeding,” a chapter in the same report, by Professor Henry.
Handbook of Experiment Station Work, 1893. United States Department of Agri- culture.
Bovine Tuberculosis. Bulletin No. 7, 1894. Bureau of Animal Industry, United
. States Department of Agriculture.
Leguminous Plants for Green Manuring and Feeding. Farmers’ Bulletin, No. 16, 1893. United States Department of Agriculture.
Farm Manures. Farmers’ Bulletin, No. 21, 1894. United States Department of Agri- culture.
Feeding Farm Animals. Farmers’ Bulletin, No. 22, 1894. United States Department of Agriculture.
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SOME PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS FOR THE SUPPRESSION AND PREVENTION OF BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS.
By THEOBALD SMITH, M. D.,
Chief of the Division of Animal Pathology, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture.
Tuberculosis among domesticated animals, more particularly among cattle, has during the past few years received a large share of attention, mainly because of its possible direct influence on human health. With this idea in the foreground, the bearing of this malady on agricultural interests has been more or less obscured. As aresult we have a great mass of publications on the hygienic aspect of tuberculosis and but very little on the prevention of this disease among cattle. Many of the more valuable contributions to our knowledge have been made in order to show more definitely what degree of tuberculosis makes an animal unfit for food. This point of view, while bringing out now and then valuable facts, does not pay sufficient attention to the animal dur- ing life. What to do toreduce the high percentage of infection among living animals has been practically ignored in all but a few recent pub- lications. It became evident to the writer some years ago that this was, after all, the most important aspect of the serious problem of bovine tuberculosis. If the disease can be restricted and repressed among cattle during life, the hygienic problem will take care of itself.
To attack tuberculosis as it exists at present is undoubtedly a most difficult problem, and the conditions which tend to repress or to aug- ment its further dissemination are very complex. No single measure, however sweeping, is likely to be successful. A number of details will have to receive careful attention, and in the end the success will depend largely upon the intelligent watchfulness constantly exercised in various directions by the stock owner. The wide dissemination and the localized intensity of this disease, especially in herds devoted to breeding purposes, will require, above all, concerted action in attempts for its repression.
Though a strictly bacterial disease and introduced into the body only by the tubercle bacillus, which is always derived from some preexisting case of disease, tuberculosis differs, nevertheless, from most animal dis- eases in very important particulars. Its unknown beginnings in the body and its insidious march after it has once gained a foothold are responsible for the existence of a large number of tuberculous animals in all stages of the disease. In the earlier stages, while the disease is
317
318 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
still restricted to a single focus, the animal is to all outward appear- ances in perfect health. It is only after the infection has invaded sev- eral cavities of the body or produced mechanical obstructions that it becomes manifest. The prolonged latency of the first stage of the dis- ease, with little or no discharge of tubercle bacilli, raises the question, What should be done with such cases? A comparison with some other infectious diseases makes the predicament all the clearer.
When an animal becomes infected with anthrax or with Texas fever,
the specific microorganisms begin to multiply at once within the body. - Within twenty-four hours in the case of anthrax, and a few days to a
week in Texas fever, the symptoms are fully developed, and death or recovery speedily follows. There can be no question here concerning degree of disease or utility of the animal during the earlier stages. The infected and the noninfected are divided by sharp unmistakable barriers. In tuberculosis, on the other hand, the infected animal is practically well during the earlier stages of the disease, and the dis- ease may become stationary, possibly healed. This peculiarity of tuberculosis modifies to a certain extent the usual measures employed to repress an infectious disease. In certain diseases the necessity for the destruction of all infected animals becomes imperative, because the disease must be kept restricted and suppressed as soon as possible. The present wide dissemination of this disease and its prevalence among other domesticated animals, such as dogs, cats, horses, goats, and above all, its prevalence in man, makes the complete extinction of this malady an unrealizable problem, or at most one whose ultimate success can not be positively predicted.
It is largely due to these peculiarities that tuberculosis has received so little attention until recent years. Its unrecognizable beginnings and slow, insidious march in the body made it appear on the surface as a disease not of infectious origin, but as one in which inheritance played an important part. After the discovery of the true cause in the form of a bacterium (Bacillus tuberculosis) by Koch the conception that infection played the most important réle has gradually gained a firm foothold. Withoutin any way wishing to eliminate the factor of hered- ity, the writer has based the statements in the following pages entirely on the principle, now universally recognized, that without the presence of the tubercle bacillus there can be no tuberculosis. If it ean be shown that the tubercle bacillus can be kept away from cattle by adopt- ing precautionary measures the discussion concerning heredity would be useless. If, however, this should prove to be impossible, the prob- lems of breed, heredity, and environment, or, in other words, the acces- sory causes, will require renewed study.
The conditions peculiar to this disease which confront the agricultu- ral interests may be summarized under the following heads:
(1) The present wide dissemination of the disease, no territory being absolutely free from it.
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SUPPRESSION AND PREVENTION OF TUBERCULOSIS. 319
(2) The large percentage of infected cattle which are in the earlier stages of the disease, or in which the lesions are insignificant, station- ary, or healed.
(3) The absence of any disturbances of health for considerable periods of time after infection.
(4) The possible transmission of tubercle bacilli from animals to man, more particularly in the milk.
CHARACTER OF THE DISEASE.
Tuberculosis in cattle is at the outset a strictly local disease. Though the entire body has been, to a certain extent, influenced by the local changes, as shown by its sensitiveness to tuberculin, the tubercle bacilli themselves are restricted to that locality where the disease process shows itself to the naked eye. Where the infection has been very severe, that is to say, where there are large numbers of tuberculous cattle in a herd which are continually discharging the virus (in the man- ner indicated below), so that the remaining animals are being exposed to large numbers of tubercle bacilli, the disease may start in several places within the body at the same time, and its subsequent progress may be, on this account, somewhat more rapid.
An the majority of animals, however, that are killed in the early stages of tuberculosis the disease process is limited to a single spot for a time. The location of this spot will vary with the manner of infection, and possibly with other conditions not yet definitely known. In most cases the tubercle bacilli settle down at the start in some lymphatic gland and there begin to multiply. This multiplication is accompanied by an enlargement of the gland. The size attained by diseased glands varies in accordance with the number of bacilli which have settled down in them. After a certain length of time the enlargement ceases. The gland may be barely larger than before the infection, or it may have gained enormously in size. The writer has seen glands, normally as large as horse-chestnuts, become as large as a child’s head.
When the enlargement has come to an end, further changes begin to take place withinthe gland. The new tissue produced by the presence . of the tubercle bacilli begins to assume a yellowish color and to degen- erate slowly into a cheesy mass. Hence, when tuberculous glands are cut open we note in those not very much enlarged yellow masses sprinkled in the gland substance, varying in size from one-sixteenth to one-fourth inch. The coalescence of these gives rise to larger cheesy masses. In those glands which have become very large the appear- ance of the gland when cut open is somewhat different. The cut sur- face, at first grayish in color, later on appears permeated with a network of yellowish lines, which network encroaches slowly upon the grayish tissue until the entire substance of the gland has become yellowish in color and tough in consistency. Gritty particles are usually embed- ded in it. Lastly,it may become entirely calcareous, gritty, mortar-
320 YEARBOOK OF THE U: 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
like, or it may break down into a semifluid mass of a yellowish color, resembling soft cheese in consistency. In this state the enlarged gland is nothing more than a bag filled with this cheesy matter. Every ves- tige of the original gland structure has disappeared. This description of the disease process and the appearances presented by the changes to the naked eye are characteristic of tuberculosis wherever it may appear. The same cheesy breaking down occurs in the lungs, the liver, the bones, and other affected parts.
Thus far the disease may have been entirely restricted to the gland or system of glands in some one part of the body. The process may have lasted a year or longer. When the softening takes place, the disease - may become stationary, or, what is perhaps more likely to happen, blocd vessels in the gland may become broken down and the tubercle bacilli in the softened mass carried in the blood to other parts of the body. ‘This is usually the time when the infected cow will begin to show outward signs of disease and when the milk may carry tubercle bacilli, Bacilli may be carried in the blood to the uterus and there they may set up tuberculosis, and, in case of present or future preg- nancy, infect the unborn calf.
The outcome of the disease may be neither in cure nor in a general infection of the body. It may take a middle course. It may slowly creep from gland to gland. The lining membrane of the chest and the abdomen may become studded with peculiar masses of tubercles which crowd upon the vital organs and interfere with their movements. The animal may become emaciated and lose strength in spite of the best eare and food, because of the large amount of tuberculous material lodged in the body. The sometimes enormously enlarged glands in the chest near the backbone compress the gullet so that gases can not escape from the stomach. The animal has irregular or regular attacks of bloating, or the glands in the back of the throat may become so enlarged that swallowing and breathing are interfered with. Food may pass down the windpipe and cause pneumonia. It has already been stated that the spot which is the first to be diseased depends, among other things, upon the manner of infection. Thus, if tubercle bacilli are taken in with the milk, there is likely to appear in the calf (1) dis-
ease of the glands of the neaats (2) disease of the glands in the abdo- men, which are situated on the ee intl that suspends the intestine = A glands), because the tubercle bacilli pass into these glands from the food in the intestines; and (3) disease of the liver and its glands, because the blood passing through the liver comes largely from the intestines.
If the tubercle bacilli are carried in a dried state into the body, they may lodge in the nasal passages and start up disease of the throat glands, or, what is more probable, they may pass into the lungs with the current of air. Here they may set up disease in the lung tissue, or they
' The conversion of the disease products into calcified 1 masses may be regarded as a healing process. In rare cases the tubercles in the e arliest stages become healed.
SUPPRESSION AND PREVENTION OF TUBERCULOSIS. 321
may pass on into the glands back of the lungs and attached to the wind- pipe and there first begin their destructive action.
When the bacilli pass from the blood of the mother into the blood of the fetus, they generally lodge in the liver, although they may settle down in other regions of the body at the same time.
Tuberculosis of the lining membrane of the chest and abdomen, to which reference has been made above, has given this affection the name of ‘‘ pearly disease.”
It has already been stated that the uterus and the udder may become the seat of tuberculosis whenever tubercle bacilli are brought to them in the blood from other regions of the body. It is probable that the uterus may be infected from without by the bull, and that the udder may be infected by hands carrying the bacilli. On this latter point the evidence is at present inconclusive.
The progress of tuberculosis in the body is modified by various con- ditions not yet fully understood. Age seems to have some influence. In very young animals the tendency toward a restriction of the dis- ease by a calcification of the tuberculous masses seems to be greater than at more advanced periods of life. In aged cattle the progress of the disease seems likewise less rapid, but for reasons not yet under- stood. The influence of sex is not known. It is probable that the dis- ease, other conditions being equal, makes slower progress in bulls than in cows.
The conditions under which the purely local disease becomes gener- alized by a distribution of the virus in the blood are not yet under- stood. The sudden breaking down of cows in good health, observed not infrequently, is probably the result of such distribution of the virus. We may at least provisionally assume that any strain upon the cow is likely to hasten the onset of generalized disease. Among these strains the giving birth to calves must be regarded as the greatest. The giv- ing way of some diseased spot at this time favors infection of the blood of the calf at birth. Cows which do not recover after calving, and in which a discharge from the vagina persists after the proper time, not directly traceable to retained afterbirth, should be regarded with sus- picion and promptly killed, for in such animals the milk is likely to be infected with tubercle bacilli. It is probable that other strains, such as exhaustive marches, chasing, etc., may lead to the same result.
This brief sketch of the disease is sufficient to make clear (1) the primarily local character of the disease and its usually slow progress within the body from place to place; (2) its predilection, at the start, for the lymphatic glands and the lungs. Putting the places most fre- quently the seat of the earliest disease first, we have the following order:
(1) Glands of the lungs (dorsal, mediastinal, and bronchial).
(2) The lungs themselves.
(3) The glands of the throat and intestines.
(4) The liver and its glands.
Pe > ke. 94 13
322 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The infection of tle other organs, membranes, and structures of the body, excepting perhaps the uterus and the udder in rare cases, is sec- ondary to these. In endeavoring to comprehend the peculiar nature of this disease the reader shouid furthermore bear in mind that the virus, i.e., the tubercle bacilli, do not live and multiply in the blood. They are simply carried in the blood, in advanced cases, from organ to organ, and speedily fixed in the tissues, where they produce fresh crops of tubercles. In the earlier stages, when single glands only are the seat of the disease, the blood is free from infection. This accounts for the immunity of the milk in these stages. If there were any method of distinguishing these cases the danger incident to the milk supply could be easily removed. In practice, however, no such distinction
can be definitely made; hence the suspicion which rests on all milk which comes from fected herds.
Tuberculosis thus differs from other infectious diseases not so much in its nature as in the degree of its activity. It is a disease long drawn out, presenting stages, covering months and years, the duration of which in other more rapid diseases is measured by days.
THE CONTAGIOUSNESS OF THE DISEASE.
This is linked to the tubercle bacillus, for without it tubercuicsis can not develop. Hence our knowledge of the transmission of the disease is derived largely from what we know of the life history of the tubercle bacillus within and without the animal body. Tubercle bacilli may pass from diseased animals in the following ways:
(1) In discharges coughed up, in the case of advanced disease of the lungs. When the glands of the throat are diseased, they may, after a time, break down and discharge into the throat. Other glands about the head and neck may discharge directly outward.
(2) In discharges from bowels, in advanced stages.
(3) In discharges from vagina, in case of tuberculosis of the uterus.
(4) In milk, when the udder is tuberculous or the disease generalized.
(5) Tubercle bacilli may pass from the mother to the fetus in case of tuberculosis of the uterus or advanced generalized disease.
Tubercle bacilli may be taken up by cattle in several different ways:
(1) Fully nine-tenths of all diseased animals examined have.been infected by inhaling the tubercle bacilli, dried and suspended in the air.!
(2) Fully one-half of all diseased animals examined have been infected by taking tubercle bacilli into the body with the food. This implies that both food and air infection are recognizable in the same animal in many cases.
l'These estimates are of course merely approximate. Not afew animals who have © lung disease reinfect themselves by swallowing the mucus coughed up, or by soiling their own food with it.
SUPPRESSION AND PREVENTION OF TUBERCULOSIS. 323
(3) Animals are infected, though rarely, during copulation. In such cases the disease starts in the uterus and its lymph glands, or in the sexual organs and corresponding lymph glands of the bull.
(4) Perhaps from 1 to 2 per cent of all calves of advanced cases are born infected. Among the 200 cases of tuberculosis, including all ages, which have been examined by the writer, there are about 2 per cent in which the disease is best explained as having been directly transmitted from the mother during or before birth.
We may define the dangers of infection somewhat more definitely by the statement that in any herd, even in those extensively infected, only a small percentage of the diseased animals, namely, those which are in an advanced stage, or such as have the disease localized from the very beginning in the udder, or the uterus, or the lungs, are actively shedding tubercle bacilli. It is these that are doing most, if not all, of the damage by scattering broadcast the virus.
Disease of the udder is particularly dangerous, because the milk at first appears normal for some weeks, and therefore would be used with impunity. Moreover, the tubercle bacilli in the diseased gland tissue are usually numerous.
Similarly, in tuberculosis of the uterus the vaginal discharges may contain many tubercle bacilli. This deposited anywhere may lead to the extensive dissemination of the virus, or it may be carried by the bull to other cows. A diagnosis may be made by the examination of any existing discharge for tubercle bacilli.
The foregoing statements apply to individual herds only. To what extent does the danger extend beyond the diseased herd to others in theneighborhood? To this we may give the general answer that there is no danger unless the animals mingle on the pasture or in the stable. Tubercle bacilli are not carried in the open air, or if they are their num- bers are so small that the danger of infection is practically absent.
It is also highly doubtful whether they are ever carried in sufficient numbers by third parties from place to place to become in any sense a danger. The reasons for this must be sought for in the tubercle bacil- lus itself. The diseased animal is the only manufacturer of tubercle bacilli, as well as the chief disseminator. Tubercle bacilli, after having left the body of the cow (and usually in small numbers), do not increase in nature, but suffer a steady decrease and final extermination in four to six months at the longest. Only after they have entered the bodies of susceptible animals do they again begin to multiply. Hence, with this disease the only danger to other herds lies in direct association, or in the transfer of a diseased animal or of milk from such an animal. The great danger exists in the immediate surroundings of the infected, and loses itself as the distance increases.
'This fact, mentioned by Bang, the writer has had opportunity to confirm in case of two tuberculous udders examined recently.
ch, i
324 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
PREVENTIVE MEASURES.
The suggestions to be recommended are not to be considered as tak- ing the place of any more sweeping and radical measures which have been contemplated by some States and are actually being tried in others. We wish them to be considered simply as of educational value to the owners of cattle in their efforts to repress and stamp out the dis- ease. The aid of the Government in this matter is a question to be discussed by itself. Without individual cooperation and sacrifice, directed by an intelligent understanding of the disease in its various aspects, any efforts on the part of the Government are likely to prove
abortive, owing to the enormous interests involved.
Removal of diseased animals.—This is the essential requirement in the suppression of tuberculosis. We have already stated that only in the diseased animals the tubercle bacilli multiply. Hence, if these are removed and the stables thoroughly disinfected, so that any germs shed by them are destroyed, we are safe in concluding that the disease has been suppressed.
The disease in the early stages can be detected only with the aid of
‘tuberculin. In the advanced stages most careful observers will proba-
bly recognize it, or at least suspect it, without the use of tuberculin. Tuberculin, therefore, has become indispensable in giving the owner an idea of the inroads the disease is making in his herd, and in distin- guishing the infected from the noninfected. Tuberculin reveals to us all stages, from the earliest, most insignificant changes, when the animal is outwardly entirely well, to the gravest and most dangerous types of the disease. Tuberculin does not, as a rule, discriminate between these cases. Hence those who use it as a guide must not be disappointed when, after having killed the suspected ones, they find that many are in the earlier stages of the malady. Tuberculin, moreover, is not infal- lible. A small percentage of cases of disease are not revealed by it. On the other hand, a sound animal now and then gives the reaction for tuberculosis. These lapses must be borne in mind in using tuber- culin. In spite of them, however, tuberculin must be considered as of great value in revealing tuberculosis not recognizable by any other means during life.
The question next arises, What shall be done with the infected ani- mals? This question is really composed of two distinct questions whose combination is mainly the cause of the present perplexity. From the standpoint of the agriculturist alone the matter is simple enough. The infected animals might be separated at once from the noninfected. The worst cases should be killed and buried deeply or burned. Those without outward signs of disease might be fattened for the butcher and inspected at the abattoir. This is the recommen- | dation given by Nocard, a prominent French authority, and generally followed in European countries. But at this point public health ap-
SUPPRESSION AND PREVENTION OF TUBERCULOSIS. 325
pears and demands the prompt and complete destruction of all infected animals, however mild the disease, or, if the animal be not destroyed, the rejection of the milk of all infected animals. The interest of the stock owner and of public health are thus diametrically opposed. If the demands of public health were in every sense justifiable from a strictly scientific standpoint, there could be no question as to an entire submission to its demands. But the case is not so simple, and gives room for diversity of opinion. Leaving the public-health aspect of the question aside for the moment, let us return to the farmers’ side of it. After all infected animals have been segregated or killed, as the case may be, and the stables disinfected, the remaining healthy ani- mals should be retested with tuberculin within a certain period of time, from three to six months after the first test, to make sure that no disease has been overlooked. Future repetitions must be recom- mended, according to our present knowledge, for some cases may have been missed by the tuberculin, or the disease germs may possibly be reintroduced by tuberculous human beings, or by tuberculous cats, dogs, and other domesticated animals.
All animals introduced into a herd must have been tested and found to be sound beforehand. This is such a self-evident proposition that it needs no comment.
In the absence of the tuberculin test, or of organized official inspec- tion, the stock owner should carefully and promptly remove from his herd and have destroyed—
(1) All animals which show emaciation, with coughing, and any sus- picious discharges from the nose.!
(2) Those animals with enlarged, prominent glands about the head (in front of the ears, under and behind the lower jaw), or enlarged glands in front of the shoulder, in the flank, and behind the udder, and all animals having swellings on any part of the body which discharge a yellowish matter and refuse to heal.
(3) Animals with suspected tuberculosis of uterus and udder.
Disinfection and other preventive measures.—It will probably require more or less time before the use of tuberculin will have become generally established. Hence, preventive measures of a general character must still be kept in view for some time to come. These measures partly suffer shipwreck from the fact that it is difficult without tuberculin to recognize even advanced disease during life. Still much can be done to reduce the amount of infection by following out certain general and specific suggestions which the renewed study of the disease has either originated or else placed on a more substantial basis.
‘Now and then emaciation is due to other causes, such as the presence of foreign bodies in the chest, disease of the liver and kidneys, chronic broncho- pneumonia, etc. Animals affected with these diseases are of no permanent value, and their destruction is in the end an actual saving, since such maladies are usually incurable.
326 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Perhaps the most important preliminary suggestion to be made is, that the owner of cattle should endeavor to familiarize himself as much as possible with the general nature of tuberculosis, its cause, the ways in which the virus may leave the body of the sick and enter that of the well, and, lastly, the waysin which it spreads within the bedy. He will, by the acquisition of such fundamental knowledge, lift himself above the plane where quackery and specifics abound, and understand pre- cisely what to expect after the disease has entered his herd, and how to meet the demands of public health. He should, moreover, make himself acquainted with the peculiar appearance of tuberculous growths in the body, and open every animal that dies, so that he may know to what extent his animals are dying of this malady. Wherever possible the services of the skilled veterinarian should be made use of. Sanitary precautions should begin with the removal of diseased and suspected animals, as stated above. This is the most essential requirement, for diseased animals are the only breeding places of the specific virus.
After the removal of these, attention should be paid first of all to the stables. Here, during the long confinement of the winter months, when ventilation is all but suppressed, we may look for the source of most of the inhalation diseases so common in tuberculous catile. HKven when only a few cases of tuberculosis have been found, the stables should be disinfected by removal of all dirt and the subsequent appli- cation of disinfectants. Since tubercle bacilli are more resistant than most other disease germs, the strength of the disinfecting solution must not be less than as given. The following substances may be used:
(a) Corrosive sublimate (mercuric chloride), 1 ounce in about 8 gal- lons of water (one-tenth of 1 per cent). ‘The water should be kept in wooden tubs or barrels and the sublimate added to it. The whole must be allowed to stand twenty-four hours, so as to give the sublimate an opportunity to become entirely dissolved. Since this solution is poison- ous, it should be kept well covered and guarded. It may be applied with a broom or mop and used freely in all parts of the stable. Since it loses its virtue in proportion to the amount of dirt present, all manure and other dirt should be first removed and the stables well cleaned before applying the disinfectant. After it has been applied, the stable should be kept vacant as long as possible. Before animals are allowed to return, it is best to flush those parts which the animals may reach with their tongues, to remove any remaining poison.
(b) Chloride of lime, 5 ounces to a gallon of water (4 per cent). This should be applied in the same way.
(c) The following disinfectant is very serviceable. It is not so dan- gerous as mercuric chloride, but is quite corrosive, and care should be taken to protect the eyes and hands from accidental splashing:
Gallon.
Crade carbolic acon oi. aicts MLSE ATA er Re eee 4 C2GGS SUIDERTIG BOIA ... ono gsBe Sack cue kas Eee ~ Sadie ted eeake eee 4
SUPPRESSION AND PREVENTION OF TUBERCULOSIS. 327
These two substances should be mixed in tubs or glass vessels. The sulphuric acid is very slowly added to the carbolic acid. During the mixing a large amount of heat is developed. The disinfecting power of the mixture is heightened if the amount of heat is kept down by placing the tub or glass demijohn containing the carbolic acid in cold water while the sulphuric acid is being added. The resulting mix- ture is added to water in the ratio of 1 to 20. One gallon of mixed acids will furnish 20 gallons of a strongly disinfectant solution having a slightly milky appearance.
(d) Whitewash is not in itself of sufficient strength to destroy tubercle bacilli, but by imprisoning and incrusting them on the walls of stables they are made harmless by prolonged drying. Whitewashing should be preceded by thorough cleaning.
Particular attention should be paid to the sides and ceilings of stables. All dust and cobwebs should be periodically washed down. Those parts coming in contact with the heads of cattle, stanchions, halters, troughs, etc., should be frequently cleansed and disinfected, even when they have not been used by diseased cattle.
The removal of virus from the stables should, furthermore, be pro- moted by the regular removal of manure and by abundant ventilation. Good air has the effect of diluting infected air, and thereby reducing the chance of inhaling dried, floating tubercle bacilli, or at least of reducing the number inhaled. It likewise improves the vigor of the confined animals, and hence increases the resistance to infection.
Cattle should not be placed so that their heads are close together; each animal should have plenty of room! and occupy the same place in the stable at all times. These precautions will prevent the nasal, lung, or vaginal discharges from one‘animal striking the head or soiling the feed of another. It is true that it is impossible to prevent animals licking each other outside of the stable, but it should be remembered that prevention must begin with the removal of all cases which are suspected of discharging tubercle bacilli. Stables should, furthermore, be carefully protected from the expectorations of human beings affected with tuberculosis of the lungs.
Cattle should be housed as little as possible. The pasture has the effect of greatly reducing the chances of infection by a more or less rapid destruction of the virus, as well as by increasing the vigor of the animals through muscular exertion in fresh air. To what extent animals may pick up the virus on fields it would be difficult to estimate. That itis perfectly possible can not be gainsaid. A tuberculous animal may soil the ground over which it passes, and other animals may take up the virus with the food soon after.
Itis not likely that the virus remains alive long enough on the ground _ to become dried and ready for inhalation. The action of sunlight, the
1Kach cow should have at least 600 cubic feet of air space.
328 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
alternate wetting and drying which goes on in nature, may be looked upon as destructive agents. Even ifthe tubercle bacilli became speedily dried, the great diluting effect of the open air would reduce to a mini- mum the chances of inhaling the virus.
Among the other dangers deserving attention is the infection of food and water. Drinking troughs should be so arranged that the surface water is constantly flowing away. Discharges from the nose or mouth left floating on the surface may be drawn in by healthy cattle while drinking. Each person must in such cases use his own judgment and ingenuity to prevent infection, in accordance with the quantity of water at his disposal.
To restrict the dissemination of the disease among young stock the safest plan is to bring skimmed milk and other dairy products to the boiling point before feeding them. If the cows are positively known to be healthy, this may be unnecessary, but where any doubt exists the heating should be resorted to. Such a precaution will, furthermore, reduce scouring among calves, which is probably due in a great meas- ure to bacteria in the food.
In presenting the foregoing suggestions the writer has endeavored to keep in view two conditions: (1) Thatin which tuberculin is not within reach and only unusual watchfulness can be exercised in separating suspected animals from the healthy, and (2) that in which tuberculin is tried, but with the view that it is not wholly infallible and requires to be ee with other precautionary measures. If tuberculin is infallible, most of the suggestions made fall to the ground as unneces- sary, unless the disease can be readily reintroduced by man or diseased animals of other species, a possibility of wholly unknown dimensions at present.
The study of tuberculosis, though prosecuted for many years, still offers many problems of prevention to solve, especially those which pertain to the conditions underlying predisposition. Is the breed or descent of the animal of much importance, or is it the conditions under which each animal is compelled to live which determine the readiness with which the disease destroys the body? These are vital questions, and their answer must have an important modifying influ- ence on the future success of dairying and stock raising. AS we are now entering upon an era of suppression of this disease, it should be borne in mind that radical measures are the best to begin with, and that after the disease has been weeded out of each herd by tuberculin one or more times such herds become, in a sense, an experiment in the prevention of this disease, with the element of contagion presumably completely eliminated. The future will then decide how much is to be feared from the lapses of tuberculin, from sources of the virus outside of the bovine species, and from heredity, breed, and environment as predisposing agents.
SUPPRESSION AND PREVENTION OF TUBERCULOSIS. 329
BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS IN ITS RELATION TO THE PUBLIC HEALTH.
The dilemma in which the demands of public health have put the owner of cattle, as well as the health officer, has already been stated. The following statements referring to this subject are based upon a careful study of the distribution of the disease in a large number of animals. It needs to be emphasized here that arguments deduced from the superficial examination of a carcass and the simple deterimi- nation of the presence or absence of tuberculosis are worth little or nothing in attempting to solve the problems presented by the sanitary side. Only a thorough survey of the entire distribution of the tuber- culous deposits in animals furnishes us with approximately correct data.
The flesh of those infected cattle in which the disease is restricted to one or two primary foci must be regarded as entirely harmless and of full nutritive value. Even in advanced cases, which should always be rejected, the glands embedded in the muscular tissue are found infected only occasionally.
The condition of the milk in different stages of the disease is a question of much greater importance, and demands the most careful consideration. We may, for convenience and clearness, typify three stages:
(1) In the earlier stages of the disease, provided the udder is normal, the milk is free from tubercle bacilli.
(2) In the more advanced stages, provided the udder is normal, the milk may or may not contain tubercle bacilli. If the disease has become generalized, the indications are that at some time or other tubercle bacilli may pass into the milk. This passage is revealed at the autopsy by disease of the glands of the udder. The indications are that this passage is largely temporary, perhaps lasting only a day before the tubercle bacilli are caught up and filtered out into the lymphatic system. The indications are, furthermore, that compara- tively few bacilli passed through the udder. The udder itself does not favor their development there, and the closest inspection fails to reveal any augmenting foci of disease. These statements are based on careful examinations of slaughtered cattle and the thorough testing of milk from advanced cases.! |
(3) When the udder is affected in any stage of the disease, a most grave condition is presented. Tuberculosis of the udder in most cases comes on in the later stages, when the virus is distributed by the blood from some disintegrated earlier focus of disease. Primary tuberculosis of the udder, that is, infection from without, has not yet been established definitely, and is probably of very rare occurrence. When the disease has started in the udder itself, tubercle bacilli may be discharged in
'See Bulletins Nos. 3 and 7 of the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture.
1 <A 94——13*
330 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the milk in large numbers and for long periods of time. The smaller the herd, in such a case, the more dangerous the entire milk becomes, because of the concentration of the virus.
Udder tuberculosis is thus a most serious danger, the importance of which can not be too strongly urged. Fortunately,itis rare. Thewriter has encountered among 200 infected animals only one case of udder dis- ease, and 16 others which, according to the post-mortem studies, may have shed at one time or another tubercle bacilli into the milk in small numbers, but which had no recognizable disease of the udder itself. The large percentage of udder tuberculosis reported by several writers lately is incompatible with all former statistics, and indicates either an unprecedented condition in certain localities or else an error in diagnosis. The stock owner, in the absence of proper dairy or other official inspection, is under serious moral responsibilities to remove from his herd those animals in which there is even a suspicion of udder tuberculosis. Any udder which is found to increase slowly in size with- out any indication of inflammatory processes, recognizable by the pres- ence of heat, pain, and redness, and which becomes very firm without showing at first any alteration in the appearance of the milk, should be regarded as infected, the cow promptly segregated, and the entire milk rejected until a diagnosis can be made by a veterinarian.!
In view of the fact that tuberculin does not discriminate between dangerous and harmless eases, the public-health problem as it presents itself in practice is simply this: What shall be done with all the cattle which give the tuberculin reaction, in order that we may catch and destroy the 10 per cent? of slightly and temporarily dangerous cases among them, or the 1 per cent? of serious cases? Some of the danger- ous cases are so far along in the disease that they are easily detected without the aid of tuberculin, but this is by no means true of the major- ity. The situation certainly demands a most rigid periodical inspection of all animals furnishing milk to consumers, the prompt removal of all suspicious cases, and, above all, a more thorough control of the dairy in the interests of public sanitation. :
1 The stock owner needs here to be reminded that the feeding of milk from a tuber- culous udder to calves and pigs is the most dangerous thing he can do in laying the foundation of lifelong tuberculosis in young animals.
2These figures may be too high or too low. The collection of further accurate sta- tistical evidence is needed.
THE PASTEURIZATION AND STERILIZATION OF MILK.
By E. A. DE SCHWEINITZ, Ph. D., Biochemie Laboratory, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Of all the food and drinks of man there is perhaps none which is more important than perfectly pure, clean, and healthy milk, and to secure it should be the subject of earnest care. The fact is well known that milk undergoes a number of chemical changes in its constituents some hours after milking. It becomes sour, owing to the decomposition of the milk sugar, the casein separates, and finally putrefactive decom- position begins. These changes are induced by the presence in milk of bacteria, which for the most part do not generate diseases, but which may be, and often are, accompanied by bacteria capable of causing disease that obtain access to the milk from the body of the animal, from the air, from the water that was used to wash the cans, from the hands, clothing, and person of the milker, and the like. Even when collected with precaution, the careless distribution of milk may result in its contamination with disease-producing bacteria.
The responsibility of milk for the distribution of a large amount of tuberculosis is at present more thoroughly appreciated than heretofore. To milk is also attributed the spread of typhoid fever, cholera, diph- theria, and other diseases, not to mention the many troubles peculiar to children that are to be traced directly to an impure milk supply. The latter are especially frequent in the crowded tenement districts of cities, where, through ignorance and lack of cleanliness, young children are, surrounded by the worst possible conditions.
‘It is safe to assume that most of the ordinary bacteria found in milk gain access to it from the dirt of the udder, or some other portion of the animal, and when we remember that the feces are largely undigested food which is filled with an enormous number of bacteria, it is easy to see how easily milk becomes contaminated. The character of the bac- teria in milk is also influenced by the straw used for littering, depend- ing upon whether this is fresh and often changed, or whether it is already fermented and only occasionally changed. The dust from the earth and stalls will naturally also make a great difference in the purity of milk.
An idea of the amount of dirt and bacteria in milk can be obtained from the following figures: Renk found an average of 0.015 gram of feces in 1 liter of the milk sold in Halle, Germany; in that of Berlin, 0.010 gram to the liter, and of Munich, 0.009 gram to the liter (0.1386
grain to the quart). The maximum contamination in the milk in Halle 331
332 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
was 0.5625 gram of feces to the liter. A good idea of the purity of milk may be had by ascertaining the number of bacteria it contains. This number has been found to vary from 10,000 to 100,000 per cubic centimeter immediately after milking, and increases enormously after standing for a few hours at the normal temperature. The first portion of the milking contains the largest number of bacteria per cubic ceuti- meter, the last portion often none at all. If kept on ice the germs do not multiply. The bacteria which produce lactic acid and those which produce butyric acid are most common. The latter, together with cer- tain spore-bearing bacilli present in the dust of the air, are the most difficult to contend against. It is apparent, of course, that some of this contamination can not be avoided.
The importance of a method or methods of freeing milk from these minute forms of life which cause so much damage, or of rendering them harmless, is evident. Several methods have been adopted to secure this end. The three most important are the use of chemicals, pasteur- ization, and sterilization, all being employed with the view of destroy- ing the germs without injuring the properties, value, and healthfulness of the milk.
PRESERVATION WITH CHEMICALS.
Bicarbonate of soda is often used for this purpose; but, though this will neutralize the acidity, it rather favors than retards the increase of bacteria. Boric and salicylic acid are of some use in this connection, but both have been found to be injurious to health, even in small doses, if taken continuously. These and other chemical means are therefore neither satisfactory nor advisable.
The cooling of milk is well understood, but the most advantageous method of preserving it is by pasteurization or sterilization. In pas- teurization the milk is warmed to 65° to 70° C. (155° to 160° F.), a tem- ' perature sufficiently high to kill the ordinary bacteria and pathogenic germs. There are a few germs, however, which can only be destroyed by heating the milk to the boiling point, the temperature of complete sterilization, and to these we will again refer under the head of sterili- zation.
PASTEURIZATION OF MILK FOR CHILDREN.
Dr. Koplik says, in an article to which we will again have occasion to refer, that in his experience in the city of New York he has seen children flourish amidst the most unfavorable surroundings when their food and milk supply was derived from his dispensary, where it was thoroughly pasteurized under proper conditions, while in the same districts other children which were left to the carelessness of the mother were sick and puny.
In addition to pasteurization, milk may be specially adapted for feed- ing to children and invalids by the addition of albuminoids and milk sugar. This makes it more nutritious and constitutes the so-called ree-
PASTEURIZATION AND STERILIZATION OF MILK. 333
tified milk. The simple pasteurization of milk is useful, provided the milk is immediately cooled and used within twenty-four hours. If not afterwards cooled the pasteurization seems to increase the liability to fermentation. In thorough sterilization the danger to be avoided is the coagulation of the albuminoids or burning of the milk. Some authori- ties claim that the sterilization makes the milk too indigestible, while others claim that the digestibility is not affected, provided the steriliza- tion is properly conducted and the milk is thoroughly stirred during the process. The latter process requires more care than the former.
Pasteurization can be easily carried on by any housewife. A simple and easy method is the one described in a circular issued by this Bureau, and which is here again printed:
The simplest plan is to take a tin pail and invert a perforated tin pie plate in the bottom, or have made for it a removable false bottom per- forated with holes and having legs half an inch high, to allow circula- tion of the water. The milk bottle is set on this false bottom, and suffi-
lic. 52.—Sterilizing apparatus used in the Bureau of Animal Industry.
cient water is put into the pail to reach the level of the surface of the milk in the bottle. A hole may be punched in the cover of the pail, a cork inserted, and a chemical thermometer put through the cork, so that the bulb dips into the water. The temperature can thus be watched without removing thecover. If preferred, an ordinary dairy thermome- ter may be used, and the temperature tested from time to time by remov- ing thelid. This is very easily arranged, and is just as satisfactory as the patented apparatus sold for the saine purpose. The accompanying illustrations show the form of apparatus described (fig. 52).
PREPARATION OF MILK FOR INFANTS AND INVALIDS.
In the New York Medical Journal, February 4, 1893, Dr. Koplik describes the method used by him for several years in the Good Samari- _ tan Dispensary in New York for the preparation of infants’ food. The milk supply is derived from a reliable leading dairy and delivered in refrigerator tubs. This is a point of special importance to which we
334 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
will again refer. After many experiments and a comparison of results obtained by others, Dr. Koplik has found the most satisfactory tempera- ture for the sterilization to be 85° to 90° C, At this temperature there is a Slight deposit of casein upon the sides of the bottle. Above 90°C,
p | Seen ee ee | . ° ' | Gven, inside measure
x x24 Capacity 350 bottles |S
o
Fic. 53.—The Koch oven—interior and exterior views.
the milk presents a boiled appearance and flavor, and the butter rises and floats on the top. In the plan adopted by Dr. Koplik, bottles of different sizes are used, 2 and 4 to 5 ounces, just sufficient for one nursing, so that the return of the bottle insures a thorough steriliza- | tion of the sample for a repeated dose. The bottles are first filled with a saturated solution of soda and allowed to soak for twelve hours, and then thoroughly washed with a brush, both outside and in- side, rinsed with pure water, and
allowed to drain and dry. x After this they are heated in a I" “ Koch oven (fig. 53) to a tempera- tia Bes 4 ture of 160° to 170° ©, for forty minutes. They are then allowed to cool and are ready for filling with milk. The apparatus for steriliza- tion is made of stout block tin and divided into five compartments and a steam box. The compart- ments are furnished with perfo- rated bottoms and fit one on top of the other, forming a compact column (fig. 54) through which the Fic. 54.—Koplik’s pasteurizer. steam can permeate. Each com- partment will hold fifty large-sized bottles. A thermometer passes _ through the cover of the top compartment and dips into the milk, so that the temperature can be noted. <A stout tin pipe runs the whole
PASTEURIZATION AND STERILIZATION OF MILK. 335
length of the sterilizer and dips into the top of each compartment, in order to fill the compartment uniformly with steam. The bottles, filled with the desired quantity, are placed uncorked in each com- partment and covered with a cloth of clean flannel. When the milk has reached a temperature of 85° C. the process is continued for half an hour. The bottles are then taken out and rapidly corked with sterile rubber corks.' The whole process is completed in an hour. The milk used is always carefully examined. It must have 12 to 14 per cent of cream, and when boiled should not coagulate. The coagulation indicates the beginning of fermentative changes. Sometimes milk which tastes sweet will turn almost solid on boiling, showing that advanced changes have taken place. The slight acidity which would admit of detection only by chemical means would be apparent on boiling by the curdling of the milk. A little experience will enable one to detect the difference between the coagulation due to acidity and that ordinarily present after sterilization of good milk. The milk is bottled from large glass percolating funnels, thus requiring very little handling. For sick infants the diluent for the milk, a 4 per cent solution of milk sugar, is furnished. Limewater, as supplied by the drug stores, may also be used. If barley water is used as a diluent, it should be very carefully prepared and the milk diluted by an expert. Leaving the barley water to be prepared by the ignorant, or using bar- ley water made from poor material, leaves open too many chances for infection. During two seasons Dr. Koplik states that 1,268 children were supplied with the milk from his laboratory; 729 infants received the milk for only one or two days, while 539 received it for from one week to five months. About 400 of the latter he thinks were really benefited by the use of the milk.
This apparatus could be adapted for sterilizing milk in Haber bottles and in greater quantity.
In Boston and New York private laboratories have been established for the purpose of rectifying milk, as itis called. These laboratories supply pasteurized milk on physicians’ certificates, or milk to which has been added peptone, sugar, or other material as the physician may direct. The bottles, about 8 ounces in capacity, after being thor- oughly cleansed, are plugged with cotton and then sterilized. They are then filled with the milk, pasteurized directly with dry steam in a rectangular box especially arranged for the purpose. After pasteuri- zation the bottles are packed in wooden cases lined with ice, so that the milk can be kept cool and shipped to any desired spot. This method is similar to the one recommended by the Bureau, and can also be readily conducted by any housewife, either with the use of the vessel described or an Arnold steamer.
1The corks are of black rubber, and are sterilized by boiling for an hour in the solution of soda, rinsing with water, and sterilizing with steam. When the corks become brittle they are rejected.
336 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Many different forms of apparatus for pasteurization in stoppered bottles have been recommended in Europe, the simplest being the use of beer bottles with the ordinary patent stoppers.
The sterilization or pasteurization of milk in bulk is a matter of great importance, to which much attention has been paid abroad, but com- paratively little in this country. A pasteurizing apparatus invented by Professor Fjord and used in all creameries in Denmark is described here (fig. 55).
A copper cylinder, covered with tin, is fitted steam tight into a larger vessel, made of copper or galvanized iron and covered with wood to retard cooling. The steam is introduced through the opening at g and passes out through dd. The milk or cream enters at ¢ and passes out ate. This exit tube has a pocket into which a thermome- ter can be placed, so that the temperature can be controlled. The agitator, a, is of wood or metal, connected to a shaft, so that it will make about 150 revolutions per minute. The temperature used varies between 160° and 180° F. In some dairies in Denmark the sweet milk is pasteurized. In others the _ cream is sterilized and then cooled before
being set aside to ferment. In nearly all cases the skimmed milk which was returned from the cooperative dairies to the producers was sterilized as it left the separators. In this way it would keep better, and when fed to calves all danger from infection with tuber- culesis would be avoided. If sweet milk is sterilized, the separator skims it cleaner, but the sterilization very slightly diminishes the amount of butter, as a little more fat is left wt in the buttermilk. On the other hand, the Fig. 55.—Fjord’s pasteurizing ap- sterilization of cream before churning will
paratus. 2 i 3 give a more uniform and better butter.
In the city of Posen,’ Germany, a satisfactory method of supplying sterilized milk in quantity and cheaply has been adopted. After wash- ing the teats of the cows thoroughly, the animals are milked with care, the milk collected in metal vessels, centrifugalized twice, and placed in flasks of 100 to 400 grams capacity, respectively. Soxhlet’s patent stoppers are used.” The milk is then placed in metal casks heated by steam, the steam having a temperature of 104° C. in winter and 10439
IHesse. Zeit. f. Hygiene, vol. 13, Hft. 1, p. 42.
°Soxhlet’s patent stopper consists of a rubber cap which fits over the top of the bottle and acts as a ventilator to relieve the inside pressure of the bottle, and pre- vents the outside air from entering the flasks. It is held in place by a metal cap which prevents it from slipping. The bottles are heated for thirty-five minutes in a water bath. After the flask is once opened it should never be used again without resterilization, as the removal of pressure loosens the cap. (Vig. 78, a, p. 355.)
PASTEURIZATION AND STERILIZATION OF MILK. 337
in summer. <A higher temperature causes coagulation of the casein and makes the milk indigestible for children.
Yor sterilizing milk, in 1892, Ockonomie-Rath Grob, in Berlin, used flasks with patent beer stoppers, and this has since been recommended by others.
In Dresden, milk is sterilized in large quantity in the following man- ner: The firm draws its supply from a large estate in the neiglibor- hood. The animals that supply the milk have only dry fodder, and every attention is paid to the cleanliness of the stalls, apparatus, and hands of the milkers. The milk is cooled to a temperature of 10° to 12° C., and reaches the creamery two or three hours after its collection. It is first freed from dirt by a specially con- structed centrifugal machine, then warmed to 65° C. and collected in a vessel from which it is finally transferred to sterilized flasks with pat- ent stoppers, holding one-third liter. These '* ise ec ho flasks are then placed in a sterilizing case and submitted to the action of steam for one and three-quarters hours. They are then removed and quickly cooled to prevent burning. The milk prepared in this way can be readily used. During a year, out of 70,000 liter flasks that were sterilized and subsequently placed in an incubator for the purpose of testing the sterilization, only 634 were found spoiled.
As the milk would seldom be subjected to this temperature (that of an incubator), but would generally be used within a day or two after sterilization, it is not likely that a flask of spoiled milk would be obtained.
Fia. 57.—German sterilizing flasks.
One of the principal points to be desired in sterilizing milk is that it can be done in flasks or cans that in turn may be transported for a con- siderable distance without danger of the milk becoming coutaminated. In order that this may be the case, the milk should be sterilized or pasteurized in flasks that admit of being tightly closed. An arrange- ment for this purpose, which is used in Germany and very highly recom- mended, consists of arubber stopper with a central hole and side opening, and a nail-shaped glass rod with a side slit, as indicated in figure 56, and the whole sterilized in a closed box, as shown in figures 57 and 58,
338 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
After heating for three-quarters of an hour, the flasks are opened by means of the parallelogram crank, so as to relieve the pressure, and then closed. fter heating again, the flasks are carefully removed and the glass stopper forced into the cork, so as to entirely close the bottles. The taste of the milk is not at all changed, and side by side with fresh milk it is impossible to tell the difference.
Pasteurization in the household, whether aceording to Soxhlet or the Bureau, is open to certain objections. In the first place, considerable time is required for keeping the vessels clean, which is one of the essentials, and this should be done by someone who appreciates the importance of the process. It re- quires more time than a housewife could conveniently aftord, and if left to a servant, the probability is that the importance of the process will not be appreciated, and may conse- quently be carelessly carried out, or even, after a while, be entirely neglected. For this reason it would be better to have the milk reliably sterilized in bulk and so distributed. This should be done under the direct control of someone who understands the purport and importance of steril- ization and can make the necessary examinations of the milk, not only as to the proper fat contents, purity, etc., but also as to its freedom from germs after sterilization.
Via. 58.—German sterilizer.
PASTEURIZATION OF MILK IN BULK, IN SMALL FLASKS OR CANS, IN AMERICA.
In addition to the preparation of milk for infant food as already described, a beneficent work has been undertaken in New York by Mr. I. Straus, for the purposé of supplying milk to the poor. The milk is prepared in a temporary laboratory on Third street, and is distributed in bottles from a number of different booths in the city. The milk in the cans is obtained from the Appleberg Hygienic Milk Company, of Dutchess County, N. Y. In the plant of Mr. Straus on Third street the process of sterilization is similar to that described above, but it is here repeated. Thebottles, of tough glass, 6, 8, and 18 ounces capacity, are first boiled in borax water, thoroughly rinsed, and then sterilized in large Koch ovens. After sterilization they are filled with the milk and placed in copper holders (fig. 59). These are then placed in the steril- izers, Which are the ordinary kitchen stove boilers (fig. 60). The boilers are filled with water, which can be heated either by steam or by a gas flame under the boiler. The cases are filled with water up to the
PASTEURIZATION AND STERILIZATION OF MILK. 339
shoulder of the bottle. The water is heated and the bottles then placed in the boilers and allowed to remain for half an hour. At the end of this time the lid is carefully raised and gradually pushed around, so as to expose the mouths of only a few bottles at atime, and these are then quickly corked with solid black rubber stoppers which have been pre- viously sterilized by boiling in borax or soda solution. The bottles are then taken out, cooled on ice, and distributed. Instead of these boilers for sterilization, there is sometimes used a largeoven with water bottom, which is heated by steam, and the bottles are placed on shelves above, so that they do not come directly in contact with the steam. For dilu- tion filtered water is used, and for further preparation barley water or limewater.
The process is under the supervision of two physicians, who examine the milk used and see that proper precautions are adopted. The for-
Fig. 59.—Copper holders used in Fic. 60.—Copper boiler used in Straus’s plant. Straus’s plant.
mul used for diluting the milk, as taken from the printed slip of the company, are as follows:
Formula 1.
Ra Ns ne oY os! oo 51 a Smead seustmh Medan aeendilede ounces... 12 ERTS CT RODS EES 28 SY Re pint... 4 enn PASE RINT WORD MEL Pos ghd slab addi~ <i - sea oh wie gallon... 1 See aes ee a bveares b Seeds daencd sewage 3. cpaag Biixc ee i th Formula 2. : i deeb cw aels gallon.. 1 a SS Oe gu. ..c 2 aan ee cnc mean ucwycece ounces.. 10 cpemaalites Vee de cle ik LOE ed aa ee ae 2 ee
After being thoroughly mixed, the diluted milk is drawn into bottles, pasteurized as aboye, and sold for 1 cent per 6-ounce bottle. The bot- tles are returned and, after thorough cleansing, used again.
The milk is obtained from cows which have been inspected and pro- nounced free from disease. The prices at which this milk is sold are
340 YEARBOOK OF THE U, S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
not intended to bring any profit, but serve to partly defray the expenses of preparation.
Prices.—Raw milk, 4 cents a quart, 2 cents a pint, 1 cent a glass; pure milk, steril-
~
ized, 1 quart in four 8-ounce bottles, 5 cents; pure milk, 1 quart in two 16-ounce bottles, 2 cents; diluted sterilized milk (6-ounce bottles), 5 cents.
Deposit required on bottles.—Kight-ounce bottles, 3 cents each; 6-ounce bottles, 3 cents each; 16-ounce bottles, 5 cents each.
The prepared milk is guaranteed for twenty-four hours. It will, of course, keep longer, but this is the length of time that may be safely allowed, when the milk is given into so many different hands.
The principal plant for the pasteurization of milk in large quantity — and in bulk is conducted at Pawling, Dutchess County, N. Y., by the Appleberg Hygienic Milk Company.
Pawling is situated near the center of one of the richest dairy counties of the State, so that the supply of milk is the best obtain- able. When the milk is received at the factory any mechanical impurity 1s removed by strain- ing and the whole is then aer- ated and cooled.
The apparatus for pasteuriza- tion (fig. 61) is patented. It con- sists of a wooden box about 4 feet square, with a hinged lid, and inside of the box is a coil of iron pipe to supply the heat. The milk is placed in rectan gu- lar tin boxes of a capacity of 40 quarts, covered witha perforated tin Jid to permit the insertion of a thermometer by which to reg- ulate the temperature. These rectangular boxes closely fit inside the coil. The box is then closed and the steam turned on for twenty to thirty minutes, depending upon the milk and the season of the year. During the process the milk is kept thoroughly stirred. The temperature used varies from 160° to 180° F, The milk so pasteurized is then drawn while hot into the ordi- nary sterilized milk jars, or fruit jars with a flat top. Instead of a rub- ber washer, one of special paper is used. The jars are filled with hot milk and then set in troughs of ice water to cool. The contraction of the milk upon cooling creates a vacuumin the jars, which are thus hermet- ically sealed by the outside air pressure. In addition to the bottled milk, this company also puts up sterilized milk in 40-quart cans. The top of the can is closed with a patent lever, something on the principle
‘2h fe
Fic. 61.—Appleberg’s sterilizing box.
PASTEURIZATION AND STERILIZATION OF MILK. 341
of a beer-bottle stopper lever. As these cans are filled while hot, they are also hermetically sealed. At the bottom of the can is an opening for the insertion of a faucet, which can be kept closed by a sterilized cap. When the milk is to be used, the can is turned upon the side and the faucet, previously carefully sterilized, inserted. The milk can be safely used from the can if proper care in cleaning the faucet has been observed. This milk is on sale at some of the booths in New York City, supplied by Straus. The milk, which the writer has had the opportu- nity of tasting at the factory, is very rich and most delicious, and with- out a particle of boiled or cooked flavor. As the cream and milk have been thoroughly mixed, it tastes more like pure cream.
At Danby, N. Y., there is aiso a plant for sterilizing milk in bulk, hot water being used instead of dry steam. The Appleberg method seems to give the most satisfactory results.
In Boston, in addition to the laboratory for sterilized milk, there is some work in the distribution of pasteurized milk from one of the church dispensaries. There is in that city a careful milk inspection, but no sterilized milk is sold in quantity, so far as I was able to learn from the milk inspector. In Brooklyn, also, there is a very careful chemical and veterinary milk inspection. The city 1s divided into districts, which are gone over carefully. It is required that the milk shall have 12 per cent solids and 3 per cent fat. In New York during the past summer less adulteration has been found than usual. In none of these cities, however, is especial attention paid to the milk supply with reference to city control of pasteurized or sterilized milk.
EFFECT OF STERILIZATION ON DIGESTIBILITY.
If the milk is heated to such a temperature that the albuminoids are coagulated, it loses its flavor and acquires a boiled taste, and is neither so digestible for children or adults, nor isit so attractive in appearance. When properly pasteurized or sterilized, however, the taste is not in any way impaired and it is quite as digestible as the raw milk.
To insure a thoroughly healthy supply, all the milk should be under the control of the State and city boards of health. This should include an inspection of the animals themselves, of the stalls, feeding, water supply, methods of milking and saving of the milk. Not only should the animals be perfectly healthy, but the stalls should also be kept thor- oughly clean, well whitewashed, and from time to time disinfected by means of carbolic acid. The stalls should also be well ventilated and so situated that the sunlight will be admitted. Attention should be paid to the health of the attendants, and expectoration about the stalls Should be prohibited. Only the best clean fodder should be used. In milking, care should be taken that the teats of the animals are clean, and the utmost neatness and cleanliness of hands and clothing should be observed on the part of the attendants about the stables. Instead of Selecting particularly old and dirty clothing for the milking, only clean,
342 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
washable overalls should be used, and these should be kept exclusively for that purpose.
The water supply is often of as much importance as other precau- tions. There is no reason why the lower domestic animals should not be supplied with good water, and there are many reasons for believing that an impure supply is injurious. The necessity for pure water in the dairy is well illustrated by the following incident: In @ certain dairy the utmost care was observed in cleaning and scalding the milk cans. However, just before the cans were filled, they would be rinsed with cold water from the well. This well was situated near the stalls, so that it received the drainings and washings from the manure, and ' while the well ordinarily, perhaps, was in good condition, it was at any time liable to contamination by typhoid fever and putrefactive bacteria. The simple rinsing of the cans was sufficient to destroy all the good effects of the previous care.
A company in Copenhagen, Denmark, and one in Stockholm, Sweden, pay considerable attention to securing a good milk supply, thus to some extent replacing the boiling of milk.
Although by the order of 1885 a person suffering from any dangerous disease, or who has recently been in contact with a person suffering from a dangerous disease, is prohibited from participating in the pro- duction, distribution, or storage of milk, in country districts this law can be easily evaded. The regulations of the two companies above named require—
(1) Veterinary control of all the animals on the farm and exclusion of the milk from unhealthy cows. :
(2) Cooling of the milk by ice to 41° F’. at the farms.
(3) Filtration of the whole milk through fine gravel.
(4) Absolute cleanliness of all the bottles and cans used.
The company has in its employ seven veterinarians, one of whom devotes his time to visiting the farms in rotation. Of course, where there are many animals it is difficult to inspect all at one visit, but each animal is examined carefully once a month. Special attention is given to the examination of the udder and adjacent glands. If a tuberculous cow is detected, it must be at once separated, or if the health of a cow appears bad, it must be withdrawn for a time. The farmer is bound to report any case of illness occurring in the interval of the veterina- rian’s visit, and to withhold the milk until he arrives. Stall feeding is prohibited, except in winter. Infectious or contagious disease in the employees must be at once reported, and the milk supply they have handled kept back. The greatest cleanliness in milking must be observed, and the milk, after being strained, is at once cooled to 41° ¥. by ice.
In winter the food consists of rape-seed oil cake, hay and straw, and — brewers’ grain, while anything that might give the milk an unpleasant taste, such as turnips, is excluded. This care and precaution on the
a
PASTEURIZATION AND STERILIZATION OF MILK. 343
part of the farmer is secured by the company agreeing to pay a pro- portionately larger price for the milk, and even paying for the milk if itis not used. The carefully collected milk is tasted and sampled from every cow, and then filtered through gravel in perforated tin trays (fig, 62). In the lowest tray the gravel is the size of a split pea—in the highest, of a pin’s head. Three thousand bottles are filled every even- ing, and the milk guaranteed for twenty-four hours. Cream may also be treated in the same way. Soda is used for cleaning the cans.
In addition to this filtration, the milk may be pasteurized. This is done by placing the bottles in racks in a long trough filled with water. A coil of steam pipe heats this water to 75°, when a contact thermom- eter rings a bell, the signal for shutting off the steam. The milk is then allowed to cool to 60° C., then taken out and put on ice. The company has daily analyses made, and these are published monthly.
«
A
Fic. 62.—Milk filter. A, tank; B, filter; 0, storage tank; 1, 2, 3, perforated metal trays to hold gravel; g g g, india-rubver rings to protect enamel; h hh, galvanized rings; i, 5-ply filter cloth of close texture, surmounted by 1-ply of fine texture; k k, pipe to carry off milk from the filter; e, perforated pipe, so as to draw milk from every part of the tank to the bottling room.
In Stockholm controlled and uncontrolled milk are sold. The com- pany has built two large cow sheds. The walls, floors, and troughs are cemented; the buildings well lighted and ventilated. The cows are kept in sheds throughout the year. A number of men are employed in continually cleaning the animals and removing the refuse. There is no odor about the stalls, as this is all absorbed by the peat. Before milking, the floor is swept perfectly clean, the milkmaids must wash their hands, wear special aprons, and carefully clean the udders. The cans are washed with boiling water and the milk strained through mus- lin and fine copper gauze, and then cooled. A veterinary surgeon lives on the place, and the cows are always sold after a year or two, so as to keep fresh milkers all the time. The finest and healthiest cows are reserved for children’s milk. By isolating the calves of tuberculous animals and feeding them on.boiled milk Professor Bang has succeeded in keeping them free from disease, and has carried out a number of experiments on large estates. He also emphasizes the fact that small herds are rarely tuberculous.
344 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
DIFFERENT FORMS OF APPARATUS.
A great many different forms of apparatus for the pasteurization or sterilization of milk in bulk have been used abroad, and the descrip- tion and figures of some of these, partly reproduced from Weigmann’s report, are here given. Many are unnecessarily complicated. The simpler apparatus gives equally satisfactory results.
One of the first pasteurizers in bulk to be used was a continuous- working apparatus, and consisted of a double-walled copper cylinder,
Fig. 63.—Thiel’s pasteurizing apparatus.
which could be heated by steam. The form now used is practically unchanged. The milk flows in at the top, is kept thoroughly stirred by means of a crank at the bottom, and flows out from the side, near the top, at a temperature of 70° to 80° C. The stirring apparatus prevents the burning of the milk and also the separation of the casein.
In 1886 Thiel recommended the following apparatus (fig. 63): An outer sheet-lead mantle, lined with wood, a; an inner tinned corrugated copper cylinder, b, with a lid, ¢, which fits tightly over both. The water
PASTEURIZATION AND STERILIZATION OF MILK. 345
used for heating enters through h, and circulates, by means of a pipe, in the space between the outer and inner cylinder, p serving as an escape pipe. The milk flowing over the corrugated sides is heated and
escapes through iand kat atem- | an perature which can be noted by a. E... i a thermometer placed at k. The : il } milk reaches a temperature of 60° i ‘mM I TEST
©., and its taste and appearance are good. Experiments have shown that milk treated in this apparatus will keep two or three days longer than that which has not been pas- teurized.
Another apparatus, Hochmuth’s, is a combination of a warming, pasteurizing, and cooling machine | (figs. 64, 65, 66, and 67). Thismay | be constructed so as to be placed | either in a vertical or a horizontal | position. Pasteurization is accom- plished by means of steam pipes, the steam circulating between the coils through which the milk flows. This apparatus, however, offers the objection that the milk is too easily burned on the coils and the apparatus is one difficult to keep ye, 64.—Hochmuth’s pasteurizing apparatus. clean.
Fjord’s apparatus, already illustrated in figure 55, avoids these troubles. Some modified forms of this are seen in Ahlborn’s appa- ratus (figs. 68 and 69),
if) - ITS = ==G Bie —— wif - HH ——————— 7 MLR) aie mM WAG H H HAA IA A | iil i = }
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Fie. 65.—Section of Hochmuth’s pasteurizing apparatus.
Another similar apparatus, made by the Bergedorfer Iron Works, shown in figure 70, differs from the others mainly in the way the milk
346 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
is introduced. The cold milk,in entering, is warmed by the volume of milk already pasteurized.
The apparatus shown in figure 71, constructed by Dierks & M6ll- man, in Osnabruck, is intended especially to prevent the burning of
Fie. 66.—Hochmuth’s pasteurizing REL, ae parts arranged horizontally.
the milk. I consists of an outer box, lined with wood. Within this is a cylinder provided with a removable top, and within this a second cylinder which leaves between the two but asmall space. The milk is forced mechanically through the space between these cylinders, and at the same time is heated by the steam surrounding the outer cylinder. The burning of the milk is prevented by means of a stirrer provided with arms which make twenty-five to thirty revolutions per minute, and in every revolution they come in contact four times with each portion of the milk. In every minute each particle of milk is agitated one hundred and twenty times, thus entirely preventing the burning of the milk in contact with the cylinder and the deposition of albumin.
Another more expensive apparatus, constructed by Lefeldt & Leutsch, in Schoningen, Germany, consists of a centrifugal which first frees the milk from impurities. As experiments have shown, it is really those bacteria which are ordinarily found in the dirt, particles of feces, hair, etc., which = a | most easily resist heating, partly Fic. 67.—Hochmuth's compound pasteurizing because they are mechanically pro-
apparatus. tected by the dirt in which they are © found and partly because spores are often present. The removal of these mechanical impurities aids the subsequent pasteurization. Flow- ing from the centrifugal basket, the milk passes. through a narrow
PASTEURIZATION AND STERILIZATION OF MILK. 347
space about 1 inch in diameter, which is heated from the outside by direct steam. This apparatus has the advantage of being compact, utilizing the steam thoroughly, and preventing the milk from burning.
Fig. 68,—Ahlborn’s pasteurizing ap- Fig. 69._Ahlborn’s pasteurizing paratus. apparatus—modified form. Five hundred liters (125 galions) per hour can be pasteurized with this machine at a temperature of 70° to 75° C. (fig. 72). The many forms of apparatus recommended for the continuous pas- teurization of milk indicate that there are always some difficulties, and
Fie, 70.—Ahren’s pasteurizing apparatus.
that the results obtained are not satisfactory. The burning of the milk on the sides of the apparatus, and consequent uneven heating of the remainder, and the temperature used, 70° to 75° C., which ordi-
348 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
narily will cause precipitation of some of the casein as well as impart to the milk a burned flavor, are objectionable. To avoid this, Bitter has constructed an apparatus which does not permit of a continuous pasteurization, as in the other described apparatus, but which allows of a longer heating of the milk. In the case of a number of bacteria, especially the tuberculosis bacillus, a temperature of 68° C. for fifteen minutes is sufficient to kill. For certainty, the milk should in all instances be exposed to this temperature for thirty-five minutes. Bitter found, further, that when the milk was heated to 68° for thirty-five minutes, and then cooled to a temperature of 15° C., it would keep fifty to seventy hours longer than that which was not pasteurized. This temperature, when maintained for thirty-five minutes, appeared from his experiments, performed with 40 liters of milk, to be sufficient for the full pasteurization of the milk. Unskimmed milk may be heated for fifteen minutes to 75° C. without any coagulation or burning or any mate- rial change in the flavor taking place. This milk, when cooled to 16° C. and saved for sixty hours, did not keep any better than the milk heated for thirty minutes to 68° C.
It is of course easily understood that the milk keeps better after pas- teurization the more it has been cooled. To demonstrate the keeping properties under the conditions which would actually obtain in practice, Bitter exposed milk which had been heated to a temperature of 75° C., first to 14° C. for ten hours, then to 23° ©. for twenty-two hours, after- wards to 30° C. for seven hours.
Fic. 71.—Dierks & M@éllman’s pasteurizing The milk was still good and kept for si ct five hours longer at 23°C. The milk
was consequently kept for forty-four hours at a temperature not at all calculated for its preservation. In practice, the milk, before it is sent out from the creamery, is cooled to 10° to 15° C. and then distributed from large cans of 40 liters capacity, and the quantity of the milk, there- fore, has considerable influence in keeping it at a low temperature. Milk that has been pasteurized at 75° for fifteen minutes, or 68° C, for 35 minutes, and then cooled, will keep in the warmest summer for thirty hours. If the temperature of the air is lower, the milk will keep longer. Milk heated to 75° C. will keep at a temperature of 18° to 20° C, for sixty-six hours, and at 14° to 16° C. for three days. This milk was
PASTEURIZATION AND STERILIZATION OF MILK. 349
in perfect condition for sale; there was no coagulation or unnatural taste, and its availability for the manufacture of butter was not in any
way injured. >
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itt
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MGC SXQGQ@_@Q \ SG SE MQ{CG S QQ WG KX BCDpi
Fic. 72.—Pasteurizing apparatus, constructed by Lefeldt & Leutsch.
The apparatus which Bitter recommends for pasteurization is shown
in figure 73. A tinned copper cylinder, with cap which fits tightly, serves as a
receptacle for the milk. About 1 inch from the inner side of this
350 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
vessel is a coil of tinned copper pipe which runs to the bottom of the cylinder and then back to the top, the inner coil being narrower than .the outer, and from the top of this second coil the pipe returns to the bottom of the cylinder. Through this long coil steam is passed. The milk is keptstirred by an arrangement of paddles which can be readily understood from figure 73. It is very important that the entire pasteur- izer and the cans shall be kept thoroughly cleaned. From this pas-
STEAM ouiLer OU
yw ddd
Fic. 73.—Pasteurizing apparatus—after Bitter.
teurizer the milk is allowed to pass through a cooler, as seen in figure 74. This is always thoroughly cleansed and then exposed for a short time to the action of steam. If the hot milk is very quickly cooled, its keeping properties are increased, as any bacteria which might still be present are either killed or so weakened by the sudden change of temperature that a long time would be required before they could again multiply.
PASTEURIZATION AND STERILIZATION OF MILK. 351
STERILIZATION OF MILK.
As already noted, while the temperature of pasteurization, 65° to 70°, is sufficient to kill all disease-producing bacteria, there are a number of germs which are not affected by this temperature, especially the spores, and some which even multiply readily at 70° ©. While these latter are not apt to be present in the milk, they may come from the water or dust of the air. The temperature necessary to totally destroy all of these is often over 100° C. (for example, Bacillus subtilis), and it must be main- tained for a considerable time. This temperature would necessarily injure the taste and appearance of the milk. In laboratory practice it is possible to obtain a thorough sterilization by an interrupted heating. If the milk is heated one to two hours at a time each day for five to six
Fic, 74,—Milk cooler—by Schmidt, in Bretten.
days consecutively at 75° C., the destruction of spores, which in the meantime would have developed, can be accomplished. In practice, however, this process would be too expensive and too troublesome. A modification of this process consists in heating the milk in closed flasks to a high temperature (above the boiling point of water).
The thorough sterilization of milk is, therefore, not very practical, but one or two methods and apparatus may be described. In the Neu- hauss-Gronwald-Oehlmann sterilization apparatus (fig. 75) the milk is heated first to 85° to 90° C., and then a second time to 102°C. The bottles must be well blown and annealed, free from alkali, and very carefully cleaned. This is accomplished by boiling with soda, then with water, and finally by sterilizing in large boxes at 100°. The bot-
352 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
tles are closed with a patent stopper, like the beer-bottle stoppers, and these must be carefully sterilized before use, using only those with the best rubber rings. After sterilization the flasks are carefully filled with the milk, the hands being first very thoroughly washed and all antiseptic precautions observed. The milk is then heated for half an hour at 85° to 90° C., and the flasks are gradually cooled, being allowed to remain in the sterilizer. They are on the same day submitted to a second heating of 102° to 103° C. The apparatus consists of a double- walled box, made of tinned copper plates. The lower portion, 4, is fixed; the top, b, movable and counterbalanced by weights; the top fits over the lower basket steam tight; c is a thermometer, and d an escape steam
iI!
bill
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iu
(AS Rees Hn 1
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ai
Tk
Fic. 75.—Sterilizing apparatus, by Neuhauss-Gronwald-Oehlmann.
valve which can be set at any desired pressure. The flasks are placed in special trays which can be easily moved, and between the rows of flasks are levers which serve to close the patent stoppers. The ther- mometer dips into one of the flasks and indicates the temperature of the milk. When the apparatus is closed, the steam, under pressure of 14 atmospheres, is allowed to enter slowly until the air is driven out- It is important that the apparatus shall not be entirely closed until the air is entirely driven out. When the temperature has reached 100°C., more steam is turned on, the pressure gauge having been set for 102° | to 103° C. In a short time the flasks will have reached a temperature of 100° C., and they are then kept at this temperature for thirty min-
PASTEURIZATION AND STERILIZATION OF MILK. 353
utes. A few minutes before the end of the sterilization the pressure valve is opened, thus permitting the milk in the flasks to boil up, and any gases which might still be present in the milk are driven out. The result is that the closed flasks of milk, when cold, no longer contain any air, aS in the upper part of the flask there is a vacuum, consequently aerobic bacteria could not multiply. The flasks are now allowed to cool slowly to 50° to 60° C., then placed in warm water to prevent cracking. Cold water is gradually allowed to mix with this, and the flasks are finally preserved on ice. The purer and fresher the condition of the milk, the more satisfactory are the results obtained. In this connection, if milk is to be used for thorough sterilization, special care should be taken to see that the milk is not unnecessarily exposed to ’ contamination by such bacteria as are difficult to kill and are apt to get into the milk from dirt, old straw, and bedding. In addition, cans, bottles, and receptacles must all be kept perfectly clean.
A
; sy ts TL ~ : TT iD nag
i i |
i |
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aa
Fig. 76.—Milk-sterilizing apparatus—after Paul Ritter von Hamm.
In practice, it makes a difference whether the sterilization is con- ducted with heated water or with steam, whether the steam is mixed with air, is moist or dry. Although the process above described is usually satisfactory, yet a complete sterilization does not always result. It has been found, too, that almost equally satisfactory results are secured by heating to 102° to 103° C. for three-fourths to one hour, without any previous sterilization.
The Soxhlet apparatus, originally intended for household use in ster- ilizing milk, has been utilized, with slight modifications, for sterilizing the milk in quantity (fig. 76). This is intended for 94 flasks of 1 liter (1 quart) capacity, or, instead of the flasks, cans with patent air-tight covers may beused. The apparatus is simple in construction. a serves for the admission of steam, b for the admission of water, and ¢ is the outlet tube. The bottle holder, e, is made of wood, and rests on metal bars. The holder is filled with water to g, and the flasks are filled with
= A 94——_ fd
354 YEARBOOK OF THE U, 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
milk to h, and placed in the box. The stoppers are the ordinary beer- bottle stoppers, and are loosely placed in the mouths of the bottles, Steam is then turned on until the temperature, shown by the thermom- eter that passes through the cover of the whole box, reaches 110°, This requires about one hour, and the flasks are kept at this temperature for fifteen minutes. The milk fills the bottles entirely and a little runs out from the mouths. When the steam is turned off and cold water is introduced to reduce the temperature of the flasks to 50° C., the con- traction of the miik draws the corks down tightly on the bottles, and the wire clamp can then be readily fastened.
—— SSS
Fic. 77.—Bottling sterilizing apparatus.
A number of creameries have begun the process of shipping steril- ized milk in cans of 10 to 12 liters capacity. An apparatus adapted to this purpose is shown in figure77. The milk flows through a trough arranged in folds, so that a large surface is exposed to the action of the steam, and passes directly through sterile tubes into cans.
In addition to the sterilizing apparatus already described, the following (fig. 78,b) may be used: An ordinary fruit jar may have an opening cut through the top of the cover, provided with a shoulder and lid that will
serew down. Through this opening an agitating rod or wire may be.
passed to keep the milk thoroughly stirred up while it is being heated. This can then be removed after heating, and the opening is then closed while the flask is still hot; or this opening may have a stiff cotton plug.
PASTEURIZATION AND STERILIZATION OF MILK. 355
Another arrangement which will answer the purpose for sterilizing milk in quantity may also be used. <A double-walled rectangular box, made of copper or tin (fig. 79), may be arranged so that the milk can be heated to any desired temperature. This can be stirred during the proc-
' Fic. 78.—a, Soxhlet’s patent sterilizing bottles and top; b, top for fruit jar for sterilization.
ess and the milk at the same time sterilized. Any loss or change in the taste of the milk is detrimental when it is to be used for food. ‘The thorough stirring of the mass keeps it evenly heated throughout, so
Interior. Exterior. Fig. 79.—Sterilizing box.
that there will be no charring or scorching of any milk or any adhering to the sides of the vessel. <A series of these rectangular boxes might be provided, connected with each other by pipes and stopcoeks. From these sterilizers the milk may be filled into sterilized bottles, or into
356 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
large sterile cans, which can be hermetically sealed. To save expense, the outside of this double-walled box might be made of wood, or, better, of sheet iron, and the whole then incased in a wooden box to retain the heat.
The flasks or other vessels in which the milk is stored should, after cooling to about 60° C., be placed in water and thoroughly cooled.
The proper cooling of the milk and placing in clean bottles or cans is absolutely necessary for securing the full effect and purposes of pas- teurization or sterilization.
The methodsand apparatus which have been described are all adapted for the pasteurization or sterilization of milk. While some will appear too complicated and expensive to be adopted or copied, others will be found well suited, or modifications and improvements will easily sug- gest themselves.
That a uniform and cleanly milk supply can be obtained only when the State or town undertakes official control and inspection of animals has already been indicated. Where this is lacking, the consumer and the public generally may protect themselves in a great measure from disease by adopting any of the methods above indicated, either in the household or in the creameries. For these processes to be successful, the utmost cleanliness of vessels and manipulation must be observed; the milk must be clean, well-strained and aerated, the pasteurization or sterilization systematically conducted, the milk filled into bottles and cans while hot, and these latter then cooled before distribution. The pasteurized or sterilized milk should be distributed in unbroken pack- ages only, and these should be no larger than would be used in twenty- four hours. If distributed in large vesseis, these should be hermet- ically sealed to avoid allcontamination. Probably the cheapest vessel, and the one most easily obtained for sterilization in small lots, is the ordinary patent-stoppered beer bottle; for handling in larger quanti- ties, milk cans with hermetically sealed tops.
The apparatus for continuous sterilization does not give as satisfac- tory results as when an interrupted process is adopted.
By the use of properly pasteurized or sterilized milk, therefore, not only should the spread of disease be lessened, but also the health of milk consumers in general should be improved.
The use of pasteurized or sterilized milk prepared in bulk can, how- ever, only be carried out to the best advantage when it is undertaken with the object, not of making money by supplying a material which will barely pass inspection, but of furnishing an article collected and prepared with all possible precautions, where all means have been adopted to provide against mistakes or carelessness.
The simpler forms of apparatus described can be easily and cheaply manufactured by any good tinner or coppersmith, and many slight mod-_ ifications and improvements will suggest themselves in practice.
FOOD AND DIET.
By W. O. ATWATER, Ph. D.,
Professor of Chemistry in Wesleyan University, Director of Storrs (Conn.) Experiment Station, and Special Agent of the U. S. Department of Agriculture in charge of Inves- tigations of Food and Nutrition. Q
‘‘Half the struggle of life is a struggle for food.”—Edward Atkinson.
“The labor question, concretely stated, means the struggle for a higher standard of living.”—Commissioner Carroll D. Wright.
‘‘T have come to the conclusion that more than half the disease which embitters the middle and latter part of life is due to avoidable errors in diet, *~ * * and that more mischief in the form of actual disease, of impaired vigor, and of shortened life accrues to civilized man * * * in England and throughout central Europe from erroneous habits of eating than from the habitual use of alcoholic drink, con- siderable as I know that evil to be.”—Sir Henry Thompson.
“‘If we care for men’s souls most effectively, we must care for their bodies also.”— Bishop R. S, Foster.
What proportion of the cost of living might be saved by better econ- omy of food; how far such economy would help the wage worker to the higher plane of living toward which he justly strives; how dietary errors compare in harmfulness with the use of alcohol; and to what extent the spread of the gospel and the perfection of its fruit are dependent upon the food supply—are questions hardly possible of exact solution in the light of our present knowledge. The foregoing state- ments are quoted, however, because they come with authority, and because, starting from the widely different standpoints of the econo- mist, the statistician, the physician, and the divine, the conclusions tally perfectly with those to which the study of the chemistry and economy of food seems to lead.
With the progress of human knowledge and human experience we are at last coming to see that the human body needs the closest care, We are coming to realize that not merely our health, our strength, and our incomes, but our higher intellectual life,and even our morals, depend upon the care which we take of our bodies, and that among the things essential to health and wealth, to right thinking and right living, one, and that not the least important, is our diet.
The power of a man todo work depends uvon his nutrition. A well- fed horse can draw a heavy load. With less food he does less work. A well-fed man has strength of muscle and of brain, while a poorly nourished man has not. A man’s nourishment is not the only factor of his producing power, but it is an important one.
_ This subject concerns the laboring classes in many ways. Statistics as well as common observation bear emphatic testimony to the better
condition of the American as compared with the European working- | 357
358 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
man in respect to his supply of the necessaries and comforts of life, Nowhere is this superiority more striking than in the quality and quan- tity of his food. And the difference in the dietaries of the two is especially marked in the larger amount cf potential energy, of capa- bility to yield muscular strength for work and to fulfill other uses in nutrition, which characterizes the food of the American. That the American workman, in many cases at least, turns out more work per day or per year than his European -competitor is a familiar fact. That this superiority is due to more nutritious food as well as to better use of machinery and to greater intelligence is hardly to be questioned. But the better nourishment of the American wage worker is largely due ‘to our virgin soil. With the growth of population and the increasing closeness of home and international competition his own diet can not be kept up to its present nutritive standard, nor can that of his poorer neighbor and his foreign brother be brought up nearer to that standard, without better knowledge and application of the laws of food economy.
To the farmer also the subject is important. Materials for the food of man make up the larger part of our agricultural production and the largest item of our export abroad. Our food production is one-sided. It includes a relative excess of the fat of meat, of starch, and of sugar, the substances that serve the body for fuel to yield heat and muscular power, while the nitrogenous substances, those which make blood and muscle, bone and brain, are relatively deficient. This is unfortunate for the consumer, because it leads him to buy material which he does not need and makes his diet one-sided, and hence injurious to health and strength. It is unfortunate for the farmer also, because it de- creases the value of his product; and the very things which are needed to make his food product more valuable are the ones which will make it cheaper to produce. What is needed is more nitrogen in the soil for plant food, more nitrogen in plants to make better food for animals and man, and more nitrogen in the food of man. Better culture of the soil and better manuring will bring not only larger crops, but crops richer in nitrogen. The cultivation of more clover, alfalfa, vetch, cowpeas, peas, beans, and other leguminous crops which obtain nitro- gen from the air will help in the same direction. With more nitroge- nous material in his crops the farmer can make more meat, and meat with less excess of fat, and at less cost; he can produce milk, butter, and cheese more profitably, and at the same time he can be improving his land. The food for man which he thus produces will be better adapted to the actual needs of the community, much of the prevalent waste of material will be avoided, and both producer and consumer will receive the benefit.
Most people pay very little attention to these matters. The result is ereat waste in the purchase and use of food, loss of money, and injury — to health. The chief reason why people act as they do is found ina lack of information about food and nutrition, and in the widespread and
FOOD AND DIET. 359
unfortunate prejudice against economy in diet. The remedy for the evil will come only with the spread of knowledge of the subject.
DEFINITION OF FOOD AND ECONOMY.
The following statements will help to make clear the fundamental principles of the subject:
(1) Food is that which, when taken into the body, builds up its tissues and keeps them in repair, or which is consumed in the body to yield energy in the form of heat to keep it warm and create strength for its work.
(2) The most healthful food is that which is best fitted to the wants of the user. To be adapted to his wants, the food must supply the different nutritive ingredients, or nutrients, in the kinds and amounts needed by the body to build up its several parts, to repair them as they are consumed by constant use, and to yield energy in the form of heat and muscular power. The ingredients should also be supplied in forms which the person can easily digest and which will “agree” with him. If the nutrients are not supplied in the right proportions, or if they are not in easily digestible forms, or if they yield material which does not agree with the user, injury to health and strength will result.
(3) The cheapest food is that which furnishes the most nutriment at the least cost.
(4) The most economical food is that which is both most healthful and cheapest.
THE ACTUAL NUTRIMENT OF FOOD AND ITS COST,
A picture in a magazine has just struck myeye. It is a family scene in a humble home. The four children are sitting at the table with bowls of milk before them, while the mother hoids in her hand a loaf of bread which she is cutting into slices for their dinner. The room is neat, but plain; the furniture is of the simplest kind, and the children’s clothes are of ordinary material, with here and there a well-sewed patch. The mother’s air is that of a busy housewife, her thought one of ten- der care for her family, but there is a trace of anxiety in the lines of her face which is in contrast with the careless eagerness of her little ones. Doubtless the father has taken his dinner with him to his daily work, by which, if he be an average bread winner, with health and industry, he may earn $500 per year. If he is not addicted to drink, the whole of this sum will go for the support of his family. It must pay for food, clothing, fuel, rent, and doctor’s bills, leaving not a very large remainder for the extra comforts of the home, an occasional new carpet or piece of furniture, books, or a short excursion in summe7, with perhaps a little for a life insurance or the savings bank or a timely help for a less fortunate neighbor.
When the mother goes to the market to make her purchases, she is thinking of meat and flour and potatoes, what they cost, and how the folks at home will relish them. But in fact, though she does not realize
3860 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
it, she is buying certain nutritive substances in the food—flesh formers and fuel ingredients, which she and her husband need to repair the wastes of their bodies and to give them strength for their daily toil, and which their children must have for healthy growth and work and play. Her real problem, though she does not understand it, is to get the most and the best nutriment for her money. She is accustomed to buy certain materials, but if, by wiser selection, she could get abundant nutriment at less cost, and thus save a little money for extra comforts for the family or to put by in the savings bank, it would be fortunate.
The members of the family need, as essential for the day’s diet, cer- tain amounts of protein to make blood and muscle, bone and brain, and corresponding quantities of fat, starch, sugar, and the like, to be con- sumed in their bodies, and thus to serve as fuel to keep them warm and to give them strength for work—a larger amount for the father, with his active muscular labor; somewhat less for the mother, with her smaller body and lighter work; and quantities for the children accord- ing to age, growth, and occupation. Of course they need other sub- stances, like mineral salts, which are contained in the food, and the water of both food and drink, and they want and will have things like salt and spice and tea and coffee, which gratify the palate and are more or less useful for nourishment.
If this family live in a village or city in Massachusetts, about $300 of their annual $500 will be expended for food.' Will it be expended wisely ?
Due regard for health, strength, and purse requires that food shall supply enough protein to build tissue and enough fats and carbo- hydrates for fuel, and that it shall not be needlessly expensive. The protein can be had in the lean of meat and fish,in eggs, in the casein (curd) of milk, in the gluten of flour, and in substances more or less like gluten in various forms of meal, potatoes, beans, peas, and the like.
1The smaller the income, the larger is the proportion used for food, as is illustrated by the following figures, summarized from those of Hon. Carroll D. Wright in the report of the Massachusetts bureau of statistics for 1884:
Percentage of family income of workingmen in Massachusetts expended for subsistence.
Amount ex- | Per cent Annualincome.| pended for jexpended
food. for food. $350 to $400 $224 to $256 64 450 to 600 284 to 378 63 600 to 750 360 to 450 60 750 to 1, 200 420 to 672 56 Above 1, 200 612 51
In parts of the West and South, where food is very cheap, its cost in proportion to other expenses is less, and sometimes falls a little below half theincome. In Europe, where incomes are smaller and food dearer, the cost of food makes a larger part of the whole expenditure.
These statements apply less accurately to farmers than to the inhabitants of the larger towns; but, although the farmer produces much of his food, yet, taking every- thing into account, the expense for nutriment is large even for him.
FOOD AND DIET. 361
Fats are supplied in the fat of meat and fish, in lard, in the fat of milk, or in the butter made from it; it is also furnished, though in small amounts, in the oil of wheat, corn, potatoes, and other vegetable foods. Carbohydrates occur in great abundance in vegetable materials, as in the starch of grains and potatoes, and in sugar. The fats, sugars, and starches all serve for fuel, and we may measure their quantity by their fuel value, expressing this in heat units, or calories,’ as they are com- monly called. In the food this woman buys, then, she has to deal with protein, or tissue formers, and with fuel values.
If her husband is engaged at moderately hard muscular work, like that of a carpenter or mason or active day laborer, he should have in his day’s food say 0.28 pound of protein and enough carbohydrates and fats so that the fuel value of the whole will be about 3,500 calories. The wife, if busy at work with her hands about the house or other- wise, will need perhaps eight-tenths as much. If the children are two boys of 13 and 8 and two girls of 10 and 5 years of age, they will need enough to make the wants of the whole family equivalent, let us say, to four men at moderately hard work. ‘This would require 1.12 pounds of protein, and a fuel value of 14,000 calories. It could be supplied by various food mixtures—some dearer and some cheaper. If the cost- lier meats, oysters, or eggs at high prices are used, the diet will be an expensive one, but if the animal food is used in the forms of the less costly meats, in milk and cheese in not too large quantities, and if the bulk of the diet consists of such wholesome vegetable foods as wheat flour, corn meal, oatmeal, peas, beans, and potatoes when the last are not too dear, the cost will be very much less. Some specimens of food mixtures, with amounts of ingredients and costs, are given in the Appendix (Human Foods, Table D).
NUTRITIVE INGREDIENTS OF FOOD.
The real problem before this woman when she goes to market is to obtain, at the least cost, protein, fats, and carbohydrates needed to meet the wants of her family. Flavor and appearance are things to look out for, of course. She may buy them in the food if she has the money and is willing to spend it, but they are costly. She may supply them by good cooking and tasteful serving, but this will take skill and care, and too many women in her circumstances lack the one and are averse to the other. Or she may ignore both flavor and appearance, and if her hus- band does not like the food she sets before him, and other things about the home are not attractive, he will very likely go to the “ poor man’s club,” otherwise known as the saloon.
The training of a well-ordered’ home or the cooking school will tell how to make savory dishes from inexpensive materials. <A little of the chemistry of the subject will show how to select them.
Table A (Human Foods, Appendix) gives the composition of speci-
1A calorie is the amount of heat required to raise a pound of water 4° F.
1 A 94-— 14*
362 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
mens of common food materials. The composition of a smaller number is shown in figure 80 herewith.
Thus a pound of sirloin of beef of medium fatness will furnish, say, 0.15 pound of protein in the “lean” and 0.16 pound of fat. The fuel value of the protein added to that of the fat makes 970 calories in the pound of sirloin. A pound of wheat flour of average quality will contain about 0.11 pound of protein, in the form of gluten; 0.01 pound of fat, which, if extracted from the flour, would be an oily substance; and 0.75 pound of carbohydrates, of which nearly all would be starch. The fuel value of these nutrients in the pound of flour would be, ane oe to Table A, 1,645 calories.’
Food pai deci rich in protein are the most valuable for building the tissues of the body. A pound of cheese may have 0.28 pound of pro- tein, as much as a man at ordinary work needs for a day’s sustenance, while a pound of milk would have only 0.04 and a pound of potatoes only 0.02 pound of protein. The materials which have the most of fats and carbohydrates have the highest fuel value. The fuel value of a pound of fat pork may reach 2,995 calories, while that of a pound of salt codfish would be only 315 calories. On the other hand, the nutri- tive material of the codfish will consist almost entirely of protein, of which the salt pork has very little.
In general, the animal foods have the most of protein and fats, while the vegetable foods are rich in the carbohydrates, starch, and sugar. The lean meats and fish abound in protein. Cheese has so large a quan- tity of protein because it contains the casein of the milk. Among the vegetable foods, beans and peas have a high proportion of protein. The proportion in oatmeal is also large. In wheat it is moderate, and in corn meal it is rather small. The materials with the highest fuel value are those with the most fat, because the fuel value of the fat is, weight for weight, two and one-fourth times as great as that of either sugar, Starch, or protein. Hence fat pork and butter lead the other materials in fuel value. The fat meats in general stand high in this respect. So also do the grains, flour, and meal, as they have large quantities of carbohydrates. Potatoes are quite low in the list in respect to fuel value as well as protein, principally because they are three-fourths water. For the same reason, milk, which is seven- eighths water, ranks low in respect to both protein and fuel value.
It is important to remember that all these estimates apply to the food materials in the form in which we buy them, including both refuse, like the bones of meat, skins of potatoes, etc., and water. If we were to remove the bones and other refuse from the meats, fish, and other foods which contain them, and then remove the water from all the materials, and compare the actually nutritive substances of nutrients, their rank would, of course, be very different. Salt codfish, for instance,
1 Detailed éx plane tions of the composition of food materials, the ways they are used in the body, and their nutritive values as compared with their cost, are given in Farmers’ Bulletin No. 23 of the United States Department of Aostcatvede:
FOOD AND DIET. 363
Via. 80,—COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS.
Nutritive ingredients, refuse, and fuel value.
Nutrients. Non-nutrients. - ~—_——_——. Tuel value. | E-=--—] ag mom Protein. Fats. Carbo- Mineral Water. Refuse. Calories.
hydrates. matters.
Protein compounds, ©. g., lean of meat, white of egg, casein (curd) of milk, and gluten of wheat, make muscle, blood, bone, ete. Fats, e. g., fat of meat, butter, and oil,
Carbohydrates, ©. g., starch and sugar, } serve as fuel to yield heat and muscular power.
Nutrients, etc., p. ct. 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1 an Fuel value of 11b. _ 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 40 —- Sy retin
Beef, round wee SS oe 3
* * y _— = = = ———— — —__—_
Beef, round*
Beef, sirloin
eet ——— ee ey
Beef, sirloin*
% eo
Beef, rib
Beef, rib*
Mutton, leg
Pork, spare rib
Pork, salt
————
Ham, smoked
CS ee lt—tit—O S| = oo ee
Codfish, fresh
- SS ee Se ee ere were ee
Codfish, salt NSN
ee ee ee ee oe eee eee
a Wee Se ee — =F a =. SC Es oe —S—— ——————— Wheat bread REBEL Wheat flour aE: Corn meal S22: =)! | ’¢’]qqqVTVT7@_CT_70Z7ZH!=H#SS=z Oatmect == WML Beans, dried. Se =°\| WW | \, | |W|W|W¢-$'M|’MMM##t]?}][J9mssns Rico (RRA TILLED ae MMU. = eS SS Sugar MLL
* Without bone.
364 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
is % very economical food, because it furnishes protein in an easily digestible form, although, as we buy it, a pound will contain over eight- tenths of a pound of water and refuse. A pound of rice consists of about seven-eighths of a pound, and a pound of potatoes only one- fourth of a pound of nutritive materials, but in cooking the rice we mix water with it and thus make if not very different in composition from potatoes. By drying the potatoes we could get a material very similar in food value to rice.
In Table 1a number of the most common articles of food are grouped according to their quantities of protein and their fuel values.
TABLE 1.—Classification of food materials by composition.
ON BY AMOUNTS N ID | GRADATION BY AMOUNTS OF PROTEIN IN 1 GRADATION BY FUEL VALUES IN 1 POUND.
POUND. VERY LARGE. .22 to .21 pound protein. 4,220 to 1,700 calories. Canned corned beef; cheese. ‘| Butter; salt pork; cheese; smoked ham. Beans, dry. Milk crackers; sugar; oatmeal. - Lowen ta me LARGE. .20 to .16 pound protein. 1,700 to 1,200 calories.
Canned salmon; beef, round; beef, sirloin; | Pork, spare rib. salt codfish; beef, chuck.. Corn (msize) meal; wheat flour; rice; beans, dry; wheat bread.
MEDIUM. .15 to .11 pound protein. 1,200 to 700 calories. | Mutton, leg; pork, spare rib; beef, rib; | Canned corned beef; beef, rib; beef, sirloin; | eggs; fresh codfish. canned salmon; beef, chuck; mutton, leg; | Oatmeal; wheat flour. beef, round; eggs. SMALL. .10 to .06 pound protein. . 700 to 300 calories. Smoked ham. ~ Milk; salt codfish. Wheat bread; milk crackers; corn (maize) | Potatoes. meal; rice. VERY SMALL. .05 pound and less protein. 300 calories and less. { Oysters; salt pork; milk; butter. Oysters; fresh codfish. |
Potatoes; sugar.
Before leaving the subject of the composition of food materials, a word of caution isin order. The figures in Table A in the Appendix represent the averages of the analyses now available. But different specimens of the same kind of food materials may vary widely in com- position. This is especially true of meats, because of the variations in the proportions of bone and of fat.
CHEAP AND DEAR FOODS.
To get at the actual cheapness or dearness of different food materials we must take into account both the composition and the price. Sup- pose, for instance, our would-be thrifty housewife, in buying food at the
+e
or
FOOD AND DIET. 36 Fic. 81.—PECUNIARY ECONOMY OF FOOD.
Amounts of actually nutritive ingredients obtained in different food materials for 10 cents.
Protein. Fats. Carbohydrates. Fuel value.
=| ZZ wrmmcen
Protein compounds, e. g., lean of meat, white of egg, casein (curd) of milk, and gluten of wheat, make muscle, blood, bone, etc. : Fats, e. g., fat of meat, butter, and oil,
Carbohydrates, e. g., starch and sugar, } serve as fuel to yield heat and muscular power.
|
: en Price ts | Pounds of nutrients and calories of fuel value in 10 cents’ er | cents tig will | worth. is “| buy— |
“Sil 1Lb. ani A os 3 Lbs. 4: Lbs. Cents.) Lbs. ———3900Cal. 4000Cal. 6000Cal. 8000Cal.
00 (Se)
A WS
H) BSS a TH
J a 12 A: 2 ES OE IE SOOT, Beef, sirloin...-.-+---+---+-- in too EP eg Od ee eee re 16| .63 j= ge ee ee ree 12 3 a= Pork, Spare TID... 5-.----.,.. 12 83 — SS = } Pork, eels, fet.......---..-.. 14 71 E — =. ;aaneueen: — Eiam. MOKCG-...-2..0.- i002 16 63) |e RCL Matta net fend = cee ee Cud@el, fresh...+-....2...-. 8 | 1.25 les a hy * | Koceieod BE ie CGGNANO BSED... osc5<.q<esle ms 02. 6 | 1.67 eee if Oysters, 40 cents quart...-.-. 20 - 50 ore (REY Milk, 6 cents quart.......... ae a J ee 24 . 42 |e Reais SFC vabiee hasta bo Ate Cheese .......-.--.------.--. 16 63 j . 7 ae Eggs, 25 cents dozen........ 163}. 60 > in ta Tee west eI yee beasebed isn Cie aun 2 0) ED
Wheat flour................. 23! 4.00 |p
VSS" M/sq!'!'!¢$™’'’¢'6’65't
eh a coi ee OPE 2] 5.00 “ar ha - nc =Z} Ww : ce Sai, ay, le A lr Sh a Lg eet SS BE RE PE Tia | ~ | | | eer BRT PSOE Sy Beans, white, dried......... 4| 2.50 |emcome Wl =
ys: “illegals aaa
150 TSi tee alt = seni) Ri Fa Eat 5 2.00 ~
WaM€aMHWnryv isian edt ae
Potatoes, 60 cents bushel...-. 1} 10.00 ; are) i eee). .. key BP aad Sabha | CLLLLLELRS ALM LA AM Rete I
1) Seaee <a ee pene 5
366 YEARBOOK OF THE U SS. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
market for her family, wishes to obtain the largest amount of nutri- ment for hermoney. What kind shall she select? To putit in another way, How much of tissue formers and fuel value can she obtain for a given sum—10 cents, for instance—in beefsteak, flour, or potatoes, as she ordinarily buys them?
lfshe spends her dime for beefsteak at 20 cents a pound, she gets half a pound, which supplies 0.08 pound of protem and 550 calories of energy; but if she invests the same money in flour at 24 cents a pound, she has £4 pounds, with 0.44 pound of protein and 5,680 calories of energy. Table B (Human Foods, Appendix) shows the quantities of nutrients and energy in 10 cents’ worth of each of a number of food materials at ordinary prices. Figure 81 illustrates the differences, and Table 2 herewith shows the gradation of a small number:
TABLE 2.—Classification of food materials by cost of actual nutriment; t.e., by amounts of protein and energy in the quantities bought for 10 cents at ordinary prices per pound.
GRADATION BY AMOUNTS OF PROTEIN IN 10
CENTS’ WoRTH AT PRICES STATED PER GRADATION BY FUEL VALUES OF 10 CENTS
WoORTH AT PRICES STATED PER POUND.
POUND. VERY CHEAP. .75 to .26 pound protein. 9,000 to 3,000 calories. Salt codfish, 6 cents. Wheat flour, 24 cents; corn meai, Z cents; Beans, dry, 4 cents; wheat flour, 24 cents ; oat- oat meal, 4 cents; beans,dry, 4 cents; sugar, meal, 4 cents; corn meal, 2 cents; wheat 5 cents; rice, 5 cents; potatoes (60 cents bread, 4 cents. bushel), 1 cent; wheat bread, 4 cents. CHEAP. .25 to .18 pound protein. 3,000 to 1,800 calories.
Canned corned beef, 12 cents; milk (4 cents | Salt pork, 12 cents. quart), 2cents; skim milk (3 cents quart), | Milk crackers, 9 cents; wheat bread, 6 cents. 13 cents.
Potatoes (60 cents bushel), 1 cent.
MEDIUM. -17 to .13 pound protein. 1,800 to 1,000 calories. Cheese, 16 cents; beef, chuck, 12 cents; beef, | Butter, 24 cents; cheese, 16 cents; smoked round, 12 cents; fresh codfish, 8 cents. ham, 16 cents; pork, spare rib, 12 cents; Wheat bread, 6 cents; rice, 5 cents. skim milk (3 cents quart), 14 cents; milk
(4 or 6 cents quart), 2-or 3 cents.
EXPENSIVE. -12 to’ .08 pound protein. 1,000 to 59 calories. Mutton, leg, 12 cents; pork, spare rib, 12 | Canned corned beef, 12 conts; beef, chuck, 12 cents; milk (6 cents quart), 3 cents. cents; mutton, leg, 12 cents; beef, rib, 16 | Milk crackers, 9 cents. eents; beef, round, 12 cents; beef, sirloin,
18 cents; salt codfish, 6 cents.
VERY EXPENSIVE. 07 pound and less protein. 500 calories and less.
Smoked ham, 16 cents; salt pork, 12 cents; | Fresh codfish, 8 cents; oysters, 30 cents
oysters, 30 cents quart. | quart.
FOOD AND DIET. 367
The most striking fact brought out by all these calculations is the difference between the animal and vegetable foods in the actual cost of nutriment. Meats, fish, poultry, and the like are expensive, while flour and potatoes are cheap food. Thereason of thisis simple. The animal foods are made from vegetable products. Making meat from grass or grain is costly. An acre of land will produce a given number of bushels of wheat, but when the grass or grain which the same land would produce is converted into meat it makes much less food than the wheat.
DIGESTIBILITY OF FOOD.
These calculations do not take into account the digestibility of the food. In general, the animal foods are somewhat more digestible than the vegetable foods. The protein of ordinary meats, for instance, is practically all digested when it is eaten in moderate quantities by healthy persons, but the same persons might digest only nine-tenths of the protein of wheat flour made into bread, and not more than three- fourths of that of potatoes. The fat of meats is less completely digested. The sugar and starch of vegetable foods, properly cooked, is very easily and completely digested.!
THE FITTING OF FOODS TO THE NEEDS OF THE BODY.
Different people have different needs for nutriment. All are alikein that they must have protein for the building and repair of the bodily machine, and fuel ingredients for warmth and work. But they differ widely in the amounts and proportions they require, and even among those in good health there are many who are obliged to avoid certain kinds of food, while invalids and people with weak digestion must often have special diet.
For people in good health and with good digestion there are two important rules to be observed in the regulation of thediet. The first is to choose the things which “agree” with them, and to avoid those which they can not digest and assimilate without harm. The second is to use such kinds and amounts of food as will supply all the nutrients the body needs and at the same time avoid burdening it with super- fluous material to be disposed of at the cost of health and strength.
For guidance in this selection, nature provides us with instinct, taste, and experience. Physiological chemistry adds to these the knowledge— still new and far from adequate—of the composition of food and the
' Detailed statements of the results of experiments upon the digestibility of food by man and the effects of cooking upon digestibility may be found in Bulletin No. 21 of the Office of Experiment Stations of this Department on the Chemistry and Economy of Food. Brief explanations regarding the digestibility of food are given in Farmers’ Bulletin No. 23 of the same Department.
3868 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
laws of nutrition. In our actual practice of eating we are apt to be influenced too much by taste, that is, by the dictates of the palate; we are prone to let natural instinct be overruled by acquired appetite; and we neglect the teachings of experience. We need to observe our diet and its effects more carefully, and regulate appetite by reason. In doing this we may be greatly aided by the knowledge of what our food con- tains and how it serves its purpose in nutrition.
What kinds of food best agree with any individual is a matter to be found out by experience. Milk is for most people a very wholesome, digestible, and nutritious food, but there are persons who are made ill by drinking it; they should avoid milk. The author knows a boy who is made seriously ill by eating eggs. A small piece of sweet cake in which eggs have been used will cause him serious trouble. The sick- ness is nature’s evidence that eggs are, for him, an unfit article of food Some people have to avoid strawberries. Indeed, cases in which the most wholesome kinds of food are hurtful to individual persons are, unfortunately, numerous.
How it is that food which contains nothing unwholesome can be so harmful has always been a mystery until, within a few years past, chemistry has begun to explain the changes that food undergoes in the body. It appears that in their course through the body the constitu- ents of the food are subject to a great variety of chemical changes, and that some of the compounds formed may be at times harmful in one way or another. Some of the compounds produced from the food in the body may be actually poisonous. Different persons are differ- ently constituted with respect to the chemical changes which their food undergoes and the effects produced, so that it may be literally true that ‘One man’s meat is another man’s poison.” Every man must learn from his own experience what food agrees with him and what does not.
On the other hand, some foods have at times a great value outside of their use for nourishment. Fruits and garden vegetables often benefit people greatly, not as nutriment merely, for they may have very little of actual nutrients, but because of the vegetable acids or other sub- stances which they contain, and which sometimes serve a most useful purpose.
Food does more than to build tissue and yield energy. Whatit does in other ways—its value as medicine rather than nutriment—this is not the place to discuss. Let us return, then, to our subject, which is food economy.
For the great majority of people in good health the ordinary food materials—meats, fish, eggs, milk, butter, cheese, sugar, flour, meal, potatoes, and vegetables—make a fitting diet, and the main question is to use them in the kinds and proportions fitted to the actual needs of the body. This will be best answered by considering the subjects of dietaries and dietary standards.
FOOD AND DIET. 369
STANDARDS FOR DAILY DIETARIES.
Various attempts have been made by physiologists and chemists to devise standards to represent the amounts of nutrients needed by people of different age, sex, and occupation for their daily sustenance, There are two great difficulties in the way of setting up such standards, The first is that we have not yet enough definite knowledge to say exactly how much nutriment the average man or woman who does a given kind and amount of work actually needs to keep his or her body in good condition, to make blood and muscle and other tissues as they are constantly used up, and to serve as fuel to keep the body warm and supply it with strength for work. Nor can we yet say just how much an average child of a given age and period of growth requires to build up its growing body, repair the wastes, and give it warmth and strength
for its work or play.
The other difficulty in the way of laying down hard and fast rules to regulate the diet is that different individuals of the same class differ so widely in their demands for food and in the use they make of it. Two men of like age, size, build, and occupation may live and work side by side. One will eat more and the other less, while both do the same amount of work; or both may eat the same food and do the same work, and one will be fat and the other lean; or both may have the same diet, and yet one will be strong and vigorous and able to doa great deal of work, while the other will be weak and able to accomplish but little. Just why individuals differ in their ways of utilizing their food, and how to measure the differences and make dietary rules to fit them exactly, are problems which the physiological chemist of to-day is far from solving. The fact is that the whole subject is new, and the accurate investigation thus far made, though quite considerable when we get it all together, is far too small for satisfactory conclusions. The best we can do with our present knowledge, or rather lack of knowledge, of the subject is to make general estimates, with the clear understand- ing that they are only rough estimates, and that they apply to average rather than individual cases. For that matter, we can never expect to reduce this matter of diet to an exact science. The nutrition of man is not a mere matter of pounds of protein and units of energy. Even when the complex laws of our physical being are learned, if science shall reveal them to us in all their fullness, as we can hardly expect that it ever will, there will still remain factors outside the domain of chemistry and physiology, factors for which no physical measure is now or ever can be possible.
The ordinarily accepted standards for dietaries are estimated in terms of “protein,” “fats,” and “carbohydrates.” The amounts of these appropriate for daily food for different classes of people under differ- ent conditions have been estimated in two ways:
370 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
(1) By observing the amounts actually consumed by individuals, and by groups of people differing in age, sex, occupation, and other conditions of life.
(2) By experiments in which the income and outgo of the body are directly compared. Experiments of this sort are made by supplying individuals with food of known amount and composition, and determin- ing the quantity and composition of the products given off from the body. The most valuable researches thus far have been made with the so-called respiration apparatus. In these, the food, drink, and inhaled air, which make up the income and outgo of the body, are measured, weighed, and analyzed. The balance of income and expenditure is thus made, and the gain or loss of material of the body, with different kinds and amounts of food, and under different conditions of muscular exercise and rest, is determined.
The experiments involve a large amount of labor, but bring corre- spondingly complete and reliable results. They are of fundamental importance in learning the ways in which food is used in the body, and it is for this purpose that most of the respiration experiments have been made. The larger part of this kind of experimenting has been with domestic animals; only few trials have been made with men.
An improvement upon this method is now being attempted by several investigators. It consists in taking into account the income and outgo
‘of energy along with the income and outgo of matter. The income of energy is measured by the potential energy of the food; the outgo is measured by the heat given off from the body and the muscular work done. The apparatus used may be called the respiration calorimeter. Experimenting with it is even more complex, laborious, and costly than with the respiration apparatus, so that while investigators have come to see its necessity, extremely few have attempted it,’ and the research attempted by them is still in its beginning. Knough has been accom- plished to show that the work is feasible and the time is ripe for extended and thorough experiments with men of different ages, bodily conditions, and callings.
Our best information regarding dietary standards comes from Ger- many, where studies have been made by numerous investigators, such as Liebig, and especially Voit and his followers of the Munich sehool of physiologists. The names of Payen in France, Playfair in England, and Moleschott in Italy deserve especial mention as contributors to our knowledge on the subject. It is a noteworthy fact, however, that very
1Research of this especial kind has been undertaken by Professors Rubner and Zosenthal in Germany, Chauveau in I’rance, and Burdon-Sanderson and associates in England, and in the writer’s laboratory in Middletown, Conn. The only results thus far published, in which the income and outgo of energy have been measured, are those of a limited number of experiments by Rubner with dogs.
A more detailed, though not complete, discussion of the whole subject, including dietaries and dietary standards, is given in the bulletin on the Chemistry and Econ- omy of Food, mentioned above.
=”
FOOD AND DIET. 371
little attention appears to have been paid in either the United States or England to the results of the latest and best research in this direc- tion. Even the text-books in chemistry and physiology in the Nnglish language, which are looked upon as most authoritative, are too apt to pass the subject over most superficially or ignore it.
DIETARY STANDARDS FOR MEN AT MUSCULAR WORK.
Let us take, for instance, the case of an average “‘ working” man— say a carpenter, blacksmith, or day laborer—who is doing a moderate amount of muscular work. To make up for the constant wear and tear of muscle, tendon, and other nitrogenous tissue, he must have protein. To use his muscles, strength or muscular energy is required. JF urther- more, his body must be kept warm. The most of the energy is supplied by the fats and carbohydrates, but some come from protein. Our work- ingman, then, needs in his daily food (1) enough of protein to make up for
the protein of muscle and other nitrogenous tissue consumed in his body;
(2) enough energy to supply the demand for heat and muscular work.
The problem, then, is this: How much protein, fats, and carbohy- drates does the average man, with a moderate amount of manual work to do, require in a day’s food?
A nunber of noted European investigators have made diligent com- parisons of the results of their own and other inquiries, and have set up certain standards, which are given in Table E, Human Foods, Appendix. In Table F are some standards proposed by the author after consideration not only of the data which were at the disposal of the authorities named above, but also of later ones, especially those obtained from the studies of American dietaries. I‘or Americans at moderately active or at hard muscular work a more liberal allowance of nutrients has been provided than is given by any of the European authorities, for the reason, explained in more detail beyond, that people in this country work harder and need ampler nourishment than is ecom- mon among wage workers in Europe.
Standards for daily diet of laboring man at moderate muscular work.
Nutrients in daily food.
Author. | |
° | Protein.| Fats. sg ~ | Fuel value.
| |
Pound Pound. Pounds. | Calories.
a CR TE a ee ee 0. 26 0.11 1.17 3, 140 Ett LESEY. 5- satu en aeeea oaks lees cweacexes- 29 . 09 1. 21 3, 160 NYY Ce IT sins aicketn nd dines apd ae < ha cevecixgsember 44 . 28 | 08 1.19 8, 030 PE OaRy ORT GIN” sas Scheer ows eae U CAMS AGEs wdc lve neceece . 26 | 12 1.10 3, 055 Atwater, United States... ..-. 1... seerencecnece-neare 28 | .17—.33 | .88—1, 21 3, 500
No. 4 of the table, by Professor Voit, of the University of Munich, is the one most commonly quoted. It is intended to represent the needs of ordinary mechanics and laboring men at their usual work.
3872 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
It was estimated from the food consumed by such men in Germany, and especially in the region of Munich, Bavaria. Voit would have somewhat over half of the 0.26 pound of protein of the food of the average laboring man at moderate work supplied by meat and other animal foods.
It will be borne in mind that these quantities, like those in the other tables of this article, generally refer to the total rather than the digest- ible nutrients of the food. Such dietaries as those proposed by Voit and the author would contain approximately the following amounts of digestible nutrients:
Fats, |Carbohy-
Protein. dates
Pound. | Pound.| Pound. For laboring man at moderate work, VOit.......-.------.sessseeeccecene- 0. 25 0. 11 1. 00 For laboring man at moderate work, Atwater..........--.---------+----- . 30 21 . 88
Of course, such standards as these represent only general averages. Thus Voit, Playfair, and the other physiologists named assume that for an ordinary laboring man, doing an ordinary amount of work, the amounts of nutrients stated in the table will suffice; that with them he will hold his own, and that any considerable excess above these quantities will be superfluous.
No one expects any given man to adjust his diet exactly to either of these standards. He may need more, and may perhaps get on with less. He may eat more fats and less carbohydrates, or he may consume more protein, if he is willing to pay forit. If he has much less protein and keeps up his muscular exertion, he will be apt, sooner or later, to suffer. But he may increase the fats and diminish the carbohydrates, or vice versa, within reasonable limits, without harm, because they both do the same work in the body and one may take the place of the other.
Different individuals, under like conditions, will both require and consume different quantities of nutrients. In general, the larger the person—that is to say, the bulkier the machinery in his organism—the more of protein and other nutrients will be consumed. Hence, men need, on the average, more than women.
The requirements vary with the muscular activity. A man at hard work requires more nutrients to make up for the wear and tear of the bodily machine aud supply it with fuel than one at lighter work or at rest. Aged people, who are generally less active than those in the prime of life, require less food.
THE FOOD OF PEOPLE IN BUSINESS AND PROFESSIONAL LIFE.
Just what ingredients of the food serve for nourishment of the brain and nerves, and how they do that service, are mysteries which the physiological chemist has not yet solved. Brain and nerve contain the elements nitrogen and phosphorus, which occur in the protein com-
FOOD AND DIET. 373
pounds, but are not found in the true fats or in the sugars and starches, which contain only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. <A natural infer- ence is that the protein compounds of the food and certain other substances in food, like lecithin, which also contain nitrogen and plos- phorus, must be especially concerned in building up brain and nerve and keeping them in repair. This is practically as far as our present knowledge goes.
Just how much food the brain worker needs is a question for which the answer to-day is no more definite. In general, it appears that the man or woman whose occupation is what we call sedentary, who is without vigorous physical exercise and does but little of hard muscular work, needs much less than the man at hard manual labor, and that especially the brain worker needs comparatively little of carbohydrates and fats.
Many physicians, physiologists, and students of hygiene have the very firm conviction that well-to-do people, whose work is mental rather than physical, eat too much; that the diet of people of this class as @ whole is one-sided as well as excessive, and that the principal evil is in the use of too much fat, starch, and sugar.
The facts of accurate experiment and observation upon this point are meager, but, such as they are, they tend to confirm this view very emphatically. Let us briefly consider some facts drawn from a review of all the reliable studies of the food of men in professional life which have been reported in the literature of the subject to which the author has had access. They include dietaries of 2 university professors, 3 lawyers, 3 physicians, and 5 medical studerts in Hesse-Nassau, Bavaria, Denmark, and Sweden—in all, 8 dietaries of 14 persons in HEurope—and those of 1 retired merchant, 3 chemists, 2 college professors, and 4 boarding clubs of students in a college and in a theological school— in all, 10 dietaries of nearly 130 persons in Connecticut. The college students were mostly from a considerable number of Northern and Kastern States. Figure 82 shows the quantities of nutrients and energy in a number of these dietaries as compared with the dietary standards. |
We may notice first some of the details of the European dietaries. Those of the two professors, one in the University of Marburg and the other in that of Munich, were studied by the gentlemen themselves with especial care. There was no restriction upon their diet; the at- tempt was to find how much food sufficed for the actual demand. Both were men of good health, vigorous, and in the prime of life. They had in their daily food, respectively, 0.20 pound and 0.22 pound of protein and 2,565 and 2,325 calories of energy. The three lawyers and two of the physicians lived in Munich, and were selected by Professor Forster, who made the studies, as individuals typical of their class. They were young, vigorous, well-to-do, and well nourished. The lawyers averaged 0.18 pound of protein and 2,400 calories; the physicians, who very
374 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
likely had more exercise, 0.28 pound of protein and 2,765 calories, The third physician, who lived in Copenhagen, had 0.30 pound of protein and 2,800 calories per day. The students were in Stockholm. They worked several hours per day in the laboratory, so that their oecu- pation partook somewhat of the character of that of mechanics with
Fic. 82.—DIETARIES AND DIETARY STANDARDS. Quantities of nutrients and energy in food per man per day.
ce aii Fats. Carbohydrates. Fuel value.
RS 8 | So
"Protein pompous c. g., lean of meat, white of egg, casein (curd) of milk, and gluten of wheat make muscle, blood, bone, etc. Fats, e. g. fat of meat, butter, and oil,
Carbohydr ates, ©. ¢., starch ail sugar, beerve as fuel to yield heat and musoular power.
Nutritive ingredients (actual nutrients) Fuel value ’
Underfed laborers, Italy
Students, Japan
Lawyer, Germany
Physician, Germany
Physician, Denmark Well-fed tailor, England
Laborers at active work, England
Well-paid mechanics, Germany Miners at severe work, Prussia
Mechanics at moderate work, Sweden
Mechanics at severe work, Sweden
ee
Chemist, Connecticut
College professor, Connecticut
College students, Northern States
Mason, Connecticut
Glassblower, Massachusetis
Blacksmith, Connecticut
Factory operatives, Massachusetts
Brickmaker at hard work, Massachusetts
Machinist at hard work, Massachusetts
Dietary standards.
Man with little museular work
Man at moderate work
; Man at severe work ES —— == Mebetiietetenatia’,
light muscular work. They averaged 0.28 pound of protein and 3,035 ealories of energy.
The order of the dietaries in respect to amounts eaten is interesting. Of the men engaged in professional duties, the professors and the law- yers, who would be presumed to have the least muscular exercise, con-
FOOD AND DIET. 375
sumed the least food. The physicians, who, in the daily practice of their profession, would be expected to have more exercise, consumed more food. The peopie in Munich consumed the least, and those in the more northerly and colder latitudes of Denmark and Sweden the most. With the less muscular exercise and the warmer climate was the smaller, and with the more muscular activity and the colder cli- mate was the larger, food consumption. This coincidence may be acci- dental, but it is worth noticing.
The important fact for our present purpose is this: Here are a con- siderable number of men in comfortable circumstances, able to provide themselves with ample food, and living in circumstances which would seem to favor proper nutrition. Their labor is mainly intellectual and their muscular work light. Their food contains from 0.18 to 0.30 pound of protein, and from 2,325 to 3,035 calories of energy per day. The average is 0.23 pound of protein and 2,670 calories of energy. For the active study or professional practice in which they are engaged, their nutriment is ample.
Let us now compare with these the dietaries of the professional men and students in Connecticut. As the waste may have been larger here than in the European dietaries, and we do not wish to exaggerate the difference between the two, we will compare the food actually eaten by the people in Connecticut with the total food supplied to the Euro- peans. In the 5 dietaries of as many families in Connecticut, 1 of a retired merchant, 3 of college professors, and 1 of a chemist, the pro- tein ranged from 0.20 to 0.26 pound and averaged 0.24 pound, while the energy ranged from 3,205 to 4,080, and averaged 3,560 calories. Compared with the dietaries of the professional men in Germany and Denmark, those in Connecticut had a very little more protein and nearly one-half more fuel value.
The majority of the students in the Connecticut college were from the New England and Middle States. The same was true of those in the theological school, who were nearly all college graduates, a little older and somewhat less given to athletic sports and other kinds of physical exercise. Each of the clubs in which they boarded was man- aged by one of the number, who selected the food to suit their taste. It seems fair to assume that their eating habits were such as they had acquired at home; that,in other words, they represented the class of people in New England and the Middle States whose sons go to college. In the dietaries of these 115 young men the protein ranged from 0.20 to 0.31 pound and the energy from 3,085 to 4,825 calories. The average for protein was 0.26 pound, and that for fuel value, 3,720 calories. Of the Swedish students, there were only 5 dietaries of 5 individuals. These averaged 0.28 pound of protein and 3,035 calories. The number of persons for the comparison with the American students is small. The difference is less, but in general character it is the same as in the cases of the men in professional practice.
376 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Did the professor and chemists in Connecticut require so much nutri- ment, when professors and physicians in Germany and Denmark are well nourished with so much less? Did the American students need food with so much more fuel value than the Swedish students? It seems to me very decidedly not.
The lower nutritive standard of the European as compared with the American wage worker coincides with his smaller income, which for- bids generous diet, and his smaller capacity for work. But these Euro- pean professional men and students were able to eat all they needed, and it might be difficult to prove that the intellectual activity of the American men of like calling was so much greater as to call for so great an excess of protein and fuel value in their food.
Doubtless, we live and work more intensely than people do in Europe. We also take more outdoor exercise. Students with us are, fortunately, much more given to athletic exercise than are German students. Pos- sibly the medical students in Stockholm may have been so much more active physically than the young physicians in Munich and the other professional men in Germany as to need the ampler diet which they enjoyed. And it may very well be that the gentlemen in Connecticut used their muscles more and lived at higher tension than those on the other side of the Atlantic, and on these accounts needed more nutri- ment. But it is hard to see how they could have required food with a 50 per cent higher fuel value.
DIETARIES OF LABORING PEOPLE—FOOD, WORK, AND WAGES IN THE UNITED STATES AND IN EUROPE.
In 21 dietaries of mechanics, carpenters, cabinetmakers, coopers, locksmiths, shoemakers, farm laborers, and other wage workers in Ger- many, mostly in Bavaria, all of whom were counted as well-to-do for people of their class and were engaged in moderately hard work, the smallest quantity of food per man per day had a fuel value of 1,405 calories, and the largest 5,285, the average being 3,135. In 20 dietaries of factory and mill operatives, mechanics, and other laboring people in Massachusetts and Connecticut, who were also engaged in ordinary work, the smallest dietary furnished 3,055, the largest 5,340, and the. average just about 4,000 calories. The people in New England whose food consumption is thus summarized included avery large percentage of factory operatives, whose standard of living was low as compared with that of the wage workers of the region generally, and yet their food was nearly one-third more nutritious than that of the better class of wage workers at ordinarily hard work in Germany.
In 11 dietaries of iron and steel workers, miners, brickmakers, and other wage workers in Prussia and Bavaria, who were counted as doing “hard” and ‘‘severe” work, the smallest furnished 3,365, the largest 5,690, and the average 4,390 calories per man per day. In 6 dietaries of machinists, blacksmiths, brickmakers, and others in Massachusetts
FOOD AND DIET. 377
and Connecticut, also counted as doing “hard” and “ severe” muscular work, the smallest furnished 4,250, the largest 7,805, and the average 5,710 calories. Here, again, the wage workers in Massachusetts and Connecticut were better nourished by one-third than those in Bavaria and Prussia.
In 40 dietaries of the people of the poorer classes in Prussia and Saxony the fuel value averaged 2,566 calories. The food of 25 families in the poorest part of Philadelphia averaged 3,235, and that of 36 fam- ilies in the poorest part of Chicago, 3,425 calories. ‘The poor people in the two American cities were better nourished by half than those referred to in Leipsic, Munich, and elsewhere in Germany.
The inhabitants of Saxony and Bavaria rank well among the popu- lation of Europe in respect to industry and thrift. Those whose food consumption is here reported were selected by investigators there as typical for their respective classes. Among the people whose dietaries were studied in Massachusetts and Connecticut were many (those in Philadelphia and Chicago were chiefly, foreigners whose standard of living and food consumption we should hardly expect to be up to the level of those of the native population. The statistics are not sufficient for a just comparison between the wage workers of the two countries, but, in so far as they go, they imply very distinctly that people here are very much better fed than there.
During the last dozen years the author has conversed with many observers, including a considerable number of statisticians of the best repute in the United States and in Europe, and has found among them a practical unanimity of opinion to the effect that the workingman in this country is much the more efficient. The statistics regarding this subject are very meager. Accurate details are much to be desired. An investigation which should bring them is certainly called for. Meanwhile it would seem reasonably safe to assume that the consensus of observers is right as to the general principle that, on the whole, peo- ple in the United States do more work than do people in Europe.
Regarding wages on the two sides of the Atlantic, the statistics are very extensive, and the advantage in favor of the American working- man is a familiar fact.
Discussions of this sort are entirely outside of the province of the chemist, but to a layman in political economy the parallelism between food, work, and wages in the United States and in Europe is very striking.
THE NUTRITION OF THE WORKINGMAN AND HIS ELEVATION.
Among the standard illustrations of the relation between the food consumed and the work done is that of the experience with English and French workingmen in the building of a railroad many years agoin the north of France. The contractor, the well-known Englishman, Mr. Brassey, found that the English navvies were much more efficient than
378 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the irench laborers with the pick and shovel. But, on looking into the matter, it appeared that the Englishmen were much the better fed, and when more food was given to the Frenchmen there was a corre- sponding increase in the work which they performed.
Among the persons engaged in the railroad enterprise thus referred to was a young Englishman who afterwards came to this country and became very prominent as an employer of labor and manager of large manuiacturing enterprises. Among his observations are some of great interest. He says that he has had occasion to observe large numbers of English laborers who have come to this country and entered his employ, and that the change which comes over many of them is very noticeable. Under the stimuius of the larger experience, the more favorable surroundings, and better opportunities, their ambition is excited, they try to see what they can make of themselves, and the result is a noteworthy development in their personal character as well as in their working capacity.
This last observation is very suggestive. The merely physical fac- tors—food, clothing, and shelter—are not enough to elevate a man. There must be the conditions about him and the spirit within him to enable him to utilize them. The material conditions, environment, and spirit must all be present if he is to rise to the level where a man ought to live.
The facts and observations above cited have a profound significance. The dietary statistics, taken with the collateral facts, lead to the infer- ence that ordinary people have with us what only the exceptionally well fed have on the other side of the Atlantic—the food they need to make the most of themselves and their work. Indeed, is it not safe to say that, so far as the facts at hand go, they imply very distinctly that to the American workingman is vouchsafed the priceless gift which is denied to most people of the world, namely, the material conditions, including especially the liberal nourishment, which are essential to large production, high wages, and the highest physical existence, and that, as a corollary, he has a like peculiar opportunity for intellectual and moral development and progress? The saddest part of the pic- ture that one sees among the industrious and worthy members of the poorly paid and poorly fed classes in Kurope is not the physical want, but the spiritual poverty, the lack of buoyancy, the mute, hopeless endurance of their lives. And, by contrast, the happiest feature in the condition of wage workers with us is not simply that they have better food, better clothing, better houses, and a better material exist- ence in general, but that they have what is more important—and these things help to bring them—the vigor, the ambition, the hope for higher things, and that their effort leads them to the realization of their hope.
The general principle here urged is that liberal food, large production, and higher wages go together. If this be true, the connection between the American’s generous diet and his high wages is very clear. ‘The question naturally follows, What is to be done for the future mainte-
FOOD AND DIET. 379
nance of the position of our laboring people at home and in their com- petition with others in the markets of the world? Part of the answer, at any rate, must be sought in a reform in the purchase and use of food. Instead of our present wastefulness, there must be future saving. With increase of population and closer competition with the rest of the world, the abundance which tempts us to our lavishness must grow gradually less, and closer economy will be needed for living on our pres- ent plane of nutrition.
FOOD OF PEOPLE WITH SCANTY NOURISHMENT,
The statistics of the food consumption of people of the poorer classes deserve more notice than can be given to them here. Studies of fam- ilies in Philadelphia and Chicago were made at the College Settlements in the former, and at the Hull House in the latter city, by Miss Amelia B. Shapleigh, as holder of the Dutton fellowship of the College Settle.
‘ments Association. They represent a line of inquiry for which the
College Settlements are in peculiarly favorable situation to carry out by virtue of their intimate and sympathetic relation with the people in the poorer quarters of the cities, where they are located. The varia- tions in the quantities of nutriment, as ascertained in these investiga- tions, are very wide. Here are the figures for pounds of protein and fuel value of the food per man per day:
Calories.
Protein,
Twenty-five families in the poorest part of Philadelphia: Pound. | SS AL SE a ae a a 0. 45 | 5, 235 SEE METCRIEET,, MCMED TORII 56 ooo one cece emesis enc cerenwcnrsccmnareceee 15 1, 630 EY Gar Ma CNRS ey 58S Sa) 2s nn ck ees etvinn domi de vesaene bomen’ a | 3, 235
Twenty-six families in the poorest part of Chicago: :
OCIS oo ini> ane netics enn ss-- = DETER 31 4, 950 i se tas ote ass sac cche ss hese viae agar dna ncn eendgs veseeanen | 2, 195 TY MGT? os Senet acta ceee ecco ccc scp es eceuascees etre esctses 26 3, 425
The standard above proposed for a man at moderate work calls for 0.28 pound of protein and a fuel value of 3,500 calories. Voit's Ger- man standard calls for 0.26 pound of protein and 3,050 calories of energy. It would appear that these people have on the average about enough for normal nourishment. Assuming them to be engaged in moderately hard muscular labor, the figures give them more than the accepted Huropean standards provide, and very nearly as much as is called for in the more liberal American standard. The food of the Ger- man family, with 0.45 pound of protein and 5,235 calories of fuel value, was excessive unless the members were doing very hard muscular work. But while some had so much—and here is the sad story the figures tell—others were underfed. Men with only 1,600 calories of energy in their daily food live on a very low nutritive level.
This low level of nutrition appears in the dietaries of poor people in Europe. The condition of many of these people, as depicted in the
3880 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
detailed accounts of their ways of living and their nutrition, is most pathetic. These accounts describe factory girls with wages of $1.20 and Jess per week and 1,600 calories of energy in their daily food; families of mechanics and laborers that are no better nourished; and whole communities whose incomes, nutrition, and standards of living are on @ plane far below anything of which most people in the United States have any conception.
Neither the European nor the American figures for food consump- tion thus cited are absolutely correct. Very few of them represent accurate measurements, weighings, and analyses of the food; the major- ity are more or less crude estimates. Furthermore, they represent, in most cases, the food purchased, and make no allowance for amounts wasted, which doubtless averaged much larger in the American than in the European dietaries. A considerable deduction for such waste, perhaps 5 and possibly as much as 10 per cent, would have to be made from the quantities given for the American dietaries to put them on the same basis with the European.
The American figures are nearly all from Massachusetts and Con- necticut. The European come very largely from Germany, and espe- cially from Saxony and Bavaria. It would be going too far to assume that the figures, if they were entirely accurate for the cases studied, would be exact measures of the food consumption in the localities where the studies were made. It would be still less justifiable to claim that the New England dietaries here given represent accurately the average food consumption for working people in the whole United States, or that the German dietaries cited are typical for wage workers throughout Europe. It is difficult to avoid the impression that, in so far.as the figures fail to represent the average facts on the two sides of the Atlantic, the American data come fully as near, if not nearer, to the average conditions in the United States than the German ones do to the conditions in central and western Europe, for we have not in the United States the large numbers of the underfed poor who are so numerous among the working classes there. In other words, while there seems to be no reason to think that the people in New England, whose dietaries have been studied are better fed than the average people of their occupations elsewhere in the United States, there does seem to be good reason to doubt whether factory operatives, mechanics, and other wage workers in general on the continent of Europe have as abundant and nutritious food as the tabulated results of the dietary studies thus far made imply and the dietary standards of Voit and others call for.
NUTRITION AND WORKING POWER—THE BODY AS A MACHINE.
The thesis defended in this article is that, to make the most out of a man, to bring him up to the desirable level of productive capacity, to enable him to live as a man ought to live, he must be well fed. This
FOOD AND DIET. 381
is only part of the story, but it is an essential part. The principle is one that reaches very deep into the philosophy of human living.
Part of the principle is found in the fact that the human body is a machine. Its efficiency for muscular work depends upon how strongly it is built, and how much fuel is used to give it power. If a machine is strong, well built, and in good order, the work it does will, within certain limits, vary with the fuel. The bodily machine, however, dif. fers from those made of iron and steel in that its building material and fuel are from the same source, namely, the food. A well-nourished body is a machine with abundance of good material for building and repair, and well supplied with the most effective fuel.
So long as a man’s labor is the labor of his hands, so leng as his power to work depends upon his use of his body as a machine, so Jong will the amount of work he can do be more or less as he has more or less ample nourishment.
Of course, a workingman is more than a machine. His capacity for work depends upon more than brute force. There is no wish to under- rate the other factors of the wage worker’s efficiency—environment, intelligence, skill (especially in the management of machinery), ambi- tion, and will power. The point is that, among the factors, food is one, and @ more important one than is commonly realized.
ERRORS IN OUR FOOD ECONOMY.
Scientific research, interpreting the observations of practical life, indicates that we make a fourfold mistake in our food economy. First, we purchase needlessly expensive kinds of food. We use the costlier kinds of meat, fish, vegetables, and the like, when the less expensive ones are just as nutritious, and, when rightly cooked, are just as pala- table. Many do this under the impression that there is some peculiar virtue in the dear food materials, and that economy in their diet is somehow detrimental to their dignity or their welfare. And, unfortu- nately, those who are most extravagant in this respect are often the ones who can least afford it. Secondly, our diet is apt to be one-sided. It often does not contain the different nutritive ingredients in the proper proportions. We consume relatively too much of the fuel ingredients of food—those which are burned in the body and yield heat and mus- cular power. Such are the fats of meat and butter, the starch which makes up the larger part of the nutritive material of flour, potatoes, and sugar, of which such enormous quantities are eaten in the United States. Conversely, we have relatively too little of the protein or flesh- forming substances, like the lean of meat and fish and the gluten of wheat, which make muscle and sinew, and which are the basis of blood, bone, and brain. Thirdly, we use excessive quantities of food. This is true not only of the well-to-do but of many people in moderate cir- cumstances also. Part of the excess which is bought is thrown away in the wastes of the kitchen and the table, so that the injury to health
83882 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
from overeating, great as it may be, is doubtless much less than if all of the food we buy were actually eaten. Probably the worst sufferers from this evil are the well-to-do people of sedentary occupations—brain workers as distinguished from hand workers. Not everybody eats too much; indeed, there are some who do not eat enough for healthful nour- ishment. But there are those, and their name is legion, with whom the eating habit is as vicious in its effect on health as the drinking habit, which is universally deplored. Fourthly and finally, we are guilty of serious errors in our cooking. We waste a great deal of fuel in the preparation of our food, and even then a great deal of the food is very badly cooked. A reform in the methods of cooking is cone of the eco- nomic demands of our time.
PURCHASE OF NEEDLESSLY EXPENSIVE KINDS OF FOOD.
One of the ways in which the worst economy is practiced is in the buying of high-priced foods. For this error, prejudice, the palate, and poor cooking aremainlyresponsible. Thereis aprevalent butunfounded idea that costly foods, such as the tenderest meats, the finest fish, the highest-priced butter, the choicest flour, and the most delicate vege- tables possess some peculiar virtue which is lacking in the less expen- sive materials. Many people who have small incomes and really wish to economize think it beneath them to use the cheaper meats and inex- pensive but substantial groceries. Many, too, labor under the false impression that the costly food materials are somehow essential and economical. The maxim that “the best is the cheapest” does not apply to food. The “best” food, in the sense of that which is the finest in appearance and flavor and is sold at the highest price, is rarely the most economical for people in good health. The food that is best fitted to the real wants of the user may be of the very kind which supplies the most nutriment at the lowest cost.
Illustrations of the relative cheapness and dearness of food materials were given in the previous pages. What is here urged is that the facts are not understood, and that the ignorance results in great waste of hard-earned money. If a man has an income of $5,000 a year, he can afford tenderloin steak, oysters at 50 cents a quart, and young chicken and early strawberries at the high prices that prevail when they first come into the market. He can likewise, if he wishes, pay $100 for an overcoat, and his wife may indulge in twenty-dollar bon- nets. But if his yearly income is only $1,000, these luxuries will be beyond his means, and if he has but $500 a year for the support of his family, such extravagance would be unpardonable. So far as the over- coat and bonnet are concerned, everyone would agree to this statement, but when it comes to a matter of food economy a great many people of small incomes would object to the principle most decidedly. |
The larger part of the price of the costlier foods is paid for appear- ance, flavor, or rarity. The sirloin of beef is no more digestible or
FOOD AND DIET. 383
nutritious than round or rib, although it is more tender, and to cook it so as to get the finest flavor is an easier matter. Saddle Rock oysters, fresh from the shell, at 50 cents a quart, are worth no more for nutvi- ment than the ones that are sold in the same market at half the price, and a quart of milk contains as much nutriment and in fully as digest- ible form as either. Salmon has no higher food value in the first of the season at $1 than later at 25 cents a pound, and at either time it ranks as food just about on a level with mackerel, which is often sold at 10 cents per pound or less. ‘he expensive food materials are like the expensive articles of adornment. They are very nice if one can afford them, but they are not economical. The plain, substantial, standard food materials, like the cheaper meats and fish, milk, flour, corn meal, oatmeal, beans, and potatoes, are as digestible and nutritious and as weli fitted for the nourishment of people in good health as any of the costliest materials the markets afford.
In the traditional diet of the Scotchman, oatmeal and herring are very prominent. Both contain large quantities of protein and thus supplement potatoes and flour and make a well-balanced diet. These materials are of the cheapest kinds, but they are none the less nutri- tious on that account, and the strongest possible evidence of their fitness for nourishment is found in the physical and mental vigor of the people nourished by them.
The case is similar with the famous New England dishes of codfish and potatoes, pork and beans, and bread and milk. These are all com- paratively inexpensive. Potatoes furnish a great deal of fuel material in the form of starch, but they lack protein. The nutritive material of codfish consists of protein and little else. <A little fat in the form of butter added to the protein of the codfish and the starch of the pota- toes makes a well-balanced, digestible, and nutritious food. Beans are likewise rich in protein, and have large quantities of carbohydrates also, but they are lacking in fat. When they are heated in water and then baked with a little fat pork, they make a dish which is chemically rational, gratifying to the palate, highly nutritious, and very inexpen- sive. Milk is one of the most nutritious of foods. Bread is the very “staff of life.” It is not well to live on bread alone, but meat and milk go well with it, and experience anticipated chemistry by centuries in certifying to the value of such combinations. The inhabitants of the country districts of New England have not lacked in sturdiness of mind or body with such things as these for nourishment. Doubtless, one reason why this diet, at once so rational and so well chosen, came into yogue was that it was so economical. But the low cost alone could hardly explain the use of codfish and beans to furnish protein to sup- plement the carbohydrates of wheat flour, corn meal, and potatoes, and the fat of pork, and thus make fit nourishment for such people as the early New Englanders and their descendants have proved themselves to be. Their dietary practice is instinctive, but is it not one of those
384 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
cases where the experience of communities and generations has been, unconsciously, but none the less accurately and surely, formulated into unerring instinct? It was “plain living, with high thinking.” If there had been luxury to tempt, instead of necessity to restrain, doubt- less the earlier generations of people in this region might long since have acquired the evil habits of food selection which are so prevalent to-day.
The writer has spoken of the dietary usages in New England because he is personally more familiar with them and because most of the diet- ary studies thus far made are of people in that part of the country. All that he has observed implies that the conditions are much the same in other parts of the country. Theinvestigations now beginning in the West and South will doubtless throw much light upon the dietary practices there.
WASTE OF FOOD.
The studies of food consumption above cited give a number of illus- trations of the waste of food. Among the dietaries examined by the Massachusetts labor bureau was that of a machinist in Boston who earned $3.25 per day. The following figures show what the dietary furnished, its cost, and how it might have been altered:
Protein. Energy.| Cost.
Pound. | Calories. | Cents.
meted PurChAased. a); 271.20 cus anceea~ <nk eee eee ne = eae ot aka Clea seme 0. 40 5, 640 47 If one-half the meats, fish, lard, milk, butter, cheese, eggs, sugar, and molasses had been sulbtracted’..-- . s.sosce se eceloee nisis eae eee eye tetena lo -12 1, 650 19
cases re Théere:-would haveyremained|:224 ;ocssee cece. Sasol See a mete eee eee . 28 3, 990 | 28
The standard proposed by the author for a laboring man at moder- ately hard work provides 0.28 gram of protein and a fuel value of 3,500 calories. This man was engaged in rather hard work and may have needed more. His family, however, consisted only of himself and wife. The calculations allowed his wife eight-tenths as much as himself. If she had the muscular work of an ordinary housekeeper, even the reduced dietary would have been excessive for her, and a share of that thus allotted to her would have been available for her husband. In other words, by the above calculation, the family might have dispensed with one-half of all their meats, fish, eggs, dairy products, and sugar, thus saving 40 per cent of the whole cost of their food, and still have had all of the protein and much more fuel value than is called for by a standard supposed to be liberal.
In this instance no attempt was made to learn how much of the food purchased was actually consumed and how much was rejected, but, for — the sake of the health of this man and his wife, it is to be hoped that a large part of the food went into the garbage barrel. |
FOOD AND DIET. 385
In the case of a college students’ boarding club, of which three sue- cessive dietaries were studied, estimates were made of the waste. In the first dietary the quantity of food purchased was so large as to sup- ply 5,345 calories per man per day. The matron who attended to the cooking of the food and the care of the table was a very intelligent, capa- ble woman who had been selected because of her especial fitness for the care of such an establishment. The steward, who purchased the food, had been chosen as a man of business capacity. Both thought that but little of the food was left unconsumed. “AIl the meat and other available food that was not actually delivered to the men at the table,” said the steward, “was carefully saved and made over into croquettes. Men who work their way through college can not afford to throw away their food.” Butactual examination showed that about one-tenth of the food was thrown away with the table and kitchen refuse, so that the amount actually eaten was 4,825 calories. The next term the food was reduced so as to furnish 3,875 calories in that purchased; but over one-tenth was rejected, so that the amount actually eaten was 3,415 calories. In the third dietary the fuel value of the food purchased was 3,680 calories, but in this case the waste amounted to about one- seventh, so that the amount eaten was 3,110 calories. Even this was certainly a very liberal allowance physiologically, and it was entirely satisfactory to the club.
Another form of waste is that which comes with the trimming out of the bone and fat of meat at the butchers’ shops. People often do not care to utilize the bone for soup, valuable as it is for the purpose; and many object to the large lumps of fat, which is entirely natural in view of the excess of fat in our ordinary diet. The butcher, in his haste, is apt to cut out more or less of the lean with the bone and fat, and his customers are generally so little inclined to economize as to make no objections.
The waste of food of which we are speaking is really worse from the pecuniary standpoint than it seems, because so much of the material rejected at the table, as well as at the butcher’s, consists of meat, in which the nutritive ingredients are in their costliest forms. The protein of beef, for instance, is several times as expensive as that of flour.
Just where and among what classes of people this waste of food is worst it is not possible to say, but there is certainly a great deal more of it in the United States than in Europe. There may be more in boarding houses than in private families, and still more in hotels and restaurants. The worst sufferers from it are, doubtless, the poor, but the large body of people of moderate means, the intelligent and fairly well-to-do wage workers, are guilty of similar errors in this regard.
THE FOOD OF THE POOR.
That the rich man becomes richer by saving, and the poor man poorer by wasting his money, is one of the commonest facts of experience. The most wasteful people in their food economy are the peor. Not
S ADS 15
386 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
only do they waste in the same ways as the well-to-do, but often, if not generally, they are less inclined to economize, and the sad side of the story is that their wastefulness deprives them of the comforts and even necessities of life which otherwise they might enjoy.
Sometimes this bad economy is due only to ignorance. The School of Sociology in Hartford, Conn., is undertaking some inquiries into the food supply in that city. The first family visited was that of an Irish coal laborer, who earns $8 a week when he has full work. The week the inquiry was begun he earned a little over $6; the week before he had only work enough to bring $2.50. The family consists of himself, wife, and five children. The day on which the inquiry began they spent 35 cents for bread. Service as a cook in a well-to-do family before she was married had shown the mother how to make good bread. She had plenty of spare time to make it at home, and 13 cents would have paid for the flour, yeast, and other materials, including the extra coal, needed to make the day’s supply, which she had bought of the baker. She had not thought so far as to see that she might thus have easily saved 23 cents adayin thatitem alone. She was, however, wise enough not to get the highest-priced meats, and she did try in various ways to economize as best she knew how. But, nevertheless, she bought eggs at 25 cents a dozen, not realizing that they were for her a very dear food. The result of the examination of the dietary showed it to supply just about four-fifths as much nutriment as the American standard above quoted would require for people at moderate muscular work. By wiser management the family might have had the full amount at considerably less cost.
One fruitful source of this bad economy is the prejudice against the cheaper kinds of food, and the impression that the finer and costlier kinds have some special virtue. With this is a false pride which considers economy in food a thing unworthy of the buyer’s dignity. <A series of investigations lately begun in New York City have brought out some striking illustrations of this unfortunate fact. Among the families vis- ited is one of seven persons, so poor that the mother has not a dress in which she is willing to be seen on the street of even the poor quarter where she lives. She therefore stays in the house day after day, giv- ing herseif up to constant drudgery. The cost of food for the family is $14 per week, or $2 per person. The markets of New York, including those of this district, afford excellent food at extremely low prices, so that the family might be well nourished at half the expense. But these people, some of whom really wish to economize, are the victims of atheory. They think they must have “the best.” They buy the nicest and costliest cuts of beef, the tenderest chicken, the earliest spring vegetables, and other things in like manner, and pay high prices for them. They will doubtless continue to do so until they learn that — their policy is an unwise one, and why it is unwise.
FOOD AND DIET. 387
The especial attention of economists, teachers, physicians, and clergy- men is invited to this subject. To the statistician, the economist, and the sociologist, it is certainly inviting. The fundamental facts that the cost of food absorbs half the wage worker’s earnings, and that his capacity for work is so intimately dependent upon his diet, justify this assertion. ‘To the investigator there is the special attraction that the subject is comparatively new and that the field of inquiry is one which is only beginning to be explored. Itis due largely to the farsighted appreciation of this principle by Dr. Carroll D. Wright that a consider- able share of the data cited in the previous pages have been gathered, since his cooperation as chief of the Massachusetts Bureau of Labor, and later of the United States Department of Labor, made the investi- gations possible.
In his last annual report the Secretary of Agriculture has called attention to the desirability of instruction regarding food economy in the common schools of the country. A communication lately received from Dr. W. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, gives emphatic support to the same proposition. Conversations with a num- ber of leading educators upon the subject have shown a surprising and gratifying unanimity of conviction in this regard. Doubtless, the reason why the subject has not been more dwelt upon in the past is that the science has been so little developed. But the research of later years has certainly brought enough material for a chapter, and a most useful one, in the schooibooks, and there is a prospect that such a chapter will be introduced in a number of the text-books on physiology which are in use in the schools of the country.
NEED OF RESEARCH.
What is now most needed is research. Of the fundamental laws of nutrition we know as yet too little. Of the actual practice of people in their food economy our knowledge is equally deficient. It is, there- fore, most fortunate that, among the forms of inquiry which are being prosecuted by the General Government in the interests of the people, the study of the food and nutrition of man has at length come to be included. At the request of the Secretary of Agriculture, an appro- priation of $10,000 was made by Congress for the current fiseal year for investigations on the nutritive value of human foods, with a view to determining ways in which the dietaries of our people might be made more wholesome and economical. The supervision of this work was assigned to the Director of the Office of Experiment Stations, and the writer was appointed special agent in charge of the investigations. Studies of food supply and consumption, and of the dietaries of people of different occupations, have been begun in a number of representa- tive localities, both North and South. In some of these inquiries the special object is to find what food materials people actually buy, how much they pay for them, what nutriment they contain, and what is the
388 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
relation between the actual nutriment and the cost; in other cases studies of actual dietaries are made with a view to learning what are the kinds and amounts of food materials actually consumed by people in different places, of different occupations, and under different condi- tions. In the prosecution of this work the fundamental idea will be to learn as much as practicable of the food economy of our people and the . ways for its improvement. Methods of investigation and some of the more scientific problems of human nutrition are also being studied. More thorough study of the laws of nutrition of man is very much needed. On this subject there are many theories, but comparatively little exact information. The necessary researches will require much time and effort, and will be comparatively costly; but until they are made many of the conclusions regarding the nutritive value and digesti- bility of food will not rest upon a sure basis of ascertained facts, The results of previous investigations in this country and abroad are being compiled for the information of cur people. Congress having increased the appropriation for this purpose to $15,000 for the next fiscal year, the scope of the investigations will be somewhat enlarged, and it is hoped that before long results of great value will be obtained. The practical results of investigations relating to food materials and their proper use will be explained concisely and clearly in a series of popular bulletins on food economy, the first of which, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 23, Foods: Nutritive Value and Cost, has already been issued.
Until now much that has been done has been at private expense. But in this case, as in so many others, the results of individual effort have opened the way for the larger inquiry and demonstrated its use- fulness, so that public funds which are to be used in investigations for the public benefit, may be applied in this direction also. But much of the abstract research that is pressingly demanded requires peculiar facilities for its production, such as are found only in the laboratories and libraries of the great educational institutions, and is dependent for its best development upon the intellectual attrition and the oppor- tunities for continuous study which such establishments alone can offer. In the European universities these facilities are provided by the Government; with us they depend upon private munificence. The endowment of such research would bring results of the highest value to the world, and to the donor the richest reward that a lover of his fellow-man can have.
PURE SEED INVESTIGATION.
By GILBERT H. Hicks, Assistant, Division of Botany, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Under present conditions, success in agriculture and horticulture requires greater effort than ever before. Owing to the development of railways and other means of rapid transportation, farm and garden products from nearly all parts of the globe can be laid down in our markets in a very short time. Besides this, modern machinery, together with the use of improved methods in preparing and harvesting crops, and the competition of cheap foreign labor, make it an absolute neces- sity for the American husbandman to exert all his skill if he expects to secure profitable returns for his efforts. While American agriculture has made great progress in nearly all directions, one of the essential requisites to success has been largely overlooked or underestimated. We refer to the matter of planting pure seed of the best germinating qualities.
NECESSITY OF SEED INVESTIGATION AND CONTROL.
An examination of many of the seeds of common vegetables and forage plants reveals the fact that an immense amount of poor seed is sold to American farmers and gardeners. While other countries for many years have been investigating this subject, with a view to pro- tecting their agriculturists from abuses in the seed trade, no particu- lar notice has been directed to the matter in the United States, except at afew of our experiment stations. At the same time, great apathy prevails among those who purchase seed. Seed for corn, wheat, and other grain crops, indeed, is usually selected, with more or less care, from crops harvested on one’s own farm or in the neighborhood, where there is adequate means of knowing its real value, and yet it must be admitted that, under the circumstances, more frequently than not, the selection does not receive the thought and care which the importance of the results involved demands. On the other hand, in the case of clovers, grasses, and various forage and garden plants, most of the seed is purchased in the general market and the buyer has little or no knowledge of its history and excellence. It may almost be said that the average farmer buys the cheapest seed in the market and trusts entirely to luck for it to produce the desired crop. Such seed is dear
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390 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
at any price, and is the principal source of the hosts of bad weeds which are to be seen upon many farms—weeds whose eradication costs vastly more than the few cents per pound extra for which good seed might have been obtained. However, in many cases, even the highest-priced seed, purchased from reputable dealers, falls far below the standards which should prevail.
While competition might be expected to regulate this evil to a large extent, as a matter of fact there is so little accurate knowledge upon the subject of seeds among our people at large, and such a lack of pub- lic sentiment and of laws requiring dealers to furnish seed of requisite purity and germinating quality, that the buyer is placed largely at the mercy of the dealer. While seedsmen, in the main, may have per- fectly honorable intentions with respect to the wares they sell, it is still the fact that they are in the business for profit, and naturally look out for their owninterests. Itis also equally true that some of them indulge in the most fraudulent practices, and that, both through carelessness and design,a great deal of poor seed is sold in the market in this country every year.
Another evil, resulting from the lack of information upon this subject and of. seed-control methods, is found in the poor reputation which American seed has acquired in some foreign countries. It is desirable that the foreign trade in American-grown seed shall be encouraged so far as possible; but in some countries such a prejudice exists against our seed that itis very difficult for it to gain a foothold. In many cases this prejudice is entirely unfounded; but it is believed that a decided improvement may be made in the quality of American seed by calling proper attention to the subject and by the inauguration of seed-control work in this country. Such investigation will serve the best inter- ests of honorable and careful seedsmen as well as of those who purchase seeds.
ABUSES IN THE SHED TRADE.
The need of a seed investigation, and of some sort of seed control, will be more evident if we note in some detail the evils resulting from fraud or carelessness which now abound in the seed trade. One of the primary requisites to good seed is purity, and the use of adulterations forms one large class of abuses. Herein are included the admixture both of ingredients positively deleterious and of such as are merely worthless. The deleterious ingredients consist of the seeds of noxious plants or weeds. The danger from this source is largely due to the use of foreign seed.
While seed-control agitation in Europe has resulted in a marked im- provement of home stocks, it does not prevent the shipment of poorly cleaned seed to other countries, and as a result a large proportion of — our inferior seed comes from abroad. Nearly all of our worst weeds are of European origin, and by far the greater part of them have been
PURE SEED INVESTIGATION. 391
introduced into American soil through impure seed. In the case of the Russian thistle, we have a foul weed which now covers over 35,000 square miles of territory, and seriously interferes with agriculture in six or seven States. The seeds of this plant were brought to Americ a little more than twenty years ago in Russian flaxseed.
As illustrating the possibility of the introduction of foreign weeds through seed, it might be stated that of the common garden and forage plants, such as alfalfa, beet, borage, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cauli- flower, chicory, cress, endive, kohl-rabi, radish, salsify, spinach, and turnip, the seeds are grown abroad, as are also the seeds of many of our grasses, such as crested dog’s tail, sheep’s fescue, meadow foxtail, perennial rye grass, and sweet vernal grass. Of the following vege- tables about one-half of the seeds are imported: Carrot, eggplant, leek, onion, parsley, parsnip, and pepper. In the following cases a large portion, though perhaps not one-half, of the seeds are foreign grown:
Cabbage, celery, chervil, kale, and lettuce.
Of course, the same cause operates within the limits of this country, foreign idlante; when once introduced, being disseminated in impure seed. Thus the prickly lettuce is spread in clover seed, and the Rus- sian thistle to some extent in oats, flax, and alfalfa. Our native weeds are distributed to a greater or less extent in the same manner.
It. has been said upon good authority that scarcely a commercial seed is entirely free from foreign admixture, owing either to accident or design. The practice of adulterating clover seed with fine stones and sand is common in France at the present time. In one sample from that country examined last year was found 9.69 per cent of arti- ficially colored yellow quartz stones, and 13.26 per cent of uncolored brownish sand. Similar instances have been reported recently from two of our American experiment stations. Some years ago a firm was discovered in Bohemia which was engaged in supplying seed dealers with both colored and uncolored quartz sand for purposes of adultera- tion, at prices ranging from $1 to $2 per hundredweight.
Another common method of fraud consists in mixing old or “ dead” seeds with fresh material. In some cases seeds of an entirely different variety or species are thus mixed with good seed. Care is generally taken, of course, to employ seeds that are so similar in shape and appear- ance as to make detection difficult to the ordinary observer. To pre- vent the fraudulent seed from growing, and thus disclosing the fraud, it is first killed by heating or chemicals. In this way the seeds of black medic are mixed with those of red clover. ‘ Killed” seeds of char- lock are frequently mixed with those of rutabaga and turnip, which it resembles very closely. A certain family in London made a business of supplying seedsmen with “killed” seeds of charlock for twenty years. Similar practices are known to exist in America at the present time.
Another essential of good seed is vitality, or high germinating quality, and agriculture suffers greatly from failure at this point also. It is
392 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
well known that most seeds lose their vitality after a few years, and in nearly all species of plants the percentage of germinable seed de- creases rapidly after one year. Itis a well known fact that many seeds- men mix old stock with new in order to get rid of it, and frequently seed which looks plump and fresh is too old to germinate well. Old seed is often polished and oiled to give it a fresh, shining appearance. Thus it frequently results that the farmer is bitterly disappointed in his crop, although he has taken the utmost pains in preparing the soil and planting his seed.
Many persons test the germinating quality of seeds by observing whether they are smooth, plump, glossy, and of good weight. Seeds which sink readily in water, and pop when placed upon a hot stove, are usually considered good by farmers and seedsmen. None of these tests, however, are sufficient, and in some cases they are of no use whatever. Germination experiments, weighing, and microscopic exami- nation are necessary to furnish a proper knowledge of the condition of seeds.
A third necessary quality of good seed is genuineness; that is, it must be what it pretends to be. Serious disappointment often comes from planting seed which turns out to beof a different variety from that which was ordered. One of the most common practices of a cer- tain class of seedsmen is to give seed a high-sounding name, as, ‘‘Mam- moth,” “Extra Early,” “Golden Wonder,” ctc., and by lavish descrip- tions and highly colored plates the impression is conveyed that a very superior variety is being offered for sale. In most cases such plants prove to be some well-known variety whose seed could have been pur- chased for a mere fraction of the amount charged by the advertiser.
Many of our grass seeds, as found in the market, are not entirely true to name. A common method of adulteration in this case consists of mixing seed of wild or otherwise inferior grasses with that which sells for a high price. Thus tall fescue seed, which is sold for 20 cents a pound, is mixed with English rye grass, which sells for 12 cents. The two kinds of seed are so near alike that a professional seedsman can searcely tell them apart. The seed of English rye grass, being cheap, is also used to adulterate that of Italian rye grass.
More than one of these defects are liable to occur in the same pack- age of seed. This comes about naturally when, as is the case with large amounts of commercial seed, the impurity or low vitality is due to careless methods of growing and cleaning. Such seed contains a large amount of straw, dirt, chaff, and other foreign substances, as well as a great number of weed seeds. This is especially true of the seeds of imported grasses and other forage plants; also, to a considerable extent, of imported garden seeds. Many American seedsmen “rogue” their fields carefully before harvesting the seed. In this case, care is taken — to eradicate, so far as possible, all of the bad weeds. This is the only certain method of securing pure seed, for the best cleaning machines
PURE SEED INVESTIGATION, 393
ean not take out all weed seeds. However, in many instances, seeds- men ‘farm out” different seed crops, to be raised in a smaller way by farmers and others. In such cases, less care is usually taken to secure good seed than when the crop is raised by the seedsmen themselves upon a large scale. Very few kinds of grass are raised for seed pur- poses alone; hence most grass seed is obtained from meadows or places where different species are found growing together. Again, most grasses mature their seeds very unevenly, and too little care is taken that all of the seed shall be ripe. This accounts, to a large extent, for the low vitality of so much of our grass seed. Weeds are also fre- quently allowed to grow in meadows from which grass seed is taken.
Examples might be multiplied indefinitely of cases in which impure seed has been sold either through gross carelessness or with fraudulent intent. Samples of the seed of Kentucky blue grass examined at the North Carolina Experiment Station contained 35 per cent of weed seeds, dirt, and chaff. In a test at the Connecticut State Experiment Station, a few years ago, 17 samples of orchard-grass seed, obtained from regular dealers, were examined. One of them contained no orchard grass whatever, but consisted principally of perennial rye grass, a very inferior species. Five other samples contained, on an average, 25 per cent of this grass seed, while of the entire lot only 40 per cent germi- nated, the amount germinating in one case being only 44 percent. At the lowa Experiment Station, a sample of fiorin-grass seed, purchased from one of the most reliable seedsmen, and costing 42 cents a pound, was found to contain more than one-third of its weight of sand and chaff. A package marked “Burnet,” costing 16 cents a pound, con- tained 47 per cent of sainfoin, which costs 6 cents a pound. <A pound of orchard-grass seed in a sample examined contained over 1,400 seeds of sheep sorrel, a worthless weed, as every farmer knows.
The seed of clover is usually much more impure than that of any other crop. Sixty-three samples, from different parts of the United States, were tested at the Iowa Experiment Station in 1893. They showed impurities ranging from three-tenths of 1 to 67 per cent—that is, from 3 ounces to 40 pounds per bushel, and averaged nearly 34 pounds of impurities to the bushel. A test is reported from Michigan of a sample of clover seed imported from Canada, by a firm of seed dealers in this country, which contained but 10 per cent of pure clover seed, the balance being screenings, consisting mainly of weed seeds of the worst kind. These screenings were undoubtedly ordered for the pur- pose of adulterating pure clover seed before placing it upon the mar- ket, as this is a frequent practice of some dealers. In the sample above mentioned it was estimated that there were over 60,000 weed seeds to the pound.
The seeds of foreign leguminous forage plants are apt to be badly adulterated and of low germinating power. Some seed of South Ameri- ean serradella tested last year at the seed-control station in Hamburg,
1 a94 15*
8394 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Germany, showed the low vitality of only 7 per cent. One sample labeled “red clover” contained only 1 per cent of clover seed, the bal- ance being—alfalfa, 18 per cent; rye grass,4; rape seed, 14; melilotus, 18, and weed seeds, 45, among the latter being 23,600 seeds of dodder. A sample sold as esparsette contained—of Bromus mollis (a species of grass worthless for forage), 84 per cent; weed seeds, 8; chaff, 8; and no esparsette at all! When one considers that a very large proportion of the seeds of forage plants, with the exception of clover, is imported, it is very easy to see the great need of seed investigation in this country.
SEED CONTROL IN EUROPE,
European seed control may be said to have originated in 1869, when Dr. Nobbe, director of the experiment station at Tharand, Saxony, began to devote his attention to the impurities and low germinating power of many commercial seeds for which the German farmer was paying faney prices. The publication of the results obtained by him excited much comment and laid the foundation for the present exten- sive system of European seed control. At the present time there are seed-eontrol stations in all of the principal countries of Europe, more than forty existing in Germany alone. In some cases these are distinct institutions, but frequently this work is done in connection with agri- cultural experiment stations, the majority of which devote more or less attention to the subject. Some countries and states have general laws concerning fraud which may be used to cover seed adulteration; but, so far as we have been able to learn, there are no laws requiring HEng- lish or Continental seedsmen to guarantee their wares. The work of the seed-control stations, however, has created such a public sentiment in favor of pure seed that the best class of dealers submit samples of their seeds, to be tested by the stations, which furnish, for a stipulated price, a guaranty of the vitality and purity of the seed from which the samples were taken.
The station at Zurich, Switzerland, has contracts with more than seventy Swiss seedsmen, to whom are given certificates of guaranty for all their seeds. In 1892-93, according to the last report, this one sta- tion examined 5,958 samples of seed, requiring 16,427 separate tests. Of the analyses, 225 were made for private individuals and 109 were for seed dealers of Switzerland, while 3,244 samples were received from other countries. Over 80 per cent of the specimens examined were grass and clover seeds. This station has four experimental fields where open- air tests are conducted. It alsohasa garden and greenhouse, the latter being used mostly in the winter. Several germinating chambers are employed in the laboratory, part of them being kept at a temperature of 20°C, (68° F.) and the remainder at 28° C, (82° F.). The machines used at this station for sifting seeds are run with water motors. The results of the seed tests are written upon cards, upon the backs of which are printed tables giving the standards of germination and the purity
PURE SEED INVESTIGATION. 395
of the principal seeds of agriculture. Formulas of recommended grass- seed mixtures are also given. In the cellar of the laboratory is a machine for scratching the coats of hard seeds, like Lathyrus silvestris, ete., to facilitate germination; also various kinds of sterilizing and sort- ing apparatus. Experiments with weed seeds are also conducted at this station. Besides the director, Dr. Stebler, the working force con- sists of 3 assistants, 2 gardeners, and 6 women. Three of the latter attend to the germination experiments.
A large amount of seed-control work is also carried on at Vienna, Austria, under the direction of Dr. Theodor Ritter v. Weinzierl. Two thousand nine hundred and. eighty samples of seeds were tested here in the year ending July 31, 1892, an increase of 450 over the previous year. At Hamburg and some other European control stations, flour, feed, and linseed meal are examined for adulterations, in addition to the regular work. At Tharandt, Saxony, the work of counting and sprout- _ing seeds is performed to a large extent by young girls. Atall of these stations fees are charged for making the examinations, although these do not, as a general thing, cover the actual expenses, which are defrayed to alarge extent by Government appropriations. Theleading European seed-control stations publish annual reports giving the results of their work, which are distributed to their customers and others. In order to secure unanimity in their methods of seed control, the Association of Agricultural Experiment Stations of Germany, in their meeting at Halle in 1891, agreed upon a set of laws to govern them in common in this work. As experience demands, these laws are amended and new ones adopted. Their principal features are here given, as they may serve for a basis of seed control in this country, subject to modifica- tions demanded by American conditions.
METHODS OF SEED CONTROL.
The points to be determined in seed tests are genuineness, purity, germinating power, and actual value, all of which should be stated in the report at the close of the investigation.
AMOUNT OF SEED TO BE USED IN A TEST.
The required minimum amount of seed for a complete examination has been fixed in Europe as follows:
50 grams of grass seeds of all kinds, white and alsike clovers, spurry, cress, tobacco, poppy, anise, dill, fennel, caraway, carrot, parsley, celery, birch, etc.
100 grams of buckwheat, millet, red clover, alfalfa, serradella, esparsette, vetch, len- tils, rape, cabbage, dodder, mustard, lettuce, onion, chicory, flax, hemp, teasel, woad, elder, hornbeam, conifers.’
250 grams of rye, wheat, barley, oats, corn, beans, pease, lupine, soja bean, sunflower, red and sugar beet, oak, beech, ‘‘pits” of drupaceous fruits.
For ascertaining the specific weights of cereals, etc., 14 liters is required, since atleast 1 liter of clean seed is necessary. In case dupli-
396 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT. OF AGRICULTURE.
cate tests are to be made, for arbitration or other purposes, twice the above amounts must besent in. The portion of the duplicate test which is unused in the official examination is sealed in the presence of wit- nesses, labeled with all the original data, and preserved for future reference.
DRAWING THE SAMPLE.
The manner of taking the sample is of great importance, as it is absolutely necessary that those who make the test should have a per- fectly fair sample, and not, as is usually the case when a seedsman sends out specimens of stock, the very best samples which can be pro- cured of seeds selected for this purpose. On the other hand, the buyer might send in for test a specimen of the worst seed he had received. The sender of seeds, whether he be a dealer or buyer, is recommended to use a clover-seed sampler for clover and other small seeds, and a grain sampler for grains, flaxseed, umbelliferous and other compara- tively large seeds. For beet seed, grass seed in the chaff, ete., the entire amount from which the selection is made should be spread out ona clean surface and thoroughly mixed, and numerous small samples should be selected from various portions of this mass. The sample must be taken out, according to the directions given by the station, before witnesses, in whose presence it is placed, in a dry and firm receptacle, sealed, and sent forward. It is very essential that the packet in which seed is sent should be well fastened and thoroughly protected from dampness or other injury in transmittal.
SMALLER AVERAGE SAMPLE.
Upon being received in the laboratory, the first step is to procure a certain amount, called the “smaller average sample.” This is generally done by slowly pouring out the seed from a wide-mouthed flask into a dish and taking small amounts out of this stream at regular intervals by means of a horn spoon. Or it may be poured out into a flat-bot- tomed dish, thoroughly mixed, and small portions taken from different parts of the dish until the desired amount is secured.
In making the test for purity it is recommended that the following quantities shall be taken at the least:
2 grams of redtop. 5 grams of white clover, alsike, velvet grass, yellow oat grass, hair grass, sweet vernal, June grass, foxtail grass, spurry, dill, caraway, fennel. 10 grams of red and scarlet clovers, alfalfa, kidney vetch, timothy, rye grasses, meadow foxtail, orchard grass, crested dog’s tail, carrot, valerianella. 20 grams of serradella, maple, ash, elm. 25 grams of esparsette, millet, rape, turnip. 30 grams of cereals, lentils, buckwheat, vetch, flax, pine, fir, larch, hornbeam. 50 grams of red and sugar beet “balls,” peas, beans, corn, lupine, acorns, beechnuts.
In case dodder is found in any sample, the entizve amount sent in is to be used in the test.
‘PURE SEED INVESTIGATION. 397
GENUINENESS,
The fact that a certain sample is true to name is usually ascertained without difficulty from the external appearance of the seed. In doubt- ful cases it must be compared with a standard seed collection. How- ever, the genuineness of varieties, and in some cases even that of species, can only be settled by a test in the field or greenhouse, for which an extra amount is charged. In many instances a microscopic study of the structure of the seed coat is very helpful.
ORIGIN OF THE SEED.
In some European control stations, particularly the one at Hamburg, great stress is laid upon the presence of weed seeds, as enabling the investigator to determine the origin of a given kind of seed under inspection. Owing to great variations in plants, due to differences of soil and climate, it would be a desirable thing for the buyer to know where his seed originated. This knowledge is very difficult to obtain, even from the best dealers, since, as in the case of clover, for example, the seed is bought up in small lots from local dealers from all parts of the country, dumped into a common elevator, cleaned, and then sold, either at home or abroad. While in a few instances the presence of the seeds of certain weeds will indicate that the seed under examina- tion came from Europe, South America, Canada, or the United States, the ubiquitous nature of most weeds precludes any reliable data as to the origin of the seed. Especially is this true when one seeks to ascer- tain in what portion of the United States a given commercial seed originated. Hence many of the conclusions of certain foreign control stations with reference to the origin of American seeds, based upon the weed seeds present in samples, are unreliable. Nevertheless, this test is useful to some extent.
TEST FOR IMPURITIES.
All chaff, sand, and foreign admixtures of any nature, even if good seeds of a valuable plant, are to be considered as impurities; also seeds of the genuine species which are broken or have been so injured in thrashing or cleaning that they will not sprout.
After the smaller average sample has been weighed out, the seed is spread out carefully upon a smooth, glazed, black or white surface, and by means of a horn spatula the impurities are carefully separated out, weighed, and their percentage ascertained. This is recorded on blanks prepared for the purpose, and, so far as possible, the weed seeds are identified and noted. The latter point is important, since there is a great difference in the noxious character of different weeds, and in some instances a few weed seeds of one kind would outweigh, in their capacity for harm, many of another species. The impurities separated should be carefully sealed and preserved for reference for a year or more.
898 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
GERMINATING TEST.
The next step is to conduct the germinating test. There are so many influences which affect germination that this test requires even greater eare than that for impurities.
NUMBER OF SEEDS TO BE GERMINATED,
The selection of seeds for germinating tests demands painstaking effort and good judgment in order that the seeds used may fairly rep- resent the sample. Large, medium-sized, and small seeds, both dark and light colored, as well as those which represent different stages of maturity, are selected. In all cases duplicate tests are made, and these are repeated if a variation of more than 10 per cent takes place.
The following numbers of seeds are to be used in germination tests: 2 lots of 200 seeds each for clover and all seeds germinating easily (in about ten days). 3 lots of 200 seeds each for conifers, grasses, etc.
8 lots of 100 seeds each for beet. 2 lots of 100 seeds each for beech, oak, etc.
PREVIOUS TREATMENT OF SEEDS.
Various kinds of apparatus and various chemical solutions have been used in germination tests by means of which it was thought that the process of germination is hastened. All such artificial aids are to be rejected in seed-control work. However, it is recommended that seeds be soaked in distilled water or rain water for six to fifteen hours before being placed in the germinating chamber. Since the absorption of noisture is anatural process in germination, this soaking of seeds may be profitably employed, as the work is thereby hastened. One of the main difficulties to contend with in making germination tests is the fact that seeds become moldy after being confined in a moist, warm, and clese chamber for any length of time; hence the desirability of hasten- ing the vrecess by all natural means.
PLACE Of GERMINATION.
The nature of the ‘sprouting bed” is of little importance compared with a complete control of heat, moisture, and access of air, and a cer- tainty that the seeds used represent an average sample. Porous dishes, stout blotting paper, flannel or other thick cloth, and earth are used. In addition to the test in the laboratory, a duplicate one should be econ- ducted in soil in a greenhouse, if in winter, and out of doors, if the season will permit. In the case of duplicate tests the average of the results obtained should be used.
TEMPERATURE.
At most of the foreign stations a constant temperature of 20° C. (68° I.) is used, except in the case of the following grasses: Poa, Aira, Glyceria, Phalaris, Agrostis, Alopecurus; and in the case of car- rot, alder, birch, mulberry, tobacco, beet, and maize, In the instances excepted it has been found that a daily increase of temperature to
PURE SEED INVESTIGATION. 399
30° ©. (86° TF.) for six hours is advantageous, and that a much greater per cent of these species will germinate with this daily increase than with a constant temperature of 20° ©. Moreover, this variation, to some extent, represents the natural difference between the temperature of day and night.
A constant temperature is secured by placing the seeds in a germina- ting chamber heated by gas and controlled by a thermostat, Reichert’s being preferred. In ordinary tests not intended to be of a scientific nature the temperature of a living room is quite satisfactory.
DURATION OF THE GERMINATING EXPERIMENT.
After much trial it has been agreed by the German association to recommend the following periods, at the close of which the experiments shall cease:
10 full days for cereals, clovers, spurry, peas, beans, vetches, lentils, lupines, soja beans, sunflowers, rape, cabbage, mustard, dodder, flax, chicory, hemp, poppy, tobacco.
14 full days for serradella, esparsette, beet-seed balls, rye grasses, timothy, carrots.
21 full days for grasses (except meadow and rye grasses and timothy).
28 full days for meadow grasses (Poa), conifers (except white pine), birches, alders, acorns, beeches, and hornbeams.
42 full days for white pine and stone fruits.
Each day the sprouted seeds are to be counted and removed, and a careful record kept of the same. At the close of the experiment all of the moldy or “dead” seeds are counted, as well as those which remain firm and hard. Only those which sprouted are to be reckoned in the “actual” or “intrinsic” value of the test, which is obtained by multi- plying the per cent of purity by the per cent germinating, and dividing by 100. Thus, if P equals the per cent of purity, G the per cent ger- x G_ he.
100
However, the seeds which are found to be “hard shelled” (those which remain apparently fresh or unswollen at the close of the test) are to be mentioned in the report, since, as may be easily seen, in cer- tain cases an indeterminable portion of them would be likely to ger. minate if given sufficient time. Such hard-shelled seeds will be most likely to oceur in the Leguminose, white pine, ete. However, since different samples of the same species vary exceedingly in the propor- tion of hard-shelled seeds remaining, it is impossible to assign such seeds any definite value in the total per cent germinating. Sinee more seeds will germinate under favorable artificial conditions than m the open field, a deduction of about 8 per cent is made on this account.
minating, and A the actual value of the seeds tested,
GERMINATIVE ENERGY. While, as above stated, certain periods are established in the course of which different seeds are expected to germinate, it is also recognized as a fact that if the seed is fresh and otherwise good the greater part
400 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
of it should sprout in a much quicker time. This is called the period of germinative energy, and is fixed as follows:
3 days for cereals, clovers, peas, vetches, flat peas, flax, dodder, poppy, Brassica, Lepidium, radish, spurry, chicory.
4 days for cucurbits, cucumbers, beans, Poterium, spinach, lupine, buckwheat.
5 days for beet, timothy, serradella, Lotas, rye grasses, meadow foxtail, reed grass.
6 days for redtop, hair grass, Anthriscus, carrots, fennel, esparsette, sorghum.
7 days for spruce, foxtail grass, sweet vernal grass, canary grass, Deschampsia, Trisetum, Poa, crested dog’s tail, velvet grass, red and sheep’s fescue, Pimpi- nella.
10 days for fir, pines (except white pine), maple. 14 days for white pine.
TEST OF BEET SEED.
Special methods are required for testing red and sugar beet ‘“ balls,” each of which contains from 3 to 7 seeds. Three separate lots of 100 balls each are selected with great care, so as to present average samples. These are rubbed slightly between the hands, soaked six to fifteen hours, then placed on blotting paper or sand at a constant temperature of 20° C. for eighteen hours out of twenty-four, the rest of the time at 30° C.
In three, five, eight, and eleven days the balls are examined. When- ever 1, 2, or 3 seeds have sprouted in a single ball, they are carefully cut out with a knife, and the balance of the ball is removed to a second seed bed, which is numbered to correspond with the number of the seeds which have germinated in the balls placed therein. At the next examination the sprouted seeds are again cut out and the clusters removed to another bed, numbered to agree with the total number of seeds per ball which have sprouted. The test is closed on the four- teenth day, when the sum of all the germinating seed of each lot of 160 clusters, together with the number of unsprouted. seeds, is ascer- tained. The average of all the clusters is taken into account, especial care being exercised not to count as seeds any cavities which were empty at the beginning of the test.
TEST OF GRASS SEEDS.
Specific methods are also required to determine the germinating per cent of all grass seeds (properly speaking, fruits) which are likely to remain inclosed in the chaff. The chaffy fruits of tall oat grass and meadow foxtail are carefwWly handled with a suitable instrument, such as a small spatula or forceps, to ascertain whether a grain is inclosed. Or, in the case of meadow foxtail and the smaller and more tender species, the fruit is placed upon the stage of a dissecting microscope or upon a glass plate, and the light is caused to pass through it by means of a mirror. In this way imperfect grains are easily detected and rejected from the germinating test. In velvet grass and sweet vernal the outer glumes, and in Poa the glume hairs, are removed by rubbing, so that none but sound material is used.
“PURE SEED INVESTIGATION. 401
WEIGHING THE SEED,
The seeds used for each germinating test should be carefully weighed. Many experiments have shown that there is generally a definite relation between weight and germination of seed, heavier seeds usually germi- nating more promptly and giving a larger and more uniform yield than lighter ones. On this account itis desirable to note the absolute weight of a specified number of seeds from each sample tested. If preferred, several average samples of 1,000 seeds each may be weighed, instead of those used in the germinating test. The specific weight is also neces- sary in scientific experiments, although this is often omitted in ordinary
practice. HORNY AND STARCHY SEEDS.
In the case of cereals, account is often taken of the relative amounts of “horny” (glassy) and ‘‘mealy” (starchy) grains, since it is currently supposed that the value of cereals depends, to a large extent, upon this proportion. Whether a seed is horny or mealy is determined by cutting itopen. To facilitate this process, an apparatus called a “farinatom” is used to hold a large number of seeds, say 100, in an upright position, so that all may be cut in two at once.
GENERAL NOTES.
All dishes used for germination experiments should be sterilized with voiling water or chemicals before a new test is undertaken. Too much moisture must be avoided in all cases. The laboratory for germination tests should be in a cellar or basement, since this will better permit the desired control of temperature. If possible, germination experiments should be conducted by assistants who give it their undivided attention, while the identification of seeds and the care of the seed collection should be allotted to another specialist.
EQUIPMENT FOR SEED INVESTIGATION. MICROSCOPICAL APPARATUS.
A hand lens is necessary in the study of seeds. One with a large field, good focal distance, and magnifying power of ten to fifteen diam- eters is desirable. Farmers and those testing their own seeds can pur- chase a satisfactory glass of this kind of any dealer in optical goods for about 75 cents. Tor laboratory use a dissecting microscope is requisite. We know of none better than those made by Leitz, having three lenses and a camera lucida attachment.
A thick glass slide, ruled in millimeter squares, with every fifth line heavier than the rest, greatly facilitates the measurement of seeds and small fruits. Such a slide may be obtained for about $2.50.
For minute study, a good compound microscope, with the usual appli- ances and reagents, is essential. American instruments of a Conti- nental pattern are to be recommended.
402 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
For studying the structure of seeds cross sections are needed, requir- ing the use of a microtome, together with a paraffin bath and embedding material. A drying even for sterilizing sand, ete., is necessary.
GERMINATING APPARATUS.
For sprouting seeds some kind of equipment is needed in which the different factors governing germination, such as light, temperature, and moisture, can be controlled. Such an apparatus, devised by the author, is Shown in figure 83. It consists of a square chamber, strongly
eee dee eet
ae
m
or
Fic. 83.—Seed-germinating apparatus used by the United States Department of Agriculture. a, inlet pipe; b, outlet pipe; ¢, thermo-regulator; d, ‘‘guide light” gas delivery tube; e, ‘‘ guide light;"’ f, opening into water cavity; g, maximum and minimum thermometer; h, thermometer; 7, germinating pan containing pots of soil covered by bell jars; kk, outlets for carbon dioxide.
made of heavy copper, with double walls, which are filled with water by means of a pipe, a, there being an outlet at b. In case the appara- tus can not be placed in a cellar, a sufficiently low temperature may be secured by causing a continual stream of water to flow through the inlet pipe, which is inelosed in a wooden jacket kept constantly filled with ice. The lower portion of the chamber is made of sheet iron, and contains a Bunsen burner, connected with the thermo-regulator c, which
ie
PURE SEED INVESTIGATION. 403
is used to control the temperature. A second gas-delivery tube is attached at d. This connects with a “guide light” at e to prevent the larger flame becoming permanently extinguished when the gas in the thermo-regulator is cut off by a rise in temperature. At / there is a second opening into the water cavity, which may be used for a U-tube, containing mercury, to serve as a safeguard against violent pressure when a continuous stream of water is used. Two holes, g, h, lead into the chamber, for the insertion of a combined maximum and minimum thermometer and for a standard centigrade thermometer. If desired, the former aperture may be used for the admission of oxygen.
Within the chamber are three movable shelves, made of galvanized iron. Upon one or more of them copper pans are placed. In these the seeds may be germinated in several ways, as shown in figures 83 and S84, If it is desired to make a great number of tests at one time, the folds of asbestus cloth, shown at a, figure 84, are used. These are made simi- lar to the ones used in the ordinary Geneva tester, and consist of a double strip of cloth, as long as the pan is wide, and attached to brass
Fia. 81.—Germinating pan; a, ‘Geneva tester” seed bed; 6, porous clay saucers, used as seed beds in differont ways.
rods, which lie upon ledges projecting from the sides of the pan, an inch or so below the top. From the bottom of the pocket formed by the folds of asbestus a narrow strip of the same material projects into the water which covers the bottom of the pan. The seeds are kept moist by means of the water whichis drawn up by capillary attraction. Each pocket may be taken out of the pan separately, in order to examine the seeds.
In addition to this method of germination, the seeds may be sown between damp cloths or blotters placed in saucers made of porous clay, as shown at 0, figure 84. The saucers may contain sand, instead of blot- ting paper, for the reception of the seed, which in turn may be sown in pots and placed under bell jars, as shown at 4, figure 83.
The doors to the chamber are double, the outer being of copper and the inner of glass and lined with felt. Openings are provided at kk for the escape of the carbon dioxide given off in germination. The outer walls of the doors may be removed and replaced with frames con- taining white or colored glass, if the experimenter wishes to test the effect of light or different rays of the spectrum upon germination,
404 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT. OF AGRICULTURE.
The Geneva tester, so called because first used at the agricultural experimental station, Geneva, N. Y., consists of an oblong box about 14 inches in length and 11 in width, and 3 inches deep. This is pro- vided with a copper or glass cover, and resembles the pan shown in fig- ure 84, except that cloth pockets alone are used to hold the seeds. As usually constructed, the cloth is all of one piece, and touches the water only at the ends, which are extended into flaps. The advantage of sep- arate pockets, with a flap to each, is that the seeds of a single test may be removed and examined without disturbing the others. The Geneva pan or some modification of it is most generally used by American exper- iment stations, and costs about $3. An improved form is employed by Professor Goff, of Madison, Wis. In the apparatus designed by him, the upper margin of the pan is flattened out into a wide ledge, at whose outer margin is soldered a small metal trough, into which the
rim of the copper cover fits. This i
trough is kept filled with water, to make the union between the cover and pan air-tight. At intervals, along the inner margin of the ledge, holes are drilled to permit the escape of carbon dioxide and the entrance of oxygen. The wires holding the strips of cloth rest upon this ledge. A leveling apparatus, similar to the one used in the chem- ical balance, is also attached. The - advantage of the Geneva apparatus over most others is the large num- ber of tests that may be conducted
' II i i
le
iit
Fig. 85.—Nobbe’s germinating apparatus (after Harz). A, cover; B, bottom; a, seed bed; b, wall
of same; c, water cavity; d, holes where dishes containing caustic potash are placed; e, projec- tions on the cover to prevent close contact with
at one time. In some respects, however, other sprouting beds are
the bottom; J, hole for thermometer. . superior. The Geneva pan may be
placed in a warm chamber to regulate the temperature, if desired.
A simpler form of germinating apparatus, suggested by Professor Nobbe, and quite generally used in Europe, is shown in figure 85. It is made of burned, unglazed clay, 20 em. square and 5 cin. deep. In the center is a trough, 2 cm. deep, with a diameter of 10 cm., in which the seeds are placed. Around this runs a canal, 2.5 cm. wide and 3 cm. deep, containing water. At each corner is a small cavity which may be used for the reception of a glass vessel, containing caustic potash, to absorb the carbon dioxide. The cover is also constructed of porous clay, and has a slight projection in each corner to prevent it from lying in close contact with the bottom of the apparatus. In this way free access of air is obtained. A round opening in the center admits a thermometer. Enough moisture soaks through the walls of the trough to cause the seeds to germinate. They are either dry when placed
PURE SEED INVESTIGATION. 405
therein, or have been previously soaked in distilled water or rain water twenty-four to thirty-six hours.
The principal advantages claimed for this apparatus, in addition to neatness, simplicity, and utility, are asfollows: (1) Complete darkness is afforded. (2) All of the carbon dioxide is removed. Even without the use of potash, the currents of air carry this off to a great extent. (3) Evaporation is slow. (4) The temperature is easily ascertained, and may be regulated by the use of a thermostat.
GERMINATING APPARATUS FOR ILTOME SEED TESTING,
Very simple methods have been recommended for the use of farmers and others who wish to test their own seed before planting. One American experiment station recommends the use of a large pan, con-
SHEEHY
i]
alll cn ee ee j Si 1 ; il = Bill 2
Fig. 86.—Homemade germinating apparatus. A, complete; B, section.
taining about an inch of water, inside of which a smaller and shallower flat-bottomed pan is placed, with the bottom upward. A piece of com- mon cotton cloth is washed in boiling water, doubled, wet, and placed upon the inner pan, with its ends extending into the water. Between these folds of cloth the seeds are put.
A very simple apparatus for sprouting seeds is shown in figure 86. It consists of a shallow tin basin (“‘redipped” tin is best), which is given two coats of mineral paint, both inside and out, to prevent rusting. The bottom of the basin is covered with water, and a small flat-bottomed saucer of porous clay is placed inside. After having been soaked, the seeds are laid between two layers of moist blotting paper or flannel cloth. A pane of glass covers the dish, which is to be kept in a tem- perature of about 70° F. The atmosphere of an ordinary living room is Suitable, if care is taken to set the apparatus near a stove or in some warm place at night. The basin may be left partly open from time to time, to permit exchange of air and gases. By using a good-sized dish, with small saucers, and renewing the water occasionally, several kinds of seed may be tested at once, at a trifling cost. Extremes of temper- ature and excessive moisture must be avoided.
406 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
SEED SAMPLERS.
Seed triers or samplers are used for obtaining fair average samples of seed. Two kinds of clover-seed samplers, used for handling all kinds of small seeds, are shown in figure 87. The upper one is 10 cm. long and 6 mm. in diameter, and, for the last 2.5 cm. of length, tapers off to a point. On one side, about 3.5 cm. above the point, there is an oval opening which extends upward for 2.5 em. Samplers of this style cost about $1 apiece. A much better form, costing 70 cents, is shown in B. This is about the same length as A, and about one and one-half times its diameter. However, the point is sharper, the aperture twice. as large, and the instrument begins to taper at once from the top. Both
samplers are hollow, made of
4 nickel, and come in cases of the
same metal, so that they can be
carried in the vest pocket. In
B obtaining samples, they are
plunged into the cloth sacks
Fig. 87.—Clover-seed samplers. which contain the seed until the
oval opening is out of sight, when a small portion of seed is allowed
to run out of the top of the sampler into a dish. This operation is
repeated until seed has been obtained from several parts of the bag. The sample thus secured is thoroughly mixed before being tested.
GRAIN TRIERS,
Cereals and other large seeds are sampled with a grain trier. This consists of two hollow cylinders of metal, one inside of the other, about 1 meter long and 12 mm. in diameter. They are pointed at the bottom and provided with a handle at the upper end. A corresponding series of oblong openings extends at regular intervals along one side of both evlinders, which may be turned at will so as to open or close the holes. The sampler, with the holes open, is thrust into the top of a bag of grain for its entire length. When filled with seeds the inner cylinder is turned, so as to close the holes, and the sampler removed.
SIEVES.
Sieves are the most common appliance for cleaning and sorting seeds, and their method of construction is of very great importance. The frames should be made of metal, while the bottoms may consist of wire mesh or perforated plates of zine or copper. The size, form, and posi- tion of the holes are of great significance. Vigure 88 shows some of the principal forms of holes to be used. Sieves with round holes are especially suitable for fine seeds, while those with square meshes are better adapted for large, round, and coarse seeds. The sieves with oblong and triangular apertures are used for cereals, the latter espe- cially for wheat.
Perforated metal sieves have this advantage over those made of wire: The holes are more uniform and accurate, and can be made of any size
PURE SEED INVESTIGATION. 407
down to one-tenth of a millimeter. On the other hand, they suffer from the obvious disadvantage that they have a less number of holes in a given space than wire sieves, thereby presenting a smaller working surface; also in the smoothness of the metal, which lessens the hopping and rolling of the seeds; hence the latter pass through less quickly than in wire sieves.
For laboratory use it is desirable to have a set of sieves of uniform size and nested as shown in figure 89, so that they may be used sepa.
Crrererit as ao G:0.1G
PP ae aoa | 00°0°0°0°0,0 PEE CEH sisi
O90 00 000
fed oo 202020%0% EE
abaee 0.00.0
Fig. §8.--Samples of sieve meshes (a-e, after Fic. 89.—Sct of sieves for cleaning seeds. Rudolph Rober; /, after Scttegast). rately or together in any combination. The holes should be of different sizes and various patterns, as shown in figure 88. Such sieves can be obtained in this country at from 75 cents to $1 apiece.
SEED-CLEANING APPARATUS.
In addition to the set of sieves, a machine for cleaning seeds becomes useful. For this purpose a florist’s counter mill, such as seedsmen often use, costing about $35, will be found advantageous. The general prin- ciples of seed-cleaning machines are shown in figure 90, which is a cross section of a fanning mill used in Germany. ‘The seed is poured into the hopper A. Its delivery into the air chamber below is regulated by the slide 7 The falling seed is struck by a current of air caused by
_ the revolution of the fans B. This throws the lighter foreign materials, such as chaff and lumps of sand, out at the rear of the machine. The heavier seed strikes the front of oe prismatic body ec, which is fastened to the movable bottom bb, passes over a set of sieves, D, and out
408 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
at H. Ate is an oblique frame, against which a lighter grade of seed
strikes and falls below into the chamber C.
Fic. 90.—Diagram of seed-cleaning machine (after Sett hopper; B, fans; 0, chamber for seeds of medium weight; D, sieves ; E, good seed; f, hopper slide; b 6, bottom of mill; ¢ ¢c, regulating
slides; d, regulating screw.
By means of the screw
d the bottom b b is moved backward or forward, thus regu- lating the sorting of the seed. The sort- ingis also influenced by the rate at which the fans are made to revolve; the faster the movement, the sharper will be the selection of first-class seed. Machines of this kind may be pur- chased for about $15. In Europe seeds are also sorted, accord- ing to their form, by machines called
“trieurs,” which need not be described in this place.
SEED COLLECTION.
One of the principal features of the equipment should be a collection of seeds kept in glass bottles and systematically arranged. The iden:
tification of foreign seeds in the samples tested is impossible without such a collection.
The seed collection of the Division of Botany is put up in glass specimen tubes, without necks, and of two sizes, one 5 cm. long and 1.5 cm. in diameter, the other 10 cm. by 3 cm., the smaller of which is shown in figure 91. In addition to the seeds, one or two capsules of the dry fruits are inclosed whenever possible. Fleshy fruits of our native wild plants are kept in a preservative fluid of some kind. Seedlings of economic plants in various stages of germination are also kept in alcohol for reference and study. The bottles are placed in cloth-covered trays made of heavy binder’s board. The trays for the smaller bot- tles hold 100 specimens. These are placed in a case, which is to contain also, so far as possible, herbarium specimens of the plants from which the seeds were taken. A card index to the collection is of great assistance in finding specimens.
we
. — So
= = : —: 4 i= inate i = pe mast wp A aig wegen) agen
NER \)
the United States Na- tional Herbarium for
small seeds. natural size.)
(Almost
THE GRAIN SMUTS: THEIR CAUSES AND PREVENTION.
By WALTER T. SWINGLE, Assistant, Division of Vegetable Pathology, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
To the ordinary observer nothing could seem more unlike a definitely organized plant than the black, dusty mass filling the kernels of wheat or replacing an entire head of oats. Yet, as a matter of fact, the black dust is composed of thousands of germs of a minute parasitic plant. These germs, or spores, which have the same function as the seeds of higher plants, are blown about by the wind and lodge on the healthy kernels of the grain. When the kernel sprouts the spores adhering to it germinate and send a slender thread into the young plant. The slender threads of the parasite follow the growth of the plant, but their presence can scarcely be detected until the head begins to develop. The flower or grain is then filled by a mass of the threads, which absorb the nourishment intended for the grain and are soon converted into a mass of spores, again ready to fly about and infect next year’s seed.
The enormous amount of damage caused by these parasites has attracted attention since the time of the Greeks and Romans, and the history of the study of smuts and of the discovery of remedies for them within the last eight years forms one of the most fascinating pages in the records of vegetable pathology.
In the few pages at command it is hoped to present in brief outline the present state of our knowledge of smuts, and to give some account of the latest and best methods of preventing their ravages.
There are two classes of smuts which attack our common cereals, viz, the stinking smuts, which destroy only the kernel, and which have a pronounced disagreeable odor, and the loose smuts, which destroy not only the kernel but also more or less of the chaff, and which are more dusty and loose. The stinking smuts occur on wheat only, while the loose smuts are found on wheat, oats, and barley. As the different smuts have to be treated differently, it is of advantage to the agri- culturist to be able to recognize them readily. Wheat, for instance, is attacked by three species—two stinking smuts and one loose smut.
STINKING SMUTS OF WHEAT.
The two species! are very similar and can usually be distinguished only by the aid of a microscope. The smutted kernels (usually all in
'Tilletia fatens (B. & C.) Schroeter (which is the more common in this country), with globose or oval, smooth spores, and Tilletia tritici (Bjerk.) Winter, having glo- bose spores, with net-like ridges on the outer surface of the wall. Harwood states that wheat attacked by the latter species has shorter stalks than healthy grain, while that attacked by the former species grows as tall as unaffected wheat.
409
410 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the head are affected) are slightly larger and more irregular in shape than healthy grains, and are easily broken open, disclosing a dark-brown powder, which possesses a disagreeable, penetrating odor. Even a small per cent of smutted kernels will give a whole bin of wheat this char- acteristic odor. The stinking smuts are thus easily recognized if pres- ent in any considerable quantity in the thrashed grain. This is not true of any other grain smuts, however. Figures 92 and 93 show the appearance of heads of wheat attacked by the stinking smuts.
Fic. 92.Head of beardless wheat Fic. 93.--Head of bearded wheat affected affected with smut. with smut.
These smuts occur more or less abundantly in all wheat-growing countries. They are widely distributed in the United States, though fortunately there are many regions where they are still unknown.
There are no accurate statistics as to the amount of damage caused by these smuts. In many localities the loss is very large, and it can not be doubted that in the whole United States it amounts to many millions of dollars annually. Sometimes 50 or even 75 per cent of the heads are smutted, and besides the sound grain is so contaminated with the fetid spores as to be nearly worthless for flour and worse than useless for seed. The disease is often spread from farm to farm by thrashing machines. When once introduced, if left unchecked, it increases year by year until a large percentage of the crop is destroyed. It can usually, however, be more or less held in check by some form of bluestone treatment of the seed, but the treatment very rarely gives
CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF GRAIN SMUTS. A411
entire protection. Directions will be given at the close of this article for entirely preventing the smuts, no matter how bad they may have been in the crop used for seed.
LOOSE SMUT OF WHEAT.
This is very different from the stinking smuts. It has no fetid odor; attacks both kernel and chaff; ripens when the healthy wheat is just flowering; and is composed of a loose, dusty mass of spores. These spores are usually entirely blown away by harvest time, leaving only the naked stalk where the head should be. Figure 94 shows the appearance of ahead of wheat at flowering time which has been attacked by this smut, while figure 95 shows the appearance of another head at harvest time.
Loose smut is known to occur in Europe, North America, north Africa, central Asia, and the East Indies. Itoccurs in many parts of the United States, though fortu- nately it is rare or entirely absent in many localities. It does not usually destroy so large a propor- tion of the crop as do the stinking smuts; still,it often causes a loss of 10 per cent or more of the crop, and has even been reported as de- stroying over 50 per cent of a crop in Michigan. It may be present in considerable amount and yet be entirely overlooked, since the smutted heads are reduced to bare stalks at harvest time and there is no trace of it visible in the Fic.94.—Head of wheat Fia.95.—Head of wheat thrashed grain. The only way ‘Stel with loose socal with 1oove the agriculturist can be sure his crop is free from it is to examine carefully his fields when the wheat is flowering. The loose smut is to be feared, not so much on account of the great damage it causes, but because it is very difficult to prevent, and if once introduced into a field it is likely to remain year after year; for, as has long been known, the old bluestone treatments, though often very effective against stinking smuts, do not affect this species. It has also been shown by Kellerman and Arthur that the
ordinary forms of hot-water treatment are not effective against it.
From the experiments of Professor Kellerman and the writer, it can,
1 Ustilago tritici (Pers.) Jensen. A variety of this smut, which attacks the leaves and sheaths as well as the heads, has recently been reported from Egypt.
412 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
howeyer, be safely concluded that certain forms of the hot-water treat- ment are effective against loose smut, but injure the germinative power of the seed. Wheat growers should therefore be on their guard against this enemy, and try to secure seed wheat from fields known by careful examination at flowering time to be free from loose smut. It can, how- ever, be combated by treating enough wheat to furnish seed for the following year, and this should be done when any considerable per cent of the crop is affected.
LOOSE SMUT OF OATsS.!
This smut is very similar in general appearance to the loose smut of wheat, and like that species it ripens when the grain is in flower, and is blown about by the wind. At harvest time the head is often entirely bare. There is, however, a form? of this smut which destroys only the kernel and leaves the outer chaff unaffected. This is very hard to recognize, since the smutted heads look almost exactly like those of healthy plants, and can be detected only by cutting open the husks, when a mass of smut will be found in place of the kernel. Sometimes more than two-thirds of the smut is of this hidden form. This is likely to cause the grower to greatly underestimate the amount of smut.
The appearance of the ordinary form of oat smut at flowering time is shown in figures 96 and 97; its appearance at harvest time is shown in figure 98. The hidden smut can not be distinguished from a healthy head in an illustration.
This smut has probably the widest distribution of any of the thou- sands of species known to students of the group. It is known on every continent and occurs all over the United States. In fact it is an uncom- mon thing to find a field of oats entirely free from it, and the amount of damage it causes is very great. Not one in a thousand of those engaged in growing oats has any adequate idea of the extent of its ravages. Hundreds of examinations have been made in oat fields in various parts of the United States, and as a result we have very relia- ble estimates as to the amount of this smut in various localities. Esti- mates made by Professor Kellerman and the writer put the actual loss from oat smut in Kansas at $1,382,328 in 1888, $850,554 in 1889, and $911,299 in 1890; Dr. Arthur estimates the damage in Indiana at $797,526 in 1889 and $605,352 in 1890; Harwood estimates the damage in Michigan at $800,000 in 1891 and $1,000,000 in 1892. In these States the average amount of smutted heads varied from 6.5 per cent to 15 per cent. The only State where decidedly lower per cents of smutted oats have been reported is Vermont. Here Jones found an average of 1.6
1 Ustilago avenw (Pers.) Jensen.
2 Ustilago avena, levis Kell. and Swing. All hidden smuts belong to this variety, | but not all levis is hidden smut. This variety seems to be what Wille has called U. kélleri. Jensen, however, infected oats with covered smut spores and obtained one- sixth completely naked smut, i
CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF GRAIN SMUTS. 413
per cent smutted in 1892. This would represent a loss of $26,454.! It is undoubtedly a conservative estimate to place the direct loss from oat smut at 8 per cent of the crop. Even at this estimate the loss in the United States is over $18.000,000 annually, averaging $18,504,140 for the
| W/Z , MY | geez
i
Fic. 96.—Head of oats affected Fig. 97.—Head of oats affected Fig. 98.—Final stage of
with smut, but having the with smut, having the chaff smut, showing condi- chaff only partially de- only partially destroyed; de- tion of head at har- stroyed. cidedly smutty. vest time.
years 1890 to 18937. This, however, though it represents the amount that would be saved if every smutted head of oats were replaced with
! Using the estimates of this Department, putting the value of the crop at $1,626,944 _ (see Annual Report of Secretary of Agriculture for 1892, p. 420).
? Using the estimates made by this Department, putting the average value of the oat crop for these years at $212,797,614 (see Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture for 1893, p. 483).
414 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
a sound one, does not by any means represent what would be saved by a universal system of seed treatment. It has been conclusively proved that a much greater increase in yield is obtained by treating the seed than would result from merely replacing the smutted heads with sound ones. This will be explained later.
It should be remembered that it costs as much for every farming operation to raise a badly smutted crop as a cleanone, The smut does not thin out the stand and give the healthy plants more soil and better light; a smutted plant takes up as much room and requires as much moisture and nourishment from the soil as does a healthy piant. The loss by smut can therefore be said to be taken directly from the profit on the crop. Moreover, the seed from a badly smutted field is likely to produce a badly smutted crop the following year, while that from a clean field will produce a crop almost if not entirely free from smut.
By means of two newly discovered treatments of the seed, viz, with potassium sulphide, and with hot water, oat smut can be completely prevented at very little expense. The methods will be explained here- after. Fortunately, both the common and hidden forms of smut can be eradicated with equal ease. It is certain that oat growers could save many millions of dollars annually above all expenses by treating their seed oats.
SMUTS OF BARLEY, RYE, AND CORN.
Barley is attacked by two loose smuts, both very similar to the loose smutof oats. Inthe covered barley smut! the spores are often retained till harvest by a thin membrane, inclosing the smutted kernel and chaff. The naked barley smut,’ on the other hand, is like the ordinary form of oat smut, and is usually all blown away long before harvest. Beth kinds of barley smuts can be completely prevented by the treatment recommended further on.
Rye smut*® attacks the leaves and stems of this cereal, and some- times weakens the piants considerably. Jensen thinks it can be pre- vented by treating five minutes with hot water at 127° F.
Corn smut‘ is of widespread occurrence, but rarely causes more than a fraction of 1 percent loss. No method of prevention is as yet known.
PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR TREATING SEED FOR SMUT. POTASSIUM SULPHIDE TREATMENT FOR OAT SMUT.
The potassium sulphide should be of the fused form known as ‘liver of sulphur.” It can be obtained of any druggist for from 25 to 50 cents per pound, depending on the quantity purchased. It should be kept
1 Ustilago hordci (Pers.) Kell. & Swing. % Urocystis occulta (Wallr.) Rabenh. 2 Ustilago nuda (Jens.) Kell. & Swing. 4 Ustilago maydis (DC.) Cda.
CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF GRAIN SMUTS. 415
in a tight glass vessel, protected from the air, until ready for use. Dis- solve 14 pounds in 25 gallons of water in a wooden vessel; a tight barrel is very good for the purpose. The lumps of potassium sulphide dissolve in afew minutes, making the liquid a clear yeliowish-brown color. After thoroughly stirring, put in about 3 bushels of oats and agitate well to insure wetting every grain. The solution must completely cover the grain and be several inches above it, as the grain scaks up some of the liquid. Leave the oats in this solution twenty-four hours, stirring several times during the day to be sure every kernel is wetted. Then spread out to dry. In treating large quantities of seed, a hogshead or a wooden tank might be used. The solution should not be used more than three times. In no case should any metal be allowed to come in contact with the liquid. This treatment is thoroughly effective for oat smut, and is worthy of trial for stinking smut of wheat.
THE HOT-WATER TREATMENT FOR STINKING SMUT OF WHEAT AND OAT SMUT.
Provide two large vessels, preferably holding at least 20 gallons. Two wash kettles, soap kettles, wash boilers, tubs, or even barrels, will do. One of the vessels should contain warm water, say at 110° to 120° F., and the other scalding water, at 132° to 133° F. The first is for the purpose of warming the seed preparatory to dipping it into the second. Unless this precaution is taken it will be difficult to keep the water in the second vessel at the proper temperature. A pail of cold water should be at hand, and it is also necessary to have a kettle filled with boiling water from which to add from time to time to keep the temper- ature right. Where kettles are used a very small fire should be kept under the kettle of scalding water. The seed which is to be treated must be placed, half a bushel or more at a time, in a closed vessel that will allow free entrance and exit of water on all sides. For this purpose there can be used a bushel basket made of heavy wire, inside of which is spread wire netting, say 12 meshes to the inch; or an iron frame can be made at a trifling cost, over which the wire netting can be stretched. This will allow the water to pass freely and yet prevent the passage of the seed. A sack made of loosely woven material, as gunny sack, can be used instead of the wire basket. A perforated tin vessel is in some respects preferable to any of the above. In treating stinking smut of wheat, the grain should first be thrown into a vessel filled with cold water; then, after stirring well, skim off the smutted grains that float on top and put the grain into the basket or other vessel for treat- ment with hot water. This skimming is entirely unnecessary with other grains, and even with wheat when affected only by the loose smut. Now dip the basket of seed in the first vessel, containing water at 110° to 120° F.; after a moment lift it, and when the water has for the most part escaped plunge it into the water again, repeating the oper- ation several times. The object of the lifting and plunging, to which
416 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
should be added also a rotary motion, is to bring every grain in contact with the hot water. Less than a minute is required for this preparatory treatment, after which plunge the basket of seed into the second vessel, containing water at 132° to 133° F. If the thermometer indicates that the temperature of the water is falling, pour in hot water from the kettle of boiling water until the right degree is attained. If the tem- perature should rise higher than 133°, add a little cold water. In all cases the water should be well stirred whenever any of a different temperature is added. The basket of seed should very shortly after its immersion be lifted and drained, and then plunged and agitated in the manner described above. This operation should be repeated six or eight times during the immersion, which should be continued ten minutes, In this way every portion of the seed will be subjected to the action of the scalding water. In practice it will be found best to have a man
No.l. .
Wari-watér
a
Fia. 99.—Diagram showing arrangement for treating smut.
or boy devote his whole time to keeping the temperature at the right point, adding a little hot water if it falls below 132° and a little cold if it gets above 133° F.1. Another man should handle the grain and immerse and drain the portion being treated as directed above. After removing the grain from the scalding water, spread on a clean floor or piece of canvas to dry. The layer of grain should not be over 3 inches thick. If it can not be spread out at once, dip in cold water and set to one side until it can be attended to. It dries better if spread while still hot. Another portion of grain can then be treated, and so on until all the seed has been disinfected. Directions for drying the seed will be given further on.
1A good thermometer should be used, preferably one having the bulb protected against injury from striking the sides of the vessel. ‘The large thermometer used in dairy work is very good for this purpose.
CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF GRAIN SMUTS. 417
The important precautions to be taken are as follows: (1) Maintain the proper temperature of the water (132° or 133° F.), in no case allow- ing it to rise higher than 135° or fall below 130°; (2) see that the vol- ume of scalding water is much greater (at least six or eight times) than that of the seed treated at any one time; (3) never fill the basket or sack containing the seed entirely full, but always leave room for the grain to move about freely; (4) leave the seed in the second vessel of water ten minutes.
When steam is available, it can be conducted into the second vessel (containing the scalding water) by a pipe provided with a stopcock, and this answers better than any other method for heating the water and for elevating the temperature from time to time. A good arrange- ment for hot-water treatment is shown in figure 99.
A poie is provided having a large hole at one end, which passes over a small peg in the top of the first post. This should allow the pole to move both up and down and sidewise. By swinging the pole around the basket can be filled at the bin, then immersed a moment in vessel No.1, and then swung over to vessel No. 2, where the grain is treated ten minutes. Every minute or so the basket must be raised entirely out of the water and allowed todrain. The pole can be supported on a peg or fork in the second post while the basket is draining. Finally, the pole is lifted entirely over the second post and the grain is spread out to dry. Of course this arrangement is necessary only when large amounts of seed are to be treated. For small amounts a tub of warm water and a common wash boiler on a cook stove for the scalding water will answer every purpose.
There are many possible modifications of the hot-water treatment that are more easily used than the one here given, but whenever they have been tested on a large scale they have proven uniformly less successful in preventing smut than the method here given, and do not give as great an increase in yield. They are, moreover, not nearly as convenient as the potassium sulphide or bluestone and lime methods.
HOT-WATER TREATMENT FOR LOOSE SMUT OF WHEAT AND FOR BARLEY SMUTS.
In treating wheat for loose smut, the grain must be soaked four hours in cold water, then set away about four hours more in wet sacks, and finally treated as directed above, but only for five minutes, at 152° F. In planting, use one-half more seed per acre to compensate for the seed killed by the treatment. For preventing both of the smuts affecting barley the grain should be soaked as directed above and treated five minutes at 130° F., 2° lower than for wheat.
COPPER-SULPHATE TREATMENT FOR STINKING SMUT OF WHEAT.
_ This consists in immersing the seed wheat twelve hours in a solution
made by dissolving 1 pound of commercial copper sulphate in 24 gal-
lons of water, and then putting the seed for five or ten minutes into” 1 A 94-—16
418 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
limewater made by slaking 1 pound of good lime in 10 gallons of water. The treatment is cheap, easily applied, and very effective. The wheat does not grow quite so well as when treated with hot water, but the dif- ference is inconsiderable. This treatment is only for stinking smuts of wheat and covered barley smut. It should never be used for oat smut.
DRYING THE TREATED SEED.
All of the seed treatments leave the seed wet and necessitate drying before planting. The grain should be spread in a layer 2 or 3 inches deep, and should be shoveled over twice or three times a day. It will then dry very quickly. A clean floor is a good piace to dry the grain, but a better method is to take canvas sheets about 5 feet by 12 or 15 feet and spread out in the sun. Such sheets, with the grain, can be taken in at night. If spread over an open lattice work a few feet from the ground, drying is greatly facilitated. Such sheets, of the heaviest duck- ing, should not cost over $1.75 each, and can be used for years. The grain can be sown broadcast long before it is thoroughly dry, but for drilling it must be nearly dry. The seed can be treated months before being used, and dried and stored ready for planting. In case of the stinking smut of wheat there is danger of the seed being reinfected by contact with living spores, though with other smuts the danger is almost absent. In treating wheat against this smut, tools and sacks should be disinfected, and if a floor is used for drying, it should first be washed with a solution of bluestone (1 pound to 10 gallons of water) before spreading the grain. Canvas sheets and sacks can be disinfected easily by plunging into boiling water.
EXTRA INCREASE IN YIELD AS A RESULT OF SEED TREATMENT.
One of the most remarkable and unexpected results of the hot-water and potassium-sulphide seed treatments was an increase in the yield beyond the amount that would result from merely replacing every smutted head with a sound one. This extra increase was first noticed ° by Professor Kellerman and the writer in experiments made with oats in 1889, where the hot-water treatment gave an increase in yield more than twice as great as would be calculated from the per cent of smut in adjoining untreated plats. This remarkable result was obtained in all subsequent trials, and was noted also by Jensen and Dr. Arthur. In the various experiments of the investigators named the extra increase in yield ranged from one-half to six times the amount to be expected from replacing the smutted heads with sound ones, and even higher ratios when the percentage of smut has been small. On an average the increase in yield has been double or treble what would result from suppressing the visible smut. In consequence of this remarkable benefit, comparable with what Mr. Galloway has shown to occur in using Bordeaux mixture on the potato and some other plants, it will
CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF GRAIN SMUTS. A419
undoubtedly be profitable to treat oats for seed when only 1 or 2 per cent is smutted.
Potassium-sulphide treatment has given uniformly a large extra increase in yield when used in treating oats for seed. The extra in- crease has been very decided, almost equal to that resulting from treat- ment of seed with hot water. The copper-sulphate and lime treatment gives no extra increase whatever with oats.
Jensen has found a similar extra increase to result from treating seed barley with hot water, and Professor Kellerman has reported extra increase in yield in treating wheat for stinking smuts with hot water and also with several copper compounds. There was, however, an enormous amount of smut present in many of the untreated plats, reaching 75 to 80 per cent. Where there is only a small per cent of smut in the untreated wheat it is probable that little if any extra increase in yield would result from treating the seed.
As to the cause of the extra increase in yield as a result of seed treatment opinions are divided. It is probably due in part to an increased germinative power of the seed, causing them to sprout sooner and the young plant to grow faster. It has been shown that oats treated with hot water germinate much more quickly than do untreated oats, even if the grain has been dried. Professor Kellerman has shown that potassium sulphide has the same effect on both oats and corn, and further that, even after five and one-half months, seed which had been treated with hot water or potassium sulphide germinated quicker than untreated seed. Dr. Arthur claims that this hastened germination is due to the liberation at once of large quantities of diastase by the action of heat, enabling the young plant to avail itself rapidly of the reserve of starch stored in the seed. This does not, however, account for the action of potassium sulphide. Another possible explanation of the observed extra increase in yield has been put forth by Jensen. He suggests that the smut may attack many plants, which it simply weakens and stunts, without ever developing its sporesin the head. Such injury would of course be prevented by any treatment that killed all the smut adhering to the grain. It is highly probable that a part of the extra increase is due to the higher germinative energy of treated seed and a part to the prevention of all injury, however slight, from the smut.
DUTY OF SEEDSMEN.
It is confidently believed that by the aid of these improved methods of seed treatment the enormous losses from the grain smuts will eventu- ally be prevented in a great measure. Every year more growers treat the grain intended for planting, and others often profit by purchasing clean seed from the resulting crop for use the following year.
It is to be hoped that all reputable seed firms will treat the grain they sell for seed. Oats purchased at high prices for seed have been known to yield crops more than half smutted. In Kansas in 1890 Professor Kellerman and the writer found that nearly one-fourth of the
420 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
sorts of oats grown from seed obtained from dealers was badly smutted, one-fifth showing over 11 per cent of injury, and one-tenth over 20 per cent. The danger exists in even greater degree with other cereals, for the wheat smuts, for instance, do not occur at all in some regions and can readily be brought in by obtaining seed from infested fields,
SUMMARY.
(1) Smuts of cereals are caused by minute parasitic fungi, the spores of seeds of which form the black, dusty mass which replaces the head or kernels of grain. | |
(2) These spores are very minute and blow about and adhere to the kernel before it is planted. When the kernel sprouts the spores also germinate and send delicate threads into the young seedling. These threads follow the growth of the plant and fill the head or kernel as soon as formed, and there develop a mass of spores instead of kernels.
(3) Two stinking smuts attack the kernels of wheat, filling them with a mass of fetid spores. These smuts cause great damage, but are easily prevented by treating the seed wheat.
(4) Loose smut of wheat attacks the whole head and converts it into amass of loose and dusty spores. It causes considerable damage in some localities and is more difficult to prevent than other smuts.
(5) Loose smut of oats is very similar to that of wheat. It causes over $18,000,000 loss annually in the United States. It can be prevented easily and cheaply.
(6) Barley is attacked by two smuts and rye by one, all of which can be prevented. Corn smut is widespread, but fortunately causes only a very slight loss. As yet no effective preventive is known.
(7) Oat smut can be most easily prevented by soaking the seed twenty- four hours in a 1 per cent solution of potassium sulphide.
(8) Stinking smut of wheat and oat smut can be easily prevented by treating with hot water at 132° F. for ten minutes. By previously soaking the seed in cold water, loose smut of wheat, barley smuts, and rye smuts can be prevented by a shorter immersion in hot water.
(9) Stinking smuts of wheat can be prevented by soaking the seed twelve hours in a 1 per cent solution of copper sulphate and then dip- ping the seed in limewater. This treatment is useless for other smuts.
(10) In treating oats for smut by either potassium sulphide or hot water, an increase in yield is obtained beyond and above the amount that would result from replacing the smutted heads with sound ones. The increase in yield from seed treatment is usually two or three times as much as the apparent loss from smut in untreated fields.
(11) Seed dealers should treat all cereals offered for sale, both to increase the yield and to prevent the introduction of smuts into locali- ties where they are now unknown. |
GRASSES AS SAND AND SOIL BINDERS.
By F. LAMSON-SCRIBNER, B. Sc.
Agrostologist, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
It is stated in the annals of creation that the first vegetation called forth upon the face of the earth, after the separation of land from water, was grass, and this, as appears now, was for the immediate purpose of binding the soil together and protecting it from the action of the winds and waves, which combined todestroy it. The force of this idea is best appreciated by those who live upon our coasts, where the constant work- ing of tides and waves, increased at times by furious gales, is ever a menace to their lands and dwellings. <A never-ceasing battle is being waged between water and land, the former having the wind for its strongest ally. The digging out and undermining by swift currents, the constant beating of the waves upon lake and ocean shores, and the perpetual shifting about of vast quantities of loose sands by the force of the winds cost our country many millions of dollars annually. Val- uable tracts of land are buried beneath worthless sands, or possibly are washed out to sea; harbors are rendered unsafe or are entirely obstructed, and important channels of commerce are closed. These are some of the important effects of the action of the winds and waves in their battle with the land, which occasion the annual enactment of a “river and harbor bill.”
Those living by the seashore have seen these destroying forces held in check by humble grasses whose stems bend to the elements like the fabled reed, but whose deep and widely penetrating roots bind the sands together in a network of strong fibers, defying the encroachment of the waves upon their domain.
These sand-binding grasses are in nature the allies of the earth in its battles with the warring elements, and may be made the direct allies of man in his efforts to protect his interests in the land. With their aid it has been possible for Holland to defy the waters of the North Sea and hold the lands so laboriously wrested from it. Other nations, by their aid, have been enabled to maintain valuable harbors or to preserve for the farmer large and fertile areas for tillage. In less enlightened times than ours, laws have been enacted for the careful preservation of the more important of these grasses. The wisdom of such laws was never more manifest than it is to-day, and their enactment may be said to be scarcely less important than those designed for the preservation of our forests. Such a law might well be incorporated in, or made sup-
plementary to the river and harbor bill. 421
422 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
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GRASSES AS SAND AND SOIL BINDERS. 423
The great labor and expense involved in clearing river channels, maintaining levees, and protecting our harbors could in a short time be very much reduced by the intelligent planting of sand or soil bind- ing grasses and securing their preservation from wanton destruction, The many inquiries for information which have been addressed to the United States Department of Agriculture relative to sand-binding grasses and those adapted to holding embankments of railroads, canals, etc., clearly indicate the importance of the subject, and that it possesses more than a local interest.
All sand or soil binding grasses have strong creeping rootstocks, or rhizomes, often familiarly called “roots,” which are really modified underground stems. The true roots of grasses are always fibrous, but these are generally produced in great abun- dance, and when very long, as they often are, their effect in binding the soil is also important. A distinction may be made between sand bind- ers and soil binders; the latter, growing on loamy or clayey soils, form a compact turf. With these may be classed the mud binders— the grasses of the bogs and those of the muddy Shores of lakes and rivers. Of the true sand binders there are two forms—first, the larger and coarser sorts, which are exposed to the most severe action of the waves or winds, hay- ing their rhizomes deeply buried in the sands, these sending up leaf-bearing and flower-bear- ing branches, which appear in larger or smaller scattered tufts (see fig. 100); and, second, those whose prostrate stems creep over the surface of the sands, emitting at frequent intervals long, fibrous roots. The grasses of the first class are of little or no value for forage; those of the second class form close, leafy mats over the surface of the ground, and usually possess considerable value for grazing or for lawns on very sandy soil. Fig. 101.—Marram grass (Am-
mophila arenaria).
DISTRIBUTION OF SAND-BINDING GRASSES.
It is interesting to note the distribution of sand-binding grasses. The fact is well known that the different species of animals and plants occupy different areas of the earth’s surface, some being limited to the region of the tropics, others to the temperate regions, and others still to the confines of the frigid zones; some exist only in the Old World, others only in the New; some are limited to the northern hemisphere,
424 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
others appear only in the southern. Changes of latitude bring about a change in the species, and the plants of the coastal regions are often quite different from those of the interior. Very few species are cosmo- politan. With plants there arein addition soil limitations; some grow only in sands or sandy soil, others in marls or clays or loams; some where the soil is very dry, others where it is wet. There are very few strictly aquatic grasses.
To the far north, on the Atlantic coast, sea lyme grass is the most prominent sand binder. Below the region occupied by this grass,
, which does not extend south of Maine, mar- ram is the leading species. This in turn gives way, south of Maryland, to bitter panic grass, which extends to Florida and around some parts of the Gulf coast. There are several important sand binders among the littoral grasses along our southern borders, and among them may be mentioned St. Augustine grass and creeping panic. The ocean shores of other countries have their peculiar sand - binding grasses, two of which are described below. Some of these foreign sorts may be intro- duced into this country to advantage; for special purposes or locations they might prove to be superior to our native species.
In the interior regions, away from the in- fluence of salt water, the sand binders are usually represented by other but no less valu- able species. The long-leafed sand grass, ex- tending from the shores of the Great Lakes
| westward to the Rocky Mountains, and Red-
field’s grass are the principal sand binders of \ | this region, although marram grass and the
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sea lyme grass are found to a limited extent | b along the borders of Lakes Michigan and Su- jc perior. Our grasses have been little studied F 14. 102.—Upright sea lyme grass in the line of the present subject, particularly
(Elymus arenarius), in the arid regions of the Southwest and along the Pacific coast. Doubtless, species occur in these sections quite as valuable as any of those already named. In strictly alkaline soils, alkali grass is a very strong sand binder, and may be as useful in re- claiming these lands as is the usar grass in northern India. Fine-top salt grass, which is more common in Arizona and New Mexico, affects similar soils, and may be even more valuable. There are also several species of Muhlenbergia which ought to receive attention in this con- nection, notably Muhlenbergia pungens. Running mesquit and several species of Bouteloua, or grama grasses, are valuable sand and soil
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GRASSES AS SAND AND SOIL BINDERS. 425
binders of the mesas of Arizona and western Texas. These last are useful also for pasturage. Along the Gulf coast of Texas and the shores of southern California ‘‘salt cedar” is doubtless a good sand binder, and the curious dicecious Jouwvea, a grass similar in habit to alkali grass, and growing naturally along the sandy coasts of Lower California, is evidently an important grass to be considered in this connection.
The propagation of sand-binding grasses may be effected by seed when this can be procured, but the better way in most cases is to col- lect and transplant cut- tings of the creeping rhizomes. These are not difficult to obtain, and a comparatively small amount will serve to cover a considerable area, for they may he cut up into single joints, and every joint will serve to establish a new plant. This method is applicable to turf formers, also used to hold embankments, such as couch grass, Hungarian brome, Johnson grass, and Ber- muda grass.
Asalready stated, the question of the impor- tance of grasses as sand binders has up to this time received very little attention, excepting in one or two cases, and in the present paper it is hardly possible to do more thancall attention to its real interest and Fig. 103.—Rolling spinifex (Spinifex hirsutus). importance, and briefly note some of the grasses already known to be or most likely to prove useful as sand and soil binders.
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THE SAND BINDERS OF THE SEASHORE.
The best known and one of the most important of all sand binders is marram grass, or sand reed (fig. 101). The stout, long-leafed, coarse Stems which spring from extensively creeping rootstocks usually grow
426 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
in tufts (see fig. 100). They are 2 to 4 feet high and the stems are solid, a character rather uncommon among grasses. As thesandsdriftin around the plants new branches are formed in the lower leaf axils, so that the stems appear to rise up with the increasing depth of the sands. The densely flowered panicle is from 3 to 6 inches long (fig. 101, b), and usually pale straw colored. The strong rootstocks of marram grass often grow to the length of 20 or 30 feet, and finally become closely interwoven, forming a dense, mat-like mass, very resistant to the action of the waves and winds.
This grass is common all along the coast. of north- ern and western Europe, and on our Atlantic coast from Virginia northward. Below its southern limit grasses of other kinds take its place. It is not con- fined to salt-water regions, for it grows in consider- able abundance along the shores of the Great Lakes. Itis of comparatively little value for hay or pasturage, but for binding the loose and drifting sands of the sea or lake shores, or for resisting the action of the waves, it probably has no superior in the region over which it extends.
For the purposes just named the value of mar- ram grass has been recog- nized for many years: In the time of William III an act of Parliament. was passed to preserve this species and the sea lyme grass, described below, along the Scottish coast, and laws were subsequently made, both in England and in Hol- land, prescribing penalties for the wanton destruction of these grasses; even the possession of any of the stalks within 8 miles of the coast was treated as a penal offense. Many years ago it was as customary every spring to warn the inhabitants of Truro and some other towns on Cape Cod, Mass., to turn out to plant marram grass as it was in the inland towns to turn out and mend the roads. This was required by law, with suitable penalties for its neglect, and took place in April.
Fic. 104.—St. Augustine grass (Stenotaphrum americanum).
GRASSES AS SAND AND SOIL BINDERS. 427
Marram grass has been introduced along the Pacific coast, near San Francisco, for the purpose of binding the sand dunes there; and, as an illustration of how valuable a thing may seem if it is far enough removed from us, the seed for the cultivation of this grass at the point mentioned was obtained from Australia. From the fact that the plant grows along the Great Lakes, it is evident that itis as valuable for fresh-water shores as for the seashore. An English writer states that it will grow very well on sandy clay soil, far removed from the coast, and hence itis very likely to prove valuable for keep- ing together railroad embank- \,'
ments or the banks of canals, \ ey, ditches, etc., where fodder rd
grasses are not desired, or where a green and close turf is no ob- ject. This grass may be propa- gated by seed, but more rapidly \ and certainly by root cuttings, jo which are not difficult to pro- cure, and which are easily planted in localities where it is desired to introduce it. These cuttings are planted in rows 6 feet apart and 2 feet distant in the rows, being buried from 12 to 15 inches in the sand. The seed is occasionally offered for sale by our leading seedsmen.
The strong roots are capable of being made into ropes, and on some parts of the English and Kuropean coasts they are woven into coarse mats, while the stems are used for thatch. The stems and leaves have been used for making a kind of coarse paper.
‘In the latter part of the last century,” saysSowerby, “alarge district on the western side of Scotland, near the Moray firth, was completely destroyed, and rendered in a few years as desolate as the Sahara, by the advance of the sand from the shore, owing to the wanton destruction of the marram that grew upon it.”
In contrast with this, the town and harbor of Provincetown, once called Cape Cod, one of the largest and most important harbors of the United States, owe their preservation to this grass. At one time Prov- incetown had a “beach-grass committee,” whose duty it was to enter
Fig. 105.—Louisiana grass (Paspalum compressum),
428 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
any man’s inclosure, summer or winter, and set out marram,! or beach grass, as it was called, if the sand was uncovered or movable. Sand- storms, once the terror of the town, were thus entirely prevented.
Hardly Jess important than marram as a sand binder is the upright sea lyme grass (fig. 102). This grass has stout, smooth culms, 3 to 6 feet high, and long, sharp-pointed, rigid leaves. The pubescent and usually three-flowered spikelets are an inch long and disposed inanarrow spike, 6 to 12 inches long (fig 102, b). In habit of growth and general appear- ance this lyme grass has a Striking resemblance to marram. The leaves are shorter and broader at the base, the spikelets are more than one-flow- ered and downy upon the outside, while in marram the spikelets are smooth and always one- flowered.
The upright lyme grass 18 Common all along the coasts of north- ern Kurope and the Brit- ish Islands, and on our western coast as far south as Oregon. A “closely related species, having similar charac- ters and habit of growth, occurs on the Atlantic coast from Maine north- ward, and on the shores of Lake Superior.
Fig. 106.—Coast couch grass (Zoysia pungens). Theupright lymegrass and marram are often found growing together. Sinclair, in referring to this fact, states that the sand hills near Skegness, Lincolnshire, Eng- land, ‘were formed by the sea lyme grass and marram; the latter, with its tufty habit of growth, formed the summit of the hill, while the broad-spreading roots and leaves of the lyme grass secured the base and sides. These two grasses, when combined, seem admirably adapted by roture for the purpose of forming a barrier to the encroach-
'The name ‘‘marram,” or ‘‘murram,” applied to this grass, is supposed to be derived from the Gaelic muram, or the Danish marhalm, meaning sea straw. In Denmark the name ‘marehalm” is applied to Llymus arenarius, ‘“ klittag” being the common name of Ammophila arenaria.
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GRASSES AS SAND AND SOIL BINDERS. 429
ment of the sea. What sand the marram arrests and collects about itself the lyme grass secures and keeps fast.”
The cultivation of upright lyme grass for the purpose of binding loose sands by its creeping roots was practiced more than a hundred years ago, as mentioned by Schreber in his great work on grasses. Under ordinary conditions this grass possesses no value as a forage plant. The Digger Indians of the Northwest use the seeds for food, and, as it springs up around deserted lodges, it is called by the inhabitants ‘‘rancheria grass.”
South of the range of mar- ram grass, on our Atlantic coast, bitter panic grass may be utilized as a sand binder. It grows in sands along the seashore from Connecticut southward, and along por- tions of the Gulf coast. Near its northern limit it appears only in a reduced form, scarcely more than a foot high, with narrow, few-flow- ered panicles. Along the coast of the Carolinas it be- comes larger, attaining a height of from 2 to 5 feet, and has large, many-flowered panicles, and in general ap- pearance closely resembles forms of switch grass, pres- ently to benoted. Thestems are coarse and hard, some- times half an inch in diam- ) eter at the base; the leaves FG. 107.—Long-leafed sand grass (Calamovilfa longifolia). are firm in texture, very bitter to the taste, and, with the sheaths, are pale green, glaucous, or sometimes straw-colored. The spikelets are larger than those of switch grass. The strong, spreading rootstocks are effectual in holding the loose sands of the coast, to which this grass appears to be confined. Elliott, who first described bitter panic in his Botany of South Carolina and Georgia, states that it grows among the sand hills on the seashore. It is abundant on the islands south of Mississippi Sound. These islands, according to Prof. S. M.
‘Tracy, are almost wholly made up of drift sands, the outer sides being
dunes from 10 to 30 feet high, while the middle of the island is usually occupied by swamps or lakes. This panic is most abundant ou the
430 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
outside of the dunes, where it is exposed to the winds and waves, and where it certainly serves well for binding the sand.
Switch grass, a species closely allied to bitter panic, often grows along the coast, and is of considerable value as a sand binder. It has powerful creeping rootstocks, and is easily propagated, either by seed or by root cuttings.
A conspicuous grass of our southern shores, and belonging to the class of sand binders, is water oats, or beach grass. This grass grows in the drifting sands along the sea- shore from Virginia to Florida, and along the Gulf coast west- ward to Texas. It has a stout upright stem, 3 to 5 feet high, very long, rigid leaves, and showy, nodding panicles of broad, whitish spikelets. The habit and general characters of beach grass indicate qualities of a first-class sand binder for the coast of the Southern and Gulf States. The large panicles are gathered for dry bouquets, and are often seen in our markets along with the plumes of pampas grass.
On the coasts of southern California there is a beach grass ( Uniola condensata) very closely allied to that above described. It is similar in habit, but the spikelets are smaller and more crowded in the narrower pan- icles.
Another species of Uniola (Uniola latifolia) is common in the Middle and Southern States
: away from the seashore. This,
Fig. 108.—Redfield’s grass (Red/fieldia flexuosa). aside from bein ga highly orna-
mental grass in cultivation, is valuable for binding the banks of streams and rivers, or embankments which are not too dry.
A grass of lesser growth than those above described, but one of much value as a sand and soil binder, is salt grass, or alkali grass, as it is called in the interior. It is a common grass along our Atlantic and Pacific coasts, and in the deserts and alkaline soils of our Western’ States and Territories. The leafy culms, which vary from 6 to 18 inches in height, spring from tough, scaly rootstocks. The leaves are unusually
GRASSES AS SAND AND SOIL BINDERS. 431
rigid and the stems are hard and wiry, so that the grass has very little value as a forage plant. The straw-colored spikelets are united into a rather small and unusually compact panicle or head. This grass can be recommended for binding loose sands and embankments near the seashore or in the alkaline regions of the interior. It should be rigidly excluded from arable lands, for it is hard to eradicate when once estab- lished, and the matted root-
stocks form a sod that is ex- | ceedingly difficult to break ; # with a plow. wT
In referring to this grass, pa at in his Botany of the Death m if yf Valley Expedition, Mr. Co- we Le, ville says: \ > at
Of all the plants that grow on moist soil in the desert, salt grass is the most abundant. In seizing upon new moist ground, it sends out long, straight rootstocks, often several yards in length, and from these, at intervals ofabout4inches, erectstemsarise. A pieceof ground thus taken presents, for the first few years, the striking appearance of being cut into triangles, quad- rangles, and other similar geo- metrical figures. These rootstocks subsequently die and decompose between the nodes, and a large number of individuals are thus separated, forming new centers of growth, and soon covering the \: ground with a dense sod.
A notable sand binder is the rolling spinifex (fig. 103), common to the sandy coasts ‘ of Australia, Tasmania, and ards New Zealand. The hard, ‘ creeping stems, which root Fic. 109.—Bermuda grass (Cynodon Dactylon). at every joint, give rise to coarse, upright, leafy tufts. The rather rigid and sharp-pointed leaves are often over a foot in length, andare clothed, as is the entire plant, with soft hairs. The male and female flowers of this grass are borne on separate plants, the latter in globular heads, several inches in diameter (see fig. 103,)). These heads are composed of numerous spine-like branches; each branch bearing at its base a single female spikelet (fig. 103, b’). The heads, which are often gath- ered for dry bouquets, fall off at maturity, and are driven over the sands by the winds, dropping their seeds as they roll along, or carried about by the waves and landed on newly formed sandbars, there to continue the embanking process.
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432 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Rolling spinifex is of no value as a forage plant, but in New South Wales it is regarded as a most useful grass for fixing drift sand when encroaching on valuable lands. It is easily propagated by cuttings or joints of the stem, is of comparatively quick growth, and is very per- sistent when once established. It would doubtless be of some value upon our southern coasts.
The long-leafed spinifex, a grass closely resembling the above, but quite smooth, grows on the sandy shores of north and west Australia, in some places covering the whole coast. This grass has many characters in common with Spinifexr squarrosus, a Species widely spread along the sandy seashores of south- ern Asia.
Among the several grasses which act as sand binders by covering the surface of the sands with extensively creep- ing and branching stems, few, if any, are moreeffective than St. Augustine grass (fig. 104), This grass has a wide distri- bution, being found in the tropical and warmer temper- ate regions of both the Old and New World. In New South Wales it is known as buffalo grass, and in Jamaica itis called pimento grass. It grows upon every variety of soil, from the apparently ster- ile sand dunes to heavy clays, but never far away from the coast. The flattened stems
seca emit fibrous roots at every F1G.110.—Fresh-water cord grass (Spartina cynosuroides). joint, where they also readily separate, e van piece becoming a new center of growth. The leaves are flat or simply folded, blunt or obtuse at the apex, usually about one- quarter of an inch broad, and from 4 to 10 inches long. The flowering stems grow to the height of from 6 inches to a foot or more, and the small spikelets are partially embedded in the flattened terminal and lateral spikes. (See fig. 104, a.)
St. Augustine grass grows along our ocean shores as far north as_ South Carolina, and is largely used as a lawn grass in Charleston, 8. C., aud cities to the south near the coast. It is propagated by cuttings or
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GRASSES AS SAND AND SOIL BINDERS. 433
sets, and quickly covers the most sandy yards with a dense carpet of perennial verdure. In South America the creeping stems are employed in medicine as a diuretic, as are the stems and rhizomes of couch grass in the United States.
Lowisiana grass (fig. 105) in its habit of growth and foliage closely resembles St. Augustine grass, but it requires a richer and somewhat moist soil; nor is it confined to the seashore. The creeping, leafy stems cover the surface of the ground with a dense, matted growth, and the grass is not only valuable for grazing, but may be utilized in the Gulf States for lawns or to cover lands or embankments subject to wash.
Creeping panic is another widely distributed maritime grass belong- ing to this class of sand binders. The prestrate, creeping, and rooting stems cover the surface of the sand dunes along the Gulf coast, pro- tecting them from the action of the winds and waves quite as effectively as the more deeply rooted bitter panic, which is occasionally found associated with it.
A well-known grass of the Old World, common on the maritime sands of tropical and eastern Asia, Australia, and New Zealand, is the little coast couch grass or Japanese lawn grass (fig. 106). This is highly spoken of as a sand binder by Australian writers. The extensively creeping rhizomes make a perfect network of strong fibers, effectively binding the drifting sands of the coast. It is one of the few grasses which are at the same time good binders of sands and excellent forage plants. Under favorable circumstances it forms a very compact turf, and affords a large amount of choice pasturage. Itis highly commended as alawn grass for sandy soils. This, or a very closely allied species from Korea, has been successfully grown in Connecticut, and doubtless it would make a lawn grass for our Southern cities near the coast superior to the rather coarse St. Augustine grass mentioned above. Mr. John M. B. Sill, consul-general at Seoul, Korea, who has furnished the United States Department of Agriculture with seeds of this grass, says that it makes a very firm, close, durable sod, and is highly prized in the foreign settlements in Japan and China. It sends out runners which soon cover a lawn with a soft, firm carpet that is especially prized for tennis courts. Constant cropping seems to improve this little grass and increase the density of the turf. It may be propagated by seed, but more easily and certainly by its “roots,” the close, matted, wiry fibers forming a coherent mass, which is easily transported to a distance without injury, when it can be cut up and the pieces planted in the usual way.
INLAND SAND BINDERS.
The principal sand binders of the interior of our country, ranking with marram and the sea lyme grass, are the long-leafed sand grass (fig. 107) and Redfield’s grass (fig. 108). In the sand dunes along the
b -A 94 17
434 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
borders of Lake Michigan the long-leafed sand grass grows in com- pany with marram grass, which it fully equals as a binder of the drift- ing sands of the lake shore. This grass extends from [linois westward to the Rocky Mountains, and southward to Kansas. Along the Missouri River it often covers considerable areas, affording protection to the sandy banks in times of flood; and in Nebraska it is one of the most characteristic grasses of the sand-hills region, growing in the ‘blow- outs,” where, with Redfield’s grass, it does valuable service in binding the drifting sands. It has far-reaching, scaly rootstocks; stout stems, 2 to 6 feet high, and numerous rather rigid leaves, 1 to 3 feet long. The one-flowered spikelets (fig. 107, a) are in loose and more or less spreading panicles.
Redfield’s grass appears to be limited to the more sandy regions west of the Mississippi River and east of the Rocky Mountains, extending from Nebraska southward to Arkansas. It is a characteristic grass of the sand hills of central Nebraska, growing in the drifting sands and “blowouts,” and is a conspicuous and almost the only grass found on the sand dunes south of the Arkansas River, near Garden City, Kans. The hard, smooth, and long-leafed stems of Redfield’s grass grow in tufts or bunches 2 to 4 feet high. The spikelets (fig. 108, a) are in ample, spreading, capillary panicles, which are often half the length of the stem. The rootstocks are strong and persistent, and the grass is recommended for propagation in the interior regions where sand binders may be desired.
For holding the muddy banks of rivers and streams several native grasses may be employed. They grow naturally in such situations, and are often of considerable value for hay. Reed canary grass is one of these. It is a stout, leafy grass, 2 to 4 feet high, with a narrow, densely flowered panicle. Indian reed is particularly useful for the purpose in question. It is a strong-growing species, 3 to 7 feet high, with a large panicle, 6 to 12incheslong. not-root grass is very common along river banks, usually where the soil is somewhat sandy, and by its abundant creeping rhizomes does good service in preventing the land from being washed away by strong currents or overflows. It has branching, leafy stems, which make good hay. Common reed (Phragmites) is regarded as one of the most valuable grasses for binding the banks of rivers subject to periodical floods. It has been called one of nature’s most valuable colonists, from its usefulness in the conversion of swamps and stagnant pools into dry land. It grows along rivers and margins of lakes from Maine to California. It has extensively creeping rootstocks and stout, upright culms, 5 to 12 feet high, being one of the largest of our hative grasses. Branches from the base of the culm are sometimes found creeping along the surface of the ground for a distance of 30 feet or more, and sending up leafy shoots at every joint. The root- . stocks are very strong, and when the grass is once established, scarcely anything can move them. The young shoots are liked by cattle, and
GRASSES AS SAND AND SOIL BINDERS. 435
the mature stems make the best thatch. This grass closely resembles the cultivated reed, and, like that species, is occasionally grown for ornament,
Swamp millet, an Australian grass, is highly spoken of as a pasture grass for wet lands. It has slender, creeping stems, and is classed with the species valuable for binding the banks of rivers or dams or any loose earth. In the same class, and valuable for like purposes, is a grass known in Australia as southern wheat grass. This is an erect species, growing from 2 to 3 feet high.
“Blady grass,” common throughout the warmer temperate and trop- ical regions of the world, is a valuable sand and soil binder, and in warm countries is recommended for binding river banks, the sides of dams, and also the loose sands of the coast. The rootstocks form a perfect network of strong fibers, most difficult to eradicate. It is a rigid, erect species, from 1 to 3 feet high, and is easily recognized by its silvery-white, spike-like panicles, from 3 to 6 inches long. It is readily propagated by root cuttings, and might be utilized along the Gulf coast and in southern and western Texas, Arizona, etc. A native species of “blady grass” (Imperata Hookeri), of similar habit and appearance, occurs in Arizona and southern California. It grows around the borders of alkaline springs.
For holding embankments where a firm turf is required, couch or witch grass does excellently well in the Northern and Middle States. This well-known grass is widely distributed throughout the north tem- perate regions of the Old and New Worlds. It presents a number of forms, some of which have been regarded as distinct species. All are good hay grasses, but are objectionable in fallow land because of their widely spreading and very persistent jointed rootstecks. In the North- west—Nebraska, Montana, etc.—there is a variety called “blue stem,” which is very highly prized and much used for hay. In rich soil the stems grow to the height of 3 or 4 feet, and the heads have a striking resemblance to those of wheat. Hence the common names “wheat grass” or “creeping wheat,” which have been applied to it by some. Couch grass makes a very tough sod, and is particularly valuable for binding railroad embankments, banks of canals, ditches, or other Slopes which it is desired to hold in place. A well-marked variety of the species grows in sands along the sea coast, and is useful there as a sand binder.
Hungarian brome grass is a good turf former, and may be employed in much the same way as couch grass. The creeping rhizomes of the brome grass are not so strong as those of the couch grass, and as a soil binder it is less to be depended upon.
In the Southern States, where the couch grass does not succeed well, Johnson grass or the finer Bermuda (fig. 109) may be substituted for it. Johnson grass produces a great mass of extensively creeping, strong rhizomes, and when once the ground is filled with them it is almost
436 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
impossible to eradicate them. Bermuda grows more upon the surface, and upon a light or sandy soil succeeds better than Johnson grass. In binding together and holding levees of sand and loose soil against floods, in preventing lands from washing, or in filling gullies, Bermuda is of the greatest value, and at the same time is one of the very best pasture grasses for the South. If there is considerable moisture in the land, and the soil is somewhat clayey, knot grass may be substituted for Bermuda. In the Southern States knot grass is especially well adapted to cover silt or bare slopes on the banks of ponds or rivers, or for covering the soil of “sink holes.” Moderate submersion does not injure it.
The species of cord grass (Spartina) have very stout, creeping rhi- zomes, and are of considerable value as holders and defenders of the soil. Spartina juncea and Spartina glabra are found on the Atlantic coast, while the stouter fresh-water cord grass (fig. 110) grows with these and also along the margins of fresh-water lakes and rivers.
The two first named form the basis of the salt marsh meadows which are so much valued along our north Atlantic Coast. Spartina glabra, with its varieties, is an excellent colonizer and land former in the situ- ations where it flourishes, largely aiding in fixing and rendering solid the mud flats that accumulate about the mouths of rivers and low coasts, and for thatching this grass is more durable and otherwise superior to wheat straw. The largest of our Spartinas, Spartina poly- stachya, with stems 5 to 9 feet high and often an inch in diameter at the base, is common on tide-water marshes along the coast of New Jer- sey and Long Island. Fresh-water cord grass (Spartina cynosuroides) grows abundantly along the Missouri and other rivers of the interior, and especially along sloughs in the prairie regions, where it is best known as slough grass. It makes a fair but rather coarse hay when cut early, and it has been successfully employed in the manufacture of paper.
A striking species of rye grass,’ called giant, or western rye grass, with strong rootstocks and stout culms, 3 to 12 feet high, grows in the Northwest and on the Pacific Slope. It is a grass which does good service in retaining the soil of the banks of streams and rivers.
1An alphabetical list of the grasses mentioned in the foregoing paper, with the Latin equivalents of the English names, may be found in the Appendix.
SKETCH OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AMERICAN AND EASTERN ASIAN FRUITS.
By L. H. BAILry, Jr., Professor of Horticulture, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
The fact must have struck every thoughtful horticulturist that Japan is now the most prolific source of profitable new types of fruits and hardy ornamental plants. The recent extension of communication with that country explains the introduction of these plants, but it does not account for the almost uniform success which attends their cultivation in this country. There must be some striking similarity between the climates and other conditions of Japan and America to enable plants from the very antipodes to thrive at once upon their introduction here. It is well known among naturalists that this similarity in climate exists, and that, therefore, there is general accord in the fauna and flora of Japan and eastern America. The origin of this resemblance was most strikingly explained by the late Asa Gray, professor of botany in Har- vard University, so long ago as 1859. But this relationship of Japan and America, with the practical deductions which follow an under- standing of it, has never been presented in its horticultural aspects,
Before proceeding to a discussion of Gray’s argumentative paper, it should be explained that half a century ago there was no satisfactory explanation of the means by which plants and animals have become widely disseminated over the earth. This was particularly true respect- ing the curious phenomena of disconnected distributions, or the fact that some species occur in widely separated and isolated places. Cer- tain plants occur only in eastern America and in Japan, and there may be no other representatives of the genus extant; that is, the genus is monotypic and has a peculiarly disjointed distribution. There are also certain bitypic genera, of which one species occurs only in eastern America and the other in Japan. There are equally strange distribu- tions of plants and animals in other parts of the world. At the time Gray wrote, there were a few general hypotheses in vogue to account for these detached distributions. One was Agassiz’s theory, which has been called the autochthonal hypothesis, from the fact that it sup- poses that each species was born or brought forth upon the area which it occupies (autochthon, one born of the land itself). It ‘maintains, substantially,” says Gray, “that each species originated where it now occurs, probably in as great a number of individuals occupying as large an area, and generally the same area, or the same discontinuous area, as at the present time.”
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438 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Much the same view was held by Schouw, of Copenhagen, who advanced the hypothesis of the double or multiple origin of species; but he supposed that the species had the power of greatly distributing itself when it was once created in a given region. It was even then (Schouw wrote in 1837) maintained by various naturalists that species had sprung from one progenitor; but Schouw declared that ‘“‘when we look at the facts presented by existing geographical distribution, this hypothesis becomes highly improbable, in certain cases altogether inad- missible.” All the known agents of the distribution of animals and plants could not account for the fact ‘that many species of plants are common, on the one hand, to the Alps and the Pyrenees, on the other to the Seandinavian and Scotch mountains, without these species being found in the plains or on the lower mountains lying between; that the flora of Iceland is almost the same as that of the Scandinavian moun- tains; that Europe and North America have many plants in common, particularly in the northern regions, which have not been transported by man; and still further difficulties, bordering on impossibility, arise for such an explanation when we know that species occur in the Straits of Magellan and in the Falkland Isles which belong to the flora of the Arctie Pole.” In order to account for these anomalous distributions, he supposed that the same species may originate several times, although it would appear that this multiple origination is waning, from the instances which he cites of the less wide and not detached distribution of the mammals and the higher plants, which are, presumably, of com- paratively late creation. “Just as we have seen that the leafless and flowerless plants are oftener rediscovered in distant countries than those bearing flowers, we may assume that the more perfect animals are less prone to, perhaps never do, make their appearance in several places independently.” Schouw supposed that creation is completed. “I hold itin the highest degree probable,” he writes, “if not strictly proved, that no new species originate at present.”
The straits to which naturalists were driven to explain the distribu- tion of animals and plants when one progenitor is alone assumed may be illustrated by the supposition which Schouw ascribes to an English author, that there must have been a continental area between Spain and Ireland, inasmuch as certain Spanish plants reappear in the British Isles. Even Alphonse de Candolle, while holding in general to the hypothesis of a single origin, felt obliged to admit that in the case of our modest verbena-like Phryma Leptostachya, which grows in eastern North America and again in the Himalayan region, there must have been two independent originations.
Naturalists were ready to believe that species had one origin, if only the fact of disconnected distributions could be explained. At this junc- ture Asa Gray came forward with his brilliant exposition of the rela- tionships of the eastern American and Japanese floras. The plants collected in Japan in 1853 by Williams and Morrow, in connection with
ee
AMERICAN AND EASTERN ASIAN FRUITS. 439
Commodore Perry’s visit to that country, and also those procured there by Charles Wright, in connection with Commodore Rodgers’s expedition of 1855, went to Gray for study. He was at once struck by the simi- larity of many of the plants to those of our Alleghany region, a resem- blanee which he had before noticed. He found that many of the char- acteristic genera of eastern America and a number of the monotypie and bitypic genera oecur also in the Japanese region. He observed the remarkable fact that the flora of eastern North America is much more like the Japanese flora than that of western America, or even of Europe, and also that our Alleghany flora is more like the Japanese than it is like the European.
RESULTS OF CHANGE IN CLIMATE.
It is well known that the climate of the Pliocene epoch, preceding the Glacial time, was much milder than now. Over the Dakotas, camels, horses, a mastodon, a rhinoceros, and an elephant roamed, and the temperate floras extended much farther north than they do at the pres- ent time. The same conditions prevailed in northern Asia, and the floras of the two continents were coterminous and intermingled. Then came on the Glacial epoch, “an extraordinary refrigeration of the north ern hemisphere, in the course of ages carrying glacial ice and arctic climate down nearly to the latitude of the Ohio. The change was evi. dently so gradual that it did not destroy the temperate floras * * #* These [the plants] and their fellows, or such as survive, must have been pushed on to lower latitudes as the cold advanced, just as they now would be if the temperature were to be again lowered; and between them and the ice there was a band of subarctic and arctic vegetation, portions of which, retreating up the mountains as the climate amelio- rated and the ice receded, still scantily survive upon our highest Alle- ghanies, and more abundantly upon the colder summits of the mountains of New York and New England, demonstrating the existence of the present arctic-alpine vegetation during the Glacial era, and that the change of climate at its close was so gradual that it was not destructive to vegetable species.” So the plants were driven to the southward, both down the Asian and American continents. Gradually the ice melted away, the climate became milder, and plants began to return northward. After the Glacial epoch had passed away the arctic regions became warm. The great fluvial period came in, when arctic lands were lower than at present, when the sea stood 500 feet above its present level, and when the northern rivers were vastly larger than now. This great expanse of water and low elevation of land caused the warmer climate of the high north. Elephants and rhinoceroses roamed north- ward to the very shores of the Aretic Ocean, and lions, elks, horses,
buffaloes, and mastodons inhabited the high latitudes. In the ice of
Siberia the elephants are still found, even with their hair intact, pre- served in Nature’s refrigerator for ages. There is evidence that north-
440 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
western America and northeastern’Asia were more closely connected by land than now. The Siberian elephant roamed from one continent to the other. ‘I can not imagine a state of circumstances,” writes Gray, ‘‘under which the Siberian elephant could migrate and temper- ate plants could not.” So the floras of America and Asia again became coterminous.
Now came another change, The Terrace epoch came slowly on. The arctic lands were elevated, the waters receded, and the temperature fell. The earth approached its present condition. The plants were again driven southward down Asia and America. The western coast of America, by reason of ocean currents, was warmer than the eastern region or than the Japanese region, and the temperate floras went down or persisted in similar climates, giving our Alleghany regions and eastern Asian and Himalayan countries similar floras. Subsequently only minor distributions have taken place. The eastern Asian flora has shown some tendency to extend westward, and some species have reached Europe. Thus we have an explanation of the remarkable fact, long ago noticed by Bentham, that American species have reached Europe through Asia.
‘‘Under the light which these geological considesanuan Pes upon the question, I can not resist the conclusion,” writes Gray, “that the extant vegetable kingdom has a long and eventful history, and that the explanation of apparent anomalies in the geographical distribution of species may be found in the various and prolonged climatic or other physical vicissitudes to which they have been subject in earlier times.”
A certain flora “established itself in Greenland,” says Sir J. W. Daw- son, ‘and probably all around the Arctic Circle, in the warm period of the earliest Eocene, and, as the climate of the northern hemisphere became gradually reduced from that time till the end of the Pliocene, it marched on over both continents to the southward, chased behind by the modern arctic flora, and eventually by the frost and snow of the Glacial age.” Says Dawson, again:
If, however, our modern flora is thus one that has returned from the south, this would account for its poverty in species as compared with those of the early Tertiary. Groups of plants descending from the north have been rich and varied. Returning from the south, they are like the shattered remains of a beaten army. * * * It is, indeed, not impossible that in the plans of the Creator the continuous simmer sun of the arctic regions may have been made the means for the introduction, or at least for the rapid growth and multiplication, of new and more varied types of plants. * * * What we have learned respecting this wonderful history has served strangely to change some of our preconceived ideas. We must now be prepared to admit that an Eden can be planted even in Spitzbergen; that there are possibilities in this old earth of ours which its present condition does not reveal to us; that the present state of the world is by no means the best possible in relation to climate and vegetation; that there have been and might be again conditions which could convert the ice-clad arctic regions into blooming paradises, and which at the same time would moderate the fervent heat of the tropics. We are accustomed to say that nothing is impossible with God; but how little have we known of the gigantic possibilities which lie hidden under some of the most common of His natural laws!
o_o
AMERICAN AND EASTERN ASIAN FRUITS. 441
All these considerations go to establish three general laws: (1) That distribution of plants and animals is determined largely by climatic and other physical causes. (2) That species have a local or single origin. (3) That the origin of our present temperate flora is in the north. These generalizations were written before Darwin’s theories appeared and before Heer had published the fossil histories of the arctic regions, and they at once establish Gray’s place among philo- sophical naturalists.
We have now observed that the very facts which led Schouw, De Can- dolle, and others to accept an hypothesis of the multiple origin of spe- cies are the ones which chiefly explain and prove the conclusions of Gray. In the vicissitudes of geologic time plants retreated up the mountains or persisted along the cold shores of the northern lakes, giving rise to the curious fact of arctic and subarctic plants upon Lake Superior, Mount Marey, Mount Washington, and Mount Katahdin. But, what is more to our present purpose, we can now understand the similarities of the eastern American and Asian floras, because like plants have persisted in similar climates when they were pushed down from the north upon all sides of the globe. The curiously dismembered diffusion of the Phryma Leptostachya is intelligible; and we can explain Schouw’s perplexity concerning the less extended and undetached dis- tribution of the mammals and higher plants, for these may, in many cases, have developed or originated since the epoch of these great dispersions.
The climates of eastern America and eastern Asia are still similar, as shown by the similar floras of the present time. The facies of the Japanese, northern Chinese, and Himalayan floras are strikingly those of our own Alleghany flora. The magnolias are peculiar to these two great regions. The tulip tree, confined to our Eastern States, has recently been discovered in China. The story of shortia and schizo- codon—independent names for the same type of plant discovered in the two continents—is familiar to botanists. Lately, horticulturists have seen a striking instance of this relationship in the remarkably rapid diffusion in this country of the Japanese plums, fruits which are more closely allied to our native species than the common or European plums are, and which are also unquestionably adapted to a much wider range of conditions than the European plums. We all know that the horticultural flora most resembling that of Europe is upon our Pacific Slope; there the European wine grape, the olive, the citrous fruits, the walnut, the fig, and the prune and raisin industries are already well developed. In like manner we may expect that in the course of time the horticultural industries of eastern America and eastern Asia will acquire the similarity of facies which the floras of these regions now enjoy. One may therefore look with favor upon the introduction of Japanese plants, for it is certain, both from the known resemblances of its flora to our own and from the early introduction of its plants into
442 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
western Asia and Europe, that the most promising field for horticul- tural exploration and for the study of the ancestry ef our fruits is now in the interior of China.
FOREIGN CONTRIBUTIONS TO OUR POMOLOGY.
It is yet too soon to fally measure the value of the contributions of eastern Asia to our pomology, although the importance of the hardy ornamentals derived in great numbers from that region is everywhere conceded. Yet this antipedean region has already given us quite as important species of fruits as Europe and western Asia, despite the fact that these latter regions were the source of our colonization and civilization. The following list includes all the fruits of the United States which have come from the Europo-Asian region and from the Chino-Japanese region:
Europo-Asian.
Plum. Almond. Apple.
Pear.
Medlar.
Sour cherry. Sweet cherry. Quince. Raspberry.! Strawberry.! Red currant. Biack currant. English gooseberry.
Wine and raisin grape.
Olive.
Pomegranate.
Date.
Fig.
Filbert.
European chestnut.
English walnut.
Pistachio. Twenty-two species.
Eastern Asian.
Japan plum. Prunus Simonii. Japanese pear. Peach. Commen apricot. Chinese apricot. Wineberry. Kaki, or Japanese persimmon. Orange. Mandarin. Lemon (including lime and citron). Kumquat. Loquat. Hovenia. Chinese jujube. Litchi. Eleagnus. Myrica. Japanese walnut. Japanese chestnut. Ginkgo.
Twenty-one species.
The eastern Asian species of fruits now grown in this country are already nearly equal in number to those from Europe and western Asia—the latter country “the cradle of the human race”—and they comprise some of the most important fruits known to man, the orange, lemon, peach, apricot, and kaki. There is certainly abundant reason for looking toward oriental Asia for further acquisitions, either in other species or in novel varieties.
ithe raspberry and strawberry mostly supplanted by the American species.
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FACTS CONCERNING RAMIE.
By Cuas. Ricnarps DopGE, Special Agent in Charge of Tiber Investigations, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION.
Who has not heard of the “grass cloth” of China, that delicate and most beautiful tissue which since time immemorial has been manufac- tured in oriental countries? Produced by rude hand manipulation from a fiber of gossamer fineness, extracted by equally laborious methods from coarse, woody stalks, there is, to the popular mind, something of the marvelous in its fabrication. The fiber employed is the ramie of commerce, known in the raw state as China grass, though it is not in any sense a grass further than that a handful of the greenish yellow filaments has a grass-like appearance. The plant from which this del- icate and astonishingly strong fiber is produced—one of the strongest and most durable in the fiber economy—may be described as a cluster of tuberous roots surrounded by a mass of fleshy rootlets, supporting a growth of 10 to 80 stalks which shoot upward to a height of 4 to 8 feet. At maturity these stalks vary in dimension from the size of a lead pencil to the thickness of a man’s little finger.
The stalks are clothed with large ovate-acuminate leaves of a warm, green color on the upper surface, and whitish or silvery beneath (in the variety known as Bahmeria nivea), the fiber being formed in the bark surrounding the woody portion, this having a pithy center protected on the outside by a thick epidermis. The plant grows rapidly, producing two to four and even five annual crops without replanting, dependent upon the country and climate where cultivated, and one planting suffices for several years.
Almost a century has passed since the attention of the government of India was first called to the value of this fiber in the textile economy by Dr. Roxburgh. About 1840 a second attempt was made to utilize the plant, but it was not until 1869, when a prize of £5,000 was offered by the British Government for a satisfactory process or machine with which to supersede the laborious hand methods of cleaning the fiber, that serious effort was inaugurated.
Probably no fiber in the vegetable economy has attracted such wide- spread interest as ramie, for nearly every government on the face of the globe, in countries where the plant will grow, has encouraged the estab- lishment of the industry in one form or another, or capitalists in these
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444 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
countries have liberally aided invention and private experiment in the hope of securing the golden reward it has offered. Through these unre- mitting efforts, and the lavish use of private capital, there is now a flattering prospect that the industry will ere long be fairly established, and ramie fabrics will be found in the markets of the world side by side with those from silk, from cotton, and from flax. European con- cerns even now are running thousands of spindles, turning out hun- dreds of tons of yarns annually, and are enlarging their works.
THE INDUSTRY IN AMERICA.
It is nearly forty years since the plant was introduced into the United States, and a quarter of a century marks the period of our struggle with the decorticator problem. Experiments in culture during this period have demonstrated that the plant will grow thriftily in the Gulf States from Florida to Texas, and in certain localities in California, such as the valleys of the central and southern portions of the State. It has been shown that after the first year two to four crops annually may be expected from one planting, dependent upon locality, and that the ground will not need to be again disturbed for four or five years.
But it has also been demonstrated that we have yet a great deal to learn regarding the details of cultivation, as the profitableness of the crop must depend wholly upon the yield per acre of spinnable fiber. The cultural problem of the immediate future, then, will be to learn how to produce on a given area the greatest quantity of fiber of spin- nable quality at a cost that will allow of competition with other coun- tries. This means careful experiments not only in culture but also with the stripping, cleaning, and after-manipulation of the fiber derived from these experiments, to ascertain the precise yield, quality, cost, and commercial value. In other words, it is not enough to grow a crop of stalks of the requisite height and size—we must know that these stalks contain the proper quality of fiber, in sufficient quantity to make the culture profitable; and we must know all the conditions essential to bringing about such results.
Between the Chinese imported and the home-grown fiber there will always be this disadvantage and difference: The machine-prepared fiber can never be so clean and free from gum, and therefore will bring a lower price, the range dependent upon the percentage of pure fiber it contains and upon the thoroughness of decortication. This difference is clearly shown on Plate V.
COMPARISON OF RAMIE AND FLAX.
Comparison between ramie and flax will illustrate some of the diffi- culties with which the ramie industry has had to contend, and show | why ramie can not be grown, cleaned, prepared, spun, and woven as cheaply as flax and other textiles the production of which are recog- nized industries.
PLATE IV.
Yearbook U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1894,
RAMIE—DRIED STALKS, RAW FIBER, DEGUMMED FIBER, AND MANUFACTURES.
FACTS CONCERNING RAMIE. 445
Ramie is a coarse, pithy stalk, with an abundance of leaves, often growing as high as a man’s head, the fiber of which is extracted with difficulty by costly machinery, and which, after drying, must be further subjected to chemical treatment before it can be sold to the manu- facturer in the form of degummed ramie. And according to French experts this degummed ramie represents hardly more than 2 per cent of a given weight of the green stalks with leaves that were harvested from the field. In harvesting a ton of flax the semidried straw is pulled from the ground, and it is only necessary for it to remain in the shocks for a few days when it becomes thoroughly dry like the straw of wheat or barley, having lost only its moisture. In harvesting a ton of green ramie we are handling 80 per cent of water and a mass of leaves and succulent tops equal to a weight of eight or nine hundred pounds to the ton. If the dry system of decortication is to be employed these stalks must be shocked in the field and handled several times, so that all the leaves may fall to the ground and the air reach every part of the shock, and even then the stalks will not sun-dry to brittleness in the Gulf States.
METHODS OF DECORTICATION.
If the green system of decortication is to be followed, this great bulk of succulent material (8 to 12 tons per acre) must be harvested and hauled to the machines, and if the machines will not strip the leaves automatically—for the stalks must be worked at once, while fresh—the stripping must be accomplished by hand. The requisite number of machines will be regulated by the area under cultivation, for a single decorticator that would even clean the product of an acre in a day would only be able to finish, say, 50 acres in eight weeks of working days. It will readily be seen, therefore, that if the fiber has reached proper maturity when the cutting begins at the end of eight weeks it must suffer a change that will give different grades of fiber in the same crop. Hence, only the farmer who grows a very few acres may expect to harvest his fiber with one machine if he desires to secure an even standard of quality, unless he resort to the dry system, with which the fiber may be extracted at any time, provided the stalks are thoroughly dry.
In comparing the different methods of treatment of these two fibers, flax and ramie, it will be readily seen that one is simple, chiefly me- chanical, the retting being accomplished by nature at small outlay for labor; the other quite complex, requiring the handling of 8 to 10 tons, or even more, of green matter per acre, which must either be dried or passed through a machine while in fresh condition, and the ribbons finally subjected to chemical processes requiring more or less of tech- nical knowledge and the employment of special apparatus. Flax, which is treated so simply, yields from 15 to 25 per cent of fiber, while ramie yields hardly 2 per cent of the weight of green stalks and leaves
446 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
harvested. The cost of retting, breaking, and scutching flax, to secure its fiber, is a known quantity; that of ramie, at present, is unknown.
To the advantage of ramie over flax, in our comparison, let it be said that, under proper cultivation, an acre of the former should produce, in its two crops, 16 to 25 tons annually, while 1 or 2 tons of straw is all that can be expected in an annual crop of flax, save 12 or 15 bushels of seed that should be reckoned into the account. Then flax must be grown from the seed annually, while one planting of ramie roots will give crops for several years.
The question is frequently asked, Does the Department of Agricul- ture encourage cultivation at the present time? The Department cer- tainly advocates experimental cultivation, in order that farmers may become familiar with the growth of the plant, and also to insure a supply of roots for more extensive pianting when all the other prob- lems have been solved. And it is true that at the outset, when the time comes that cultivation may be profitably engaged in, there will be a large demand for roots, which for a few years will assure a profit- able revenue to those who have a supply to draw upon. But in this experimental culture not over two or three acres should be put under cultivation by one farmer, and he should go to work intelligently, keeping both eyes open, and without expectation of immediate money return. By this statement it will be understood that the United States Department of Agriculture can not encourage cultivation as a money crop, in connection with the regular staples, as long as the decorticator problem remains unsettled and the farmer can not be assured of a ready means of converting the crop into salable fiber that will compete with the hand-prepared China grass of commerce. The foreign prod- uct can now be supplied to manufacturers at from 6 to 8 cents per pound, and is almost wholly relied upon as the supply of raw material used in the European ramie-manufacturing establishments, and the same must be said of our own country until the home-grown fiber can be more economically produced and extracted than at present.
CLIMATE, SOIL, AND CULTURE.
In general terms it may be said that the ramie plant requires a hot, moist climate, with no extremes of temperature, and a naturally rich, damp, but never a wet soil, the necessary moisture to be supplied by frequent rains or by irrigation; in other words, a climate and soil in which the growth will be rapid and continuous after it has once begun. In the United States the best localities, so far as experiment has deter- mined, are portions of Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, on the Gulf, and central California, on the Pacific coast. The other Gulf States, doubtless, will prove equally favorable to this culture, when more extensive experiments have been undertaken than are now recorded. Regarding the northern limit of commercial culture, no pos- itive statement can now be made. The plant thrives in South Caro-
FACTS CONCERNING RAMIE. 447
lina, and it is fair to suppose that two annual crops are possible, though the quality and yield of the fiber can only be ascertained to a certainty by careful tests of the product of both crops.
Mr. William R. Smith, the Superintendent of the United States Bo- tanic Garden, Washington, D. C., considers the District of Columbia the northern limit of its growth, botanically speaking. But commer- cial cultivation in this locality or in Maryland or Virginia is out of the question, for only in particularly favorable years will the plant make a good growth, and even then but a single crop will be possible. In 1894 the entire season’s growth of the little plat at the Botanic Garden was barely 3 feet high, and the clusters of flower racemes had not begun to mature their seed on the lst of November; and cultivation northward from the District of Columbia, for instance in the State of New Jersey, as recently suggested, must be set down as a mere vagary.
The question of soil is animportant one. In the present day the soil usually chosen in China is a red clay, “ with sand mixed in,” and the plantation is established with roots dug from old plats in the fall. In India the plant appears to thrive in almost any soil, though preference is given to rich, light sandy loams, thoroughly worked. In the Kangra district “rich loams ” are chosen. The French experimenters, whose experience relates to France, Spain, and Algeria, prefer a deep soil— ‘“ silico-caleareous, or sandy alluvial with a permeable subsoil.” But marshy lands or retentive clay soils are always avoided.
In our own country, in the Gulf States, ramie has been grown exper- imentally in a great variety of soils, ranging from the light sandy uplands to the rich black lands of the Louisiana bottoms. But light sandy alluvial soils have always given the best results. In California deep alluvial, sandy, or loamy lands which, when well prepared, will hold their moisture through the growing season, or that can be irri- gated, are most commonly selected.
In preparing the land for a plantation, thorough tilth—that is, deep plowing and cross harrowing—are essential. The ground is frequently broken to a depth of 15 inches or more, but never less than 12 inches, to secure good results; and lumpy land is rolled.
In all countries where ramie has been grown commercially or experi- mentally the necessity for heavily enriching the soil by the application of the farm manures or chemical fertilizers isemphasized. It wasshown many years ago by lorbes Watson that the alkalies, especially potash, amount to almost one-half and phosphoric acid one-tenth of the weight of the ash constituents from a plant of ramie, or about 80 pounds of the former to 40 pounds of the latter in a ton of dried stalks. Asa crop of wheat is said to take from the soil but 30 pounds of alkalies and 28 pounds of phosphoric acid, the importance of properly enrich- ing the soil will be readily understood. The amount of mineral constit- uents found in the fiber is very small, and as the fiber is the only valu- able portion of the crop, the leaves and woody waste, or the refuse of
A448 YEARBOOK OF. THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
decortication, can always be returned to the soil. The French writers lay great stress on the use of the leaves for fertilizing material, as they are rich in potash. The leaves alone that are produced upon one acre may amount to 4 or 5 tons weight for each cutting.
Professor Hilgard’s experiments at Berkeley, Cal.,in this direction are very interesting. He makes the total of mineral ingredients with- drawn from the soil in a single year, four cuttings, 2,143 pounds. Among these are lime, 658 pounds; potash, 252 pounds; phosphoric acid, 156 pounds, and the figures for nitrogen are 370 pounds. The stalks contain about three-fifths of the potash, and the leaves one- quarter of the total. Nearly 87 per cent of the lime, 50 per cent of the phosphoric acid, and 55 per cent of the nitrogen is found in the leaves.
We learn, then, that lime, potash, phosphoric acid, and nitrogen are the constituents of a proper ramie fertilizer, and these elements of fer- tility may be supplied in several ways. If the refuse of a ramie crop is burned and returned to the land with the leaves a large saving in the purchase of fertilizers will be effected. According to Professor Hilgard, should the leaves and not the stalks be returned to the soil the amount of potash permanently removed from the soil would be increased by 156 pounds—lime, 72; phosphoric acid, 78; and nitrogen, 106.
A good ramie fertilizer recommended by Mr. 8. B. Allison, a Louisiana rainie grower, is 300 pounds each of cotton-seed meal and kainit. Pro- fessor Stubbs uses two parts cotton-seed meal and one part acid phos- phate at the rate of 400 to 480 pounds per acre. In French practice well-decomposed stable manures and well-ground chemical fertilizers, guano, and oil-cake have been used successfully. :
The land having been put into proper condition as to tilth and fertil- ity, the preparations for planting follow, but before considering this point in the agricultural practice it will be well to know what the farmer isto plant. Three methods of propagation of the ramie may be followed: (1) By the use of seed; (2) the employment of subdivided roots, and (3) the practice of layering. Ramie plantations are most commonly estab- lished by the planting of roots, the stand being supplemented by layer- ing the shoots that spring from these roots, thus rapidly multiplying the individual stools, or hills, from which the clusters of stalks will spring. Thus, by planting roots instead of seed, time is saved and stronger plants are secured at the outset.
If, however, roots can not be obtained in sufficient quantity, the nec- essary plants must be produced from the seed—an operation requiring the utmost care, as the seed is very small. Outdoor propagation can hardly, therefore, be relied upon, and the young plants must be grown in the hotbed or cold frame. The principal care is to avoid covering the seed with more than a light sifting of fine earth, also to keep the bed moist and to protect the young plants from the sun. When they are 2 or 3 inches high sunlight may be admitted, and in five or six weeks they may be planted out in the field. The Chinese mix 44 pints of fine
FACTS CONCERNING RAMIE. 449
moist earth with 1 pint of seed, and by the use of earth and seed thus mixed no covering is necessary. <A. pint of seed will suffice for six or seven beds, each containing 4 square feet of surface.
For root planting the supply is obtained from the root masses of old plants, these being subdivided into lengths of 4 or 5 inches, containing several eyes. Twelve hundred bushels of roots have been taken from a single acre in an old plantation, that were sold for $1 a bushel. Refer- ence may be made to the illustration of roots which accompany these pages. The top or crown roots (fig. 111), which resemble small, slender tubers, are never employed, and should be thrown out when the old roots are subdivided. The old roots are shown in figure 112,
Fia. 111.—Plant showing crown roots. Fia. 112.—Plant showing roots to be subdivided.
In preparing for planting, the first step is to cross-plow, harrow, and roll the ground that has already been fall-plowed and harrowed. ‘This may be done about the 1st of February. Mr. Allison’s practice is to allow the land to lie for one month after this is accomplished before laying up the surface in flat beds, which should be 45 feet from centers, the centers having an elevation of 6 inches. The rows are barred off with a scooter plow to the depth of 4 inches; the roots are then placed in the rows and covered with two furrows. A week later, when the roots have begun to sprout, a harrow with a board at the back of itis run over the ground in order that the plants may push up in mellow soil. |
There is the greatest difference of opinion in regard to the proper distances apart that the plants should be set, but a safe mean will be to establish the rows 4 to 44 feet apart with the plants 1 foot in the row; in California somewhat closer setting is practiced. The close
Peo we 94 Le
450 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
system of planting recommended by the French requires 14,000 to 16,000 plants to the acre, while the 4-feet by 1-foot system requires only about half as many plants to the acre.
Layering is practiced when the stalks from the first growth are about 3 feet high. The earth is mellowed and made damp, the stalks bent and held in place by crotchets, and covered with about 4 inches of soil. In four weeks they will have become independent plants, which may be left in their places to form new stools or may be transplanted in other plats. Another method of propagation has been recommended in California, which, in brief, is to set out obliquely sections of stalks some 6 inches in length, nearly covering them with earth. Itis claimed that if the work is accomplished before the period of hot weather, no
Wh Fig. 113.—Ramie stalks ready for cutting. Fig. 114.—Stalks of ramie showing new growth of leaves.
special care, as watering and shading, will be necessary, though all weed growth should be kept down. The planting in Egypt, Algeria, and Spain is done from the end of October until April; in France, from March to the end of May.
The only after-cultivation necessary is to plow or hoe between the rows, aS may be necessary, to keep the soil free from weeds or in good condition. This work is usually performed in the spring or early sum- mer months. As to the operations of the second year, the detailed account of Mr. Allison’s experience will give a hint of the practice — that should be followed. Earlyin April, when the danger of frosts had passed, all young growth was cut off but not saved, Fertilizers were
FACTS CONCERNING RAMIE. 41
applied, and the soil between the rows plowed and hoed. About the first of July the first crop was cut, followed by another plowing and hoeing. The stalks were then allowed to grow until about November 1, the time for the second cutting. I think, however, it would be better not to delay the last cut so late, in order to avoid a “second growth” which takes the form of clusters of leaves, eventually produc- ing branches, which appear at the point of juncture of the leaf and stalk after the old leaves have fallen. The accompanying figures illus- trate this: Figure 113, the stalks and growth of alternate leaves; figure 114, with the beginning of a new growth of leaves at the point of con- tact of the old leaf with the stalk; figure 115 shows clusters of flower racemes and formation of seed.
“¢ What is the expense of establishing a ramie plantation?” asks the farmer. At the present time it is difficult to answer the question, because the cost of roots, the chief expense, depends largely upon demand and supply. It will be a simple matter to figure out the cost of plowing, harrowing, and planting, and we may even assume a price for roots, but the figures must apply only to the present time, when the demand for roots is limited.
In this country ramie has never been grown over large areas, and the records of experi- ments that appear in the meager literature of the subject are very vague and incomplete. The figures given are made up from a careful analysis of returns received in reply to a special circular on this subject, and while the results will not be found far out of the way, these figures must not be regarded as abso- lute. By the Louisiana Experiment Station the first year’s expense is set down at $20, the cost of fertilizers and of roots not given. The Mississippi Experiment Station figures, including cost of fertilizers but not of roots, are $19.50. Mr. Natho, a Texas grower, makes the statement that the expense of preparing the land, planting, and after-cultivation for the first year will amount to $21.50. Mr. 8. B. Allison’s figures, including fertilizers to the value of $12 and the labor of layering a part of the first growth, are $24. Mr. Allison’s land was very poor, and required a large amount of fertilizer.
The figures of the United States Department of Agriculture, based not only upon the returns from the circular but upon all available information that could be secured from other sources, without counting the cost of roots, amount to $25.88 per acre. This allows for fertilizers $9 and for the labor of planting $8. By these returns the expense of the second year’s cultivation, with fertilizers, is shown to be only $13.29,
Fic. 115.—Seed-bearing racemes.
452 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
HARVESTING THE CROP.
In general terms, a crop of ramie is ready for cutting when the leaves can be readily detached by passing the hand down the stems, and when the bases of the stalks have begun to turn brown. The sprouting of the buds at the base of the leaf stem is another indication. No rule as to dates can be laid down, as temperature and climatic conditions vary so greatly in different sections and in the same section in dif- ferent years. In France the first crop is cut from June to July and the second from September to October.
It is a question whether we can economically harvest in this country by hand cutting, especially if the stalks are stripped of their leaves in the field. Then, too, the system of decortication to be employed, whether the green or the dry, will need to be considered. Mr. Kauffa- man states that the harvesting can be readily done by reaping machines or self-binders, which will reduce the expense to the minimum. If this mode is adopted without stripping the leaves, the decortication must follow immediately, for the mass of stalks and leaves will soon heat.and the stalks rapidly mold or mildew. Personal observation at the time of the ramie trials of 1892 at New Orleans leads to the con- viction that heating may begin in twelve hours, and that the bundled stalks will show positive signs of mildew within twenty-four hours. With stripped stalks the heating will be less rapid, but even when denuded of their leaves and lying in heaps, the stalks will soon be affected to an extent that will seriously injure the fiber.
It is not believed that ramie in Louisiana can be sun-dried to a state of sufficient brittleness to give best results in working; and kiln-dry- ing will not only cause additional expense, but may result in injury to the fiber by overhardening the resinous principle or gum holding the filaments together. The dry system seems best adapted to California, where the climatic conditions differ so greatly from those of the Gulf States.
The Chinese strip the fiber by hand, producing, it has been stated, less than 2 pounds per day per laborer. This practice admits of care- ful selection of the stalks, and no doubt the even quality of the China grass of commerce at the present time is due to such careful selection. It is a question, therefore, if cutting the crop with a harvester, as has been recommended, where the stalks will be of varying lengths, even including short and immature growth, will produce an even quality of fiber. Such careful selection of stalks in our own practice can hardly be recommended, owing to the extra expense it would involve, but there is no question as to the enhanced value of the fiber that would result.
It has been shown that a crop grown in a rainy season will produce a softer, less resistant fiber than one grown under normal conditions, and it follows that there may be similar variation in parts of the same stalks that have been grown in successive periods of inundation and drought,
FACTS CONCERNING RAMIE. 453
These facts only emphasize the importance of harvesting mature stalks, and it should be the aim of the cultivator to bring about, as far as such control may be in his power, those conditions of growth that will insure even maturity.
YIELD OF RAMIE.
Estimates of yield, as a rule, are overstated. In the past newspaper literature of the subject the tendency has been to “boom” the industry by telling only the bright side of the story, or by advancing alluring “probabilities,” the exaggerations, in rare instances, approaching the marvelous. But in spite of the enthusiastic utterances of the mere promoter, and the overzealous assurance of the misinformed news- chronicler, few farmers have gone into cultivation recklessly, though some capitalists have lost money in unwisely conducted experiments.
To get at the truth of the matter a careful study has been made of the figures of our own and other countries, the figures of actual experi- ence being selected as the basis of estimate; and it has been possible to find a key by which the published figures of estimate from small areas may be tested.
According to Hardy’s experiments in Algiers it is estimated that an acre of fully grown green stalks, with their leaves, will produce a weight of about 48,000 pounds, which will yield 4,900 pounds of dried stalks and 1,400 pounds of cleaned ribbons from one cutting. This, reduced to equivalents, gives a yield of 229 pounds of dried stalks to a long ton of green stalks with leaves, from which is obtained about 65 pounds of cleaned ribbons, yet tobe degummed. Thisis equivalent to 630 pounds of ribbons from a ton of dried stalks. Professor Hilgard estimates two cuttings in California to yield 12,900 pounds of dry stalks, and that the minimum product of raw fiber from this weight of dry stalks would be about 15 per cent, or, say, 1,935 pounds. This is equivalent to 336 pounds of raw fiber to the long ton of dried stalks. Both the Algerian and Californian figures represent estimates based on the yield of small areas (hardly more than garden plats), and should not be taken as abso- lute. Indeed, Mr. Hardy’s yield per acre of 96,000 pounds of green ramie per year (two cuttings) is not paralleled in any ramie literature that has come to my notice.
In De Mas’s Italian experiments two cuttings the second year gave a product of 52,000 pounds of stalks with leaves per acre, or 27,600 pounds of stripped stalks giving 9,800 pounds of dry stalks, and yield- ing 944 pounds of dry fiber. This means 472 pounds of fiber from one cutting, or 40 pounds of raw fiber from 1 ton of green stalks. Per- centage of dry to green stalks 10 per cent, and of dry fiber to dry stalks 17.9 per cent. These percentages are much nearer the mark, and may
be more safely taken. Regarding Dr. Hiligard’s figures, it should be stated that the product is estimated from actual cuttings on two plats, about one seventy-first
i aA 94 18
454 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
of anacre. The high rate of yield at Berkeley is readily accounted for by the fact that in these small plats (18 by 34 feet) the crop was grown under the best possible conditions, and doubtless with garden culture. Similarly measured plats of second crop Louisiana ramie, cut at my request by Mr. Allison, when weighed showed a yield equivalent to 23,000 pounds and 25,000 pounds in round numbers per acre, the first lot being white ramie, the second lot green ramie, and Mr. Allison is of the opinion that with good culture this yield may be maintained. This is equivalent to 20 and 22 tons of green stalks and leaves per acre annually.
A careful study of the yield of all countries justifies as a fair esti- mate 8 to 10 tons of stalks with leaves per acre at a single cuiting, or for two cuttings, which is the average for Louisiana, 20 tons; and it is possible, under the most favorable conditions, to secure a yield of even 25 tons per year after the plants are well established.
The careful experiments of Mr. Charles Rivitre, director of the Bo- tanic Garden of Algiers, have given us a ready basis of estimate of yield where ramie has been properly grown. These figures have been proved by the later experiments of Landtsheer. A French ton (1,000 kilos= 2,200 pounds) of stalks and leaves will yield 520 kilos (1,144 pounds) of stripped stalks; the 520 kilos of stripped stalks will give 104 kilos (228.8 pounds) of dry stalks, and these will yield 20.8 kilos (45.7 pounds) of decorticated product (a little less than 20 per cent), and this weight will give 11.2 kilos (24.6 pounds) of degummed filasse. This means that a long ton of green ramie stalks with leaves will yield 464 pounds of decorticated fiber, which will give 25 pounds of degummed fiber, and calculations made on this basis will never be overstated or misleading. The figures of De Mas are 40 pounds of fiber per ton of well-grown stalks and leaves for first year’s growth, and 44.2 for second year’s growth. In our own country Mr. Allison’s experiments have given very nearly the same results, having himself grown the stalks and extracted and degummed the fiber.
It is only through such practical experiments, covering the whole ground of production of the fiber, decortication, and degumming, under one direction, that we shall ever be able to solve the many apis that beset be industry.
Regarding the number of cuttings that may be depended upon in the United States there is but one point to consider, and that is the num- ber of crops that will mature sufficiently to produce spinnable fiber of even quality in the different cuttings. Taking ten weeks as the aver- age time required to mature the crop, three crops would require a grow- ing season of thirty weeks. If the climatic conditions of the section where the crop is growing are such that the requisite degrees of heat — and moisture can be kept up uniformly for a period of thirty weeks, then three crops can be readily grown. If, on the other hand, the first and third crops are of slow growth, while the second crop, which has
ew
FACTS CONCERNING RAMIE. 455
been produced in midsummer, is of rapid growth, a uniform grade of fiber in the three crops can not be produced, and two sure crops will, therefore, be better than one sure and two uncertain crops. In order to grow two sure crops the early spring growth will need to be mowed off, say, from the first to the middle of April.
It is believed, therefore, that two cuttings are possible in Texas and Louisiana, three in portions of Florida, and, as has already been stated. by Professor Hilgard, from two to four in California.
EXTRACTING THE FIBER.
It is not important to record here the consecutive history of ramie- machine invention in America, particularly as it would necessitate describing almost a score of machines that, one after another, were brought to the attention of the public for a time, only to be practically abandoned when it was proved that they were unable to fulfill the claims of their inventors. Since 1867 the persevering eflort to produce a Satisfactory machine has naturally resulted in a gradual improve- ment in mechanical construction; new principles have been worked out and the causes of subsequent failures studied, with the result that substantial progress can be recorded, though full economic success can hardly be claimed.
Ramie machines may be divided into two classes: (1) Delignators, or simple bark strippers, and (2) decorticators, which not only remove the bark but make some pretense of removing the outer pellicle, or epider- mis, and the layer of cellular matter covering the fiber layer proper. The bark strippers produce the fiber in the form of flat ribbons, only the wood of the stalk being eliminated; they are usually constructed with some form of knife, or knives, with which the stalks are split before being subjected to the action of the breakers and beaters. The decorticators usually first crush the stalk by means of metal rollers presenting the flattened mass to the action of the breaking or beating devices, and frequently there is a system of mechanisms for combing the fiber before it is finally delivered to the aprons. The product of the delignators is always the same—a flat ribbon of bark, whether the dry or green system of decortication has been employed. The product of the decorticators, on the other hand, is almost as variable as the machines which turn out the fiber. In some of the worst machines this product is little more than a mangled strip of bark, neither a delignated ribbon nor decorticated fiber, but something more fit for the trash heap. In the best of them, individual filaments, by the green System, somewhat resemble China grass, though darker and less clean, while by the dry system the fiber is already soft enough to spin into coarse cordage without further manipulation. Between these two extremes every quality of ribbon is represented.
Taking China grass, or commercial ramie, as the highest form of the fiber, since it is degummed with a loss in weight of only 15 to 50 per
456 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
cent, it will readily be seen that the value to the manufacturers of the machine-cleaned ribbons must be in exact ratio to the degree to which the cleaning and freeing from gum have been carried. The simple delignated ribbon, containing all the gums, cellular matter, and epider- mis, must be the lowest form of raw fiber, as it will show the largest percentage of loss (extraneous matters) in the after-process of degum- ming; and the expense of degumming, according to French experi- ments, is shown to be in direct ratio to the bulk of foreign matters to be eliminated. This, however, will be referred to in its appropriate place further on. (See Plate V showing hand-cleaned and machine- cleaned fiber.)
But we have considered that these different products or grades of product differ only in the degree to which the elimination of the gum and waste matters has been carried, and that the proportion of gum, cellular matter, and epidermis is the only consideration. In point of fact the product of many machines which otherwise might be called good fiber has been so filled with fragments of the woody portion of the stalks, or so ‘chewed up” by harsh treatment, or, finally, so snarled and tangled in the delivery that it has had little value for any purpose. The product should be delivered straight, unsnarled, and untangled, free from chips, and without breaks, cuts, or bruises, whether in the form of stripped bark or semicleaned fiber, and its value will be deter- mined by the percentage of pure fiber it contains.
We may fairly assume, then, that the nearer a machine approaches in its product the ramie of commerce, Chinese hand-cleaned fiber, the higher the price of its product and the more desirable the device pro- ducing it as an economic agricultural implement.
Having discussed quality of fiber produced let us turn our attention to that other great problem, the question of quantity or output. In my first report! is an account of the running of five French machines sey- eral years ago, and the record of one of the best of these machines in a field trial (in 1888) was commented upon. A single machine worked twenty-five days on the product of one hectare, or 24 acres. With 20 acres at this rate it would have required two hundred days, and a farmer with one machine, decorticating three crops produced in a season, on 100 acres, would have to run the machine ten years of three hundred working days each to accomplish it. To state it differently, to decor- ticate at this rate the product of a single cutting on 100 acres, in one month of thirty days, would require 33 machines. Yet one can imagine the French attendant of this machine, who is showing it off to a novice, sending three stalks through the mechanisms in aS many seconds, and with a complacent “Voila, Monsieur!” presenting the beautifully cleaned fiber to his delighted gaze. Such an exhibition before a capi-— talist who has not “read up” is sometimes worth the value of a hun-
1No. 1, Fiber Investigations Series, United States Department of Agriculture.
PLATE V.
Yearbook U. S, Department of Agriculture, 1894.
* 2, MACHINE-CLEANED FIBER
RAMIE STALKS
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3, CHINESE HAND-CLEANED FIBER.
RAMIE IN DETAIL
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FACTS CONCERNING RAMIE. 457
dred shares of stock (at par). But ramie machines have been vastly improved since 1888, and it is now possible to run through the product of an acre in a day, without, however, considering the question of quality. It would doubtless prove interesting to speak of the many machines that have appeared at the official ramie trials held in this and other countries in past years, but limited space forbids.
At the New Orleans machine trials of 1892 the machines ran on stalks that had been stripped of their leaves by hand, and no machine was able to run through the first 500 pounds of stalks weighed out, on account of stoppages, and finally the trial was abandoned. In 1894 the machines took the stalks with their leaves, as hauled from the field, and worked continuously. The quality of the product of decortica- tion at the first trials was little better than simply delignated ribbon, some of it badly bruised and injured; at the second trial the decortica- tion was excellent, though one machine seriously injured its product in the delivery. This shows decided progress, and one of the immediate results of the trials just held will be the further improvement of both machines exhibited, the work having already been undertaken. Re- viewing the experience of even the last five years, we are able to record such substantial progress in machine construction that the outlook is hopeful, and experimenters are beginning to feel great encouragement.
AFTER-PROCESSES AND MANUFACTURE.
Those who are familiar with the varied processes of the extraction and first preparation of the fiber of flax and hemp know that there are four stages, or operations, between the work of the farmer and that of the manufacturer, as the retting—in water or upon the ground—break- ing, scutching, and finally the hackling, which combs out the tow and leaves the fiber in shape for the manufacturer. Withramie the retting is omitted, and the stalks are broken and cleaned either green or dry with all the gums in their natural condition. This corresponds to the breaking and seutching in the treatment of flax, the two operations being combined in one when the work is done on a machine. Before the ramie fiber is hackled (combed), however, it must be subjected to a chemical operation analogous to retting, to which the French have given the name degommage—hence the English term degumming. The gums holding together the filaments of flax are soluble in water, and therefore the retting accomplishes the separation of these filaments without difficulty. The gums which hold together the structure of ramie bast are not soluble in water, but require peculiar chemical treat- ment, which can be more economically applied to the extracted fiber than to the fibrous substance as it exists in its natural state in the stalks as harvested. Owing to this fact the retting, or degumming, of ramie
is usually done by the spinner, who, knowing the use to which the pre-
pared fiber will be applied, degums the raw product to suit his own Special needs. The farmer, then, has nothing to do with this operation
A58 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
and need not interest himself in it further than to know whether his product when extracted and degummed is fit for spinning, or, in other words, is up to a standard of quality that will insure profit from the culture. This operation is not connected with the work of decortication.
Through the researches of the late M. Fremy, member of the French Institute, it has been shown that the gums and cements holding together the filaments of ramie are essentially composed of pectose, cutose, and vasculose, while the fiber itself is composed of fibrose, cel- lulose and its derivatives. The theory of degumming, therefore, is to dissolve and wash out the gums without attacking the cellulose. In order to eliminate the vasculose and cutose it is necessary to use alka- line oleates or caustic alkalies under pressure, and even bisulphites and hydrochlorites. The gums being dissolved, the epidermis is detached and can be mechanically separated from the layer of fiber by washing. The larger number of degumming processes in present use embody these general principles.
Lest it may be understood that it is only necessary to place any raw ramie fiberinthedegumming bath to separate at once its different constit- uents, at a fixed cost, it should be recognized that upon the degree of cleanness of the fiber to be degummed depends the expense of the opera- tion. It has been held by some inventors, or others controlling machines for decortication, that it makes little difference whether the ribbon to be operated upon is simply stripped bark or a well-decorticated prod- uct, as the resolving agency, followed by a volume of water, may be depended upon to render the separation complete and to wash out all extraneous matters, giving the pure fiber. The quantity that may be turned out in a given time, rather than quantity with quality, has been the main consideration. The waste matters in the bark of the ramie stalks must be wholly eliminated before the fiber is fit for the spinner, and if the machine does not accomplish any part of this work the degumming bath must do it all, but at a cost in direct ratio to the per- centage of waste matters that remain in the ribbons after leaving the machine.
French experimenters have shown that it costs no more to degum the China grass that will fill a kier, or tank, of certain dimensions than the charge of simple stripped ribbons that will fill the same tank.. Yet the weight of China grass that will fill this kier will be almost double that of the stripped bark; and while the kier of China grass will show a shrinkage (waste) of only 30 per cent, let us say, the shrinkage for the stripped bark may be 66 per cent. To state this differently, a half- ton charge (1,120 pounds, French) of China grass may give 775 pounds of degummed fiber, the expense of degumming (at $20 per charge, let us say) being about 22 cents per pound. Now, the same kier, when charged with simple stripped bark, will hold only 660 pounds, and give but 264 pounds of degummed filasse. But as the cost of degumming the contents of the tank will be the same in both instances, the last
FACTS CONCERNING RAMIE. 459
operation has cost 74 cents per pound for each pound of pure fiber turned out. These figures are from French experiments made several years ago, recorded in Mr. de Landtsheer’s brochure The Truth About Ramie, and the cost of degumming has since been somewhat cheap- ened. At the present time the cost of the operation of degumming is about $50 per ton of finished fiber, and the commercial value of the fiber about 134 cents per pound.
It should be stated regarding the degumming process in use in this and other countries, that they are either patented or secret processes, and as such the Department has made no special investigation into their comparative merits, and has no official knowledge of the formulas employed. But at the same time, many specimens of the finished fiber produced by these processes have been received, carefully examined, and preserved in the reference collection of the Office of Fiber Investi- gations, United States Department of Agriculture.
In recent years a number of more or less successful factories have been started for the production of ramie goods from the China grass of commerce, notably the German factory at Emmendigen, the Austrian mill at Bregenz which has recently been purchased by an English syn- dicate, the French association of Feray et Cie. at Essones, of A. Goulon at Rouen, and others, the companies operated so successfully by Mr. Fayvier, at Valobre, and latterly in England, where the recent suc- cess of French experimenters in economically degumming the fiber has led to the establishment of new companies for the production of ramie goods, one of these being the Boyle Fiber Syndicate of London.
At the present time there are two filatures, or spinning mills, in France, two in Germany, one in Austria, one in Switzerland, and one or more in England.
As to the possibilities of ramie in manufacture there seems to be no limit. Stuff goods for men’s wear, upholstery, curtains, laces, and embroideries, plushes and velvets, stockings, underclothing, table damask, napkins, handkerchiefs, shirtings, sheetings, sail duck, car- pets, cordage, fishing nets, and yarns and threads for various uses not enumerated. Even the Chinese recognize this wide utility, and while they manufacture the fiber from one variety of the plant into grass cloth and similar fabrics, they use another for fishing lines, nets, and the many useful products that may be classified under the general term cordage.
Regarding these various uses of ramie fiber in manufacture, however, M. Roux says we should not conclude that this textile is destined to be employed so largely. The cost of its preparation will always prevent its common use as a substitute for the textiles that can be more cheaply grown and prepared. He concludes that while it has the brilliancy, it has not the elasticity of wool and silk, nor the flexibility of cotton. But it will always be preferred for making articles requiring the Strength to resist the wear and tear of washing or exposure to weather.
460 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
This faculty to imitate all other textiles is even one of the principal causes which have kept back the development of the ramie industry; and if, instead of launching out into a series of experiments, attention had been concentrated upon the exclusive manufacture of those arti- cles to which the properties of the plant were peculiarly and naturally adapted, this industry would, probably, be in a more advanced condi- tion than it is at present. The United States Department of Agricul- ture has held this position since its work in this field was begun. The folly of building up a ramie manufacturing industry on a false basis, that is, by employing the textile as a substitute for something else, is to be deprecated. The fiber should be used in those articles of eco- nomic necessity which would appear on the market as ramie, in order that any distinctive merit the textile may possess may become known, not only to the trade, but to the consumers of the product. Even then there will be an abundant demand for the textile, and for the waste fiber or combings, for use in mixing with other textiles, or for employ- ment as out-and-out substitutes for them. Nor will the wearing quali- ties of these manufactures at all suffer through the substitution.
Ramie manufacture in our own country can hardly be said to have reached the commercial stage, though quite satisfactory results have been attained. The simpler forms of ramie fabrics were experimentally manufactured twenty years ago, but serious effort belongs to the pres- ent decade.
But it is needless to dwell on this phase of the industry, as success- ful growth and the machine question are the vital considerations. The spinning and weaving of ramie are no longer problems, and with these industries fairly established, as they are in Europe, improvements in machinery and processes to enhance the beauty of the products, to sup- ply new forms of fabrics, and to reduce the cost of manufacture, will naturally follow, and the ramie industry will take its place with the linen industry and the other vast textile occupations which are such sources of wealth to the countries where they are carried on. Briefly summarizing the situation, the outlook is most hopeful.
FORESTRY FOR FARMERS.
By B. E. FERNowW, Chief of the Division of Forestry, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
The following four chapters have been written with the view of aiding farmers who own small timber tracts or wood lots, or who wish to plant some part of their land to forest. This country varies so greatly in soil, climate, and flora that it is only possible, within the limits assigned for the present discussion, to outline general principles everywhere applicable. Nevertheless, wherever suggestions have approximated the laying down of rules of practice, the writer has had mainly in mind the conditions prevalent in our northeastern States. Moreover, for the reason already referred to, limitation of space, it has not been possible to give more than a comprehensive view, without much detail.
The succeeding chapters should be read connectedly, as they are more or less interdependent. The first treats of the behavior of a forest plant; the second, of the principles which should guide the planter in setting a crop; the third, of the manner in which a natural forest crop should be produced; and the fourth chapter points out how the crop should be managed afterwards in order to secure the best results in quantity and quality of material.
1. HOW TREES GROW.
Trees, like most other plants, originate from seed, build up a body of cell tissues, form foliage, flower, and fruit, and take up food material from the soil and air, which they convert into cellulose and other com- pounds, from which all their parts are formed. They rely, like other plants, upon moisture, heat, and light as the means of performing the functions of growth. Yet there are some peculiarities in their behav- ior, their life and growth, which require special attention on the part of a tree grower or forest planter, and these we shall briefly discuss.
FOOD MATERIALS AND CONDITIONS OF GROWTH.
Trees derive their food and solid substance in part from the air and in part from the soil. The solid part of their bodies is made up of cellulose, which consists largely of carbon (44 per cent of its weight), with hydrogen and oxygen added in almost the same proportions as in
water. The carbon is derived from the carbonic acid of the air, which 461
462 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
enters into the leaves and, under the influence of light, air, and water, is there decomposed; the oxygen is exhaled; the carbon is retained and combined with elements derived from the water, forming compounds, such as starch, sugar, etc., which are used as food materials, passing down the tree through its outer layers to the very tips of the roots, making new wood all along the branches, trunk, and roots.
This process of food preparation, called “assimilation,” can be car- ried on only in the green parts, and in these only when exposed to light and air; hence foliage, air, and light at the top are essential prerequi- sites for tree growth, and hence, other conditions being favorable, the more foliage and the better developed it is, and the more light this foliage has at its disposal for its work, the more vigorously will the tree grow.
In general, therefore, pruning, since it reduces the amount of foliage, reduces also, for the time, the amount of wood formed; and just so shading, reducing the activity of foliage, reduces the growth of wood.
SOIL CONDITIONS.
From the soil trees take mainly water, which enters through the roots and is carried through the younger part of the tree to the leaves, to be used in part on its passage for food and wood formation and in part to be given up to the air by transpiration.
In a vigorously growing tree the solid wood substance itself will con- tain half its weight in the form of water chemically combined, and the tree, in addition, will contain from 40 to 65 per cent and more of its dry weight in water mechanically or “‘hygroscopically” held. This last, when the tree is cut, very largely evaporates; yet well-seasoned wood still contains 10 to 12 per cent of such water. The weight of a green tree, a pine, for instance, is made up, in round numbers, of about 30 per cet of carbon and 70 per cent of water, either chemically or hygroscop- ically held, while a birch contains a still larger percentage of water.
The largest part of the water which passes through the tree is tran- spired—i. e., given off to the air in vapor. The amounts thus transpired during the season vary greatly with the species of tree, its age, the amount of foliage at work, the amount of light at its disposal, the eli- matic conditions (rain, temperature, winds, relative humidity), and the season. These amounts are, however, very large when compared with the quantity retained; so that while an acre of forest may store in its trees, say, 1,000 pounds of carbon, 15 to 20 pounds of mineral sub- stances, and 5,000 pounds of water in a year, it will have transpired— taken up from the soil and returned to the air—from 500,000 to 1,500,000 pounds of water (one-quarter to one-half as much as agricultural crops).
Mineral substances are taken up only in very small quantities, and these are mostly the commoner sorts, such as lime, potash, magnesia, aud nitrogen. These are carried in solution to the leaves, where they are used (as perhaps also on their passage through the tree), with a
« /
FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 463
part of the water, in food preparation. The main part of the mineral substances taken up remains, however, as the water transpires, in the leaves and young twigs, and is returned to the soil when the leaves are shed or when the tree is cut and the brush left to decompose and make humus.
Hence the improvement of the fertility of the soil by wood crops is explained, the minerals being returned in more soluble form to the soil; as also the fact that wood crops do not exhaust the soil of its minerals, provided the leaves and litter are allowed to remain on the ground.
For this reason there is no necessity of alternating wood crops, as far as their mineral needs are concerned; the same kind of trees can be grown on the same soil continuously, provided the soil is not allowed to deteriorate from other causes.
As the foliage can perform its work of food assimilation only when sufficient water is at its disposal, the amount of growth is also dependent not only on the presence of sufficient sources of supply, but also on the opportunity had by the roots to utilize the supply, and this opportunity is dependent upon the condition of the soil. If the soil is compact, so that the rain water can not penetrate readily, and runs off superficially, or if it is of coarse grain and so deep that the water rapidly sinks out of reach of the roots and can not be drawn up by capillary action, the water supply is of no avail to the plants; but if the soil is porous and moderately deep (depth being the distance from the surface to the impen- etrable subsoil, rock, or ground water) the water not only can penetrate but also can readily be reached and taken up by the roots.
The moisture of the soil being the most important element in it for tree growth, the greatest attention must be given to its conservation and most advantageous distribution through the soil.
No trees grow to the best advantage in very dry or very wet soil, although some can live and almost thrive in such unfavorable situa- tions. A moderately but evenly moist soil, porous and deep enough or fissured enough to be well drained, and yet of such a structure that the water supplies from the depths can readily be drawn up and be- come available to the roots—that is the soil on which all trees grow most thriftily.
The agriculturist procures this condition of the soil as far as possible by plowing, drainage, and irrigation, and he tries by cultivating to keep the soil from compacting again, as it does under the influence of the beating rain and of the drying out of the upper layers by sun and wind.
The forest grower can not rely upon such methods, because they are either too expensive or entirely impracticable. He may, indeed, plow for his first planting, and cultivate the young trees, but in a few years this last operation will become impossible and the effects of the first operation will be lost. He must, therefore, attain his object in another manner, namely, by shading and mulching the soil. The shading is
464 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
done at first by planting very closely, so that the ground may be pro- tected as soon as possible from sun and wind, and by maintaining the shade well throughout the period of growth. This shade is maintained, if necessary, by more planting, and in case the main crop in later life thins out inordinately in the crowns or tops, or by the accidental death of trees, it may even become desirable to introduce an underbrush.
The mulching is done by allowing the fallen leaves and twigs to remain and decay, and form a cover of rich mold or humus. This pro- tective cover permits the rain and snow waters to penetrate without at the same time compacting the soil, keeping it granular and in best condition for conducting water, and at the same time preventing evapo- ration at the surface.
The soil moisture, therefore, is best maintained by proper soil cover, which, however, is needful only in naturally dry soils. Wet soils, although supporting tree growth, do not, if constantly wet, produce satisfactory wood crops, the growth being very slow. Hence they must be drained and their water level sunk helow the depth of the root system.
Irrigation is generally too expensive to be applied to wood crops, except perhaps in the arid regions, where the benefit of the shelter belt may warrant the expense.
Attention to favorable moisture conditions in the soil requires the selection of such kinds of trees as shade well for a long time, to plant closely, to protect the woody undergrowth (but not weeds), and to leave the litter on the ground as a mulch.
Different species, to be sure, adapt themselves to different degrees of soil moisture, and the crop should therefore be selected with refer- ence to its adaptation to available moisture supplies.
While, as stated, all trees thrive best with a moderate and even stipes of moisture, some can get along with very little, like the conifers, espe- cially pines; others can exist even with an excessive supply, as the bald cypress, honey locust, some oaks, ete. The climate, however, must also be considered in this connection, for a tree species, although succeed- ing well enough on a dry soil in an atmosphere which does not require much transpiration, may not do so in a drier climate on the same soil.
In the selection of different kinds of trees for different soils, the
water conditions of the soil should, therefore, determine the choice.
LIGHT CONDITIONS.
To insure the largest amount of growth, full enjoyment of sunlight is needed. But as light is almost always accompanied by heat and relative dryness of air, which demands water from the plant, and may increase transpiration from the leaves inordinately, making them pump too hard, as it were, young seedlings of tree species whose foliage is not built for such strains require partial shading for the first year or two. The conifers belong to this class.
FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 465
In later life the light conditions exert a threefold influence on the development of the tree, namely, with reference to soil conditions, with reference to form development, and with reference to amount of growth.
The art of the forester consists in regulating the light conditions so as to secure the full benefit of the stimulating effect of light on growth, without its deteriorating influences on the soil and on form develop- ment,
As we have seen, shade is desirable in order to preserve soil moisture: Now, while young trees of all kinds, during the “ brush” stage of devel- opment, have a rather dense foliage, as they grow older they vary in habit, especially when growing in the forest. Some, like the beech, the sugar maple, the hemlock, and the spruce, keep up a dense crown; others, like the chestnut, the oaks, the walnut, the tulip tree, and the white pine, thin out more and more, and when fully grown have a much less dense foliage; finally, there are some which do not keep up a dense Shade for any length of time, like the black and honey locust, with their small, thin leaves; the catalpa, with its large but few leaves at the end of the branchlets only, and the larch, with its short, scattered bunches of needles. So we can establish a comparative scale of trees with reference to the amount of shade which they can give continu- ously, as densely foliaged and thinly foliaged, in various gradations. If we planted all beech or sugar maple, the desirable shading of the soil would never be lacking, while if we planted all locust or catalpa the sun would soon reach the soil and dry it out, or permit a growth of grass or weeds, which is worse, because these transpire still larger quan- tities of water than the bare ground evaporates or an undergrowth of woody plants would transpire. Of course, a densely foliaged tree has many more leaves to shed than a thinly foliaged one, and therefore makes more litter, which increases the favorable mulch cover of the soil. Another reason for keeping the ground well shaded is that the litter
then decomposes slowly, but into a desirable humus, which acts favora-
bly upon the soil, while if the litter is exposed to light, an undesirable, partly decomposed ‘‘raw” humus is apt to be formed.
Favorable soil conditions, then, require shade, while wood growth is increased by full enjoyment of light; to satisfy both requirements, mixed planting, with proper selection of shade-enduring and light- needing species, is resorted to.
As the different species afford shade in different degrees, so they require for their development different degrees of light. The dense foliage of the beech, with a large number of leaves in the interior of the crown, proves that the leaves can exist and perform their work with a small amount of light; the beech is a shade-enduring tree. The
_seanty foliage of the birches, poplars, or pines shows that these are
light-needing trees; hence they are never found under the dense shade of the former, while the shade-enduring can. develop satisfactorily
466 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
under the light shade of the thin-foliaged kinds. Very favorable soil conditions increase the shade endurance of the latter, and climatic conditions also modify their relative position in the scale.
All trees ultimately thrive best—i. e., grow most vigorously—in the full enjoyment of light, but their energy then goes into branching. Crowded together, with the side light cut off, the lower lateral branches soon die and fall, while the main energy of growth is put into the shaft and the height growth is stimulated. The denser shade of the shade-enduring kinds, if placed as neighbors to light-needing ones, is most effective in producing this result, provided that the light is not cut off at the top; and thus, in practice, advantage is taken of the relative requirements for light of the various species,!
The forester finds in close planting and in mixed growth a means of securing tall, clear trunks, free from knots, and he is able, moreover, by proper regulation of light conditions, to influence the form develop- ment, and also the quality of his crop, since slow growth and rapid growth produce wood of different character.
There are some species which, although light foliaged and giving comparatively little shade, are yet shade enduring—i. e., can subsist, although not develop favorably, under shade; the oaks are examples of this kind. Others, like the black cherry, bear a dense crown for the first twenty years, perhaps, seemingly indicating great shade endur- ance; but the fact that the species named soon clears itself of its branches and finally has a thin crown, indicates thatit is light needing, though a good shader for the first period of its life. Others, again, like the catalpa, which is shady and shade enduring, as the difficulty with which it clears itself indicates, leaf out so late and lose their foliage so early that their shading value is thereby impaired. Black locust and honey locust, on the other hand, leave no doubt either as to their light-needing or their inferior shading quality.
That soil conditions and climatic conditions also modify crown devel- opment aud shade endurance has been well recognized abroad, but in our country this influence is of much more importance on account of the great variation in those conditions. Thus the box elder, an excel- lent shader in certain portions of the West, is a failure as soil cover in others where it nevertheless will grow.
We see, then, that in determining the shading value as well as ths shade endurance of one species in comparison with another, with refer- ence to forestry purposes, not only soil and climate but also the char- acter of foliage and its length of season must be considered.
This Be LB of the ctecent species aa varying light WR os their compara- tive shading value and shade endurance, is one of the most important facts to be observed and utilized by the forester. European foresters have done this, but since they had to deal with only a few species and over a limited territory, they could quite readily classify their trees with reference to their shade endurance, and take it for granted that shade endurance and density of foliage or shading value were more or less identical. With our great wealth of useful species it will be necessary ani profitable to be more exact in the classification.
FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 467
PHYSIOLOGY OF TREE GROWTH.
As we have seen, root and foliage are the main life organs of the tree. The trunk and branches serve to carry the crown upward and expose it to the light, which is necessary in order to prepare the food and increase the volume of the tree, and also as conductors of food materials up and down between root and foliage. <A large part of the roots, too, aside from giving stability to the tree, serve only as conductors of water and food material; only the youngest parts, the fibrous roots, beset with innumerable fine hairs, serve to take up the water and min- erals from the soil. These fine roots, root hairs, and young parts are therefore the essential portion of the root system. <A tree may have a fine, vigorous-looking root system, yet if the young parts and fibrous roots are cut off or allowed to dry out, which they readily do—some kinds more so than others—thereby losing their power to take up water, such a tree is apt to die. Under very favorable moisture and tempera- ture conditions, however, the old roots may throw out new sprouts and replace the fibrous roots. Some species, like the willows, poplars, locusts, and others, are especially capable of doing so. All trees that “transplant easily” probably possess this capacity of renewing the fibrous roots readily, or else are less subject to drying out. But it may be stated as a probable fact that most transplanted trees which die soon after the planting do so because the fibrous roots have been cur- tailed too much in taking up, or else have been allowed to dry out on the way from the nursery or forest to the place of planting; they were really dead before being set. Conifers—pines, spruces, etec.—are espe- cially sensitive; maples, oaks, catalpas, and apples will, in this respect, stand a good deal of abuse.
Hence, in transplanting, the first and foremost care of the forest grower, besides taking the sapling up with least injury, is the proper protection of its root fibers against drying out.
The water, with the minerals in solution, is taken up by the roots when the soil is warm enough, but to enable the roots to act they must be closely packed with the soil. It is conveyed mostly through the outer, which are the younger, layers of the wood of root, trunk, and branches to the leaves. Here, as we have seen, under the influence of light and heat itis in large part transpired and in part combined with the carbon into organic compounds, sugar, etc., which serve as food materials. These travel from the leaf into the branchlet, and down through the outer layers of the trunk to the very tips of the root, forming new wood all the way, new buds, which lengthen into shoots, leaves, and flowers, and also new rootlets. To live and grow, therefore, the roots need the food elaborated in the leaves, just as the leaves need the water sent up from the roots.
Hence the interdependence of root system and crown, which must be kept in proportion when transplanting. At least, the root system must be sufficient to supply the needs of the crown.
468 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
“SAP UP AND SAP DOWN.”
The growing tree, in all its parts, is more or less saturated with water, and as the leaves, under the influence of sun and wind and atmospheric conditions generally transpire, new supplies are taken in through the roots and conveyed to the crown. This movement takes place even in winter, in a slight degree, to supply the loss of water by evaporation from the branches. In the growing season it is so active as
to become noticeable; hence £ the saying that the sap is “up,” or “rising,” and when, toward the end of the season, the movement becomes less, the sap is said to be “down.” But this movement of water is always upward; hence the notion that there is a stream upward at one season and in one part of the tree, and a stream downward at another season and perhaps in another part of the tree, is erroneous. The downward movement is of food materials, and the two movements of water upward and food downward take place simultaneously, and depend, in part at least, one upon the other, the food being carried to the young parts, wherever required, by a process of diffu- sion from cell to cell known as ‘¢ OSMOSIS.”
These food materials are, by the life processes of the active cells, changed in. chem- ical. composition as need be,
Fic. 116.—Physiological importance of different parts of from Sugar, which is soluble,
Ba a pathways of water and food materials. (Sche- into starch, which is insoluble,
and back into sugar, and com-
bined with nitrogenous substances to make the cell-forming material, protoplasm (fig. 116),
In the fall, when the leaves cease to elaborate food, both the upward and the downward movement, more or less simultaneously, come to rest (the surplus of food materials, as starch, and sometimes as sugar, being stored for the winter in certain cell tissues), to begin again simul- taneously when in spring the temperature is high enough to reawaken
CARBONIG aAcio
—
OXYGEN
HEARTWOOD, NO MOVEMENT.
FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 469
activity, when the stored food of last year is dissolved and started on its voyage. The exact manner in which this movement of water upward and food materials downward takes place, and the forces at work, are not yet fully understood, nor is there absolute certainty as to the parts of the tree in which the movement takes place. It appears, however, that while all the so-called “sapwood” is capable of conducting water (the heartwood is probably not), the most active movement of both water and food materials takes place in the cambium (the growing cells immediately beneath the bark) and youngest parts of the bark.
The deductions from these processes important to the planter are: That injury to the living bark or bast means injury to growth, if not destruction to life; that during the period of vegetation transplauting can be done only with great caution; that the best time to move trees is in the fall, when the leaves have dropped and the movement of water and food materials has mostly ceased, or in spring, before the move- ment begins again, the winter being objectionable only because of the difficulty of working the soil and of*keeping the roots protected against frost. All things considered, spring planting, before activity in the tree has begun, is the best, although it is not impossible to plant at other times.
PROGRESS OF DEVELOPMENT.
Like the wheat or corn plant, the tree seed require as conditions for sprouting sufficient moisture, warmth, and air. Tree seeds, however, differ from grain in that most of the kinds lose their power of germi- nation easily; with few exceptions (locust, pine, spruce), they can not be kept for any length of time.
The first leaves formed often differ essentially in shape from those of the mature tree, which may cause their being confounded with other plants, weeds, ete.
The little seedlings of many, especially the conifers, are quite delicate, and remain very small the first season; they need, therefore, the pro- tecting shade of mother trees, or artificial shading, and also protection against weeds. The amount of light or shade given requires careful regulation for some of them; too much light and heat will kill them, and so will too much shade. This accounts for the failure of many seedlings that spring up in the virgin forest.
The planter, then, is required to know the nature and the needs of the various kinds of seeds and seedlings, so as to provide favorable conditions, when he will avoid sowing in the open field such as require the care which it is impracticable to give outside of the nursery.
GROWTH IN LENGTH AND RAMIFICATION.
While the stalk of wheat or corn grows for one season, exhausts itself in seed production, and then dies, the tree continues to grow from season to season, in length as well as in thickness. The growth
a) “Os 19
470 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
in length of shaft and branches proceeds from buds, made up of cell tissues, which can subdivide and lengthen into shoots, as well as make leaves. These buds are formed during summer, and when winter begins contain embryo leaves, more or less developed, under the protecting cover of scales (fig. 118). When spring stimulates the young plant to new activity, the buds swell, shed their scales, dis-
TES PORTS ae}
Fig. 117.._Bud development of beech. B, as it would be ii all formed buds were to live; A, as it is, many buds failing to develop.
tend their cells, increasing their number by subdivision, and thus the leaves ex- pand, and the bud lengthens into a shoot and twig. During the season new buds are formed, and the whole process repeats itself from year to year, giving rise to the ramification and height growth of the tree. The end buds being mostly stronger and better developed, =~ the main axis of tree or branch increases = Fra. 118.—Buds oP dakypli A, longitudinal more rapidly than the rest. All these eee at a intend eae a buds originate from the youngest, central _ jeaves of last season. B, cross section part of the shoot, the pith, and hence through end bud, showing folded leaves z . in center and scales surrounding them. when the tree grows in thickness, envel- oping the base of the limbs, their connection with the pith can always be traced. This is the usual manner of bud formation; in addition, so-called ‘‘adventitious” buds may be formed from the young living wood in later life, which are not connected with the pith. Such buds are those which develop into sprouts from the stump when the tree is
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—_
FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 471
cut; also those which give rise to what are known as ‘‘ water sprouts.” Many buds, although formed, are, however, not developed at once, and perhaps not at all, especially as the tree grows older; these either die or remain “dormant,” often for a hundred years, to spring into life when necessary (fig. 119).
The fact that each ordinary limb starts as a bud from the pith is an important one to the timber grower; it explains knotty timber and gives him the hint that in order to obtain clear timber the branches
)
Fieé. 119.—Dormant bud, K, on a 12-year old branch of beech. The bud is still capable of development and is connected with the pith, mm, of the stem by a fine trace of pith, S.
first formed must be soon removed, either by the knife - by tabi ati Fia. 120.—Section through a 12-year old stem shading, which kills the branches and of beech, showing manner of bud and limb thus ‘ clears” the shaft. formation. a, dormant buds; b, their trace
. ; , of pith extending to the pith of the stem;
The planter has it also in his power ce, alimb which started two years ago from
to influence the form development of 4 dormant bud; d, normal limb; ¢,a limb : dead for four years; f, adventitious buds.
the tree by removing some of the
buds, giving thereby better chance to the remaining ones. This
pruning of buds is, where practicable, often better practice than the
pruning of limbs.
Since the tree does not grow in length except by its buds it is evi- dent that a limb which started to grow at the height of 6 feet has its base always 6 feet from the ground, and if allowed to grow to size, must be surrounded by the wood which accumulates on the main stem or trunk. If a limb is killed and broken off early, only a slender stub composed entirely of rapidly decaying sapwood, is left, occasioning, therefore, only a small defect in the heart of the tree; but if left to grow to considerable age, the base of the limb is incased by the wood of the stem, which, when the tree is cut into lumber, appears as a knot.
472 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The longer the limb has been allowed to grow, the farther out is the tim- ber knotty and the thicker is the knot. If the limb remained alive, the | knot is ‘‘sound,” closely grown together with the fibers of the tree. I the limb died off, the remaining stub may behave in different ways. In pines it will be largely composed of heartwood, very resinous and dura- ble; separated from the fibers of the overgrowing wood, it forms a “loose” knot, which is apt to fall out of a board, leaving a hole.
In broad-leaved trees, where no resin assists in the process of heal- ing, the stub is apt to decay, and this decay, caused by the growth of fungi, is apt to penetrate into the tree (fig.121). In parks and orchards, pruning is resorted to, and the cuts are painted or tarred to avoid the decay. In well-managed forests and dense woods in general, the light is cut off, the limb is killed when young and breaks away, the shaft ‘clears itself,” and the sound trunk furnishes a good grade of material. The difference in development of the branch system, whether in fall enjoyment of light, in open stand, or with the side light cut off, in dense position, is shown in the accompanying illustration (fig. 122).
Both trees start alike; the one retains its branches, the other loses them gradually, the stubs being in time overgrown; finally the second has a clear shaft, with a crown concentrated at the top, while the first is beset with branches and branch stubs for its whole length (fig. 123).
When ripped open lengthwise, oak wood. a, wood of the knot; band ¢, wood cal- the interior exhibits the condi- lusof the stem covering the wound; shaded portion, tion shown in figure 124, the dead decayed wood; black part, a cavity remaining. parts of the knot being indicated
in heavier shading. Since the branches grow in more or less regular whorls, several knots, stumps, or limbs are met every 6 to 24 inches through the entire stem. ;
Hence, in forest planting, trees are placed and kept for some time close together, in order to decrease the branching in the lower part of the tree and thus produce a clean bole and clear lumber.
GROWTH IN THICKNESS.
The young seedling and the young shoot of the older tree much resemble in interior structure that of any herbaceous plant, being composed of a large amount of pith, loose squarish cells, and a few bundles of long fibers symmetrically distributed about the center, the whole covered with athin skin or epidermis. Each strand or bundle of
FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 473
fibers, called fibro-vascular (fiber-vessel) bundles, consists of two kinds, namely, wood fibers on the inner side and bast fibers of different structure on the outer side. Between these two sets of fibers, the bast and the wood, there is a row of cells which form the really active, growing part of the plantlet, the cambium. The cambium cells are actively subdividing and expanding, giving off wood cells to the inte- rior and bast cells to the exterior, and extending at the same time side- wise, until at the end of the season not only are the wood and bast portions increased in lines radiating from the center, but the cambium layer, the wood cells, and the bast cells of all the bundles (scattered at the beginning) join at the sides to form a complete ring, or rather hollow cylinder, around the central pith. Only here and there the pith cells remain, interrupting the wood cylinder and giving rise to the system of cells known as med- ullary rays. The cross section now shows a comparatively small amount of pith and bast or bark and a larger body of strong wood fibers. The new shoot at the end, to be sure, has the same appearance and arrangement as the young plantlet had, the pith prepon- derating, and the continuous cylinder of cambium, bast, and wood being separated into strands or bundles,
During the season, through the activity of the cambial part of the bundles, the samechanges take place in the new shoot as did the previous year in the Fic. 122.—Development in and out of the forest. A, awe teedling, pihile, at the, cpg ti See: Bol 0, suns same time the cambium in the responding stages of the tree grown in the forest. yearling part also actively sub- Numbers refer to annual growth in height. divides, forming new wood and bast cells, and thus a second ring, or rather cylinder, is formed. The cambium of the young shoot is always a continuation of that of the ring or cylinder formed the year before,
-and this cambium cylinder always keeps moving outward, so that at
the end of the season, when activity ceases, it is always the last minute layer of cells on the outside of the wood, between wood proper and
474 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
bark. Itis here, therefore, that the life of the tree lies, and any injury to the cambium must interfere with the growth and life of the tree. The first wood cells which the cambium forms in the spring are usually or always of a more open structure, thin walled, and with a large opening or “lumen,” comparable to a blown-up paper bag; so large, in fact, sometimes, is the “lumen” that the width of the cells can be seen on a cross section with the naked eye, as, for instance, in oak, ash, elm, the so-called “pores” are this open wood formed in spring. The cells, which are formed later in summer, have mostly thick walls, are closely crowded and compressed, and show a very small opening or “Inmen,” being com- parable, perhaps, to a very thick wooden box. They appear in the cross section not only denser but of a deeper color, on account of their crowded, compressed condition and thicker walls. Since at the be- ginning of the next sea- son again thin-walled cells with wide open- ings or lumina are formed, this difference in the appearance of “spring wood” and “summer wood” ena- bles us to distinguish the layer of wood formed each year. This ‘annual ring” is more Fic. 123.—Trees in and out of the forest. D, tree grown in the conspicuous in some open; D’, tree grown in the forest. kinds than in others.
In the so-called “ring porous” woods, like oak, ash, elm, the rings are easily distinguished by the open spring wood; in the conifers, espe- cially pines, by the dark-colored sammer wood; while in maple, birch, tulip, ete., only a thin line of flattened, hence darker and regularly aligned, summer cells, often hardly recognizable, distinguishes the rings from each other. Outting through a tree, therefore, we can not only ascertain its age by counting its annual layers in the cross section, but also determine how much wood is formed each year (fig. 125), We
FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 475
can, in fact, retrace the history of its growth, the vicissitudes through which it has passed, by the record preserved in its ring growth.
To ascertain the age of a tree correctly, however, we must cut so near to the ground as to include the growth of the first year’s little plantlet; any section higher up shows as many years too few as it took the tree to reach that height.
This annual-ring formation is the rule in all countries which have distinct seasons of summer and winter and temporary cessation of growth. Only exception- ally a tree may fail to make its growth throughout its whole length on account of loss of foliage or other causes; and occasionally, when its growth has been disturbed during the sea- son, a “secondary” ring, resembling the annual ring, and distinguishable only by the expert, may appear and mar therecord.
To the forest planter this chapter on ring growth is of great importance, be- cause not only does this feature of tree life afford the means of watching the progress of his crop, cal- culating the amount of wood formed, and there- from determining when it is most profitable for him to harvest (namely, when the annual or periodic
wood growth falls below a
. ° Fig. 124.—Sections of logs showing the relative development certain amount), but since of knots. E,;from tree grown in the open; EF’, from tree the proportion of summetLr grown ina dense forest; @ and c, whorls of knots; b, dea
wood and spring wood limb; sk, ‘‘sound knot;’’ dk, ‘‘dead knot.” < determines largely the quality of the timber, and since he has it in his power to influence the preponderance of the one or other by adaptation of species to soils and by their management, ring growth furnishes an index for regulating the quality of his crop.
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FORM DEVELOPMENT
If a tree is allowed to grow in the open, it has a tendency to branch, and makes a low and spreading crown. In order to lengthen its shaft and to reduce the number of branches it is necessary to narrow its
476 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
growing space, to shade its sides so that the lower branches and their foliage do not receive light enough to perform their functions. When the side shade is dense enough, these branches die and finally break off under the influence of winds and fungous growth; wood then forms
\ Yering RS /
Fic. 125.—Scheme to illustrate the ar- rangement of annual growth. 1, 2, 3, etc., represent the parts of the stem grown during the first, second, third, etc., twenty years of the life of the tree. k, knots; the shaded part of each is the ‘‘dead knot’’ of lumber.
over the scars and we get a clean shaft which carries a crown high up beyond the reach of shade from neighbors.
The branches being prevented from spreading out, the shaft is forced to grow upward, and hence, when crowded by others, trees become taller and more cylindrical in form, while in the open, where they can spread, they remain lower and more conical in form (figs. 126, 127).
There are, to be sure, different natural types of development, some, like the wal- nuts, oaks, beeches, and the broad-leafed trees generally, having greater tendency to spread than others, like spruces, firs, and conifers in general, which lengthen their shaft in preference to spreading, evenintheopen. This tendency to spread- ing is also influenced by soil conditions and climate, as well as by the age of the tree. When the trees cease to grow in height, their crowns broaden, and this takes place sooner in shallow soils than in deep, moist ones; but the tendency can be checked and all can be made to develop the shaft at the expense of the branches by proper shading from the sides.
It follows that the forest planter, who desires to produce long and clean shafts and best working quality of timber, must secure and maintain side shade by a close stand, while the landscape gardener, who desires characteristic form, must maintain an open stand and full enjoyment of light for his trees.
Now, as we have seen, different species afford different amounts of shade, and in proportion to the shade which they afford
can they endure shade. The beech or sugar maple or spruce, which maintain a large amount of foliage under the deuse shade of their own crown, show that their leaves can live and functionate with asmall amount of light. They are shade-enduring trees. On the other hand,
FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. A477
the black walnut, the locust, the catalpa, the poplars, and the lareh show by the manner in which their crowns thin out, the foliage being confined to the ends of the branches, that their leaves require more light—they are light-needing trees; so that the scale which arranges the trees according to the amount of shade they exert serves also to measure their shade endurance.
In making, therefore, mixed plantations, the different kinds must be so grouped and managed that the shady trees will not outgrow and overtop the light-needing; the latter must either have the start of the former or must be quicker growers.
RATE OF GROWTH.
Not only do different species grow more or less rapidly in height and girth, but there is in each species a difference in the rate of growth during different periods of life, and a difference in the persistence of growth.
It stands to reason that trees grow differently in different soils and sit- uations, and hence we can not com- pare different species with respect
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Fia 126.—Oak tree grown in the open. Fia. 127.—Maple tree grown in the forest.
to their rate of growth except as they grow under the same conditions.
Thus the black walnut may grow as fast as or faster than the ash cn a rich, deep, moist, warm soil, but will soon fall to the rear in a wetter, colder, and shallower soil.
Given the same conditions, some species will start on a rapid upward growth at once, like the poplars, aspen, locust, and silver maple, making rapid progress (the most rapid from their tenth to their fifteenth year), but decreasing soon in rate and reaching their maximum height early. Others, like the spruce, beech, and sugar maple, will begin slowly, often occupying several, sometimes as many as 10 to 15, years before they appear to grow at all, their energy all going into root growth. Then comes a period of more and more accelerated growth, which reaches its maximum rate at 25 or 30 years; and when the cottonwood or aspen
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478 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
has reached the end of its growth in height the spruce or pine is still at its best rate, and continues to grow for a long time at that rate; in later life the rate decreases, yet height growth sometimes does not cease altogether for centuries. As a rule, the light-needing species are the ones which show the rapid height growth at the start, while the shade-enduring are slow at the start, but persistent growers.
This fact is important in explaining the alternations of forest growth in nature; the persistent shade-enduring species crowd out the light- needing, and the latter rapidly take possession of any openings that fire or storm has made. It is also important with reference to the man- agement of wood crops and starting of mixed plantations; the light- needing species must be mixed only with such shade-enduring species as are slower growers than themselves.
The diameter growth shows also periodic changes in its rate, and is, of course, influenced in the same way by soil, climate, and light conditions, as the height growth.
In the juvenile or brush stage, lasting 6 to 10 years in light-needing and 20 to 40 years in shade-enduring species, the diameter grows compara- tively little, all energy being directed to height growth and root growth. When the crown has been definitely formed, more food material is avail- able for wood formation, and the increase in foliage is accompanied by a more rapid increase of trunk diameter; in favorable situations, the highest rate occurs between the fortieth and sixtieth years; in the poorer situations, between the fiftieth and eightieth years, which rate continues for some time. Then comes a period of slower rate, which finally in old age dwindles down almost to zero.
But neither the diameter growth nor the width of the annual rings alone tells us directly what amount of wood is forming. The outer rings, being laid over a larger circumference, although thinner than the preceding rings, may yet have greater cubic contents. The statements of diameter growth are, therefore, misleading if we are interested in knowing how much wood is forming.
Accordingly the growth in volume must be considered separately, as determined by the enlargement of the cross-section area and the height. The growth in volume or mass accretion is quite Small in young trees, so that when wood is cut young the smallest amount of crop per year is harvested, while, if it is allowed to grow, an increase more than pro- portionate to the number of years may be obtained.
Only when the tree has a fully developed crown does it begin to make much wood. Its volume growth progresses then at compound interest, and continues to do so for decades, and sometimes for a cen- tury or more.
On poorer sites the rate is slower, but remains longer on the increase,
while on good sites the maximum rate is soon reached.
Ot course, in a forest, where light conditions are not most favorable, because form development and soil conditions require shade, the total wood formation 1s less than in an isolated tree, favorably placed. Just
FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 479
so the dominant trees in a forest—i. e., those which have their crowns above all others—show, of course, the advantage they have over the inferior trees which are suffering from the shade of their neighbors.
Finally, if we would take into consideration an entire forest growth, and determine, for instance, how much wood an acre of such forest pro- duces at different periods, we must not overlook the fact that the num- ber of trees per acre changes as the trees grow older. Some of them are overshaded and crowded out by the others, so that a young growth of spruce might start with 100,000 little seedlings to the acre, of which in the twentieth year only 10,000 would be alive, while in the fortieth year the number would be reduced to 1,200, and in the hundredth year to 280. Hence the rate of growth of any single tree gives no idea of what the acre of forest will do.
Thus, while a single good white pine might grow the fastest in vol- ume when about one hundred years old, then making wood at the rate of, say, 1.5 cubic feet per year, an acre of pine on good soil, containing about 1,600 trees, may make the most wood in the thirtieth year, then growing at the rate of 170 cubic feet per acre, while in the hundredth year the rate would not exceed 70 cubic feet; and an acre of pine in a poorer location, with about 1,400 trees, may make the most wood in the fortieth year, at the rate of 100 cubic feet per acre.
From the consideration of the relation of light conditions to soil con- ditions, to form development, and to rate of growth, we may make the following deductions of interest to the forest planter:
In order to secure the best results in wood production, in quantity and quality, at the same time preserving favorable soil conditions, the forest should be composed of various species, a mixture of light-needing and shade-enduring kinds. The light-needing ones should be of quicker growth; the shady ones, in larger numbers, should be slower growers. For the first fifteen to twenty-five years the plantation should be kept as dense as possible, to secure clear shafts and good growth in height; then it should be thinned, to increase crown development and diameter growth; the thinning, however, is not to be so severe that the crowns can not close up again in two or three years; the thinning is to be repeated again and again, always favoring the best developed trees.
REPRODUCTION,
All trees reproduce themselves naturally from seed. Man can secure their reproduction also from cuttings or layers; and some kinds can reproduce themselves by shoots from the stump when the parent tree has been cut. This latter capacity is possessed in a varying degree by different species; chestnuts, oaks, elms, maples, poplars, and willows are most excellent sprouters; most conifers do not sprout at all, and the
- Shoots of those that do sprout soon die (Sequoia or California redwood
seems to be anexception). Sprouts of broad-leafed trees develop differ- ently from seedlings, growing very rapidly at first, but soon lessening in the rate of growth and never attaining the height and perhaps not
480 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the diameter of trees grown from the seed; they are also shorter lived. With age the stumps lose their capacity for sprouting. To secure best results, the parent tree should be cut close to the ground in early spring, avoiding severe frost, and a sharp cut should be made which will not sever the bark from the trunk.
Not all trees bear seed every year, and plentiful seed production, especially in a forest, occurs, as a rule, periodically. The periods differ with species, climate, and season.
Not all seeds can germinate, and in some species the number of seeds that can germinate is very small, and they lose their power of germina- tion when kept a few hours, like the willows. Others, if kept till they have become dry, will ‘lie over” in the soil a year or more before ger- minating. The same thing will occur if they are covered too deep in the soil, provided they germinate at all under such conditions.
In order to germinate, seeds must have warmth, air, and moisture. The preparation of a seed bed is, therefore, necessary in order to supply these conditions in most favorable combination. In the natural forest inillions of seeds rot or dry without sprouting, and millions of seedlings sprout, but soon perish under the too dense shade of the mother trees.
Man, desiring to reproduce a valuable wood crop, can not afford to be as lavish as nature, and must therefore improve upon nature’s methods, making more careful preparation for the production of his crop, either by growing the seedlings in nurseries and transplanting them, or else by cutting away the old growth in such a manner as to secure to the young self-grown crop better chances for life and development.
2. HOW TO PLANT A FOREST.
Forest planting and tree planting are two different things. The orchardist, who plants for fruit; the landscape gardener, who plants for form; the roadside planter, who plants for shade, all have objects 1n view different from that of the forest planter, and therefore select and use their plant material differently. They deal with single individual trees, each one by itself destined for a definite purpose. The forester, on the other hand, plants a crop like the farmer; he deals not with the single seed or plant, but with masses of trees; the individual tree has value to him only as apart of the whole. It may come to harvest for its tim- ber, or it may not come to harvest, and yet have answered its purpose as a part of the whole in shading the ground, or acting as nurse or ‘‘forwarder” as long as it was necessary.
His object is not to grow trees, but to produce wood, the largest amount of the best quality per acre, whether it be stored in one tree or in many, and his methods must be directed to that end.
As far as the manner of setting out plants or sowing seeds is con- cerned, the same general principles and the same care in manipulation are applicable as in any other planting, except as the cost of operating
FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 481
on so large a scale may necessitate less careful methods than the gar- dener or nurseryman can afford to apply; the nearer, however, the performance of planting can be brought to the careful manner of the gardener, the surer the success. The principles underlying such methods have been discussed in the chapter “ How trees grow;” in the present chapter it is proposed to point out briefly the special consid- erations which should guide the forest planter in particular.
WHAT TREES TO PLANT.
Adaptability to climate is the first requisite in the species to be planted.
It is best to choose from the native growth of the region which is known to be adapted to it. With regard to species not native, the reliance must be placed upon the experience of neighboring planters and upon experiment (at first on a small scale), after study of the requirements of the kinds proposed for trial.
Adaptation must be studied, not only with reference to temperature ranges and rainfall, but especially with reference to atmospheric humidity and requirements of transpiration.
Many species have a wide range of natural distribution, and hence of climatic adaptation. If such are to be used, it is important to secure seeds from that part of the range of natural distribution where the plants must be hardiest, i. e., the coldest and driest region in which it occurs, which insures hardy qualities in the offspring. For instance, the Douglas spruce from the humid and evenly tempered Pacific Slope will not be as hardy as that grown from seed collected on the dry and frigid slopes of the Rockies. Lack of attention to this requisite accounts for many failures. It must also be keptin mind that, while a species may be able to grow in another than its native climate, its wood may not there have the same valuable qualities which it develops in its native habitat.
Adaptability to soil must be studied less with reference to mineral constituents than to physical condition. Depth and moisture condi- tions, and the structure of the soil, which influences the movement of water in it, are the most important elements. While all trees thrive best in a moist to “fresh” soil of moderate depth (from 2 to 4 feet) and granular structure, some can adapt themselves to drier or wetter, shallow, and compact soils. Fissures in rocks into which the roots can penetrate often stand for depth of soil, and usually aid in maintaining favorable moisture conditions. In soils of great depth (i. e., from the surface to the impenetrable subsoil) and of coarse structure water may drain away so fast as not to be available to the roots.
Soil moisture must always be studied in conjunction with atmospheric moisture; for, while a species may thrive in an arid soil, when the demands of transpiration are not great, it may not do so when aridity
482 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
of atmosphere is added. Trees of the swamp are apt to be indifferent to soil moisture and to thrive quite well, if not better, in drier soils.
Adaptability to site—While a species may be well adapted to the general climatic conditions of a region, and in general to the soil, there still remains to be considered its adaptability to the particular “ site,” under which term we may comprise the total effect of general climate, local climate, and soil. The general climatic conditions are locally influenced, especially by the slope, exposure, or aspect, and the sur- roundings. Thus we know that eastern exposures are more liable to frost, western exposures more liable to damage from winds, southern more apt to be hot and to dry out, and northern to be cooler and damper, having in consequence a shorter period of vegetation. Hol- lows and lowlands are more exposed to frosts and more subject to variations in soil moisture, etc.
Hence for these various situations it is advisable to select species which can best withstand such local dangers.
The use value, or utility, of the species is next to be considered. This must be done with reference to the cominercial and domestic demand, and the length of time it takes the species to attain its value. The greater variety of purposes a wood may serve—i. e., the greater its general utility—and the sooner it attains its use value the better. White pine for the northeastern States as a wood is like the apple among fruits, making an all-round useful material in large quantities per acre in short time. Tulip poplar, applicable to a wider climatic range, is almost aS valuable, while oak, ash, and hickory are standard woods in the market. Other woods are of limited application. Thus the black locust, which grows most quickly into useful posts, has only a limited market, much more limited than it should have; hickory soon furnishes valuabie hoop poles from the thinnings, and later the best wagon material, not, however, large quantities in a short time; while black walnut of good quality is very high in price, the market is also limited, and the dark color of the heartwood, for which it is prized, is attained only by old trees. The black cherry, used for similar purposes, attains its value much sooner.
3y planting various species together, variety of usefulness may be secured and the certainty of a market increased.
The forest value of the species is only in part expressed by its use value. As has been shown in another place, the composition of the crop must be such as to insure maintenance of favorable soil con- ditions, as well as satisfactory development of the crop itself. Some species, although of high use value, like ash, oak, ete., are poor pre- servers of soil conditions, allowing grass and well to casita the plan- tation and to deteriorate the soil under their thin foliage. Others, like beech, sugar maple, box elder, etc., although of less use value, being dense foliaged and preserving a shady crown for a long time, are of great forest value as soil improvers.
Pa
FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 483
Again, as the value of logs depends largely on their freedom from knots, straightness, and length, it is of importance to secure these qualities. Some valuable species, if grown by themselves, make crooked trunks, do not clean their shafts of branches, and are apt to spread rather than lengthen. If planted in close companionship with others, they are forced by these “ nurses or forwarders” to make better growths and clean their shafts of branches.
Furthermore, from financial considerations, it is well to know that some species develop more rapidly and produce larger quantities of useful material per acre than others; thus the white pine is a “big eropper,” and, combining with this a tolerably good shading quality, and being in addition capable of easy reproduction, it is of highest “forest value.”
Henee, as the object of forestry is to make money from continued wood crops, use value and forest value must both be considered in the selection of materials for forest planting.
Mutual relationship of different species, with reference especially to their relative height growth and their relative light requirements, must be considered in starting a mixed plantation.
- Mixed forest plantations (made of several kinds) have so many advan- tages over pure plantations (made of one kind) that they should be preferred, except for very particular reasons. Mixed plantations are capable of producing larger quantities of better and more varied material, preserve soil conditions better, are less liable to damage from winds, fires, and insects, and can be more readily reproduced.
The following general rules should guide in making up the compo- sition of a mixed plantation:
a. Shade-enduring kinds should form the bulk (five-eighths to seven-eighths) of the plantation, except on specially favored soils where no deterioration is to be feared from planting only light-needing kinds, and in which case these may even be planted by themselves.
b. The light-needing trees should be surrounded by shade-enduring of slower growth, so that the former may not be overtopped, but have the necessary light and be forced by side shade to straight growth.
ce, Shade-enduring speciesmay be grown in admixture with each other when their rate of height growth is about equal, or when the slower-growing kind can be pro- tected against the quicker-growing (for instance, by planting a larger proportion of the former in groups or by cutting back the latter).
d. The more valuable timber trees which are to form the main crop should be so
disposed individually, and planted in such numbers among the secondary crop or nurse crop, that the latter can be thinned out first without disturbing the former.
Where a plantation of light-foliaged trees has been made (black walnut, for instance), it can be greatly improved by ‘‘underplanting” densely with a shade-enduring kind, which will choke out weed growth, improve the soil, and thereby advance the growth of the plantation.
The selection and proper combination of species with reference to this mutual relationship to each other and to =e soil are the most im- portant elements of success.
484 YEARBOOK OF THE U, 8, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Availability of the species also still needs consideration in this country; for, although a species may be very well adapted to the pur- pose in hand, it may be too difficult to obtain material for planting in quantity or at reasonable prices. While the beech is one of the best species for shade endurance, and hence for soil cover, seedlings can not be had as yet in quantity. Western conifers, although promising good material for forest planting, are at present too high priced for general use. Some eastern trees can be secured readily—either their seed or seedlings—from the native woods; others must be grown in nurseries before they can be placed in the field.
Whether to procure seeds or plants, and if the latter, what kind, depends upon a number of considerations. The main crop, that which is to furnish the better timber, had best be planted with nursery-grown plants, if of slow-growing kinds, perhaps once transplanted, with well- developed root systems, the plants in no case to be more than 2 to 3 years old. The secondary or nurse crop may then be sown or planted with younger and less costly material taken from the woods or grown in seed beds, or else cuttings may be used.
In some localities—for instance, the Western plains—the germinating of seeds in the open field is so uncertain, and the life of the young seedlings for the first year or two so precarious, that the use of seeds in the field can not be recommended. In such locations careful selec- tion and treatment of the planting material according to the hardships which it must encounter can alone insure success.
Seedlings from 6 to 12 inches high furnish the best material. The planting of large-sized trees is not excluded, but is expensive and hence often impracticable, besides being less sure of success, since the larger-sized tree is apt to lose a greater proportion of its roots in transplanting.
METHODS OF PLANTING.
Preparation of soil is for the purpose of securing a favorable start for the young crop; its effects are lost after the first few years. Most land that is to be devoted to forest planting does not admit of as careful preparation as for agricultural crops, nor is it necessary where the climate is not too severe and the soil not too compact to prevent the young crop from establishing itself. Thousands of acres in Germany are planted annually without any soil preparation, yearling pine seed- lings being set with a dibble in the unprepared ground. This absence of preparation is even necessary in sandy soils, like that encountered in the sandhills of Nebraska, which may, if disturbed, be blown out and shifted. In other cases a partial removal of a too rank undergrowth or soil cover and a shallow scarifying or hoeing is resorted to, or else furrows are thrown up and the trees set out in them.
In land that has been tilled, deep plowing (10 to 12 inches) and thorough pulverizing give the best chances for the young crop to start. For special conditions, very dry or very moist situations, special
FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 485
methods are required. The best methods for planting in the semiarid regions of the far West have not yet been developed. Thorough culti- vation, as for agricultural crops, with subsequent culture, is successful, but expensive. A plan which might be tried would consist in breaking the raw prairie in June and turning over a shallow sod, sowing a crop of oats or alfalfa, harvesting it with a high stubble, then opening fur- rows for planting and leaving the ground between furrows undisturbed, so as to secure the largest amount of drainage into the furrows and a . mulch between the rows.
The time for planting depends on climatic and soil conditions and the convenience of the planter. Spring planting is preferable except in southern latitudes, especially in the West, where the winters are severe and the fall apt to be dry, the soil therefore not in favorable condition for planting.
The time for fall planting is after the leaves have fallen; for spring planting, before or just when life begins anew. In order to be ready in time for spring planting, it is a good practice to take up the plants in the fall and “heel them in” over winter (covering them, closely packed, in a dry trench of soil). Conifers can be planted later in spring and earlier in fall than broad-leafed trees.
The density of the trees is a matter in which most planters fail. The advantages of close planting lie in the quicker shading of the soil, hence the better preservation of its moisture and improved growth and form development of the crop. These advantages must be balanced against the increased cost of close planting. The closer the planting, the sooner will the plantation be self-sustaining and the surer the success.
If planted in squares, or, better still, in quincunx order (the trees in every other row alternating at equal distances), which is most desirable on account of the more systematic work possible and the more complete cover which it makes, the distance should not be more than 4 feet, unless for special reasons and conditions, while 2 feet apart is not too close, and still closer planting is done by nature with the best success.
The following numbers of trees per acre are required when planting
at distances as indicated:
Tg RR Td, Sobel Shy 4 Fook cles. -oSh neo 5, 44
erates i ee 1d, 580 119 by Stade Voi AN er 4, 840 er grat TOCC8. Coa. oes wens ite RO, BOO.) S Dye feeb. oe i sid Ra ae 3, 630 Pibweieetors: lsc suave ek. 20h tr by Efeek oio6s Yes odslied iva 2, 722
To decrease expense, the bulk of the plantation may be made of the cheapest kinds of trees that may serve as soil cover and secondary or nurse crop, the main crop of from 300 to 600 trees to consist of better kinds, and with better planting material, mainly of light-needing species. These should be evenly disposed through the plantation, each closely surrounded by the nurse crop. It is, of course, understood that not all trees grow up; a constant change in numbers by the death (or else timely removal) of the overshaded takes place, so that the final crop shows at 100 years a close cover, with hardly 300 trees to the acre.
486 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Afier-culture is not entirely avoidable, especially under unfavorable climatic conditions, and if the planting was not close enough. Shallow cultivation between the rows is needed to prevent weed growth and to keep the soil open, until it is shaded by the young trees, which may take a year with close planting and two or three years with rows 4 by 4 feet apart, the time varying also with the species.
It is rare that a plantation succeeds in all its parts; gaps or fail * places occur, as a rule, and must be filled in by additional planting as soon as possible, if of larger extent than can be closed up in a few years by the neighboring growth. .
When the soil is protected by a complete leaf canopy, the forest crop may be considered as established, and the after-treatment will consist of judicious thinning.
3. HOW TO TREAT THE WOOD LOT.
In the northeastern States it is the custom to have connected with the farm a piece of virgin woodland, commonly called the wood lot. Its object primarily is to supply the farmer with the firewood, fence mate- rial, and such dimension timbers as he may need from time to time for repairs on buildings, wagons, etc.
As a rule, the wood lot occupies, as it ought to, the poorer part of the farm, the rocky or stony, the dry or the wet portions, which are not well fitted for agricultural crops. As a rule, it is treated as it ought not to be, if the intention is to have it serve its purpose continuously; it is cut and culled without regard to its reproduction.
As far as firewood supplies go, the careful farmer will first use the dead and dying trees, broken limbs, and leavings, which is quite proper. The careless man avoids the extra labor which such material requires, and takes whatever splits best, no matter whether the material could be used for better purposes or not.
When it comes to the cutting of other material, fence rails, posts, or dimension timber, the general rule is to go into the lot and select the best trees of the best kind for the purpose. This looks at first sight like the natural, most practical way of doing. It is the method which the Jumberman pursues when he “culls” the forest, and is, from his point of view perhaps, justifiable, for he only desires to secure at once what is most profitable in the forest. But for the farmer, who proposes to use his wood lot continuously for supplies of this kind, it is a method detri- mental to his object, and in time it leaves him with a lot of poor, useless timber which encumbers the ground and prevents the growth of a better crop.
Gur woods are mostly composed of many species of trees; they are mixed woods. Some of the species are valuable for some special pur- - poses, others are applicable to a variety of purposes, and again others furnish but poor material for anything but firewood, and even for that use they may not be of the best.
i .
FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 487
Among the most valuable in the northeastern woods we should men- tion the white pine—king of all—the white ash, white and chestnut oak, hickories, tulip tree, black walnut, and black cherry, the last three being now nearly exhausted; next, spruce and hemlock, red pine, sugar maple, chestnut, various oaks of the black or red oak tribe, several species of ash and birch, black locust; lastly, elms and soft maples, basswood, poplars, and sycamore.
Now, by the common practice of culling the. best it is evident that gradually all the best trees of the best kinds are taken out, leaving only inferior trees or inferior kinds—the weeds among trees, if one may call them such—and thus the wood lot becomes well-nigh useless.
It does not supply that for which it was intended; the soil, which was of little use for anything but a timber crop before, is still further deteriorated under this treatment, and being compacted by the con- stant running of cattle, the starting of a crop of seedlings is made nearly impossible. It would not pay to turn it into tillage ground or pasture; the farm has by so much lostin value. In other words, instead of using the interest on his capital, interest and capital have been used up together; the goose that laid the golden egg has been killed.
This is not necessary if only a little system is brought into the man- agement of the wood lot and the smallest care is taken to avoid deteri- oration and secure reproduction.
IMPROVEMENT CUTTINGS.
The first care should be to improve the crop in its composition. Instead of culling it of its best material, it should be culled of its weeds, the poor kinds, which we do not care to reproduce, and which, like all other weeds, propagate themselves only too readily. This weed- ing must not, however, be done all at once, as it could be in a field crop, for in a full-grown piece of woodland each tree has a value, even the weed trees, as soil cover.
The great secret of success in all crop production lies in the regula- ting of water supplies; the manuring in part and the cultivating entirely, as well as drainage and irrigation, are means to this end. In forestry these means are usually not practicable, and hence other means are resorted to. The principal of these is to keep the soil as much as pos- sible under cover, either by the shade which the foliage of the tall trees furnishes, or by that from the underbrush, or by the litter which accu- mulates and in decaying forms a humus cover, a most excellent mulch.
A combination of these three conditions, viz, a dense crown cover, woody underbrush where the crown cover is interrupted, and a heavy layer of well-decomposed humus, gives the best result. Under such conditions, first of all, the rain, being intercepted by the foliage and litter, reaches the ground only gradually, and therefore does not com- pact the soil as it does in the open field, but leaves it granular and open, so that the water can readily penetrate and move in the soil. Secondly, the surface evaporation is considerably reduced by the shade
488 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
and lack of air circulation in the dense woods, so that more moisture remains for the use of the trees. When the shade of the crowns over- head (the so-called “crown cover,” or ‘“canopy,”) is perfect, but little undergrowth will be seen; but where the crown cover is interrupted or imperfect, an undergrowth will appear. If this is composed of young trees, or even shrubs, it isan advantage, but if of weeds, and especially grass, it isa misfortune, because these transpire a great deal more water than the woody plants and allow the soil to deteriorate in structure and therefore in water capacity. |
Some weeds and grasses, to be sure, are capable of existing where but little light reaches the soil. When they appear it is a sign to the forester that he must be careful not to thin out the crown cover any more. When the more light-needing weeds and grasses appear it is a sign that too much light reaches the ground, and that the soil is already deteriorated. If this state continues, the heavy drain which the tran- Spiration of these weeds makes upon the soil moisture, without any appreciable conservative action by their shade, will injure the soil still further.
The overhead shade or crown cover may be imperfect because there are not enough trees on the ground to close up the interspaces with their crowns, or else because the kinds of trees which make up the forest do not yield much shade; thus it can easily be observed that a beech, a sugar maple, a hemlock, is so densely foliaged that but little light reaches the soil through its crown canopy, while an ash, an oak, a larch, when full grown, in the forest, allows a good deal of light to penetrate.
Hence, in our weeding process for the improvement of the wood crop, we must be careful not to interrupt the crown cover too much, and thereby deteriorate the soil conditions. And for the same reason, in the selection of the kinds that are to be left or to be taken out, we shall not only consider their use value but also their shading value, trying to bring about such a mixture of shady and less shady kinds as will insure a continuously satisfactory crown cover, the shade-enduring kinds to occupy the lower stratum in the crown canopy, and to be more numerous than the light-needing.
The forester, therefore, watches first the conditions of his soil cover, and his next care is for the condition of the overhead shade, the “crown cover;” for a change in the condition of the latter brings change into his soil conditions, and, inversely, from the changes in the plant cover of the soil he judges whether he may or may not change the light condi- tions. Thechanges of the soil cover teach him more often when “to let alone” than when to go on with his operations of thinning out; that is to say, he can rarely stop short of that condition which is most favor- able. Hence the improvement cuttings must be made with caution — and only very gradually, so that no deterioration of the soil conditions be invited. Wehave repeated this injunction again and again, because
FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 489
all success in the management of future wood crops depends upon the care bestowed upon the maintenance of favorable soil conditions.
As the object of this weeding is not only to remove the undesirable kinds from the present crop, but to prevent as much as possible their reappearance in subsequent crops, it may be advisable to cut such kinds as sprout readily from the stump in summer time—June or July—when the stumps are likely to die without sprouting.
It may take several years’ cutting to bring the composition of the main crop into such a condition as to satisfy us.
METHODS OF REPRODUCING THE WOOD CROP,
Then comes the period of utilizing the main crop. As we propose to keep the wood lot as such, and desire to reproduce a satisfactory wood crop in place of the old one, this latter must be cut always with a view to that reproduction. There are various methods pursued for this pur- pose in large forestry operations which are not practicable on small areas, especially when these are expected to yield only small amounts of timber, and these little by little as required. It is possible, to be sure, to cut the entire crop and replant a new one, or else to use the ax skillfully and bring about a natural reproduction in a few years; but we want in the present case to lengthen out the period during which the old crop is cut, and hence must resort to other methods. There are three methods practicable.
We may clear narrow strips or bands entirely, expecting the neighbor- ing growth to furnish the seed for covering the strip with a new crop— “the strip method;” or we can take out single trees here and there, relying again on an after-growth from seed shed by the surrounding trees—the “selection method;” or, finally, instead of single trees, we may cut entire groups of trees here and there in the same manner, the gaps to be filled, as in the other cases, with a young crop from the seed of the surrounding trees, and this we may call the “ group method.”
In the strip method, in order to secure sufticient seeding of the cleared Strip, the latter must not be so broad that the seed from the neighbor- ing growth can not be carried over it by the wind. In order to get the best results from the carrying power of the wind (as well as to avoid windfalls when the old growth is suddenly opened on the windward side) the strips should be located on the side opposite the prevailing winds. Oaks, beech, hickory, and nut treesin general with heavy seeds will not seed over any considerable breadth of* strip, while with maple and ash the breadth may be made twice as great as the height of the timber, and the mother trees with lighter seeds, like spruce and pine, or birch and elm, may be able to cover strips of a breadth of 3 or 4and even8 times their height. But such broad strips are hazardous, since with insuffi- cient seed fall, or fail years in the seed, the strip may remain exposed to sun and wind for several years without a good cover and deteriorate. It is safer, therefore, to make the strips no broader than just the height of the neighboring timber, in which case not only has the seed better
1 <A 94——20
490 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
chance of covering the ground, but the soil and seedlings have more protection from the mother crop. In hilly country the strips must not be made in the direction of the slope, for the water would wash out soil and seed.
Every year, then, or from time to time, a new strip is to be cleared and “regenerated.” Butif the first strip failed to cover itself satisfactorily, the operation is stopped, for it would be unwise to remove the seed trees further by an additional clearing. Accordingly, this method should be
PSXSs PETTITT SY
Fig. 128.—Showing plan of group system in regenerating a forest crop. 1, 2, 3,4, sueces- sive groups of young timber, 1 being the oldest, 4 the youngest, 5 old timber; a,wind mantle, specially managed to secure protection.
i
used only where the kinds composing the mother crop are frequent and abundant seeders and give assurance of reseeding the strips quickly and successfully.
The other two methods have greater chances of success in that they preserve the soil conditions more surely, and there is more assurance of | seeding from the neighboring trees on all sides.
The selection method, by which single trees are taken out all over the forest, is the same as has been practiced by the farmer and lumberman
aie
FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 491
hitherto, only they have forgotten to look after the young crop. Millions of seed may fall to the ground and germinate, but perish from the exces- sive shade of the mother trees. If we wish to be successful in estab- lishing a new crop, it will be necessary to be ready with the ax all the time and give light as needed by the young crop. The openings made by taking out single trees are so small that there is great danger of the young crop being lost, or at least impeded in its development, because it is impracticable to come in time to its relief with the ax.
The best method, therefore, in all respects, is the “growp method,” which not only secures continuous soil cover, chances for full seeding, and more satisfactory light conditions, but requires less careful atten- tion, or at least permits more freedom of movement and adaptation to local conditions (fig. 128).
It is especially adapted to mixed woods, as it permits securing for each species the most desirable light conditions by making the openings larger or smaller, according as the species we wish to favor in a particular group demand more or less shade. Further, when different species are ripe for regeneration at different times, this plan makes it possible to take them in hand as needed. Again, we can begin with one group or we can take in hand several groups simultaneously, as may be desirable and practicable.
We start our groups of new crop either where a young growth is already on the ground, enlarging around it, or where old timber has reached its highest usefulness and should be cut in order that we may not lose the larger growth which young trees would make; or else we choose a place which is but poorly stocked, where, if it is not regener- ated, the soil is likely to deteriorate further. The choice is affected further by the consideration that dry situations should be taken in hand earlier than those in which the soil and site are more favorable, and that some species reach maturity and highest use value earlier than others and should therefore be reproduced earlier. In short, we begin the regeneration when and where the necessity for it exists, or where the young crop has the best chance to start most satisfactorily with the least artificial aid. Of course, advantage should be taken of the occur- rence of seed years, which come at different intervals with different species.
If we begin with a group of young growth already on the ground, our plan is to remove gradually the old trees standing over them when no longer required for shade, and then to cut away the adjoining old growth and enlarge the opening in successive narrow bands around the young growth. When the first band has seeded itself satisfac- torily, and the young growth has come to require more light (which may take several years), we remove another band around it, and thus the regeneration progresses. Where no young growth already exists, of course the first opening is made to afford a start, and afterwards the enlargement follows as occasion requires.
492 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
SIZE OF OPENINGS.
The size of the openings and the rapidity with which they should be enlarged vary, of course, with local conditions and the species which is to be favored, the light-needing species requiring larger openings and quicker light additions than the shade-enduring. It is difficult to give any rules, since the modifications due to local conditions are so mani- fold, requiring observation and judgment. Caution in not opening too much ata time and too quickly may avoid failure in securing good stands.
In general, the first openings may contain from one-fourth to one-half an acre or more, and the gradual enlarging may progress by clearing bands of a breadth not to exceed the height of the surrounding timber.
The time of the year when the cutting is to be done is naturally in winter, when the farmer has the most leisure, and when the wood sea- sons best after felling and is also most readily moved. Since it is expected that the seed fallen in the autumn will sprout in the spring, all wood should, of course, be removed from the seed ground.
The first opening, as well as the enlargement of the groups, should not be made at once, but by gradual thinning out, if the soil is not in good condition to receive and germinate the seed and it is impractica- ble to put it in such condition by artificial means—hoeing or plowing.
It is, of course, quite practicable—nay, sometimes very desirable—to prepare the soil for the reception and germination of the seed. Where undesirable undergrowth has started, it should be cut out, and where the soil is deteriorated with weed growth or compacted by the tramping of cattle, it should be hoed or otherwise scarified, so that the seed may find favorable conditions. To let pigs do the plowing and the covering — of acorns is not an uncommon practice abroad.
It is also quite proper, if the reproduction from the seed of the sur- rounding mother trees does not progress satisfactorily, to assist, when an opportunity is afforded, by planting such desirable species as were or were not in the composition of the original crop.
It may require ten, twenty,or forty years or more to secure the repro- duction of a wood lot in this way. A new growth, denser and better than the old, with timber of varying age, will be the result. The prog- ress of theregeneration in groups is shown on the accompanying plan, the different shadings showing the successive additions of young crop, the darkest denoting the oldest parts, first regenerated. If we should make a section through any one of the groups, this, ideally represented, would be like figure 129, the old growth on the outside, the youngest new crop adjoining it, and tiers of older growths of varying height toward the center of the group.
WIND MANTLE.
On the plan there will be noted a strip specially shaded, surrounding the entire plat (fig. 128, a), representing a strip of timber which should surround the farmer’s wood lot, and which he should keep as dense as
FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 493
possible, especially favoring undergrowth. This part, if practicable, should be kept reproduced as coppice or by the method of selection, i, e., by taking out trees here and there. When gaps are made, they should be filled, if possible, by introducing shade-enduring kinds, which, like the spruces and firs and beech, retain their branches down to the foot for along time. This mantle is intended to protect the interior against the drying influence of winds, which are bound to enter the small wood lot and deteriorate the soil. The smaller the lot, the more necessary and desirable it is to maintain such a protective cover or windbreak.
Old timber. 3d. 2d. Ist cutting. 2d. 3d. Old timber. Fic. 129,—Appearance of regeneration by group method.
COPPICE.
Besides reproducing a wood crop from the seed of mother trees or by planting, there is another reproduction possible by sprouts from the stump. This, to be sure, can be done only with broad-leafed species, since conifers, with but few exceptions, do not sprout from the stump. When a wood lot is cut over and over again, the reproduction taking place by such sprouts we call coppice.
Most wooded areas in the Eastern States have been so cut that repro- duction from seed could not take place, and hence we have large areas
A94 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
of coppice, with very few seedling trees interspersed. As we have seen in the chapter on “How trees grow,” the sprouts do not develop into as good trees as the seedlings. They grow faster, to be sure, in the beginning. but do not grow as tall and are apt to be shorter lived.
For the production of firewood, fence, and post material, coppice man- agement may suffice, but not for dimension timber. And even to keep the coppice in good reproductive condition, care should be taken to secure a certain proportion of seedling trees, since the old stumps, after repeated cutting, fail to sprout and die out.
Soil and climate influence the success of the coppice; shallow soils produce weaker but more numerous sprouts and are more readily dete- riorated by the repeated laying bare of the soil; a mild climate is most favorable to a continuance of the reproductive power of the stump.
Some species sprout more readily than others; hence the composition of the crop will change, unless attention is paid to it. In the coppice, as in any other management of a natural wood crop, a desirable com- position must first be secured, which is done by timely improvement cuttings, as described in a previous section.
The best trees for coppice in the northeastern States are the chest- nut, various oaks, hickory, ash, elm, maples, basswood, and black locust, which are all good sprouters.
When cutting is done for reproduction, the time and manner are the main care. The best results are probably obtained, both financially and with regard to satisfactory reproduction, when the coppice is cut between the twentieth and thirtieth years. AJl cutting must be done in early spring or in winter, avoiding, however, days of severe frost, which is apt to sever the bark from the trunk and to kill the cambium. Cutting in summer kills the stump, as arule. The cut should be made slanting downward, and as smooth as possible, to prevent collection of moisture on the stump and the resulting decay, and as close as possible to the ground, where the stump is less exposed to injuries, and the new sprouts, starting close to the ground, may strike independent roots.
Fail places or gaps should be filled by planting. This can be readily done by bending to the ground some of the neighboring sprouts, when 2 to 3 years old, notching, fastening them down with a wooden hook or a stone, and covering them with soil a short distance (4 to 6 inches) from the end. The sprout will then strike root, and after a year or so may be severed from the mother stock by a sharp cut (fig. 130).
For the recuperation of the crop, it is desirable to maintain a supply of seedling trees, which may be secured either by the natural seeding of a few mother trees of the old crop which are left, or by planting. This kind of management, coppice with seedling or standard trees inter- mixed, if the latter are left regularly and well distributed over the wood lot, leads to a management called “standard coppice.” In this — it is attempted to avoid the drawbacks of the coppice, viz, failure to produce dimension material and running out of the stocks. The former
FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 495
object is, however, only partially accomplished, as the trees grown with- out sufficient side shading are apt to produce branchy boles and hence knotty timber, besides injuring the coppice by their shade.
PLAN OF MANAGEMENT.
In order to harmonize the requirements of the wood lot from a sylvi- cultural point of view, and the needs of the farmer for wood supplies, the cutting must follow some systematic plan.
The improvement cuttings need not, in point of time, have been made all over the lot before beginning the cuttings for regeneration, provided they have been made in those parts which are to be regenerated. Both the cuttings may go on simultaneously, and this enables the farmer to gauge the amount of cutting to his consumption. According to the
< VV ——Sa- =WY
Fic. 130.—Method of layering to produce new stocks in coppice wood.
amount of wood needed, one or more groups may be started at the same time. It is, however, desirable, for the sake of renewing the crop systematically, to arrange the groups in a regular order over the lot.
4. HOW TO CULTIVATE THE WOOD CROP.
Where only firewood is desired, i. e., wood without special form, size, or quality, no attention to the crop is necessary, except to insure that it covers the ground completely. Nevertheless, even in such a crop, which is usually managed as coppice,' some of the operations described in this chapter may prove advantageous. Where, however, not only quantity but useful quality of the crop is also to be secured, the develop- ment of the wood crop may be advantageously influenced by controlling the supply of light available to the individual trees.
1 See page 493 for description of coppice.
496 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
It may be proper to repeat here briefly what has been explained in previous pages regarding the influence of light on tree development.
EFFECT OF LIGHT ON WOOD PRODUCTION.
Dense shade preserves soil moisture, the most essential element for wood production; a close stand of suitable kinds of trees secures this shading and prevents the surface evaporation of soil moisture, making it available for wood production. But a close stand also cuts off side light and confines the lateral growing space, and hence prevents the development of side branches and forces the growth energy of the soil to expend itself in height growth; the crown is carried up, and long, cylindrical shafts, clear of branches, are developed; a close stand thus secures desirable form and quality. Yet, since the quality of wood pro- duction or accretion (other things being equal) is in direct proportion to the amount of foliage and the available light, and since an open position promotes the development of a larger crown and of more foli- age, an open stand tends to secure a larger amount of wood accretion ov each tree. On the other hand, a tree grown in the open, besides preducing more branches, deposits a larger proportion of wood at the base, so that the shape of the bole becomes more conical, a form which in sawing proves unprofitable; whereas a tree grown in the dense for- est both lengthens its shaft at the expense of branch growth and makes a more even deposit of wood over the whole trunk, thus attaining a more cylindrical form. While, then, the total amount of wood production per acre may be as large in a close stand of trees as in an open one (within limits), the distribution of this amount among a larger or smaller num- ber of individual trees produces different results in the quality of the crop. And since the size of a tree or log is important in determining its usefulness and value, the sooner the individual trees reach useful size, without suffering in other points of quality, the more profitable the whole crop.
NUMBER OF TREES PER ACRE.
The care of the forester, then, should be to maintain the smallest number of individuals on the ground which will secure the greatest amount of wood growth in the most desirable form of which the soil and climate are capable, without deteriorating the soil conditions. He tries to secure the most advantageous individual development of sin- gle trees without suffering the disadvantages resulting from too open stand. The solution of this problem requires the greatest skill and judgment, and rules can hardly be formulated with precision, since for every species or combination of species and conditions these rules must be modified.
In a well-established young crop the number of seedlings per acre | varies greatly, from 3,000 to 100,000, according to soil, species, and the manner in which it originated, whether planted, sown, or seeded
FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 497
naturally.'! Left to themselves, the seedlings, as they develop, begin to crowd each other. At first this crowding results only in increasing the height growth and in preventing the spread and full development of side branches; by and by the lower branches failing to receive suf- cient light finally die and break off—the shaft ‘clears itself.” Then a distinet development of definite crowns takes place, and after some years a difference of height growth in different individuals becomes marked. Not afew trees fail to reach the general upper crown surface, and, being more or less overtopped, we can readily classify them accord- ing to height and development of crown, the superior or “dominating” ones growing more and more vigorously, the inferior or “dominated” trees falling more and more behind, and finally dying for lack of light, and thus a natural reduction in numbers, or thinning, takes place. This natural thinning goes on with varying rates at different ages, continn- ing through the entire life of the crop, so that, while only 4,000 trees per acre may be required in the tenth year to make a dense crown cover or normally close stand, untouched by man, in the fortieth year 1,200 would suffice to make the same dense cover, in the eightieth year 350 would be a full stand, and in the one hundredth not more than 250, according to soil and species, more or less. As we can discern three stages in the development of a single tree—the juvenile, adolescent, and mature—so, in the development of a forest growth, we may distin- guish three corresponding stages, namely, the ‘“‘thicket” or brushwood, the “‘pole-wood” or sapling, and the “timber” stage. During the thicket stage, in which the trees have a bushy appearance, allowing hardly any distinction of stem and crown, the height growth is most rapid. This period may last, according to conditions and species, from 5 or 10 to 30 and even 40 years—longer on poor soils and with shade- enduring species, shorter with light-needing species on good soils—and, while it lasts, it is in the interest of the wood grower to maintain the close stand, which produces the long shaft, clear of branches, on which at a later period the wood that makes valuable, clear timber, may accumulate. Form development is now most important. The lower branches are to die and break off before they become too large. (See illustrations of the progress of “clearing,” on pp. 473 and 474.) With light-needing species and with deciduous trees generally this dying off is accomplished more easily than with conifers. The spruces and even the white pine require very dense shading to “clear” the shaft. Dur- ing this period it is only necessary to weed out the undesirable kinds, such as trees infested by insect and fungus, shrubs, sickly, stunted, or bushy trees which are apt to overtop and prevent the development of their better neighbors. In short, our attention is now devoted mainly to improving the composition of the crop.
1If the crop does not, at 3 to 5 years of age, shade the ground well, with a complete crown cover, or canopy, it can not be said to be well established and should be filled out by planting.
1 <A 94
20*
A98 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
WEEDING AND CLEANING THE CROP.
This weeding or cleaning is easily done with shears when the crop is from 3 to 5 years old. Later, mere cutting back of the undesirable trees with a knife or hatchet may be practiced. In well-made artificial plan- tations this weeding is rarely needed until about the eighth or tenth year. But in natural growths the young crop is sometimes so dense as to inordinately interfere with the development of the individual trees. The stems then remain so slender that there is danger of their being bent or broken by storm or snow when the growth is thinned out later. In such cases timely thinning is indicated to stimulate more rapid development of the rest of the crop. This can be done most cheaply by cutting swaths or lanes one yard wide and as far apart through the crop, leaving strips standing. The outer trees of the strip, at least, will then shoot ahead and become the main crop. These weed- ing or improvement cuttings, which must be made gradually and be repeated every two or three years, are best performed during the sum- mer months, or in August and September, when it is easy to judge what should be taken out.
METHODS OF THINNING.
During the “thicket” stage, then, which may last from 10 to 25 and more years, the crop is gradually brought into proper composition and condition. When the “pole-wood” stage is reached, most of the sap- lings being now from 3 to 6 inches in diameter and from 15 to 25 feet in height, the variation in sizes and in appearance becomes more and more marked. Some of the taller trees begin to show a long, clear shaft and a definite crown. The trees can be more or less readily classified into height and size classes. The rate at which the height growth has progressed begins to fall off and diameter growth increases. Now comes the time when attention must be given to increasing this diameter growth by reducing the number of individuals and thus having all the wood which the soil can produce deposited on fewer individuals. This is done by judicious and often repeated thinning, taking out some of the trees and thereby giving more light and increasing the foliage of those remaining; and as the crowns expand, so do the trunks increase their diameter in direct proportion. These thinnings must, however, be made cautiously lest at the same time the soil is exposed too much, or the branch growth of those trees which are to become timber wood is too much stimulated. So varying are the conditions to be considered, according to soil, site, species, and development of the crop, that it is well-nigh impossible, without a long and detailed discussion, to lay down rules for the proper procedure. In addition the opinions of author- ities differ largely both as to manner and degree of thinning, the old school advising moderate, and the new school severer thinnings.
FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 499
For the farmer, who can give personal attention to detail and whose object is to grow a variety of sizes and kinds of wood, the following general method may perhaps be most useful:
First determine which trees are to be treated as the main crop or “final harvest” crop. For this 300 to 500 trees per acre of the best grown and most useful kinds may be selected, which should be dis- tributed as uniformly as possible over the acre. These, then—or as many as may live till the final harvest—are destined to grow into timber and are to form the special favorites as much as possible. They may at first be marked to insure recognition; later on they will be readily distinguished by their superior development. The rest, which we will call the “subordinate” crop, is then to serve merely as filler, nurse, and soil cover.
WHAT TREES TO REMOVE.
It is now necessary, by careful observation of the surroundings of each of the “final harvest” crop trees, or “superiors,” as we may call them, to determine what trees of the “subordinate” crop trees, or ‘‘inferiors,” must beremoved. AJ] nurse trees that threaten to overtop the superiors must either be cut out or cut back and topped,if that is practicable, so that the crown of the superiors can develop freely. Those that are only narrowing in the superiors from the side, without preventing their free top development, need not be interfered with, especially while they are still useful in preventing the formation and spreading of side branches on the superiors. As soon as the latter have fully cleared their shafts, these crowding inferiors must be removed. Care must be taken, however, not to remove too many at a time, thus opening the crown cover too severely and thereby exposing the soil to the drying influence of the sun. Gradually, as the crowns of inferiors standing farther away begin to interfere with those of the superiors, the inferiors are removed, and thus the full effect of the light is secured in the accretion of the main harvest crop; at the same time the branch growth has been prevented and the soil has been kept shaded. Mean- while thinnings may also be made in the subordinate crop, in order to secure also the most material from this part of the crop. This is done by cutting out all trees that threaten to be killed by their neighbors. In this way many a useful stick is saved and the dead material, only good for firewood, lessened. It is evident that trees which in the strug- gle for existence have fallen behind, so as to be overtopped by their neighbors, can not, either by their presence or by their removal, influ- ence the remaining growth. They are removed only in order to utilize their wood before it decays.
It may be well to remark again that an undergrowth of woody plants interferes in no way with the development of the main crop, but, on the contrary, aids by its shade in preserving favorable moisture conditions. Its existence, however, shows iz most cases that the crown cover is not
500 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
as dense as it should be, and hence that thinning is not required. Grass and weed growth, on the other hand, is emphatically disadvan- tageous and shows that the crown cover is dangerously open.
The answer to the three questions, When to begin the thinnings, How severely to thin, and How often to repeat the operation, must always depend upon the varying appearance of the growth and the necessities in each case. The first necessity for interference may arise with light-needing species as early as the twelfth or fifteenth year; with shade-enduring, not before the twentieth or twenty-fifth year. The necessary severity of the thinning and the repetition are somewhat interdependent. It is better to thin carefully and repeat the operation oftener than to open up so severely at once as to jeopardize the soil conditions. Hspecially in younger growths and on poorer soil, it is best never to open a continuous crown cover so that it could not close up again within 3 to 5 years; rather repeat the operation oftener. Later, when the trees have attained heights of 50 to 60 feet and clear boles (which may be in 40 to 50 years, according to soil and kind) the thinning may be more severe, so as to require repetition only every 6 to 10 years.
The condition of the crown cover, then, is the criterion which directs the ax. As soon as the crowns again touch or interlace, the time has arrived to thin again. In mixed growths it must not be overlooked that light-needing species must be specially protected against shadier neighbors. Shade-enduring trees, such as the spruces, beech, sugar maple, and hickories, bear overtopping for a time and will then grow vig- orously when more light is given, while light-needing species, like the pines, larch, oaks, and ash, when once suppressed, may never be able to recover.
Particular attention is called to the necessity of leaving a rather denser “wind mantle” all around small groves. In this part of the grove the thinning must be less severe, unless coniferous trees on the outside can be encouraged by severe thinning to hold their branches low down, thus increasing their value as windbreaks.
The thinnings, then, while giving to the “final harvest” crop all the advantage of light for promoting its rapid development into service- able timber size, furnish also better material from the subordinate crop. At 60 to 70 years of age the latter may have been entirely removed and only the originally selected “superiors” remain on the ground, or as many of them as have not died and been removed; 250 to 400 of these per acre will make a perfect stand of most valuable form and size, ready for the final harvest, which should be made as indicated in the preceding chapter.
BEST ROADS FOR FARMS AND FARMING DISTRICTS.
By Roy STONE, Special Agent and Engineer, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
So few really good roads have been made in purely agricultural dis- tricts that experience avails but little toward determining what will best serve the needs and suit the means of the average farmer.
In the first place, the road that will best suit the needs of the farmer must not be too costly; in the second place, it must be of the very best kind, for the farmer should be able to do his heavy hauling over it when his fields are too wet to work and his teams are free.
The roads which have been built by counties have not always satis- fied the farmers who had to use them. In some portions of Ohio we find the country people in dry weather traveling in the ditches to save the bare feet of their horses from the rough stone.
KIND OF ROAD FOR THE FARMER.
The road that would seem to fill the farmer’s needs, all things con- sidered, is a solid, well-bedded stone road, so narrow as to be only a Single track, but having an earth track alongside. <A fine, dry, smooth dirt track is the perfection of roads; it is easy on the horses’ feet and legs, easy on vehicles, and free from noise and jar. It holds snow bet- ter than stone or gravel, and requires less snow to make sleighing; and where such a track has a stone road alongside to take the travel in wet weather it will suffer hardly any appreciable wear. The stone road, on the other hand, wears by the grinding of the wheels and the chip- ping of the horses’ calks in dry weather more than in wet. If it can be saved this wear for an average of six months in each year, so much will be clear gain.
The questions raised regarding this method of construction are, Can- the junctions of the earth and stone sections of the road be kept even, so as not to have a jog in passing from one to the other, and can the meeting and passing of loaded teams be provided for? But practical experience has already been sufficient to settle both these points. The Canandaigua (New York) roads show no sign of division between the earth and stone, and those who use them say no difficulty is found in
i 501
502 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the passing of teams, since practically no two teams ever turn out at exactly the same spot, and no rutting of the earth road occurs. The purposes of a wide, hard road are better served by a narrow one, and all the objections to it removed, while the cost is cut down one-half, and the charges for repair nearly three-fourths.
WY yj Yj YU Ucar Wy WY, y~f
Wy MM: Vn Yy Widdiddlla Z YY, LTT UML lYMMMMfhwHyfffPrrn eth Vf YY —Yy UY ‘ / y YW Me Y YY, Yj yj YMMMCeJuewwu’'’’ Yyy foie ZZ
Fig. 131.—Cross sections of Canandaigua roads.
The cross sections of the Canandaigua roads shown in figure 131 give the simplest forms for narrow, hard roads; both these forms are sym- metrical, having the stone road in the middle. One of them has a dirt track on each side; the other has only a shoulder of earth to keep the macadam in place. While the users of these roads are so pleased with the novelty of their hard roads that they do not seem to care for the dirt track, they will doubtless in future find their advantage in having at least one such track m all cases. One of the great highways in
oe Se
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Fia. 132.—Underdrain for wet places in roads.
Ohio was built in this manner thirty years ago and has given great satisfaction.
Where roads are already graded wide enough, it is better perhaps to have the three tracks, one of stone and an earth track on each side, but two will serve all purposes of use quite as well. Two tracks will require a roadbed about 21 feet wide.
In all wet soils or springy places there should be an underdrain beneath the stone track, as shown in figure 132, with side outlets at places where they are practicable. The space above the drain tile up to within 6 inches of the surface can be filled with any cheap coarse
Pa LSE
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Fic. 133.—Underdrain for porous roads.
material, first covering the tile with straw to prevent the earth wash- ing into the joints. Field stone, common gravel, sand, or burnt clay will serve for such filling. This should be well rolled and the road finished with a layer of the best broken stone or gravel obtainable, also well rolled; or, better still, with two layers of 3 inches each, rolled separately.
ROADS FOR FARMS AND FARMING DISTRICTS. 503
Where the underlying soil is naturally porous, the simple construc- tion in figure 133 is all that is required, but the ground under the macadam should be well rolled and compacted and all soft places exca-
<opsted ek), tiijtjz};.EZE
Wiis Udddllilttddddddddddiddd 4/3 ZZ,
Fig. 134.—Drainage for macadam bed.
vated and filled with good material. If the ground is not porous, yet is not wet enough to warrant the expense of subdrainage, it is well to pro- vide a drainage for the macadam bed, in the form shown in figure 134. All that is required for this is to give a slight outward slope to the bot- tom of the bed, roll the ground thoroughly, and provide an occasional drain through the earth shoulder into the ditch.
\
Yj YY, SERA RET a Y Ve Fia. 135.—Three-track road.
The three-track road, figure 135, requires a roadbed about 27 feet wide; its construction corresponds with that of the two-track.
FARM ROADS.
Another form of narrow, hard road is one used by Judge Caton, of Chicago, on his Illinois farms. While these roads are made for farm use they would serve equally well for the lesser public roads of the neighborhood. The roadbed is made by plowing two furrows, 16 inches
; WY eo 1 Y Y WY YY = Wy WWWWW- o
Fia, 136.—Prepared roadbed.
wide and about 12 inches deep, under what are to be the wheel tracks, turning the earth inward, and two more for ditches, also turned inward, which results in a slight raising of the bed; the inner furrows are then filled with field stones or coarse gravel and a light coating of fine gravel spread over the whole.
W// YY Mo ee % WY Yy i Y/ Y Yj 2 Y y tj “Ny Yy Ya yf ld Hy YY Udddddde
Fig. 187.—Finished road. Figures 136 and 137, respectively, show the roadbed prepared and
the finished road. This plan gives a very solid bed of material under the wheels and a sufficiency elsewhere, and if occasional side outlets
504 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
are provided the furrows are quite efficient as blind drains. Occasional passing places would need to be provided on public roads for the meet- ing of loaded wagons; elsewhere a width of 11 feet between the ditches would be sufficient for ordinary light travel. Such a road would use the minimum of material with the maximum of efficiency, and, having a great depth of stone just where it is needed, should bear the heaviest loads without injury, and require only an occasional resurfacing to last indefinitely. The amount of material required is less than 800 cubic yards per mile.
MAINTENANCE OF ROADS.
Regarding the maintenance of roads, what Mr. Charles E. Ash- burner, jr., C. E., who has had a wide experience in such work, says of the macadam road applies with equal force to any, even the simplest of roads, and his observations are reproduced here for the benefit of those who utilize the suggestions above offered, as well as of all who are interested in the road question generally:
The old saying, ‘‘A stitch in time saves nine,” never applied more appropriately to anything than it does to the maintenance of a macadam road. Inspect your roads constantly and carefully; never allow the smallest hole to remain, but use the pick to loosen the surface as one forms and then carefully fill with chips one-half inch in diameter, or even smaller, of the same material of which the road is built, and roll. In filling be careful not to change a hole into a hillock, which would eventually cause two holes, one on each side. Equal attention should be paid to maintaining thorough drainage, so that the water will run off without saturating the edges of the roads. When the road surface at last becomes worn out, pick it thoroughly (picking by the steam roller is by far the most economical), then apply stone, and proceed as in the original construction.
Roads now in my charge, built four years ago of Virginia gray granite (rejecting such as contained much mica), were only 7inches thick. They have been constantly under heavy traffic of the worst kind, namely, country teams, which drive one behind the other in the center of the road, yet not one cent has been spent in repair, and they are as free from holes as the day they were constructed. They are worn, how- ever, as the fine granite dust taken from the gutters will prove; but the wear has been denudation simply, owing to the fact that they were constructed upon a road- bed of uniform hardness and smoothness, and all material used was uniformly tough.
STATE HIGHWAYS IN MASSACHUSETTS.
By GEORGE A. PERKINS, Chairman Massachusetts State Highway Commission.
FIRST EFFORTS FOR IMPROVED ROADS.
Road improvement in this country is now an important factor in State as well as in municipal elections. It is incorporated into party plat- forms, and candidates must now declare how they stand upon this issue. This has been brought about by constant agitation on the part of those who have made a study of the question from an economic standpoint, and who have realized the immense loss resulting from the bad condi- tion of the ways.
In Massachusetts the question on a large scale was first brought before the legislature in 1887. The people had not been made to realize the great importance of a better and more complete system of high- ways, so that at first the matter was not given that serious considera- tion it deserved. It was conceded that the roads were not of the best, but it was claimed that the cost necessary to improve them would be too great for the smaller towns to bear. It was argued before the com- mittee that much money was uselessly applied and wasted, and that there was an entire absence of systematic methods employed. It was shown that many towns were obliged to maintain long stretches of highways of little importance to them, but used as ways of communi- cation between large centers. It was maintained that manufacturers, teamsters, and farmers would be greatly benefited by the construction of a general system of roads, as the cost of transportation would be ereatly reduced.
The subject was annually brought before the legislature, each suc- cessive year finding a larger number of advocates. In 1892 the demand for action was so great that the legislature gave it particular attention, and its committees gave a number of public hearings which were largely attended by people from every section of the State, all agreeing that the State should lend its aid and assistance toward the construction and maintenance of certain highways. The legislature fully appre- ciated the force of the arguments and, realizing the great scope of the subject, enacted a law providing for the appointment of a commission of three to inquire into the entire subject and report to the legislature of 1893, and granted a liberal appropriation for the purpose.
505
506 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The commission thus created immediately commenced work, and at the outset could obtain but little data from any published reports as to methods and cost of construction and maintenance of roads. It at once entered upon a comprehensive plan to obtain the desired informa- tion by public hearings, communications with the different town officials, and personal investigation by traveling over hundreds of miles of ° country roads. In its report made to the legislature in 1893 the com- mission showed the importance and necessity of legislation providing for a more uniform system of road construction and maintenance under scientific supervision. From the many public hearings given by the commission and the replies to interrogatories sent to public officials, it became evident to the commission that the existing system was defect- ive; that the ways were in a generally bad condition, and that the towns were unable to cope with the problem; that there was need for the State to undertake the construction and maintenance of a comprehen- Sive system of State highways. It should be stated in this connection that outside of the cities there are a little more than 20,000 miles of roads in Massachusetts. It is estimated that from 10 to 15 per cent of this number are roads directly connecting the towns and large centers and such as might reasonably be asked to be made State highways. Fully 50 per cent of the annual appropriation for highways is expended for the maintenance of these intertown roads. By relieving the towns of the burden of maintaining such roads, it can readily be seen that they can use their appropriation for the improvement of their own ways.
SOME PROVISIONS OF THE ROAD LAW.
After careful consideration of the commission’s report the legislature of 1893 enacted a statute which, with the amendment made by.the legis- lature of 1894,is the law of Massachusetts to-day. It provides for the appointment of three competent persons to serve as the Massachusetts highway commission. Their terms of office shall be so arranged and designated at the time of their appointment that the term of one mem- ber shall expire in three years, one in two years, and one In one year. The full term of office thereafter shall be for three years.
The duty and power of the commission are defined, but among those of importance and value may be mentioned the following:
They may be consulted at all reasonable times, without charge, by officers of counties, cities, or towns having the care of and authority over public roads, and shall without charge advise them relative to the construction, repair, alteration or maintenance of the same; but advice given by them to any such officers shall not impair the legal duties and obligations of any city or town. They shall each year hold at least one public meeting in each county for the open discussion of questions relating to the public roads, due notice of which shall be given in the press or other- wise. They shall each year make a report to the legislature.
County commissioners and city and town officers having the care of and authority over public roads and bridges throughout the Commonwealth shall, on request, fur-
STATE HIGHWAYS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 5OT
nish the commissioners any information required by them concerning the roads and bridges within their jurisdiction.
The law also contemplates the building of State highways and pro- vides that—
Whenever the county commissioners of a county, or the mayor and aldermen of a city, or the selectmen of a town, adjudge that the public necessity and convenience require that the Commonwealth take charge of anew or existing road as a highway, in whole or in part in that county, city, or town, they may apply by a petition in writing to the Massachusetts highway commission, stating the road they recom- mend, together with a plan and profile of the same. Said highway commission shall consider such petition and determine what the public necessity and conven- ience require in the premises, and, if they decide that the highway should be laid out or be taken charge of by the Commonwealth, shall file a plan thereof in the office of the county commissioners of the county in which the petitioners reside, with the petition therefor and a certificate that they have laid out and taken charge of said highway in accordance with said plans, and shall file a copy of the plan and location of the portion lying in each city or town with the clerk of said city or town; and said highway shall, after the filing of said plans, be laid out as a highway and shall be constructed and kept in good repair and condition as a high- way by the said commission, at the expense of the Commonwealth, and shall be known as a State road, and thereafter be maintained by the Commonwealth, under the supervision of said commission. And all openings and placing of structures in any such road shall be done in accordance with a permit from said commission. Said commission shall, when about to construct any highway, give to each city and town in which said highway lies a certified copy of the plars and specifications for said highway, with a notice that said commission is ready for the construction of said road. Such city or town shall have the right, without advertisement, to contract with said commission for the construction of so much of such highway as lies within its limits, in accordance with the plans and specifications, and under the supervision and subject to its approval, at a price to be agreed upon by said commission and said city or town. If said city or town shall not elect to so contract within thirty days, said commission shall advertise in two or more papers published in the county where the road or a portion of it is situated, and in three or more daily papers pub- lished in Boston, for bids for the construction of said highway under their super- vision and subject to their approval, in accordance with plans and specifications to be furnished by said commission, Such advertisement shall state the time and place for opening the proposals in answer to said advertisements, and reserve the right to reject any and all proposals. All such proposals shall be sealed and shall be kept by the board, and shall be open to public inspection after said proposals have been accepted or rejected. Said commission may reject any or all bids, or if a bid is sat- isfactory they shall, with the approval of the governor and council, make a contract in writing on behalf of the Commonwealth for said construction, and shall require of the contractor a bond for at least 25 per cent of the contract price to indemnify any city or town in which such highway lies against damage while such road is being constructed; and the Commonwealth shall not be liable for any damage occasioned thereby. All construction of State roads shall be fairly apportioned by said com- mission among the different counties, and not more than 10 miles of State road shall be constructed in any one county in any one year, on petition as aforesaid, without the previous approval thereof in writing by the governor and council.
For the maintenance of State highways, said commission shall contract with the city or town in which such State highway lies, or a person, firm, or corporation, for the keeping in repair and maintaining of such highway, in accordance with the rules and regulations of said commission, and subject to their supervision and approval, and such contracts may be made without previous advertisement.
508 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Upon the completion of the road one-quarter of the money expended is to be repaid by the county in which the way petitioned for lies, so that in the first instance the State pays for the entire expense, and collects of the county 25 per cent of the cost. In this way the towns and cities do not pay anything except the cost for the original survey and the plan and profile which must accompany the petition.
Said commission shall keep all State roads reasonably clear of brush, and shall cause suitable shade trees to be set out along said highways when feasible, and shall renew the same when necessary, and may also establish and maintain watering troughs at suitable places along said highways.
No length of possession or occupancy of land within the limit of any State high- way, by an owner or occupier of adjoining land, shall create a right to such land in any adjoining owner or occupant or a person claiming under him, and any fences, buildings, sheds, or other obstructions encroaching upon such State highway shall, upon written notice by said commission, at once be removed by the owner or occu- pier of adjoining land, and if not so removed said commission may cause the same to be done and may remove the same upon the adjoining land of such owner or occupier.
Cities and towns shall have police jurisdiction over all State highways, and they shall at once notify in writing the State commission or its employees of any defect or want of repair in such highways. No State highway shall be dug up for the lay- ing or placing of pipes, sewers, posts, wires, railways, or other purposes, and no trees shall be planted or removed, or obstruction placed thereon, except by the written consent of the superintendent of streets or road commissioners of a city or town, approved by the highway commission, and then only in accordance with the rules and regulations of said commission.
Said commission shall give suitable names to the State highways, and they shall have the right to change the name of any road that shall have become a part of a State highway. They shall cause to be erected at convenient points along State highways suitable guideposts.
It will be seen that the commission can not lay out State highways unless petitioned for. The amended statute took effect June 20, 1894, and $300,000 were appropriated.
The commission notified all county, city, and town authorities that, owing to the lateness of the season, action could be expected this year only on such petitions as should be received by the 1st day of August. So great was the interest that eighty-five petitions were received up to that date.
THE APPORTIONMENT OF ROADS.
The statute requires that the commission shall fairly apportion all construction of State roads among the fourteen counties. The commis- sion apportioned the appropriation so that each county should receive nearly an equal share. It was thought wise to distribute the work so that sections could be constructed in as many places as possible, in order that the people could see what they might expect to be the policy and methods employed by the State, and that such roads would be object lessons. Under the law the municipalities in which a section of road to be constructed lies have the right, without previous advertisement and without bond, to contract directly with the commission for the build- ing of the same. The reasons for this are that the money expended shall go directly among the townspeople, and that the officials and work-
STATE HIGHWAYS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 5O9
men may have experience in such work. It also creates an interest among the people for better and more systematic work and method on local roads.
Of the eighty-five petitions the commission has acted favorably upon thirty-seven, and have contracted for that number of pieces averaging 1 mile each. These pieces in each case form a link in a through road, and in all probability will be extended. In this way it will take but a few years to complete asystem of Stateroads. It can fairly be assumed that every town in the State will petition, and in a few years a State road will have been completed or commenced in every town. It is the aim of the commission that State highways shall be intertown roads leading to the large centers.
MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS OF THE LAW.
The commission furnishes blank petitions, together with all necessary information. The law requires that each petition shall be accom- panied by a plan and profile, the expense of which shall be borne by the petitioners. The commission requires that all plans and profiles shall be of a uniform scale, 40 feet to the inch horizontal, and 8 feet to the inch perpendicular, samples of which and all necessary instructions are given. The State then causes cross sections of the road to be made, thus enabling a thorough study of the grades.
Although the selectmen of a town, or the mayor and aldermen of a city, can, under the statute, petition for a State road, it requires the vote of a town meeting or the city council to authorize the selectmen or mayor to contract, so that in every case where the towns or cities have contracted authority has been voted the officials. This shows that the people are in sympathy with the work.
As might be expected, the town officials at first were somewhat fear- ful of the risk to be assumed in entering upon such a contract, as, from lack of experience and knowledge, they might not be able to comply with the terms of the contract, as well as the liability of causing a loss to the town. But after thorough explanation, and their implicit confi- dence in the commission, and the fact that a resident engineer repre- senting the State was to be always on the ground to direct and explain, these thirty-seven municipalities have contracted and entered upon the work with excellent results.
The contracts are based on the unit plan, i. e., so much per ton for stone, so much per cubic yard for earth and rock excavation and for surface grading, so much per linear foot for drains, fencing, and pipe, so much per cubic yard for rubble masonry, so much per square yard for telford, ete. |
From the faet that the work was begun so late in the season only five sections have been completed, the remainder being in various stages of construction, and will be completed in the spring.
510 YEARBOOK OF THE U, 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
All work is done according to specifications and plans furnished by the commission, the engineer in chief having charge of all the work. In each case a resident engineer or inspector is provided, who is con- stantly on hand to direct the work. He makes daily and weekly returns of ali work done and all material used. The town has full charge of the labor and teams, and all contracts for the same are made in the name of the town. In this way the work is progressing admirably, and the road officials of the town are being taught how to build roads in a Scientific manner. The towns are paid for all work and materials used up to the 15th of each month. |
METHODS OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION.
With one exception, broken stone has been used on all the roads. Each road is carefully examined with reference to its natural soil— whether clay, loam, sand, or gravel. Where the soil is clayey or heavy the commission has used telford. The method of constructing this tel- ford is to first shape the subgrade to nearly correspond to the surface of the proposed finished roadway, and to roll this either with a steam or horse roller until it ceases to yield beneath the roller; to put ina drain on both sides if necessary, connecting the drain with some culvert, water course, or main drain. The drain is made by first excavating a trench to the depth of 24 feet below the center of this subgrade, the bottom of the trench being about 1 foot in width and the top from 14 to 16 inches wide. From 2 to 3 inches of gravel or broken stone are placed in the bottom of the trench, and on this is laid a 5 or 6 inch vit- rified clay pipe with open bell joints; then on this pipe gravel from one-fourth to three-eighths of an inch in size, or broken stone, is filled to the depth cf about a foot; over this is filled coarser gravel or broken stone; the road surface is then covered with about 4 inches of gravel, and on this the telford is carefully laid by hand to the depth of about 8 inches, covering as far as possible the whole surface of the ground, the spaces being filled in with wedge-shaped stones, driven down- ward, the whole making a solid pavement. This telford foundation is then rolled with a steam roller until it ceases to settle; upon this is placed broken stone from 14 to 24 inches in size and thoroughly rolled with a steam roller so that when compressed it will be 4 inches thick. On top of this is placed another layer of stone ranging from one-half to 14 inches in size, which is thoroughly rolled by a steam roller to a thickness of 2 inches. No water is used upon these two courses. On this last layer of stone, from one-half inch to an inch of the finer stone and dust from the crusher is spread. This is wet and rolled, and con- stitutes the binder.
The method and process of building the macadamized roads are the same as employed on the telford foundation. The commission has found that upon loose, sandy soils much stone is wasted by being driven down
STATE HIGHWAYS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 511
into the sand; in such cases gravel, when accessible, has been placed upon the sand to a depth of 3 or 4 inches, and on this is laid the stone. By so doing the cost of the work is greatly reduced. In one instance on Marthas Vineyard, where the sand is very loose, cheap cotton cloth has been spread, upon this the stone is laid, and itis found that the sand does not work up through the stone, and much less stone is required. Layers of tarred paper were tried, but without success, as the stones ‘ were pressed through the same.
- Outside of the villages the width of the hardened way is made 15 feet, with from 24 to 3 feet of gravel on either side. The crown on sub- stantially level roads is made one-half inch to the foot, but on grades it is made greater. The thickness of the broken stone is in most cases 6 inches in the middle and 4 inches on the sides. In all cases a steam roller is required. On grades where considerable surface water is likely to flow, cobblestone gutters are laid on the sides. The commission has not established any fixed grades, but so far the maximum has been 5 feet in the hundred.
In some of the roads petitioned for there are street railway tracks, In each instance the commission, before it would lay out a road as a State highway, has insisted aah the municipal authorities cause the tracks to be located according to the plans of the commission.
Whenever the lines of the road as proposed by the commission have interfered with or cut off adjoining land, the towns have procured releases signed by the owners, relieving the State of any claim for land or grade damage.
At all angles in the road are placed stone monuments 6 feet long, 6 inches square on top, and dressed 12 inches from the top. On one side is cut the letters ““M. H. B.,” standing for ‘Massachusetts Highway Bound.” The monuments Be set 5 feet under ground.
PROPERTY RIGHTS, ETC.
When the road is completed and accepted, it is a State highway, and the State assumes the maintenance of it ever after. This is one of the greatest advantages gained to the towns, as by this relief their annual appropriation can be used for permanent improvements upon other _ roads. One of the results of the work by the commission is that towns are looking more to permanent work, and in some cases it has been voted in town meeting that a portion of the appropriation shall be set aside for such purpose.
At the beginning of the work by the State there were but few towns owning stone crushers and steam rollers. There were several large crushing plants in the State owned by private parties. Stone could be obtained from these and delivered on cars to points on railroads at an average price of $1.40 per ton. This was for stone delivered in proper sizes. But when the road to be constructed was a considerable dis- tance from the cars, the cost of hauling brought the price so high that
512 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. -
it became necessary to devise some other means. Therefore arrange- ments have been made with parties owning crushing plants to set up a crusher, elevator, screens, and bins, and break the stone at from 30. to 40 cents per ton. The agents of the several crusher machines have entered into this, so that no difficulty is now had. In many instances the town has purchased a plant and breaks the stone. The town delivers the stone in sizes suitable for the crusher.
When a town does not own a steam roller, arrangements have been ° made with private parties and agents to let one to the town, the town paying for the use either by the day or per ton of stone rolled. As in case of stone crushers, many towns are buying rollers.
The commission, as called upon by the law, has given a series of hear- ings in the counties. ‘These have been largely attended by people com- ing to seek information as to road building and maintenance. There has been great interest shown in the work of the commission and enthu- Siasm expressed for the continuation of the State roads.
Surveys are being made by many towns, and by spring no doubt many more petitions will be received. It is believed that a substantial sum will be appropriated for 1895, and the work begun continued.
IMPROVEMENT OF PUBLIC ROADS IN NORTH CAROLINA.
By Prof. J. A. HOLMEs, State Geologist and Secretary of the North Carolina Road Improvement Association.
HISTORICAL SKETCH.
Early in the present century the State of North Carolina devoted a considerable share of attention to the subject of internal improve- ments, first with regard to increasing the facilities for navigation on all of the principal rivers, and then the construction of public roads from the head of navigation on each important river into the interior of the State. In 1819, and at intervals for more than a quarter of a century thereafter, the State board of interral improvements, as authorized by the general assembly, cooperated with the local authorities, on a small scale, in having roads surveyed and constructed through the more sparsely settled counties in the interior and western portions of the State.
In 1823 the engineer of the board, Hamilton Fulton, recommended the adoption by the State of the following general system: In building public roads, the roads were to be divided into three general classes: (1) A few leading roads, to be designated State roads; (2) those of lesser importance, to be known as county roads; and (3) private roads, or those of only local importance. The roads of the first class were to be constructed from a fund of which the State should contribute one-half the expense, and the counties through which the roads pass contributing their respective halves of the expense; the roads, once constructed, were to be kept in repair by the several counties traversed ‘ by them. The roads of the second class were to be both made and kept in repair by the counties, while those of the third class were to be made and kept in repair by the private individuals who were more specially benefited by the same or through whose. lands the roads passed. Unfortunately, however, this plan was never adopted by the State, although in a number of cases the State did cooperate in the construction of public roads, and in 1850 to 1860 it cooperated in the construction of several plank roads in the middle and eastern counties.
It was about this time that the interest in railroad construction greatly increased in North Carolina, and for several decades thereafter the plans for public improvements turned in this and other directions, to the complete neglect of the public roads, and there was a growing belief among the people that the railroads, in a large measure, did
away with the need for other public highways. | 513
514 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The modern movement for better public roads in North Carolina may be said to have begun in 1879 with the passage by the general assembly of the Mecklenburg road law. This was intended as a general or State law, but at the time was applied only in Mecklenburg County. It pro- vided for the working of public roads partly by taxation and partly by the old labor system; the tax revenue to range from 7 to 20 cents on the $100 worth of property (at the discretion of the township authorities), and a labor assessment of four days on all ablebodied citizens between the ages of 18 and 45 living along these roads. The general manage- ment of the work was placed in the hands of the township authorities.
As illustrating the condition of public opinion on the subject at this time, it may be said that immediately after the enactment of this law the opposition to it in Mecklenburg, one of the most wealthy and pro- gressive counties of the State, was so pronounced, and the demand for the repeal of the law so general, that it was repealed by the general assembly in 1881, This dissatisfaction was doubtless due in part to the ’ fact that the work done was not altogether satisfactory, and was not car- ried far enough to demonstrate the benefit it would ultimately be to the public; butit was probably due still more largely to the general opposi- tion in the State to any form of taxation for road improvement. The law had been searcely repealed, however, before a reaction set in in its favor so strong among the intelligent people of the county that 1t was reenacted by the legislature of 1883. Krom that time to the present the extent and efficiency of the work has increased, the popularity of the new system has grown, until at the present date practically all opposi- tion to the work has disappeared, and the only complaints now heard are to the effect that the good roads are not being extended to the outer limits of the county with sufficient rapidity.
For several years following the inauguration of the Mecklenburg road system the movement for better roads attracted but little interest in other portions of the State; and it was not until 1887 and 1889 that any decided movement was made among other counties. At this latter date new road laws were adopted by the general assembly for Ala- mance, Cabarrus, Forsyth, and Iredell counties, and for Raleigh Town- ship, in Wake County. In 1891 several additional counties were added to the list, and since the session of the general assembly of 1893 a.still larger number have started the improved road work, including Bun- combe, Cherokee, Henderson, Macon, Mitchell, Rowan, Chatham, Hdge- combe, Wayne, Lenoir, New Hanover, Onslow, and Robeson.
The laws adopted for these several counties vary considerably in their details. In nearly every case they retain in part the requirement that able-bodied citizens shall be liable for labor on the public roads for a limited number of days, and with this they combine provision for a varying rate of taxation for road purposes. In a few of the counties the money necessary for the new road work is paid out of the general county fund. In a few cases, especially in Edgecombe, the old labor
PUBLIC ROADS IN NORTH CAROLINA. 515
system has been abolished entirely, and the roads are being worked by taxation alone. In nearly all of these counties convict labor is employed in the road-improvement work, and in the majority of cases a limited amount of improved machinery and implements has been purchased by the counties and is being used in the work. The con- struction of stone roads has been undertaken in Mecklenburg, Wake, Alamance, Cabarrus, and to a lesser extent in Rowan and Durham counties. Buncombe County has just purchased a complete outfit of machinery, and is now beginning to macadamize. The work in other counties has thus far been limited to the improvement of earth roads by grading, draining, and in some cases changing the location of the old roads.
In February, 1893, alargely attended and enthusiastic road congress was held at Raleigh, during the session of the general assembly. In October following, another road meeting was held in Raleigh, during the State fair, and the North Carolina Road Improvement Association was organized. During the summer of 1894, under the auspices of this association, road conferences had been held at the State University (Chapel Hill), Raleigh, and Charlotte, and an enthusiastic road meet- ing was also held in Asheville in July of this year. The question of better public roads is now being agitated in every portion of the State, and itis probable that in the near future the plans for road improve- ment will be adopted in a number of additional counties.
ROAD IMPROVEMENT IN THE SEVERAL COUNTIES.
In Mecklenburg County the work has now been in progress for eleven years. During this time 32 miles of roads have been graded and drained, and 30 miles have been macadamized. The general plan adopted, and which has been adhered to, was to start at the city limits of the county seat and to grade and macadamize all of the important public roads from this point out toward the township and the county limits. These roads have a width of 40 feet for the first 2 miles from the city limits, and beyond this point a width of 36 feet. They have a maximum grade of 4 feet in 100. For cross drains sewer pipes are used in all cases where practicable, and strong wooden bridges with stone piers have been put in wherever needed.
In attaining the above grade in places where it was impracticable to change the location of the road, cuts through the hills have been made to a depth in places of from 10 to 15 feet, and fills have been made which in places have a height above the ordinary ground surface of from 10 to 20 feet for a distance of a few hundred yards to half a mile.
In macadamizing, the following general plan has been adopted: Upon the graded and settled earth surface, a macadam road, 12 feet wide and about 9 inches thick, is constructed, usually in the center, though in places on one side of the road. An excavation from 4 to 6 inches deep is nade in the earth’s surface, and the bottom is then carefully rolled
516 YEARBOOK OF THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
with a steam roller. Upon this excavated surface is placed a layer of field stone about 4 inches thick, and this is then thoroughly rolled. Upon this surface is placed a 3-inch layer of stone crushed to from 1 to 2 inches in size; and after this has been thoroughly rolled there is placed a third layer, about 2 inches thick, of finely crushed stone, including screenings, and this latter is in turn thoroughly rolled. The average cost of these roads, including the macadamizing and grading, is about $2,000 per mile. The general appearance of the roads is shown by the accompanying plate (No. V1) which gives an idea of the loads hauled over these roads; one wagon with 12 bales of cotton (6,000 pounds), and three wagons, each with a cord of wood. Much the larger part of the work for the permanent improvement of the roads in this county is done by convict labor. The average number of con. victs employed is about eighty, and the average cost of this labor per convict, including their food, clothes, medical attention, and guarding, is from 20 to 22 cents per day. In charge of the work is one superin- tendent and one engineer (during a part of the time) and six guards. Usually the convicts have worked in one squad; at the present time they are divided into two squads. The rate of taxation in the county at the present time is 18 cents on the $100 worth of property, and the entire amount raised in this way for the support of the convict force in road-improvement work during the past year was about $18,000. In addition to this, each township levies a tax varying from 7 to 15 cents on each $100 worth of property.
The Mecklenburg law, as stated above, requires all able-bodied citi- zens along the public roads either to labor four days of each year on the public roads or to pay the sum of 50 cents per day in lieu thereof. This class of labor is used upon the roads independent of the convict force, and principally in the work of grading or in the general repairs of those roads or portions of them upon which the convict force is not engaged. |
In Wake County Raleigh Township has been working its roads by taxation and labor during the past four years. It has purchased a steam-roller, road machine, crusher, spreading carts, and a complete list of smaller implements for road work. The tax rate for road purposes is now 62 cents on the $100 worth of property, and the total amount thus raised for the past year was $4,600. The number of convicts. employed on an average during the present season is fifty-seven, and the average cost per convict per day, including food, clothes, medical attendance, and guarding, is 20$ cents. All the county prisoners whose terms are less than ten years can be used in this work. Convicts do every kind of work except the most difficult part of the bridge con- struction. Twenty miles of road have been graded and 12 miles have been macadamized, the work having been divided between the princi- pal roads in the township, starting from Raleigh. By special arrange- ment with the county authorities, the work has been extended for 1 to 14 miles beyond the township boundary on three of the principal roads.
Yearbook U.S De
partment of Agriculture, 1894.
SECTION OF MACADAMIZED ROAD NEAR CAMDEN, N. C.,
SHOWING SIZE OF LOADS HAULED OVER IT.
PLATE VI
— Oe
PUBLIC ROADS IN NORTH CAROLINA. 517
The new roads have a total width of 45 feet, including ditches, and are reduced to a grade of 1 foot in 30. Of this total width 24 to 26 feet have been macadamized, leaving on one side a 12-foot earth drive- way and 4 feet on each side of the road for water ways or ditches.
In putting down the macadam the foundation is carefully drained in wet places and a telford foundation is there used. In more favorable locations a sand foundation is used; where the road surface is sandy or a hardpan, the bottom layer of macadam is laid directly on that. This foundation, of whatever kind, is carefully rolled, the bottom layer of macadam (4 inches thick on the telford foundation, or 6 inches thick on the sand) of broken stone which will pass through a 4-inch ring. This layer is carefully rolled with a 15-ton steam roller, and upon it is then spread a 4-inch layer of broken stone that will pass through a 2-inch ring. This is well rolled with the steam roller, and is then covered with 1 inch to 14 inches of crushed stone, including screenings and fragments less than 1 inch in diameter. This surface material is spread and rolled with a 24-ton horse roller. The rock used is a biotite granite, rather soft for the best results. The cost of these roads, including both the grading and macadamizing, is reported as ranging from $1,500 to $1,700 per mile.
In Alamance, Cabarrus, and Rowan counties a limited amount of macadamizing has been done, and many miles of earth roads have been greatly improved by grading and draining. These counties use their convicts in working their important roads. Cabarrus employs about twenty convicts, at a cost of 42 to 45 cents per day each, while Ala- mance uses about the same number, at about an average cost of 22 cents per day. In the latter a county tax is levied, and able-bodied cit- izens are still liable under the law to work on the public roads, as here- tofore. In the former, nine out of the twelve townships levy a tax of 94 cents on $100 worth of property and 294 cents on the poll.
Buncombe County, out of its general tax fund, maintained an aver- age force of about sixty convicts at work on its more important public roads during 1893 and 1894, at an average cost of about 35 cents per convict per day. For general road work the old system still prevails. Many miles of earth roads have been regraded and drained, and in places relocated. A complete outfit for macadamizing work has re- cently been purchased, and this latter work will begin at once. As illustrating the intelligent interest in the subject of road improvements in this county, it may be stated that the county authorities recently sent a committee of six representative citizens on a tour of examina- tion of the most important roads in New Jersey and New York, in order that such a committee might be able to examine carefully the road sys- tem adopted in those States and advise the authorities as to the best plans to be adopted for the work in their own county. At an early date it is expected that the county will vote upon a proposition to issue a quarter of a million dollars’ worth of bonds to be used in the con- struction of stone roads. |
518 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
In the other counties mentioned above no macadamizing work has as yet been undertaken, though in several of those counties the question is now being agitated, and in the near future they will doubtless begin to construct such stone roads. Inallof them the earth roads have been improved, to a greater or less extent, by grading, drainage, and changes in the location of these roads. These improvements are increasing the popularity of the movement, and are thus paving the way for larger expenditures, which will be necessary in the construction of the stone roads. One of the most encouraging features of the movement has been its growth in several of the eastern counties during the past few years.
Several years ago the strongest opposition to the movement came from these eastern counties, where the surface of the country is com- paratively level, and where the stone for macadamizing purposes is either exceedingly scarce or entirely absent; but during 1803 and the present year Wayne, Lenoir, Edgecombe, and New Hanover counties have adopted plans for improving their earth roads and have pushed the work forward with vigor and success, accomplishing results of decided benefit and at a small expenditure of money. This has not only brought the movement into favor in these counties, but has resulted in arousing considerable interest in the subject in a number of adjoining counties.
In New Hanover County a tax of 4 cents on $100 worth of property has been levied, which yields about $3,000 per annum. By the expend- iture of this small sum a limited amount of grading and draining has been accomplished, and the sandy road surface has been improved by the admixture of clay, and, no doubt, in the near future these road surfaces will be still further improved by being covered either with crushed stone or with oyster shells from the adjoining sounds. A few years ago a Shell road was constructed in this county for a distance of 8 miles (from Wilmington to Wrightsville), which since that time has been maintained in excellent condition by the employment of one man, who, with a cart and horse, drops small quantities of oyster shells at such points on the road as show indications of wear. This road now serves as an object lesson in showing the ease with which an excellent road can be constructed in this region and the small expenditure neces- sary for keeping it in repair. It extends through a level region, sandy and marshy at intervals. Ditches about 20 feet apart were dug on both sides, 2 to 4 feet deep, for the purpose of draining, and the soil removed from these ditches was thrown into the center thus elevat- ing the roadbed. In the center of this roadbed a space 12 to 14 feet wide was covered to a depth of 6 inches with oyster shells. The travel soon ground the uppermost shells to powder, and the whole mass was packed and cemented, thus giving a hard, smooth surface. The attract- iveness of the driveway has been increased by planting trees on both sides. The accompanying plate (No. VII) shows the appearance of the road and illustrates the wisdom in these sandy regions of having trees,
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‘IA 3LV1d
PUBLIC ROADS IN NORTH CAROLINA. 519
and especially pines, grow close by the roadside. The leaves from the trees cover the sandy surface and enable vehicles to pass over these surfaces without cutting through into the sand.
In LHdgecombe County, as is the case also in New Hanover, no con- victs are at present employed on the public roads, but it is expected that they will be so employed in both counties at an early date. A tax of 15 cents on $100 worth of property and 45 cents on the poll is assessed for road purposes, yielding a revenue which at present amounts to $7,600. Machinery is used, including a road machine, scrapers, plows, and a horse roller; ordinary labor is employed at a cost of about 65 cents per day. The policy adopted in this county has been to first improve the particularly bad places in the roads in differ- ent parts of the county, and in this way, although some slight loss of time has resulted from this moving of the outfit from place to place at short intervals, the result has been to give general satisfaction with the work in many parts of the county, because the beneficial effects of the work became apparent at once in as many places.
In Wayne and Lenoir counties the plan of improving the more important earth roads is somewhat similar to that in Edgecombe, but the tax fund is smaller in both, and convict labor is used. The truck- ing industry in these latter counties is one growing in importance, and this has greatly increased the demand for a road surface over which large loads can be hauled at a rapid rate without serious jolting. This demand wiil doubtless prove a great stimulus in the permanent improvement of public roads and will ultimately result in their being macadamized, although the material for the purpose will have to be brought from adjoining counties. At Newbern, in Craven County, so great has been the demand for better roads that recently a consid- erable sum was subscribed by private individuals for macadamizing a road leading from the town through one of the important trucking districts, and this road, in the building of which the county cooper- ated with private individuals, is now being constructed. <A beautiful and serviceable macadam road was built a few years since from the town to the Federal cemetery by the United States Government, the stone used being a shell limestone.
In Guilford County the two townships which join at the county seat (Greensboro) have voted a small tax for the improvement of the earth roads, and have pushed this work slowly along during the past two years. In one a road machine has been used, and in the other the work has been done entirely with the pick and shovel. The notable feature in connection with the results in the two townships 1s the fact that in the township using the road machine the roads have not only been given better shape, but the wear of the roads has been more satisfactory.
In Iredell County for the present year a tax of 10 cents on the $100 worth of property and 16 cents on the poll has been levied, and a road fund of about $4,000 has been raised. During the latter part of the
520 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
present year about thirty convicts have been used on the roads, and they have graded about 20 miles of road—a few miles on each—starting from the county seat.
In Forsyth County, after improving the earth roads in the immediate vicinity of the county seat (Winston-Salem), the convicts, fifty to sixty in number, have been transferred to various parts of the county and have been employed in improving the worst places on the important public roads. The tax levy is 8 cents on $100 worth of property, and this yields a road fund of about $6,900, including $1,300 from the general
tax fund. ROAD MATERIALS.
In the central and western counties of the State there is usually an abundance of stone for use in macadamizing roads. The larger part of this stone is granitic in character, and some of this is rather soft for use in surfacing the road; but at intervals in all of these counties harder and tougher material can be found in the form of hornblende granite, diorite, trap, and other eruptive rocks, and where these occur along the lines of railroad they can be crushed and transported to the points where the macadam is needed, in many cases at a small cost. In the eastern counties good stone for macadam is scarce or entirely wanting; but in quite a number of these counties limestone or shell rock can be obtained at intervals, and the fact that they make a serv- iceable road has been demonstrated by the experiment at Newbern, where an excellent road to the Federal cemetery was built of shell rock from the Trent River, and on the streets of Goldsboro, in Wayne County, where a considerable amount of macadamizing was done some three years ago with shell rock from Castle Haynes, on the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad. In the latter case the shell rock was laid down in thickness only 3 to 4 inches. The surface was packed by the ordinary travel, and it has now withstood the constant wear of the vehicles on the main streets of Goldsboro during the past three years without the need of any repairs.
In the counties bordering the coast excellent roads can be built and maintained by the use of oyster shells, as has been shown in the case of the shell road between Wilmington and Wrightsville, in New Hanover County. In quite a number of counties limited amounts of gravel can be obtained for use on the roads, but this is usually quite inferior in quality to the Glacial gravel which abounds in many of the Northern States. Along many of the streams, however, where crossed by public roads, a sufficient supply of gravel and coarse sand can often be found, which will very greatly improve the surface when spread over it, and again in the eastern counties, where the sand prevails at intervals, along the roadside can frequently be found deposits of clay which, | when mixed with sand, improve the road surface there considerably. In a few places gravel and sand deposits are found which have a suffi- cient amount of clay and oxide of iron intermixed to cement the mass into a hard surface.
APPHNDIX.
] A 94 ZL
CONTENTS.
Organization of the Department of Agriculture... 2.2... 2220+. ++ eee eeeneee- Agricultural institutions and experiment stations............-.---.---..-i--.
List of institutions in the United States having courses in agriculture. .. The locations, directors, dates of organization and reorganization, and princi-
pal lines of work of the ag ricultural experiment stationsin the United States. —
Weather conditions of the cr op OF: 1094 oso. 2. oo eS eee ta er Directions for procedure in case of apparent death by lightning...-..-...-... Wholesale prices of principal agricultural products in leading cities of the Limited States i. so. SUS DS ie ee SS re bees He eee Seen wan cw eee tt ee Exports of the products of domestic agriculture for the y ears ending June 30, 1890; 1891, 1992, Tas, and 1BO4 oo os he aia new eee Imports of agricultural products for the years sending June 30, "1890, 1891, 1892, 1299, and 1694 205 65 see cess asin’ ce ba eee Farm prices on December 1, 1890, “1891, "1892, 1893, ‘and 1894... 0. Freight rates in effect J anuary it, 1891, 1892, 1893, 1894, 1895, in cents per 100 POW 92 eat lsh Scopes «oie elaine wheels chee me teetmiela Sarnia iat ie = a Human foeds... ...- tee. 2+ -4-'- - ese ee ea eee =f ~ a
Composition of different food materials—refuse, water, nutrients—and fuel Talue Per POUNG 2. omens cece neal wee tone > Saeko Rete
Nutrients obtained for 10 cents in different foods at ordinary prices SEP Ss
Prices used in estimating cost of daily dietaries......-.- :
Daily dietaries—food materials furnishing approximately ‘the 0.28. pound of f protein and 3,500 calories of energy of the standard for daily dietary of a man at moderate muscular Work ......-.. 22. -2--s2eeee-eeeeee eee
Standards for daily dietaries for people of different classes.....-....---.-
European standards for daily dietaries........-. .- <0. 2c. eee aes
American standards for daily dietaries --- 22-2. 2S So ee ee
Feedine stuffs for animals... -..\.-2---). sce. se sa= aps sao es oor ee Composition of feeding stalis.....- seco. sk acs oc eee eke eee eee ee Digestibility of feeding stuite 220i. ha See. Lo. ae eee eee
Meedin? StAndaTAs- ..- S25 ieee noice sem pints riage ele = Sm pe oie age oi eel
Galenlation of rationa....00-.-0. -.022. cess the ce Pieces le oo
Fertilizing constituents of feeding stuffs and farm products.........-...-----
TANG i ide ews = em pines ee hie Sen in renal o> «amas ee ee
Amount and value of manure produced by different farm animals..........--
Methods of controlling injurious insects, with formulas for insecticides..._--
Insecticides (directions for their preparation and use)......-.--...-----.----- Paris creen and london purple-_..-- 5222-2 -- 2 eco == ne sa
Pinson Wait oo. wed is eck.s bee oes Meese on 02 2 ck SR :
TABU EDONG Sricein wie leone riniwiaicin = cic Ris eee. c aides ain. o.e,a=.n 0 e/a ain err PVYTOCMTOM ond oc cn doen ss esse es emarcss p20 creel Ens. ooo) 2 ONDE. piensa ele ne ence Bebe eae ae eet RI wa oie ons -15 see ee Kerosene nGlMiOD 2. aioe cms ocee se se ee Sas es wa. ee ene oa ne ce ee The VESTN WABI fe coche otic Santee ee eee os acces vs lees cee een The hydrocyanic-acid gas treatment. .-: .-.........-.... teks «eee ee Bisulphide of carpon...- cscs ec <-> pan =A). - > - +) + = >= aie A cheap orchard-spraying Outi... .- 82-2 es eee ee ee ee Treatment for fungous diseases of plants.....-...--..---------.--++ -00-ss00=- Formulas for TURP CIG6S . 05:2 <a en sicles = — njeein cen a - oo ae » ons Shp a
Grasses as sand and sail Dinders:. 5 S.ds ie cee ons oe cl Oke eee 42
Table of one hundred WCU sc. awi cca, Seek < a0 eawic cits o's o's dpe ee Oe BMavrsere’ byl lati su acd ain es oto Ka! acts ad Woble pian. © niin Weil ww sere we cane ies a
522
APPENDIX.
ORGANIZATION OF THE DEPARTMENT Of AGRICULTURE. [Location, The Mall, between Twelfth and Fourteenth streets. ]
SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE, J. Sterling Morton.
The Secretary of Agriculturo is charged with the supervision of all public business relating to the agricultural industry. He appoints all the officers and employees of the Department, with the exception of the Assistant Secretary and the Chief of the Weather Bureau, who are appointed by the President, and directs the management of all the divisions, offices, and bureaus embraced in the Department. He exercises advisory supervision over the agricultural experiment stations deriving support from the national Treasury, and has control of the quarantine stations for imported cat- tle, andof interstate quarantine rendered necessary by contagious cattle diseases.
AssISTANT SECRETARY, Chas. W. Dabney, jr.
The Assistant Secretary performs such duties as may be prescribed by the Secre- tary. To his office has been assigned the control and direction of the scientific policy and operations of the following divisions and offices: The Divisions of Botany, Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, Agrostology, Pomology, Chemistry, Economic Ornithology and Mammalogy, Entomology, and Agricultural Soils; the Office of Experiment Stations, the Office of Irrigation Inquiry, and the Office of Fiber Inves- tigations; and the Department Museum.
CHIEF CLERK, D. MacCuaig. LIBRARIAN, W.P. Cuiter.
BUREAUS AND DIVISIONS.
WEATHER BUREAU (corner Twenty-fourth and M streets NW.).—Chief, Mark W. Harrington; assigned as Assistant Chief, Maj. H. H. C. Dunwoody, U. 8. A.; Chief Clerk, James R. Cook; Professors of Meteorology, Cleveland Abbe, F. H. Bigelow, Henry A. Hazen, Charles I’. Marvin.
The Weather Bureau has charge of the forecasting of weather; tho issue of storm warnings; the display of weather and flood signals for the benefit of agriculture, ecommerce, and navigation; the gauging and reporting of rivers; the maintenance and operation of seacoast telegraph lines, and the collection and transmission of marine intelligence for the benefit of commerce and navigation; the reporting of temperature and rainfall conditions for the cotton, rice, sugar, and other interests; the display of frost and cold-wave signals; the distribution of meteorological infor- mation in the interests of agriculture and commerce, and the taking of such meteorological observations as may be necessary to establish and record the cli- matic conditions of the United States, or as are essential for the proper execution of the foregoing duties.
BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.—Chief, Dr. D. E. Salmon; Chief Clerk, P. L. Lyles.
The Bureau of Animal Industry makes investigations as to the existence of con- tagious pleuropneumonia and other dangerous communicable diseases of live stock, superintends the measures for their extirpation, makes original investigations as to the nature and prevention of such diseases, and reports on the condition and means of improving the animal industries of the country. It also has charge of the inspection of import and export animals, of the inspection of vessels for the trans- portation of export cattle, and of the quarantine stations for imported neat cattle; supervises the interstate movement of cattle, and inspects live stock and their prod- ucts slaughtered for food consumption. The work of the Bureau is assigned to the following divisions: Division of Animal Pathology, Inspection Division, Division of Field Investigations and Miscellaneous Work, and Dairy Division; the last named division having been established while the present volume was in press.
523
524 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
DIVISION OF STATISTICS.—Statistician, Henry A. Robinson; Assistant Statistician, Henry Farquhar.
The Division of Statistics collects information as to the condition, prospects, and harvests of the principal crops, and of the numbers and status of farm animals, through a corps of county correspondents and the aid of a supplementary organiza- tion under the direction of State agents, and obtains similar information from European countries monthly through the deputy consul-general at London, assisted by consular, agricultural, and commercial authorities. It records, tabulates, and coordinates statistics of agricultural production, distribution, and consumption, the authorized data of governments, institutes, societies, boards of trade, and individual experts; and writes, edits, and publishes a monthly bulletin for the use of editors and writers, and for the information of producers and consumers, and for their ee against combination and extortion in the handling of the products of agriculture.
OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS.—Director, A. C. True; Assistant Director, E. W. Allen.
The Office of Experiment Stations represents the Department in its relations to the experiment stations which are now in operation in all the States and Territories. It seeks to promote the interests of agricultural education and investigation through- out the United States. It collects and disseminates general information regarding the colleges and stations, and publishes accounts of agricultural investigations at home and abroad. It also indicates lines of inquiry, aids in the conduct of cooper- ative experiments, reports upon the expenditures and work of the stations, and in general furnishes them with such advice and assistance as will best promote the purposes for which they were established. It is also charged with investigations on the nutritive value and economy of human foods.
DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY.—Chief Chemist, Harvey W. Wiley; First Assistant Chemist, W.G. Brown.
The Division of Chemistry makes investigations of the methods proposed for the analyses of soils, fertilizers, and agricultural products, and such analyses as pertain in general to the interests of agriculture. It can not undertake the analyses of samples of the above articles of a miscellaneous nature, but application for such analyses should be made to the directors of the agricultural experiment stations of the different States. The division does not make assays of ores nor analyses of min- erals except when related to general agricultural interests, nor analyses of water.
DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY.—Entomologist, L. O. Howard; First Assistant Entomolo- gist, C. L. Marlatt.
The Division of Entomology obtains and disseminates information regarding insects injurious to vegetation; investigates insects sent to the division in order to give appropriate remedies; conducts investigations of this character in different parts of the country; and mounts and arranges specimens for illustrative and museum purposes.
DIVISION OF ORNITHOLOGY AND MAMMALOGY.—Ornithologist, C. Hart Merriam; First Assistant Ornithologist, T. S. Palmer.
The Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy studies the geographic distribution of animals and plants, and maps the natural life zones of the country; it also inves- tigates the economic relations of birds and mammals, and recommends measures for the preservation of beneficial and destruction of injurious species.
DIVISION OF ForEsTRY.—Chief, B. E. Fernow; Assistant Chief, Charles A. Keffer.
The Division of Forestry is occupied with experiments, investigations, and reports dealing with the subject of forestry, and with the dissemination of inforniation upon forestry matters.
Division OF BotTany.—Botanist, Frederick V. Coville; First Assistant Botanist, J. N. Rose.
The Division of Botany maintains the National Herbarium, publishes information on the treatment of weeds, experiments with poisonous and medicinal plants, tests seeds with a view to their increased purity and commercial value, and investigates other questions of economic botany.
DIVISION OF VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY.—Chief, B. T. Galloway ; First Assistant, Albert F. Woods.
The Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology has for its object a study of the normal and abnormal life processes of plants. It seeks by investigations in the field and experiments in the laboratory to determine the causes of disease and the best means of preventing the same. It studies plant physiology in its bearing on pathology.
ORGANIZATION OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 525
DIVISION OF AGROSTOLOGY.—Chief, F. Lamson-Scribner; I’irst Assistant, Jared G. Smith.
The Division of Agrostology is charged with the investigation of the natural his- tory, geographical distribution, and uses of grasses and forage plants, their adaptation to special soils and climates, the introduction of promising native and foreign kinds into cultivation, and the preparation of publications and correspondence relative to these plants.
DIVISION or PomMoLoGyY.—Pomologist, Samuel B. Heiges; Assistant Pomologist, W. A.
Taylor.
The Division of Pomology collects and distributes information in regard to the fruit interests of the United States; investigates the habits and peculiar qualities of fruits, their adaptability to various soils and climates, and conditions of culture; and introduces new and untried fruits from foreign countries.
DIVISION OF AGRICULTURAL SoILs.—Chief, Milton Whitney.
The Division of Agricultural Soils has for its object the investigation of the texture and other physical properties of soils and their relation to crop production.
OFFICE OF FIBER INVESTIGATIONS.—Special Agent in Charge, Chas. Richards Dodge.
The Office of Fiber Investigations collects and disseminates information regarding the cultivation of textile plants, directs experiments in the culture of new and hith- erto unused plants, and investigates the merits of new machines and processes for preparing them for manufacture.
OFFICE OF IRRIGATION INQUIRY.—Chief, Charles W. Irish.
The Office of Irrigation Inquiry collects and publishes inform ation regarding the best modes of agriculture by irrigation.
OFFICE OF ROAD INQUIRY.—Special Agent in Charge, Roy Stone.
The Office of Road Inquiry collects information concerning the systems of road management throughout the United States, conducts investigations regarding the best method of road making, and prepares publications on this subject.
GARDENS AND GROUNDS.—AHorticulturist and Superintendent of Gardens and Grounds, William Saunders.
The Superintendent of Gardens and Grounds is charged with the care and orna- mentation of the park surrounding the Department buildings, and with the duties connected with the conservatories and gardens for testing and propagating economic plants.
DIVISION OF PUBLICATIONS.—Chief, Geo. Wm. Hill; Assistant Chief, Joseph A. Arnold.
The Division of Publications has entire supervision of the printing and publishing of the Department, and is especially charged with the preparation, publication, and distribution of farmers’ bulletins. It also has general supervision of the work of illustrations. The division issues advance notices and a monthly list of publications, and prepares for publication any information of special interest to agriculturists.
DIVISION OF ACCOUNTS AND DISBURSING OFFICE.— Chief, Frank L. Evans; Assistant Disbursing Officer (in charge of Weather Bureau disbursements), A. Zappone; Cashier, Everett D. Yerby.
This office is charged with the adjustment of all claims against the Department; decides questions involving the expenditure of public funds; prepares contracts for annual supplies, leases, and agreements; issues requisitions for the purchase of sup- plies, requests for passenger and freight transportation, and attends to all business relating to the financial interests of the Department, including payments of every description.
SEED DIVISION.—Chief, M. E. Fagan.
The Seed Division collects new and valuable seeds for propagation in this country, and supplies them to Congressmen and others for distribution as required by law. Special Agent for the Purchase of Seed, Enos 8. Harnden. This officer is charged with the purchase of seeds, bulbs, vines, cuttings, plants, etc., distributed by the Depart-
‘ment.
DOCUMENT AND FOLDING Room.—Superintendent, Will H. Bane.
This division has charge of the receipt, care, and mailing of the Department publi- cations.
MuseuM.—Curator, James M. Watt. ENGINEER.—Chief, John A. Harvey.
526 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTIONS AND EXPERIMENT STATIONS.
List of institutions in the United States having courses in agriculture.
| State. ame of institution. Locality. | President. Alabama .....:,--:- Agricultural and Mechanical College ...| Auburn ...... _ | W.L. Broun. Rrisots 005.2. H2 University Of Arizona. (2 oles. aes MESON fstecic also T. B. Comstock. Arkansas..-..--< Arkansas Industrial University......... Fayetteville ...... J. L. Buchanan. California ......- College of Agriculture of the University.| Berkeley..:..-.--. M. Kellogg. Colorado ......<.- The State Agricultural College......... Fort Collins ...... Alston Ellis. Connecticut ..... Storrs Agricultural College ............. Wansient.-. 5 co-e B. F. Koons. ae Scientific School ef Yale Uni- | New Haven......-. Timothy Dwight versity. ae -s | Se: Delaware .......- Wekigane LU a ie? pees Newark ....2-ces-c A.N. Raub. State College for Colored Students...--- Dower a5. ELS Wesley Webb. Biormia. .....s=---+ State Agricultural and Mech. College...| Lake City......... O. Clute. Florida State Normal School...........- Tallahassee ....... I. De 8. Tucker. Georgia.......... College of Agr’ture and Mechanic Arts.| Athens........... H.C. White. DARIN Se en nia College of Agriculture of the University .| Moscow ..----..... ¥F. B. Gault. SthimiGig Fs... College of Agriculture of the University.| Urbana........... T. J. Burrill. Indiana... .....-- School of Agriculture, Horticulture, and | LaFayette........ J. H, Smart. Veterinary Science of Purdue Uni- | versity. net See SL, College of Agr’ture and Mechanic Arts.| Ames........-...-- W. M. Beardshear. IGHHSAS 2 Socom = Kansas State Agricultural College.....-. Manhattan ...-.-. Geo. T. Fairchild. Kentucky -.2.2¢- Agricultural and Mechanical College...| Lexington -..-...... J. K. Patterson. State Normal School. ......-2------..---- Frankfort .......- J. H. Jackson. Louisiana -...... State University and Agricultural and | Baton Rouge....-- J. W. Nicholson. Mechanical College Southern University and Agricultural | New Orleans....-- H. A. Hill. and Mechanical College. NETO aso ate o atia ante | The Maine State College....-.......-..- Ofine.. 5850s A. W. Harris. Maryland ..=. 2... Maryland Agricultural College. ...... -=<| (College Park. .2.—. R. W. Silvester. Massachusetts...| Massachusetts Agricultural College..... Ambersat 7 << scc<s H. H. Goodell. Michigan ........ Michigan Agricultural College.......... ee Col- | L. G. Gorton. ege. Minnesota ......- College of Agriculture of the University - Minweapolis nomame Cyrus Northrop. Mississippi ...... Agricultural and Mechanical College...| Agricultural Col- | S. D. Lee. lege. Alcorn Agricultural and Mech. College. Woeainide is casasibeerg T. J. Calloway. Missouri......... College of Agriculture.and Mechanic | Columbia.......-. Richard EH. Jesse. | Arts of the University. ‘Montana......... College of Agr’ture and Mechanic Arts-| Bozeman.........- James Reid. Nebraska......-. Industrial College of the University...| Lincoln........... J. H. Canfield. Bevees... 6 .5..2.. School of Agriculture of University..| Reno.............. J. E. Stubbs. New Hampshire-| College of Agriculture and the Me- | Durham.........- C.S. Murkland. chanic Arts. New Jersey...--- Rutgers Scientific School.............--. New Brunswick ..| Austin Scott. New Mexico..... College of Agr’ture and Mechanic Arts-| Mesilla Park...-... S. P. McCrea. New ork. ccs Corneil WWHiVenrsiby <5 ssc... 45- assent Tihataj.s<oss5=2- J.G.Schurman. North Carolina...| College of Agriculture and Mech. Arts -| Raleigh..-........ A. Q. Holladay. North Dakota:...| North Dakota Agricultural College..--. Pattee! oc l5is ei J: B. Power. \Ohjess2: pista i5- Ohio State University........-----.....- Columbus .......- W.H. Scott. ‘Oklahoma. ......-. Agricultural and Mechanical College...| Stillwater......... E. D. Murdaugh. Oreson..... -. 228-- Oregon State Agricultural College..-.-. @Cervnlltis. .. 3252. 2: John M. Bloss. Pennsylvania....| Pennsylvania State College.........----.- State College...... George W.Atherton. Rhode Island ....| College of Agr’ture and Mechanic Arts-| Kingston ......... J.H. Washburn. South Carolina...; Clemson Agricultural College........--- Clemson College..| E. Bb. Craighead. ; College of Agriculture and Mechanics’ | Orangeburg ...... L, M. Dunton. ate Institute of Claflin University. South Dakota....| South Dakota Agricultural College....-. Brookimes .....-... L. McLouth. ‘Tennessee ......- State Agricult. and Mech. College ...-... Knoxville ......-- C. W. Dabney, jr. a are State Agricult. and Mechanical College.| College Station...| L. S. Ross. LO i Se eee Agricultural College of Utah............ Hogan -.4- 4. bcs Joshua H. Paul. Wermant.:.°....: State Agricultural College of the Uni- | Burlington ....... M. H. Buckham. versity. Aik Rertoalberdl and Mechanical College.-.| Blacksburg...---. J.M. McBryde. Normal and Agricultural Institute..... Hampton ........% H. B. Frissell. Washington -.... Agric, College and School of Seience.-..| Pullman ........-- ¥. A. Bryan. West Virginia...| West Virginia University.....-..-....-. Morgantown ..... P. B. Reynolds. The West Virginia Colored Institute. ...; Farm ............. J. H. Hill. Wisconsin....... College of Agric. of the University....| Madison .......... C. K. Adams.
Wryoming........ College of Agric. of the University...} Laramie .........- A. A. Johnson.
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528 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
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529
WEATHER CONDITIONS, CROP OF 1894. WEATHER CONDITIONS OF THE CROP OF 1894.
By H. H. C. DuNwoopy,
Assistant Chief of Weather Bureau, in charge of Forecast Division.
The
hout the season.
ures 138 and 139 show for selected stations how the temperature and rainfall 1 conditions from week to week throug
ared with norma
Fig comp
pone TISISTETITTT TTT TTI TS] SUT Bl ree ACUTE SSUES STP SiS Ht HUT Heit HITE : Sat it iil HA EE HUTA SST AT Sih Hit WITRUTE ne SISTTTUTTUTT i Heaninct HH A ees TT PST TTT UTE TT smi TT Pe he aan HAT SUITE I) cht HARE HE HEAT ES ETT SSE TTTN Heth SISITTTTTTTTTTTA TN fits f HIT ie nu Ha HSISU DTT AT Sel Slt Hi i iat en ik ret PUTEDENENAEUAREUERROT UA TES ISG ST
HU bet UE rT TTP Pod TT (tes Stitutt Hal i Mi TTT ee a PSH PESUTTCEETECTECECTUTOUUUTUTTES TUE) PSECCEECATTECETTTUTT TTT RET Neha APSHA TTT SSUES nti SISTA TST ii it SUTRA STOTT os WTSI TTT Ie ial HUTA PST TL feo HET TTT tech +t PUTT fest TTT RUT ie a HT HAH PEAT STATA Se Tht SST TAIT TITTIES EN TTT eet TTA UT TTET SST Hina SSTUTUUT TUTTE HHT SISTA TTL THT SEU AL eT SOR HMM UTNE STATA ae COTTA STHUTUTITNTH ae CUT TT ST HEE PSUUIETTTE ART SST EET nes a HE UTTER Sui eS INH iW TTT REET TTT RECTITTL HT NUTT Ts SIMIAN ih SUT iM He TBH Wet 3 itt PAT SHUT HE LH ae HHI SRI a HUTESISHTTU TTT Adlai Sa ett ini LEH SHUT iil aU SISTED ST A aia —- init Hesil
il
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es
an
— Ternperature ut Degrees, ------------Preapitation in tenths of ric
Fic. 188,—Average daily departures from normal temperature and weekly departures from normal
1894.
’
ation from April 9 to October 1
precipit
al weekly precipitation.
normal, the light solid line the , and the dotted line the weekly
heavy horizontal line in the diagrams represents average daily departure from normal temperature departure, in inches or fractions thereof, from the norm
21*
530 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Similar diagrams may be constructed for any Weather Bureau station.
January was @ warn month, except in California, Arizona, and portions of Mow Mexico, and nearly normal temperature prevailed in the Northwest. Everywhere east of the Mississippi and over the southeastern Rocky Mountain slope the month
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Fig. 139.—Average daily departures from normal temperature and weekly departures from normal precipitation from April 9 to October 1, 1894.
averaged decidedly warmer than usual, the temperature excess amounting to 6° per day in the central valleys and lake regions, and to 9° per day in the West Gulf States.
Except over a few areas of limited extent the precipitation of January was much below the average east of the Mississippi River, in the West Gulf States, and in
“WEATHER CONDITIONS, CROP OF 1894, 531
southern California; but in northern California and on the north Pacifie Coast, and ‘thence eastward to the Dakotas, the precipitation was in excess of the January average.
all averaged a cold month throughout the country, with the exception of southern Florida and along the immediate northwestern border from upper Michigan to western Montana, where it was slightly warmer than the average, The most marked deficiency in temperature occurred from the Central and Lower Mississippi Valley to the Pacific Coast, where, for the most part, the temperature averaged from 6° to 9° per day below the normal. East of the Mississippi the deficiency was le$s marked and only exceeded 3° per day in New England and in the States adjacent to the Lower Mississippi.
The precipitation of February was deficient in New England, southern Florida, the lake region, the Dakotas, Upper Mississippi Valley, West Gulf States, and gen- erally throughout the plateau region, while on the north Pacific Coast, over the central Rocky Mountain slope, and from the East Gulf States northward to the lower lakes, including the Atlantic Coast States south of New England, there was more than the average precipitation, there being a decided excess over the greater part of the country east of the Mississippi and on the north Pacific Coast.
March averaged a warm month east of the Rocky Mountains, the daily average temperature excess exceeding 6° over the entire region from the Missouri Valley to the New England and Middle Atlantic Coast, and amounting to 9° per day in the lake region. In the plateau districts and on the Pacific Coast March was colder than usual,
The precipitation of March was decidedly deficient in California and to the east of the Mississippi, but in the States immediately to the westward of the Mississippi and from the upper lakes to the Pacific Coast there was a marked excess, a large portion of the area named receiving from 1 to 5 inches more than the average for March. Over much the larger portion of the Atlantic Coast States but little more than one-half of the average amount of rain fell.
The first and second decades of March were unusually warm throughout the country east of the Rocky Mountains. The effect of this warm period was to force vegetation far in advance of the season, and thereby expose it to damage from the exceptionally cold weather that prevailed during the closing days of March and the beginning of April. By the 23d of March the season was generally reported from two to three weeks earlier than usual throughout the central and northern districts from the Mississippi Valley eastward. The remarkably warm weather of the first three weeks of March was followed by a period of unusual cold, during which zero temperatures prevailed in some of the Northwestern States, and the line of freezing temperatures was carried southward to the Gulf Coast during the closing days of March. The damage resulting from the cold weather and frost was very great, and necessitated the entire replanting of many crops in the Southern States, Although the actual loss from the destruction of early vegetables, etc., was very great, it was fortunate that the cold occurred sufficiently carly to enable farmers to replant the destroyed crops in ample time to secure good yields. Many tree fruits in the middle and southern portions of the country were killed, however, and the peach crop in the Middle Atlantic States was almost a total failure. The temperature extremes of the last decade of March were very unusual, both the highest and lowest ther- mometer readings ever recorded in March occurring over a large part of the country east of the Rocky Mountains.
The first decade of April averaged warm over the southern portions of the country and in portions of the Northwest, but it was cooler than usual over the central Rocky Mountain region, and from the Upper Mississippi Valley eastward to New England,
Tho last half of May and the first decade of June averaged cooler than usual over the principal agricultural districts east of the Rocky Mountains, and during this period warmer weather would have proved more beneficial to crops, but after June 10 the temperature for several weeks was above the normal and no week was sufii- ciently cool to prove unfavorable.
The most unfavorable features of the crop season of 1894 were the cold period covering the last week of March and beginning of April, and the protracted drought of July and August over the greater part of the country east of the Rocky Moun- tains, except in the Southern States.
The seasonal rainfall from March 1 io October 1 was largely deficient from the Missouri Valley eastward to the Atlantic, including the Coast States from the Caro- linas northward. A marked deficiency also occurred in the Central Gulf States and California, The seasonal deficiency in rainfall exceeded 10 inches in portions of New England and the Middle Atlantic States, eastern Florida, on the Central Gulf Coast, eastern Tennessee, and from the Ohio Valley northwestward over the Central Mississippi and Missouri valleys. In but one week, from April 30 to September 10, did the rainfall for Huron, S. Dak., which is in the region of severe drought, exceed the weekly average at that station, while the temperature was above the normal
532 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
throughout almost the whole of the same period. While the actual deficiency in rainfall of 12 inches in central Iowa was equaled or exceeded in portions of Florida’ and eastern Tennessee, in no other section of the country east of the Rocky Moun- tains did the seasonal rainfall form so small a percentage of the normal amount as in Iowa and the eastern portions of Nebraska and South Dakota, where the actual rainfall was only about 50 per cent of the usual seasonal amount, although portions of New England, the Middle Atlantic States, and eastern Tennessee received less than 60 per cent of the seasonal rainfall.
The extensive and protracted drought of July and August was very injurious to crops, most seriously affecting the corn crop, the principal corn-producing States being covered by the region of severest drought.
The damaging effects of the prolonged drought were greatly intensified over South Dakota, Iowa, and portions of Kansas and Nebraska during the latter part of July by the prevalence of hot winds! peculiar to that region. These winds at times attained velocities approximating 40 miles per hour, and were accompanied by ex- tremely high temperatures, ranging trom 100° to 109°, with relative humidity down to 20 per cent. During the prevalence of this hot period the prospect for crops, already very unfavorable on account of prolonged drought, were greatly reduced. Much corn was completely dried up and cut for fodder. Inplaces apples were actually burned upon the trees.
Concerning this hot period the director of the South Dakota weather service reports:
“During the early part of July showers were frequent over most of the State, except the southeast portion, but droughty conditions soon set in again, with very high day temperatures, hot winds at intervals, and much sunshine, except in the west portion. Hot winds of more than usual severity occurred on the 10th, 11th, 17th, 18th, 23d, and 26th. Probably the most permanent and damaging injury to corn was done by the extreme hot winds of the 11th and 26th. All vegetation suf- fered from the frequent hot winds of this month, and by the close it was evident that all crops east of the Missouri River would be a partial to total failure.”
The director of the Kansas weather service states:
‘‘The extraordinary high temperatures and hot winds characterized the week end- ing July 30, and all crops were seriously affected.”
The director of the Iowa weather service states:
‘‘July added to the severity of the drought by excessive temperatures and hot winds. It was altogether the driest July ever experienced in Jowa since records have been kept. The mean temperature was 76.4°—about 2.3° above normal. The culminating period of the drought was on the 25th, 26th, and 27th, during which period the wind attained maximum velocities ranging from 25 to 38 miles an hour} and the maximum temperatures ranged from 100° to 109°. The average rainfall for, the month was 0.63 of an inch—3.67 inches below the normal. Fourstations reported only a trace, and fully three-fourths of the State received less than half an inch during the month. The mean relative humidity at the central station was only 46, per cent.”
The effects of the severe drought reduced pasturage to such an extent that it was necessary to feed stock during much of the summer, and the scarcity of water proved a serious inconvenience. Short pasturage, the unfavorable prospects for corn, and. the low prices being paid for wheat induced farmers to begin feeding wheat to stock. During the past summer, for the first time in the history of the country, wheat has been used extensively as feed for stock, the result of which practice has been such that it is quite likely that the custom will continue to prevail, and doubtless in future years, when the wheat crop is abundant and the yield of corn is short, the feed- ing of wheat to stock will form an important item in the consumption of that staple.
In the Southern States, after the cold period of the latter part of March, the general weather conditions were favorable, although there was too much rain for cotton in portions of Texas and in the eastern half of the cotton region during July, August, and September. While the severe and prolonged drought greatly reduced the corn crop in the principal corn States in the West, an unusually heavy crop of corn was made in the Southern States.
After March 1 but little rain fell in southern California, nearly the normal amount occurred over northern California, and more than the seasonal amount fell on the north Pacific Coast.
The seasonal temperature from March 1 to October 1 (215 days) averaged above the normal in all districts east of the Rocky Mountains, except along the Gulf Coast, where practically normal temperature conditions prevailed. From the Missouri Val- ley eastward to the Atlantic Coast the temperature for the season averaged 2° or more per day above the normal, and from the Dakotas eastward to the lower lakes and St. Lawrence Valley the daily average excess amounted to 3°, while a maximum
1A special study of these hot winds has been made by Dr. I. M. Cline, Weather Bureau, and Mr. G. E. Curtis, formerly of the Weather Bureau, and the results of their investigations published.
APPARENT DEATH BY LIGHTNING-——TREATMENT. 533
excess of 4° per day occurred in portions of Wisconsin and the Red River Valley of the North.
The last weekly issue of the National Weather Crop Bulletin was that of October 2. During the winter the Bulletin is issued monthly only, but from December to about the close of March there is issued weekly, on ‘Tuesday, a chart showing the depth of snow on the ground throughout the country at 8 p. m. Monday. As a cov- ering of snow affords great protection to winter wheat, these bulletins have proved of great value to grain interests, while the reports of thickness of ice in the differ- ent sections of the country, as published in the table accompanying the snow chart, have been of much interest. The growth and extension of the State weather service that has marked the year gives assurance that more thorough work in all its lines will be accomplished during the coming year.
DIRECTIONS FOR PROCEDURE IN CASE OF APPARENT DEATH BY LIGHTNING.
* * * Electricity seldom kills outright, though the condition of suspended ani- mation which it induces would result in death if not counteracted.
All things considered, it is rational to attempt the resuscitation of those appar- ently killed by electricity, and, if not teo long delayed, the effort promises fair chances of success, provided proper means are instituted.
If the body has actually been submitted to a current of sufficient volume to pro- duce destructive tissue changes, all efforts at resuscitation will of course be futile.
If, on the other hand, only respiration and the heart’s action have been tempora- rily arrested, there is a condition of syncope simulating apparent death by drowning or from anesthetics, and the physician knows that patients in this condition are fre- quently revived. Laymen will appreciate the nature of this condition if it is explained as one of exaggerated faint, and would not feel appalled upon encounter- ing it if previously instructed how to cope with it. In an ordinary fainting spell the necessity to stimulate is universally appreciated. In syncope resulting from an electric shock stimulation is likewise indicated, but more vigorous measures are required, This is the only difference.
= * * The condition is one of exaggerated faint; prompt stimulants are neces- sary. The man must be made to breathe, if this is possible, and the efforts to induce respiration must not be suspended until breathing is fully and normally restored, or until it is absolutely certain that life is extinct. This can not be assured in less than an hour’s persistent, energetic, tireless effort.
Directions for artificial respiration.—An efficacious method is that known as Howard’s, which keeps the passage through the windpipe free without the aid of an assistant, and is recommended for that reason. It is as follows:
Place the subject on his back, head down and bent backward, arms folded over the head (under no conditions raise the head from the ground or floor). Place a hard roll of clothing beneath the chest, with the shoulders declining slightly over it. Open the mouth, pull the tongue forward, and with a cloth wipe out saliva or mucus. Thoroughly loosen the clothing from the neck to the waist (but do not leave the subject’s body exposed, for it is essential to keep the body warm). Kneel astride the subject’s hips, with your hands well opened upon his chest, thumbs pointing toward each other and resting on the lower end of the breastbone; little fingers upon the margin of the ribs and the other fingers dipping into the spaces between the ribs. Place your elbows firmly against your hips, and using your knees as a pivot, press upward and inward toward the heart and lungs, throwing your weight slowly for- ward for two or three seconds, until your face almost touches that of your patient, ending with a sharp push, which helps to jerk you back to your first position. At the same time relax the pressure of your hands, so that the ribs springing back to their original position will cause the air to rush into the subject’s lungs. Pause for two or three seconds and then repeat these motions at the rate of about ten a min- ute until your patient breathes naturally, or until satisfied that life is extinct. If there is no response to your efforts, persistently and tirelessly maintained for a full hour, you may assume that life is gone.
No matter which method for respiration is used, it is important to maintain the warmth of the body by the application of hot flannels, bottles of hot water, hot bricks, warm clothing taken from bystanders, etc.
Firmly and energetically rub the limbs upward so as to force the blood to the heart and brain. If an assistant is present let him attend to this. Remember above all things that nothing must interrupt your efforts to restore breathing.
When swallowing is established, a teaspoonful of warm water, wine, diluted whisky or brandy, or warm coffee should be given. Sleep should be encouraged. In brief:
1. Make the subject breathe by artificially imitating the respiratory movements of the chest.
2. Keep the body warm.
3. Send for a physician.
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IMPORTS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 5A3
IMPORTS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS FOR THE YEARS END- ING JUNE 30, 1890, 1891, 1892, 1893, 1894.
Articles. 1890. | 189]. | 1892. | 1893. | 1894. is Se Leas eazi a ees Sugar and molasses: | ep ee as ES $96, 094, 532 |$105, 728, 216 |$104, 408, 813 $116, 255, 784 | $126, 871, 889 BERMAN GOM Jockct uk ows aecbacemees 5 =~ 795 76 | 2, 659, 172 2, 877, 744 "| Ls 992) 334 1, 984, 778 Sugar drainings.........---.--- st 1, ads oe ewerccecee- apenas [a wewncecesces
Total sugar and molasses. 101, 266, 726
Tea, coffee, and cocca:
14, 373, 222 | 13, 857, 482 | 14, 144, 242
2 CS Re RS Eas Sh a a: 12, 317,493 | 13, 828, 993
INO a coo dochitetenenicn sa Cmpee dan 78, 267, 432 06, 123, 777 | 128, 041, 930 80, 485, 558 90, 314, 676 Cocoa and leaves and shells of- . 2,312, 781 2. 817, 168 3, 221, 041 4, 017, 801 2, 402, 382 Unenumerated items.-..--....-. 556, 931 603, 683 He 724, 007 683, 643 708, 709
Total tea, coffee,and cocoa. _ %, 454, 637 | 113, 113, 373, 621 | 146, 146, 360, 200 99, 044, 484 | 107, 570, 010
Animals and their products, except
Total animals and their
products, except wocl..| 39, 268, 979
i 2 ae eee eee 6, 471 | 5, 531 12, 136 | 42, 834,249 | 39, 648, 887
| 42, 244, 073 | 25, 244, O41 }
I Se!
wool: COLT Set SRM ie ai Se Se ge! 214, 747 102, 978 47, 466 45, 682 18, 704 ER RRS cheapo sw) ater aS otek w mierecion 4, 840, 485 3, 265, 254 2, 455, 868 2, 388, 267 1, 319, 572 2 See Oe ee 1, 268,209 | 1,219, 206 1, 440, 530 1, 682, 977 788, 181 Ali other and fowls....-.-...--. 413, 491 357, 927 307, 752 | 525, 269 274, 789 Ll SCC SS Slee eee eee 1, 286, 219 1, 857, 988 1, 455, 058 | 1, 508, 258 929, 231 SUC NES SO ae ane 13, 679 58, 541 16,549 | ~ 13,479 23, 356 MEM MBE OT aS ercintea Ssitdin a eae Sasa 1, 295, 506 Ls 358, 732 1, 238,166 | 1,425, 927 1, 247, 198 NEE at ecco hes hid hn Site wae 2, 074, 912 1, 185, 595 522, 240 392, 973 199, 536 OG Ne Bie ie ee Ce seer ree 471, 829 497, 340 495, 519 567, 756 400, 240 Baas See eee 264, 089 430, 335 271, 421 419, 625 256, 287 Lo SS Oe a Ee es eee pes 2, 866, 231 2, 265, 714 1, 685, 562 2, 005, 796 839, 972 MNO Ss Sroka cela miicinys wisn = 25 21, 881,886 | 27, 930, 759 26, 850,218 | 28, 347, 896 16, 786, 152 Hide cuttings, etc.......-.....- 348, 440 353, 943 303, 302 365, 525 280, 062 ri PIG OGE -wreccic emanate 236, 648 587, 444 7 97, 529 554, 902 235, 232 eats—
J21G) GG) ae 407, 038 521, 322 430, 048 558, 284 412, 666
ALT) GURBE 3S eine 272, 199 144, 049 97, 893 115, 376 114, 901 LL 5 gene aes BEE Se ees es 102, 954 105, 633 95, 947 110, 186 102, 336 21, 327 1, 232
Sausage Neo 5-2 eae 494, $53 572, 817 566, 650 583, 217 495, 116 Unenumerated MA is MAST as 478, 988 513, 171 539, 033 611, 351 519, 278
| |
Fibers: Animal— VINE, EE en eee Ome 15, 264,083 | 18,231,372 | 19,688,108 | 21, 064, 180 6, 107, 438 Silk, unmanufactured...... 24, 325, 531 19, 076, 081 25, 059, 325 | 29, §36, 986 16, 234, 182 Vegetable— 1 0S nes eee 1, 392, 728 2, 825, 004 3,217, 521 4, 688, 729 3, 097, 297 2 RED Gees Ee ae 2, 188, 021 1, 656, 779 1, 964, 163 1, 879, 152 1, 336, 845 Hemp and substitutes...... | °%,, 041, 956 7, 949, 650 7, 354, 088 9, 061, 855 4, 253,173 BURBS eae bole ca. ori years | 3,249, 926 3, 862, 858 3, 021, 174 2, 467, 828 1, 716, 298 Sisal grass and other vege- table substances.........- 7, 064, 184 5, 829, 514 5,187,620 | 6, 005, 484 3, 742, 073 Fibers not elsewhere speci- BC sche ina ie etal o,og2- ane 697, 680 I, 987, 904 1,597,049 | = 1, 957, 236 | 1, 115, 092 Total Abers.—....23...0-. 61,524,109 | 61,419,162 | 67,089,048 | 76,961,520 | 37, 602. 398 Miscellaneous: Breadstufis — | ; 1S. i) ene, eee ces we mae 5, 629, 849 3,222,593 | 1,592, 040 $21, 605 358, 744 OT 1 RES Son Bre ee ene 908 1, 651 10, 752 1, 265 1, 503 0: RSS eee os Say eee ens 8, 950 5, 056 8, 224 8, 897 3, 923 CLE U2 ae ee ene ae eet 59, 300 31, 089 27, 942 25, 642 24, 483 TEAS Obs cote Cini nlebtaast abate bt ence 115, 657 98. 227 67, 567 7,055 37 RIGEIG, > sce whines bercten at ece 112, 303 431, 940 1, 955, 385 707, 053 769,177 | 5, 049 43, 180 4, 231 2, 223 1, 946 Breadstufis and farinaceous substances, not elsewhere BPECIRGE AR ee Se 1, 210, 982 1,194,473 | 1,223, 066 1, 266, 835 1, 042, 064 PAGERS 3 i nitson<thiepninceseeieiaibncbaias 209, 283 342, 517 | 154, 954 208, 884 243, 408 SPCR SAG WIVES ie scoss ha eerie 20, 747, 774 26, 015, 374 | 20, 968, 262 23, 689, 659 18, 754, 771 Lo 2 a ie Aeron ae ee Le E 1, 143, 445 445, 461 715,151 964, 755 761, 940 LEC eS a SR es SET 1, 053, 616 1, 797, 406 883, 701 1, 085, 407 484, 415 EIN nin imps ia nsdn ienchaasnalii a 1, 827, 937 1, 600, 630 1, 779, 716 3, 137, 511 1, 218, 576 Fg oS: a ne ae 161, 666 78, 433 6, 148 4,411 5, 576 Oils, vegetable— | Fixed or expressed— Ob eae nee en Se as Se 819, 110 733, 489 | 876, 613 891, 424 909, 897 Chalten <2 cost Sec wees 1, 340, 551 1, 465, 001 _ 2, 239, 540 2, 754, 372 1, 730, 787 Volatile or essential........ 1, 061, 631 1,523,491 | 1, 676, 064 1, 654, 036 J], 102, 108
544 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
IMPORTS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS FOR THE YEARS END- ING JUNE 30, 1890, 1891, 1892, 1893, 1894—Continued.
Articles.
Miscellaneous—Continued. Opium, crude Plants, trees, and shrubs......- Rice and rice meal
er
Unground— NUum6is -528-- 22 eee n -< Pepper FAVOUR EE = 6 =. c= cases celal Mobaceus lea meo-:--sc4sessace = Wearaliia), NOANS < ascites = on ai=!< 1-5 Vegetables— Beans and pease...--..----- Potaboese-— 6 -ceen ee aes Pickles and sauces....-.--- All other— In their natural state, or in salt or brine....-. Prepared or preserved... \Wines— Champagne and other gugparkilan ole <2. Si7.ctete scree: Still wines— niGasksts. a: ceaeep eee In bottles Unenumerated items..........-.---
Total miscellaneous
RECAPITULATION.
Sugar and molasses........... i Se Tea, \cofiee, and cCocoa...-.2.-)..-:-- Animals and their products, except
77010) ARE O SES AES 8 SSeS oa 5m Fibers, animal and vegetable....... MSeellANGONG .. 5. - 3 ac <rcen eneemeed
Total agricultural.-......-. otal imports 4. <e~\i--2 <= Per cent of agricultural
IUAULOL cee hace eee
ee eS ee? OE eee ee eee
$1, 183, 712
343, 226 2, 540, 674 4, 089, 814
249, O77
534, 340
1, 619, 215 820, 439 17, 605, 192 559, 867
1, 307, 702 1, 365, 898 386, 307
885, 390 10, 077
4, 752, 572
2, 450, 174 1, 657, 210 40, 777
78, 439, 674
101, 266, 726 93, 454, 637
39, 268, 979 61, 524, 109 78, 439, 674
373, 954, 125 789, 310, 409
47. 38
$1, 202, 375 189, 763
4, 559, 540 3, 266, 230
262, 682
686, 019 1, 338, 637 865, 882 13, 284, 162 594, 744
2, 078, 571 2, 797, 927 511, 163
1, 020, 194 668, 519
5, 615, 872 2, 641, 816
1, 749, 372 95, 313
108, 388, 737 113, 373, 621
42, 834, 249 61, 419, 162 82, 458, 792
408, 474, 561 844, 916, 196
48. 34
$1, 029,203 | $1, 186, 824 155, 018 137, 503 3,030, 883 | 2, 790, 151 2,264,837 | 2, 757, 010 307, 738 298, 008 750, 813 613, 743
1, 069,268 | 1, 278, 062 920,006 | 1, 110, 197 10, 332, 423 | 14, 702, 440 803, 696 763, 935 957,824 | 1,734, 228 186,006 | 2, 066, 589 421, 292 454, 099 563, 297 691, 968 754, 808 639, 805
4,571,816 | 5,579, 054 |
2,464,484 | 2, 505, 024 1,908,203 | 2, 121, 275 130, 766 146, 827
107, 286, 557 | 118, 248, 118 146, 360,200 | 99, 044, 484 39, 648, 887 | 42, 244, 073 67, 089,048 | 76,961, 520 66, 811, 677 | 78, 907, 776
427, 196, 369 827, 402, 462
51. 63
415, 405, 971 866, 400, 922
47.95
78, 907, 776 |
$1, 691, 914
124, 143 2, 374, 835 2, 395, 603
257, 845
395, 977 665, 576 943, 155 10, 985, 386 — 727, 853
1, 117, 969
1, 277, 194 341, 135
653, 259 505, 510 3, 498, 522 1, 817, 813 1, 423, 143 54, 249
58, 664, 487
128, 856, 167 107, 570, 010
25, 244, O41 37, 602) 398 58, 664, 487 357, 937, 603 654, 994) 622
54. 65
Fertilizing constituents contained in a crop of cotton yielding 300 pounds of lint per acre.
Fertilizing constituents (cal-
Pounds per acre.
culated). In 300 In 654 In 404 In 575 In 658 In 250 | In 2,841
pounds | pounds | pounds | pounds | pounds | pounds | pounds lint. seed. bolls leaves. stems. roots. |totalcrop. MEtTOSOM etre sect ctiec nese oe 0. 72 20. 08 4.50 13. 85 5.17 1. 62 45. 94 Phosphoric acid, P,0;.-..---. 0.18 6. 66 1. 14 2.57 1. 22 0. 38 12.15 AGUAS GO tere emieipiassa wie ee mice 2. 22 7. 63 12. 20 6.57 7.74 2. 75 39. 11 AEE ala [GCG a ee a ag 0. 08 0.12 0.19 1. 61 0. 65 0. 38 8.03 DG MAO A maa lepine eae 3 0. 46 1. 22 3. 1D 31.57 5. 59 1. 36 43.95 Magnesia, Mel) oc. swee ne 0. 41 3. 26 1.01 5. 73 2. 43 0. 80 13. 64 Sulphuric acid, SQ ,.......-.- 0. 26 0. 84. ile, Wels 3. 38 0.74 0. 28 7.25 Insoluble matter.......-...... 0. 08 0.15 1.14 6. 48 0. 89 0.55 9. 24 Pounds. BV 00d Charcoal’. Jones. nace ae on omer oie delete eile te ichonis ainierelateimia > o14m ol cwibla on ier ee sletarern atelier e 1 Balphur. -. 2-6-2. cece cccecewec cbc enctesscasessswn as eannneeesacccncccn secs cesenscens assubucs a= eeeeae 1 Rodinm chloride. soak 326 Wore eo bie eiaewtes detec cielsew om ope Wierd aia ete aiele tn /# © ye'o.5 aie )e\p males are ye ire 2 Rodis bicarbonate) =... ad.sedardes aac cue sweets etinicle arolamce eee ecieeds pone sem ineeee Slee h iat rie 2 Sodiam hy posdlphite 2. - el Siesta ccna deca tae sh once sde ree ak ss eves ses asen shy ient nana enh ee 2 Bodium sulphate... . 0. ..chawcbos ole nee bee b me bbe sr cerbee nese eesscnertncchscoeny thay ese sane 1
Antimony Sulphide. ........c..cccccencncccccwcee cee e ne cence teen secre a cenncscensseacceensensnes 1
545
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546 YEARBOOK OF THE U, §, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
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HUMAN FOODS. 5AT
HUMAN FOODS.
Ordinary food materials, such as meat, fish, eggs, potatoes, wheat, etc., consist of—
Refuse.—As the bones of meat and fish, shells of shellfish, skins of potatoes, bran
of wheat, etc.
Edible portion.—As the flesh of meat and fish, the white and yolk of eggs, wheat
flour, ete. The edible portion consists of water and nutritive ingredients or nutrients.
The principal kinds of nutritive ingredients are protein, fats, carbohydrates, and
mineral matters.
The water, refuse, and salt of salted meat and fish are called nonnutrients. In comparing the values of different food materials for nourishment they are left out of account.
Food supplies the wants of the body in several ways. It either—
Is used to form the tissues and fluids of the body;
Is used to repair the wastes of tissues;
Is stored in the body for future consumption ;
Is consumed as fuel, its potentialenergy being transformed into heat or muscular energy, or other forms of energy required by the body; or,
In being consumed protects tissues or other food from consumption.
The fuel value of food.—Heat and muscular power are forms of force or energy. The energy is developed as the food is consumed in the body. The unit commonly used in this measurement is the calorie, the amount of heat which would raise the temperature of a pound of water 4° F,
The following general estimate has been made for the average amount of potential energy in 1 pound of cach of the classes of nutrients:
Calories. PUM” ROGAN oe ooo lone wie aha o «ag one ame ain Teles eas ame 1, 860 Pmek OUNG. Gf fats. .- s+ p22 - a8 2 EES SURG Re. Ee a: tesa Ha 4, 220 nnn AT CAE MONYOTATOS os. .. -aG adn ns pods came ee connie ees ores 1, 860
In other words, when we compare the nutrients in respect to their fuel values, their capacities for yielding heat and mechanical power, a pound of protein of lean meat or albumen of egg is just about equivalent to a pound of sugar or starch, and a little over 2 pounds of either would be required to equal a pound of the fat of meat or butter or the body fat.
For further explanation see article on Food and Diet, page 357.
TAaBLu A.—Composition of different food materials—refuse, water, nutrients—and fuel value per pound.
seat | Edible portion.
H | | | » | Refuse ber = (bones, | Nutrients. | Fuel Food materials. ae skin, | res | Value of ana- | Shell, | Water. Pp | Car- | Miner-|1 pound. lyzed. etc.). Total. | rc Fat. | bohy- | al mat-| anes | drates.| ters. ANIMAL FOODS AS PUR- | | | | | | | CHASED. ! | Beef: | | Pound. | Pound. Pound.!| Pound.| Pound. |Pound. Pound. Calories. cS Se ite Oe Cae be | OR YOR TEE | 0.01 | 730 SRS cece ties bs 19 Oe a i Seer |. See cant eo. | Ob | 940 Showlder.......4-..... 7 ae eae 98 | 16 EP ee "01 | 760 Shoulder clod with | si eS 2 13 | 57 30 ita 19 Wet S20 01 | 830 Wels. tip... 5k: 17 21 44 85 | «13 - i oe .01.| 1,140 Ue Ties OS Bl 1] 15 52 34} .15 Sa a 01 | 1, 030 Sinigies. 62,.004;0... 10) 210 54 36 | "17 i CS ea ‘01 1/100 Porterhouse .........- Sour .124 53 35 | .15 a a eae O14 2s NTE RG nin com nied 2 15} .204 45 35 PES fe) | Gad awn cies -O1 | ‘3,380 GGMOte . oe rcv ce vawe 17 .09 | 62 Bet ae gee Fie RR; 01 | 780 NR AS non waccnues oe. a Paps ob) Oa et aa a: + FS Hind shank........... 12 55 31 14 yh Ree ee eee re . 004 | 355 OS 0 ieee wht 70 30/ .22 | .05 | 0.02 | 01 | 665 Breit 5.0 S, cupcsene SBS csd 5. eS eT a Se 01 1, 160 OOD BUG cs ine doneseee a: ebarscan . 64 i ee a the |pewesttes } OL | = 1,085 Dried heef..........<. eee 51 4t2. , a 07 Ol 10 885 Corned rump......--- 3 06 RRS ee ial nas 2 aa | 03 03 Corned Hank. .....<.-- 2 | 12 44 44 12 ec lantern 03 | £1,460 Corned and canned. ..! ee 54 - 46 27 | 1 See | 04 | 2,30 Tongue, canned......- | ZO 46 ty > Sk aie” et ae } .04 | 1,475 Tripe, pickled......... Af eee 88 Me, Ot 01 | 002 260
548 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TABLE A.—Composition of different food materials—refuse, water, etc.—Continued.
Food materials.
ANIMAL FOODS AS PUR- CHASED—continued.
Veal: Shoulder Chuck Wank sss. 220 oesise Loin (chops) Eee (cutlet)
ee ee ee ee ed
Loin (chops)..-..----- Shoulder Shp leg
weer ceee ee were nee eee ee eH
Sparerib (chops) Smoked shoulder Smoked ham Bacon Salt pork Pork sausage Bologna sausage Frankfurt sausage Poultry: . Whicker acc. < ces -cee Fowl (old hen) Turkey Fish, ete.: Fresh cod, dressed.... Fresh mackerel, dressed BME SYS. 2 <c<isismioce se Shad, whole Smelts, whole Lake trout, dressed... Red snapper Halibut, sections Freshsalmon, dressed. Salt coda Salt cod, bonedb Saltmackerel, dressed c Canned salmond Oysters, solids........ Long clams, solids.... Round claims, solids... Eggs with shell Lard and cottolene Oleomargarine Dairy products: 1 bl es Seo ae Skim milk Butter Cheese, whole milk.... Cheese, skim milk
ANIMAL FOODS, EDIBLT POR | TION. Beef:
INDCK: toto odes ceaer ane Chuck
PHOMIMGl eae aoa waer eet - See Ps eee
Shoulder clod W hole rib Loin
Sirloinie... ..2scee ees
Porterhouse: ;-.sc.r02™ Rump
ROUUCEY 2.2 9> «te patos
Plank Miatcsoscese ape Hind shank Liver Heart Tongue
Num- ber of | Refuse speci- | (bones, mens | Skin, ana- shell, lyzed. | &tc.). Pound 2 seul 6 sig Css 10 .18 7 61 Hs | aera. 10 . 26 16 14 io .22 15 .18 2 18 10 1 4 .14 14 pe 6} 8 . 09 7 . 08 ie ea erstece a ee Ors canic Soe oi . 38 1 . 43 1: . 82 3 . 30 1 41 a .49 7 . 50 2 42 A. .30 25 .49 3 .18 ch 24 2 .25 OW creye ahaa A .33 iB, | Paneer ee Cape eee Re ee 1 es ee 4 ole DY |eeraa)s 2 ne Bi iGee ass oe
eee eee we ewww
Dried peel.< -.s«ms an ke hae, ees
Corned rump a Salt, 17.2 per cent.
b Salt, 21.5 per cent.
Water.
Total.
42
cSalt, 7.1 per cent.
Edible portion.
Nutrients. Car- Fto- | Fat. | bohy- drates. | | Pound. Pound. |Pound eligi OO st exc Sere . 16 A051. ores .19 LST ete ree Cae ae: 1 ea 08; || “(O27 een Ayal SOE ees dete Py ee | tO Maecenas ls fo Mees ere tere nko Be) 2 ag) Me pepe ee iD Hdl See 14 2G) sae oie! By se eee ql} a wal pecoore .07 Par tc lll bpp yee Bala VOT EAR toe . 04 )09)) “eee see ~ 12 . 40 OL .19 Ani Vi . O01 a4 | ake . 004 nals: OW Ane eee 11 OMe eee om LOG nals. Sa Sit: mOO2 Le erent Rati 04. Hees eee .10 SD. ol ange Pe cucu . 09 05" seeecces pO KOM alepsaermeeets 12 Olina sae 210 OUT ln Seca 15 704 S22 eee eal SOA See . 16 004 eee - 22 O03" be aetearere 15 SAG 45 aes 220 eGo lvac:: eee . 06 . 02 . 05 . 09 SO . 02 . 07 . 004 . 04 a dls} Bate oe oe meee coe ere STOO alert Nesp n= OL . 8d . 004 . 04 . 04 705 . 04 SO .05 OL . 8d sO , 20 36 . 02 poll Fe i 02 . 20 15: sae .18 - 18 * rleelaeaere . 20 Paps Sa ane oe oe . 20 Pig I me ae Hale » 21 ba ee | .18 OF tesa <18 6D Pad atone cmere 17) | SOU a7 O6% \ceeae eee . 20 Bahan t 5 Lye ol sierra aparece . 20 JO eae .22 . 05 . 02 16 5 DOC Rae aeier apy oS dl eccootanns 32 07 pOW 15 9 I Ue ache ese
Fuel value of
Miner- |1 pound.
al mat- ters.
Pound.| Calories.
OL 01.
675 510 895
1, 270
d Salt, 1 per cent.
HUMAN
FOODS.
549
TaBLE A.—Composition of different food materialsa—refuse, water, etc.—Coutinued.
a Salt, 23 per cent.
bSalt, 21.5 per cent.
c Salt, 10.6 per cent.
Edible portion. deg Refuse gneck (bones, Nutrients. Fuel Food materials. = ens | ®kin, = value of ana. | Shell, | Water. Pp Car- | Miner-|1 pound. lyzed etc.). Total phy Fat. | bohy- | al mat- drates.| ters. = A i 2 dia ANIMAL FOODS, EDIBLE POR- | rloN—continued. | | Beef—Continued. Pound |Pound.| Pound. Pound. | Pound.| Pound.| Pound. | Calories. Combed flank......s2nloissenes vale BS .50 .50| .14 . 33 | a aie .03 1, 675 Corned and canned....|........ etecaets 54 46° L237 a eee 04 1,170 OMSUC, CANN... 2.20) ccceenes eetegts -47 53 21 Se lekeamn ee . 05 1, 540 irre, PICKIOG. .....-5+)ceccners bike «sae . 88 13 -10 -O1 01 . 002 260 Veal: | (17 TG Cae ae aS ae a ee ed ieee . 68 382 . 20 a See 01 820 ho wie cos Biats <dncleecaddecledensand .13 oan .19 A? | eh ese 01 630 ind pass aang cane feigned on A i. ae ae ee 01 895 CEN ODS) « acen scnn sta vone clacaseet s . 69 zou . 20 aya ie oe .O1 820 ae bene ae eee ae sikh . 29 . 20 AORh, Neier a. -O1 705 RD a oo eee cco amet [Rie cw acne «|(aaroreie oe w 74 . 26 21 « OFF rece ee Ok 560 Mutton: NE aie eatin nace dlopcannad}anann ane . 56 .44 cal A a ee ree 01 1, 410 eam AONODS) «inns a n-}- ce .000- pene 48 . 52 15 a ae Bee: OL 1, 800 eS eee, ina Ree caeks . 59 42 17 SG ee 01 1, 310 ata tam nl Gawssaeate mann ont . 63 37 .18 a) Sa .01 1, 095 Pork: eS ee a ee ae .51 . 49 aT a con | eee 01 1, 625 ot GL) a, a . 53 47 ma ly A A Poe .O1 1, 545 Dingeed SNOUIGOr. ..- 22). 2c.cccs|ocscecee . 43 AGTH 15 Bs a eae . 04 1, 890 BUNGE O NAN soi:000 0 <= clcrmcaninnis Petar - 43 .57 .16 BOO merce chee . 05 1, 800 EM LI IER «5:0 2s ohio cara’ vena sie b's ~22 .78 12 i Bi ie ee . 04 2, 855 0 es Se ae eee -16 . 84 05 By | ae ees S eeget .05 3, 255 Pork sausage............. Sioa esclpea stab -44 . 56 12 . 40 OL . 02 1, 920 Bologna sausage......-... Bears Ts Setee - 60 - 40 .19 ae . 001 . 04 1, 080 Frankfurt sausage........ Peo grtlat joel ican dt ie . 58 42 21 -17 . 004 . 04 1,110 Poultry: 0 | Mah a ae ee 5 eae 72 . 28 25 Pa a Oe eS .01 535 LS ESS es ee eee |e . 67 .33 . 20 6 5) hy eee ae O01 890 PE Sas 20S isis dition sccm = [8 sen dwn . 66 34 24 Ae a ee -O1 810 Fish, ete.: RE nix erate kal s.a aviaea cfs comm ate . 83 apy .16 A eee ae .01 310 Fresh mackerel....... "Se as tal hie .74 0} 19 a eee ree 01 605 ENE RGNR NS stat ae <<. o.5 1 chow wimve'e nll'eim od a wo 79 . 22 .19 al ie = Spee <UL 405 0 SEE a eras a nee as ak .29 .19 As |) a ee pee -01 745 ST SS Ee aes | eee .19 . al ay) PP ap ae. Pe . 02 400 IP CMUROM bets Sc 2052 «|s.c0isc ceslome na soe . 69 1 -18 Bip is Fa a. 98 pees -O1 820 CS ee) eae een 19 «22 .19 (1) pe) EE eee -O1 400 Halibut, sections ...../........ Ibaeerake i fae, 38 A ee et ocean . 560 PORN GANNON. c5.-.-..|00..0.n- ase ae . 67 33 .19 Pa 5g hte ee .O1 885 ONCE ie 8D ac. cm Apatya ou win fern vein . 54 23 21 ROOM Sater | . 02 410 meln Com, DONGI.D... 2. -|05......).caccees . 54 . 24 22 SOUS [oii an as . 02 425 oe a ee . 42 vay . 22 5 il eee . 03 1, 365 Cmmned Salmond... <<) 555...-.\s00.00-. | 62 37 . 20 ee ee - 01 1, 035 Cyprers, S018... ....--)saccees- ne rae nae 87 als . 06 . 02 04 - 01 260 ) aS a ns . 86 .14 . 09 . 01 . 02 .03 240 Hound clams, selids..|........|...-.... . 86 .14 . 07 . 004 . 04 .03 215 i SS Be Rees ee 74 . 26 ef CHO eee awe « .01 720 AE SG COULOLONOs «cis au.s|'s ace cc ule cc- sh |ecsewees Ws OOy |e arte cits DOGS oom era |e ote ee 4, 220 SRCOTR ME PAIN Ged 6 o5 .o.5 asin 50 ws coche eens eta! - 89 -01 . 85 004 03 3, 605 Dairy products: 1st 2 Re ae a Pats 2 |e eee . 87 13 . O4 . 04 a is . 01 325 SO Rene MBL 8 ore Simei Stic oa ou clei co ork w . 90 -10 . 04 OL ~ 05 .O1 180 IERbL Oe cas goss heer olen. Salsas oe Pevib . 90 . OL . 85 - OL . 03 3, 615 Cheese, whole milk...|........|........ . 34 . 67 . 25 . 36 . 02 . 04 2, 005 Uleess, BRIM UH... logsedapufincee ss. 46 .55| .31 17 . 02 . 04 1, 495 VEGETABLE FOODS. Flour and meal: NOR RMOUE: «nisn<en so a ee «1d . 88 ll . 01 Pal . 01 1, 645 Wheat flour (‘‘entire VCE LS ES ee rt ee A a -13 . 87 .14 . 02 .70 . 01 1, 640 Graham flour ......... eae ee e- «lo . 87 ~12 . 02 Sr. .02 1, 625 EMOUUGUD 25 sks cece my (i eee ee .13 . 87 . 07 .O1 79 .01 1, 625 Buckwheat flour...... 9 joeseeeee 15 . 85 . 06 . O01 my i ¢ . 02 1, 585 Corn or maize meal... pM) ot Sie ae Ao . 86 . 09 . 04 Ay (i . 01 1, 650 White hominy........ ee .14 . 87 . 08 . 004 .77 . 004 1, 620 Oaimeal 2. .s.-.505...5 AO [eae ee wes . 08 | 92 .15 . 07 . 68 . 02 1, 850 dolledvaeats:;..06... 21. | rh hee Beet . 08 . 92 .16 . 08 . 67 . 02 1, 855 Pearl barley.......... | Bet. thes 12 . 88 . 08 01 Pa 1, 635
d Salt, 1 per cent.
550 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TABLE A.—Composition of different food materials—refuse, water, ete.—Continued.
Num ber of
Food materials. a
mens ana- lyzed VEGETABLE FOODS—cont'd.| 1 eV ee ee Se ae 10 Peaneadry soo cc 5.- At 6 Peanuts in shells......... 1 Peanuts, ‘‘meats’’:...2.... 1 Bread, crackers, ete: Wheat bread... 02... 13 Graham bread .....-..- 1 Graham crackers..-..-- 1 Boston crackers. .---.-- 1 Miik or cream crackers 1 Oyster crackers...-...- 1 Macaroni and vermi-
“oe UE eee eae 23 SURG Nise carste spa iate 2 ule aoe easel Tapioca, pearl.....---.--- | 1 Sugar, cranulated ees SS eet ee Molasses. 2.0... -ccsce52555 fee ede Vegetables:
(POEBLOCS Ussieee eos hae Siamese e Potatoes,edibie portion 12 Sweet potatoes eS ee wy ale Sweet potatoes, edible
PORLION |< -pascacssee 6 DCCs > cine SISSON eee os oes Beets, edible portion . 12 Turnips Ce SES eee Seer Turnips, edible por-
HON 222 sas soe cee es 7 Oni@ns: 62 S-phase as aces Onions, edible portion. 6 Sq 5 ERE PRET LF Sie © Seudek edible portion. 3 CaGHMDETS Peo. 4s S5ellaqe0e 2: Cucumbers, edible
POLMONE ssses sso a 2 GaADWARC tae tae aoe || inae'els 2 Cabbage, edible por-
THOM [65 Sec ees Stee 4 Cauliflower 322555520 i Mevplgur.: -wof2s ss se: 1 Wuetince- s.2b Fer o233%. 3 Spinach... 2. es 3574 1 SASPAaVaMs cose sac 3 Great perA . 22 62 2'5>22- 1 | Strine heans:.. 2.22... 2 Lima beans, ereen BE ora i Green sweet corn.....- 1 ALOTMMALGES 2 bats tae nae 14 Watermelon, flesh or
PUMP cess sas sascseoa 1 Fruits, etc.:
PAGE Tele Reet ae Geese Apples, edible portion. 7 Bananas, with skin... 1 | Bananas, with pulp... 2 Cherries, flesh........ 1 Strawberries.-.-:..... 19 Black berries|..---.--5- 1 Whortleberries........ 1 Craxtberries. Gs... .-2- 5. i GTaAPCS a0 - ore Sei ce ene mmm Pe Grapes, edible portion. 1 Lemons, flesh....-..... 2 Oranges, flesh......... 13 Canned: Baked beans, canned... 12 Peas, CANNCG....2----5. 82 String beans, canned. -| 18 Lima beans, canned... 15 Squash, canned.-....... 2 Tomatoes, canned..... 11 Corn, canned......--<.- 44 Succotash, canned..... 1
we aeee ree
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Edible portion. Nutrients.
Car- Pro- | wat. | bohy- drates.
Pound. | Pound. | Pound. .07 . 004 79 2 . 02 60 13 22 5 20 . 32 .40 .10 01 55 10 01 53 .10 14 .70 ll 10 . 69 09 13 . 69 11 05 .78 12 92 .73 Rebs) 00 Sats ae . 003 002 . 88 a2gsaeets i xmhate 1. 00 Saea #aat eteeees 73 02 | 004 15 02 001 18 .01 | .003 23 02 004 26 01 001 07 . 02 .001 | .09 01 001 . 06 01 . 002 . 08 01 003 09 01 . 003 .10 . 004 001 05 01 . 002 .10 a . 002 02 01 . 002 03 02 . 003 04 . 02 . 003 05 02 01 05 01 . 003 05 02 01 04 02 01 . 03 02 . 002 03 04 01 16 02 . 004 10 07 OL 22 03 01 14 01 . 604 05
|
01 01 . 06 .004} .01 12 01 01 16 OL . 002 15 02 01 27 01 01 il .O1-|° .01 .07 01 02 08 01 03 14 004 OL 11 01 Ol .16 02 02 21 OL OL 08 01 01 09 07 03 . 20 04 . 002 10 01 001 . 04 04 . 0038 14 01 . 003 “3 01 . 002 04 03 01 20 04 OL 19
al mat- ters.
| Fuel value of
Miner- |! pound.
Pound. | Calories.
. 004 - 03 -O1 . 02
- 01 . 02
1, 630 1, 605 1, 660 2,475
1, 265
Te
HUMAN FOODS. 5D51
TABLE B.—Nutrients obtained for 10 cents in different foods at ordinary prices.
Te: ‘nce et Ww vill buy — Prices : Food materials as purchased. per Total Nutrients. pound. | food ma- | [ mt ae terial. | Protein. Fat. ietbetan: Weare ANIMAL FOODS. Beef: Cents. Pounds.| Pound. | Pound. | Pound. | Calories. INES «asrawgie oF sda older bai matigeiee 4 2, 50 0, 36 OSS. Bcc nnts 1, 825 1: SERS Ss Se Sa ican 6 1. 67 24 Py | de eee 1, 220 eta nav wang An ah ode me Shee ate he 8 125 18 Pa ee es 910 OY 5 ns kg vB sn cine deBeeRE 8 1.25 1 Be |) ate 1,175 oa, i th sw uecetannbund 10 1. 00 15 el re 940 etre sclera a ethan cata sialic Aas clea 14 Pa 4 Pe by 6 i i a tiegtars aie 695 PMB cies nS oi. nin wate ala ceeae t 6 1. 67 aol AB i ee Ses 1, 270 dhe 5 Sala a eer SE 9 Ei .18 aig 1.5 ee reer 5 Li: & Seo ee ae st ek ee 12 . 83 14 «OD Wee was dniag 630 RR ree eee ee 10 1. 00 13 sg eis 1, 140 1 gk) ee ee ee ae ee ee 12 . 83 Po: a eee 945 SII a, on Snk,G aun. elas mate Sueno 16 . 63 . 08 Pere 720 So ES eee nee a a eae a 12 . 83 14 ys eS 915 MR ci sing Exe 2 3a Ben sede 5 15 . 67 ie i 2B Dieeahhs ame 735 "pata athe a agannis tien 18 155 09 PAO TR as 605 cite N Su 0.5 8s «52220 20 .50 . 08 WF leesaeend 550 IMPAIR WIM te na Sree ae ie maeee 10 1. 00 rs ap hi i eee 780 Do ae 2 ee Se ee ee pe 12 . 83 ab OST eo 645 lias) BARS Se eee eee ee 15 . 67 Pp A Pee 525 oo ae Bee Se ce ea Soee ee 5 2. 00 . 43 pap | 0. 04 1, 330 1, SS Sa = ee ee ee 8 1325 aol 07 . 02 830 eried mic smoked... 22.52. 2... 15 . 67 ol 1's [Ree Spree a 595 lin: - AP Pe Ee es es eee oe 20 500 .16 BG a ee 445 | > SiS eee Senna 25 40 aE: A 3 eee ve 355 Canned ena ES nin ote ba ighae oe 10 1. 00 ok fe Dee eee 1,170 Me eS oo ss 12 :83 "22 a8 ee 970 uh 9). SESE Be eer 16 . 63 mei STO he oe ae 735 Veal: DEIEMNIS = rio.c oS tos oo sale ook een oe 8 125 Py! j Po) a eae ee 845 8 ge Ne SS ES 2 eee eee 10 1.00 Paty SGN Coe ols can 675 ee aaa 14 71 112 _06 | matiertatel 480 CS a eee eo 15 . 67 me 400, lowes nanos 445 LG (SS OOS ee oe ae ee 20 . 50 . 08 Pe! Sl ie eee 335 Leg 5 (eutlet) FRE UPL Ba oat 15 . 67 05 es 155 jen aS OF ee ea oe 29 ee ee 20 . 50 . OF AOE he ee 120 Rolston: | SLAP ee ae i See 5 2. 00 . 26 ud Gsiltaooks ripsoam nto 2, 050 Logi SS ES eS. ce oe te 1. 43 .19 BP. ee ee 1, 465 125.) SRR Se eee eee 10 1.00 <e |!) eee 1, 025 [get (_) 0) 5) eae ee 8 I. 25 .16 1 1d Ca ees 1, 935 oe e eee eeee 12 . 83 eu Ph eae aS gat ee 1, 285 Ly oe ee 16 . 63 . 08 ape ee ae encore 975 Se ee eee 8 1.20 19 A I eee oe 1,140 TG = 25: Se Se ee 12 . 83 ap ly ae 755 Li - ee Ceo Se rr 16 . 63 . 09 ee sees oe oe 575 Pork: | SE ee 10 1. 00 14 hy ee eC ee 1, 300 i a GES Se Se See ee een 12 80 12 i) 1 ee 1, 080 BME oh Ore ak btn eres Ne ess cca J 14 we! -10 a leik nc oes 925 Smoked ates Ree ee 12 . 83 . 06 Sars ee 1, 430 Do oe SE Ee Sica a eee 16 . 63 . 04 24 | IA a 1, 090 SNE dh ne ot eater Srottatee me Aint wad 20 . 50 . O4 21 a a ee 860 Seicked NNOULC GH. cee dete ne ee 8 25 .16 rc ae ee 2, 030 * Peat d: dwicieiaha xan a edadeoatnaitsere oo 10 1. 00 Ba 5} 3 | ees 1, 625 Ceca ns ciate quaelemnWeice wont se 14 pari . 09 sae | Rice uke be code 1, 150 Salt 3 ooay ese Se een, + Bates ie ak ire 10 1.00 . O4 1 5 ees 2,995 <M? SOE ek ed ee et Ape ee 14 Sel . 03 pa A) |e a 2, 125 Pork LOWED ie Sees ane Ey arcane sane 8 1.25 15 50 02 2, 430 UU DES Res 2) Ser te 8 oe ee 10 1.00 12 40 .O1 1, 945 Cg a OE SE a a8 De eS 12 se me 33 01 1, 615 Bologna sausage..........-c0.------ 8 1,25 oot > a ees 1, 350 edeck cons oe Sian ee ou eee re Sees we 10 1. 00 19 Rf) ee ey 1, 080 Fish: Wresh ead; dressed..........0..-.-«. 6 1, 67 LS: eaayn « = a'ae bain creel 340 : Pe, RES RS EY OY SEE 8 1, 22 hh 8) Se eee ee ae ee 255 Ee TR a BBS ad 12 . 83 pit Ioninanadscth-halpbeseies 170 Fresh mackerel, dressed ............ 2 83 09 | OT: nas ocr 300 - ae eee Be fly ees 15 . 67 . 08 mir ar eee 240 eet hoy ee eee as 18 e0o . 06 |? hl |e 200 Biuofish POOR FON Shc cnc acces oan 8 1. 25 12 + ees 255 ee eR ee SE Rt OE RRR a! a RE 12 . 83 . 08 A Ml Ker ee < 170 rine torah en een ee 16 | 63 ed Ee, See ae 130 Halibut PORN CR e ee io a telie eci ek oles 15 | . 67 -10 POE esto takes 310 MRM A Sab han Meehan Sees a is cla eee 18 «58 .08 Mgt Se 255 LTS V7 LER Ri es ee 25 | . 40 - .06 MR ee eek oe 270 OTN. ee eae. Sack cama deeens 50 | » 20 . 03 ahah lc keer at een 135
552 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TABLE B.—WNutrients obtained for 10 cents in different foods at ordinary prices—Cont’d.
Food materials as purchased.
ANIMAL FOODS—continued.
Fish—Continued.
Salt Taare eee CARES see a
Oysters:
S0icents a Quart. - oF ...22-<ece- 40 cents a quart............... 50 cents a quart...............
Eggs:
ft 5yCents'aGozZen:. oc << =. -c.52s- Micents a dozens <= sc5,oc sce 25 cents adozen-........cces< 30 cents 4 dozen... .-5......05%.
Milk: Sweet—
4cents a quart..-.--.-.0.- 6cents a quart............ Sicew@ts avg Wark. ase selec Skim, 3 cents a quart.-....---.-
Cheese:
Potatoes:
As cents a PUShel -.-<2<.02ccie0 ce. 60 cents a bushel....4../...... 75 cents 2 bushel 2..~..-.0sce2 90 cents a bushel.............-.
Sweet potatoes:
90 ceuts a bushel..........--.- $1.20 a bushel: ..sssewes ae ess $1.50 a bushel: i..-ciceee en 2 5 PUPS. nts2essteer eters ens os~ eed POON sc Pee bst os.bu see Nebo med ces ORS So See ie ae de Wee eens
Prices
per
pound.
toe
DOR SW OM O MD OOD KH Or 7 Cn Or mC OO DO WO DS
cellrentLaed Bei BR RAH OAK
Ok Or NNe
Total
food ma-
terial.
Pounds. 2
a
I Se et SU Se
ae aoe ee
bs eS Bee
a ee tae tee tet er marie Og RO AROS RO E2 CONC Fee
Ten cents will buy—
Protein.
Pound.
Nutrients. Carbo- Fat. hydrates. Pound. | Pound. , 19s aansaseee 1S ssseesaeee JOD s.35-c ears 01 |. «settee .O1 . 03 Ol . 02 .O1 01 o12.| cee 09" a ae 207 | > aaa 06H. cehoaeene . 20 | . 24 . 138 .16 ml) a2 A038 . 34 « DAA amie eee BG. cae ssa 26:1. ee . 30 .O1 23 .O1 mals 16 . 06 3.74 . 04 2.99 . 03 2. 49 .18 3. 56 Bn by, PHY roe: PROT .18 1.71 14 1. 36 .01 1.59 . 01 1.14 203 1.38 . 02 B Ae | . 02 . 92 Bul . 69 . 20 nay ily 1 22 1.16 15 bik . 08 1.29 . 05 . 86 ee ee 1. 23 eee . 98 eke 2. 50 tarehoretetoretee 2.00 EE ig tes 1. 67 .O1 2. 03 -O1 1.52 .O1 1.22 OL 1.01 . 02 1.52 02 1.14 OL 91 .O1 . 46 . 06 1. 98 . 05 1. 49 . O4 1.19
Fuel value.
Calories.
HUMAN
FOODS.
553
TABLE C.—Prices used in estimating cost of daily dietaries.
Price per
; . |
_ ~~ | = o | 3 ° "
| Price per | | pound. pound. | pound. . ‘ . ' / mT) 2 Food material. | gia Food material. .| 8 {A | Food material. |} .| aia. a| 8 22 a | 5 |eo la] 3 los | Se € 3 |Re (ei) a ae }2| 3 4a eared Parelh |O|Aa B 0 /A | | [Oo |A R Ra a es es ee ee ee Be iF us. a eee Beef: ots. Ots. Cts.|| Eggs—15, 24, and |Cts. Cts. Cts. | Vegetables—con’d. (Ots. Cts. Cts. NBG ecw n'0's'e!~ 4/ 6; 8] &80cents dozen...| 10 | 16 | 20 | Sweet pota- Chuck ....-.... S| 10 | Té-|| Layd:...:-22....-9 8 | 10 | 12 | t oe s—$0.90, | Shoulder .....-.. 6 | B72 | Flours, ete.: | : $1.20, and Shoulder clod ..| 9|10/12]} Wheat fiour....| 2| 24] 3 $1.50 bushel... 13, 2) 2 1 3 ee 0/12 15 |; Graham flour...| 3 {| 4 |... Turnip s—60 Raver o6-.....<s 5| 8/10 Rye flour....... 2 | Oe and 90 cents | Canned corned .| 10 | 12 | 16 Corn meal...... Sita eee bushel ...-... Lh Ease Corned......... 8 | 10 | 12 Oatmeal.....-.- 3 | 4) 5 Beets — 22, 30, J” | ae 15 | 20 | 25 OG 5 fos = asign oy ee and 38 cents Mutton chops...... 8 | 12 | 16 || Bread, ete. : 1g SO Oe 14, 24 & Pork: | Wheat bread...| 4/ 6] 8 Onions—15, 22, sparerib........ 10 | 12 | 14 Rye bread...... oi -Orses and 30 cents | Smoked ham ...} 12 | 16 | 20 Brown bread...| 4) 5] 6 PGCE 2.5252. rive. 2 Salt pork....... 10 4-14 |... Milk crackers..| 6} 9|.... Squash: . <<... 2| 3] 4 Sausage........ 8 | 10 | 12 Boston crackers} 5/| 6 |.... Boans..:5-222-4 8) 4/5 Fish: Corn starch’...2) °:9°}' 101.53. Canned toma- Fresh cod...... 6! 8 | 12 PO PAT Boss. fees 4-0) se ja oa 4{ 6] 8 Galt cod ...-.... Of 8 ids Molasses — 50. Fruit: Boned cod...-..- CB Ui (Ca |e 60, and 70 Strawberries...| 4] 7] 10 Salt mackerel ..| 8 | 12 |....! cents gallon..| 64) 74! 83 Oranges .....--. | 2 epee Canned salmon.| 12 | 16 20 || Vegetables: ' Bananas ....... a ee 2 OS 16 24 | 32 Potatoes—60, 75, Asp ples=<n.2 2 1| 14 2 op 12 116 |.... and 90 cents Grapes 3.5.52 3| 8 | 12 Milk—4, 6, and 8 | | bushel. ....... L| 14 13 cents quart ...... 2{ 3 4 |
TABLE D.—Daily dietaries.—Food materials furnishing approximately the 0.28 pound of protein and 3,500 calories of energy of the standard for daily dietary of a man at
moderate muscular work.'
[Cost estimated from prices given in TableC.]
+ Cost. Food materials. nt he eS FR | Me. |jExpen- & Cheap-| qinm. | sive. | Total. Ounces.| Cents.| Cents.| Cents. Lbs. ee eee 4 0.3 0.4 0.4) 0.02 ETS) yo 16 2 3 a Balls: Se Sarno emacs ton. c oes 4 “o 8 1 - 03 (Te ides. Gaga ae Seer 1 .8 a Te liye Pa . 04 PS 5. ko. sos 8 cee a. ae, 09 Lo STe eS ee 6 el tS 1.9 .31 DUD Dear Se Se aed 8 1 td 1, .44 OSA T CEE | a ees ee 8 1 LAS a .43 RROD Ede... op «came acme 2 .3 .4 4 = ala A er Pee ] «2 3 | A - 06 RNG tae - o.oo perae act 2 | .8 Seale haa ES . 09 i, Se Tae | _ 53] 85| m7] 189] 1.75 MUU. S «cists sig Sete cn cee 6| 2.3 3 3 . 06 Milk, one-half pint ........ © ie 1 1.5 2 . 06 RCO rae oe cts ea eee eco 2 2 3 4 - Le SS eres s*.2 3 4 . 03 Ee DOT, J. ..-. cccecsnscees 4 3 4 4 . 02 UV OCG ea ae ee 6 4 .5 .6 .07 Vo. i os Ses See es ee 7 1.3 Ay ye Be ( ONGC ILOUEE -& .< =: ae «nina a vee 12 1.5 1.9 2.2 . 65 Oatmeal (or corn meal, 3
BFPO EC. = os ceases ba 23 .5 a: .8 .14 Se pene 14 4 | 5 6 . 09 Lo) 46} 9.9 | 13.4 | 16.2] 1.59
, Nutrients. ee - wee se ro . Jarbohy-| value. tein. Fat. drates. | ———}-— Lb. | Lb. | Lbs. |Calories. alee b-*Gntiel tetris 95 0.04) .04 0. 05 325 aaa ar ee 115 02 Se ee Ce es 125 fi) Se eee 08 | 160 (08 |. 01 22 | 600 MEW. Bl 37 820 05 . 02 36 | 825 ay eee .10 | 205 SEE RIN 06 | 115 Pre dw A: hal tec hice ao Q9 | 165 27 15 1.33 |. 8, 550 yt | ae a ee ee . 02 . 02 02 165 ee ty es 450 ee — eeeeeees| 130 bey re 9 <2 | bh POSSE FR 95 a | Sea 06 120 10 | 5 268, 26 | 700 . 08 01 | 56; 1,230 | | .02! 01] mip 290 ncaa boon sates 09 | 175 29 20 1.10| 3,475
'In some cases supplementary items are given to show the effect of the addition of*particular food materials on the cost and nutritive value of a dietary.
1 A 94——22
554 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TABLE D,—Daily dietaries.—Food materials, etc.—Continued.
[Cost estimated from prices given in Table C.]
3 Cost. Nutrients. : 3 —_——->— | ——————]| Brel Food materials. iS) Me- |Expen- Pro- Carbohy-| value. a Cheap. dium.| sive. Total. tein Fat. drates. \
Ounees.| Cents. | Cents. | Cents.| Lbs. Lb. EB. Lbs. |Calories. Peek, Ob 3556 - S-pcon ned 4 3 4 4 MRS. navies x 95 Canned corned beef ....-.-. 4 235) 3 4 me fi -07 oe NY i lepeaaenere 7 290 er eine Ree eee gtr oe yr a8 3 A RS ee it FO ee 130 AUDIKO: 5 ea See ak aa 4 Aa .8 1 03 01 -01 01 89 gpbberr oe sies. £55 = tetas ce 1 1 15 2 SST lecno Stel OS |: Beta eee 225 ot, Le ate pie, a1 ‘ney. 8 2.5 .03 .02 MOE cae 90 IPOUMOCS. Bolt Seton cee ches 8 a5 .6 .8 09 BION We 2 ee ae . 08 160 Reena line 525520 adasteae 5 ao es 1.6 227 s07 -O1 19 500 Wheat owns. ese 28 e oe & at Ws 1.5 44 06 01 37 820 Cortnieal 2233 -- .e 4 =o a? ath sOt 02 .O1 18 410 Ti TOROS A ics «an = 5+ eee 4 5 ear +o 22 O28 8s sae - 20 405 UAT chistes <a deh + did onewels 3 ~8 9 At ST itetso wie iol o agen ae .19 350 ROTAL = sien 'aci= Sao shee 4h 10 13.5.1 5 DBF L. 69 . 28 .19 1.22 | 2, 505 AMURB Se 52 tooo sso pean 8 .5 .8 L NG | «2 wound ahaa . 06 125 Reet ode, aoe 4 3 4 4 cf i eos ene aera 01 35 ER OGoN ee os ieee ane 56 10.8 14.7 18.1 1. 76 28 29 1. 29 3. 110 Beefingeley. 36s SGeeieous wo, 25! a7| 5 pees 08 07 ene 455 Bened codec 2 4 soca 4 253 25 2.5, 06 «06 She. «.<ipimhs ceee 105 Milk, one-half pint........- 8 a a bay 2 06 . 02 . 02 02 165 BT i. Sh 14 3 bass 23 & eS ee ge OS | ae casein. 340 TRO a5 i ses uote eee is “Di .6 Per OGRA eee EAU; Ul Wasps a 2605 ‘Potatoes 2 icste soe eee 10 6 | .8 af 11 OL bo 2eccee .-10 200 LUN Ae een ares eee a Ore 16 2 20 3 87 alt: OL Pa 13) 1, 645 TR Vere aa SU eat El es paces 2 6 9 ee) 16s OR sciaetenrete -10 205 A a Ng 1 3 .3 4 OB ns ome eee . 06 115 We tale eee eats rae Se Rs es (Soe Lo PY 2 1, 56 . 29 24 1. 03 3, 495 Bananas (or apples, 7)------ 6 ae dbs 1.9 (I a el pede 05 110
Canned tomatoes (or grapes, | Pp OUNCES) 5 ance Se ances ce 18! 2x 3.7 5 | 02" |... ce Sener . 03 70 opel anuscts woke : G93; 14.9] 20.3) 25.38| 1.64 29 | 24 1.11 3, 675 pe ee ee | 92 | 4 6 8 24 .07 . 08 09 650 Chees@2ii.c.5 3s 0s eke 6 4.5 6 6 22 . 09 13. .Seeees 750 Boston Crackers .n-cssce<< 18 5.6 5.8 5.8 1. 01 S12 Beit 78 2,130 2 ATT ARR Cy Mae 56 | 14.1 | 17.8| 198 | 1.47 28 82 . 87 3, 530 Beer, SHOU ccc. sce bee 12 4.5 6.8 9 20 12 PSs cee ere 570 Canned salmon... -. <2. --; 4 3 4 5 09 05 a ee sis ee 260 Milk, one-half pint......... 8 1 na) 2 05 02 . 02 02 165 AMEE DE? 2 = hide ako ale abbaie see 1 1 5 2 Wat Asc c=— OB | crotemenre 225 AAT i he wa sweat otal nis 2 2 1 12 1.5 Tig) ee ae 013 eee 530 MeOEAbORS cone een keee ss s7 10 .6 .8 .9 Bt AOL taksim ees -10 200 Se at aR Ree: (Ours. a | ase base 6, 55 207 01 “AT 1, 025 BS Se eee ook ee Se 23 .8 1 ae Lat 13 OL | waeawees 2412 255 MGS 32.3 Se todct: dBase | 2 | 5 -6 .8 BDH Fa wionst cies aaa | .13 235 ee A RE TOPOS. 51p) (13.7 | “49.1 | 224.2] | 1.45 28 33 . 84 8, 465 Canned tomatoes........... ets De, 3 OO RRe 222. eae eee . 02 40 PTIARINS on Nessa xn nie hwraaienes 3 4. .6 .8 1) Weal ten Pe 01 20 | ee ee 603| 15.6 | 21.9 | 28 | 1. 48 28 33 87 | 3,525 NAD OAL ois einciciens aw noces 9 4.5 5. 6 6.8 18 09 OB wats etasleels 525 Milk, three-fourths pint.... 12 1.5 2.3 3 10 . 03 - 03 04 245 Daitter 325530 teense ase Sven 2 2 3 | 4 TOMPES o.cxicee LO) mccrqrerate 450 ft epee Laren RR a foe oe ee 2.5 03 .02 OW lustre: 90 Wepat0es 52 «in, scien oe: 10 sie .8 .9 11 OL es aes .10 200 OEDIPS.tSase.. cauewences 5 B 4 5 08) ho vnsime cena . 02 45 Le iene os eee cect SE SER. 8 1 Nee aL) 44 . 06 » Gk oor 820 Moe bread ci..i... tbaaes 8 2 3 4 31 O4d namedae 4 640 Oatineal - 5252/5252. act eee 2 .4 .5 .6 74 . 02 03 .09 230 SRE 55 ce nboredvivenlaens 3 BS 9 Dal | 1D iis sim af etanenne .19 350 nn) Os; | 61| 14.3| 19.7 | 24.9 | 1. 60 27 25 1.08 3, 595 COP ROG NiO OF io iste cise ctarew L 8 4 5 6 .16 08 . 08 l Sasece 470 Pork @80G8L6... n2.-0n.cee'eve 4 2 O35 3 . 48 03 «10 |. --engaee 485 Milk, one-half pint......... 8 1 1.5 2 -.05 02 . 02 02 165 SIMETOR oso xnwe ae a oie 1 1 1,5 2 Fa, ul Pog a hgh UOT enix nani 225 OCORE: Co ibldes dense 2 1.5 2 2 BLN 03 BE A 250 EVILS | cs cceese doesn 12 Sy 9 i [epi ele OWS ieee ALY 240
. SS eS
HUMAN FOODS. 555 TasLy D.—Daily dietaries.—Iood materials, ete. —Continued. [Cost estimated from prices given in Table C.}] “ Cost. Nutrients. . (Sees roll Fuel Tood materials S) yn Me- |Expen-| Pro- *, Carbohy-| value. § Cheap, gium.| sive. | 1°%l-| tein Fat. | Grates.
ee ia SHEER eae pa of es Ounces.| Cents.| Cents.| Cents.| Lbs. Lb. Lb. Lbs. |Calories. SNES GOOD clasw noobie < Osc hh Wi SGilo BS: 42 . 06 OL 35 290 INS e ides som iehes vine a 6 8 9 ural . 32 Sl eee ee . 28 615 Oe ee 3 1.2 1.4 16 REM sa nash Al coeiwrs $5 ) 14 250 _ POR RS 54. | 14.7] 19.5] 23.8| 1.47 27 30 | . 90 2, 999 Canned corned beef........ oh ee ee. .08 £05 | 03 | Ba Re ies, OS a a ee 8 3 4 6 . 05 . 05 [orttet ee eres eres 100 1 2 are Tibet 3 4 13 O41) 04 | 05 325 li ema She eB he BOF he 3B rps eee rv ae ee 565 ee rere 12 7 Mil EB .12 fg eee ae 240 ae ees Sta ie! <8 . 44 . 06 OL . 37 $20 iso Ch) Ss rere 3 .4 6 6 sie . 02 .O1 ails 310 PROMO TOUT s6 sew. ie =~ 0 3 6 .8 .8 15 et inl RE ee Pps 200 Wheatlet _ | Ei RES 2 5 6 +f 11 .02 | te .09 200 ee ni iniciainanciennen 2 Ab. +6 malt Os on es recuttgmen inte obs oes 23 1 es a Se 1 4 5 6 eS REESE: MAP i . 05 85 GaN Seana 603} 13.5| 18.2| 2s | 1.55| .27] «22 | 106! 3,405 Ss a aeearenaiaiea iy leu 2 2.5 03 3 ae, | eM: | 90 _ SS aaa 624, 14.7| 20.2| 265 | 1.58] .20| 23 |_1.00 | 3,495 Shouider clod (or neck)... -. 8}. 4.51: 5 ae eu 10 | 07 | ate att 465 CO 0G 4 FB: 255 225 . 06 pol ane Ce AN. 105 Milk, one-half pint......... Ri: T tip 3 . 06 . 02 . 02 | 2 165 oa 241 2.5 37 5 Po 9 opomerliael eaapis " g iow Res win 565 Dotstees 22. 262.24... ---- 7 4 UG). 7 . 08 zt Fer 07 240 ee 1 5 .6 7 MB ates a pete rage 265 ee 8 1 1.3 1.5 . 44 . 06 01 . 37 820 OC ee ee 2 4 a Or 12 . 02 | 01 . 09 230 Brown bread ....---.--.---- ele hee Loh a3 Se Se > £15 365 SS) es 4 .3 3 .3 P|”, | Seen es Stat . 03 55 OS a ae 3 Pr a9 Lik om | eee ee | mahal ws ahaa -19 | 350 EE EER 50 | 15.1] 18.8| 29 | 1.51 51 | 28| .31 | 92| 3,525 EE 2 ER te take Cee ete selena 585 Milk, one-half pint......... Sls, ai 1.5| 2 (06; 102! 02 02 | 165 (ae 2 2..5 3.8 5 See aneee y G ipaasaiipa po 565 ST es 16} 1 bon. 16 i OFT. see .15 320 SS ee eee ct ae: 3 4 . 34 .05| 01 . 28 630 SE OTEINGA esis xn a caipicin odin © i 29 js a Le: Jot O4 | , 02 31 720 Ee raneinienees es ~-- 3 i 9 1.1 y OT 5 0 = Stes eee 19 350 LOS, ae 564 15.6 | 20.8| 26.2/ 1.48| .27| .26| .95| 3,335 (MPNOURNE sae S 0 oo ee oo ees 6 Vaal anti 1.9 | Ri 2 : Rae, cS Mi aan . 05 110 Canned tomatoes.........-. Ei; 1 Lay 2 ct ae & Saat eee .O1 | 25 DS 5 RE AAA 4 ST TR pA Fo PE pee - 02 | 40 PR vn slokince -sxisoas 70s} 18.1] 243] 30.7] 1.55 a7 | .26| 1.03| 3,510 Mutton chops...........--- Be a, oh oe 1b 8 i 1 ae ares | 7715 Dried beef...--..--.- PRP NS eh Seb a ei 4. 7 . 08 06 01 01 | 165 Milk, three-fourths pint.... 12 LS 2.3 3 .10 . 03 .03 . O4 245 SOE EN RE 1-2 3 4 ple aber este Gaeseeae 450 bo SEES pea Pilger 10 6 a a ap oli Cele 10 | 200 el ES Mae ay S| eB. Tay ob .42 . 06 01 .35 790 NE Oe 1 ne a .3 05 Oe aero - O4 | 115 MAL KY GraicitGhic« owsiens.c-cces 2 .8 nS kok .12 .OL . 02 09 250 DROME So oo a: on civisox Guerra oe aos 3 .4 Py .6 .16 BU Meee oS nd 14 310 GID ccc aninake ainacubes 3 ete 1 2 3 4 FAMED & fos aoe; badass 06 | 115 WME cncno tccats cee 52 | 15 21.7| 28 1. 42 27 | 32 .83| 3,415 Ts RRR epee F $4. Ese], <2 2.5] 08 4 ee, | & eee 90 TN aaa rg = 4; .5| 8] 1 DOE Regan Veco 01 25
Strawberries (or oranges, | POOMCEE) as 5 wapine oan ate 6 | 15| 26) &7) .0B}.-.....- |--<-202- | 03 65 ee hy act e1| 183] 27.1| 35.2| 149/ .20| 33 87 | 3,595 1S ye tes sie NG 8| 6 | ec) ae os eS ee RS Siena RE oc Gi te a ok ae oon 08 | 102/01 250 Bik, 14 pints... nee mi, 2hy Ss 6 ts .3 .05| .05 | . 06 405 Sache IS Aaa RE et Me IER: «chiens ie gee 225 MEREGEG: iiihs. Since US ake 12 a SRE 38 Y eaeeatian ey 240
556 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TaBLe D.—Daily dietaries.—Food materials, ete.—Continued.
Food materials.
[Cost estimated from prices given in Table C.]
Amount.
BOW. 222.28 Secu oerer secs sah
ERE he moe rac ae
RROAG (meee ecco s a5 ates RS ae eee eter
Apples..2. 22. <e2 bs 2a. oe. JOT EAI OS < 24585 seo. com oee ose
Beet TOUNG, eo eoet-s—ecses Dried beeh-s-....e2s 55522225 Milk, three-fourtks pint. ... LATIN eee oo beep iologDCOCO OE Egg,l ...-..-- Tae ee ee POtabOCs a. ote ee fac sean ciel Mieheat HOURS a. 5-55 --csce2 Breage: heehee oseces Cor: meal. s<ecGssesoessee BO GAT os be neh naa0s2e2 5-20"
Constant:
PUblELeR: . co cet es aseee Milk, one-half pint ..--.. Wotatoesin2s.252252 22008 MVhoeat Wourssso 2.22.2 Wom Meal. <-o Soces=,- = Mille crackers. = ---2.<<: DU GAL - noe. senna seccsee
Total constant.....-
Variable A: 1
Heer, sirloin <a2--- es. - Dried. PEC. 5,25 Siew 0022
| hale eo
Variable B: }
Beet MOCK sc.cdereaec-cts Canned corned beef..-.. Oatmeal ses cs cose vec Ans
Total’. 2... toes aoe. dees
Variable C:}
Balt COO"Usitsamiewecae ee BOQTIG RE boo inians dae Seale
OTE Sxixioca te wie is Re
Constant:
Galt mackerél...cn.226s% ON ta ow ala’ vin up win oe POtALOGE oor cv ntca naan cae W heat flour.....-.<:- we:
no
1) —
Nir
ce, eee ee
wWwlmwwo| an , MPNOF oO CO © oo opnno
DoH OwS . wo, . . wo,
|
Lo
H © 00
28 27 “91
eae "07
a Sane | "03 28 27 1.01
Shor: a-le saseees “03 "02 “03 Pattee ake ai 08 “Oi 56 03 “OL 97 01 02 "09
pee | oan "06 15 09 Le 9. \"°\ aa eee 04 01
. 05 OH piers eraeeee 07 ODE oon 01 .O1 . 06 28 .18 D Fpl ei’
OD: ts 03a eee
. 08 OL 22
. 28 10 1538 04 pO Neco ere
ecco SLUMS eeceee ODe as arse 15 06 | 01 Sow
Nutrients. | ove Pro Carbohy- Vatue. tein Fat. drates.
mp | Lb Lbs. | Calories. 06 01 37 820 “02 01 "18 410 a, OBA deg tie 13 235 26 33 861 3,445 02 OL-|... eee 90 28 34| .86| 3,535 ame 40-1:5 eg ee es SOB ieee 340 -08 OT eae 375 OT aes naaee 240 "10 “01 185 1, 265 “02 “03 “17 500 ei Se eee 06 115 28 29 .89 3, 425 5 ead (3c PRIS, 08 155 eh Garo ‘01 15 28 | - .29 98 | 3,595 07 Prgms 06 ‘01 “01 165 03 "03 Od 245 een * |. AG eee 630 “02 01“: ieee 90 i Gere ret “10 200 "Odd o-oo ae i 310 05 “01 "98 630 2 “01 "18 410 poe he -16 295
1To make a complete dietary the totals of variable items should be added to totals of the preceding
constants.
HUMAN FOODS. 5D7
TABLE D.—Daily dietaries.—Food materials, ele.—Continued.
|Cost estimated from prices given in Table C.}
+ Cost. Nutrients. / P = Ser i = Fuel Food materials. ° Ma. |i “4 3 i akc aoe - |Expen-} rp Pro- . Carbohy- value. § Cheap, dium | sive. Total. tein. Fat. | drates.
Constant —-Centinued, Ounces., Cents. a Cents. | Lbs. Lb. Lb. | Lbs. |Calories. COMP H Ls cn csieae whew 6 .8 pea 1k | 31 03 | 01 | 27 620 PS i nS ae 2 i eee 6 12 02 OL 09 230
Total constant...... 38 | 7.2| 10 | u.7| 1.21 7) 1%! 83 | £670
Variable A; ! | eet. BIPIOIM J26. 0d o<62... 9 La (a eat | 11.3 20 09 | AH hy eee eee 620 Milk, one-fourth pint. ... 4 Pe .8 1 03 01 | 01 | 01 80 ls aa ciccwat onan x 1} 4 | 5 a) Og Cee eee) eee 09 | 175
—— - - - | —_ eo - —_— '] MG dbo nkis wd aback cae 524, 14.8} 20.3 | 24.5 | 1.54 ne 98 3, 545
Variable B:! RY 4 dees ai / Ban a ROG POUT Oa cce ices 8 5 6 7.5 | 14 09 - 1 5d Re 390 Milk, three-eighths
PUM ewese Nass 5 Fo aen «6 6 | Fe. Rea 1.5 | 05 01 02 | 02 120
er 24 6 .8 9 8 See Bhat + | 16 295 = = eS SS EE aS 1S a ERR ae
JS oS se 544| 13.6 17.9 21.6) 1.57 27 . 24 | 1. 06 3,475
Variable C:} pay apo | y Pr ries ee Pee MOR or o/a.5.0 3, ~)oisaravm « pe ee Re 3.5 4.4 .12 09 . 02 01 90 Milk, one-half pint..... ee 15) 2 | .06 02 . 02 . 02 | 165 ee ee 3 of 9 1.1 | ohD favcsedse senseuns 19 | 350
i i 56 | 11.1| 15.9| 19.2 | 1.59} .28 21; 1.10) 3,475 |
1To make a complete dietary the totals of variable items should be added to totals of the preceding constants.
’
STANDARDS FOR DAILY DIETARIES FOR PEOPLE OF DIFFERENT CLASSES.
The figures of the following tables represent the amounts of nutrients which different investigators have estimated to be proper for the daily food of people of different classes. Those of the first table are compiled from European sources; Nos. 1-6 are from investigations mainly by Voit, Forster, and Cammerer, in Ger- many; Nos. 7 and 8 are the well-known standards of Professor Voit, of Munich; No. 9 is by Moleschott, in Italy; No. 10, by Wolff, in Germany; and Nos. 11-15, by Playfair, in England.
The figures for American standards are proposed by Atwater. They are based upon the European and American data. They differ from the European standards mainly in that the quantities are more liberal and that they are expressed simply in terms of protein and energy.
TABLE E.—Luropean standards for daily dietaries.
Nutrients. | a LOL Nutritive Class. | Carbo- value | ratio Protein. Fats. | hydrate s.| Pound. Pound. | Pounds. | Calories. 1 | Children, 1 to 2 years, average........... 0. 06 0.08 | 0.17 765 | re | 2 | Children, 2 to 6 years, average........... MY; . 09 | 44 1, 420 | 1. 35h 3 | Children, 6 to 15 years, average.........-. .17 -10. 72 2, 040 | 1: 5.6 ct Us WORN Ca etaeed ton cance te. .18 .11 | 57 1, 860 1:47 5 Aged ET See ee emer Jee aeieee one cee. 22 AD ray a 2,475 1: 5.0 6 | Woman at moderate work............... . 20 -10 | . 88 2,425 | i: 7 | Man at moderate work (Voit).......-.--- . 26 -12 | 1. 10 8, 055 1: 5.3 S|. ian ab hard work (Voit) <s-22cc.-2s. cos . 32 . 22 99 | 3, 370 1: 4.7 9 | Man at moderate work (Moleschott) ..... . 29 - 09 | #21.) 3, 160 re oe!) 10 | Man at moderate work (\Wolff).........- . 28 . 08 | Lid 3, 030 1: 4.9 11 | Subsistence dict. (Playfair) .............. .13 .03 | .75 1, 760 | cee 12 | Diet in quietude (Play fair).............- 16 . 06 .75 1, 950 | eh 13 | Adults in full health (Playfair)......... . 26 -1l 1. 17 3.140 1: 5.4 14.) Active laborers (Playfair) .-:2-.-s....-% . 34 | . 16 1.25 | 3, 630 1:47 15 | Hard-worked laborers (Playfair)........ 41 | .16 1. 25 | 3, 750 re
| ' |
558 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TABLE F.—American standards for daily dietaries.
: Fuel Nutritive
Class. Protein. alae cane
Grams. | Calories.
Woman with light muscular exercise..-.. Sta(ajaleiass |x tevajaxieiaie ween Batata Ales 90 2, 400 a ers aes) Woman with moderate muscular MOLI aaa eee oe co sate aca meer eae 100 2, 700 125.6 an WwalhOw bunUSe war WON soo eats os pare te sees clelnare amas ane aan 112 3 000 ern
Man: with light: musedlar wile... ghd «ona Sos eka ek he eee gnenows ‘ : pay Mian with mod eraLennmus Gili WOPKAs -. sas 008 ccc cisidemictndc cee oeman tee iiyas: 3, 500 a S508 Mon WitneDerd JTUSO Ul AURORE «5 Bic ots shins Secs oisjc omidio eh winree cle Bos 150 | 4, 500 1: 6.3
FEEDING STUFFS (POR ANIMALS). EXPLANATIONS OF TERMS USED IN THE TABLE.
Waier.—All feeding stuffs contain water. The amount varies from 8 to 15 pounds per 100 pounds of such dry materials as hay, straw, or grain to 80 pounds in pilaige
and 90 pounds in some roots.
Ashis what is left when the combustible part of a feeding stuff is burned away. It consists chiefly of lime, magnesia, potash, soda, iron, chlorine, and carbonic, sul- phuric, and phosphoric acids, and is used largely i in making bones. Part of the ash constituents of the food is therefore stored up in the animal’s body; the rest is voided in the manure.
Protein (or nitrogenous materials) is the name of a group of materials containing nitrogen. Protein furnishes the materials for the lean flesh, blood, skin, muscles, tendons, nerves, hair, horns, wool, and the casein and albumen of milk, ete., and is one of the most important constituents of feeding stuffs.
Fiber.—Fiber, sometimes called cellulose, is the framework of plants, and is, as a rule, the most indigestible constituents of feeding stuffs. The coarse fodders, such as hay and straw, contain a large proportion of fiber, and are, for this reason, less digestible than the grains, oil cakes , ete.
Ni itrogen-free extract includes starch, sugar, gums, and the like, and forms an important “part of all feeding stuffs, put especially of most grains. The nitrogen- free extract and fiber are usually classed together under the name of carbohydrates. The carbohydrates form the largest part of all vegetable foods. They are either stored up as fat or burned in the system to produce heat and energy.
Fat, or the materials dissolved from a feeding stuff by ether, is an impure product, and includes, besides real fats, wax, the green coloring matter of plants, ete. The fat of food is either stored up in the body as fat or burned to furnish heat and energy.
Composition of feeding stuffs.
Pie Nitrogen- Feeding stuff. Water.} Ash. | j4;,. | Fiber. free Fat. Sieiy extract. GREEN FODDER. Corn fodder, all varieties: Per ct.| Per ct. | Per ct. Per ct.| Perict. | Peret PTE YEG 2 mle a ao isp hn atis wlahniais laioraie ab lelelamioais 51.5 0.6 0.5 1.9 3 0.1 EB RANTUINY (6 on iad ok es malin i erin m oes 93. 6 2.6 4 11.4 36.3 1.6 TSE LIOO Hi ow mm aie pion 5 oiniaind claiiai in Teapots 79.3 1.2 1.8 5 12.2 -o ga Pedder AVETARS. ..-- o0-2-nnavceccue-buteee-s 76.6 1.8 2.6] “118 6.8 6 Oat fodder, average ..-..---.---------+------ +225. 62. 2 2.5 3.4 ple he 4 19,3 1.4 Redtop (Agrostis vulgaris),a in bloom, aver ager...) (65:3 2,3 2.8 il EW AY 9 Tall oat grass (Arrhenatherum avenaceum),b av- aE OE Pe: CORRE AP re IEE ORC tPA ORC BCR A Newnee $9.5 2 2.4 9.4 15.8 .9 Orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata), average...--. 73 2 2.6 8. 2 13.3 .9 Meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis), average..--..- 69.9 1.38 2.4 10.8 14.3 .8 Italian rye grass (Lolium italicum), average....-- 73.2 2.5 Sev 6.8 13.3 1.3 Timothy (Phleum pratense),c at different stages: Minis | ok. pan % bees ee Deo boas ae 47 1.4 a3 5:1 10. 1 .6 MAX CE 5 de a:n sn DEE Be ome nob an gains bas 78.7 Buz - 8.8 19, 4 28.6 2 MV OVA OR tin Sind sate deb ebro wineiteny sliecnck ee eies 61.6 2.1 3.1 11.8 20. 2 1.2 Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis),d at different stages: MSTA iti nS 2 mete bas nisi Bootes tle Cee ee Slay Mats 2.4 3.8 6.5 .8 IMaAsiINUNLs..2 <i .2 bee tos ase decode oer eee 82.5 4.8 | 7.2 14.8 26. 6 eet APRA << 5 nn aStngl vas Odes ds ee 65.1| 2.8] 41 9.1 17. 6 1.3 Hungarian grass (Setaria), average...........---- (pe 1S 3.1 9.2 14.2 oa a Herd’s grass of Pennsylvania. e Herd's grass of New England and New York.
b Meadow oat grass. d June grass.
ee” — ——— a a
FEEDING STUFFS. 559
Composition of feeding stuffs—Continued.
] if |
: Pro- |Nitrogen- Feeding stuff. Water. Ash. | {4; Fiber. free | Fat. cin. ; extract. GREEN FODDER—continued. | Red clover (Trifolium pratense), at different
stages: Per ct. | Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per et. | Per ct. OMT RMRSINRND cre Sel Ah sshd oa Dam aha, aa oie a iehe eras wx 47.1 9 L7. 1.8 | 3.5 .3 EPRI gcd) i SbR = eke Petia nicia-k Aciow waka aaaekee = 91.8 | 4 yh Cy amar 25.8 1.8 pO ST ee ee 0a ne eeeieurahin 70. 8 2.1 4.4 | 8.1 13.5 1.1
Alsike clover (Trifolium hybridum),a average... .- 74. 8 2 3.9 | 7.4 11 9 Crimson clover (Trifolium inearnatum), average..| 80.9 Lik 3.1 | 5.2 8.4 Phi Alfalfa (Medicago sativa),b atditterent stages : Is 6 abe walt a= sie Omcba'rs ocawcledee drags ox 49.3 1.8 3.5 2.5 10.8 .6 a6 g aon emngn es cc$cuandgabessenee 82 5.1 Es 2 14.8 11.5 1.2 IE w Soto ae aw we Sie 6 5 arenas abidinte Sx 71.8 2.7 4.8 7.4 12.3 1 Serradella (Ornithopus sativus), average .....-.-.- 79.5 3.2 2.7 5.4 8.6 a ST less 5 wis ahiatare = w0.p ewe wana sendin os 83.6 ET 2.4 4.8 %, ik 4 Soja bean (Soja hispida), average............-.--- cay 2.6 4 6.7 10.6 1 Horse bean ( Vicia faba), average.... ...--..----- | 8&2 1,2 2.8 4.9 6.5 4 Flat pea (Lathyrus sylvestris), average.......-..-.| 66.7 2.9 8.7 7.9 12. 2 1.6 I og wh chek <= a quits Sedenwl = n<emeemen > 81.5 2 2.3 2. 6 8.4 5 SILAGE. Corn silage: SS I Re Ee ee ane ee ; 62.4 3 at 3 5.1 a Ma laren ke ness wis 9 Sasi gsm oP ore dle > 87.7 3.3 3.6 10.5 24.2 2 0 SE ee Pee eee a 79.1 1.4 1.7 6 1L .8 Red-clover silago, average.........-.....--.....-- 72 2.6 4.2 8.4 11.6 £2 Soja-bean silage, average..........-....-...-..--- 74. 2 2.8 4.1 9.7 | 6.9 2.2 Cowpea-vine silage, average.-.......-.-....e-ee-- 79. 3 2.9 2.7 6 7.6 1.5 HAY AND DRY COARSE FODDER. Corn fodder,ec field cured :
: RRM INER Sc erate nd, nielee xara Sidisioe oie kiwenss 22.9 1.5 2.7 7.5 20.6 .6 NINE ie cia tasiad sm otdias abore oe nin ale @ wie onharneliesa.s 60. 2 5.5 6.9 24.7 47.8 2.5 Ee ina a cpae nls winks s metahnic ea ok gins ¢ «$0 bn’ ontsba 42.2 2.7 4.5 14.3 34.7 1.6
Corn leaves. field cured, average.................. 30 = 5 6 91.4 35.7 1.4 Corn husks, field cured, average........-.......-. 50.9 1.8 2.5 15.8 28.3 i Corn stover,d field cured, average......-.......... 40.5 3.4 3.8 19.7 31.5 ia! Hay from: | Redtop,e cut at different stages— PIT aa Sale naire ct reece daeemcd ces 6.8 | 3.8 5.9 24 44.8 1.4 MINNIE © sinisinlee nites usin «obevin se Sudiens 11.6 7 10.4 31.8 50.4 3.2 Oe ee ee ee ee oe 8.9 5. 2 7.9 28. 6 47.5 1.9 Orchard grass, Average........-.-.--....--<-. 9.9 6 8.1 32. 4 41 2.6 Timothy,./ all analyses— VEL Se eee oe Seen ee ee 6.1 2.5 3.8 22,2 | 34.3 ] US a ae Se ac 28.9 6.3 9.8] _ 38.5 | 58.5 4 Co eee ae ae ee ee eee eae 13.2 4.4 5.9 20 | 45 2.5 Kentucky blue grass— OS ae eee eee ane ce. tod 4.5 5.3 47 31.8 2 BE ee ne ee 32.8 7.8 12.9 26.8 51.1 4,2 6 SES ee Ee eee ies 21.2 6.3 7.8 | 23 37.8 3.9 Hungarian grass, average......-.......---.--. hak 6 7.5 27.7 49 2.1 Meadow fescue, average ..............---..--- 20 6.8 | 25.9 38. 4 LW Italian rye grass, @verage..........-.......--. 8.5 6.9 7.5 30.5 45 1 Mixed grasses— LT Tp ie ase A Se Oe ar ee oR 6.5 Zaidi 4.8 21 33. 4 1.3 — Pete Soma © EM EAI AE A RR 33.4 | 6.9 12.1 38.4 50.8 4.9 RRR Ciigk atcha orn aps Sethe = Seine s.< ae hurd = « 15.3 5.5 7.4 1,2 42.1 2.5 Rowen (mixed)g— | (OUST PEUT Oia RR St A A op a 8.2 | 5k 9.6 20.1 33. 6 2.2 ESTES” SRO nae ET Logke | 2a ges} ee 44.3 4.5 RE RAT RRS) ste atl tons anal ain sie winlne Sots ww 16.6 | 6.8 11.6 22.5 39. 4 3.1 Mixed grasses and clovers— (ee LS ae ae ee ee 8.2; 3.9 5.5 19.7 31.8 1.5 A SSR Bs cons ede aia cme Shells ao chante nde» oe oe 9.6 14.4 35.1 | 48.9 3.1 ARWORD EGS 52cm se sialavin anand cele sive sc eel albnee ee A 5.5 10.1 27.6 | 41.3 2.6 Red clover— VRE NENA UN. Sickle oc odarthellenies ale eerabes sopckinees © Gre. 3.9 10 15.6 | 27.3 1.5 ROP UETNE | le Horns ate oideanshnae als pred, as attire s|). < led. | 8.3 20.2 3h: 7 52.2 5.9 PREV OTA LS niet AtHEL, cicidichaiatedote 0 wiltbeetea/n dntackatite « 15.3 | 6.2 12.3 24.8 38.1 3.3 AISIES ClOVers BVELALEG. Cubs. <b an tec seda eee us oT 8.3 12.8 25. 6 40.7 2.9 White clover (T'rifoliwne repens), average......- Ce} 8.3 15.7 24... | 89.3 2.9 CHADSOMCLOVOrIAVGLA BOs. < evince dine «owen wala 9.6 8.6 15.2 27.2 | 36.6 2.8 Japan clover (Lespedeza striata), average...-.. | 11 8.5 13.8 3, el 39 Of WR VOTO casein cht aq deveknesssdadwaecese Le 7.9 17 25. 4 | 26.1 2.3 @ Swedish clover. d What is left after the ears are iiarvested. db Lucern. e Herd’s grass of Pennsylvania. e Entire plant. J Herd’s grass of New England and New York,
g Second cut of hay.
560 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Composition of feeding stuffs—Continued.
Feeding stuff.
HAY AND DRY COARSE FODDER—continued.
Hay from: Serradella: averages 2. : iy Sen). Sees hoes Allfaltasa vera ere Bese. ba aces k eo achraoaers Cowpes, averare Cts 227. eee Bane dh. Soja eam, Average... 2.5.4... ~ ob <2 . 00'S dns Flat pea (Lathyrus), average.....-..---.....-- Peanut vines (without nuts), average.......--
Soja-bean Straw, Average... <5... <5. esee-Saaw's oe
Horse-bean' straw; average. 22.02 20-45-50. = seceee
JERSE oe co nog act abe din Sen GosydspsSsdescteeuse BRGHITAW, OVETALOS. 2. oo oie Sones one te rele eae Oat straw:
AVEO s:2,5 Sk mle oes che dee rttsrermiciayebe ceraye.s cfeiaierateter
Maximum .......< Pain ik nt aninln aeeaeraeic ak ames
JQ EERE) See OH SNe Aedes Sap aesoe COST eo oe aeeasor Buckwheat straw, average... -cc-ccceccscscceusss
ROOTS AND TUBERS.
DUP ar Ves a Vel AC Ore «oct emai olotiosiainalaie meiaetele Mangel-wurzels, average... 6240.6 se oe cients Ruta-bacas; average. (notes S eke. eee IDALPOTS aVClAlO o— ser sore ae cioee een a. = eee las JATMOCNOK CS, cAV OVAL Coes oct na eiam ac anew ainin asinine
GRAINS AND OTHER SEEDS.
Corn kernels, all varieties and analyses: ji Sees 17017 6 en IS a Bs ae, Oe ie aR Os 5 Te RCTIVELT “eboe Se lee ec le war oa 2 ese aint ere ING GUEI EE, Sate nn oo anne dead sa copae poo oegsnsomes Barley: gM Gi rifcrhcl (soe ee Cee a ee aa ee VU eSUTAT EMM ere, ofa, eo aie ce Eel csojai-ne Sete eniee See etna GE SSE Ne Seo cere een Sc Haat aes Oats: IMGs... nee ics oa tted Sots oe Se Oe
JNA YS) Be Adc SOS ASSO Se Bode seSSoaeostuesSb< Rye: LEST a Eee See ee Seine aie an
USOT CG) se in he SAO Ob ta OOS 4 OO pee Saab a Se W heat, all varieties:
SUS OCINIAU NN oe, oe oe alors wake etavere oc) sis cm see yaisia ore
AV eaP TEIN dura) 2 we teva: ove Sete tavee cals ens maya coho treet
VEG 27) pe SOSOES Geer Ee 6 UBS Ene Sp eo CURSO OC Sunflower seed (whole), average.............-.... Cotton seed (whole, with hulls) :
IMGT UN ><... PaaS ices es Sewanee eres
Loic lt Ree ee aes OBA SSA e EOE rons Cee Soe
ONO ete oe een aigeetel ata iale,o) hiete lute o's aioneielatata = Peanut kernels (without hulls), average....-...-.
IGPRG EAM pe rias = = merce wo ote Ne cisin'o oid ols (ese wins) emintois
SOV DOA AVOESPC. a sic os /snia sls e anism inininleinia a= linia SWIC UN OTALD ca wali soe nic op ona naa cle widaninien mathew
MILL. PRODUCTS. Corn meal: Behe t fi) ent eS ens ie ae, = Ae eee eae: Ee Marci). 3c6 Ce ee ace oes dcthlee masteeenewes BV OTR EG i = oe eee ee ein eleeatale Aelia = eee Corn and cob meal: Gini GM | og bdo dae atoas Coen ame eum aires WEBSTED cc oc 5c o Oren orate Barton te oe societies
BVOVOCO sts oxi cow = goede aie a ajewidteies selectins Oatmeal; AVOTALC <b os dee tas a postin piso riaseieel !
Barley meal AV erage vs waste aw senae cave ehe open seem WOR IMGCHL, DVOTALO 95.26 as cami nas ate real n matalminnere' ols
WASTE PRODUCTS.
Ost feed. AVOIALO. 2: -tndessowewekvee coracsnee cae’
Nitroven- Water.| Ash. BA Fiber. tree ; extract. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct 9.2 ae 15. 2 PALE 44.2 8. 4 7.4 183) 25 ED | 10.7 7(5.55 16.6 20.1 42.2 iS hoe 15. 4 2200 38. 6 8.4 7.9 22.9 26, 2 81.4 GGE PLO RS 10.7 23. 6 42.7 10.1 5.8 4.6 40. 4 37.4 9.2 8.7 8.8 37.6 34.3 6.5 3 2.9 34.3 31 17.9 v | 5 yi 50. 6 9.6 4.2 3.4 38.1 43.4 Tal ou 3 38. 9 46. 6 6.5 any 7s Ti 31.8 Soa 11. 4 6.7 6.9 45.1 46. 6 9.2 ayy al 4 37 49.4 9.9 5.5 BE?) 43 Abyal 86.5 .9 1.8 .9 9.8 90. 9 ial 1.4 me 5.5 88. 6 2 12 13) Neos| 88. 6 u uaa Use 7.6 79.5 i 2.6 18 15.9 [ 4.5 i 7 aad 61.8 20.7 2.6 15.3 ey? 76. 7 10.9 15) 10.5 Dell 69. 6 ee: 1.8 8.6 Te) 66.7 12. 6 ee I 7 4.2 73.9 10.9 Deal 12.4 207 69.8 8.9 2 8 Lad Bt) 325 4 14.4 12.9 | 66.9 TAL 3 Ls 9.5 59.7 8.7 1.8 9.5 1.4 | Mleie 13.2 1.9 UP Dy il 73.9 1G 1.9 10. 6 esta (285 eal .8 8.1 4 | 64.8 14 3.6 Le2 Seal! FET 10.5 1.8 11.9 Sah 71.9 8.6 2.6 16.3 29.9 21.4 7 AAS) 14.5 20.3 17.3 uly (3) 4.5 Pale 28.7 29.1 10.3 ys 18.4 20.2 24.7 eo 2.4 27.9 Viet 15.6 Mes 3.8 26.6 Waee| 50. 1 10. 8 AT 34 4.8 28.8 |) 48 3,2 20.8 AR ayer | 8 .9 Tol 20 60. 4 27.4 4.) 1359 3. 74 15 1.4 9.2 1.9 68.7 9.5 ae 5.8 nlite 56.8 26.3 U9 12h2 9. 4 69.7 15.1 1.5 8.5 6.6 64.8 7.9 2 14.7 .9 67.4 11.9 2.6 10.5 6.5 66.3 1 OS 2.6 20. 2 14.4 bia | | eon 3.7 16 6.1 59.4 fo a 3.6 12.3 7.3 61.8 10.2 5.7 23.2 10.7 48.5
a Lucern.,
y a | iv)
= PGR Os 60 ho ER ee enoues
wm © OOo aw Nor ow Ae >
Fat.
t.
PP Im go Or RorDs
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Ber ep Fits Cees to DO RO
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PRA R Ne go gite wworoNa cor
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FEEDING STUFFS. 56L
Composition of feeding stuffs—Continued.
Bigs Nitrogen- Feeding stuff. Water.| Ash. | 4,;,. | Fiber.| free | Fat. ; extract. | EL cee i a Sali alah Pa temo I: — ———
WASTE PRODUCTS—continued.
Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct. | ct. Brewers’ grains, wet, average ..........2..-2+.65- 75.7 1 5.4 3.8 12.5 1.6 Brewers’ grains, dried, average. ..............2-6- 8.2 3.6 19. 9 11 51.7 5.6 pT Ee Os eee eee eer ee 11.6 3.6 14.7 3.5 63.8 2.8 heat bran, all analyses: xd ciradesaets ctu dsanwnadednd cékiwns 7.4 2.5 12.1 2.4 45.5 1.5 EY 5 lie wine cdg) ctaktvonics wuakane aires 15.8 7.8 18.9 15.5 63. 2 7 PS water csdiivedeswetiscsvetesyeueses 11.9 5.8 15.4 9 53.9 4 Wheat middlings- NINES a bikin Sistas Ped kad a saddode ene oman avy anys 9.2 1.4 10.1 1.3 53 2.1 VS 7 Tr SS Se 4, Se ra eee eee 16 6.3 20 12.7 70.9 5.9 SAMENESS ciaisie d wins wtiw dis) oin nin malaniarg ewermere ord 12.1 3.3 15.6 4.6 60.4 4 Wheat shorts: NE ix iad daw bs Gen chews pines aie «wk om har 4.1 2 Tha 6 50 2.5 Sh a She hae as hk cadena 8 veKe ss sine wes 15.5 6.2 19.4 10.5 67 6.1 anise lain ce eewiin cies tocdiwes vedere 11.8 4.6 14.9 7.4 56. 8 4.5 ‘Wheat screenings, average ..........-........---- 11.6 2.9 12.5 4.9 65. 1 3 ee ar ee 9.7 10 12.1 9.5 49.9 8.8 ee ne 8.2 13. 2 3.6 35.7 38. 6 sa Oe 10 6.7 11.7 6.3 58 7.3 Buckwheat middlings, average...............---- 13.2 4.8 28.9 4.1 41.9 y Pe Cotton-seed meal: IC errs Gah oe - ect okeccesdactscuees 5. 8 5. 7 23.3 1.3 15.7 8.8 og SSN a ae 18.5 8.8 50.8 10.1 38.7 18 VG EA Se ea 7 ee 8.2 7.2 42.3 5. 6 23. 6 13.1 Cotton-seed hulls: 0 SS ee 9.2 1.8 2.2 37.9 12.4 | 6 MMR NNSA es Seas oon se =a sas eee aise cet ecielee * 16.7 4.4 5.4 67 41.8 5.4 Average ........ ck eee ee gee ae 11.1 2.8 4.2 46.3 33. 4 2.2 Linseed meal, old process: ried ad aha Sh ons ae studoanue dv cetness 5.6 4.6 27.7 4.7 28. 4 5.2 SS ee ee ee 12.4 8.2 38. 2 12. 9 41.9 11.6 emits aye liniira'<iaiels oo dina wid a ee mele x's « 922 5.7 32.9 8.9 85. 4 7.9 Linseed meal, new process: a ded ooh p08 none daadesacccneateam® 6 5 27.1 7.6 35. 2 1.3 NIM on Se nurs whsoc sh eden's os neacka lnc a 13.4 6.9 38. 4 4 48 4.4 BROS g ou cots ode tad sen da'dnle cle wn wancadacias 10.1 5.8 33. 2 9.5 38.4 3 Peanut meal: - CT Re a ae eee See aoe Cm ine 6.6 3.7 37.5 2.5 28.5 5.8 (oe eS © a a le Seen aS ee 15.4 5.5 52. 4 7.4 30. 8 17.5 POE civic ects oot a's cine seh tien comes ceee ow 10.7 4.9 47.6 5.1 23.7 8 Peanus Dulisp average... -....... 23 5...---.s cee 9 3.4 6.6 64.3 15.1 1.6 Hominy chops: oo Se Ee ee Oe ae aoe 8.1 1.9 7.9.; 2.5 61 4.5 oo ee, OO eee eee ore 13.5 3.1 11,2 6.7 oboe 11.2 LS BSE SSS es ee Seen ee Tick 2.5 9.8 3.8 64.5 8.3 REFUSE FROM CORNSTARCH FACTORIES. Corn germ: Ce SE ee eee ne 9.4 1.9 9.7 1.9 61.9 5.2 a oe, (2 ees ee eee > 13 7.4 9.9 5.8 67.4 11.2 foe) SEPT ee ca OE es aR ee 10.7 4 9.8 4.1 64 7.4 iirn-germ meal, average:i.....-2.5/....2...05... 8.1 1.3 1 | 9.9 62.5 Vest Gluten meal: Se a eon © ee oe 6.2 5 21.3 3 34 3.4 MURUREINRCNREND cx ddl ware be'ed ej Oca ic s «nae on ods 12.3 2 39. 2 7.8 58.5 20 RON a win oles PARSER win os de Pails oo gn cave lao 8.8 8 29.7 2.2 49.8 8.7 Recent analyses— (EU Soe vehi cah cash weed tea can nad 6.2 5 21.4 6 34 6.6 pI Ee pe er ae ea a Ea 2 39. 3 7.8 58. 4 20 PECOUOMES Maden snacks diedess sds in cba a ee 8.2 9 29.3 3.3 46.5 11.8 CRICERO AVCTAGO <6 «inc Gdcde cence vaceacns 10.1 it 30.1 1.6 48.7 8.4 SUMO MV OVERO. A sca Son so kinad uae nes 8.2 .8 23.3 6.1 50. 4 11.2 Oreati gluten, average. -... ... 2. deccccssscseina-- 8.1 oll, 36.1 | 1.3 39 14.8 Gluten feed: | NE 66-013 2.5 en's auc Rirebe sina ew Ne Ws kaa se 6.3 a? 19.5 | 1.6} 44,5 7 ETON: S.-M ENO cues ds tet... 9 1.8] 283 BB). fie 12.6 PURE hid. roma d fold. Ine ede atbith pan ngid awl ws 7.8 Ll) 24 5.3 | 51.2 10.6 Chicago maize feed, average.................2...- 9.1 -9} 22.8 | 7.6 52. 7 | 6.9 Glucose feed and glucose retuse, average......... 6.5 11} 20.7 4.5 56.8 | 10.4 Dried starch feed and sugar feed, average........ | 10.9 eee oe | 4.7 54.8 | 9 Boarely feed, “wot, average. ...... cscce. ssc ncccwace | 65. 4 o 6.1. 8.1 22. | 3.1 |
1 aA 94-29%
562 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDING STUFFS.
Tho preceding tables give the total amounts of nutrients found by analysis in different feeding stuffs. But only a portion of these amounts is of direct use to the animal, i.e., only that digested. The rest passes through the animal and is excreted asmanure. Theamounts of the different food constituents of feeding stuffs digested have been determined by careful experiments on different classes of animals. The results thus obtained in American experiments have been used in caleulating the amounts of digestible protein, fat, and carbohydrates contained in 100 pounds of different feeding stuffs shown in the table below. These are the figures which must be consulted in determining the food value of a given material and in selecting feeding stuffs for making up a ration.
The last column of the table, headed ‘fuel value,” indicates the value of the food for producing heat for the body and energy for the work. It is stated in calories, a calorie being the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a pound of water 4° F, .
Dry matter and digestible food ingredients in 100 pounds of feeding stuffs.
+ att Dry ‘ Carbo- Fuel Heedins shut | matter. Protein, hydrates. ae value. Green fodder: Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds.| Pounds. | Calories. Corn fodder a (average of all varieties)......-- 2007 1.10 12. 08 0.37 26, 076 Rye delete. cb 00 Sighs a 23.4 2. 05 14.11 . 44 31,914 MAC TOCUCE: — 22 Fob SRC... = Bootes mide sis ates 37.8 2. 69 22. 66 1. 04 51, 624 Kedtop, GP Dloonwe -- Sh aoe tae rare loro a4. 7 2. 06 21.24 . 58 45, 785 Orchard srass, tn bloom. =... aste sss 27 1.91 15. 91 .58 35, 593 Meadow téscue, i blooms... ssi eee OLA 1. 49 16.78 |. . 42 34, 755 Timothy,b at different stages.................. 38. 4 2. 28 23.71 ~ th 51,591 Kontneky DlUe CE aGS oe Side a 0: entre si cron Seda 34. 9 3. OL 19. 83 -83 45, 985 EEN arian Oras ees eee cies orice sales Seen oa 28. 9 1n92 15. 63 - 36 34, 162 Red clover, at different stages...-....--..0..-- 29.2 3207, 14. 82 - 69 36, 187 Crimeen Clover... 2 2. 125 cue ‘aperene dae cic ik 19.3 2.16 9.31 44 23,191 . ‘Alfalfa eat different stages. su... 2.06... 2 5 cade. 28.2 3. 89 11.20 41: - 29, 798 CARVG Ca NS SOR eIbeE SORE ROR OC AER OBS S bose RaAa Oe 16. 4 1. 68 8. 08 Ay 45. 19, 209 BOTA Gade = a etek io wane Saree nie epee 28.5 2. 79 11. 82 - 63 29, 833 SRO SIND. Go ko SS se Parte e me eee aoe 20. 9 . 56 11.79 - 65 25, 714 Cogn todder, afield cared. q ..cedae tn ceidwos cere f.28 57.8 2. 48 33. 38 Lis 74,554 Corn stover, field curd). <. sc1.oe iste sense el tetas or 59.5 1. 98 33. 16 oe 67, 766 Hay from— Wreath Br a66 5 Si. sini b case's +h oor eas 90.1 4.78 41.99 1. 40 92, 900 ROUGOD 020) 5.<.o op oa ws niin Rabatns « bekb wee eee 91.1 4, 82 46. 83 - 95 100, 078 Timothy,® all analyeie..26 so 20.0 ds eco gases 86.8 2. 89 43.72 1. 43 92, 729 Kentucky blue @7ass.. 2 ois vias dona sn ranineioes 78.8 4.76 37. 33 1. 95 86, 516 SAA SAV CTAB or. ya alka si ara Re erriiqoaoe 92.3 4. 50 51. 67 1.34 110, 131 Wie atoay, MESCUCE 6 06 oc le oh halo bieis aol tore eens 80 4. 20 43. 34 1.73 95, 725 Ee ERISES 20 5. ne Se hase or catenin does 87.1 4, 22 43. 26 1. 33 93, 925 BARONY Gilt MAKE Oem 22a yordn tos eee hoor cielale nasa ce 83. 4 7.19 41, 20 AS 96, 040 Mixed orassesiand clovercns ss 3:t s2eoen aase ase 87.1 6.16 42.71 1.46 97, 059 SpA OME ae Se <acca sa qosses cee anes anaeeeUee 84.7 6. 58 35. 35 1. 66 84, 995 PANTO ICLOVO! Aco ccceccoaseces ccs saTcee cee oes 90.3 8.15 41.70 E36 98, 460 VY MIGONEROVCR 3. Udiele sat Geautlioss cbt ear aabulbe 90.3 11. 46 41.82 1. 48 105, 346 CTUNBENICIOVEls coc. oo abonic Hisee seen eee 91.4 10. 49 38.13 1.29 95, 877 PRM Nba cc: wp tekal wate teodeins Mba de ciclo wetlen 91.6 10. 58 37. 33 1. 38 94, 936 COW PEeee ao a'cm aemece laos aden.- op teubeictos wobewe:- 89.3 10. 79 38. 40 15k 97, 865 POTD DECAL faa Sa we pmcivce dnc os sae on oweeseadete ase 88.7 10. 78 38. 72 1.54 98, 568 EC AD SOl Wee ses A mine ode thee clo weet vate ome 90. 4 . 80 37. 94 - 46 73, 998 MES UL UW ks seis s!> alone nicks sf 2 ae NIE orc cipher semneln Sa sleoeres 92.9 74 42.71 - 35 82, 294 CRAG SESW oe ono bab eree. cob ol te bbae oe diecascacmetes 90.8 1.58 41. 63 74 83, 493 BOA VEAIMBLUAW to cce sees pase J clelndsemeeeisicgecs sas 89. 9 2. 30 39. 98 1.03 82, 987 Roots and tubers: R POLATOCR eos oo im ar At ean thot esate nena 21.1 1,27 15.50 teacksmaee. 31,.360 BOC eaten inn oe epee =, 6 ha mteatn orate Mapnsisin haope. 13 1. 20, 8. 84 . 05 18, 904 MAN GOl-WUPZOIE she 6 on nns lle: oc beinas sen qeciawtnn 9.1 1.03 5. 65 «ik 12, 888 OVER ATV SNe o:2 ot ho woh 2 oi age otat eral =e he i=’ nip aio neo’ s 9.5 - 81 6. 46 «it 13, 986 oT Eee soe oe Capp ieney ee) ae eee eae 11.4 88 7.74 ~ikl 16, 497 ORNTOUG SS So ee sed arerd eee eee cin a eeeaiseaistt ate c 11.4 . 81 7.83 wine 16, 999 Grains and other seeds: Corn (average of dent and flint)............-.- 89.1 7.92 66. 69 4, 28 156, 836 BATIOP Is oo. csp sedisals as eo bevew sabes ss ianemwe 89.1 8. 69 G4. 83 1. 60 143, 499 Oita Pio acs casbasvaganeelienn cides 208s aces 89 9. 25 48. 34 4.18 124, 757 eee ee ory 2 pe ree) ee eee Se 88. 4 9.12 69.73 1. 36 152, 400 W heat:(all varietids) oc 1-5 8s. c eens eee 89.5 10, 23 69, 21 1. 68 154, 848 Cotton seed (whdlé}ier cack os 32ds Ads oe booe 89.7 11. 08 33.13 18. 44 160, 047 Mill products: Cra PORN «o's 0's dinar wanna od wiare holes Pre eee aie 85 7. 01 65. 20 3. 25 148, 026 Corn and cob’ meal ici: tecss de nc eclicnscsennanke o 84.9 6. 46 56. 28 2. 87 128, 808 OSTIOR o's ewmide dia owen eet pa uielin enter eee 92.1 11. 53 52. 06 5. 93 143, 802 a Corn fodder is entire plant, usually sown thick. b Herd’s grass of New England and New York.
ce Lucern.
FEEDING STANDARDS. 563
Dry matter and digestible food ingredients in 100 pounds of feeding Hehe peeram
eer Dry ae | Carbo- | zw Fuel Feeding stulf. | matter, | 2 Totein. | “hy drates. | Fat. valon +———___—_—_—— _———— — — =
Mill products—Continued. | Pounds.| Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Calories. POMTIGY MOAR, 2. 5. ences dee secls scene cewedesca- 88, 1 7.36 62. 88 1. 96 138, 818 Ground corn and oats, equal parts....-.-.---- 88.1 7.39 61, 20 3. 72 143, 276
; MERI tr) 6-0, loi ots ts Grants acialaee cia oka of abiceai oar ne 89.5 16. 77 51.78 . 65 130, 246
Waste products: RECON COR oS. stk twat elp on sen aa- 92. 2 20. 40 43. 75 8. 59 155, 569 RTT MRORE tp ad il wiedameath Ala va= abe gba = oinir'@ 91.2 25. 49 42. 32 10. 38 169, 930 PM OMRODE on ada dona dvigh enahidehinep ae Seas oc 88.9 7.45 55. 24 6. 81 145, 342 Malt SPTOULS - ~~ +++ - 2+ - eee eee eee ee eee ee 89.8 18. 72 43. 50 1.16 120, 624 Brewers’ grains (wet)......-.-.------2+-+-++-- 21.3 4 9, 37 1. 38 30, 692 Sere were Grains (Cried)... ..n0)-----rdeakhe-=- OT, 1 14. 73 36, 60 4.82 115, 814 1 oT a Sy ae ee ee eee aa oe oe 88.4 11. 45 50. 28 1. 96 123, 089 Wheat bran, all analyses...........--.-------- 88.5 12. 01 41, 23 2. 87 111, 138 Re MLCLTARIE Doyo oc ova nS py conv cewshpaes ae 84 12. 79 52, 15 3, 40 136, 996 SS ES ee a ae eee 88. 2 12. 22 49, 98 3. 83 131, 855 Mak weeRt MIddlings. .....55,..6020cden-==-s- 86.8 17. 34 26. 58 4, 54 100, 859 PUL NN, WLOML St. 2. o-oo p pe cso cedeaacce 91.8 37. 01 16, 52 12. 58 152, 653 eRIReOME INU Na c=. ~iot a vig sian tae db = 2 = 24 88.9 42 30. 95 1. 69 65, 480 Linseed meal (old process)..........-.---.---- 90.8 28. 76 82. 81 7. 06 144, 313 Linseed meal (new process)..----...-...-.----- 89.8 27. 89 36. 36 2. 73 131, 026 Se RCT A conn ow ocr ee aeolian oleate esin u's 89.3 42.94 22, 82 6. 86 151, 263
Milk and its by-products: RNa Mie 25 BS dg re ae Bin aie cla a oe ie Awe © 21 12.8 3. 48 rT 3.70 30, 866 Skim milk—
Cream raided by setting: .--....-des------ 9.6 3, 13 4, 69 . 83 18, 048 Cream raised by separator Lia ae saree Stee ay 9.4 2. 94 5. 24 . 29 16, 439
EE Ta ei ali ies ee ae peas ea age EE 9.9 3. 87 4 1.06 37, 685 Ne Pasinistoie na ciara nnla wis's a’ Rechte whip daadig Ss 6.6 . 84 4.74 31 11, 687
FEEDING STANDARDS,
Attempts have been made to ascertain the food requirements of various kinds of farm animals under different conditions. From the results of experiments feeding standards have been worked out which show the amounts of digestible protein, fat, and carbohydrates supposed to be best adapted to different animals when kept for different purposes. The feeding standards of Wolff, a German, have been most widely used. They areas follows:
Wolff's feeding standards. A.—PER DAY AND PER 1,000 POUNDS LIVE WEIGHT.
or aes Total Digestible nit chia es ind of animal. organic Carbohy- 7 yalue. matter. | Protein. dent ae Fat. | | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Calories. ES IS 2 ee 17.5 0.7 8 0.15. 16, 815 Wool sheep, coarser breeds............---.2-+----- 20 13 10, 3 .20] 22,235 WY @OL BROGD, DRT WRCOEG cvicecccnnccnccncnscsecnnss 22.5 1,5 11.4 o25 | 25, 050 Gach moderately worked..... 3. ...-0....-.csse00.-. 24 1.6 11.3 .30| 24,260 See NCR WIR WOTK OM oe on oo cag aoe cela = gees 26 2.4 13.2 50 | 31, 126 Horses moderately worked ..................-..--- yes) 1.8 41.3 60 | 26, 712 dborses heavily. WOTKGG. 4. ....6-500.-c0se cecwen eee 25.5 2.8 | 13.4 . 80 | 33, 508 RE Se ey SS eee ee 24 2.5 | 12.5 . 40 29, 590 Fattening steers: | a ETE Re hike oe Se Le at 27 2.5 | 15 50 | 34, 669 ates SOUS Boki ht As. oud ees Jae 26 oS 14.8 .70| 36, 062 POTION adage baked tees oa sated dee ee uaa oo 25 27 | 14.8 | -60| 35,082 Fattening sheep: | First: PURE I OG eure ni ws Patni die eats whan gaa is Oot oe wed 26 3} 15.2 | - 50 35, 962 Second period .....-.....2ec-ececeseseseeccnee | 25 3.5 14.4 | . 60 | 35, 826 Fattening swine: PC SONNOE AC) cwimanpanit ones be eeta ave se ot | 36 | 27.5 | 60,459 (OSE 2 Sn ene eee ie, COT ey. anne 31 4. | 24 52, 080 ER DOTIOM 5. «ip -naibipeicens« ls hs0sune'ow Swi eos | 23.5 | 2.7 : 17.5 37, 570
564 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Wolff’s feeding standards—Continued. B.—PER DAY AND PER HEAD.
Average | otal ‘Digestible food materials. : : live | Kind of animal. " organic weight & - | Carbohy- | value. per ane matter. | Protein. dates. Battier ol | Growing cattle: Age— Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Calories. 2 LOW MONT) ison cae ccc oeete sce 150 3.3 0.6 Qo 0. 30 5, 116 3) $016 MONS ws sesso ~ 6 ne ee iew-c 300 7 1 4,1 . 30 10, 750 G fowls MOnTESM ost os esc tere o5.5 500 12 1.3 6.8 . 30 16, 332 J2ooOMSaMontligns. asec... deec se 700 16.8 1.4 9. 1 . 28 20, 712 ASLOe2e MONEMS tae sok eee 850 20. 4 1.4 10.3 . 26 22, 859 Growing sheep: Age— HS tovG:monbhs eh 25s. 22.sSeee a 56 1.6 18 87 . 045 2,143 6 FOr MONTHS: Se ec .schisee eee 67 1.7 17 85 . 040 2, 066 § tomllsmnonthsrs-2-. 2 22 eee oe 75 1.7 16 85 037 2, 035 PE OMLS AN OMGUS sige ocicencee wet cie 82 1.8 .14 89 . 032 2, 051 V5 sOrZO MONTHS Aaais.ciorelereete Sens ores 85 1.9 .12 88 . 025 1, 966 Growing fat swine: Age— 2 tO Mont hse sccos aac eee eo as 50 2.1 . 38 1. 50 3, 496 3 to Sanonths 22-2 asec mesic 100 3.4 . 50 2. 50 5, 580 StoiG months: : . 22 - --)-6k see eerscee 125 Bo) 54 2. 96 6, 510 6 to:S monthsyeres cei ee eee 170 4.6 . 58 3. 47 7, 533 StomM2months sh. - ccc ee nies 250 | 5. 2 . 62 4.05 8, 686
CALCULATION OF RATIONS.
In order to explain the use of the preceding tables let us calculate the daily ration for a cow, assuming that the farmer has on hand clover hay, corn silage, corn meal, and wheat bran. Wolff’s standard for a cow of 1,000 pounds calls for 2.5 pounds of protein, 12.5 pounds of carbohydrates, and 0.4 pound of fat, which would furnish 29,590 calories of heat. From the table showing the amounts of digestible nutrients we find that 100 pounds of clover hay furnishes 84.7 pounds of dry matter, 6.58 pounds of protein, 35.35 pounds of carbohydrates, and 1.66 pounds of fat, equivalent to a fuel value of 84,995 calories. Twelve pounds would have 10.16 pounds of dry matter, 0.79 pound of protein, 4.24 pounds of carbohydrates, and 0.20 pound of fat, giving a fuel value of 10,199 calories. In the same way the amounts furnished by 20 pounds of corn silage, 4 pounds of corn meal, and 4 pounds of wheat bran are found. The result would be the following table:
Method of calculating ration for dairy cow.
Total | Digesti- | Disestt-
: | a ble car- | Digesti- Fuel Ration. | dry mat- | ble Pre- | bohy- | ble fi. | valion ; ; drates. | ro Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pownds.-| Calories. LZ POUNAS TOL ClOVED NAY jsoccccsece cas, veSalescle sc 10. 16 0.79 4, 24 0. 20 10. 199 AP PoUnAs Oncor Sllagver sees. .5-- 22s - sce ee eas 4.18 silt 2. 36 - 13 | 5, 143 ASOOMUAUS OFeCOrn MEAL | f2)\5-2/.4-b team cioeicat clelee c's - 3. 40 . 28 2.61 13 5, 921 Ppounas OL wheat Dra... 20) Se eeloessncseaee ses 3. 54 48 | 1. 65 evel 4, 446 Aha 1 See Se ep ai, 9 Ie ee are Spee 21:28 1. 66 10. 86 oi 25, 709 Wolff's standard ...-- 3) SERRE Se en erent) tear 24 2. 50 12. 50 .40/ 29,590
This ration is below the standard, especially in protein. To furnish the protein needed, without increasing the other nutrients too much, a feeding stuff quite rich in protein is needed. The addition of 4 pounds of gluten feed would make the ration contain :
Completed ration for dairy cow.
| re | Digesti-
Total | Digesti- = , ; tation. dry mat-| ble pro- be pe a ter. tein. aratiaas
12 pounds clover hay, 20 pounds corn silage, 4 | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. Calories. pounds corn meal, and 4 pounds wheat bran....-. 21. 28 1. 66 10. 86 0.57 | 25, 709 < DOUDUS LUGCD 1066 sien ce as aor pene mse oman 3. 69 . 82 1.75 . 34 | 6, 223
DOL 5 .Wesbisss ccna napeeevases weeseuy caren 24. 97 2. 48 12. 61 91 31, 932
FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS. 565
This ration, it will be seen, contains somewhat more carbohydrates and fat than the standard calls for, but is close enough to the standard for practical purposes. The calculation may be considerably simplified by considering only the protein and the fuel value without impairing accuracy. For example, suppose the farmer feeds his cows dry corn fodder (not stover), good timothy hay (herd’s grass), and a grain mixture composed of equal parts of corn meal, wheat bran, and gluten meal. A ration might be made from these as follows:
Ration per cow daily.
; Dry : Fuel Ration. matter. | Protein. value. Pounds. | Pounds. | Calories.
LD OMA 2h. ciwapeb pbk vesuitdnlen« auwehnelVal cbndenendte ae 8. 68 0. 30 9, 273 NRE Criy TG00CN 52.01 .'o wS = an asndlc ddunaedt ons fu 0b's ceaaneeess 5. 78 25 7, 155 EE SS Oe ey ee no) eee ee eee bbe ae 3. 40 - 28 5, 921 OMG 6 fata nn cede py abiesh aw heeded tek esse ncvesstsuesees® 3. 54 - 48 4, 446 UME IRCMPEUTEUOL INGA ae rain. So eb d balm mn cls s aade ewe rots beke= se eoesassenane 3. 62 1, 02 6, 797 GDS eee te es, | or a Ee Venere eas 25. 02 2.33 | 33,592
This ration is higher than the standard in fuel value, owing to richness of the materials in carbohydrates and fat, and slightly lower in protein. The substitution of 1 pound of new-process linseed meal in place of 1 pound of the corn meal would give 0.21 pound more protein, which would make the ration contain 2.54 pounds of protein.
FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS OF FEEDING STUFFS AND FARM
PRODUCTS.
si | | Phos- | Material. Water. Ash. (Nitrogen. phorie | Potash.
| | “acid. |
| da 2° Salata Per cent. Per cent.| Per cent. Per cent.| Per cent. RE ies on dae csak es cobra dens ne Dubeees a. 78.61 | 4. 84 0. 41 | 0.15 | 0. 33 US Oe eee or oe eee eos 2 2 a .23 . 09 . 23 thin PNigs 3s «xv oe inane n= <b at oa «= Ga cas socdes . 33 15 | 13" SE eee eine are ee oe ee 83. 36 | 1.31 .49 13 . 38- cS SSS Se ee ae ee CE Te cs wet sgh 61 .19 41 I ae SEE un fe w= oainwaes ney <7 igi ee nos seaciee . 53 . 20 . 34 Pimmgarsen prass (Setaria) ...........c0senecnccenee (CS aor .39 . 16 55 Orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata) a....--..------- 73.14 2. 09 . 43 . 16 76 Timothy grass (Phlewm pratense) a...........+---- 66. 90 2.15 48 205 | . 76 Perennial rye grass (Lolium perenne) a....-------- 75. 20 2. 60 47 . 28 1.10 Italian rye grass (Loliwm italicum) a.......--.---- 74. 85 2. 84 54 . 29 1.14 EEE OUUDHALUTO, SPASSES)- f-... <4 52-2 seen edie ess 63. 12 | 3. 27 91 ays 15 Red clover (Trifolium pratense).-........--..------ BU net erase ree . 53 Pa ae . 46 White clover (Trifoliwm repens) .........---..----- Be eee ne eet 2016; . 20 . 24 Alsike clover (Trifolium hybridum)....-...------- 81. 80 1. 47 44 | a A . 20 Scarlet clover (Trifolium incarnatum).......--.--- Boe OU eek orate . 43 13 .49 uiinare Cemegge GA0WA): .. 2.2 6 2 oi ce dents aeons 75. 30 2. 25 . 72 13 . 56 RMR AIRS fe Se tee bode tise ak SoCaa 20s 78. 81 1.47 27 .10 31 Serradella (Ornithopus sativus)........-..--------- 82. 59 1. 82 4] .14 . 42 SHO CDSE OE (olay [7 Ad O08 O00 (1) aa ee ee TE RAC ean re . 29 .15 .53 MITER NORM CP ICL JOUR) anon sce tctccce ao See ase ssc v6 ae ee . 68 . 33 1. 37 White tupine (Lupinus albus) c. 3.2.25 ces. cee c se. | S550" |. eee eee . 44 a0 | 1. 73 Yellow lupine (Lupinus luteus) a..........-------- 83.15 . 96 (61 re aad .15 Flat pea (Lathyrus sylvestris) a.....-....---.+----- | 71.60 1.93 1.13 118 | 58 Common vetch (Vicia sativa) a...........--.--.--. 84. 50 1.94 . 59 1.197" .70 Prickly comfrey (Symphytum asperrimum) ....---! 84. 36 2. 45 42 By es . 75 Cup aL OG eS See Eat: Cok eer aa eee TUR | ae wa Oe . 28 Sef | . 37 Ore POMalS BUGLE Guo corse tear eee cast. os: 75 1. 05 32 | 15 . 40
HAY AND DRY COARSE FODDERS.
| Corn fodder (with ears) ........-.22. cee cccscnnene 7. 85 | 4. 91 1.76 | eal . 89 Corn stover (without eurs)....-..-- Ste RE rere 9.12 3.74 1. 04 29 | 1. 40 Teosinte (Huchleena luxurtans) ...-..-necncecseceee 6. 06 6.53 1. 46 55 3.70 IOC sc ous oe ti sw Sock gwgd decwea ny aseens od eee Be 1. 28 | 49 1. 69 RLM kp facia en GaeltiehnaWpaigden © mel | 10.45 5. 80 1.11 40 1. 22 PR GGATIAN BIASS... «ina ewe ee een ose led caw enn ens 7. 69 | 6.18 1. 20 35 1. 30 Pee er AGU) BIARSOKR 8 oo... oan ce cde Ree dae wees } 11. 99 | 6.34 | 1.41 27 1. 55 Wawen Of mixed prassGs .-. <2... co. - cece a dsinaccns 18. 52 | 9. 57 | 1,61 .43 1.49 edtop (Agrostis vulgaris)... .. 02.2... .cececceeess 7.71 | 4.59 | 1.15 . 36 1. 02
a Dietrich and Kénig: Zusamensetzung und Verdaulichkeit der Futtermittel.
566 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
FPERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS OF PEEDING STUFPS,- BTC.—Cont’d.
Phos- | Material. Water. Ash. |Nitrogen.| phoric | Potash. acid. HAY AND DRY COARSE FODDERS—continued. Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent, AANOUR YY jose Sees poe e sa SCS Raw et ee ex 7.52 4.93 1.26 .o8 . 90 Gavlnndyerceise = 5.5: Ae ee ee 8. 84 | 6.42 1.31 Ps tee ane Kentucky blue grass (Poa pratensis).............- 10. 35 4.16 1.19 40 ten, Meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis) ...........----- 8. 89 8. 08 59 . 40 2.10 Tallmeadow oat grass (Arrhenatherum avenaceum) 15535 4.92 1.16 . 32 1. 72 Meadow foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis)..........-. 15. 35 5. 24 1.54 . 44 1.99 Perewniwl THO CUES sage" eas on. oS eee Ce 9.13 6.79 1. 23 . 56 1.55 DRM aR PE POR oe ce Rie os win = 315 seins oe sa Bo (it spngse55a- 1.19 . 56 Ly, oF Sapamose Dmelow heabacs se - 2 = Ok so.cieeces ced tech we Lae (Ad, eee er 1. 63 . 85 3.25 IL. SORE es a Os eg See a NY TS 11.33 | 6. 93 2.07 . 38 eur Mammoth red clover (Trifoliwm medium)......-.. 11. 41 8. 72 Pes .55 Loe Bee COON BE oreo cE 6 aos = ene oben Se bet aa tenes sees wee 2.75 . 52 1, 81 Rene CLOW We aes hn ee nad meeneaccebenca ae 18. 30 7.70. 2.05 . 40 Bel eT Ty ~ E aeg etey “iy 3% 9.94 11. i 2. 34 . 67 2. 23 OS ES ae a ees ee ee eee ae eee 6.55 7. 07 2.19 ol 1.68 Blue melilot (Melilotus cwruleus)...............--. 8. 22 | 13. 65 1. 92 Sau 2. 80 Bokhara clover (Meltlotus alba) ..-.........--.5.-- 7.43 | 7710 1. 98 .56 1; &3 Saimfom (Onobrychissative) |.) 22s) anciecmp nas oo eels 12.17 (e 5s 2. 63 . 76 2. 02 Sulla (Hedysarum coronarium) .--.--.---..-+-+--- Deseo an ee 2.46 »45 2.09 Sgt s VISES Bie. aco e eee cee pepe ae 11.52 | 8.23 | 2.10 . 59 1.81 Beia bean (whole plant) 2.2). 6. conse mins cape ners - 6. 30 6.47 2. 32 . 67 1.08 9053S RDA TEIN) nd cence ep as ne Siebk ic be ee ea ap Me appa eon IIB a . 40 1,32 Cowpea (whole plant).........-----200-00ee eee eee | 10.95 8. 40 1.95 52 1.47 SOrracelays oc soos oe cmaeeeeaies Sees eee eae 7.39 10. 60 2.70 .78 . 65 Oxeye daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum) ..--- 9. 65 6. 37 28 44 1, 25 Dry iCarro WlOps'.- encore asec 3 eeee sincere. cee oe 9. 76 12. 52 3. 13 Gill 4. 83 Darley - BURA S07 Coke eres eee wee ia celae hae 11. 44 5. 30 1.31 . 30 2. 09 apdemghast 2005 25. See se wee BA BT EN ORE BEE ei eee ee 1.01 .27 .99 Wy heas straws <0 0-2 cierto s siete se otaae SE ee 12. 56 3. 81 59 12 51 MV GMb Chath oon emo ee ane see eee ee eee 8. 05 7.18 . 719 = 10 242 SEO MW Soe oe a be ein beatieeu eh teehee eee eee 7.61 3. 25 46 . 28 79 SOG EEIN dt EEE ag oo ns we uh ateewicine soleus seer ane me 9. 09 4.76 62 . 20 1, 24 Bek wheat bullas- os iccecss ces neha sowe caeteegee- PASO | at oe cigs 49 . 07 52 ROOTS, BULBS. TUBERS, ETC. . PE OLALORS fe oe arent oe wn Aaa <b ere A Ge fee 719.10 99 21 . 07 29 We WR eS TS SELENE aon oe ee Ree 87.73 1.13 24 .09 44 Mellow fodder beets; (ods. -oace se eS \ss eee $0. 60 95 19 .09 46 Spr beeks Sova 1 eis. «tae lieds do, Be 86. 95 1.04 22 .10 48 BERD Pe WHrGOls os 2.5 rie os ain dn oss se pe 87. 29 1. 22 19 . 09 38 MPATNNIYS = <5 BP te bai < side winin ord saat cis Ree 89.49 | 1.01 18 . 10 39 NM Dar ds SS oe aa se wc oo 2 ty ane ee eee 89. 13 1. 06 19 12 49 Gmrots): 2 ee. Sd Behe ste oe aac Soe eee 89. 79 9. 22 15 . 09 51 GRAINS AND OTHER SEEDS. Cer kernplsm.-s53-scee to eet eee ec cee eee 10. 88 1.53 1. 82 .70 . 40 SerpmUn ROCK... = fsb nani oe ees + clas See EE Clon HAS 4 vil'sio nares 1.48 .81 42 TERRE so sca ae pind apis en 5 <item Beda nin hae 14.3 2. 48 1.51 19 48 LCE SEs Se Srey ore YER ie a SECS A. Ss | 18.17 2. 98 2. 06 . 82 62 eS ee eee ener meeps Free 14. 35 1.57 2. 36 . 70 39 Memes Owiniter) 25.506 esenase Th bee sd AE | DTD Usecea a eee 2.36 . 89 61 SD aise ve its oa Sue eet ms 26 oc ett sada ate ceucetas ak | 14,004. i2e e385 1.76 . 82 54 PENA THINGS 8 See ena Se vost pee bes PE NS ata naetoee x 2. 04 . 85 36 Eh or. |e a Se lS y= | VS BB: Ponisi hte 1.73 . 69 38 NE i te AR ones pew ain Soko Sone Me GRE 12. 60 se 1. 08 .18 09 a. BABE aoeereer per er errs a rsa PSO iscadve 2h 1.44 44 21 Se OTs 1D ee ee eo oe 5 Se ae Pe ey Ares a oy | 18. 33 4.99 5. 30 1. 87 1.99 MILL PRODUCTS. IO crac cin sig et oe a enh aie ans < omnis a= 12. 95 1. 41 1.58 . 63 . 40 CEN S00 POURRA oo asec ns =>) ier eiie ss peeates Se BOB arsine 1.41 oT 47 GroOnnd O81 ses oa ciiee cpio m dais we pale sh eh g aeerea bi hig 3. 37 1. 86 aoe .o9 DAINTY. oa sae soe eee ee eine eee os 13. 45 2. 06 1.55 66 34 BVO HOOT Lo ocoud dopisemote see ao aewise = cohen M2 e408) ep oecioe 1. 68 . 85 65 W heat fot. . wis cic nbc dusc pawn dace ieee ee 9. 83 1.22 2. 21 57 54 POD MOAN nat ioe sedadioaine sxc eee pee as 8. 85 2. 68 3. 08 . 82 99 BY-PRODUCTS AND WASTE MATERIALS. BEN CODE bic due > oha'n Sopree eco okas ones eae ees 12. 09 . 82 50 . 06 60 pe Ee eee ap AP eaten iP 8. 93 2. 21 1. 63 . 98 49 GIO ICDA oe oi 0 oo a cpeein dela Rete sas eee es 8. 59 73 5. 03 .33 05 Starch feed (glucose Tefuse) .. os <0re0--cecccasoecs- BR) vacate kote | 2. 62 . 29 15 RESID BULOREEs,. 52 02-1 aan ba oar outa ool ek barnes 18. 38 12. 48 3. 55 1. 43 1. 63 Eee Werk’ grain’ (Ary) 265 «sor cseeve torres geyiedar ss 9.14 3.92 3. 62 1.03 09 POW OTR BUGIOS (WEY) sdneins os bs skraeed ar emer atnwn ‘i Nl 89 31 05 RyO Drak: . .jaddodv vrais is doeb ens deeebiet A dy duee 12. 50 | 4. 60 2. 32 2. 28 1. 40
FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS.
567
PERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS OF FEEDING STUFFS, ETC.—Cont’d.
Phos- Material. Water. Ash. |Nitrogen. — acid.
Potash.
BY-PRODUCTS AND WASIE MATERIALS—continued.
| Per cent. | Percent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
Rye OS OE ee a See eee ae 12. 54 3. 52 1. 84 1. 26 os SS peas Riess ee Saran tamer ee eee 11.74 6.25 2. G7 | 2. 89 je OO ee | ee eee ae ae 9.18 2.30 2. 63 95 MPC TUAN cis «con IMD» <n eco BRM oc a code aes wil 10, 20 12. 94 71 - 29 CS a eA eee eee mee a eee 10. 30 9 1,97 2. 67 Teor eat OCIS. .... 2. .nidies os <ameeeaee ane 14. 70 1. 40 1. 38 . 68 PON Lo. Saw accdunueveea wcpeguaeases 9. 90 6. 82 6. 64 2. 68 AIMCO INU LIS 2 hide a wo on cco a > o code eels os 10. 63 2.61 Pa (3, 18 Linseed meal (old process)...-....-.-.---s«--<0--- 8. 88 6. 08 5. 43 1. 66 Linseed meal (new process) ..............---.-«--- cat 5. 37 5.78 1. 83 JOIG POMASS. ......--------- 20% mee SS See 80. 50 Py | 23 02 VEGETABLES. LUN GLO Ss > So oe a ATE, oO 81. 50 . 99 . 36 bs 5 EE eee ee ee eee ee Pee ee 93. 96 1 .67 . 29 . 08 Ss SEE Se Oe s ee ee pao ee 15. 86 8: 53 3.'29 . 95 I RR aes Sciae S nhe sa ce bb bc ce subweb ages «en 88. 47 1. 04 24 b. 09 SS ee 2 eee a eee 90. 52 1. 40 . 38 b.11 EE vex bo ee ee eg ee: eo 88. 59 1. 02 .16 .09 UC: a. a ee ae ie oe 90. 82 . 81 .13 .16 NE lid ahead as a wae aunties apedaann~ ae 78. 90 |, 1. 09 1. 92 .19 NEES fe ah SO we scenes Bonn enanitsessedae 95. 99 . 46 16 12 a ee ee 76. 68 1. 87 . 36 .07 Le ESD, ie, SEE RS Se a a 91. 08 27 48 Pas IN NG ERTVG noe oi on pang eee pwnenas cee 93. 68 1. 61 . 23 b. 07 OO SIGCESS 62 2 SD poe ee Pe ee ae, Se 87. 55 oT 14 . 04 Peienips 2. .5..... Pehl Te Fw as mnie GET astira x 'carals oe te ith 80. 34 1. 03 . 22 | 19 eas: EER Saher Shh Pilg See bo ox x ayia n a Se oo 12. 62 3.11 3. 58 . 8t Small (Lathyrus sativus), whole piant......... 5. 80 5. 94 2.50 . 59 Ce SE ES a ea 92. 27 . 63 b.11 b.16 Rhubarb: IE Sx Sin siete aed as ea S's se Ailes 2 74, 35 yA) «Do . 06 SMMMIME LOT OS d 550.2 oi Sb wintee oo ccna db oon 91. 67 | Phy» .13 . 02 ay oe Se oe ai AO nh ee eet her aes 88. 61 1.15 19 12 fo ST Le Se en Se tC ie Se OC, Oe 92. 42 1. 94 .49 16 Sweet corn: 0 Ete oR eee er eee ee 80. 10 .o9 sal . 05 PEDaRS oe Palys oie ok he ae vines aera ce ible s o's as OO 86. 19 . 56 -18 07 EN ae eas 5 coo als ha ates via cleanin a male 82. 14 . 56 . 46 .07 CELTS =i: SE po Se a Se ee mere 80. 86 125 . 28 .14 Sweet potatoes: BURNIE te yoo ace od ae iatfa aS eros, le eeca'e 72. 96 . 95 sae .10 oo ) Be et ee 2 ee See 83. 06 2.45 42 .07 Tomatoes: se Mw occ i cite sabe he won wa oe 93. 64 me .16 . 05 URDU Soon ee ee oe eee een | ee 73-81 A. 72 oe . 06 Ce ee ee Oana er te) oe ee ee 3. 61 3 Soe . 07 ES eee ae ee le ee 90, 46 . 80 .18 -10 FRUITS AND NUTS. Apple leaves: Oo RT Oa ae ee ee ae 72. 3 2. 33 std <20 Collected in September. . 22-646... -.ecase-ss 60. 71 3. 46 . 89 .19 An or Ss, SS ery Re aoe: eee 85. 30 39 | 13 01 Apple trees (young): bor 7 RS eee a a ae 83. 60 wi Oe lake, onlieteerers . 04 RE AN nse s ink a alte bn Te aac wn wo nadie su « 64. 70 ESC Rae aun SENN sas trae a5 baht IO tha nec i aw wets od 51. 70 US." | Re See . 06 RIN 6 5 wah sie MBs ule a Sen skeet -s- GONG (= sages ae 235 . 05 1 RE, GR ee ee: ee 85. 16 .49 .19 . 06 CCR gs ol xs hi. caeabew le mathe ay sab enn Gp sas 88. 91 .58 15 . 09 PRIN, Darates ohh wea tee nt sata aat elas binds ~ v5 82. 69 .16 14 | . 05 CHOCO Rs EUUMbew as .aeyen/siwancdd dhe dics OMe <b ince ocean 86. 10 .58 18; a.06 Cherry trees (young): | | OOO foc whi din yp wiaseeeatolaine chisic owes <asaeke = wx 79. 50 ote tneatiwe ed . 05 PRCOMULUP, eter aged iw Or arc oe eae yy eet ee 67. 20 1. 22 | Shae ant ice .08 PRES CURES yt evan io ol le: odo ici crene. oh aps recess te a ce 53. 20 81 |....--.--- | - 04 ERRIISSCLIMOR§ ccaas win ov came wae cuieomhen cob on Se ttnirage 16. 52 |! 4.13 | 1.19 .43 Cranberries : PPL G MME ar.< c,<w ow b:6.a dani ote RWG ays dn sintn wie chao ois 89. 59 Say eee 2 ee . 03 PURE iT tis ia SS: ox ssa le wc cea Sonia rey cea Gitmathialt Wikia casi, w ar ae 2.45 |. -secnees oud I TER ee. iw oO eens aad och ue ebliewas akan 86. 02 a Ye ae ee ae PE LEU TEORM sci iwes wi edun ew sedeebe se oeeeue 83 . 50 | .16 . 09 EE TURNER SANG ooo soo 5's apitiun eens 42s asl wie een eee Re: Var week os -42 EMM otartacdl. chen eset sus'sascuwccks<caesOudsane se i 83. 83 - 56 15 | . 06
a Dietrich and Konig. - b Wollf.
Per cent.
568 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS OF FEEDING STUFFS, BTC.—Cont’d.
Phos- Material. Water. Ash. hiakew cra phoric | Potash. acid.
FRUITS AND NuTS—continued. Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. 79 .50
Neotarines 225.2 <<...) Beet os seen Sat Bae Beet e112 4252260602 eee Olives: OO 0 eg SE a ee a ae eR 58 1. 42 -18 -12 . 86 Deaves {Ses Sec eb tee cloce eae e reece cob sees ous 42. 40 2b -91 . 26 . 76 Wood of-targer branches. -....2--. 0.2.5. sus.3. 14. 50 94 88 obr 18 Woodioftsmall branchess 2. oc... ose ae ic eueece 18. 75 . 96 . 89 Rly. . 20 Oranges: CROMER Fock «cee css ce Le cee Se cee eee 85. 21 . 43 .19 . 05 ay il OTTO see oe ene ce eee so ok ee Bao ck eee Sg) Wal area pare ale . 08 . 48 Peaches: TURE fosee sacs ace set ca alc on Rew ee aeRiee ee ewes C 87. 85 BOY ial (ee nee pa .- 05 24 Wiiodlor DEANGHOS 2 2227 eee wea eeee cee tes 58. 26 1. 93 . 90 Bye . 50 PEARS ITUtb: oes neces clack cab ens sastees eee seeeeene 88. 92 . 54 . 09 - 03 . 08 Pear trees (young): BTANORESS cc cnyo.c se ateecca soo netba eset oO eRe Sewer: 84 7 SRE sees 04 . 08 RODS sees oo occ c enie uals c's ave siorenioed sas wineteeie aie sae 66. 70 AOS Re ccrectee - 07 aah SBEWIKG ie sates soe cae cess ne sebestac ta Sees tee eee 49. 30 aT owerelere cree 07 13 CPIGUES tate Bele lee Coe cae Soke Ree Ree ee CRE Ae 47. 43 54 18 02 24 NPAUWOS ae Se ate ee oloake Sas as ae te Ten See Chee ae DAE Ca 77. 38 .49 .16 07 ok NP UCTEOS aces --- 6 ae =o ae ei eh ae eee ne 81. 82 55 -15 -48 35 Strawberries: IOrnits. seaceccs ce shia sees eee Stee eee ees 90. 84 . 60 15 nia! 30 WAMEST.cBe = eae on sak 53 ers SE Beeson nee aes OR b wien eee S5O4e ecm eee - 48 3b Chestnuts; mative .22 2... 2254S 3S: oe neo See eeee es 40 1. 62 1.18 . 39 . 63 Peanuts: gS 1 Fe SNS a ee eee Se ee eh A a 10 2.99 1. 04 oa . 81 TKOTUOIUS ss aus os cee See ee te ioe one ee eos 10 ae: 4,01 . 82 . 88 Vines after blooming: 2% 022222 2.00052.% . cs. oes 10 9250 eee eee «29 . 90 Vines before blooming......... ScosnodacanddAce 30 URC | pasgon ass - 32 1.16 DAIRY PRODUCTS. UA ENPRS AT et eer oes ets ia ac A eee a aia center mees 87 5 7(5) .53 .19 .18 San Ga ni a ee Se ee eee A eae 90. 25 . 80 . 56 . 20 .19 RGHOSIN so hte wiacicio ns We Bow HAs eee eee es ee Wein 74. 05 . 50 a= AO ep! .13 PAE GGO TAC oo a oie ac bie Stele ane Seine Poideareeiete poe eee 90. 50 70 48 17 16 URN ook i neck oes ad Sober ene sks Coes 92. 97 60 15 14 18 LOT eee fa ioe ee ee nee ee ate ee ee eee 79. 10 15 12 04 04 GREGHO See ee ene eee ees ce Ws cia Seb Deere 33, 25 2.10 3. 93 60 12 WOODS CRIN SAW Olly a wis co) 2 oe ewe oi aa Siaie Ne wipaiaisia seis eee 10 SS2U |S samiaeanee . 012 . 149 Chestnut: Sai ce tego Sw be oles sic ss a/c ee Rin cee See Oa 10 So Olver cee .il4 . 278 WVOOGE oe hae cee petra ee abeee ae soe cme 10 A116). Baeeciances O11 . 029 Dogwood ATG ae ok Suis, cielo auc ck Se eee se ee 10 Oy Finl ec cs see 140 341 WOOO Gece ais ok Bae occa hace teas see eee eee 10 BGS Ul ate a coe smi 057 190 Hickory TP TLR AiR ely CR SO GRR ee Sie aS Se EN ORD ge 10 SEO TA an ciawd Saas 061 141 STG | RRC Se eee, Seeger Sar Sas Sere 10 SABA oe eerste . 058 138 Magnolia: TEE ces Seg i See A eT Cc OEE oe Sores ee 10 BGS ila =n See 095 192 WOO isn eb ciccne nate PR eialainaje ae eric 10 2362/SRe ks eee . 082 . O71 Were AT Sites is a2 ence o's sia cies ec'sis'e's file een aisse 10 9.49 essere . 421 1.197 Oak A OAM OMINEUR OU etn ceiac'sinic, oo Sicle canvas (ola Sime Sieraciel| aiate cineimtele 4,70) leis owe ad ccsi] seen Ree eee POS DAE Raa. = 0 tees loans Salen) d wa nal Eee ere 10 AYP (8 RST 116 . 249 LSD: WOON s = <n obese eetiset os a raw .cn psi ee ner 10 PLA hel oS tetas hee . 070 169 PEA ADAMS co eee cSareisict Seeiteleccicice ee serene 10 bi aed Yale ot etch . 103 .179 OUT WO GU a. sic senes crite nne = Asis dicate eee 10 AM ema. . 060 - 140 WVIe rik: 6255 See ees ciate Seton sone teats 10 5205 ee oeeeeee . 074 . 125 WW HIGG WOOO: 32 fits ctoses ccebewrcec os oboe sae 10 S26 Mie cee . 025 . 106 Pine: Ce ER gli ny SN ip 6 Nien eh ey he ie SE At ION SCC ICRICII pL Shira clit tetris = Reorgie, PAPK. ...f-dn- oes ere a eeer cee ae a aa 10 BS ill Peete eee . 013 . 024 Georgia, wo = 2328 eesti esas} dae eee 10 Sch oes yor - 012 - 050 Old fold Bark <ricse. cto ea ceen ene 10 104 1.2 ces . 095 .077 Old flelds Wood ...¢6 2 ie mp beeeetecc nos oe eee a 10 4 183|\ ce ereeeee . 007 . 008 trays WAKO a. goes ee ae ec ee ain clot ne etna asl) Stara oS Tera 1 is hea Roeper lle eens er WGMOW,, WOOO sinc vcdeoekne sees vane wanes sae 10 Soil etia mare eae . 010 . 045 DIACK WOOK. - ca kewcmc ate reb oivaec occa eee 10 sta eee cee ares . 009 . C30 Sycamore, wood ............ ite ee ies aea tue Rusees 10 Be AS paket .121 . 230
569
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS.
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570 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
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ERTILIZERS.
571
Table showing weight and cost of the seed of four mixtures, each designed to cover an acre upon the basis of 10,000,000 plants, compiled from Table 1.
Seed.
Timothby..... Set Te A SB Se ee ee eee eee ee See at! Se eee PPrBRArd. PTOGG. 2.2. cde ca chi cansnsn sodebed nawewarcegdasceses MGM) iolitad dads ccdls Mh Gade itongessebhmbdees sph oceens NO: CADE a 56 ier mein d's derdie ss haaclcitn aa demndumnn wie ogee sh oan
creer ares ho 8S Oe SE wate ue uae opin 53 ee
RN I case h a a pike aktewidikche whi hh eminem any eae ano oe fC MERN UL Ses Se tN re a mig bend cate eee eo dete © cies Rt a a Gs See ee i ae ee es ee he ete. a Oe Bee NER ORLCHIR ENE eo eS oe a eran ale wou bilan je eee
cop pe OE I OF et epee ae OE | Pe ee ny er) Tee OE RONG ia ts cs a aed = Sinanerp «6c Shins eye abies iee
Number of |
| Mois- ture.
Fertilizer.
ay = a |
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
aeda: Pounds. | Cost 6, 700, 000 5. 72 $0. 57 1, 650, 000 2. 33 47 1, 650, 000 2. 23 .78 10, 000, 000 10. 28 1. 82 5, 000,000 4.27 43 1, 000, 000 Al .07 700, 000 1, 21 . 36 1, 650, 000 2. 33 47 1, 650, 000 2. 23 .78 10, 000, 000 10.45/ 2.11 4, 000, 000 | 3. 42 34 1, 200, 000 50 09 1, 000, 000 1.73 52 500, 000 55 .19 1, 650, 000 2.33 47 1, 650, 000 2. 23 .78 10, 000, 000 10. 76 2.39 2,790.000} 10 | 1.50 2, 121, 000 3 . 60 3, 089, 000 2. 64 . 26 2, 000, 000 3.31 . 66 ARE, abe ee | nse 10, 000, 000 18.95 | 3. 02
PERTILIZERS. | Phosphoric acid. | | Sul Nitro-| -Pot- |—_____—_—_ Mag: | puric| Chlo- gen. | ash Solu. | Re- Total *| nesia. Pp aeid | rine. ble. verted. . Bescon
=e
Per ct.
Ashes: Per ct.|Per ct.|Per ct.|Per ct. Per ct.'Per ct. |Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. Teeter seavseded. 050.) 45:45. |,...202 Ss. 3 eee eae: Bek 8 ya eer / Wood, leached: .:........ | Uy ada Ro 1 Pee ier Pe See 1.51 | 28.08 | 2.66 | 0.14] Wood, unleached ...-.-... 1 12.60 |, ...2.. eee \ seeesae 1.70 | 34 $404 cccse
eS ae G1 B00 | 2S Le ROP Se E S80 te fe ss casas Si oon
ISM ONE (SL edhe sel ae ape 6 keting at | eabrerks | sons Cee |e atanicat SOsO0 Tl Fate) Neocon eet ee emcees
ME MIGOM scot ee as 30.05 5 nn ry TA RID eo (ES A ese oye ok ree Ue Ae Ce.) Ae MA acsicn iol yindnioe:n| saciawe|s v0 25% $2407) 0 T.S0 YP liens oe fee ones Cee ;
MMO MOA .2.. 2625-4 < 5-5-2. (Oe ae 3 - eee RT re OE Teele ie eer al hiner mat fide ts See as ie a, Sa fh ee 13. 53 EIA tee iota ce Poexsae ree trem a0 sis os ois. cee. Ve Say MAS: ER aes Meee tow caeals tsenes eas aie /
Brom gine factory .accnx|-0--0-0 512: A ER ER ey, ce eae GOR. SA co cceilsetitch bakes Castor pomace.............- O50) 56 4: DBO Y cawed<lponmnns CAS See eee eee ee | Cotton-hull ashes........... (chee Sere 22otoh ecole G50-| 8.85.) 9.605) looted ccs. Cotton-seed meal:
TROOOES Sook ds 66» ehettece's ci Be ee ee ee Sd Ee ae eee ers fis wines
WERGOOUEY 5 ds Dede ok Sen eted ee ee eee 8 Ree eee eens cree aa Dirt DOO «cuss 5 ett « wiciws ow a ai, eats Seen Bier fetta es He rcrcluacianuthecie eaten oon eo rematet m Dried fish....... eee aaceie ri ay CP hs NRK NM IN eg eee Se Eel 5) apaeata marina) ..| 81.19 35 fhe lteeete ic ocecee . 07 51 SSF 1225367 Grey RETO Nro coven S wartenets Wiese OY Petre nee | wn oe sed eae heise wlels msiiceme d os 43. 66 8.30 | 20.73 MAG Vin. doin = «Genkoan wees BAD A: Se ISG Hi so asa eeatfaccues 4 1.15 9.80 | 20. 25 Kelp (Laminaria saccharina
MG Lh: AGUA) i. wrninwinin ojos 87. 75 . 20 a | RN . 06 40 DO. | xctesknc
RUMORELUMCTSUPS eae tera a cic owner DOs | ee ech ln watv elapse + MOT een oe ls eee ln ane ee
Mona Island guano......... 13. 32 SA Nei a 5 oie N ee aig els ct I eee 1 Ole Ae owns omie| maces
MOE. Semin? «(eek ee 50 1.10 Ae eee) Pee 9051 5S awe dancass lasacte pean aie
Muriate of potash .......... te ee RG Orie, cheb whieh dd cies doknenbes leekd claek sae
Navassa phosphate ......... Gln el EIE > Ssisiei Allin aid Veiceionimeeneys re OR Oe eae Pees
Nitrate of potash........... doh | it e069 Ey SEY bee EARP RIES jaya Sle
Nitrate of soda............. i +, ARMM RRA 1p 8 Bees age A, ABS LSP
Oyster-shell limea.......... LG? Spl aceace OBS aackchaettn wae 18 | 55 35 60
Rockweed (Fucus nodosus |
and F. vesiculosus)........| 76.90 «Bl. SSC lad soe ted eke bes 10; .47 oS ey.
Seaweed ashes ...-.......--- yt pee Wire nc ated 30} €.06/| 4.37) 2.98
South Carolina rock: | DABSOLVE . ... e cecncceleceneec|souccea|scesess 11. 60 | 15. 20 [2.22 eres eres TORRE, .. oceasagwanens ono]: As BO Lececug) forcrne- 27 |. .07 | 28,03 | 41.87 | 3.03 j.......
@18.5 carbonate.
(see ee ee
>.
572 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
FERTILIZERS—C ontinued.
Phosphoric acid. Sul sy Nitro- Se | Mag- BY. -| Chie. Fertilizer. Lime. | 8 |phuric| en. Solu- | Re- | nesia. |P2U rine. & ble. |verted. Total. acid. COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS— continued. Per ct.|Per ct Per ct. |Per ct.|Per ct.|Per ct.|Per ct. |Per ct. Sulphate of ammonia....... OOO Ma e's A oe Scheie as | Sacacadlaeamaiele soos ce) gh) Mill. er Sulphate of potash (high
Prado) e222 bo. he Bes OA ee ee St QandO Seda cll cinta ail Merce cel ae EIS Se 4D TI oeac Wankare.2 25.0 552.1. See ee Cr | US ek eae 6:10) |) AL. 80 cc ccle soe eels ees ee ree Mhomas Slee% . ==5- Seat ABs ee so ln eden eee 3..06 |:23..49)) 48566 .|: .3. 42) ).. 22a ance Tobacco stalks ........--.-. 370 |, GaGartet ache hoes 65-|. 2.22)... .5Otole eel ee ioe SLOBACCOLSUCMIS 2.0 a:<.c<cemciece 7) | ehh al SSS 5 5 ooneoe .70 | 4.20 80 65 0. 65
FARM MANURES. Cattle excrement (solid,
PA) PB Beek Gaels Bers ke 0, 29). 0510 | settee ole ceane| O01T 7) ce enka ase Sees Cattle urine (fresh) ...-..---]..--..- 208 [AG ln slate’ = 1oll\E je wo o.ci| od ices hela ma iorsi il iota Sees | See ee eer Hen manure (fresh)......--- 60 1.10 FOO We seis omic moar oBDilcicie:ciaeiclle cares |e oe ee eee Jiorse excrement (solid) ..-.|....... 44 Roo sles inte eels eieios oT. | a.s<atecreilts xine alate Sneeeeae oe ae Horee marine), (fresh))q...2:-,..-.02%| santos « P55. DSO alc ce see | Se wean aarp cee wares eee | See ee See Human excrement (solid)...| 77.20 | 1 SO bee oe ee eae T.00us. 2.3 clnecescclbeer eee Seeeeee Hinman: UTING once sesec se 95. 90 . 60 PaO als .ccewia aliGemracnie 217 | seccboltt set | ee eee Pigeon manure (dry)........ 10 e520 Gill ees adel cra lee ae 1.90 |. 2.10 |. -0: 80, } 20560 0: 50 Poudrette (night soil).--...- 50 . 80 Fo. Rissa be See 1. 40 . 80 . 60 - 40 . 08 Sheep excrement (solid, |
MESS) ' 2 32 Lo sess te eee eee . 05 5 US sop aos |b ease SOUS PREF 52 |\- are asin nim setae latet | Same Sheep urine (fresh)......-.--.)+<.+s6. SO OPE) ese ols cere 2010-22 sees Ne aioe 2 tie Siete es See Stable manure (mixed) -.-.. 73. 27 -50 POU Risseeee le aseae £809) .5 ts Ae ae | Saapeeten Sees Swine excrement (solid, |
APCS) sce ocelot anced ose seers . 60 PIO oeeacee le emeciee 640 |i nooo cloce eee eee eee Swine urine Gresh) -.)5...4.-|c-.- ==. .43 Sor lteees Sel tioceis<.< Ay Gili | oe cae ool See eee Barnyard manure (average).| 68.87 | .49 eee otis |e sisiessia Noo eete ae Beeetee se 228 Soe ae
Amount and value of manure produced by different farm animals.
[New York Cornell Experiment Station. ]
Per 1,000 ds of li ight. ; er pounds of live weig Value of
Animals. Amount | Value per | Value per eae ty
per day. day. a year. a@ por. oe Pounds. Cents SVE) hy 3h Se OB SRO RGN AB AAGHG DF a AO ONE ADODODE Aone S 34. 2 $26. 09 $3. 30 ROIS arts wa tote aie dcrnlcs faiara pcos tahass ates See meee ae 67.8 6.2 24. 45 2.18 VO = Beater aincniai=: fimo wise =o ike sree te telat fe ectote siere 83. 6 16.7 60. 88 3.29 COWS oo eat oe ee wie oa die si awit nye Tac Ravwiele Bee eee eee 74.1 8 29. 27 2. 02 ELOUBOS) Sees ee oie cle wis aenic = cies oclajefe apie lajalavelcie se iaiee eis ote 48.8 7.6 27.74 2.21
a Valuing nitrogen at 15 cents, phosphoric acid at 6 cents, and potash at 44 cents per pound.
METHODS OF CONTROLLING INJURIOUS INSECTS, WITH FOR- MULAS FOR INSECTICIDES.
By C. L. MARLATT, First Assistant Entomologist, U. 8S. Department of Agriculture. REMEDIES FOR IMPORTANT INSECTS.
ANGOUMOIS GRAIN MOTH (Gelechia cereallella Oliv.). Prompt thrashing of grain after harvesting; bisulphide of carbon in bins and granaries.
APPLE-LEAF SKELETONIZER (Canarsia hammondi Riley). Spraying with arsenicals (paris green and london purple) in June; hand picking of leaves with larve.
APPLE-ROOT PLANT-LOUSE (Schizoneura lanigera Hausm.). Kerosene emulsion under and above ground; scalding water poured freely about roots; bisulphide of car- bon underground about roots; ashes around trunk.
APPLE-TREE BORER, FLAT-HEADED (Chrysobothris femorata Fab.). Painting trunk and larger branches in June with strong soap solution, washing soda, or mixture of whitewash and paris green; placing bars of soap in crotches of trees, to be washed down by rain.
ARMY WORM (Leucania unipuncta Haw.). Burning over fields in winter; ditching; paris green.
—_
CONTROL OF INJURIOUS INSECTS. 573
ASPARAGUS BEETLE (Crivceris asparagi Linn.). Prompt marketing of all canes; dusting with lime; arsenical mixtures (paris green and london purple).
BEAN WEFVIL (Bruchus obtectus Say). Treating with bisulphide of carbon in air- tight vessels.
BLISTER BEETLES (Dpicauta vittata Fab., EH. cinerea Lec., E. pennsylvanica DeG., Macrobasis unicolor Kb.). Arsenicals, 1 pound to 100 gallons of water.
BOLL WoRM. (See Corn ear worm.)
BUFFALO GNAT (Simulium pecuarum Riley). Smudges; oil, grease, etc., applied to stock.
CABBAGE BUG, HARLEQUIN (Murgantia histrionica Hahn). Spring collecting from trap mustard; hand picking.
CABBAGE WORMS (Pieris rapw Sch., Plutella cruciferarum Zell., Plusia brassice Riley). Pyrethrum; kerosene emulsion; paris green, dry, with’ flour or Jime—1L part of the poison to 50 to 100 of the diluent.
CANKERWORM, SPRING (Paleacrita vernata Peck.). Arsenical mixtures in spray ; trap- ping temale moth in oil troughs or tar bands about trunk of trees.
CARPET BEETLE OR BUFFALO MOTH (Anthrenus scrophularie L.). Benzine; hot iron- ing of carpets over damp cloth; killing by steam.
CHINCH BUG (Blissus leucopterus Say). Burning wild grass land and all rubbish in early winter; kerosene emulsion; contagious disease; trap crops; ditching.
CLOTHES MOTH, SOUTHERN (Tinea biselliella Hum.). Airing and sunning; benzine; naphthaline; packing in paper bags.
COCKROACH, GERMAN; CROTON BUG (Phyllodromia germanica L.). Pyrethrum or buhach; bisulphide of carbon in tight rooms or compartments away from fire.
CODLING MOTH; APPLE WORM (Carpocapsa pomonella Linn.). Arsenicals; first appli- cation as soon as blossoms fall; second, one or two weeks later, just before the fruit turns down on the stem; trapping larve by applying bands to the tree; prompt destruction of infested fallen fruit.
COTTON WORM (Aletia xylina Say). Paris green dusted on as dry powder.
CORN ROOT-WORM (Diabrotica longicornis Say). Rotation of corn with oats or other crop.
CORN STALK-BORER, LARGER (Diatrea saccharalis F.). Plowing under or burning
- stubble.
ConrN EAR WORM; BOLLWORM (Heliothis armiger Hbn.). Late fall plowing; poi- soned baits; for cotton, planting corn as trap crop.
CURRANT WORM, IMPORTED (Nematus ventricosus Klug). Hellebore, 1 ounce to 2 gallons water, in spray.
CUCUMBER BEETLE, STRIPED (Diabrotica vittata Fab.). Protecting young. plants with netting; arsenicals.
CutrworMs (Agrotis, Leucania, Mamestra, Hadena, Nephelodes, etc.). Distribution of poisoned green bait; late fall plowing; burning waste tracts and rubbish.
ELM LEAF-BEETLE, IMPORTED (Galeruca xanthomelena Schr.). Arsenicals, 1 pound to 100 gallons water.
FLEA-BEETLE, STRIPED (Phyllotreta vittata Fab.). Kerosene emulsion; arsenicals.
FLUTED SCALE (I[cerya purchasi Mask.). Introduction of its ladybird enemy, | edalia cardinalis; hydrocyanic-acid gas treatment; soap, 1 pound to 2 gallons hot water.
FRUIT BARK-BEETLE (Scolytus rugulosus Ratz.). Burning trap trees and infested trees at any time, but preferably in winter.
GRAIN WEEVILS (Calandra granaria Linn., C. oryza Linn.). Bisulphide of carbon in bins and granaries.
GRAPE PHYLLOXERA (Phylloxera vastatrix Planch.). Submersion; bisulphide of car- bon, kerosene emulsion or resin compound about roots; use of resistant stocks. GRAPEVINE LEAF-HOPPER (L/rythroneura vitis Harr.). Spraying with kerosene emul-
sion in early morning; catching on tarred shield.
GyPrsy MOTH (Ocneria dispar L.). Spraying with arsenicals; hand collecting of cocoons and eggs.
HESSIAN FLY (Cecidomyia destructor Say). Late planting; selection of wheat less subject to attack; rolling; pasturing to sheep; rotation of crops.
Hop PLANT-LOUSE (Phorodon humuli Schr.). Destroying all wild plum trees in vicinity; spraying others in fall or spring with strong kerosene emulsion; spray- ing vines with kerosene emulsion or fish-oil soap; destroying vines after hops are picked,
HORN FLY (Hematobia serrata R.-D.). Application of strong-smelling greases and oils to cattle, or lime or plaster to dung.
Locust, CALIFORNIA DEVASTATING (Caloptenus devastator Scudd.). Poisoned bait of bran, sugar, and arsenic.
Locust, LESSER MIGRATORY (Caloptenus atlanis Riley). (See Rocky Mountain locust.)
Locust, RED-LEGGED (Caloptenus femur-rubrum DeG.). (See Rocky Mountain locust.)
Locust, Rocky MOUNTAIN (Caloptenus spretus Thos.). Catching with hopperdozers; ditching; burning; rolling; plowing under of eggs.
574 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Ox BoT (Hypoderma lineata Vill.). Strong-smelling fats and oils applied to cattle.
OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE (J/ytilaspis pomorum Bouché). Kerosene emulsion; |
strong soap or alkali washes.
PEACH-TREE BORER (Sannina exitiosa Say). Cutting out the larve or scalding them with hot water in late autumn or early spring; painting trunk with arsenicals in thick whitewash; wrapping trunk with grass, paper, ctc.
PEAR-TREE PSYLLA (Psylla pyricola Forst.). Kerosene emulsion: First, a winter application diluted seven times; second, in spring as soon as leaves are unfolded, diluted nine times.
PEAR-TREE SLUG (£riocampa cerasi Peck.). Hellebore, 1 ounce to 2 gallons water in a spray; whale-oil soap, 12 pounds to 50 gallons water; arsenicals.
PEA WEEVIL (Bruchus pisorum Linn.). Keeping seed over to second year; bisulphide of carbon in tight vessels.
PLUM CURCULIO (Conotrachelus nenuphar Herbst). Arsenical spray: First, before
the bloom appears or as soon as foliage starts; second, immediately after blossoms _
fall; third, a week or ten days after the last; collection of adults from trees by jarring.
“eg ye Saas COLORADO (Doryphora 10-lineata Say). Arsenicals, 1 pound to 100 gallons water.
PURPLE SCALE OF THE ORANGE (Mytilaspis citricola Pack.). Kerosene emulsion, applied immediately after appearance of new brood.
RICE WATER WEEVIL (Lissorhoptrus simplex Say). Draining.
ROSE CHUAFER (Macrodactylus subspinosus Fab.). Planting spiras, etc., as trap plants, and collecting beetles in special pans; arsenicals; kerosene emulsion.
SAN JOSE SCALE (Aspidiotus perniciosus Comst.). (See ante, pp. 272-276, for life history and remedies. )
SCREW WORM (Compsomyia macellaria Fab.). Prompt burning or burying of dead animals; smearing wounds with fish oil; washing with carbouic acid.
SQUASH BORER (Melittia ceto Westw.). Planting early summer squashes to be de- stroyed; late planting of main crop; destruction of all vines attacked as soon as crop can be gathered; collecting moths.
SquasH BUG (Anasa tristis DeG.). Early burning of vines and all rubbish in fall; biweekly collection of eggs.
STRAWBERRY WEEVIL (dnthonomus signatus Say). Trap crops; protecting beds with cloth covering; using staminate varieties only as fertilizers and as few plants of the former as necessary; spraying with paris green.
SUGAR-CANE BORER (Diatrea saccharalis Fab.). Burning trash and laying down seed
cane underground.
WEB WORM, FALL (Hyphantria cunea Dr.). Prompt removal and destruction of webs with larve; arsenical spraying.
WHEAT Isosoma (Jsosoma tritici Riley). Burning stubble; rotation of crops.
WHEAT PLANT-LOUSE (Siphonophora avene Fab.). Rotation of crops.
WHITE GRUB; JUNE BEETLE (Lachnosterna spp.). Luring the beetles by lights over tubs into water withskim of kerosene. Against larve: Kerosene emulsion; liberal use of potash fertilizers; collecting after the plow.
WIREWORMS (Drasterius elegans Fab., Melanotus fissilis Say, and Agriotesspp.). Fall plowing; poisoned baits; rotation of crops.
INSECTICIDES.
{DIRECTIONS FOR TIEIR PREPARATION AND USE.)
Paris green and london purple (arsenicals).—These are especially adapted to biting insects, including the majority of the injurious caterpillars, many beetles, and locusts, and are applied either in water or as powder. Paris green or london purple is used at the rate of 1 pound to 100 to 250 gallons of water, or 1 ounce to 6 to15 gallons. The stronger mixtures are for resistant foliage, as that of potato, and the greater dilu- tious for more sensitive foliage, as that of peach or plum. An average of 1 pound to 150 gallons of water is a good strength for general purposes. Make the poison into a thin paint in a small quantity of water, and add powdered or quick lime equal to the amount of poison used, to remove the danger of scalding, and strain into the spray tank. Always use lime with london purple in any application to peach or plum; to the stronger foliage of apple and most shade trees paris green without lime may be safely applied at the rate of 1 pound to 150 gallons.
If it be desirable to combine in one application a fungicide with the insecticide, bordeaux mixture may be used instead of water as a diluent for the arsenical, the lime of this fungicide at once neutralizing the soluble arsenic.
Application in form of powder is valuable for any low-growing crop, and particu- larly cotton. In cotton fields the dry powder is usually dusted over plants from osnaburg bags attached to each end of a pole carried by a man on horseback. The
INSECTICIDES. 575
application is preferably mado in the carly morning or late evening, when the dew is on. From 1 to 4 pounds are required to the acre. Garden vegetables may be dusted from bags or with powder bellows, using a mixture of 1 ounce of poison with 6 pounds of flour or 10 of lime.
Poison bait.—This method is available for cutworms, wireworms, and local inva- sions of locusts. For locusts, take one part by weight of white arsenic, oneof sugar, and six of bran, to which add water to make a wet mash. Place a teaspoonfui of this at the base of each tree or vine, or apply just ahead of the advancing army of grasshoppers, placing a tablespoonful of the mash every 6 or 8 feet, and following up with another row behind the first. For cutworms and wireworms, small bunches of green plants, such as clover, dipped in a very strong arsenical solution, are distrib- uted about in the infested fields, and protected from drying by covering with boards or stones. ‘The bran-arsenic bait will also answer for cutworms.
Hellebore.—This insecticide is valuable for the currant worm and less so for other biting insects. Mix fresh white hellebore with water at the rate of 1 ounce of the former to 3 gallons of the latter. This poison can be safely applied to vegetables shortly before they are to be eaten.
Pyrethrum.—This insecticide is adapted for indoor use, or small patches, against all sorts of insects. Applied wet in a spray, it should be used at the rate of 1 ounce to.3 gallons of water, allowing it to stand twenty-four hours before applying. In the dry form it may be dusted about rooms and over plants, either pure or mixed with an equal bulk of air-slaked lime.
Soaps.—Any strong soap dissolved in water makes a good insecticide against soft- bodied insects, and may be used at the rate of half a pound to the gallon of water for plant-lice, pear slug, ete. Used at the rate of 14 or 2 pounds to the gallon of water, it is one of the most satisfactory winter washes known against scale insects. The whale-oil soaps are very much the more effective, and spray more readily than solutions of other soaps.
Kerosene emulsion.—This is especially adapted to sucking insects, including plant bugs, plant-lice, scale insects, thrips, and plant-feeding mites. The kerosene and soap emulsion is prepared as follows:
et ee ae wa tet wee ey tae che ons wo on gates eee et galions.. 2 emia soay (or quart bolt soap) . .... 6... .20-cqn enn anne see pound... 4 iieias ais Jarier GOLE Tels ila os dG as Sheu ones gallon... 1
Dissolve the soap in boiling water, and add the hot solution, away from the fire, to the kerosene. Agitate violently for five minutes by pumping tho liquid back upon itself with a force pump until the mixture assumes the consistency of cream. Well made, the emulsion will keep indefinitely, and should be diluted only as wanted for use.
In limestone or hard-water regions it is best to use the milk emulsion.
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Heating is unnecessary; churn as in the former case for three to five minutes, or until a thick, buttery consistency results. Prepare the milk emulsicn from time to time fur immediate use.
For summer applications for most plant-lico and other soft-bodied insects, dilute these emulsions with 15 to 20 parts of water; for the red spider and other plant mites, the same, with 1 ounce of powdered sulphur per gallon; for scale insects, larger plant bugs, larve, and beetles, dilute with 7 to 9 parts water. For subter- ranean insects, such as root-lice, root maggots, white grubs, ctc., use either kerosene emulsion (or resin wash), wetting the soil to a depth of 2 or 3 inches, and follow with copious waterings, unless in rainy season.
For winter applications to destroy scale insects, stronger mixtures may be used.
The resin wash.—This is valuable for scale insects in dry seasons:
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Ordinary commercial resin is used, and the caustic soda is that put up for soap establishments in large 200-pound drums. Smaller quantities may be obtained at soap factories, or the granulated caustic soda (98 per cent) used—3} pounds of the latter being the equivalent of 5 pounds of the former. Place these substances, with the oil, in a kettle with water to cover them to a depth of 3 or4dinches. Boil forone or two horfrs, making occasional additions of water, or until the compound resem- bles very strong black coffee. Dilute to one-third the final bulk with hot water, or with cold water added slowly over the fire, making a stock mixture, to be diluted to the fullamountas used. When sprayed the mixture should be perfectly fluid, with-
576 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
out sediment, and should any appear in the stock mixture reheating should be resorted to.
As a winter wash for scale insects, and particularly for the more resistant San Jose scale ( Aspidiotus perniciosus), dilute one-third or one-half less for California and Florida. In colder climates it is not satisfactory.
The hydrocyanic-acid gas treatment.—This is especially valuable for scale insects. Tents of blue or brown drilling or 6-ounce duck, painted or oiled with linseed oil, to make as near air-tight as possible, are adjusted over small trees by hand or with poles, and over large trees with a tripod or derrick. Fused potassium cyanide (58 per cent purity), commercial sulphuric acid, and water are used in generating the gas, the proportions being 1 ounce by weight of the cyanide, slightly more than 1 fluid ounce of acid, and 3 fluid ounces of water to every 150 cubic feet of space inclosed. Place the generator (any glazed earthenware vessel of 1 or 2 gallons capac- ity) on the ground within the tent, and add the water, acid, and cyanide (in lumps) in the order named, the operator immediately withdrawing. Allow the tent to | remain on the tree for one-half hour for large trees or fifteen minutes for small ones. The treatment is best made on cloudy days, early in the morning, late in the evening, or at night.
Bisulphide of carbon.—This substance is a cheap and effective remedy for insects affecting stored food and seeds, natural-history specimens, etc., and is one of the best means against insects affecting the roots of plants. It readily volatilizes and the vapor is highly inflammable and explosive, and should be carefully kept from fire. For root-lice of grape, apple, peach, etc., put one-half ounce of bisulphide into holes about plant, 10 to 16 inches deep, 14 feet apart, and not closer to trunk than 1 foot, and close the holes. For root maggots, put spoonful into hole at base of plant and close immediately. For ant pests, pour an ounce of the liquid into each of several holes in the nest; close the opening with the foot or cover with a wet blanket for ten minutes and then explode the vapor at mouth of hole with torch. (For insects affecting stored grain, see p. 277.)
A CHEAP ORCHARD-SPRAYING OUTFIT.
Spraying to control various insect pests, particularly those of the orchard and garden, has reached so satisfactory and inexpensive a basis that it is recognized by every progressive farmer as a necessary feature of the year’s operations, and in the case of the apple, pear, and plum crops, the omission of such treatment means serious loss. The consequent demand for spraying apparatus has been met by all the leading pump manufac- turers of this country, and ready-fitted appara- tus, consisting of pump, spray tank or barrel, and nozzle with hose, are on the market in numerous styles and at prices ranging frm $20 upward. The cost of a spraying outfit for orchard work may, however, be considerably reduced by purchasing merely the pump and fixtures and mounting them at home on a strong barrel. An apparatus of this sort, representing a style that has proven very satisfactory in practical experience, is illustrated in the accom- panying figure. It is merely a strong pump with an air-chamber to give a steady stream provided with two discharge hose pipes. One of these enters the barrel and keeps the water agitated and the poison thoroughly intermixed, and the other and longer one is the spraying 24 hose and terminates in the nozzle. The spray- os ing hose should be about 20 feet long and may
Fic. 140.—Orchaid-spraying apparatus, be fastened to a light pole, preferably of bam- boo, to assist in directing the spray. ‘The nozzle should be capable of breaking the water up into a fine mist spray, so as to wet the plant completely with the least possible expenditure of liquid. The two more satis- factory nozzles are those of the Nixon and the Vermorel type. <A suitable pump with nozzle and hose inay be obtained of any pump manufacturer or hardware dealer at a cost of from $13 to $15. If one with brass fittings be secured it will also serve for the application of fungicides. The outfit outlined above may be mounted on a cart or wagon, the additional elevation secured in this way facilitating the spraying of trees, or for more extended operations, the pump may be mounted on a large water tank.
577
TREATMENT FOR FUNGOUS DISEASES.
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FUNGICIDES. 579
FORMULAS FOR FUNGICIDES,
(1) Ammoniacal copper carbonate solution :
rh Cl CN ee wi Mec ey val igd ven dddes= nu bess hind. oees ounces... 5 TIO Come WOR CREE iia dion aG'u oon a as os ae Rone onbmekaen meek wie pints.. 3 Ee, elu Ghee Gia a nb ue AMSA ay mesakSeo eo Aave ann sense gallons... 50
Place the copper carbonate in a wooden pail and make a paste of it by the addi- tion of a little water. Then pour on the ammonia and stir until all the copper is dissolved. If the 3 pints of ammonia is not sufficient to dissolve the copper, add more until nosediment remains. Pour intoa barrel and dilute with 45 or 50 gallons of water, and the mixture is then ready for use.
(2) Bordeaux mixture:
OI AULD TREND, g bap iniil ork kde ateesarape esa timabele eae: oneawicieet eienennimace pounds.. 6 NO NIE FANEIION ie. yal cecnsiictt = epharinpclighorahihaiel wil Bint weal do B+ i vatserimnetiny AO wien Me RE ee ES eta ag ais bale dels woh ou + Rin UPA Ne KAA ad ane iees gallons.. 22
In a barrel that will hold 45 gallons dissolve the copper sulphate, using 8 or 10 gallons of water, or as much as may be necessary for the purpose. In a tub or half barrel slake the lime. When completely slaked add enough water to make a creamy whitewash. Pour this slowly into the barrel containing the copper sulphate solu- tion, using a coarse gunny sack stretched over the head of the barrei for a strainer. Finally, fill the barrel half full of water, stir thoroughly, and the mixture is ready for use. The 50 or 60 gallon formula is made in the same way except that 50 or 60 gallons of water is added instead of 22 gallons. For further directions in making large quantities see Bull. No. 6, Div. Vegt. Path., pp. 8-11.
(3) Potassium sulphide:
MINTER HORE EVADUCUES aia, Spciore: sls stpnipegs See ath ose > ota nmnq> Sole ono Soi ounees.. 24 any ST RRR se A a ER eis
Dissolve the potassium sulphide in water and the mixture is ready for use,
(4) Hot water treatment.
This treatment is used for smuts of oats and wheat. Place two large kettles or two wash boilers on a stove; provide a reliable thermometer and a coarse sack or basket for the seed. A special vessel for holding the grain may be made of wire or perforated tin. The vessel should never bo entirely filled with grain, and in the kettles there should be about five or six times as much water by bulk as there is grain in the basket. In the first kettle keep the temperature of the water at from 116° to 130°, and in the other at 132° to 133°, never letting it fall below 130° lest the fungous spores may not be killed, nor rise above 135° lest the grain be injured. Place- the grain in the basket and then sink it into the first kettle. Raise and lower it several times or shake it so that all the grain may become wet and uniformly warm. Remove it from the first kettle and plunge it into the second, where it should receive fifteen minutes’ treatment. Shake about repeatedly, and also raise the basket containing the grain completely out of the water five or six times during the treatment. If the temperature falls below 132° let the basket remain a few moments longer; if it rises, a few moments less. Have at hand cold and boil- ing water with which to regulate the temperature. At the expiration of fifteen minutes remove the grain and plunge into cold water, after which spread it out to dry. ‘ihe seed may be sown at once, before thoroughly dry, cr may be dried and stored until ready for use. In treating oats keep them in water at 132° for only ten minutes and spread out to dry without plunging into the cold water.
(5) Resin wash:
LS a SR eS NY Se Ry ae ae aT eer ee pounds... 20 aeGie Bota (9S: POT COI a soln <us sci tub cakes > a niineies eee apni do.... & eee OLE CRUE NILE) wioscay cea Gd a Waseca 9 ale. + a dae AR eee lk nepiale: ine pinis.. 3 POR GO BEVIIEG sc ass cin ew 8 RE i te Aces inay ibs Bitterness signal gallons... 15
Place the resin, caustic soda, and fish oil in a large kettle. Pour over them 13 gallons of water and boil until the resin is thoroughly dissolved, which requires from three to ten minutes after the materials begin to boil. While hot add enough water to make just 15 gallons. When this cools, a fine, yellowish precipitate settles to the bottom of the vessel. The preparation must therefore be thoroughly stirred each time before measuring out to dilute, so as to uniformly mix the precipitate with the clear, dark, amber-brown liquid, which forms by far the greater part of the
580 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
stock preparation. When desired for use, take 1 part of the stock preparation to 9 parts of water. If the wash be desired for immediate use, the materials, after boiling and while still hot, may be poured directly into the spray tank and diluted with cold water up to 150 gallons.
(6) Corrosive sublimate solution :
Gortosive: sabe be a2. eee cha toe wetness See aoe eo ounces... 24 WMS SRR Le EEE ae Eh a Fh. ie A Teer 8 gallons... 15
This solution is used for potato scab. The corrosive sublimate is dissolved in about 2 gallons of hot water, and after an interval of ten or twelve hours diluted with 13 gallons of water. The potatoes to be planted are immersed in the solution for one and one-half hours, after which they are spread out to dry, then cut and planted as usual. A half barrel is a convenient receptacle for the solution. The potatoes may be put into a coarse sack and suspended in the liquid, first washing» the tubers. Corrosive sublimate is very poisonous and should be kept out of the way of childrea and animals. All treated tubers should be planted or destroyed.
GRASSES AS SAND AND SOIL BINDERS.
[Alphabetical list of the grasses mentioned in the article on grasses as sand and soil biaders by Professor Lamson-Scribner, with the Latin equivalents of the English names. ]
Alkali grass= Distichlis maritima Raf. = Distichlis spicata Green = Brizopyrum spica- tum Hook.
Beach grass = Uniola paniculata Linn. Also applied to Ammophila arenaria.
Bermuda grass = Cynodon dactylon Pers. = Capriola dactylon Kuntze.
Litter panic grass = Panicum amarum Ell.
Black grama = Muhlenbergia pungens Thurb.
Blady grass = Imperata arundinacea Cyr.
Broad-leafed spike grass = Uniola latifolia Mx.
Coast couch grass = Zoysia pungens Willd.
Common reed = Phragmites communis Trin. = Phragmites phragmites Karst.
Couch grass—= Agropyrum repens Beauv.
Creeping panis = Panicum repens Linn.
Fine-top salt grass = Sporobolus airoides Torr.
Fresh-water cord grass = Spartina cynosuroides Willd.
Giant rye grass== Ilymus condensatus Presl.
Hungarian brome grass= Bromus inermis Linn.
Tndian reed = Cinna arundinacca Linn.
Johnson grass== Andropogon sorghum var. Halapense Hack.= Andropogon halapensis Brot. = Sorghum halapense Pers.
*Kilittag” (Danish) = Ammophila arenaria Link.
Knot grass = Paspalum distichum Linn.
Knot-root grass Muhlenbergia mexicana Trin.
Long-leafed sand grass = Calamovilfa longifolia Hack.= C. longifolia Hook.
Long-leafed spinifex = Spinifex longifolius k. Br.
Louisiana grass = Paspalum platycaule Poir. = Paspalum compressum Nees.
‘“Marehalm” (Danish) =£lymus arenarius.
Marram grass = Ammophilaarenaria Link. = A. arundinacea Host. = Psamma arenaria,
Pimento grass — Stenotaphrum americanum Schrank.
“Rancheria grass” = Elymus arenarius Linn.
Redfield’s grass = Redfieldia Jlecuosa Vasey.
Reed = Arundo donax. (See Common reed. )
Reed canary grass = Phalaris arundinacea Linn.
Rolling spinifex = Spinifex hirsutus Labill.
Running mesquit = Hilaria cenchroides H. B. K.
Salt cedar = Monanthochloé littoralis Engel.
Salt grass = Distichlis spicata Green = Distichlis maritima Raf.
Sand reed = Ammophila arenaria. (See Marram grass.)
Sea lyme grass = Llymus arenarius Linn.
Southern wheat grass = [schamum triticeum R. Br.
St. Augustine grass = Stenotaphrum americanum Schrank.
Swamp millet = [schamum australe R. Br.
Switch grass = Panicum virgatum Linn.
Upright sea lyme grass = /lymus arenarius Linn,
Usar grass == Sporobolus orientalis Kunth.
Water oats = Uniola paniculata Linn.
Western rye grass == Llymus condensatus Presl.
Witch grass Agropyrum repens Beauv.
581
TABLE OF ONE HUNDRED WEEDS.
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582
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*SOULUM TOUINLOD
FARMERS’ BULLETINS. 587
PARMERS’ BULLETINS.
Applications for bulletins of this series should be addressed to the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., stating both the number and title of the bulletin desired.
[Farmers’ Bulletins Nos. 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, and 13 are not available. ]
No. 3.—The Culture of the Sugar Beet. Pp. 24, figs. 9. Contents: Climatie con- ditions—V arieties—Soil—F ertilization—Constituents—Rotation—Preparation of the land—Cultivation and cost—Harvesting—Siloing—Production of seed—Manufacture of sugar—Development of the cane and beet sugar industry—Consumption in the United States, 1890.
No. 6.—Tobacco: Instructions for its Cultivation and Curing. Pp.8. Contents: Seed bed on new and old land—How to sprout the seed—How to cover with canvas—How to hasten the growth of plants—Preparation of the soil for transplanting—Cultiva- tion—Pruning and topping—Curing—Effects of climate.
No. 7.—Spraying Fruits for Insect Pests and Fungous Diseases, with a Special Consider- ation of the Subjectin its Relation to the Public Health. Pp.20. Contents: Insecticides used in the form of a spray—The arsenites—Spraying from the hygienic standpoint— Does it pay to spray ?—Fungicides or remedies used in spraying—How and when to spray—Treatment of apple scab—Apple powdery mildew—Treatment of pear scab, cracking, andleaf blight—Treatment of leaf blight of the cherry, plum, and quince— Treatment of black rot of the grape—Downy mildew of the grape—Anthracnose of the grape—Use of copper compounds from a hygienic standpoint.
No. 11.—The Rape Plant: Its History, Culture, and Uses. Pp. 20, figs. 4. Contents: Need of the rape plant in the United States—Description and history—Different varicties—Adaptabilty of large areas—Experience in growing rape in the United States—Adaptability of soils—Preparation of the soil—Fertilizers—Seed and sowing— Cultivation—Uses—Rape as a pasture—Rape as a soiling crop—Rape as a catch crop— Rape as a green manure—Rape as a cleaning crop—Precautions to be observed in feeding rape.
No. 12.—Nostrums for Increasing the Yieldof Butter. Pp. 16. Contents: Gilt-edge butter compound—Black pepsin in butter making—Methods of advertising black pepsin—Butter made with the compound—Analyses of butter compounds—-Butter making by a new process—Composition of butter-making compounds.
No, 14.—Fertilizers for Cotton. Pp. 31. Contents: Does cotton require potash, phosphoric acid, and nitrogen ?—Proportions and amounts of potash, phosphoric acid, and nitrogen required—Calcareocus manures—The best time for applying nitrate of soda—Yield of lint per acre.
No. 15.—Some Destructive Potato Diseases: What They Are and How to Prevent Them. Pp. 8, figs. 3. Contents: How the diseases may be distinguished—Fungicides or preventives to be used—When and how to apply the fungicides—Cost of the work.
No. 16.—Leguminous Plants for Green Manuring and for Feeding. Pp.24. Contents: Green manuring, history, and explanation—How plants get nitrogen from the air— Crops for green manuring—Composition of green leguminous crops—Green manuring compared with feeding the crop—Green manuring on medium rich soils and sandy loam soils—Alfalfa and crimson clover for feeding—Cow pea for feeding—Advantages of sciling—Value of leguminous crops for feeding.
No. 17.—Peach Yellows and Peach Rosette. Pp. 20, figs.7. Contents: Distribution— Distinguishing characters—Preventive measures—Connecticut and Pennsylvania yellows laws.
No. 18.—Forage Plants for the South. Pp.30. Contents: Forage crops for ditterent soils—lormation and care of meadows and pastures—Forage plants successfully grown in the South.
No. 19.—Important insecticides: Directions for Their Preparation and Use. Pp. 23. Contents: Relation of food habits to remedies—Insecticides for external biting insects (food poisons)—Insecticides for external sucking insects (contact poisons)— Dusting and spraying apparatus—Remedies for insects.
No. 20.—Washed Soils: How to Prevent and Reclaim Them. Pp. 22, figs. 6. Con- tents: Chemical relations of the soil to surface washing—Methods to prevent washing—Recovering gullied hillsides by reforestation—Preparation for planting forests—Grasses and similar vegetation to prevent washing of land.
No. 21.—Barnyard Manure. Pp. 32, figs.7. Contents: Manure as a farm resource— Amount, value, and composition of manures produced by different animals—Com- parative value of solid and liquid parts—Influence of quality and quantity of food— Management and use of manure—Lasting or cumulative effect of barnyard manure,
588 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
No. 22.—The Feeding of Farm Animals. Pp.32. Contents: Principles of feeding— Composition of the animal body—Composition of feeding stuffs—Digestibility of feeding stuffs—Feeding standards for different kinds of animals—Calculation of rations—Selection of feeding stuffs—Feeding for fat and for lean—Wheat as a food for animals—Tables showing composition of feeding stuffs.
No. 23.—Foods: Nutritive Value and Cost. Pp. 32, charts 2. Contents: Nutriment in food and how it is used in the body—Chemical composition of food materials— The fuel value of food—Definition of food and food economy—Composition of food materials—Digestibility of food—Dietaries and dietary standards—Calculation of daily dietaries—Waste of food—Food and health—Tables of composition of food materials and of daily dietaries.
No. 24.—Hog Cholera and Swine Plague. Pp. 16. Contents: General charac- ters—Symptoms—Appearance on post-mortem examination—The cause of these dis- eases—Diagnosis and prognosis—Formula for remedy for hog cholera and swine plagne—Sanitary measures to prevent the introduction of hog cholera and swine plague—Prevention of disease by proper breeding and feeding.
No. 25.—Peanuts: Culture and Uses. Pp. 24, fig. 1. Contents: Description and history—Composition—Varieties—Climate and soil suitable for peanut culture— Manuring and culture—Harvesting—Uses.
No. 26.—Sweet Potatoes: Culture and Uses. Pp. 30, figs.4. Contents: Propagation— Character and preparation of soil—Transplanting—Cultivation—Manurin g—Har- vesting and storing-—Varieties—Fungous diseases and insect enemics—Uses—Cost of production.
No. 27.--Flax for Seed and Fiber in the United States. Pp. 16. Contents: Can both seed and fiber be saved ?—Soil selection and preparation—Fertilizing—Rota- tion—Sowing the seed—Meteorological considerations—Weeds—Harvesting the fiber—Saving the seed—Retting the straw—Practical considerations.
No. 28.—I¥ceds; and How to Kill Them. Pp. 31, figs. 11. Contents: General meth- ods of eradicating weeds—List of weeds attracting especial attention during 1894— Table of one hundred weeds.
Notre.—Other bulletins of this series are in press, including the following subjects: Silos and Silage; the Feeding of Sheep; the Feeding of Poultry.
PUBLICATIONS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The publications of the U. 8. Department of Agriculture are of three classes; (1) serial publications; (2) scientific and technical reports; and (3) popular bulietins.
The first two classes are issued in limited editions and are not intended for miscel- laneous applicants, being particularly designed for scientific students and for libra- Ties and institutions of learning. To persons requesting serial publications sample copies will be sent, together with instructions for making application to receive the sameregularly. The popular bulletins treat in a practical manner of subjects of par- ticular interest to farmers and are issued with a view to the widest possible circula- tion. All applications should be addressed to the Secretary of Agriculture, stating both the number and title of the bulletin desired.
The Department has no list to whom all publications are sent; the variety of the subjects treated naturally restricts the distribution of most of them to the sections of country to which they are specially suitable. The monthly list of publications, issued the 1st of each month, will be mailed to all who apply for it. In it the titles of the publications are given with a note explanatory of the character of each, thus enabling the reader to make intelligent application for such bulletins and reports as are certain to be of interest to him, which will be mailed on receipt of the application addressed as above.
The Department can not undertake to furnish complete sets of either Farmers’ Bulletins or other publications, except to libraries and educational institutions, where it is desirable to preserve them for reference and study.
INDEX.
Page.
Abattoirs, large, advantages, etc ..............- ERT ED CE ae ag psf Pee e 71
ee, SEVER sols sche ee erred dN ea Aden nerd coms enins apes nance seremy 307
Accounts, Division, and Disbursing Office, organization and duties ........-. 525
WO 0 eR ee acy bc nab suk ae ea.cehasemese vamasé 47
ITT, CONGCUCT oi cc ance ides e eas eo mciewin aa etasinasécv.agee meee aacnen 183
NENT NT DOTTONIN, “RCCL 22s pin os can ats Pane gain een dng nnnnemedeua quae vecces 57
eR, CG) TVR an Sa Sax wine nine We hin aoa fad te « <hea Pee hen 91
SURGOM, OPES ORAM MMOS coin ae ean aan naan onda aens bane de mp 95
DRORULED QUO. Sasae iia pa aks <sle acts atk eae be are 92
Causation, NTSt plate [22 . .. a ae oun x dete aae eed ae en 82
TET RCON, LOL Ia oes a navi ee sa oe ong.n be sie ae nace 85
Ti Pee WIMR EE UME enhance wee a me minicnirkcmiians oe ae 81
plans in New Jersey and other States ................ 87
presen status. - 225 ocs ss. ce. ous cee woke aed eas ocean
BemereePOrOTLE WUMOLONEE ote scale nly ae ne niual geo mad eka 3 103, 113
MEM SULIT WG VCATR. 2 a ace aa aka wenden sss cunb= a9 ae ocean’ 540
PRED ETM RET OUON » oo eS eae coe cae dene wane «meee ete A eee at
Moats LOL VG yOArs:..-.2 cue .oecs 2 Leeds vena nee « ca keene 543
institutions and experiment stations, list........-....-......---- 526
growth in United plating tearm! See earn! 81
products, principal, of leading cities, wholesale prices. ......-.-.-- 534
Soils, Division, organization Ga Tanned... 2... es eee 525
establishinent of Division ..........-.--..-.---++ccceseeee- 25
PiMCMimine. BeMIMGheh SOCTOtAry, QUIEN 56 oo. Foci nce mee Saver ncns none omens 523
ener eee MV TEE COULER OE go waren xo a Pew acie eK GAES « om CM owe 111 Department. “(Sce Department of Agriculture. my
MOUNT E POCUMEBEN 00 nia 5 0's x 4 40.4 Gah cigs 6 «EX aa g' Oxle ae Seiad 9
Meee SRR AT SUNOS coi at Walon avant hw LN Osim wei ig ee a el 86
CaN ree ARC re he ca rte gee a Ma MGs = 4 gas wn nae Wee oa oa ee 523
SNOT ONTMR CB acts a cee ac wate Rie Sica mas vig t am nw era haw’ es tee eee 65
WIGURHMOEMOHDEREINS (hd sem uvas deat roe ca eae ns oe eee 121
CRIME TRIEMRIOR” 22 rie foci s Sei nei veld wae gt seed cee ateccscre eeeesce= ee 574
Agrostis alba, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, ete..--.- 569
Agrostology, Division, organization and duties........-....... 2.2.2.2. -2246- 525
establishment of Divisiomrecommended................-------- 24
IE MEMICGG, S20 fer cr oe tefl N Cec dep Se uk Es ca neta ce eee tak sek ea oesee 573
Alfalfa, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, cte......----- 570
PE nmerCMinG-OTAGS) MODES: 222055556 oes sc cadens cae cne caceae scuccecesnen- 430
Almond shot- SPEER CCIE, SURES IIIOENG. ofS Soot ie Peltses se eneks ea ssae ae wees 577
Alopecurus pratensis, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, ete. 570
Alsike clover, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, etc..... 570
ALvonrp, H. E., article on ‘The dairy herd: Its formation and management”. 295
ersenty MOTSeSsIOt F Mele MGPKets so... ce ec wee ween en cee 22
Ammoniacal copper car rbonate, Suemiiee TO PUNPSICTAS: 05 to ew hea ca cess 579
EIS CONN SIOLOM tooo 2 Shs ae iets oe Sa me Se se wenn wane we eads ceeese 425
Anasa trislis, remedies Poem ees Pie ses ooesc s obs Fc PSS S oo ee ce wece acc 574
Pemrennaeeer ss WTUREY MMO, MOON foe fs SS SS ei os oe Saeco ed ace ak eaweee censtes 281
PE eS IRs lt pee eee aCe bce kes pee ane bean 572
mnie), COnposihion Of feeding Btuis 5. 2.665. ce i eer co Seca cece cece cn 558
distribution, fundamental principles ..-...---.--2- 62-2 ee eee ee ee eeee 211
fatagtry, Duread, appropriagious 22s 22 srsel. co Seds io oes See So eae SSS 36
extension of Civil -serviee)).. 5 i.0. 6. sees ses once 33
OT OaniCAon GUNG Caer. 4s. ooo. woes os ceow eee 523
VQNES OG CINE WOME. 2 SOR acn sed vc. aon acn dese eewnan 33
Animals, amount and value of manure produced. -............----.------ ee 572
diseased, from United States, charge made.............-.-.----.---- 12
in North America, geographic distribution.............-......--.-- 203
Annual reports of weather stations, extracts..........-..------------+----+---- 125
TOU WO! PARGR REW cals. lsaeien's cass peeled e wens sess wen cenes 51
Anthonomus signatus, re iG HD Milas se sac SER geen ae ee eee 74
Anthoxranthum odoratum, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost, ete. 570
590 INDEX.
Page
Anthrenus scrophulariw, remedies....-. -.-- ++ -- 200+ - 2-2 eee seen see cate meee 573 Anthyllis vulneraria, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost peracre, etc.. 570 Apatites, earliest mineral phosphate fertilizer; origin and composition....... 177 Aplomade faleon, MObeE:. 45. asheaciee ose oe ed ot ane os ae oe eee ee 228 Appendix to Ye arbook, fable sof On Gangs: foe's sie hte ns hee te Re cee 522 Apovle leaf skeletonizer, WOMB MUGS (5 aed eos axe ee epee snnine se ets Samia nee eee 572 root plant louse, OAc hk neces 572
scab; Lregbient ieee ep ees one cies ap <o nd) iietsns t= ae 577 trade, United Stages with Wintland «oo ooo eo. 8 ot enim pee cis pe ee 21
(tree borer, Hat-beaged, remedies... on ema os Seen: sae See 572 worn (eqdline main), comedies. 2.1... 0... sae ee han ee ae ee 573 Mnples, IMnvestigatien Of WAMICEIOS 1... 2b oi oe an synedaas mall eee 46 Appropriation 1895 and estimate 1896, comparison.........--...---.----.----- 48 for experiment ait oot 3. eee ee 49. Appropriations, amount saved fiscal year ending June 30, PG. 2 ee ee 9 prices Shot-hole fun us, ‘irediment 2525, 0. meg ob ne ee eee Soe ee jut ged 577 Arctic life zone, description ai ita garni AS ofp gree ae ea ae ae 2 ile 210 Said and humid rerions Compared oe on assee eree oni oe aden = ve an oe eee 157 résion, Gepth of cor Membure oo es eased ie ae Doe Cee 159
BOIS ian =~ eyepiece etnias iene) cay Oe oy cheery SST eae ee 155
ET REE ao fa ane a Sa pais perm Sapien pte Sica teat che Dh eas 163
Pe MOTT, TOMICOIES.. oso Ga ood wae ome Seti e wes Wag mek le ae 572 Arrhenatherum avenaceum, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost, etc... 569 Asparsgus heetic, remedies“... 5.065. oe soe ens eee ae eee 573 soil adapted adm «ine Wlalgiiee aecelah giana a bie) eee ao peer 5 eel rr 133
MEPUAOTES Per nicidsws, NOTES! a cw Senin dese ane a Saw aha wap emcee eee Ee Nee POMNOMICS, . So Sie cea pease ia miey eee > 2 ee 574
Assistant Secretary of Agriculture, divisions assigned to his direction... -- 24 COS oo 6p in tan can a * pment oop er 523
Atkinson, Edward, researches in focd nutrition........ gine ate 39 Silane seaboard track Tangs. oo no ie ie ccna a 129 vaine of Tand and track 2-2. oe. pe ae ee 131
arwater, W. O., articles on *Poebd and diet? <i o- neo. ocean eee 357 investigations im Tood Tutrition ..... 0 .o.22-<. ~~ see 39
Austroriparian life zone, description Saleh ere Sad Sw ng cia in, tee 211
Awnless brome grass, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre. 569
Bacon exports to United Kingdom...........-- (a emigiuid obanid keer ues ic. ge v7 imports inte United Kingdom. - 2.6: ).2-- 2-40.21 42: ee 13 relative value of Danish and American ...- 02). 2. .2- eee eee ee ee ees 15
BalILeEyY, L. H., article on ‘‘ Relationship between American and eastern Asian
PWM oe oe Leh e be tate eect sae ee ee eee 437
Bait, poison, preparation and use as insecticide. _-... 25... - 22 sae eee 575
Bald cagle, notes, ).: <0 worine teh thyes oy eee ines ROSE Beni 227
Bark-beetle, fruit, remedies... 2.225. peso nenieees eemdnet ooeeia: oe ae 573
louse, oyster-shell, notes... ... 2.2. 2 5... teste eshte aie oe aes) ose Ae 254 BOMOCMMOE Soir an errs Gms Bhgeioned aaron - eo 574
RETUUEEY , TANGO 2 ornate 1 8 he vy Sean fw ad aa eyeye Wma eel we os Legge enn 259
Marley. exports to Great Britain. oi. 135. ie sosns Sheil svc emer 20 farm price on December 1 of five Years oe asic wsre oni sn idl + de eee 545
PTICS WAGTSAG GPE AIN 255 he cictat orins mers wh pete «a/b pane emer aang eee 19
pmut, hot-water treatment 5.522.600. 2. 2s. cbs eet LA oe ee 417 tremimews.:. oo... 85 Gi ce tian wel So cb eo! 22k wg 577
NBN TATG IT OORT fo oi. eS ei tape reveals 2 md mime so = shalt hcl laste gn 414 wholesale price in leading Cities... <--> pablegupet= ~ a+ 25 soa 537
PE OWL BHR Soe oe sik sO Serine witpincne =a Unlbials -se- pec ieeets token nes a 223
Barred owl, nebee 2.26 he Oe oe ed ee ei eee: ed ede eel eee 225
Basic slag. ae B LOTR OR bo on jo 9 jak om 'npe. asim om aja eich pane apenas arden ee, aig 186
phosphates, Adv ter aphOMeiess 5c care oils aaeibenudinteingeain nie salem ele 190
Beach grass (water oats) aa soil bimAee . oan. wccectmeunensew see ene ces cee 430
BEAL, F. E. L., article on ‘‘Crow blackbirds and their food” .......:......--. 233
Been weevil, remedios: 2... 22. -oieds haieoe adicee dance bben dee 573
Beef cattle, exports to United Kingdom...............-.. yee a eee 10
dressed. (See Dressed beef.)
imports into United Kingdom. . ... 2.0. - 202.2 n-ne nseee nee one eee meee 13
price in Great Britain: 5. - 5. 000 ovo Lie bn =ik« «\~tidels anaes abe eee 19
quarters inspected, 1892, 1893, 1894 ...... 2.22 «.«ns <ontwiagind « «2m wlan oaaeeell 68 mais bak Pe TAD a psa aracs amet ah achianenihes gens capes nena 67
trade, conduct in BMgiand, .).-.<seaawies sens bese a5 gents aw see eeteiee 1i
.- on
INDEX.
Beet seeds, germination test......-- apnea rien asnseian, = since: Gil Aad At ga Uesininlincn an : fermude grass as-soil binder... ....... 2... 22. e220. one rn hibiatia abil vast wavs Boverages imported, inspection suggested ... 2. 22. ene ee ee eee eee cee . Biological survey, experimental ORE AAS SAL alae pn sagen alle Selnlaiatitd oa libata PIOVISION dor AF MLOIMAAIC 2 ano o ose occ cinnin coe viens es amsiece NTS COMINEER, MARIBOR: sis cin cians wieitaintpigny a, oie a aes Me cnccemibioeictis wibby aie Mets lain mibind I RN can asc reel ner yen mi a, 6 nmin hcmchandhbnw we tidus wih beac couh rere eG mariana), oe tama Gia a ask oi ow nti nie heen ce ccinc cinco foot trefoil, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, etc. . of prey, Found Babin oacenn eeietaaiegul <ieeibieicas anid <tebudnisatgan diebads SOO ABO itis a cece cok ts <A ASS AS mwinin oo pawbisiline PAMOCIONA, .£OmMe CharacterisWOes. 0 oe 5 nis nin cee ceiwss wre s Sees See ow-wae Bisulphide of carbon, preparation and use as insecticide. ...............-.... Bitter panic grass as de SI RR SER EIR eae © deree poeeeeiee oa Blackbirds, crow. (See Crow blackbirds. si RO BOE OU i iam nin mesic enim nin 5d aed ae and im bine tee we UGS TPOItS BS FOOD, nna osa m2 = Fetes po aban bh meni opis hese ii ‘ stomachs, list of vegetable substances found.......-..-......-.- Black knot of plum and cherry, | taealaaelt a: sige opis aid aso ee hele <aehes SNR NNO a oan nie saree cde ins ide abate «nace osinaoe ees “Blady grass” as soil binder............ Cen Re ae ae Rae Oe ge NE OR Bae AOE TS St Dur t, aead ot pear, treatment |... dnicienen siteseinanicicureseemebs nie te daild UNaMNMNDg: SIPO III oct ca emacs backs > ms ine le een iatie cen a a Biiseus Jeucopterus, and blister beetles, remedies... ....-- 2.2.20: -s0s+ cone cease eee eames PNG Me woll Aviskdey.. on ss cw ee ein be inten abe ice « mane oe Sees ES ee a be tn aA sense. yeh tirks, aa eae Bordeaux ‘mixture, Ponmene yom Aree. oe ee ok ow: oink meio cnien dalek vmne aren, 1ai-neatied apple-irce, reme(lies ....... ..-- ~~... 62 cow nnn woe lec ceeewens peach-tree, squash, and sugar-cane, remedies............----.----- 2. F Botany, Division, organization wel gE SARA ee aR Om DAES, * Se AI NO I snc ws Snr, nc Rabe eds o wee So ee Prime Satbcwoglasia, gharacher. <i. nnn wan ett ee ded wold acide on on eeceee PERNT IIS xn ica yp ayn, «eon eA ell investigations NI TN 6 ices ha ose Psa oath argon ‘ FREVGUICYOS WOGRRUPCS _... = a deicisl Seed nets osu cote reisiven to pewlic Weglhh oan cer sccs + dbjaisieiend «a neie suggestions for prevention and suppression..........-... i i Sree igi gaa oye AIEEE ee hs aha eeg a is composition, cost, and fuel value of 1 pound..........-.-..- id ees aad a I TUN as ra ining ae in pes Gar baie wa ny euns watwlegmn Brome grass, awnless, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, etc. MEM TT, 15) OL ITN OMT oo + secre in alas hs mye bk wea ake wi Bromus inernis, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, ete.... ANID ICRI TES sn ice aieceinis. pig m onic m petit nibks Kinicibn min "eimebebibibinle Sod bbtins Buffalo gnat and buffalo moth (carpet beetle), remedies... 2 nese edo eee. sws Pee ricgeln Cabbare, remedies... ..... -... -..<o0 enn cnn pone ded eecemicmeanns a a on a nn ce Cab = Man SaKE wth hie nie PS Peed ORGS AIO POUIONS . 2, 2 -- oe eee oe nce none on sdermnince ees nese Nm TIN ne SINUS TRIN a et ne a ais Seti adioiee ainmnidieamees ES a a ee ee ee a Bureau of Animal Industry, organization and duties................-.---.-.. Mi C2LRSl, OFEAMIzRION ONO CUTIES .. . ~~... 2-2 nnn seewirns menses sane RN CURE ANIM os i its wisxm x xv y ein bie © vimninisearn einen ile ih a ee
Cabbage bug, harlequin, and.cabbage worms, remedies ............----.---.. RINE ha ilk RR aia a en alan son dees 0425 wallow eee abled ob ee REE + SUA CER d ba DRA Knee danas see ccedaceann aise cualade cine Calandria yranaria, NOCCS... 5 .1s ses esses coe pincer Seipha ile acan wee SORE at ueutiedaeme OMIIG As <iicin dl nice as niu a qed PD Rcigia le dine ob 4 abt we Webel
ONYSA, MOTOR... 2.5 vee ccece ade meee eect mse mes swe ces wewses etn Jesees
POMIOMLIGS: w'css baad ceints o.cnes,e nach dpebinkecdwcke cee dds bbws California-devastating locust, remedies... . 22.25. seco ee eect eee eee Caloptenus atlanis, C. devastator, C.femur-rubrum, and C. spretus, remedies .-....
OG FOUN TLOOI, CREB. iad. ae acne sane celts aes ideme anse Less eeees sce
mum ber carcasses.inspected, 1892, 1893... 2... wane ne cece anne sew eeee
cal vine -time-and-drying Off COWSs 02.2.6... eke tee dec csc ccc emewens te ceee ews
Camptobrochis grandis and C. nebulosus, scale insect enemies .........---.----- PaetIg te LITG! FONG MOSCTIDTION esis «6 nn oc cna cane wens ween cone comees saenes .
280 573
579 573 nwo
O78 308 68
306
253
210
592 INDEX.
Page Canarsia hammondi, TEemedies:... = 2.-csce cows aks ee vo eae aa eee 572 Canary grass, reed, NOEs. CoS ae sc nak tee a Pe 433 number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost — acre,etc. 569 Cankerworm, remedies. 22<<.22 Une we eed wuee ts Wcrned ] (OR Ce 573 Canned meat, number packages stamped 1891, 1892 ....0..2..00¢ se... 520 oR 67, 68 Carcasses; reasons for-condeniiing + $..04- 2 21 es. eer ee te. SEI OO A 70 Garolinian: life-zone, Weserintiemiiiss ob 25.2 a soc he Godin seen ae 211 Carpet beetle (buffalo moth), and Carpocapsa pomonella, remedies.........-..- 573 CathartusGemeliatus, Nees TEL Poo Lh So EO oe Oe 290 Cattle, beef, exports46 United Kingdom .......... 500.000.0204. eae ee 10 dairy. (See Dairy cattle.) diseased, trem United States, charge made 2.22) ).0ss.. 208. eo 12 losses reduced in shipment; number a SMELLS - OSL eee ao shows in Massachusetts. (22326. es.coant YORE: AO RE ee 84 Cecidomya destructor, remedres os.) 2.2 ee a oe 573 Census, annual ‘acricultural 2222 22.6 sce). denne ce dk EO a ee 57 Cheese exports te United Kingdom...2.. oii. 290 2 Le Lee 18 Chemicals for preserving milk oe) cet es DLC 8 BSL Lae 332 Chemistry, Division, organization and duties):2.22.-..55 25221 seh ee 524 work. of the wyear.. ce. 10s. co eA eee eee 45 Cherry black knot and leaf-blight, treatment......... 2.2.2. sie. J20 0200s eee 517 Chilocorus bivulnerus, scale insect-enemy.........-... ~~. 1282502221. ee eee 253 Chinch- bug, remedies . oe noi ee eR ee eee 573 Chtonaspts-furfurus, NOt ...200.00 2S A ee eee 259 CHITTENDEN, |I’.H.,article on ‘‘Moreimportantinsectsinjuriousto stored grain”. 277 Chrysobothris femorata, remedies wr. ssc. soso erssiort een esinns on ee Ce ee 572 Civil service, extension in Bureau of Animal Industry .............-.:-2..-:-. 33 Olay (mechanical separakion its... a4. beh SOLU ee 134, 135, 136, 147, 148, 152 Chmate required for ramie....., <Sssso ens 2s ee ee ee 446 Climatic data; compilation... ee Sek Ps Sh a 119 fOr SAWItATiANS -202 sous seen sk 6 es ok 2 120 Clothes moth, southern, remedies |... 52.2 ssa Seosuecuss ee SUL Ree eee 573 Viouds, systematic study... 0. 6.4 2 te SS ee oe 120 Clover, alsike, red, and white, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, ete.... 570 Coast couch prass.n8 sand binder . oc soese STN Ue SE Le eee 433 Cockreach, German, remedies. 3...0 02 io. ek ct Le See ee eee 573 Codling moth (apple wernt), remedies? - 2.42205. }2n 28 Ss Pas 573 College,;-the first agricultural son 1.1 sea gens co tisinnews sien aes Oe 91 Colleges, agricultural, bills granting lands... 2. ...\ 2.20... 3. 2 95 Morrill act .2s<aes $sh-s2cs cac55025 ei eee 92 having courses In agriculture 2. 20).-2/..5082 522 a eee eee 111 Colorado potato beetle, remedies... =. . =... 2.22052. seo OSes eee 574 rainfall available for crops .232 [Ae 2 Pk 232-22 ee eee 157 Compsomyia macellaria, TeEMmedies. < « sc sac,2sanc ree sewe dee eee ee Hee eee 574 Congress, Washington’s messave..2t 2/00 l ue eees (ee ee Le ee 83 Connecticut tobaced: soils oc. csc ee cnesds wee peels oe tk 2 os eee 143, 146 Conotrachelus nenuphar, remedies 2. 202-24 +4 22025-60000 dienes Soe 12S eee 574 Wooper 8 awk MOtes s2 oos.o0 vere deve coded 4 ugae cree ese es Sa eee 231 Copper sulphate treatment for stinking smut of wheat.......-.--..----.----- 417 Doppice, management... 2.3.2 455 Poses ood eee woes sc 202221420) 2 eee 493 Coprolites, origin and composition... 2.0205 - 2.2. eee ok oe a 177 Cord grass as‘soil ‘ynder: 6252356322008 ce5 300.0542 05 2A e lL a 436 fresh-water, ap.s0il binder: 2s. sccte se osc ws 6 saad coy coe ee eee 436 Corn, averarve yield in Kansas. .2525sscascs csecoe ces sss dh'sieete ele W- EL 158 ear worm (bollworm), remediesic.. .. 65.0 2 ono 302 son nes hk eee eee 573 farm. price.on December 1 of five;years...- 056.0008 .0ssiews gee wccteeee 515 EOE WORM, TODO TCG ai inicio mein 3 cme tin cyano) ogg ewes 573 PBN ERIN ER TEEN anes 5e ein ecelm tnke, ODages ns ea 414 Stalk-horer; TEMOGies occ oom wie. a. 00s0:nce:m nam nos neh a aula BLES oe 573 wholesale price in leading Cities... acciaiec.nnipne rive chic eRe sas 534 Correlation of the life zones. 5.2 2% eos s kee es bees «Stew a oe Ma 207 Cotton exports to Unifed Kingdom... 0s oacecisxen + ndmn anvinneeeaes «see 18 farm price on December 1 of five years: i): <.066 -duwsos.eerehe beeen ee 545 fertilizing constituents in 300:pounds.of lint. 202.4 seas. «hae ee 544 wholesale prieé.in leading cities... ....- ++ «++. gtwodcnsiens exes ae 539 WOT, TOMI GOI Fa nie wo on ann «0b 6 MES, auld « Jtudalaceiaiae nea eee a 573 Couch grass (witch erase) 8 801) binder... =< 5.220eshs.4heelivld @ Sein ae 435
const, au:eand, DINER > a.oin iin sdsiniare pha'swia where ps deeds eee 433
INDEX. 593
Page
Rte ie ec ntad sd sn ance vpdb sobesdveue dcccadnedakae 565 dairy. (See Dairy cow.)
aGll, MIN CANVMAI DUNG: o 2. coe oe oa bees cece anes cows cepeoncve 306
SGI MOUIRCTL CAINE OTN hE S26 Ls as scl s cach ean wees tdbccccedeves 311
St OMT ER Sh S Sane acl ddecds acco anda satin hee oeb'e see 313
Creeping fescue, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, ete... 569
NRO I RGR Aken a reise neu eeibneld sen de been cdae specu abate 433
Crested dog’s-tail, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, etc.. 570
IG MG RINTC HOUNERIIOM cubs «kn ae Sika olsen seb ssa et leee eedeac cd ween eeeshs 573
al Lee, Wenther CONGIMONS 1500) 625s does ones wk cee ween ecet coeubs cree 529
MIMO bLON, TOIADION OF BOUG Ilo awk te hoe Slee oo lee ieee uaeseviccanase 129
Daneeon piras. one their food OU Pies soe Pea Seis th is dea ened eece sacece 233
Contents OF MOUMGANO sr. s. so eke lee Clee kel Soles ete eeee eee 238
BOCCTA PING Tabi e ties sale eas ose ioe. co pos vt eee. 233
Onbervations Of Cet. anes oT ssa slates ove deo uaee 235
iemien Dectice, atriped, remedies. ........0200 05 2S soa e een skeen ewes mesa 573
TRE TON OUNOS* 5. Lato Soe sl redid oe ee ulus these 574
Currant worm, imported, remedies ....-...---- TA ee ee Py tee Pp ee 573
i PPMECBONE arias sth tau Seek aoe See eee dhe s Pies Sep Pee ehs ad eee oe 66
ears Wor. appointment ad Librarian ..052s 6.602. cs eoeie ce ween cee cns sblawes 61
Pierre TOMeCMIeS:..4...-42..5050.i55--- 5 Sie cea ake Bs hs ahs hak tech ta ee Bis ale 573
ron Re BOL DINGCT . 4. os nnn eceveknsacads shades Shelsee meas. MSeee 431
Cynosurus cristatus, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre,ete.. 570
DABNEY, Dr. CHARLES W., Jr., appointment as Assistant Secretary. ..-....--- 23
Dactylis glomerata, number seeds per pound, amount tosow, cost peracre,ete.. 569
SP EMUTMINMORUCQM. Oabaccn) aeccanes shes sa kes) lacus Joo eSe See oe eee 369
bela tit biG Cally 6; 250s Se aces So sS hl. Selle eee ean aces 296
pure-bred and grades, relative importance.................----- 298
Seleet, cor fpecial adaptationc.:-:- 552225 2ees 22 SST E Sas aees w See 296
cow, completed ration, and method of calculating ration. ......-..----- 564
po meemnmedations Tequireds.:. 2'.225: To. OSes se SS oe ee Sees 302
ScecnU ance aie Miki ge ios de~ Soaks oS Sa Sac ods cei ee cens Sak 310
Salling by individuality and record <2. 2.222.720.5222 See eee 300
POMS ssa ROOD EE A. fe CLEP DECI ES Bae et tere 314
forniation and managements ...5.6.5522 05-0060. ee eco ee
Meubon-camendored £¢ 3. cts d vucewsss seeds cas 25s Rel Poa aes 304
mirplications relating, lish 211.2220 22. Sess occa cie Sos tes én eqewe 316
BreetnenwOk WOM s2es.525 22. asieses 4 bass 282 esol lt csi ieees 299
ee anroy tre OUI1On, Pesultely. 2.02 cles Se Joo a aa cde epee 206
Dn rnem- DE TaIMIe, MOthOGS:.. -2.6csc0cdiass Pee Slls ee See ea teee 445
Department of Agriculture, duties.........-.-. Lexi ceed ee ee 100
Orgunimetin nd: setts. 2st elle eee ore oawces cas 523
orsign. and development: (25-9525 227 Sas SS 99
printing office, statement of work. [7.22 J. 5.2.2... 222... +25. <:-- 52
muacreuce tangicorme and D. vittata, remedies...........5..2.0--2.6 22 eee eee- 573
Diatrwa saccharalis, remedies .......--..-.-- See tee oe sees eal cae eens 573, 574
ISS Ge SIS 0 1 og peas a a cee a ce a 357
bird, various articles............ Se ORT OS ter ee te eee reese: tre 239
on CLOW WIGOm mnt, ONMOEVELIONS.. 2.650 225s o0cd coos eed wees cae aee cece 235
eeeente an OE ROTI RINNE oc ogo pu ch a sac oe SSSCES Ses hee eeAR eS. 376
rei AMOreMOtnntee -fors oS ek... cosa bocce cee oesemaes 4. 369
PPeInNliDy, \Omret OF, HOFER tION:. oo... occ s sateen Se OU SSS Pees es 341
ir PMCOING Re@iihc.s =. ssiecet eds SN ucteee de UCU 2S 55 Seen 562
oe i Se ree ere pie Pee ee:
Disbursing Office and Division of Accounts, organization and duties....-.---- 525
Disease of oranges, fertilization as affecting.........--..----..-----+-----+--- 199
Diseases discovered by meat inspection... ..-... 2... 22-22. - ee ee ee eee eee eee eee 69
Disinfectants for bovine tuberculosis... 2... 5... 20.2.6 22a. 22 oe eee eee eee eee 326
Division of Accounts and Disbursing Office, organization and duties.......--. 525
Agricultural Soils, establishment of Division.........-----.--.---- 25
organization and duties.........--..----..---- 525
Agrostology, organization and duties. ......---.-----.------------ 525
Botany, organization and duties........-------------------+-+---- 524
Chemistry, organization and duties. .....------.------------------ 524
Entomology, organization and duties...-...----.--------++-+-+---+-- 524
Forestry, organization and duties........-...-.-------------+--+-- 524
Gardens and Grounds, organization and duties....-.------------- 525
Ornithology and Mammalogy, organization and duties..---.-.---- 524
594 INDEX.
Page.
Division of Pomology, organization and duties......... a 2: wih oaleip ei een ee
Publications, organization and duties ....... gin Beppe webin ce eas 525
Seeds, organization PT ASICS eet. we Jct chenieunstetbs: 525
Statistics, competitive examinations -- - 2.0. 2002+ ee pepe) Sea! oy 5a
ebjecks amd arose 2 ees 20 on oe: ie oe eee eee 54
organization and -duties ....-...-....- aberdeen eae 524
Stateiand county meents -. -...~..-meteoe eects eee es 5d
SORE SOON pope sine cach Sk ck eee ieee 56
Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, organization and duties.... 52d
Document and Folding Room, organization and duties. ........--......- va ae 52d
slatement of Worke.1- ja-scclesee cee eee a2
Documents issued by Office of Experiment Stations ---....-2...--.... cyte , 345
DovGE, CHAS. RICHARDS, article on “ Facts concerning ramie”.........----- 443 Dog’s- tail, crested, number seeds per pound, amount tosow, cost per acre,ete.. 570.
Dor: yphora 10- lineata, and Drasterius elegans, remedies... -...2-...------------ 574
Pewny niildew of »rape, dreatment .................sachensweaeeciiese bee eee 577
Reece beef, adaptation for shipment; imports into United Kingdom. rere : 12
ry ing off cows. and Calving GUM q. ..<.j2<)50n).5 alee pis Lede enki ts
DUNWOODY, H. H. C., arlicle on ‘‘Value.of forecasts” ...........-paa oe eee 121
‘‘Weather conditions of the crop of 1894” .. 529
Eagle, bald, and golden, notes......... Me cate wae anes reroaded Oe AIR swung 227 SSI 0 CENt0S UERDELOSNS HBOS 204 oi UL Gadel LAE E eee 289 Edibles imported, inspection. suggested....2...: nsec eoce 6 eee ee oe eee 12 Education, agricultural. (See Agricultural education.) ; Elm leaf-beetle, imported ......-. pian dhe Pee Beebe aleectnaes eins sticks Se le MUS ANENATIUS, MOLES © Loos Sos ie ee pe See J eee os eee 428 Emulsion, kerosene, preparation and use as insecticide ..-. .. inate Sei Saas ee English markets for American sAhorses...... ....--.--=--+----+- nie el tetas en eit 22 WHEE oe Sc niccwinds tee pees Soke ee ic Lees 19 walait scale, aembes . cook. hae ckeeeecx tdi cee to ieee 268 Entomology, Division, organization and duties ......---... ai ane a pai 524 work of the year... ...- << Hs. te wah ate oe lagel es ene 4i Rphestia iuehniclla, notes... 2.2.5.4 Se wae ide Be eee eS eek asses 283 Epicauta cinerea, E. pennsylvanica, and E. vittata, remedies. .......1..teetaeenne 573 Erythroneura vitis, OTOCI RS OE 5s an ear reciaeicedh Gace bidet Be eae 573 Peapoeration, controlling. 2... 22 Sea eae ec an ee nections se kme 174 from foliage, loss of water o....ja:b52 ites Jascid haiti sehr 173 Bwerglade kite, mates... ...12. 28.3 Basen nea eed 2G bee eee 218 Examinations, competitive, Division of Statistics -.........--- becsaoaeh ee 55 Hxpedition, Death Valley, resulliis......- 2...<-m0x. o-soceak itn selon tab aes 206 Papentimres-on pay-Toll eos ete Loe cei BSL eee raya 8 48 FEGOChION.. 22020 fe nce ised ecre es ite ee AT Experiment stations, agricultural . oscar Bitte sees e Soe ones Soe 103, 113 “and agricultural dnetitutions, Bist. ..0 2.22... J eels 526 appropriations j-wiaietl paencrey mele ie AG bites wee etal mies SSE 49 office. (See Office of Experiment iantiewens ) supervision of expenditures. ...... 2.00. nieces wus 38 Buporis, agricultural, for Tye years... sco acpi one wisn Sslas eens 540 Fairs, agricultural, at Washingtbon......-0.22 ni. scinccciee nen 5 et atau RS 8 48 84 Biticon, Aplomatlownd praimie, MOLES on --ei as eww a oes See ee . 28 fon! web swarm, remedies~. 9.82 See ne RR LS. ee ee 574 Farm products, American, for femetes: man einbs atkins cab lc cic se ee 9 Soe met) Cae a at ee PME, LAB Jiechi: 65 puices‘on (December 1 ef five years... 2.2.25 ee les 545 Plarmer:ond moeteanalody | oo ote Oe A EO Ee) ee 117 cost of phosphatic fertilizer...) 2 eee 180 hawks and owls from jhis:standpoint. 2.20.2 eb LL 215 kind .of -monil muantied:: 6 si0 fey. ee See, See ee 501 Rarmers:and forestey..22 22. oeets il ts A eee 461 the besiapeda ecb ea oe ee 501 bidictina, lieth oo. eS hai Ee ee 587 principal :beecl snamicet...........-cgilan.Coh ces ee ee 9 Farming, truck. (See Truck farming.) Benlerai meat inepection.....-.... 2b bee 67 Mieding sinndarde, Walt oon note 5 oe Di eee Oe ee 563 stuffs and farm products, fertilizing constituents......-..--.--..--.- 565
INDEX. 595 Page. EE A ONCIRSINN oS So ae mone con ns emcncn es wens Save sank. Wises 562 On Gels Gnemipenition -. 2.2. ic mane nese ceile esc Seliedeidcs.. 888 PON PMO Cees et SU. SU eel aoe lt ee bi 314 FERNOW, B. E., article on ‘‘ Forestry for farmers” ...... 2.202.002.2222 2- ee cee 461 Ferruginous roughleg, GN seek LAs esti th 2) Boras duieas oe 219 Fertilization as affecting CMR ee Sickie one 199 ebees Upon. orange Insecta. -oo.e seo ee nek ll wee, 201 o& sei) as: affecting the orange... ssid sdb cect cease 193 Fertilizers, effect on orange in health; fertilizers for WeWRE ios 4 bl Aisi 195 eeiidihs (abhaeD Oke edie au BOL 145 ER NEE GRUNT OD oi. career orci oto Solas WS olds. ele CL Eee 571 meen phosphates..ucces es BS. bends cost lal. cok 177 mhgepoatic, cost to the Garment a ce. cannes ene «©6180 Pelee. DOE PRON eae nie cn mans sean SITS. ae. | A pene far erameens suisison Soc bint oes. elccsielesui 2 2sneee. 197 Fertilizing constituents of feeding stuffs and farm products...........-.....- 565 OO SS a ee a goer MRE SP TCR Ue | oot ade 193
Fescue, meadow, sheep’s, and various-leafed, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, aia ceiel aicasmmye ecto eR SSC dee ss 569
Festuca heter ophylla, FF’, ovina, 'F. pratensis, and I’. rubra, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, PON OE ARB 599 mn GWE... es ikul ose bl ee. 307 Fiber Investigations, Office, organization and duties. ............-.-. 222. .+.. 525 statement of work..........--. pihisics inn BRE KE 61 INN TMS i ho ngs cenit pnirrnerenion retin. oes bse CS en 455 FisuEnr, A. K., article on “Hawks and owls from the standpointofthe farmer”. 215 ee ENECIEAPE OR EIGNUE 0G ois 2 anid ie majo opin ond nee nee coe nms wae anvlage 65 Flat-headed MIPRNE LEGG, DOLGT, TOIMOGIOR 8 oh cence cee cower enn clom nein meld wenn ieee 572 IIIS EMRE CEANIME TIONED ho. sc bid i cn bm win ope Blernimteante = rye nh wmenediehlgicee tire 444 eee I GRIP. DCRR ss csi wi 5 tes eet tel > wb ote nd « eern mck « Bi eee 573 Flies, Syrphus and lace-winged, scale insect enemies..........-.........-.-- 253 ER REE DES SEE ES SO Ca Oe re ee ae nee ae ee 120 eeeras. gimitiavity of Asian and AmMmericanngsn oars ing emer canine ose nnn e ones oon 441 i re NADeS, TOUT TY POR... --. oon 2 4 ee acne se co eens mmtnew anbiniweee ne 178 I a arn RE ae aly nk Sorc ia ds sR A hall wea kia aoa 136 IIE... Dard Ok. OS ar Reus isu, c kind > <leeed repephere woken ecenieintntl 288 SORTER EE BSE 5 SUDAN 5 i i new inc miemse, emis mn cient ae <n 288, 289 PILAR, PEO ICEL ADOAD, THO BOD a ein. eis sewn wd lamremrers oe mowed ome new me mame 283 I MENRIERM Dy. ESC ei cre. Jan te oe ck te a im wicca «slo waited me eer el 573
Folding and Document Room. (See Document and Folding Room.) eee toer.or water by evaporation... . . 0... -.6eeee 2c ence ss cemace oes 173 SIRT, TRIPE IINGING SME COST. 4 a )0 2c Senin np nie as oe cee ees beieweleanm «aes 359 I MC ISTENT 35. is a One wae ay hin w= sd ems ape meenaede afeiaremet 357 RE Mae MER RLTIS RT UENO ai a as os Sie enis be mimeenens Sates enrh> pete a oe seas 242 I OER oh Oo isl Sica dk aemabbenin warp eer aaneeit ete os wisi n «'s 367 RUNES SiMe eA nV N's Win eidva WE ain Sito Meet Dew ee mse wider ow 358 ER BE RITE ALIEN iki. doch oh pee x oe GE sional ati tied meena eve ain ‘eine ach 381 NT ellis Die - preci iet Lentil tlt deers wiferbbourecm trie 387 ne ir CONES SEER lil peel Loren — sepia ence inp e> ecieiey 2 el = 367 a ee aime cittiner mn oleiw nema lee meen aye vem aenenpee 245 Seema Ol URED TENT aie SW G's = se creme mire Seem oe ng eee bene 217 materials and conditions of growth of trees. .......----. ---2+. -+---+-- 461 classification by composition cnc hot on eesti eid: Annabel ab 364 GSh- OL TPE UIMNGING «6S cis cidade Fetes on 366 TAREE GS OTE FO a as a agg a nets we evin rere sien pam meege'h tr = simenste 382 aaa NT RR Sa i Lab ae erecgnia iarionenigininrere ves kg sew he mareieers seewslagn maine 361 value, RE aD ac Rin nish an. <2 Al > Ahan <p berger teat see oats 116 SR ORE Oe a ok ice hte hdd ht min cs eeeicaeemrer? x menace om nenemeentin im erate Sap 215 ABET Ee) A igen coma iy mele irae ec ie erp pe OME oc 233 people in business and. professional life... .............-.---------- 372 TAR, PRN eikeshee ich cet ni pan elim fark le aE cetctantlign wba, << ase binparnp halite = 385 SRICSe. ROMAN WEINTG SCHIG. . 2.4. 2 u 2 ns come pmimncne smn nine ewe 265 HOW DOGG BOMIG. 86a. cen as nes wmane ov aens eho caméars embsnisien ems 266 Oyster-shell bark louse... .. .. 26/60 scemes «semucine sipeeaneces 256 Bewer LACAN 6 nae ce & 3 ens elles tno cess pein amet ~ateesinoh 271 SSAA OGG COMI CF icc. 6 oc cue noma panes = 0a, demuieen agen Jenlai 268 SCUrLY Dark LOUGG a. << 6-564 eee e we eae s deen s <5 05a tiene ap eee 260 the greedy scale .... ...- 2-21. - neces cme teens ene cess ceceees 262 products, value of weather forecasts......----- acer. roma Oey 122 ois Deane aE a o'd cn vec cua\ves ewe cocnac smengucese ode eee 8 ; ei; we a ah ei be Ole etal ee a ee 4
work, and wages in United States........-.--.
596 INDEX. Page. Foods, cheap and dears. 02.2325. te. eee ts Ake 5 Se ee ee 364 hunian, composition. (45000 40, oh. eae oan BER ia eee Re ieee 547 Forage plants and grasses, number seeds in 1 pound.......--.............--. 569 . weight and cost.of seed of four mixtures -:2o/02. Meesd. cee 571 Ford, Worthington. C., statieties,quoted....-1.5.2090 5. .dsceds yeh eee “a7 Forecasts, improvement. S222 525.226 fo atk Sabeells Soe RLS oe it] interests affected and benefited; values! .ccsasssesn: eae 121 of Weather Sareea 2a socu.0..0¢ 006 ahd weve he ee doe ee 29 Forest, development of trees inia@nd \outi its: . 2 sdk seh See We 473, 474 how 10 PRAM ee A SUE So Seen ee Seed and wae eee 480 products, value:of. exPorts:/s2-- 2262.2. -.d.n. .eedtione ered gee cee 65 Forestry, DivisionPorganization and duties... ....0dslceod4 eee 524 WOEK Of tho yeargk.2 . see elise Paes 44 for farmers... 22 C2052 Le tedke Nae see Re eee 461 Foxtai:, meadow, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, ete.. 570 Freight rates in effect on January lof five years. $2.0)... } 0.220 See 546 French ““cadelie;” notes.2. 2. 0. in eee I eee 290 Fresh-waterscord grass as soil binder avel ies 2222s 202. OR8 so ks Cee 436 Prait bark-beetle, remedies 2ii2.....00 05. os Lees. A IR eee eee 573 spot: of ‘quinee, treatments. 2 lol A ee eee 578 Fruits. as blackbird food). :..6...-.0c0c.. cc0 3 Oe t SRE Ae, Oe 242 eastern Asian and American, relationship .............03.02sue Jee 437 from eastern Asia and Europo-Asian region.........--.....-.---.----- 442 value :of .weatherforeeaghs. 22226 04 22d fetal... codon deena 122 Pingieres; formwmlas.3 2c ose dees ek eek ca ee eee 577 Fungous:diseasesiof plants, treatment... ce 236 0 eal. : ee ee eee 579
Galega officinalis, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, etc.. 570
Galeruca canthomelaenay remedies... .:—. 23.42 2s cee sss. Le eee 573 GALLowAyY, B. T., and ALBERT T. WooDs, article on ‘‘ Water as a factor in the ~ sTrowth of plants” ‘iol. 2 = - 22 a ee et eee 165 Gardens and Grounds, Division, organization and duties .................... 525 statement of work-.2.lS eee 53 Gelechta-cercatelia, WOES . 1... 622 F shee ees ee iss La eee 281, 282 remedies: Pocceswerss. Wee Ae oo ee 572 German cockroach; remedies = 220029 fete co os foe oS eee 573 Gnat, buttalo, remedies:s.... 2225 see eee tee a eee 573 Goat’s rue, officinal, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, ete. 570 Goldén- eagle, notes 2.2. con sees eee oS eee 227 Gophers, pocket, study’. 3. 2200's 2222227 ee ee eee 43 Gophaawk; wo0tes > fr. Soe eee ee en eee 231 as blackbird foods 22... ec See a eee 242 Grain beetle, remedies: .~.0./. roe ee ee eee 291 saw-toothed, notes... eer Sl Ae eee 287 square-necked, ‘notes 7252 ee ee ee ee 290 feods for daity*heras141 seek eee ee eee 315 fresh, prevention of infestation by insects “-.2.22./. 022.2... 2 eee 292 insects, nature and extent of damape........... 2... «2... ea ee 278 origin, introduction, and habits... 00.222... 2.4.2 22. 2 eee 277 parasites and natural enemies...-."...2.. 20) oe eee 278 sulitis, causes and prevention ...o. 2." oo. se) ee 409 stored, injurious insectsiss 2. i220 2. fi. Le Le eee 277 triers for aced: testing, motes 2). eae. 2 Se eee ee ee 406 meevila remedies! 7. Uses: eee ee cwac -o- 4 oc nuns e becuse 573 Grape black rot and downy mildew, treatment .... 2... ..-. <2 Ghee eneeee 577 Grapevine leaf-hopper and phylloxera, remedies ...........--..---.---.---t2% 573 Gross seeds, germination: test. 2.0: .ocecs ide Ss Be 400 Grasses, and forage plants, number seeds in 1 pound...........-.------------ 569 as ‘sant and. soil’ binders... !o22c5)s2e) « -'sin' eo ool oe ee ee ee 421 list, mentioned in article on ‘‘ Sand and soil binders” ............... 580 sand-binding,- distri bution «10, 2.) hale olde aloe oes & 423 Gravel, mechanienl separation. .i...503:...sces eee eee 134, 135, 136, 147, 148, 152 Gracklo,:. purple,’ nObCG— ua) -as'e No! one ae Ree ee eee eee 233 Granary weevil; notewisie sic no eae we etilewe Mavs meee ee Hen ee ee 279 Great Britain, inspection of animals from United States...........-....------ 79 orned OW), MOLORS foo 5a 5's eis ocean od vide dala eo ee eee ae ee 229 Greedy senile, ates Cos soy ca cr Sha cn WEA ene ae a ee 261
a
INDEX. 597
Page Rete WLEe. Cl @ WOGLLS), FEMOCICS. .. 00. ccecscrcnccesdcedltcevdevesvieseer 574 mepey moth, remedies .................- shtp swe ees eames oy ce VEN ea wal aN te buns 573 RET trail, ROMADUUEON cic 5 c)sa's oak ooo oS eian bass Voeddelne Wiese ec deuce wows 573 Hairs, root, in the soil, showing absorption of moisture..................--.. 169 EN: COMIMLLOU MINOOM. ooo se nomen s Katie cove ttveeeccdacséabcavvese 17 PUMOTE MALO \RITOO, SIN GOOM. 6 co cd ee ne tees Sey Dowden eeleweens 13 nit COUR EO DU, TOMCAICS. .ie5 60 5 cae en sacenice dp icas, Suddclen tear secs 573 HARRINGTON, M. W., article on ‘‘ Meteorology and the farmer” .............. 117 nn Tye SITILOC, TIOCES 2 <'ac vx Pitan MEE Noe Ves we soca uepcssecs se lees eases ont 222 ND TNUOD. x5 a0 i'n ao nbn a a kee Se Garte . Iwas GS ws ones ew el ws 231 ferruginous rough-leg, rough-legged, and squirrel, notes ............. 219 marsh, red-shouldered, and red-tailed, notes................222.eecce- 220 pigeon and Richardson’s, notes... --. sinus sgutnapits tease Sh ody Gee 228 RRND OTE ANGUS, TOLD. on so Sait own ae tO Od wa tlle awe no Wien et se evird eens 232 BEERS TIDOD soo 6 aise ou wine's Wes wal aly Whin SE ae me J oditeinae eb eee 223 RIES ie FOOBID So cit en's irons nc bw ee wk Aa a araire pilates aii 222 REST SEMA IOO TUG ON sic. Sau c= sew oe oa eee Chom pain dweta nae wean 218 Dee acOm standpoint of the farmer .. ..... 5. 20s anche cows ob Sever advelwesuis cue 215 igi Sa 2 ee SS eee a, mis ar of intet cian ns pk Wel ren. / dala ora oer ADS 229 PPMROE BD BCIO GG cats chica Ws ca sn oa ao OU + We wa ate die wales Una ae — eee One MIae 32 2250 OSS Poe BS lack cke sok bones ot aoa aeen 220 Pere OMG Mnia. Oro cs5 12252 SS bed pag ooo Pas saad wees Wow meee 219 Hay, amount cured annually in United States; estimated annual value....... 24 Ener ECILUCEE TOSNIPRIOUN, oo! c incite a's owe ddecoewanans «+s eavanwaliaion 18 ere orice-on December 1 of five years: [oi505 5 ic. oe cnn odanosctun exes 545 Beeeeaie price tm leading Cities’ i000. 20.17 lees neces ccceweesneewee 538 eer aainry NOrd CONSIMOred.... 2226226 secede ceca es een es we serene swan cau 304 public, relation of bovine tuberculosis. ....- ..02.0......006 cses Sevens 329 Patan, ©..,appoimtment as Pomologist.. .... 5.25. .20. 2.25 0 l cee dececk os 46 entmnnNm@ne FONIOCIOR: 6625554265526 nats snc dsdceel de vou eeu ee eee eae neck 573 Hellebore, preparation and use as iusccticide...... 2.2... ..- 22. eee eee ween eee 575 Hemisarcoptes. coccisugus, scale insect onemy. ......... 2-22... eee eee ee cee eee 253 Herd, dairy. (See Dairy herd.) I PEINPUIMON 2s 6620 oboe ted es cdc ogo Meee oY ewe tut Fie dea deat Bawden 573 Hicks, GILBERT II., article on “‘ Pure seed investigation” ..................-- 389 Per ave.smoace Ol Massachusetts. «oo 22.2655 lis oss see e eos sae Woeces ewes caus 505 Hog products, American, exports to United Kingdom........................ 13 Hogs, number carcasses inspected, 1891, 1892, 1893, 1894. ....................-. 67, 68
Holcus lanatus, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, ete... 570 Houmes, J. A., article on ‘‘Improvement of public roads in North Carolina”. 513
Pennie touse and horn fly, remediess~. .... 2.2 < snenns esse cee see cc emencnceee 573 meeees, american, for English markets. .. ... 2.0.00... sc ccec cess ca sens cewens 22 Hot winds, effect on crops and means to prevent... .....2. 222. eee nee cone ee cees 162 Howard, LU. .()., appointment as Entomologist. ... 222002. 5.06 cee ces sees eee 41 article on ‘‘ Some scale insects of the orchard” ..........-.... 249 DeePeRRIEY LIte AGC OESCTI NUON 5. 5250s 52 eens e dese awed ceed dll ee caseee nese 210 ee FOOTE. OU ORUWNON 6. oe no lu os awe -cdecs bc CCS EUS E Lie eed wee ie demi 547 RENE IE) MEV TUCO COMPATOC 2 s45e25 5200 sen csw esc d lise ies ce sete lees 157 Beemer asiit UEOMG Grane ae SOll DING. . cock css cease cseee bee eke eweeee bheeds 435 mvyarocyanic-acid gas treatment for insects. <...2. 56... c ee sc cece cetiest code tece 576 Hyphantria cunea and Hypoderma lineata, remedies. ...-....-...--------------- 574 ren eee hte cee onan cided, cadae> anim oes eeehs cess eave eee 573 enn CROP Ste Sly so aia esse oe cts asm sine seth acne vena wed 435 Imported animals, inspection and quarantine -.--.. ...... 2-2... eee eee eee ween 80 Giteh FO Ore EORIMIGN fo 2. ceals coun SO bade teehee sbecus wun nasume 573 SreOrts, SEPCULULAl, SOF 1 VG. YOON cos. pcocks Soamac Cue les ces cccssenaeng annus 543 Min MeaT MNGGN MEE cSt ccc ss cat eteec a Vadbae sduwad esen seen ss Senne aaa en 285 TOE, MOON. cece shee ake ROSNER Sue es aoe adee meek sees os «<4 08s ns 00 Cane 434 Mierenionts, nutritive, Of F600. <5. <02.na5 wo ean s Coe dene woes cnweeevesncnns vows 361 TC HIMON S.No. ares vost. wad ands owen has eRe A aie, © ace cnn tan ae eas Cee 433 Insecticides and methods of controlling injurious insects .........--.---.----- 572 PIGHATALION ANE WE’. 2. ..2. nec cetcnewes weneee nee aubecsEcees= 574
Insects, grain. (See Grain insects.) 7 Fmportant, TOMEGIOS. . ... ue. a occ co cigs enn eew eee cncsetcecessnnecs 572 injurious, methods of controlling, and insecticides........-..-------- 572 tt MROTOR BEGIN . Po ccce wens wdsanests <<. tube ence hae eS oa ese i
orange, fertilization affecting ..-.-.-. SewedS vennns cues swat heease Saeene 201
scale. (Sce Scale insects.)
598 INDEX.
Page. Inspection, diseases. dicouvered \.on55 ic. nccccaetoie utes. eee ee ee 69 Hederal Meas coos wast Sahn SOL ada dione ae 67 in Great Britain of animals from United States..............-.-.. 79 meat. (See Meat inspection. ) af imported anbaksiei sites 2. site ae Sys os De ee 80 weetela 2025250 9625 sid oe ce ee died GE ee 77 principles gevermme... 2200... 1. cee Lh et eRe TE purpose of Marepeaa. ols). a... a elle ok se . 40 Steck wordsribss sc & Seed eee loka ae SiS Ae 78 Trash potatees, sail ada gied ooo i ee ee aL «Lema eee 133 Irrigation for small tobacco fields suggested ....-... 222-02 222. eons ween ewne 155
Inquiry, Office. (See Office of Irrigation Inquiry.) Fsosoma tritici. and wheat isosoma, remedies... .0.0. 0.2. 0.5020. 20525002 674 Italian rye grass, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, etc.. 569
Aa TROIS, Bently: S222 Sb See chee Poe ones eta Sal soso ee ee eee 43 supanese lawn prass as sand bintber-2222 22222 22 2 22 eee 433 Jonmison wrasse ae so binder: 2.2 55 ics altered eee 435 Juno beets (white.crub), remedies... 2522005... e2 ite. lo eee eee 574 Kansas, average yield Of €OTn .. .0 62.5 t noes ce ee so /enho cee mpteeee ee 158 raimtall available fOr Crops... 24.20 6 nice coe a 0 a de eee 157 Kerosene emulsion, preparation and use as insecticide.......-.....--.-------- 575 Kidney vetch, common, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost, ete. ...-. 570 Eirhes, LOGl SPOCLES, WOES. ooo ase oe mm tetaeeme einen ele ee eo ae eee ee 218 Hugt-r0ct grass as. soil bimder . 2... 652 525s a2 < peed wnat eee eae, Ot iuaboring people, Cietaries:.W...jc as... . srcatuececabh coieist 435 ca alee ae 376 Bachnosterne. 2pp., POMCOICS 6 -..10)2.0.. 2 bee na damien Gel. a a eee ee 574 Ladybird, scale insect enemy - ..- -- ~ -<-:4.2 540, --4--+---- +400 eS ee 253 Land, tobacco, mechanical analyses of subsoils. ........-....-2.+---0- 146, 148, 152 value on Atlantic seaboard ....2 seine dasees Sadie cee ee 131 Lands, bills for granting to colleves.....-... .......:..tdesaeceettldeeee eee 95 truck. (See Truck lands. ) Lard, American, in pails, short weigh si ic<n seech.{ Gem see tee kt cee 17 exports to United Kingdom wt Gaciaw e's hac s es SiGSRt aoe te. en 17 Law, road, of Massachusetts, “miscellaneous Provisions... .cscideee gee 506, 509 Lawn grass, Japanese, as soil Widierssd. last sou. .(odccgas een ee eee 433 luwaf-beetle; imported, ebm... -0..-60- cpcmiety di aces ace sim Cen Dae oe 573 blighé.of cherry, treatmens. .. 6.h.0-6 Gicece piece) Ua Bee eee 577 pear, treatment. .........-.. .-.-8nibeaietv a eee pee 578 hopper, grapevine, remedies... ........2 Bigs e-e-seeetee ae eee 573 rust of plum, prune, and peach, treatment. oo. 2.0. sce.ce 3 15 Jas ees 578 spot of quince, treatment. ... ...-~ -dacucsadiaticd-cn--eepens alts o5) ore ee 578 Lacaniun, New York splamy, mates 5. fo<spnnts heed see oe.s ae. ae 1a ee 272 BOSCH, NOG ooo 56 oie d atime inelobei=)- tk Sas te & 270 Tusper micratory locust, remedies ...-\-:. <<): ..5<ecin 4-20 2000 -25i 22k eee 573 Tee anid Unép Uneld, TEMCALCG ..o6s< sain mine els ~isin wines $, Lie tied ja We'd oie oe 572 EMMATy,, CUATOMETEOT WORK 6555 06, oa 4.0 5 arnigeicin ns 2 Olah Lee Sh eens TR 61 Las zone, Arctic, Geseription, 52. o-jasn- no ha a aatis ons ec cjanemd Bue S 2ash> take eee 219 Austroriparian, desceriptiom. pace: .oosen sl eects ne La Se 211 Canadian, COBCLUPTGN —<prer = Rime wei dee nce oon ss toe eee oe 210 Carolinian, Gesgceriptions. < oc oc ce ss aced as ne oss one es sp tee See 211 Tindsertan ;OGSCTIBIION | oni oc at onalue < sie eo - s a <n es Se 210 TEAVMUACT, CUGBOL IVD UALS oo oa nice erase ve peonie Lame yaninisheniiceme os tad ee 210 Tropiesl Tagen, MeseFIPUTON 2.1 = oo emia weet iin he ee 211 zones, Cor PORN ie eee te dee as ee 207 SOVEH, Of NOLtO AMCs. . oo. ceases ee wan oc cake ene nie eee ae 210 Laght conditions Jot Brees on. ooo Sin niece eae cine > dln sith pbc omh eee ee eee 464 effect on wood production .....--.------ ---- 2-2 none ene nne nee tne sc newes 496 ] Lightning, procedure in case of apparent death... -.. 2.2.25. so ieee smwminteeian 533 ; Limo for btanges.. so ee ee 198 Lissorhoptrus simplex, WOPOCUOS. aoe an oon oan woh www cppepye ale race nacelle ivan ge 574 ‘ Live stock, diseased, number Ciscovered.. ..<.- 2 2p. nin<icirnmunindo mn baesioe wile 5 =~ iene 69 : Locust, California, devasti WEB go ona ono 2 824 wheii-s > tara gee 573 lesser migratory, red- legge d, and Rocky Mountain, remedies. -------- 573 Lolium italicum and L. perenne, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, etc... 569 Lendon purple, preparation and use... . 2. 2. ncn can dine cn cece smcen tena aecent 574
a
INDEX. 599 Page. NN ew se eet w ssc dri g eee ress ven eevewness wnblieualeuadmiead 224 i er eres BS CAN DINGMOY 2... ov ann « mednidewpwss ac ududv os savdueces 433 I RO enc ne biotin niin eb Ao De aS Deed 432 TSS EES 2 Re eee a re eT es OTP eee ee ee 412 wheat, hot-water treatment... 22.0.0 <necemenamecesidder scace 417 I RN liso os aid a nny eeisingy ee anme.cenmndiw pp einn ideale «anos 423 i a MT -DOL, THOUOR no in onion. ope > wp anise newacdinc cs aededecmesacanecse 254 RR ps RR IER ES ee ne eet | 259 Lotus corniculatus, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, etc. 570 BTNOR, BPTI BOR, NOG iin oases odin sp onne pe mwdr cicenvedchewas wetee 428 i MESeOr, TOMOOIOS: ... sik a0k peak pep ped Hwee du padecrerbiceicsil up svwee 573 Macrodactylus subspinosus, remedies.......-----..---- ee Cee ada bile abc e seo 574 rr Pe nees. fPATEOO sep ayipac beri ge even acmctehlakmidaimihlccnis antes 52 Mammalogy and Ornithology, Division, organization and duties............- 524 PM NentEs, S00 INGCWIFY.. -2 0. - = ono ppp en eoetwmaeelhe. <ccvsaecouss 43 DIG, VAI OF CXPOTtS.... . 2.5 cn wc nee cucerece wuuwsewenuss casesereve 65 Manure, amount and value produced by different animals..............-.-.-- 572 Markets, English. (See English markets.) meron, for American farm products... 2. 2... 2.0. eon eewsoreeecoves 9 Mar.atT, C. L., article on ‘“‘Methods of controlling injurious insects, with ENC TIRE CMONUNGN a aad ye wae a we ae ene now calm wen eternras sere Wiig bias pene 572 RII a eho om, ole coca nl, obi wm om Rh erecta ueinginenter oinon SME 191 INE foi oy rep nlaiaid moe mica e om dna ane a apne abeemihen aaa toe wen 425 ORIN Ga os Sainte! arn ots = mm em Cepeda apetree nha seonie hapwignin hank aia 220 NN lie pe oi vlna hig S'S ae 6 a wiimote oughly hey mabe gmake a ee 139 CLT RO ETIGNV so anim Seine es os oan cee cannes ons aembhmaimenie ben 84 IN ME MONO oe is hi een id seth ah ipieemr> qesnnincceltinid eekly Abie we 505 Meadow fescue, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre,ete.... 569 foxtail, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, ete.... 570 grass, rough-stalked, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, ete. ..-. 569 smooth stalked, number seeds per ponnd, amount to sow, etc.. 569 oat grass, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost peracre,ete. 569 eT ENE UMM UO oS ie Seca sw! 8 SS mnie Smo Some me eden, So wen nnee er ome 285 TEL MMMM eon oe, 5 aS OT pel tld aks en oerd an site wep eine eae 286 Meat, canned, number packages inspected, 1891...............-.-2.--e2-----e 67 salted and smoked, number packages stamped, 1892, 1893, 1894. . 68 iImspecties:, -besinming and prowth ---. .... ---.-- 22-2 -2 22. ~ cone wees ewe 67 I ee rele Sen tS ne 1 0% a tee sit eeae emcee rat nearer ial a ovale acre ae 72 eT Sele oe dod tots Iofe te Setlesa tae folad EA pe pega 74 caeoeniens terpurdingy post... oo 25.8. en sawn ocean 35 products, amperts into United Kingdom......................--..----- 18 salted and smoked, number packages inspected, 1891................--. 67 Medicago lupulina and M. sativa, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, ete. 570 PeeeeOne BOUT MON, NOCH. ok 8 nk ne ne we come e ccm cn emcees 283 Metanotus fssilis and Meliitia ceio, remedies ...... 12.22. 2. 22 - one ween ween -- 574 Se oe cS occ esa wean chinn va bee anc asacce cenemene 133 MeErnrIAM, C. Hart, article on “Geographic distribution of animals and plants ren ANIC ee ieee oe Os Lol co ccn -- shee ewncveeencses 203 en EE a a ae 117 eo i aw wai ocgnve seen neg @. ob arial ms Sma Syne Gia 119 Microscopical apparatus for seed investigation ............---..----.-.---.-.. 401 perenoncoms, Drvemen, WOTK OL year. -) oo we ae oe ee eect come eens 61 Masmcew, downy, Of grape, treatment. ...-... ...--..--- 5 -- ene eee cee eee wees 577 Milk, different forms for pasteurizing or sterilizing....-.....-.-.......----.-- 344 estimate of amount -of dirt contained... .............--. .--- 22-22. 2200. 331 Rees PRE Pet Sc 5 coda able na che meneame monn oaadeehamame 307 [ak On, RNG CMTENROMNINL Do oo. 5522052 bose accs canes comen e~cneenes 332 infants and invaiids, preparation. ...... . 222. 2.2... cee teen concen 333 Pee Bar ARNE oo 52a ce nadine meee Caan s Seies wp ewes sanasewnan aves 33 pasteurization and steritization.... ....... 2.22.22. 22 ee eee eee ween 37, 331, 35 a URN RUINS Rong hae o aie aes tet on 85a en Seenenae 338 prenervation with Chemienis. .-... 2... 2. 22 oe tn en wn once ss co mewe ence sewnce 332 Milking and attendance of dairy herd... .....-.. 22-2. . 222 2- wn een e cone see eee 310 Mamet, ewamp, 06 soil binder... .... 2.2... 20 ced eee 252s cone cowe ween coense ce 435 Mineral matters, amount in bread... ... 2... 2.2. 22 een cone wenn cee cone eee eee 40 oils, exports to United Kingdom........---.-.--.-----------+---+-+:- 18 phosphates as fertilizers.......... ---.------+-- +--+ 2 +++ e222 ee eee eee 177 Mining, value of exports...........-....-.-----.--+--- Lees edectwackotwssh ian 65
600 | INDEX:
Mississippi Jcite, .m0tes <..0:5:42.i2s o0 = Pees 62 54 Ss 4a ee ee Moisture soil. (See Soil moisture.) Mold, sooty, of orange, treatment Morrill act, events leading (up) toc... \ ee te th ee HIS. < o0+ consis SEELE NAGA nt} 3 EEE eee oc ee eae er seeond .. cache ceeneen ust sc oe! eee nee eh te ee Morton, J. STERLING, communication in regard to printing Agricultural MepOLh.. = oi. cbs eeeeeoseech wow nt ete. +o <b e Peee eee eke eek Muck, injurious action upon oranee 2 .2.....52- .. See ee eee soil, effect of fertilizing with different phosphates ..............-.2..: Murgantia hisiwionicd, TOMeCAICS .66 oc Go~ 2 nn ade et ben pape cee ee Muselim; ore anizgggons 22 we bot e sen tePec ies. cs ce aueste cos se eee Matton; iniports'anto United, Kinedom,: -.+-.....505 02. Jesse ee eee Myiilaspis citricola, remedies. .<.. .= ssee ses veined os cueccs dS: vee See eee POMOTUM, NOES ISIC. SHRP ol SS ec POS Se. ees POMOGLES fi is pc veda pid aes Rec SRDS 2 Cone
Nebraska, rainfall available: for Crops: 2... on. aon. «+ oceres ome none = 9 NEMGINS VENTIACOSUS, TEMOUICS ve oc 2s oo poe eclnn «cases op deseo sine oo ee New peach seale;notes...::-:...22-4022. --.205- oes eo- See e555) oe rr New York plum tecanium, motes. 2.0. Lee eke 5 3 eee ee er Nitrogen, effect. on oranges -5 2220 262 lee cio. oi cas ch cece eon ee eee North Carolina, eastern; track dands- 2: / 2..23.2i¢22..220.-. te peeeeeee Nutriment of food and 118 €0St- ~~ ess cs. 55 6.2 ow ce eens ane, «=e Nutrition and workings power Of man.2)... 2.2... .2. 2.5). 5.2 2 eee mneredionts Of food. 25 562.2255 Tet ol ces Lo. co. ee ar InVEStIFAMOM.!. lou e oe Sects Vleck. el bot e esac eee ee ee of workingman and his elevation®. 2: .\-- 2... -.-+.-2=s25 eee value of ‘food, work. “assigned:...... 2.2202 2.222 2-7 ee er
Oat grass, meadow, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, etc. yellow, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, ete...
smut, hot-water treatment... 7... -.-..--- --+- 2-25 «sates. eee potassium-sulphide treatment --...... 2. <-->... +--+ 5<:5s}- =e eee treatment... coe choc Sain fe nian «icka cies ach es eee eee ee
Oats affected with loose smut. --25 2. 6<.c sei cm cern dope aces sen ee ee ee farm ‘price on December 1 of five years........~-1.0+-2s-s4s-5e- eee water. (beach grass), as soil binder ...:..-..........2.-2+ sees eee wholesale price in leading cities _/.....-... ... ~~ sccpk eee eee eee Ocneria dispar, remedies. ...-.. 22... - -s deen yo ckee so > Sane ee Office of Experiment Stations, documents issued .......-.----..<..-5 ss-ssuesse establishment: ...:..2..--cars pace Hee Se eee
organization and. duties. ...2. (2. 5.025 ae
summary of publications and work of year. .--.
Fiber Investigations, organization and duties.........-......-.------ Irrigation Inquiry, or eanization and @uties...../:..-. - - = = +=. statement ef work ..-.......--.--.+--agenae
Koad Inquiry, establishment ....-.......-..-.-. -:-- --<: oe organization and duties... <..<<.\::6: 4.) ee
Officinal goat’s rue, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, etc. Oils, inineral, exports to United Kingdom... 22.2... 00-2 eas sa8 -c00.24 eee ee Onobrychis sativa, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, etc-.- Orange fertilization affected by soil moisture.........-..---..--.+-4--sass eee of soil as affecting; fertilizing for growth. ..............
in héalth, effect of fértilizors 2. . fn ws «so maakt % See See ae insecis, fertilization affecting ..... <2. ~~~. 2. 56 onan meeeeeee
gs purple seale/ remedies... -. 2. oe eee 6s eee saws ee eeae> eee
sooty mold, treatment... oS eee anne nis «paeeas eS eee Oranges, as affected by nitrogen .:..-. 22.22. ..2--. s-cs0s semwlewey eons fertilization with lime and with phosphoric acid.................... fertilizers; injured by muck; potash fertilizers... .....-...-.- seseue
quality controlled by fertilization ..... ~~... .-<nets ses ve ss eee
Orchard grass, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, etc.... SCAICE, PLOVERLIVES ... 22.6 eos co wscn saeco ae oo ens eh Sepeh Seen een POURCCION 02 ccc sen ccs cuss cnsu'ceu vu dpe piwh oni Mpls ita len
SOME GCALS IMEC |... 2. es ecto ws em mses ase keey a-ak cee eae eee apraying ontht, description. ......-.--. .--«<sspp awe sms owe sienna Ornithology and Mammalogy, Division, organization and duties ........---...
scope of work and work of the year. .
INDEX. 601
’ Page.
EE MMT hs Salsa alwlg WERE nn Suis odid cp wi'dedd cada cedous vesaus eddleden 223
Remeen, DUTTOWING, Gnd soreech, NOTES. ..... «ccc cewcesentedccccscdcccebs 225
iC: PUNNOM cardiigatin hs we's cabutle-asds svwuyataedustt0adt. bes tds tae 229
pome-oared and short-cared, notes... 2.2... ..--.cccrececcce secccncccece 224
ONG ary a oA eed ed a Se cide api ewiee dd «ele spenseware avaesussedeves 226
SS SURTIGDOMNG OF TATMOPS 2s cece cece cscs cencess cusncbsvsseastctes 215
an fri R Ml ola cnt lnrers 8 pen ata 'n's Soe w'w'sore-o'd a awk eee sc de vende tuck 229
etal Oh dee Veh ae wena hrs Sycwe e's si adokwleccvs pacwades 218
TCR oiled Rial Rds Giatintoraniivies inna cena dnl hate ceased deue 220
RS Ba acne wiaig <ictena ash orewre «abil abespeliwad ap Sau ve celdpeewaee 574
MIME, LOMBO, NOLCB ce tai ccna: caine news cua nae wi'woes ceeeee senda seu 254
POINOCIOR Gy atredn Sd race abate cobs eoeawe bab eet ae'den’ 574
en nate PENN OUIOM. . 2) cans dears s disse sv .o sun welns ws sews svelbaceakchns 573
SEERe LT Ertaner, 006. GOl) WINGO! . oc. scwews ares cecece vsunsa coer cuans cone auwe 429
Pereevces and natural cnemies of grain insects........ 2.2. cece eeeccccecesss §=248
aruPUMrere aS MORFETRNS, CIGIME SUG walang o ae one's wad Sle a oan ew aah ele ele nese mee 254
Ee, rOPAraglon-UNG WSS. .' 5... eacin pons ten cn wes meg orem ce bace enowws 574
nme OF MT for CHIUOTON:... .. 27.) sui wo'e vos eas meme ciececs eae s 331, 332
ED, WME ROU, CU GUEIOS,,. 5 che fle awn ernie ae Oe oo Saws meets 338
eee ane: BOLI TOT COWS 21 .'s<-' > oa cane come ob Cecbuccanbec vaes conc 311
Seen cm and peach leaf rust, treatment. ... 2.2.0.5. ecco s woe ce wecacceece 578
EE RETURN CAEN ea SN Se Ne sean bo eee 270
Pen Variety, resistance to frost... .. 2... loc. ice ads coc c ou wae recees 47
IRIE TEUCA (80, c1 oo ow La cis Wks a ow ine ae BE eee ones RS ae 263
IEEE CEMICECCN "24506 oo eS. . a ate hicked oeatncdscu vontles vataan saath 574
Pee seer iene and pearscab, treatment: .... 2.2 222 ole pe econ cows ewes cnceee 578
aeieeraenes PLU, ‘TOMGCICS ~ 20. < 2 c26 keels see oes ode ence nae ek pes 574
ERO nl atin os last ene wake we mana daw db ane oat neenape 574
ERE orn os So, ly pe wines Gnas Geet wewe ene ane vtacdaemenens 133
ene MITER OOU AONE 2. 26 250 555 So 2 Goan cnn eee sie cnc sues sueeasnene ne 143, 151
Denti mleerie, RUSS LNsOCh CHEMY ..:-- --- 5. - 52 eee ence wee nnn s eee meee cscs 253
Perennial rye grass, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost peracre,etc. 569
PERKINS, GEORGE A., article on ‘‘State highways in Massachusetts”......-.-. 505 Pernicious scale. (See San Jose scale.)
Phalaris arundinacea, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost peracre, etc. 569
Phleum pratense, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost peracre, ete... 579
RRR TS IOU NOS hha aS ow wa an ws ape Ree ee when's ascue «00% nak eee 573
Cnr Mme RAOUL o's 22. nome occ nee and dw sen ones cape meow aw nen = anes 183
MP MEMNERM ote 6 HC Son dann wa hem eins sed geet Clee ake ane eee 186
rock, amount mined in 1893, value; statistics..............-.--.- 178
RP PRNORE PONS CORI eet 2 ee At ca neg hn ania ine ind nl ine in a 179
METS RUN IND a os a a Stang acct Sod a als Seah me ce ae a 177
Deeper mste Glam, ACUIFEPAGION . . ~ 2. ws wwe ee cee ween ns edocs cems ene 190
SeCnnI eye SUL MABE on an oy cnes omenieh bn edwin nan caeciee 189
ER CR UUM Orne a pms speek eae «nine Sho aioe meen ae 180
Penne CCUM IG BONE oe ge odo secu ome eee cepines wacepeansss 188
Seen ee aN OS EO a darts, Ge Sante anh aca: ses ames on eee oe ah 178
Et ot ern e n4 wiv oka << Dlwmcarer ns bob oae kena e ns 191
SNORE EMME PIACIME ANS. d/o cnn en om ees sae ce oes epee 177
Wenneeere. etlera) TOMGrKN.c 52. 505,6n-- 202. - = ce moan seenccnemais 179
Peeeuaaic fertilizer, cost to the farmer... 2.2.22... 2225 occ eee ew ceceuce 180
PREG LOT MTEC OURO o.oo. sn nn mcisnnn seen atsbeeebasaes 191
eeeeEnrIC.BCIO, BVALADIO, MEATING.... .... 2... -- one wane wee enpecewcccnce 181
Pe eiC ether TOC RM RAEION ws » oa 2am <a e +s Oh abn ese vos ang oes ane 198
Phyllodromia germanica and Phyllotreta vittata, remedies ......-..------------- 573
Bpeuererad, grape, and P. vastatrix, remedies. .. .- 2.2... 200 ene eee se ceee ce 573
MIE GE GECO. SEO WA oho ion ca nin, cowed see eid wiadap sans wane cdanlenee suas 9% 467
RII. PCHOGIES 2k 6 wire circ ama plea oles cee u ga ned dew wane esoesacnesdd Spe = 573
REMC AW es TUOUCS «ooo oc cine See pine Same e vjbm weiesaicey weapieneccces sees esdimene 228
INN cea. alee ne 5 kOe Sale aS 9 alee wd wigs bhwe 50 00 0 Ses pee eee 45
Pant distribution, fandamental principles ...... 2.2.26 222s ee se seen wee ese eee 211
srowth and water, SUMMATY .. 2... 22 cece es cee en es wegen ss co ecee eeceee 176
Beas oa wa laneleician cite Cann /aseu mE Siam inon «heseenweee es 165
Momee, BPNIG-TOOt, TOMOCICS oc ose ens woos oce o wee scnnececensansicnese 572
MN COMMUIOS, 5 oc 58 Sean ee bwin es necked ge. cewe Meamewle sas tase tdnews 573
MORO Ge POMMOUIOR < cc cCk wade aw wuigs wuwd be dcek bevanass sees setdapes 574
1 A 94——24
602 INDEX.
Page. Planis, amount of water detrimental; how they obtain water; structure..... 168 green, water in.-..---..--.---- ++ 2-22 pert eee eee ee eee eee eee eee 166 in North America, geographic distribution. ...............+-.--.- sak i BS number distribtited. 2.00.0)... 2s. soo eR i. Joe Ca ee a 53 treatment of fungous diseases . 2.0 cio one nee ewes ee eee 577 water as a factor in growth.........-...---. tue. Tod cee ee 165 Pledia interpunctella, nates. oe ceases oie oe ne a Sek ee 285 Plum hlack knot, treatment. 52.5: sess eee ioe ood ee ee DIT curculio,. PemenIes fost See nk Kel ewe cine Seen own ee ok ee 574 leaf rast, treatmenh ic. fy Seis ek one a neo wn oo ode encima ae 578 lecanium, Now rk) me@bes. 2 el cee ae de 272 Plusia brassice and Plutella er weijerariut, VOMPGICS -.0. 48016! = 6. a6 Ses oe 573 Poa pratensis and P. trivialis, number seeds per pennd, amount to sow, cost, etc- 569 Pecket cvophers; Study s.... .--.. 2-220 2 -- —- = be ere one eet eee ate eee 43 Poison bait, preparation and use as insecticide... -.<.-). 54 ---..-5-- eneend -oeeee 573 Pomology, foreign CONGET DINGIOUS 52 eee oie axes > eet enieens a eee ae 442 Division, organization and daties.... 2. cme meiner ae ene 525 work of the FORE 626 ee oes cen Reape <ecnte one 46 Pear, paaple, waste.of food 2 ..o< cence cinlae 2 2+ pom errr pt ahs oe he 385 Poore, Ben: Perley, history of agriculture in United States............-..-.- 84 Pork, amount exported by Waited States... .. 20... os wou ache a 34 microscopically examined . +. < epemsere ape oo imere severe wheat ofa 5 34 BAO CMETONET <oe occes - uo oe ce es wa ae He aie vine o a's le we a oe 6 ~ amen 66 cost of inspection by Bureau of Animal Industry-........-.....---.--.- 34 exports to United Kingdom ....-..---------- +--+. +--+ +++ e eee eres 17 imports into United Kin POOM 2 3 os oS eco e oe eee en ce ee ee 14 Potassium sulphide, formula for FONGICIDE «4. 2. = nine = pi, meme tae 579 $OT O86 BINNG 205 226. 226). S| eater en oe ee eee oe 414 Patato beetle, Colorado, remedies ..- 2.2.20. -6 2.222. .ences 230 = - 5 - 574 blight, rot, and seab, treatment .........--.--.----.0.-----G eee oem 578 © Potatoes, acreage in Various countties......-...-.-.-. --2=.ees 59 é 22 cost of tr ansportation to Great Britain... --<-.0s «5.5 23 Trish, soil adapted... n- cce som mire eiers antes arm ehereioyern ates ee eee 133 price in Great Battaime) eo ob pb ce reieis cep eminiatiee ok «ee Lt Rs prices In New York ‘and England -- ._...~..- 2%: ous avse = = See 23 sweet, soil adapted. 26 cone ee wee eee weclemas= = nee eee 133 Prairie falcon, MOEN - one ee een, Eon wnnah a a 228 Prices, farm, on December 1 of five years......-.-. 2. - 5 .-. <piieeqepe = BAS wholesale, of principal agricultural products in leading cities ..-..... 534 Printing Office, Department, statement of work....-. ...-.. —-secseebeneeene 52 Prune leaf rust, treatment Wide ese eae See SER oo Beeler ae oe 578 Psylla, pear-tree, and Psylla p yricola, remedies. ... . 2... .tLamecseeneee eee 574 Publications, Division, organization and duties...... ..---s.20-0.6-----+---e- 525 of Department, costand number; price advocated. .........---- 59 Weather Bureau, distribution... 2 iin. aha eee Soe ae eee ie or 28 relating to dairy herd, fist..- 2... ...-. - ssn temcmen-- ooo 316 Public roads in North Carolina, historical sketch and i improvement. .s<-iuce+ 513 Pure seed tnvestioation. ...... 2) 2 en - ee ce eee ee etee wees. er 389 Purple grackle, GER. eit ee nnn 233 scale of the orange, remedies. -..- 2. - = - aren Meee ens bane eee 574 Peeali« farimatis, Notes... .. 2.25 aoe - wn - oo ~~~ sehen senisere ern’ sree ee 286 Pyrethrum, preparation and use aS INSECTICIEE. -.5)- onien cote cme es cers ene ee meses 575 Quarantine of imported animals...-.. 2... 2... .2waw oisensie ov cmeles eb. eee 80 Quince fruit spot; leaf spot, treatment. -. . 15.2 56c1s 240. saeid see - eee 578 Quiscalus quiscula, DOES... wee moran caren diy tics ae2)y des» ew beatin eee Rainfall available for crops in Kansas, Nebraska, and Colorado ..........---- 157 Ramie, after-processes of manufacture. .---. -. 2. --.- nese ends cee tenn women 457 and flax, comparison; industry in America........ 220 .2-- -.-.-e5e- Add elimaté,; soil, and eulture: 2c ° 12 23. 5282352 eects bh t+ cence: se 446 extracting fiber, : 2262 52-532 2422 9220 Do Sele noe ences shine aie 455 harvesting the crop. 5) 2026252 02 b05 2 6h. coment anon 6 en 452 history and deseriptiony: 3.22.5 2 soadeicss id. oSdece ol. pes een ee 443 machines; remavks<.: - 2222-2 ioc0 chet nes ceb soaces bn en eee 459 methods of de -cortication. rene BEC ead Se Goes SLE AL CAS eat es 445 Wiehe: ocse Soe eee ose kth k re es ea eee 453 tapacious birds, some characteristics ......-- .-.- --2- conn ne wee eecinice clea s come 216
INDEX. 603
Page. Ee OUUOLOH. TOR OSITY COW «25. os <0.cn acces av css seeeunda del sin aewedleedsec 564 Eas oc a yan ma0h eea.n, 0<n0 geusce duenannaespn veiaateech 565 ecords and Editing Division, work of year.... ...~ -.... 02-0 cece ccescees cess 50 Red clover, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, ete....... 570 I nS A RIEL LOO aoe oa a ech eae wes vase ccmeesscnebaduvwpslumadih 433 NR RPCIRER SIO ION x ome nanan aasines + canes cas ase envp.cummewss ¢ busi 573 shouldered and red-tailed hawks, notes..... 2.22.2 0.20 cece econ cee ces cones 220 Redtop, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, ete........... 569 IN REN ECU 5h oa iid sig win mus ma on, 2 sm ble te Seat dduew on be amas 434 number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, etc. 569 TMS CUETO ocelot Mihaila bir cethigiv ie) dando 43 I RON 2c... 5 arictaig WMI I cha Wie y lala iaaln oe aa idee « deceit ‘eaeln 433 ES SET a i) a a er, os es 292 EE EEL GAY Gy SYREN 5c cc 5 ating ny ee Wi alent «mina, = ana ie, nm nite nil 6, cine eg 51 ME Lt. ne ae 9 Meports, annual, of weather stations, extracts............ .c22.-se--ce coceens 125 ei AGEMYIiG LOT TUNPICIO® .. ann cce oawnoe, once awit wesWececoncees 579 preparation and use as Insecticide ...... cusses cancer nose cece 575 I I a a i. di inisa bs ead Ae ai de lA a + dibs «aie, ks Nederda 574 meevu, injury to groceries, wheat, corn, Cte: . .... - .s<a_s sacs cnccsnscossn 281 ES Ra ne eee nye, ee ee ee, ere yrs 280 ET OE SBN Bhs, SRN rans ms nda Alcea mio gel oo perenne 228 RICHARDSON, JAMES D., letter regarding publication of Annual Report of NEE ORs ORE UNGIEG oie dsc mrein mrernirieie aiid Bhaiein eee pwn sees tewksncacdac 51 gee. vo, retirement as Entomologist... ...... ..~.- -.-- neenne sees oe seeet- 41 Road construction in Massachusetts, methods.......: 22.2.2 2222 eee cne once none 510 improvement in counties of North Carolina .............. 2... -20------- 515 Inquiry, Office. (See Office Road Inquiry.) law of Massachusetts, miscellaneous provisions ............-....----- 506, 509 IAG CYE SUSIE UR A ARUONEW SG Sos nia a a ae eh men sxe a ccedeeeenbns bane 520 Roads, best for farmers and farming districts -...--.2-- 2. .seccee eeen ce ceeeee 501 i wnN Shh POROODCNUAPILS .. .. .- . ~~~ 26 sno soon sine enen ene aes wondes 505 un Massachusetts, property rights, ete .-.- 2... 6-.n06 cee cencinsecns anes 511 IS on fc ok we Sc Ne Wes, ask siews acess ge SN IRS aus ee 504 os Mmassschupetis, apportionment... ....- . - 06. ~< += scene Sess meee te Semaine 508 public, in North Carolina, historical sketch; improyvement-.-.-...-...-.- 513 See MAI LOCTIAL, TOMIOGICS . 00. oc ons ecnisemin dnmesitmchne ween eesnsioweae’ 573 Marling spitirex a8.coil binder...... ..-..<<.-...----- din nea yin Whe tk eae 431 Hoot development, relation to water supply... - .2..-.-<--060 cens ce ceee cones 166 hairs in the soil, showing absorption of moisture. ............-.--..---- 169 ETD, TORO EOS oa nen nc nin i heed oe a aie Mba wely cebinnnene ¥ aiee kins 573 TN 0). os na Sreeininn's wma wi ei ee eaten oe 6 willed 574 Rereepok, + roressor, popalar iInstructial;y ~~. noo sncn -ndece oe cde dls wewsc cece 45 MUON i ia os ce ae on ann cm noes aude ees wan be Seen enwes awsu 578 I oa wmycitve, min he alpen ann ep oe} wae Gna nee 219 Rue, officinal goat’s, number seeds per pound, amount tosow, cost peracre, ete. 570 Rust, leaf, of plum, prune, and peach, treatment .... ..-.-. .....-......-.---- 578 ELLE EET OT Te ee 436 Italian and perennial, number seeds per pound, amount tosow,ete. 569 ak 8 as, cic ci pictinrwote weenie hou Swe wine dele «o's 414 Sainfoin, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, ete ........-. 570 SaLMON, D. E., article on ‘‘ Federal meat inspection” ...-.............---..--. 67 Panes ot oeeruzsiion of milk” .W2., ss 2. da Sad Vino ece cece 37 Salted meat, number packages inspected, 1891......... 2... ..2. -- cece e coon ee 67 SEBIDDOR,, FBOE cis cei Saha Se ese SUSee es iiss 68 ears press (MIRA prams); MOLES... uo nas cnwdiied cutise cote cece caus cone ceuwes 430 Peat a0 AOiL DORGOrs, list OF GTABSOG 22. en enccm rc ccenmnncueeetsacdeucdees 580 PNRM NT, GEE OR NLOSR eae to ancin anime anndeg mencincuaWa Jies obs Jebandcuwed 425 NG DE SURBBOE cpcciiced ase Ada ncinene Dtadtes«tuctmadadaeecae Gam binding grasses, distribution... 2.2225 ca cee a sec eee sec ces csesceeccece 423 PLOPACAMON w... oo swine in 1d ceidecwccsemece seccue ceceues 425 grass, long-leafed, as sand binder .... .......... 220+ s-20e- eo ee eee eee eee 433 OT gs eo 134, 135, 136, 147, 148, 152 Sanitarians, collection of climatic data... .... 2... weecee ce cence cee ees oe cecces 120 SE BOGLO, THOLOO aoe oh oct e we enn ens coswencereesvenany ssbenveveusues 267 BRAUN SN i cinicisacinde mnie nner nine dbchaes a etetenine te La wd ite tS 574 Maia BETT1O9G, TOMCKICS 22... ce ne eee ew cnn n see wen wore es pe ewees see ess cues 574
‘Sap up and sap down” in trees .......-.. -.------ ++ --2- eee ee treet teers ee 468
604 INDEX.
Page. Saw-toothed grain ‘beetle, notes \..iis 5. kee ice’. ce eee eee eee ae Scab of apple, treatment ........-....------2 22-252 ob anc steht EEE eae 577 pear aud potato, treatment 5.225. ha2 a eee oe oe ee 578 Seale, English walneat, netes: 2.32222 522220 ne Soe eee ee ee eee 264 fluted, remedies 2. k.0eS Lowen cui CULL eeneee Ue eee 573 ereedy, nO teS.\.. LL Dak eee wate cence tus eeSeie eee eee mek op ee 261 insects, Classification; species considered ..i..0..02 5.062 oe oe 251 general life history and habits. \.022222 22 -S. Se oe natural Gmemies 0b ee ha ce ek eee ee oe eee “252 of the opehard Pa.0 is Pots in Da OR ee oe eee 249 table of parasites SeeetweUSEeGRL ee Ey kel ee es ee 254 New Perel wees by Oe ee en ee 265 purple, of the orange, remedies Ea es oc ESE NUL ees ee SS eee 574
San Jose, notes. 2. 'be 2. sell e esta eek es Sete or Femnedies Seas acdas wise OU as 574 Scales, orchard, remedies. 2.5.5... 5.2 es Sea Se eee eee 3 ae 2 eee 272 Preventives <..5580.. .aucas ones See eee eee eee 276 Schizoneura lanigera; remedies ...~.....- /22 32202208 2 San ee ee 572 ScHWEINITZ, E. A. DE, article on “ Pasteurization and sterilization of milk”. 331 Scolytus rugulosus, remedies ....2. 5.2.00 s 22 22 JL Cee set Ce Vee 573 pcreech owl, motes co. Jue ke tec. be wae a. BRAS eee ee oars ee eee SRY 225 Screw worm, POMCGICS. 0. 2 wes we SRS ae Sees bee ete abe Bes ees ee 574 SCRIBNER, F. LAMSON, appointment as Agrostologist ffi Ads. eee 24 article on ‘‘Grasses as sand and soil binders”........-. 421 Seurfy bark louse; notes: W220 eo eee a oe a aeee eek ee 259 Sea Islands storms, damave i. 2)<.52..22 25-28 aon ee oe alee ey oa eee 123 jymo erass; upright; motes: o 2693s. Cis o eh es eee ene ee 428 Seashore sand-binding @rasses®.o2/- 225200 202. 2. hol. en ee 425 Seeretary of Arriculture,/duties i orsoe 2 ls oo oe at ee er 523 POPOrt hse he ee ee 9 Seed-cleaning apparatus, description....-....--..--.---2 -2- 2-2. =~. a woes 408 colleciten for testing . ot... ~... 66-2 ES Eee ool Soe oe ee 408 conttol is Tarope... Jocki este eee eee oe 394 inethotis 2G Re Pa LEULE ita. hs ee 395 cost.of distributional aces stat tS oe a ee 59 distributed during year... ....---------- +--+ --- eee ee ete eee eee eee eee 58 Division, organization and duties.....-...------- 2 525 germinating apparatug !))-. da eeeec eet ten Peet CN ee 402 gratuitous distribution deprecated 2222222 /22.-5-.. 2.2. 2-2 oe ee 60 Oviis cS ASSN Oo rs Sas 58 investigation and. control, necessity -. .. 22. 2.22. 2.26 oo. oo. ee oe See 389 equipments tLae Rud P.y bemeeetnes pee eee 23.2 Rae eee 401 of forage plants, weight and cost of four mixtures....--..------------- 571 pure, -investieation 21.) i26.%.. Veto E eee ee ELE eee eee es cee 389 samplers, motesec. Ui s che4l «268 soe ee DADA me ERS) ae ene Oe ee 406 test, amount ‘to be sed 2/2 ).22 ese eee ee ee ee ss 395 drawing sample... ..~ 24. SILLS Se eee. 2 ee 396 duration of germinating experiment; germinative energy. .--.....- 399 number seeds to be germinated... ..-..--.-----.-----+------ +--+ +--+ 398 place of germination; previous treatment of seeds.......---.---.- 398 testing, germinating appar atus for home work.......... +--+ -+see2eeeees 405 trade, abuses ..... Un tnd cloth ee ine ted. Aaa ors Sa ts 390 treated for smut, drying, increasing yield... .... ...0..0s.0.. 2) sb oeee 418 treatment for emmt..ci2. 2: Does SSE eG eee ee SSE, Se 414 Seeds an bird 4000; 2. 56... os wae oe URL Ree Un LE ee 245 beet, germination. test ..-- 2... . ete eee kie wo. <3 Soe. Sage 400 examination for purity and vitality............ 02020 Jigs. ee ee 44 germinating tESb po oi. ns warintcciccwe cbse beets saat pela > © cake ne a ae 398 grass, gorminabion test... in. <.2c cee in come emma sens pL Soke gee oe 400 methods of ‘adulteration ....cccscs we ccasvcssnnae saeeeee wae cae 391 number samples examined at Zurich, Switzerland...-...----.---.++---- 394 of grasses and forage plants, grains in 1 pound ...........-.----------- 569 rare plants, distribution to stations. 12 !scei/oicesc. ssh ece eae 38 temperature required... 2. 2.20 s casino ee sisblnen saul Una eels a 398 teet- for impUritiew: oon oc oe cece onto wee sae bladpiniemndale ba aseile we esr 397 weighing for test... 2.- cess cena dene ct aeesiccinesne wena ty le Oh i Onmeee eee 401 Seedsmen, duty respecting smut. .....-...-- os000- cen ean seodeeccuscenhees damm 419 Sharp-shinned hawk, Motes. .2.5 os ..onn on oe niecaws bwin teen ns deer kais saeee ian ae 232
Sheep, number carcasses inspected, 1892, 1893.....---.----. 2-22. ee eee eee . 68
Stabling season ak Wee ons Te ees ce cc pagans es sca rcesel ube deb ds
° INDEX. 605 Page. Sheep’s fescue, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost ine acre, ete 569 Muemwers, value of weather forecaste..... 2... 2.0.02 e es cece cs wots anccccce 122 ee aera k's ots ssid Vass beni cabs'eeaces co acdc cece 224 Shows, cattle, in IE SC abet Sea aes Rh Silt, mechanical separation......... j kageweeelas tieu ge esses 134, 135, 136, 147, 148, 152 OU iV bs ws wi KGa mA K A 6a bee cease dcodic ceeds cdeces 287 SEG DECUGTUME, TOMOCIOS .. . 2.2 2. css win eee ee eee ete ee cece ec cucees ce 573 Siphonophora avenw, remedies .....--------------- 220+ eee eee eee eee 574 Muaietonizer, apple-leaf, remodies..... /... 2.20 ...02.0 ccc cece ee cw eceeecees 572 Slender-horned flour beetle, MOU rr a UCC CE Rh e ois ess banc wend cWas de 289 NE SENIIOE 6 win'a' ain x nro nw Wnw'a Wills dine Won wmagicevd'suce er chee secs 574 SMITH, THEOBALD, article on ‘‘ Some practical suggestions for the suppression apa prevention of bovine tuberculosis”... 2.2... .0 cece ee ccc ns cece wees 317 Benen meat, packages inspected, 1891...-.. 2... 2... .222 2225 eee ce eee e ee 67 number packages stamped, 1892... 22... eee eee wee 68 ume arvine Of seed after treatment... . 02.22. ccs coca e ce reals oe oe eee 418 ee ee ee ee ee ek. ap ee 412 Pr MCALUNOMe lark halos l. SES EG oe eee sce 3st 577 REUTER ING ora (cha a3 hw ae SOs W's odin Vee eee wesc eds Stes sacs se 578 weer, Of Wheat, treatment. .2.. 2/525. 65 2 ss cel ec wc encase 578 ireasment of seed increasing yield... 2... 2-222. 2526. cee ene cee e eee ee 418 POP EOV OIG Ui ot ao ipietoan wisinh sade Woda bay dad dnee oo 414 Demis, oenin, Causes and prevention...........-. once eee cee cece eee ween 409 ee eve, GG COME. so... aul a teas vous ede dectce nate en 414 ee ee Ee Oe Oe Pe eae ee 409 memimemurnt Of GAMAPGE: 5.52. 2252.25 0S ee eee le es ee eee 410 SE a 286 ey noha Los Shea inc Seah warned +o qoes eels coe wees ees 226 peaue, preparation and use'nas insecticide .-......--.- 2... 2-2. 22-5 ee eee 575 Som, 2becrption of moisture by root hairs.....-.....-....--.------.------ 169 SaeeeeD ee VOEIOUS VORCIAINGS.. 2 ono 5k ee oot Come ci eect cece 133 Bae ete TMOGCE, Seb OF OTABSES. 2. 2. oo oes ee ee eee oe 580 RE ERE CRIRMON e S or. 5 ose eles Seng cce wa deinen ecw cescces = 421 conditions, benefit of understanding. - Sr EE Oe ey eee ge ee 163 yo es Se a ee ea ee a ee eee 462 ferisuzation 2s attecting the orange. ......2. .-.- 205-2 e eee eee eee ee 193 ge eg 159 eect on fertilization of orange... .. 2.5.0... ...2.. 2.2.6. 194 muck effect of fertilizing with different phosphates..........-.-...- 189 eC ES 0 484 Memeo BOF TAMIC. 0.6. cc cee cee cece ees Mer MeL ss owe ee 446 EGLO OPMGi eo. .. os ad eee SEALs, wae Seok oe os ceee sees 130 vegetable, effect of fertilizing with phosphates..............---..-- 188 Somememma pasture season for cowSs...... 22. .scs soe tee casee. eee ees wee ee 311 nL EG LODACCO.. . 6 inc onc ceca sce So eew a sob e ce sce eee ed 144 Agricultural, Division. (See Division of Agricultural Soils. ) TMi oc oye. e S24g eh al su Udle cone sone 46 Oo ES On ee ene ee, | oe 155 UMC GAN RUIN IR TRIMIIROUND C2 cco. cc ELM bo cee e eee suse cece snes 129 tobacco. (See Tobacco soils. ) truck. (See Truck soils.) eer emnits OF OFMMMG, PROMUMNENE.c. 0 Lo. occ cee eon ct ce sae Joes cowses ceeaes 578 @auener Clothes moth, remedies .......... .n2s0. 22. ocean eee. ce ckesewes 573 WiCah memeeme GOtr WINGOR... 2... isle a sae Caan sdew es secwee ss 435 TEIN HIME ED WWM, Soe 2k Shc die ad cnn oc ew ance sew daivew cad debe noes 136 INET MW MMII). Sct wet ars pan nn sence ce wane SoU Wes bese nace es 223 Spartina cynosuroides and S. glabra as soil binders ..---.-----..----------- 436 juncea and &. olystachya, notes. .........-.-. 0-2. cece eee eee cece ee eees §=©—- 496 RMON BOIL AAAPtEG 20s... 5 cee in ln oc cee Sees Seed ewes Wan eee cece ee we 133 Spinifer hirsutus, as soil binder ...... 2.2... 22.20. cones cece ee cece ee cceees 431 long-leafed, and S. squarrosus, notes bid ou temibhniaw eer wi wade Ue 432 rolling, TCE EE SS MGT, RCS 17S Seem te 431 Spot, fruit and “leaf, of quince, treatment... ... 22... cece ee Senses saneess 578 Spraying outfit for orchard, description... ... 2... see cee een ee se cees cccees 576 - Square- necked grain beetle, MONON eck foo sn 6 hain cued ies SUS eae on oan on 290 Squash borer and bug, Meieiea Nig SO, PE es Foes Coss Oe PL ee 574 Squirrel hawk, SR Sr ie aaa ee) SS Aes pee 219 St. Augustine er ree GE TURMNOIES oea-e nd . 5 2 we ewn Ue owed dea ee US eeU NS oa
606 INDEX. -
Page. State highways.in. Massachusetts)... cas). deebse)-co0. sec sukd ahhet eee. re 3) Statistics, Division. (See Division of Statistics.) meaning and object........-.-.- etme cece ce cet a 54 Sterilization of milk. 25 ....2.c6e¢ seen cecn bles be es ce - ehh eee c eed ee 1b eee discussion. . Llaie mjeinbeie, ainymn em wen = pam eee otek Rec effect on digestibili ty.. wecg beige cabin one SRG EGR obese ee ee Stinking smuts of WERE. cc cce cece sca keene dens ce cons bases eu aa 409 copper-sulphate treatment... -. 52.0 snc. ssns so eee hee 417 hot-water treatment... . siesis is nae~ Joid ean See 415 freatment...-..-.---.<.cssiaw--ieoet 4460) eee 578 eock Yards iMepechion <a uo. ei < oo ens pe eee See ee 3 78 Stomach contents of crow blackbirds---....-- » tsi lin sk op Stomachs of blackbirds, list of vegetable s substances found........--.-.-2-e-- 242 STONE, Roy, appointment as special agent in charge of Office of Road Inquiry. 53 article on ‘‘ Best roads for farms and farming districts” .......--. 501 Storm of March 27, 1890, damage; storms, Sea Islands and tropical --.....--- 123 Strawberry weevil, TemediOs. os 6 acca cp come eden ok; Soe 574 Striped cucumber beetle and striped flea beetle, remedies ...-.......-.----.- 573 SMDSOIINe In arid TESION << 02 oe seews eran pree sent sees ot ReReeee Eee 163 Subsoils.of tobacco Jand, mechanical analyses .iia-ies oe -rcind Se oc 146, 148, 152 truck lands, mechanical analy ses-ic ii neue tonne ees 136, 137, 138, 139 macar-cane porer, Temedics ..-..-.-- - «cseee-> ant Nees Od — ~*~ <e ee 574 Saperphesphate,. character ..... 22... .s5-eec0¢ees ba Vadsl Dekh meee eee 183 Survey, biological. (See Biological survey.) Swainson’s hawh,wotes ..-2.-..- --+2-¢ee eter cee enoc re 3 > -biwads ine eee 222 Swallow-tailed hawk and kite, notes..-..-....-..- .-ssseKessseubi skew eee oe oe 218 Swamp millet.as soil binder... ...- 2. -re- pecs peep osee es eben - pee 435 Sweet potatoes, soil adapted:...... -...- . 2222+ -- 00400 porn cone -os= See 133
SWINGLE “Ey WALTER T., article on ‘‘ The grain smuts: Their causes and preven-
C1OM? . WW. cad ode pede peeecee reeds cep cece asec saa eee ee 409 Switch grass as soil binder... .5.2 022 ccs pers se calenbe>s n= eee be =e 430 Syrphus" flies, scale insect enemies... ..- 2.2 ~ Sa buns - <add he eee 253 Telegraph. service of Weather Bareau ..--c..5..0464.<06 +44 J ee 32 Tenebroides mauritanicus, notes...-..---- ole seid ete lin eam se eR ae 290 Tennessee phosphates, general remarks... cassiu. nse Loe see eee 179 Timothy, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, etc........- 570 Tinea biseliielia, remedies... ...../- 4-8 «Beet ae Bad bee Oo ee ee 573
granella, motes <2... ..0scoskeeeed- teers nik bee. BAL oe 286 Tebacco, adaptation of soils, ....~.--.- .-m-<0--+pshesbnds ols ee ee commercial STOUPING s456he4—-5- 3006 0% «a 2nse ene ee 143 distribution. of ty Pes...<. ~ 25-2 +0he-0inonn< <A he oles eee
exports to United Kingdom. 2 2i22d ites tte vs cos U2 eee ee 18
fields, small, irrigation suggested . ......suecssseub ics eee eee 155 influence of fertilizers ......-0505566 ametan=-~nebeliowek 6c .ae pee eee 145
land, mechanical analyses of subsoils..i:.. -.2......2.0 220008 146, 148, 152
soils, amount of water. ....--s.05 cn<c-++s --- fetes ate see 150, 154
of Connecticut and Pennsylvania.............2-.2c.4eeneeeene 143
Valley... -2s0n200 Hin bool ci pip coe 146
Pennsylvania cen ons 622 -o eda chk LL Ae 151
Tematoes, soll.adapted .< wosisewe cee tee se ee wees es ee ok 133 Tratsition life. zone, GescripClon. <n... nn. ncicnnnmmecseneesiles Sogls ae eee 210 Traps, lure, for grait: IMGCCLS cnc x sien a nninincn cane «J clase: wy eink oe 292 Tree, growth in length and ramification .\..-...-0.i.jcuvoet Joao eee eas * 469 PV SOLO LY ini: nin nics mint eran bene ws pied seiula ohne see 467
TEU aco lal gate eed pesis lsaeteie 1a so et 0 a a Se 472
planting, proparation. of soil soa2 cic) Lice toe on seinen de Sb nl A 484 progress:ot development ...... «....,.<s0.555 3 le ede SUNURL ed ee ee 469 Trees, development in and out of forest... ee senda s oa se aes See 473 food materials and conditions of growth .......-.5..2s0oees-bohee heen 461
form. development... 010+ o2sininn 2 Sele hiee. USE ss UES ee ee ene 475
Kind. $0 DIG. ani av.cjninain onatnncreen in bewbn nes s.c obits ae eee 481
light. con@ifians -nu0 .oinn co cnn cnciaeen SLU Leh eee Les 10 as 0 ee 464. mothods of planting « ....02. 0200 o0.2 san Jebel doeee yee ae 484
PONV OR UCEIOR ooo doc aime mn mood SRA Uae oa Ba tee 479
number to be planted per acre. .......-~ -----ssbeeades «saueeseunee ee 485, 496
SAGO OF VOWED a. nikis eine nn bide w cine wikis oe Coie) mts aoe Ae ee 477
‘gop np AUG. 6ap. GOWN.” 5... eccedemerne di nemeldadh sy Gem tae Veen okt 468
BOLL COMMIT AIG in ecd. nd indo. o:dcicsamnleDlalme svete Serie www ane nw eae ee a 462
INDEX. 607
Page,
RE ET RIENNINE oh win n Vom a cen oboe 6 olen dwewltlne dame ceneewcees 485
rr UCL SEC WOO CIORD. «ooo osc nena coeur camoedddadneeeearsaces« 499
Trefoil, bird’s-foot, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre,ete. 570
number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, OGL 6 3-6Shiewen 570
Tribolium confusum and T. ferrugineum, notes ........---- 22. eeeece coee eee 288, 289 Trifolium hybridum, 7. pratense, and T. repens, number seeds per pound, amount
to sow, cost per acre, Oe 6 tae natn sides hintaan tam ie agitemeuccedecs ondbos 570 Trisetum flavescens, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre,ete. 570 TOMO, 16 ZOUNC, COSCTIPUGM ce 2 n05 cp oc en secede cace cnctncesccceseeces 211
storms, SRNR 2 ase GES Nabe Maine kwh eWew sida nas ratlitwaseichh den 123 Truck, carly, suitable soil; truck farming, ames. im 1980....... +... Seite commen acs 130 GebeTtIAl fACOLe .. . . . c.ccmencncvese 129 NG io ose wile ewes oswe Cen nas sees 131 lands, mechanical analyses of subsoils.......-..- 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 142, 143 ee nO ROUMGRNE «caida uciduvinde sos sca ade kWiv sewn ews sawed sow 129 GeaeTe DlOlG © AlGID. sande ree We 2s dws Venn monn ene recencee 137 MM OMABUPIOUNLS. . ocd wesc cance ncowduesdece Beeoaeh Sh sais oo on iguana ciel 133 re Ce Bt SU CRPORIIG a. . Wc wcialnman email oaddnaw oe noninlines't 136 ITI INE aE ctl errccepcis ah hd tah oS > cent bahan ctaie egg il meatier ern inh 139 We EE EA aac trate Fe cere gi nnje tae Sheet a ghrena AM el aae tis han ookabelion 138 Matto on Atlantic seaboard. ....-..... 202200 coc orn cecae-on--oe cose 131 TRUE, A. C., article on “Agricultural education in United States”. ......---. 81 Tuberculosis. (See Bovine tuberculosis. )
Tyroglyphus (?) gloverii and T. malus, scale insect enemy ....--..--..-.--------- 253 Uniola condensata and U. latifolia, notes ..........-..--. ee emearee a pee dccsteall 430 EE MUIR? CUO: TIOGCS... 5 hic conn covans cnn commeetvbcsebpecedeeenn 428 menMrminties, SORIO INBeCE ENEMY ..--.. 2... -- 02 - cane ee enw ee seer wnsneees 252 Vegetable Pathology, Division, work of the 8 oe ee ete ee 42 Physiology and Pathology, Division, organization and duties....-.. 524 soil, effect of fertilizing with phosphates Daa tlk dcsten’ in Khas ort a: peas ached 188 substances found in blackbird OO eats is ae oo nes bccn ware - 242 EEE NOMEE pS ini owls nie in wm SE edna ase meee ee enionwlt mee 133 ; MMmnUer GT WRRENGU JOTOCASUR, ooo os Go ot ee ree coon oe noe ose e ween 122 Velvet grass, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, etc ..---- 570 Vernal grass, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, ete ..-.-- 570 Vessels held in port by Weather Bureau warnings.-.....-....---...--.. eae 124 BH Sai SSIES RT a OE ee er Pre oes 77
Vetch, common kidney, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre,
i ecw cans ssc olen Wi deieisieat.. 6 ame aee dns men ere mecionn sews 57 PUPPREIRE IC, OTIS... 2 news eo ens cee een ene ee ia ia ontsha, aa min w deal tiae 138 een work, and food in United States... -- 2... on eee wees cen ee sccens 376 Ge PMS, NIQUES... 2. 28. 2 sew wee ee cans cnmans swe coe ewrcesecess 264 IN NN on on nn ons iw cin ee eed poe Seto wee ebewae wee nee 118
Or wr enmnee bureau, Value... .....-6-. soccer ons Le er 29
pee Wg. See a ee 124
Washington, RM etCG 20 co yep wal gud eee as.yale ne < onenreeemnbs ames 84 menimoton’s message to Congress ..-. .-.. 22-22. see cece e cone ere meerseves 83 er sdia ome emer ents means scale Sela Jet Water, amount detrimental to plants; how plants obtain water..-..--.-.---. 168 as a factor in growth of plants 1 See ssa sealers 165
ne RES Sys eee one. Sake cd ct uia'ne os oe eaiwem ames sesh 166
is CODGECG, Oss, AMOURE A.W... cnc wren enon stnw geen wes ono te- = 1G 1k
POEs tir OP NOOLALLON IFOME TOUSES. . 2. 22. - <2 5 = sete nne Sawn cn cone scenes 178
oats (beach grass) as soil EE OER SS ORE CNet 420 supply, relation to root development........-.....-------- +--+ -++++-+- 166 RCE, SRG: FORMATO on ilain cain ee ieee argos ne noes anieweeacesns 574 Weather Bureau and West Indies cyclone SNS 830 2 Ee MES AES a 32 appropriations and expenses, 1882 to 1894 ....-..------------ 28
dissemination of information ........-. 2.2... 222 eee cone one 118
distribution of publications........-.......--.----------+---- 28
economy of administration --.........--. ....-.2- e--- eee eee 27
forecasts; force at central office; value of warnings......--. 29
organization ee el re eee ee Se 523
present and proposed lines of work......------------------- 120
promotions by, competitive examinations..-....------------- <s
telegraph service .......... 2-22. coon ee cee nee wns ence ences 32
608 INDEX.
Weather conditions of crap .of “1804: S222) Ds7se eres ce ee ee ee an Map, Annual issie tf SSA sons eh eee stations, extracts from annual ‘reports: 220) .200 7 els eee
WesBBER, H. J., article on ‘‘ Fertilization of the soil as affecting the orange in
heaeh-and Wisease oneal. a ies Rew ee ae Oia ad beet ene oe nan ee a
Weeb-worm,’ fall,’ rémetiies 220 os os ve Se nd ee
Weeds, list, character, methods of eradication, ete. -...:....2.--- 6.2.22 sete ee
Weevil, bean, remedies Ao sta es cee sb e es eee enemies aaa er STRBATY, MOLES. Sale ew ieee ae ho Seen oe wale ae bee eon
pea, FemMed tess 2 fe ee ls Poa noe ae tl eon Sale ae coe ar rice, injuxy/to:.eroceries, wheat, corn, che: 222 2222.2 22a eee NOUR ye. ste nna cee mn dense oS Se bee cele Meme nee ee ava@er. Femediog ©. i222 ween ws al Le ee Strawberry, remedies 0 oe oo ee cee eee) eee
Weev ils, Mont, M0ves -- - 5-42 eae ae oe So eae orneor . cos cc oe ne MER, TOMEULOS 2.0 sane es. bas pee a= s case. ne eee ett ee
West Indies'cyclone service - PS o oie. oleae. oa. Sees ee eee
Wheat affected “with loose smtits.s 2222. 2S oo eee es oe
copper-sulphate treatment for stinking smut ....--.---.--..-.-.....-. farm price on December lof five years. 2... .-..-..--- eee erass, southern, assoil binder > -0os 50. 2s 00 Soe. ode ee hot-water treatment for loose’*smit. 57-2. 252... - 5.2 22 oe stinking smut.) 2... S22. 2. oo
in fnelish ‘markets... 22050. 202. te Ss oe aes eee isosomnd, “remedies 2. 222.5. Sok Se Saw Was eto po bo ee Sele ee plant louse; remedies (cei oS Ss eee ee ek eee price in Great ‘Britain =o. see ee eee eee pmitts, extent Of damage. o2.escc 20. eee e coe. ok Blinking Ssmiais 12202 seer sss eo ee eee ; TECAUMIEN Ge Ue oe aie pone s ce = oe Lapapen wholesale pricein teatiny etties. 22. Ooo. 'es lo. ob oo ee
White clover, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, etc....-
White-eye, bird, scale insect enemy. sic... - 2s. os. - ee ee a ee
grub (June beetle), remedies2 ioc oc oi soe oe eee
WHITNEY, MILTON; appointment as soil expert !*.- 5220-20222 Less eee
article on ‘Relation of soils to crop production”.........
WILEY, H. W., article on ‘‘Mineral phosphates as fertilizers” ..._-..-....----
Willits, Hon. Edwin, retirement as Assistant Secretary....-.....-..----.--..
Wind mantle-for forest: i222225 si fisebsiesol soos ines eee
Winds, hot. (See Hot winds.)
Wines, chemical examinations 7: 2 226. $2224.24. 62142 9213
Wireworins, remedies 20. 0 A eo Ske rsa eo SS eee
Witeh crass (couch grass) -as soil binders. 2 .<..s55.05 4.\ccns tas ~\lee Oe
Wolf moth, notes. 2.0520 220 Be nae ae os ee re a
Weod erop, how: tocultivate: 228 223.029 a ae oo oe
methods of reproduction 222 220 252254032 230325.° .- pe < thinning v.02 J Res 38s epee. 6 so re
weedine and cleaning. so: 2 cello occ lec tans 65s 5 en
lot, treatment 22255. Fe oP I a os en 2 oo ete production; ‘effect of Tight’ 22552225 022206025005. Soc. ee oe
Woops, ALBERT T., and B. T. GALLOWAY, article on ‘‘ Water as a factor in the
growth of plants” ols oc. os .eccces es see tec ee sedge ese cle se. 6 ies
Workmeman, nutrition lo Soe ital 2 oe ee. a eos ne ee = ee
Yellow oat grass, number seeds per pound, amourt to sow, cost per acre, etc.. Zone, life. (See Life zone.)
Zones, life, séven; of North America..3... 5.22 oe ne ie cee eon se Zosterops capensis, scale insect enemy ..... 6... 2226's cies oc cen serena veseaeepene
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