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Yearbook U, S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899, © ° FRONTISPIECE,

ISAAC NEWTON. HORACE CAPRON.
(Commissioner of Agriculture, 1862-18€7.) (Commissioner of Agriculture, 1867-1871.)

oe.

JEREMIAH M. RUSK.
(Secretary of Agriculture, 1889-1893.)

FREDERICK WATTS. GEORGE B. LORING.
(Commissioner of Agriculture, 1871-1877.) (Commissioner of Agriculture, 1881-1885.)

HEADS (DECEASED) OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Ws. Cyt | eA VK
YEARBOOK

OF THE

Ber bE SA FS

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Rodd:

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1900.

[CHAPTER 23, Stat. at L., 1895.]

AN ACT providing for the public printing and binding and distribution of public documents.

Section 73, paragraph 2:

The Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture shall hereafter be submitted
and printed in two parts, as follows: Part One, which shall contain purely busi-
ness and executive matter which it is necessary for the Secretary to submit to the
President and Congress; Part Two, which shall contain such reports from the dif-
ferent Bureaus and Divisions, and such papers prepared by their special agents,
accompanied by suitable illustrations, as shall, in the opinion of the Secretary, be
specially suited to interest and instruct the farmers of the country, and to include
a general report of the operations of the Department for theirinformation. There
shail be printed of Part One, one thousand copies for the Senate, two thousand
copies for the House, and three thousand copies for the Department of Agriculture;
and of Part Two, one hundred and ten thousand copies for the use of the Senate,
three hundred and sixty thousand copies for the use of the House of Representa-
tives, and thirty thousand copies for the use of the Department of Agriculture,

he illustrations for the same to be executed under the supervision of the Public
Printer, in accordance with directions of the Joint Committee on Printing, said
illustrations to be subject to the approval of the Secretary of Agriculture: and
the title of each of the said parts shall be such as to show that such part is com-
plete in itself,
9

; >

se

PREFACE.

In the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture for 1898 there —
oceurred the following reference to the Yearbook for 1899:

* * * For 1899 Iam considering the propriety of making a special effort to
prepare a publication which shall contain a résumé of the achievements in the
United States in every branch of science as related to agriculture during the
nineteenth century, for distribution at the Paris Exposition.

The plan thus suggested was not lost sight of, and in the circular
letter instructing the chiefs of Bureaus, Divisions, and Offices as to
the matter to be supplied the Secretary expressed his earnest desire
that the idea presented in his Annual Report for 1898, quoted above,
should be carried out as far as possible in the preparation of the
papers for the present volume. He said:

I desire that the Yearbook for 1899, the distribution of which will occur during
the last year of this century, shall present to the reader a picture of the develop-
ment of agriculture in the United States during the nineteenth century and of
its condition at the present time, and show in a special manner the effect upon
agricultural industry of the application of science in its several branches to the
service of agriculture. Every Bureau and Division in the Department charged
with scientific work should therefore contribute one or two articles reviewing
the progress made in the application to agriculture of the particular science with
which it is concerned.

In the execution of this design it has been necessary to somewhat limit
the number of papers, Owing to the space desired for the proper treat-
ment of the various subjects. In addition to the Annual Report of
the Secretary, which, in accordance with the law providing for the
publication of the Yearbook, has the first place in the volume, there
are but twenty-six papers. A glance at the list of titles on page 5
will show that in the main the plan laid down by the Secretary has
been carried out. A wide latitude, however, has been allowed to
each writer in the presentation of his subject, as each one was dealing
with what has been practically his life work. The result is, it is
believed, to present for the first time within the covers of a single
volume a fairly comprehensive review of the progress and develop-
ment of a century in almost every branch of scientific inquiry having
a direct practical bearing upon agriculture.

It is gratifying to record in this connection that Congress has made
provision for an extra distribution of this number of the Yearbook

3

4 PREFACE.

by providing a special edition to be available for foreign distribution
during the time of the Paris Exposition of 1900—an edition which
will be literally ‘‘extra,” not only as to number but as to workman-
ship. So much for the miscellaneous papers from the several chiefs
of the Bureaus, Divisions, and Offices. Two papers only are contribu-
ted by others than Department officers and employees, that on the
‘*W ork of the breeder in improving live stock” and that on the ‘‘ Devel-
opment of transportation in the United States.” These papers were
prepared by two gentlemen each of whom is especially qualified by
the experience of a lifetime to treat of the subject assigned to him.

The general character of the Appendix has not been materially
changed; such modifications as have been made are in the direction
of expansion, with a view to the making of this part of the Yearbook
a convenient and full ready-reference book, excluding no information
which might be of value to any resident in arural district. The steps
which have already been taken in this direction will be continued in
the future.

It should be said in speaking of the Appendix, the character of
which precludes the giving of individual credit for the various con-
tributions, that all the Bureaus, Divisions, and Offices of the Depart-
ment have supplied a share, oftentimes involving a very large amount
of work, not infrequently more than is required in the preparation of
papers for the main body of the volume. The illustrations include
sixty-three plates and numerous text figures.

It is proper to state here that acknowledgments are due to many
persons for information kindly supplied by them to the writers of
several of the papers comprised in this volume, but the frequency of
such aid makes it impossible to particularize, and confines us to this
general acknowledgment on behalf of the writers thus favored.

GEO. WM. HILL,
Lditor.
WASHINGTON, D. C., Apri 20, 1900.

CONTENTS.

Ine ern ot 2A ee eee ens an oe oe
Work of the Meteorologist for the Benefit of Agriculture, Commerce, and
rer omdee Val El; DiS el Owen ee re ee ees SS ee
Some Examples of the Development of Knowledge Concerning Animal
TOUS EPS 6g gil BW pd DIG DSO Ba aY0 1 ie ee ep ate eee eR ro hee ee ese
Progress in Economic Entomology in the United States. By L. O. Howard_
Agricultural Education in the United States. By A. C. True_._.---------
Progress in the Treatment of Plant Diseases in the United States. By B. T.
Seer R OL Uae amare ee a eg ec re Se OF, nS es ee eae
The Relation of Chemistry to the Progress of Agriculture. By H. W.
re erent ware hye S20 EE A ARP, Be ee ee a kee
A Review of Economic Ornithology in the United States. By T.S. Palmer-
Progress of Forestry in the United States. By Gifford Pinchot ------_-- i
Progress of Agriculture in the United States. By George K. Holmes-.----
Soil Investigations in the United States. By Milton Whitney_--_-.-----.---
Progress of Economic and Scientific Agrostology. By F. Lamson-Scribner_
Progress of Road Building in the United States. By Maurice O. Eldridge-
Dairy Development in the United States. By Henry E. Alvord__--..____-
Development of the Nutrition Investigations of the Department of Agricul-
Maps yen Troe and fh, O. Wilner in: 0. le 2 2h eee
The Practice of Forestry by Private Owners. By Henry S. Graves ______-
Growth of the Tobacco Industry. By Milton Whitney and Marcus L.
ULOGL yal Sen tel ge a) ee eg ke eee ee ec Seana Se
Administrative Work of the Federal Government in Relation to the Animal
intanuaysy, Georee i bnompson. 62 i="! 260.00. 2 ee ee
Progress of Plant Breeding in the United States. By Herbert J. Webber
EE RRM ee ea EGROE 6. eS See ee Ge ee EY een
Development of Agricultural Libraries. By Charles H. Greathouse --__-
Agricultural Experiment Stations in the United States. By A. C. True___
Seed Selling, Seed Growing, and Seed Testing. By A. J. Pieters__...____.
Progress of Commercial Growing of Plants Under Glass. By B. T. Gallo-
IE Peg Aho rn ee ee ee ea eee eS Os, Se
Rise and Future of Irrigation in the United States. By Elwood Mead Pay
Succulent Forage for the Farm and Dairy. By Thomas A. Williams ____-
Work of the Breeder in Improving Live Stock. By John Clay, jr_.______-
Development of Transportation in the United States. By Angus Sinclair_
Appendix:
Organization of the Department of Agriculture, December 31, 1899_._-
Appropriations for the Department of Agriculture for the fiscal years
padin= June 30; 1898-1899 amd 19000 oe ee tt eee akan ae =e
Agricultural colleges and other institutions in the United States havy-
Pap GOUT Seen ROTICU IDOE Deyo a eee Be Ee Aoi en eid
Agricultural experiment stations of the United States, their locations,
directors, and principal lines of work............-..---------------

6 CONTENTS.

Appendix—Continued.
Notes regarding Department publications .....---.------------------- .
Publications issued January 1, 1899, to December 81, 1899 _----_.---..--
State officials in charge of agriculture ---. Psa Sh apa EA A PE
Secretaries of State agricultural societies... -- -»-.---22-- 2-2 2 2a ee

Maiey OMICIAIS = 22 WA act. Be eta eee eee ee eee Jae: oe
Protection against contagion from foreign cattle---.----.-------------
Wat lO mO LEC O STS eASSO Clleytel OM Sees ea re oe ee
iEforse breeCders” ASSOCIAbIONS — = -.2 - l=. eee see se eee a
Sheep breeders’ associations .-...--.---.-- -------------++----+--+---+-=-
Siem om neeGers, ASSOC Let OTS 25 nee ee eee er
Acsociationot Breeders of Dogs see 2 use. seee see oe ee ee
Poultry associations, ...2.2-.-.5=. =< -o4e ee = eee ee
State veterinarians and secretaries of sanitary boards.-...-..-----------
Central committee, National Road Parliament-.-----.------------------
States haying officers for forest work ..o- -..56- 44-624--2ene hs see
HOrestry aASSOCIAtlONs= + o5-—. 2s. =) Neo e ne oe eee
Schoolsiet forestry jacc.c54- eb coe em ade oe eee se
Officers of horticultural and kindred’ societies. 2-25) 22255) 2222 =— aeeee
National, sectional, and State bee keepers’ associations ----.--.---------
State officials concerned with the protection of birds and game.-------
National organizations for protection of birds and game --- .----------
State organizations for protection of birds and game _-_.---.----.------
SATEUDOR: SOCIETIES 2 ws Mee A BC Se ee pe SEE, ee ate eee
iarmers’ reading COURSes 24.52. 245) 2228) eee aces ee re ere een
Barmers” National Compress ss. 28-523 eee ee eee eee ee
Patrons, of busbandry 226 aoe ~ a secthh ciate pee se Se
Officials charged with agricultural interests in several countries
Review of weather and crop conditions, season of 1899
Progress in agricultural,chemistry in 1899 .....2-....-----sue-2-Sees
The principal injurious insects of the year 1899
Progressin fruit. growing/in,1899 .. 0.02.2 44. eee wee
Recent progress in road building... -..is.....2- 6. ooo. ae
Plant diseases in the United States in 1899
State standards for dairy products, 1900
Progress in forestry during 1899 J... --0he-20-eh Wn 20/240 dea ee
Agricultural libraries of the United States_... -..-. ..- 2h eee
Boards of trade that publish commercial news
Cottonexchanges _ . 2.2524 2285-5 sete eee pees eee
Statistics of the principal crops and farm animals----..-----.---------
Imports and exports of agricultural products ..-.-.-----..-----.------
A-verage prices for imports and exports. -_-. 0.2.25 nea- sees ee
Pugar stahistics..o. 252380 2 - <6 cde oest don aca wane eee
Dransportation ratede. . .0.6ca<<+ acute ese acne neeemas eee a mene

Page.
676

1

PG. Bh Agios:

PLATES.
Page.
Heads (deceased) of the Department of Agriculture---.-..--.....-.---.-------------- Frontispiece.
PuateE I. Fig.1.—The Marvin meteorograph. Fig.2.—The Marvin nephoscope ------.-.--- 84
18 o Fig. 1.—Preparing to fly Weather Bureau kite. Fig.2.—Weather Bureau kite in af
IOAN a EP TE ae tn 6 9 ee Re ph ce ek Oe rt he Ios ae Se
Tel One WOrkGrs ik CCONOMIG:GHLOIRONOCY =n. 2 ae acs eons s Somes Saseee See. oes 140
IV. Some early workers in agricultural chemistry - ae Ee
V. Deceased chiefs of the Division of Chemistry --.-...--.----------- - 240
Wi. Collecting albatross eggs on Eaysam Island, Hil © . 2:2 -2u. . . seeees ee on - 25s 270
VII. Albatrosses (Diomedea immutabilis) on Laysan Island, H.I .---.....-..----------- 27
VUI. Principal guano islands in the Pacific Ocean (bonded under act of 1856) _.------- 276
IX. ob 1.—Typical forest in Stanislaus Forest Reserve, California. Fig.2.—General
orest view in Stanislaus Forest Reserve, California---_..........---------------- £96
PC eUONSOrGELCLVO In PRIMO oa 5 foes 2 ee ne oe ou aac s eee eae aetnet ooee 298
xi. Hig. 1.—The effects of fire after lumbering in northern Minnesota. Fig. 2.—
orest land in Minnesota devastated by fire ---..-..--.--....--.--.--------------- 300
XI. Fig. 1.—Catalpa plantation, twelve years old, Riley County, Kans. Fig.2.—Grove
of Black Walnut, thirty-one years old, Riley County, Kans ----......-...----.-- B04
XIII. Fig.1.—The big crossing on the old Cumberland road, Summerville,Pa. Fig.
.—Old Cumberland road approaching Chestnut Ridge Mountains, Pennsyl-
Weertis lOOWInS ROBE) Sok: - ceeeG nS, Sooten Loe ceen ates oneeco woterens eo ae 372
XIV. Fig. 1.—The rolled foundation of an object-lesson road built at Hot Springs, Va.,
under the auspices of the Office of Public Road Inquiries of the Department
of Agriculture. Fig. 2.—Finishing touches to the sample road built at Hot
Springs, Va., under the auspices of the Office of Public Road Inquiries of the
Ponarimonl orAoricnlture <6 aes: Sceds ee st eet oes see. See 376
XV. Fig. 1.—Type of roadin New Jersey before improvement. Fig. 2.—Type of road
in NOW wOrsoy Arter - IntoroveMmeniae 2 sosc<2 a8 6 25 4 Soc Segoe a weet estan 378
XVI. Fig. 1—Type of road in Massachusetts before improvement. Fig. 2.—Type of
road in Massachusetts after improvement-..---.-._____-_._-.----_---------------- _ 378
XVII. Fig. 1.—Butter making—the old way. Fig. 2.—Butter making—the new way... 382
XVIII. Fig. 1—A pioneer creamery in the State of South Dakota. Fig. 2.—A modern
preamery in the pate OL INGW LOLk —.-.--2-22 55-2 see a cose ee ceas po oe keweness 388
XIX. Fig. 1.—‘*The Oakes cow.” aig. 2.—Dairy bull, modern type, Guernsey. Fig.
3.—Dairy (GOW, TOOTS tet On al OU OY 8 ciety a oo = ad lo ie ee een moni 302
XX. Fig. 1.—Skimming station of a Vermont creamery. Fig. 2.—Franklin County
PAK ira ae Se ho ae = SE i ee eee eeese Se eae eee ee See 398
XXI. Fig. 1.—Exhibit of foreign butters by the United States Department of Agri-
culture, 1899. Fig. 2.—National Creamery Butter Makers’ annual competition,
BipGxetalls, 5. DAR, CODURI Vs 1600. SC ee Soe ee ee 398
XXII. “~ 1.—Iowa dairy school and college creamery at Ames. Fig. 2.— Wisconsin
airy Schoo! at Madison—milk GEStne 2-1 --- <8 eee eee 398
XXIII. Fig. 1.—Dairy barn for 250 cows in New Jersey. Fig. 2.—Milkers ready for
work at large dairy farm im New Jersey —. --<- -- nse 8 on oe 400
XXIV. Fig. 1.—Cooling and bottling room on a dairy farm in Pennsylvania. Fig. 2.—
Botting room.on a dairy farm in New Yorks. 22 ~<a. nae eee oe 400
XXY. Fig. 1.—White-Pine grove in which thinning and pruning has taken place, Ply-
mouth, Mass. Fig. 2.—Plantation of White Pine, eighteen years old, South
Orleans, Barnstable County, Mass----.---..----------- Y Sieben. Beebe Soe: ac de 418
XXVI. ai 1.—A Pitch-Pine plantation, established by sowing, East Brewster, Mass.
ig. 2.—Land cut periodically for sprouts, with young growth in the fore-
Pereira. Baristaple County, WAS cote ten one aoe oe eo ees 418
XXVIII. Fig. 1.—A plantation of Pitch Pine, about eos years old,South Orleans, Barn-
stable County, Mass. Fig. 2.—A grove of White Oak established by dropping
the acorns in holes made with a cane, East Greenwich, R.I_-------------------- 424
ORAS cls, ek LIGSS5) ELV OS MGS FEAL RPT Go foi a a nae Ee aa see eae Bera 426
Beek manyland smoker: Briebhcolary:? leat 20002. 7 nae ow en nen ea 430
XXX. Virginia export tobacco: 1, English olive-green strips; 2, olive-green leaf; 3,
LATTE) te ES OO ia ecg Sa tl 8 2 peel a Sine ee net oe en i na, eae ee 430
XXXI. Cigarette and manufacturing tobacco: 1, Dark mahogany; 2, light mahogany;
SENTING LON ON VO IO yy aera eee ne reise ae ee ies sae ar = 430
XXXII. White Burley tobacco: 1, Flyer, or trash; 2, good leaf; 3, red-top fillers --------- 432
XXXII. Connecticut cigar-wrapper leaf: 1, Broad leaf ; 2, Havana seed leaf __------------ 432
Meek. Ono Alnimer Spanish: Clear GNOPTOAP cee fos eon Sr ioe ees on ee 432
Ree eUlOricaicigar tiller, Cupar SCGdi ne cas cee aa ee ee ee ek oe 438
Bokocvile lwo prominent early plant breeders! 2202) > sso 2 as. 468
XXXVII. Improvement of the native gooseberry ---..-----.---------------------;--------- eee ABZ
XXXVI. Fig.1._Improvement of corn by selection. Fig. 2.—Variation in seedling Te
[oe Coit i ene. . 272. Se IO Se ee eee
XXXIX. Fig. 1.—Books of Jefferson’s library in the Library of Congress. Fig. 2.—Library
building, agricultural college and experiment station, Amherst, Mass -------- 496

8 ILLUSTRATIONS.

‘ Page.

PLATE XL. Library of the Department of Agriculture (east half shown).....-..----..----- cC4

XLI. Fig.1.—Junior Naturalists’ Club at Bernhards Bay, Oneida Lake, central New
York. Fig.2.—Traveling agricultural library, used in connection with far-
MOrs AnShibubes WM Os <=. o Ae ewe eek ee ee ote 2 Se 510
XLIi. Headquarters of traveling agricultural libraries on the Seaboard Railroad in
VarsinistheiCarolinas and (Georgia s2--= a- = eas ee toe eee 510
XLII. Fig.1.—Administration and laboratory building of Ohio station. Fig. 2.—
Dairy and biological building of New York State station___-... .---_.--.-_--- 532
XLIV. Fig. 1.—Chemicaland biological laboratory of Kentucky station. Fig. 2.—Dairy
buildine of Wisconsinistaulon)!s ests ee toe te ee eee eee be.
XLY. Fig.1.—Barn of Minnesotastation. Fig. 2.—Experiment plats of Pennsylvania oe
SGAUIOM A See 22 on eat eee ce ence sO ne ae eta Seo ee ae ee ee ee
XLVI. Fig. 1.—Field of Red Wethersfield onions in California. Fig.2.—Thrashing
onion seed in California._--.-!..--.-.--.-.---- oo em Soe. OS 560
XLVII. Fig. 1.—Field of tulip-flowered poppies in California. Fig.2.—Field of Prima
Donna. sweetipessiin.Californiaz =o... .5-- 2821 es ee 560
XLVI. Fig. 1.—Field of Silverskin onions on Bloomsdale farm, Philadelphia, Pa.
Fig. 2.—Prize head lettuce, grown on Department of Agriculture trial
STOUNGS.- = => oo Seas nn on oe eee eee eee ee ee 562
XLIX. Fig. 1.—Portion of the trial grounds of Fordhook farm, Philadelphia, Pa.
Fig. 2.—Part of the aster trials on Fordhock farm, Philadelphia, Pa_...--.... 572
L. Fig. 1.—Portion of trial grounds of the Department of Agriculture, showing
lettuce trials in foreground. Fig. 2.—Portion of the pea trials on the
grounds of the Departmentiof Agriculture. -:. 2220-2 2222-2208. see aoe nee ee
LI. Fig. 1.—Modern rose house. Fig. 2.—Retail flower store_------..---------.------ 584
LIL. Fig. 1.—Tomato house. Fig. 2.—Lettuce house--_--._----2--_1_2 1. 3 584
LI. Fig. 1.—Carnation house (interior view). Fig. 2.—Carnation house (exterior
view) and ‘carnations in the field -:-2:-- 2... 6. Se eee 584
LIV. Fig. 1.—_The firstirrigation. Fig. 2.—A later irrigation --_-.--..........--_.---- 592
LY. Fig. 1.—Appearance of irrigation canal when first completed. Fig. 2.—Appear-
ance of irrigation canal ten years after compietion _-_-_....-......-...-.---.---- 592
LVI. Fig. 1.—View at the head of one of the early irrigation canals in Utah. Fig.
2.—Mount Union, from; Union Pass. se. 2 ses oe 592
LVII. Fig. 1.—Canal waste gateclosed. Fig. 2.—Canal waste gate open..____..----__-- 594.
LVill. Fig. 1.—A check and lateral gate on main canal. Fig. 2.—A Cippoletti meas-
uring weirs o23.2iGete Eee. i es BER ee 608
LIX. Fig. 1.—A round silo attached to dairy barn on farm of South Dakota Agricul-
tural Coliege, showing method of filling. Fig. 2.—America’s best fodder
crop (field of corn grown near Washington, D. C.)-----..---.---..-.---._--.... 618
LX. Fig. 1.—_Japanese barnyard millet, grown at the United States grass experi-
ment station, Walla Walla, Wash. Fig. 2.—Kafir corn, grown in South
Dakota. ..o':- 250522552 oi 2 ene tote oe ches cee ee ae God
LXI. Average daily departures from normal temperatures for the crop season of
1899, irom March} to October 9) <-* oii. ee ee 720
LXII. Total precipitation for the period from March 1 to October 9, 1899________._____ 720
LXIit. Departures from normal precipitation for the crop season of 1899, from March
1 to October9- 22. sccoss oo cee csclen tl eee 720
TEXT FIGURES.

Fic. 1. Grapes from vineyard affected with biack rot: Sprayed and unsprayed __---..--_-- 198
2. Treatment of peach leaf curl: Sprayed and unsprayed trees (Pierce, Cal.)__-_----_- 199
3. Diagram illustrating lack of uniformity in game laws, as shown by laws protecting

woodcock (Philohela minor) in force in 1899. _ 5... a 285
4, Worest reserves and national parks. -.-->..2..-_521.) 20) 1. 286
5; Big blue stem (Andropogon provincialis) 20-2 Se eee 348
6: Wyoming blue grass (Poa wheelert) == 2. ee 855
7. Western wheat grass (Agropyron spicatwm) 356
8: King’s fescue (Restuca.kingit)... 22-222 ..- 1. ee eee 357
9. Smooth brome frass (Bromus inernis)_.2.. ee Ee 858
10. Elevations and plan of one of the first cheese factories built in the United States. 3
jl. Ground plan of the first creamery, or butter factory, in the United States (provi-
sions for-cheese making ineluded)!2-0- > eee 887
2. “Shot-gun” setting can and) Creamy @ipperieccs oo sese eee ee 688.
3. Milk room, with small shallow. pans 222. es. sos ee eee ee 389
14. Large mill: pans, open and shallow. 2222220) ee 390
15, Patterns'of hand butter workers = 222.1090 Pe a eee 290
16: Centrifugal cream: separator (in/opera tion) me a neon seen ete eee 393
if; Babcock tester (cheap form: without Hotbles) oe ssn nn meen en Neen nnn ea age
18. Barly and cheap form of Babeock tester ssi sent ee ee ee 395.
19) Hand Babcock tester; with'strone drum 222222 ee eee 396
20. Hand Babcock tester, with variety of glassware___.___-.---..._.1/ 2102222222221 396.
21. Babcock tester for use by direct steam power, or ‘turbine tester” 397
22. Plums showing difference between hybrid and parent 479
Zor LLOVey 8 peedline= straw berry... 2. sooeee Seen eee 482
24, Horticultural Library at Cornell ..-......2222 ee eee ee eee 5OL
2p, Sweet peas, old andinew ....-.2220 2.22.5 220 ee aaa eee 570.
26. First greenhouse in America, constructed in 1764 ___.__.__...-.--._-.-------.+-------- 576
2. Plan of early form of greenhouse, 1836 _--=.2-.. 25. eee eee ee 577
28, Hoge’s hot-water heating apparatus, 1832-1.) ee ee 579
po. Conservatory made of sash, style‘of 185822. 2. 3) 2 De 580
30, basket’ of flowers in fashion in 1867 ..-2:.2.2.-.. ) 2 eee ee 581
ok. Hand bouquet in fashion in 1867 _-...._... aa ae ee 582
82. Temperature, etc., for the Middle and South Atlantic States, the Gulf States, the
Ohio Valley and Tennessee, and the Lake region ___.-...--.----- LATS EN eae aes eee “122
33. Temperature, etc., for the Upper Mississippi and Missouri valleys, the Rocky
Mountain region, the North Pacific coast, and California ..........-----.-.--------- 72

YEARBOOK

OF THE

U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

TO THE PRESIDENT:

I have the honor to report upon the work of the Department of
Agriculture for the year ending June 30, 1899. This report touches
upon the work regularly carried on by the several Bureaus, Divisions,
and Offices, and also indicates the new lines of scientific inquiry
inaugurated by the Department for the benefit of producers in the
several States. A brief sununary precedes more extended considera-
tion. Ihave also endeavored to give in sufficient detail the reasons
for the estimates presented to Congress to carry on the work for the
coming year.

SUMMARY.

WEATHER BUREAU.—The extension of the Weather Bureau serv-
ice around the Caribbean Sea has been abundantly successful in
noting the first indications of cyclones, forecasting their movements,
and giving timely warning to our Navy, to merchant vessels, and to
producers and others interested on land.

DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY.—This Division is becoming a necessity
to every Department of the Government in the making of chemical
analyses. Foods are investigated, preservatives of all kinds exam-
ined, sugar beets analyzed, ete. An interesting inquiry has been
made into the change which takes place in the composition of grains
grown repeatediy on the same soil.

DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY.—Since Dr. Howard has shown owners
of Smyrna fig trees on the Pacific coast how to get the fruit fertilized,
there is good reason to believe that in a few years we shall obtain our
fine figs from that locality. Investigation by this Division shows that
house flies and mosquitoes may be greatly reduced by removing the
propagating conditions.

DIVISION OF BoTANY.—The Department is gathering information
regarding the life history of the plants that supply commerce with
india rubber and gutta-percha, and should Congress be pleased to
give direction, it will seek the plant zones in our island possessions
where these commodities may be produced. The United States now
pays $30,000,000 annually for rubber. Weimport between $4,000,000
and $5,000,000 worth of Egpytian cotton annually. Experimentation

9

10 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

indicates strongly that, on suitable soils properly cultivated, this arti-
cle can be grown here.

BIOLOGICAL SURVEY.—Plants and animals thrive and produce best
where they are most at home. The Biological Survey is endeavoring
to find the most congenial conditions for our plants and animals.

DIVISION OF VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY.—The
hybridizing of grains is being conducted by the Division of Vegeta-
ble Physiology and Pathology, with a view to securing varieties (rust-
resisting, drought-resisting, and cold-resisting) better suited to our
varied soils and climates. Hybridization will also be applied in the
immediate future to cotton, and efforts are now being made to get a
hardier orange tree by the same process. The diseases of plants in
the several States, including a serious fungous disease affecting sea-
island cotton, and the diseases of fruit trees are also being studied.

DIVISION OF POMOLOGY.—This Division continues to experiment
in many localities throughout the country with fruit-bearing trees,
plants, and vines. For example, 119 varieties of the finer table
grapes of Europe have been grafted on Phylloxera-resistant American
stocks and sent to North Carolina and Florida. Special work is
being done on the Pacifie coast to get more definite data regarding
the adaptability of varieties to that locality. j

DIvIsION OF FORESTRY.—The Division of Forestry is introducing
practical and paying forestry on a large scale among lumbermen, and
extensive experimentation in tree planting is being conducted, with
cooperation on the part of those interested in woodcraft in the several
States.

DIVISION OF SOILS.—The irrigation farmer of the West is being
helped by the mapping and extended investigation of alkali soils and
by the reclamation of injured or abandoned land, many acres of
which have become sterile through the injudicious use of water.

DIVISION OF AGROSTOLOGY.—Cropping reduces the organic material
in the soil. Long-continued cropping renders the soil unproductive.
Grasses and legumes are the best agencies for restoring this organic
matter. The Division of Agrostology is experimenting with home and
foreign grasses and legumes in all sections of our country, to build up
worn-out soils in some eases and to introduce useful varieties in
others.

OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS.—Cooperation between the
Department and the experiment stations becomes closer every year.
Assistanee from the States is increasing and the farmers of the sey-
eral States are appreciating their station work more and more.
Experimentation in Alaska has begun with Congressional aid. This
work should be extended to Hawaii, Puerto Rieo, and the Philippine
Islands, so that they may be enabled to supply the United States with
tropical products, our importations of which amount to over two
hundred million dollars annually.

OFFICE OF PUBLIC ROAD INQUIRIES.—There is great interest at
the present time in the publie highways of the country. Extensive
experimentation is being conducted by the Department in cooperation
with local authorities in building sample roads from the materials
found in different localities, and in the laying of steel track.

DIVISION OF PUBLICATIONS.—During the year 603 publications were
issued and over 7,000,000 copies distributed among the people. Of

Ee

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Ef

the Farmers’ Bulletins, 2,437,000 copies were printed and distributed,
which did not meet the full demand.

SECTION OF FOREIGN MARKETS.—Shows rapid growth of American
commerce with all parts of the world. We continue to sell raw mate-
rial to foreign countries, from which they manufacture high-selling
articles. Trade regulations are prohibitory against American meats
in some European countries where importations of cheap grains from
which meats are made are encouraged. The American farmer can not
afford to export nitrogenous grains or mill feeds for this purpose.

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUstRY.—The work of this Bureau increases
rapidly. Meat inspection was conducted last year at 138 abattoirs
in 41 cities. The ante-mortem inspections were 53,223,176, while the
number in 1892 was 5,809,459. The third year of experimentation
with hog cholera shows that from 75 to 80 per cent of hogs injected
with serum are saved. Encouraging results have come from the
introduction of dairy products into foreign markets. The Depart-
ment sends shipments abroad for the purpose of ascertaining the facts
regarding such products; these facts are published, and commerce
naturally follows.

DIVISION OF STATISTICS.—Fifty thousand crop reporters keep the
Division of Statistics informed regarding the condition of our staple
crops, and every effort is being made to promptly give the people the
facts as they are found.

GARDENS AND GROUNDS.—The grounds of the Department and its
extensive greenhouses serve a useful purpose, more than 100,000
plants and bulbs, all of economie value, having been distributed dur-
ing the year by the Superintendent. This official is now prepared to
supply tea plants for experimentation in the Gulf States.

SEED DISTRIBUTION.—The Department in the distribution of seeds
is aiming to conform to the original spirit of the law by the importa-
tion and distribution of what is rare and valuable.

WEATHER BUREAU.

The establishment of stations around the Caribbean Sea has enabied
the Weather Bureau to note the first approach of the West Indian
eyclone and to warn shipmasters in port and interested persons on
land, with remarkable certainty, of its approach.

EXTRACTS FROM THE REPORT OF THE CHIEF.

The following paragraphs, extracted from the report of the chief of
the Bureau, set forth some important features of the work:

COLD WAVES.

Among the most important warnings issued by the Weather Bureau are those
which give notice to agricultural and commercial interests of the approach of
periods of abnormally low temperature. Warnings of this class have been par-
ticularly successful during the past year, and a not unimportant feature of the
advices has been estimates of the probable continuation of injuriously low tem-
peratures. In fact, a special effort has been made, and will be sustained, to afford
all interests all the information regarding future weather conditions that is war-
ranted by modern methods, appliances, and skill in forecasting. The recognized

~accuracy of the temperature forecasts have caused them to be closely watched by

1 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

various interests, and in the commercial centers movements of perishable goods
are almost absolutely controlled by advices received from the Weather Bureau.

By far the most important cold wave, or series of cold waves, of the winter
crossed the country from the North Pacific to the South Atlantic coasts during the
first half of February, 1899, damaging crops and fruits in the Southern States to
the extent of millions of dollars. During the first eight days of the month the
lowest temperatures on record were reported at points in the North Pacific coast
States; from the 9th to the 12th many places in the Central, Western, and North-
western States reported the coldest weather on record. During the 13th and 14th
the cold wave overspread the Southern and Eastern States, attended on the 13th
by the lowest temperature on record from the Southern Rocky Mountain slope to
the South Atlantic coast, by zero temperature to the Gulf coast of Alabama, and
by a snowstorm of unprecedented severity in the Middle Atlantic States.

The Weather Bureau forecasts and warnings gave ample and timely notice to
all interests of the advance of the cold wave, and special reports and newspaper
comments gave unquestionable evidence that the warnings prompted protective
measures whereby crops, live stock, and perishable goods and merchandise to the
value of hundreds of thousands of dollars were saved. Along the Middle Atlantic
and New England coasts the character of the storm called for the display of
hurricane signals, the extreme warnings of the Bureau.

The detailed action taken in connection with this cold wave and storm and the
numerous newspaper comments relating thereto, for which space can not be
given here, will be found in the Monthly Weather Review for February, 1899.
All reports and comments bear witness to the fact that the work of the Weather
Bureau in connection with this, the severest cold wave in the history of the
Southern States, was as nearly perfect as the most approved methods of dissemi-
nating warnings would permit. The amount saved by stockmen in the West and
Southwest, by truck growers in the Southwest, and by fruit growers, gardeners,
and orchardists in the Southern States, and more especially in Florida, is incal-
culable. The superintendent of the Florida East Coast Line reports that the
warnings sent along his line of road, fifteen hours in advance of the cold wave,
alone resulted in saving one-half of the vegetable crop, and that the value of the
crop was estimated at $1,000,000. The exceptionally severe character of the storm
along the Middle Atlantic and New England coasts amply justified the special
warnings sent to that section.

CLIMATE AND CROP SERVICE OF CUBA AND PUERTO RICO.

In the latter part of October, 1898, instructions were given to the official at_
San Juan, Puerto Rico, to establish a climate and crop service in that island, and
later similar action was taken in Cuba. Sufiicient instruments and shelters of
standard pattern were sent into both islands and voluntary stations established
as rapidly as the cooperation of efficient observers could be secured. By the
opening of the new year the issue of the Weekly Climate and Crop Bulletin had
begun in Puerto Rico, and similar bulletins for Cuba were first issued about the
middle of May. The illness of the official in charge unfortunately interrupted
the work of the Puerto Rico section. which, however, was resumed in May and has
since continued. Arrangements have been completed by which monthly section
reports, after the standard, for both Puerto Rico and Cuba will be issued here-
after, work on the first report, that for May, 1899, for Puerto Rico, being well in
hand. Notwithstanding the serious difficulties which were encountered in the
prosecution of the climate and crop work in these islands, due in a great measure
to the fact that the Spanish language is exclusively spoken, much has been suc-
cessfully accomplished, as evidenced by the fact that both sections issued weekly
bulletins with regularity after the middle of May.

—” CU UL a es es |

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. its"

From the many courteous and complimentary communications that have been
received and notices published in the newspapers, both on the islands and in the
United States, it is evident that the efforts to establish this service have been suc-
cessful and have met a popular need. As the residents of the islands become
more conversant with the aims and scope of the service they will appreciate more
fully what a great benefit it is, both climatologically and financially.

LOSS OF LIFE AND PROPERTY BY LIGHTNING.

The collection of statistics of loss of life and property by lightning, referred to
in a previous report, has been continued. The number of deaths by lightning
stroke in the calendar year 1898 was 367 and the number of injuries 494. The
places where the proportion of deaths to total population was the greatest were
the Upper Missouri Valley and portions of the Rocky Mountain region. The
proportion of deaths by lightning in the United States to the total population is
about five in a million, which,it may be remarked, is higher than the average of
most countries.

Nine hundred and sixty-six barns, sheds, etc., 735 dwellings, stores. and office
buildings, 95 churches and schools, and 70 other buildings were struck and dam-
aged by lightning, the approximate loss being about a million and a half dollars.
Of the buildings struck, 40 were provided with lightning rods, 855 were not, and
in 952 cases it could not be ascertained whether the building was provided with
rods or not.

Nine hundred and sixty-four head of cattle, 306 horses, 30 mules, 426 sheep, and
116 hogs were killed by lightning during the calendar year above referred to.
The total value of the stock reported killed was $48,257.

Lightning has caused great loss of life and property thus far during the calendar
year 1899.

AERIAL OBSERVATIONS.

At the close of the last fiscal year 17 kite stations were in operation and 248
ascensions had been made, in each of which the elevation attained exceeded 1,000
feet. The work was continued until about the middle of November, 1898, at
which time 1,217 ascensions of 1,000 feet and over had been made.

The study of the records of temperature, pressure, and humidity thus secured
was intrusted to Mr. H. C. Frankenfield, forecast official, whose first report has
been submitted. For the first time in the history of meteorology we have facts
instead of hypotheses as to the average gradient of temperature up to 6,000 or
8,000 feet, free from all injurious influences, and for so many days and over such
a large region of country that it has a broad significance; evidently it is the only
proper gradient to be used in reducing atmospheric pressures or temperatures, up
or down, from any observer's level. Notwithstanding the imperfections attend-
ing the beginnings of any such entirely novel work, these 17 stations, with their
1,217 ascensions in the course of six months, have probably added more to our
knowledge of vertical gradients of temperature, humidity, and wind, in the day-
time of summer, in the lower portion of the atmosphere, than the sum total of all
that was previously known upon the subject.

STUDY OF TEMPERATURES AT STATIONS IN ALASKA.

The Bureau is studying the temperatures at stations in Alaska to
learn what effect they may have on rainfall in California, and when
cables are laid around the Pacific, with observers stationed at numer-
ous places, the ocean currents and their effect on our Pacific coast,
being more intelligently studied, will be better understood. The

14 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

severe cold wave of last winter that destroyed so many fruit trees
suggests the continued improvement of our means of observation.

RECOMMENDATIONS.

The greatest returns from the large sum ($1,022,482) spent annu-
ally in the maintenance of the Weather Bureau are from the warn-
ings to marine interests of destructive storms and predictions of cold
waves and frosts for the benefit of agriculture and commeree. An
appropriation of $95,000 for the purpose of equipping storm-warning
stations with improved lights and durable iron flagstaffs and towers
from which these important signals can be advantageously displayed
is urgently recommended; also an increase of $25,000 in the fund
for telegraphing weather reports and improving the river and flood
service in order to meet the numerous demands now almost daily
made upon the Weather Bureau of this Department by boards of
trade, cotton exchanges, marine associations, and large individual
owners of ocean, lake, and river property.

DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY.

This Division has continued its study of various soils under identi-
cal conditions with satisfactory results. Improved methods of anal-
ysis have been devised and pubiished for the benefit of agricultural
chemists throughout the country.

Much time and attention has been given to the investigation of
food products to ascertain the composition and nutritive value of
commercial foods, and definite data have been secured.

Careful and systematic research has been made in this Division for
preservatives of all kinds which may have been used on meats. The
attitude which the Department should take toward preservatives
has been frequently outlined in official reports, but it may be as well
to restate it here, as the matter is of great importance. It is well
stated in the report of the Chemist, as follows:

It is not regarded as a wise thing to absolutely prohibit the use of preservatives
in foods. Since, however, all chemicals which have the properties of preserving
foods also have a tendency to interfere with the processes of digestion, it is held
to be imperative that no food should be offered for sale which contains a presery-
ative without having this fact plainly stated upon the label of the package. Not
only should the label state that the food product contains a preservative, but it
should also give the name of the preservative and the quantity employed. In
this way the intending purchaser is fully informed in regard to the character of
the product which he buys. While it has been established that a healthy stomach
can, from time to time, receive with impunity food containing small quantities of
preservatives, it is by no means certain that the continued practice of ingesting
preservatives in foods would not produce serious injury. On the other hand, it
is also quite certain that weak or diseased stomachs may suffer temporary or
permanent injury from even minute quantities of preservatives.

Twenty tons of high-grade sugar-beet seed were imported from
Europe for distribution under the supervision of the Chemist. This

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. yes

_was sent out mainly through the experiment stations of the States
and Territories interested in beet culture. Analyses of beets have
also been made by the Division for all recipients of this seed desiring
such service.

The State, War, Treasury, Justice, Post-Office, and Interior Depart-
ments of the Government frequently call upon the Department of
Agriculture to have chemical work done, which suggests the wisdom
of preparing to do this work through statutory provision recognizing
the Division of Chemistry and providing means to enable it to serve
all the Departments.

Deterioration in the gluten content of wheat is being inquired into.

e
DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY.

There are very large numbers of Smyrna fig trees in California that
have never matured fruit because the flowers were never fertilized.
Dr. Howard, chief of this Division, suggested the importation of an
inseet (Blastophaga grossorum) which in the Mediterranean coun-
tries fertilizes this fig. This has been suecessfully done, and the
insects have multiplied and fertilized many figs that matured.
Dr. Swingle, who made the importation, is carefully studying the
habits of the insect and teaching the owners of the trees regarding it.
There is good reason to hope that our country will get its figs in
future from the Pacific coast. The Division continues its study of
injurious insects that may invade our territory from contiguous
countries. Volunteer observers for this Division are studying injuri-
ous Puerto Rican insects. Sets of injurious insects are being received
from several foreign countries with which we have intercourse.
Insects are being studied that are destructive to forests in the North-
western States. The life history of the San Jose scale, through the
work of this Division and State officials, is now well understood.
Experimentation in this Division to learn whether this scale would
live on dried fruit has convinced most foreign importers that they
may safely handle this product.

Investigation is being made by this Division regarding the ability
and likelihood of house flies and mosquitoes to carry disease; also by
many scientists, who call upon Dr. Howard for exact information
bearing upon the life histories of these insects. Life histories of
insects injurious to garden crops, grasses, and tobacco are being made
out. The Mexican boll weevil is under consideration and the geo-
graphic distribution of insects is being carefully mapped, both lines of
work in cooperation with local entomologists. Experimental work
with remedies and their effects on foliage has been undertaken. The
honey bee is being studied along practical lines, such as the prevent-
ing of swarming, queen rearing, and the like. Much inquiry comes
regarding the large bee of the East, which we will import as soon as
arrangements can be made.

16 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. .
DIVISION OF BOTANY.

The many deaths of human beings and farm animals caused by
poisonous plants justify continued work by this Division with regard
to them. Several hundred tests have been made of seeds bought in
the open market, showing that imported grass seed, particularly,
requires the attention of the Department on account of its impurities.
Dealers in these articles have been warned, and further tests will be
made. The work of seed and plant introduction has been attached
to the Division of Botany in order to avoid multiplicity of supervision.
During the last year explorers have been sent to Russia to secure
superior varieties of cereals resistant to cold, drought, and fungous
diseases. if

One explorer went to Japan to procure varieties of rice possessing
high milling qualities, for cultivation under the new system in Louisi-
ana and Texas, by which the rice fields can be flooded when necessary
and dried at pleasure to admit the harvester, A testing garden has
been secured on the Potomac flats, through the courtesy of the War
Department, where observation may be had of plants introduced from
foreign countries, so as to avoid new plant diseases. The acquisition
of tropical islands by the United States has brought many inquiries to
this Division regarding the cultivated plants of the Tropics. There is
now widespread interest in tropical agriculture and a demand for
correct information on the subject, which the Department must be
prepared to satisfy.

BIOLOGICAL SURVEY

During the fiscal year 1898-99 field work was carried on in four
States (California, Maryland, Nevada, and Texas) and two Territories
(New Mexico and Alaska), and also in British Columbia and North-
western Territories. In 1898 the principal work was done in Cali-
fornia and in 1899 in Texas and Alaska. Work was done under the
direction of the chief of the Division on Mount Shasta and in the sur-
rounding country. Several life zones were run from the bottom of the
Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys to the summit of the Sierra, and
also in other valleys of the Pacific coast. The rapid settlement of
Alaska has attracted attention to that Territory. A favorable oppor-
tunity for investigation was afforded our biologists through the liber-
ality of Mr. Edward H. Harriman, of New York, who fitted up an expe-
dition for a trip along the Alaska coast.

During the year 1,381 bird stomachs were received and 1,961 were
examined in the laboratory. The collection contains 31,300, the aceu-
mulation of fourteen years; less than 50 per cent have been exam-
ined. Detailed reports of some of this work have been published by
the Department. The object is to obtain reliable data respecting
the food habits of these birds and to determine their value or possible

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 1%

injury to the farmer. Considerable work has been done to determine
whether birds show marked preferences in selecting food or simply
eat what is most abundant. Work continues along the line of com-
paring and tabulating data and mapping the geographic distribution
of birds. Similar data have been tabulated for mammals.

The Biological Survey has determined the natural crop belts of the
United States and has undertaken to map their boundaries and to
prepare detailed lists of the agricultural products adapted to each.
A preliminary report on this subject, illustrated by a colored map,
has been already published (Bulletin No. 10, Division of Biological
Survey). By ascertaining in advance the areas suitable for each
variety of fruit, vegetable, and cereal, the Biological Survey aims to
puta stop to the present indiscriminate and wasteful experimentation
in which farmers spend vast sums of money each year vainly trying
to force crops to grow in places unfit by nature for their cultivation.

The crop belts have been found to conform to certain temperature
conditions and to coincide with natural belts inhabited by particular
kinds of animals and plants, so that their boundaries may be fixed
by a study of the geographic distribution of our native species. The
work of mapping the life belts can be done only by experienced field
naturalists. Persons qualified by knowledge and experience are few
and difficult to secure, regardless of compensation. The Department,
owing to the limited means at its disposal, has not only been unable
to increase the small force long engaged in this work, but has lost
several assistants who have resigned to accept better positions else-
where, for each year members of the Biological Survey are offered
salaries much higher than those the Department is able to pay. No
increase in the appropriation has been made for seven or eight years,
as a consequence of which it is impossible to carry on the work
as economically as could be done with a slightly larger and better
equipped force. Much time is lost in fitting young and inexpe-
rienced assistants to replace those who resign to accept more profitable
positions elsewhere; and it is often necessary to extend a piece of
field work over several seasons which might be completed in a single
season, with a considerable saving in expense.

DIVISION CF VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY.

This Division has been making a careful study of plant nutrition,
the heredity of plants, and improvement by breeding and selection.
While the Department is endeavoring to ascertain, through the Bio-
logical Survey, where plants are most at home and under what climate
and soil conditions they prosper best, the Division of Vegetable Phys-
iology and Pathology studies the phenomena of plant life itself.
The diseases affecting timber are being studied in order that some-
thing may be published for the benefit of the public during the forth-
coming year. When our people become alive to the necessity of

io 299 2

18 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

reforesting many parts of our country the value of a correct knowl-
edge of the diseases affecting living trees will be more apparent.

The diseases of trees are as a rule of such a nature as to necessi-
tate much careful investigation to discover the causes. Some are
due to unfavorable surroundings, such as soil or plant food, or to the
presence of noxious substances in the soil and air. The little-peach
disease in Michigan threatens to cripple the peach industry seriously
unless some means of checking it are found. A scientist from this
Division has been detailed to study the conditions and obtain all the
light possible on this disease in Michigan and elsewhere. Definite
conclusions have not been reached. The past summer has not been
favorable for studying the disease, because during the severe winter
of 1898-99 many trees partially diseased were killed outright.

The study of pear blight has been continued, also diseases of white
and sweet potatoes. It was found that a serious disease of the sweet
potato can be prevented by a simple treatment with formalin solution.
A serious fungous disease is affecting the sea-island cotton. One of
our ablest men has been detailed to study the matter on the spot.
This disease attacks other plants than cotton, and seams to be spread-
ing. The fungus appears to be of great vitality, and may live in the
soil for years, attacking the cotton plant when planted again after other
crops. In connection with this work it is proposed to inaugurate
experiments in breeding cotton, which will have for their object the
improvement of varieties of the crop both as regards marketable
qualities and ability to resist various diseases.

The pathologist who has charge of plant breeding has been detailed
to assist the Section of Seed and Plant Introduction for the greater
part of the year, and in Russia and other wheat-producing countries he
secured varieties as a basis for future work, in addition to collecting
large quantities of cereals for distribution. Another scientist from
this Division has been detailed to assist the Division of Soils in exten-
Sive work on the curing and fermentation of tobacco. Advances
have been made by this Division in the use of pure yeasts for the pro-
duction of grape, apple, berry, and other wines. The yeasts have
been introduced from Germany by agents of the Department. Cul-
tures of these yeasts were made to determine their purity, and after
this preliminary work experiments were made to determine their
effects upon the fermentation of cider. Our people have been selling
apple parings, apple corings, dried apples, and cheap apples by the
ton to foreigners, who, with the aid of these yeasts, have been making
very desirable articles of commerce. It is designed that our own
people shall have the benefit of these discoveries in the future.

Questions have arisen regarding the effects of continued spraying
with copper sulphate—as to whether its accumulation in the soil after
long use will render the soil sterile. ‘The nature of this work is such
that it will take some years to earry it to a suecessful conclusion,

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19

This Division renders much assistance to the Section of Seed and
Plant Introduction by inspecting new seeds and plants, so as to avoid
the introduction of new fungous and parasitie diseases, and also
by treating the grains imported and distributed by the Department.
Plant breeding is attracting more attention than usual. An assistant
of this Division was sent to attend the International Conference of
Plant Breeders in London during the present year, so as to make
himself familiar with the methods pursued in foreign countries. The
work that may be done in improving plants by breeding is quite
analagous to that which has been done in improving domestic animals
by the same method.

The production of large varieties through selections that will
improve either plant or animal; the development of varieties for
particular purposes, as is done in the case of animals; the cross-
breeding of plants, so as to develop varieties that will be more hardy,
fungus resisting, drought resisting, early maturing, or late maturing,
are all under consideration. It is hoped by hybridizing to get a
hardier orange tree for the Southern States, and thousands of cross-
bred plants were sent out this spring with this object in view. Seed-
ling pineapples secured by crossbreeding are ready for sending out,
and will be placed in suitable localities. Arrangements have been
made with the Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station for cooper-
ative work in crossing corn. An interesting field is offered here, as
this cereal is one of the great staple crops of the country, and nothing
has been done along this line. Selection has been relied upon alto-
gether for the improvement of this cereal.

The agent of this Division on the Pacific coast is at work on peach-
leaf curl and on diseases of lemon, orange, and walnut trees—indus-
tries in which the people of the coast are vitally concerned. The
crossing of raisin grapes has progressed far enough to warrant the
Statement that time and judicious work are all that are necessary to
obtain the hardiness of plant and the required fruiting qualities in
California, Arizona, and Nevada.

The subtropical garden located in Florida is used in making pre-
liminary tests of hybrid fruits obtained in the regular work of the
Division and also to test the new plants imported by the Section of
Seed and Plant Introduction, about which we desire further informa-
tion before distribution. This garden has hybrid citrus (orange,
lemon, lime) and guava trees and a large number of seedlings. Pine-
apple plants and imported Freneh grapes are being tested with a view
to determine their value for the Southern States.

DIVISION OF POMOLOGY.

The distribution of fruit-bearing trees, plants, and vines has been
largely increased during the past year owing to the facilities afforded
by the Section of Seed and Plant Introduction, and thus the theories

20 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of specialists can have a practical application. During the year
2,700 lots have been placed with about 275 experimenters in various
portions of the country. Consul Merriam at Iquique has sent us a
lime from the interior of Chile and a reputed hardy type of alligator
pear. The last mentioned is being thoroughly tested in the Southern
States. A reputed hardy variety from Mexico is also being experi-
mented with.

Experimentation under the direction of the Division is being con-
ducted in North Carolina and Florida, with a view to the successful
production of the finer table grapesof Europe. One hundred and nine-
teen varieties grafted on Phylloxera-resistant American stocks have
been planted by the experimenters, as well as 43 varieties of ‘‘ direct
producers” and ‘‘resistant stocks.” These vines were imported
through the Section of Seed and Plant Introduction, and more varie-
ties will be added during the coming year, soas to have thorough and
comprehensive tests made of all varieties likely to be useful. <A bet-
ter knowledge of fungous diseases at the present time gives hope that
we can produce these fine grapes more successfully than was done a
number of years ago, before the science of applying fungicides was so
well understood. The resuits of experiments in root-grafting by this
Division are being prepared for publication.

A catalogue of fruits recommended for cultivation in various sec-
tions of the United States by the American Pomological Society,
which was published in 1897, has been thoroughly revised by a com-
mittee of that society working in cooperation with the divisional
force. ‘To secure more definite data regarding the adaptability of
varieties on the Pacifie coast, Prof. E. J. Wickson, of the University
of California, was last year appointed a special agent to conduct
special investigations on the subject among the growers of that
region. Extended preliminary investigations of the conditions of
the fruit industry in Idaho, eastern Oregon, and western Washington
were made by the Pomologist during the autumn of 1898. The fruit
industry as a commercial enterprise is comparatively new in both
these sections. The outlook for the commercial fruit grower there
is very promising.

The unusually low temperature reached in 1899 worked permanent
injury to the trees and vines in many sections. Many that were sup-
posed to be hardy have been killed outright in many localities. The
Division of Pomology is endeavoring to ascertain the facts with regard
to varieties, so that it may be able to make recommendations for cer-
tain localities.

In preparing a horticultural exhibit for-the Paris Exposition the
Division will secure such fruits especially as are now in demand or
may find a market in foreign countries. Canned, dried, and evapo-
rated fruits and vegetables will be shown in great variety. The apple
and the orange will be prominent among fresh fruits, and the peean

————

——

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 21

and shagbark among nuts. Everything is being done along these
lines to inform the world regarding our marketable products and to
assist merchants in finding markets.

DIVISION OF FORESTRY.

The work of this Division has been entirely reorganized during the
year. This and the introduction of practical and paying forestry
among lumbermen on a large scale, the extensive investigations in
tree planting, preparatory to practical work with tree planters, and
the widespread interest and cooperation in the work, especially
among lumbermen, are the most important facts to be reported. <A
striking instance of this cooperation is the action of the redwood lum-
bermen of San Francisco, who voted to subscribe $1,000, and offered
free transportation and free subsistence in their camps to our agents,

0 as to advance by one year the time when the Division, delayed by

lack of funds, could begin work on the growth and reproduction of
the redwood.

Notwithstanding the increased appropriation made by the last
Congress, it is still utterly impossible to cover the field of necessary
action. Very many demands made for work of great importance to
the preservation and proper use of forests in the United States can
not be complied with for lack of means. It is earnestly hoped that
the Division may be enabled during the next fiscal year, through a
largely increased appropriation, to take advantage of the unprece-
dented opportunities created by the rapid public awakening to the
meaning and value of practical forestry.

At present all work in the Division is assigned to four sections,
each one in charge of a man of special knowledge and qualifications.
These are: The section of working plans, which has charge of all
practical work in the woods; that of economie tree planting; that
of special investigations, dealing with the habits and characteristics
of trees which affect their use in practical forestry; and that of office
work. But two of the various grades of technical assistants under
the heads of sections require mention here.

COLLABORATORS AND STUDENT ASSISTANTS.

The first grade is that of collaborator. The collaborators are
experts of established reputation on forestry, lumbering, or tree plant-
ing, and are scattered throughout the country. They prepare and
forward for publication treatises on subjects previously agreed upon.
Through them the best experience of trained specialists becomes
available to the Division at a very moderate cost. The pay of a col-
laborator is $300 a year.

The grade of student assistant was created to provide trained men
for the future needs of the Division and to supply it immediately with
assistants of high intelligence at small cost. Twenty-eight of these

22 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

assistants have been employed during the summer, the majority of
whom are college or university men. Only those who have declared
their intention to adopt forestry as their profession are received. In
the field they work under the supervision of trained foresters, espe-
cially in the preparation of working plans and the study of commer-
cial trees. The pay of a student assistant is $25 per month.

Both palapors er and student assistants have been of marked
value to the work of the Division.

PRACTICAL ASSISTANCE TO FARMERS, LUMBERMEN, AND OTHERS.

Last October a circular was issued (No. 21 of the Division of For-
estry) offering advice and practical assistance to farmers, lumbermen,
and others in handling their forest lands, with a view of bringing
about the substitution of conservative for destructive methods. This
offer provided for the preparation of working plans, with full diree-
tions for work and with practical assistance on the ground, without
cost to the owners of wood lots, but in the case of larger tracts
requiring the owners to meet expenses for travel and subsistence, and
for the necessary helpers for the agents of the Division while in the
field.

During the year applications were received from 123 owners in 35
States for the management of 1,513,592 acres. Of these applica-
tions, 48 were for large tracts covering together 1,506,215 acres, the
remainder being for wood lots.

Personal attention on the ground was given to 41 tracts, covering
about 400,000 acres in 19 States. The contribution of private owners
to the expenses of this work was about $3,000.

It was found possible for the owners of a majority of these tracts
to carry out the working plans without personal assistanee, but 15
of them required the active participation of the Division. On two
of the latter, comprising 108,000 acres, the working plans were put
into execution early in the year, and the first year’s work has been
suecessfully completed. The second year’s work is being pursued
under very favorable conditions.

As a result of a calculation, based on exact measurements, of the
amount of lumber wasted by the prevailing practice of cutting high
spruce stumps in the Adirondacks, there has been a decided change
for the better on certain tracts, and at the same time a great reduc-
tion in the amount of young spruce cut for road building has been
brought about. These are important changes.

In connection with the preparation of the working plans for the
two large tracts in the Adirondacks, a special study has been made of
the growth and production of the spruce on the eastern side of the
mountains and of birch and maple on the western slope.

Of the total amount of land submitted for working plans, about
1,200,000 acres have not yet been examined. These tracts will be

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 23

considered during the ensuing year as fast as the very inadequate
force of the Division will permit, and working plans will be made for
a selected number.

The Division has been thoroughly equipped with instruments for
field work, in which it was wholly lacking at the beginning of the year.

COMMERCIAL TREES.

During the year five species of commercially valuable trees have
been studied to determine their rate of growth and to aseertain their.
special qualities in forestry. The more important of these studies
relate to the loblolly pine, in North Carolina, a tree of the first eco-
nomic importance, and the red fir in Washington, also called Douglas
fir, yellow fir, Oregon pine, etc., one of the most valuable and widely
distributed trees of the world. These studies have met with the
cordial approval of lumbermen, and much practical assistance has
been rendered by them. In addition the study of the coast redwood
in California has recently been begun, and later, if enough money
ean be saved for that purpose, the white oak and the hickories will
be taken up.

ECONOMIC TREE PLANTING.

The planting of experimental plats in cooperation with State agri-
cultural experiment stations has been discontinued, and the stations
have taken over the plantations and assumed the responsibility for
them. This was done after a thorough study of the old plan, after
eareful examination of the plantations at nine of the eleven stations,
‘and with the acquiescence of the authorities of every station. Two
other lines of work have taken the place of experimental tree planting.
One is acareful study of the results of the planting already done, in
which all the species used in the cooperative plantations are represented,
and from which practically all the results to be expected from them
after many years may be gathered without delay and far more cheaply;
and the other the giving of practical assistance to tree planters under
the terms of an offer (set forth in Circular No. 22, Division of For-
estry) similar to that made to forest owners.

Close relations have been established with five of the most compe-
tent men in the treeless regions, and these gentlemen are preparing
reports on subjects of direct interest to tree planters.

In addition to the studies now being pursued, the work of the pres-
ent year will in great measure be devoted, first, to giving practical!
assistance to tree planters in the selection of the proper trees to plant
and in planting them rightly, and, secondly, to an attempt to deter-
mine the true effect of bare and wooded or brush-covered slopes on
the run-off of streams. The vast interests affected by the solution of
this dificult problem will justify the most persistent and careful work.

24 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS.

Forest fires have been studied historically and in the field, and

important results have been reached. Records of more than 5,000 -

fires have been compiled and classified, and field work has been prose-
cuted in seven States.

A series of studies of North American forests by experts with special
knowledge of definite localities is in progress, and it is expected that
three of them will be completed during the coming winter.

Historical studies of the progress in forestry in New Jersey, Massa-
chusetts, and other States have been begun, and those for New York
are practically completed.

Much material has been collected for a general account of the
progress of forestry in the United States and of the practical appli-
eation of conservative forest treatment in this country up to the
present time.

Noteworthy progress has been made during the year in the photo-
graphic forest description of the United States.

OFFICK WORK.

The mailing list has been revised and extended, especially among
newspapers, and much material for publication has accumulated and
awaits attention during the winter. The botanical work formerly
earried on by this Division has been turned over to the Division of
Botany, where it more properly belongs.

During the year the force has been much increased, largely by the
addition of young American foresters. At its highest, the total
membership was more than five times that at the beginning of the
last fiseal year.

PLANS FOR THE ENSUING YEAR.

Exeept for the new work referred to above, the plans of the Divi-
sion, which have received my approval, do not contemplate any
material changes from the lines of effort pursued in the year just
past.

DIVISION OF SOILS.

FIELD OPERATIONS.

‘The Division of Soils has continued and considerably extended the
investigation and mapping of the alkali soils of the irrigated districts
of the West, mentioned in my last report, with results which are at
once interesting and practically important to the irrigation farmer.
Three field parties have been out during the season mapping a small
area in the Yellowstone Valley in Montana; also about 150 square
miles in the Pecos Valley, New Mexico, and 250 square miles in the
vicinity of Salt Lake City, Utah, with a reconnoissance over a much

j

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 25

larger area. Short circulars are being prepared for immediate and
wide circulation calling attention to the conditions due to, and the
best measures to prevent injury from, alkali or seepage water, as
well as the best means for the reclamation of injured or abandoned
lands. Fuller reports will then be prepared, with detailed soil and
alkali maps on a seale of an inch to the mile, to be published in a
volume covering the field operations of the Division during this year.

The trouble from alkali is due primarily to the large amounts of
soluble salts generally present in all soils of an arid region. The
rainfall is not sufficient to carry off the salts as they are set free in
the decomposition of the rocks. These salts are naturally distributed
throughout the soil, and for a few years are not harmful. With the
application of irrigation water, however, in the intensive cultivation
of crops, the excess of water accumulates and is liable to fill up the
subsoil, and this, together with the rapid evaporation in an arid
climate, shifts the salts until they gradually aecumulate at or near
the surface in such quantities as to be beyond the endurance of crops.
The natural drainage has of course a great influence on such an accu-
mulation of both seepage waters and alkali.

Another, and perhaps the most important, cause of the rise of the
subsoil water and accumulation of alkali is in the leakage or seepage
from canals. As such damage is liable to be widespread, it is a
matter for serious consideration whether canal companies should not
be required to protect their ditches from undue loss, and individuals
be restrained from overirrigation or made liable for damages in
civil suits.

Another source of trouble is in the use of water for irrigation con-
taining too large a salt content. Cases have been brought to my
attention where land companies have, through extensive advertising,
attracted many settlers, only to deliver water which the companies
had previously been informed contained too much alkali for irriga-
tion. Such action only invites widespread suffering and loss to the
settlers. -

In some districts the condition of the water can be controlled, ina
large measure, by the water companies. Reservoirs are frequently
lowered for repairs or for cleaning out at the beginning of a long dry
period, and the remaining water concentrates by evaporation until it
is really unfit for irrigation if the inflow is small and the usual flocds
are delayed. Furthermore, the first flood after a long dry spell often
brings down great quantities of alkali, which have accumulated on
the watershed during the dry season. Frequently these first flood
waters should be diverted from the-reservoirs, in order to prevent
serious damage to the community.

These matters are clearly set forth in the report of the chief of the
Division of Soils and in his statement of the field operations of the
Division, to which attention is called. -

26 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
RECLAMATION OF ALKALI LANDS.

When the alkali contains considerable quantities of carbonate of
soda, the usual remedy is heavy applications of gypsum with drainage,
if necessary, to insure thorough aeration of the land. When the
other alkali salts or seepage waters have accumulated in excessive
quantities, drainage is necessary.

So sudden and unexpected is the damage from the rise of seepage
waters and alkali that estates worth thousands of dollars may have to
be abandoned in two or three years, with an utter depreciation of value.
So widespread is the damage that in one tract alone near Salt Lake
City there are 100 square miles of practically abandoned land, partly
within the city limits, formerly containing some of the most fertile
lands of the valley, which would have, under a conservative estimate,
a value of over $3,000,000 if the original conditions could be restored.
With the encroachment of the alkali the farmers are moving back on
the higher levels.

The matter of artificial drainage, as a means of preventing dam-
age and of reclaiming alkali lands, has been so often advocated with-
out attracting the attention necessary to induce action, and the matter
is of such vital importance to the West, that I have recommended to
Congress an appropriation of $10,000 for the purpose of actually
demonstrating the practical utility of the different methods of treat-
ing such lands.

SOIL MAPPING IN THE EAST.

Equally important work is being done in the eastern district of
the country. Part of this will be referred to under ‘‘ Tobacco
investigations.”

The methods of field soil surveys have been worked out in the past
few years in this Department, and men have been carefully trained
for such work. Asno such training exists elsewhere in this country,
several of the experiment stations and State geological and economie
surveys have been glad to avail themselves of the cooperation of the
Department, thus, while contributing to the expenses of the work,
being relieved of the direction and responsibilities of making soil sur-
veys of their States. Thus, a detailed soil survey has been under-
taken of the soils of Maryland, in cooperation with the geological
survey of that State, and of Louisiana, in cooperation with the State
experiment station. Such cooperation will be encouraged so far as
competent men can be obtained and the means at our disposal will
permit. Other States are willing to contribute money, but the diffi-
culty has been to obtain men and to find the time required to train
them. There is a wide and valuable field in this work for the gradu-
ates of our agricultural colleges who are willing and able to undergo
the necessary training.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 27

- TOBACCO INVESTIGATIONS.

The investigations of the tobacco soils of the country by the Divi-
sion of Soils has shown so much of importance that last year I asked
Congress for an appropriation to extend and supplement this work.
This request was granted. The money was not available until the
first of July, 1899, but since that time a large amount of the most
important work has been done, which will be referred to in my next
Annual Report. Briefly, this work includes the mapping of 400 square
miles in the Connecticut Valley, including the principal tobacco areas:
of that important locality. This map, which is being prepared for
publication, shows the character of the soils and their distribution.

The soils occur in more or less well-defined terraces, formed by the
old lake which covered that area in prehistoric times. The highest
terraces, or the old lake bottom, are coarse sand, containing fine
gravel. These ‘‘ plains” soils produce the finest wrapper leaf when
the season is favorable, but on account of the droughty character of
the section such crops are only obtainable about two years in five.
Some practical method can no doubt be found to make the crop more
certain.

The next lower terrace is of finer sand, and it is upon this that the
general crop of Havana seed leaf is produced. The next terrace is
of still finer sand and produces the fine broad-leaf variety, while the
lowest terrace, or the present meadows, is of such fine silt that it pro-
duces a coarse dark tobacco unsuited e the present market demands.
There are other soils upon which tobacco can not be grown, and still
others upon. which tobacco of peculiar properties is produced, suited
to certain trade. The map will show these soils in different colors.

CAUSE OF THE FERMENTATION OF TOBACCO.

To supplement this soil work, the Division of Vegetable Physiology
and Pathology is cooperating in the study of the cause of the fer-
mentation of tobacco. It has been found that the flavor and aroma
are due not to bacteria, as was formerly supposed, but to enzyms or
oxidizing agents in the leaf itself. The formation of these oxidizing

agents and the conditions of their greatest activity are being studied.

It has been found that some of the soils of the Connecticut Valley
are similar in all essential respects to the soils of Florida and Cuba,
and an effort will be made, through changes in the methods of eulti-
vation and fermentation based upon these investigations, to improve
the quality of the Connecticut leaf so as to adapt it better to the
present demands for wrapper for high-priced cigars. Next year it is
proposed to investigate the soils of Pennsyivania and Ohio to see if
the quality of the filler leaf grown on the pee lgle soils of these
localities can not be greatly improved.

28 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

To supplement and support the field work of the Division, various
investigations are being carried on, partly with the cooperation of
the Division of Chemistry, in relation to many intricate soil problems,
such as the retention and movement of the water through soils;
the physico-chemical effect of fertilizers in soils; the absorption of
salts; the physical properties of loams and clays; the plasticity of
clay; the formation of hardpan, and similar subjects.

These matters are exceedingly intricate and difficult to work out,
but the vast importance of the economic problems depending upon
these properties of soils justifies a prolonged and searching inquiry
into them.

Several instruments and methods have been devised and perfected
in the Division of Soils which are of distinct advantage in these lines
of soil investigation. Furthermore, the very large and valuable col-
lection of over 4,000 samples of soil supplies very valuable material
for these laboratory investigations.

DIVISION OF AGROSTOLOGY.
NATIVE GRASSES.

It is acknowledged that there is no country in the world so rich in
the number and variety of useful grasses and forage plants as the
United States. The investigations of the Division of Agrostology
have demonstrated that the country abounds in native species adapted
to nearly every variety of soiland climate and to almost every require-
ment. There are upland and lowland varieties, there are woodland
and prairie species, there are kinds which exist only in the humid
regions along the coast, and there are others which thrive in the arid
regions of the interior. Some are productive hay grasses or afford
abundant grazing, while others again are valuable for fixing drifting
sands or reclaiming impoverished or waste lands. There are decora-
tive species for the garden or lawn, and not a few are useful in the
arts and manufacture. Grasses are chiefly important, however, as
food plants for all kinds of stock, yielding beef, mutton, and other
animal products, which are a source of great wealth to the country,
and their investigation along these lines is a most useful and essen-
tially practical work of this Department. The fine quality of the for-
age afforded by the native grasses of our vast cattle ranges is a matter
of world-wide comment; the perpetuation and improvement of the
most valuable sorts are matters of extreme importance, and these may
well be the subjects of practical scientific investigations at our hands.

COOPERATIVE EXPERIMENTAL WORK.

In addition to the continuation of the work already established in
Texas, other experiments have been instituted during the year in the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29

States of Washington and South Dakota. The results obtained in
Texas clearly demonstrate the possibility of materially improving
worn-out pastures and ranges by practical methods of treatment.
Tests have been made of a number of promising drought-resistant
grasses and forage crops, and some of these have shown great hardi-
ness, as, for example, some of the saltbushes, sorghums, and vetches,
as well as such native varieties as Colorado grass, blue grama, black
grama, and wild rye. On the Pacific coast the most extended tests
have been made at Walla Walla, Wash. Among the varieties giving
best results at this point may be mentioned sainfoin, Australian salt-
bush, blue grama, smooth brome, Oregon rescue grass, slender wheat
grass, Japanese barnyard millet, Turkestan alfalfa, and some of the
vetches. Most of these varieties show characteristics which will
render them adaptable to the conditions which prevail over large por-
tions of the great range regions of the West and Northwest. Thus,
smooth brome has exhibited great vitality, surviving prolonged
drought as well as extreme cold, and affording good returns of pas-
turage, hay, and seed under conditions that would destroy the ordinary
grasses; the saltbush promises to be of much value on land strongly
impregnated with alkali, and blue grama and the wheat grasses seem
destined to become our most valuable means for reclaiming the many
thousands of acres of range lands that have been all but ruined by
protracted droughts and overstocking.

The work at Highmore, 8. Dak., which is being carried on in coop-
eration with the State experiment station has for its object the test-
ing of drought-resistant grass and forage crops, with a view to find-
ing varieties suitable for the pastures, meadows, and ranges of the
semiarid prairies east of the Rocky Mountains. Although but
recently undertaken, the work is well in hand, and has already given
results of practical value.

By means of these experiments we are learning that many of the
native grasses adapt themselves readily to cultivation in our meadows
and pastures, in some cases proving of more value than any of the
introduced varieties yet tried. It is also beng demonstrated that
these native grasses are susceptible to improvement by careful eulti-
vation and selection, and forms are being developed that give promise
of much greater adaptability to farm conditions than the parent
stocks.

There are many native leguminous forage plants, and some of
these are also giving good results under cultivation. The Metcalfe
bean of the table-lands of New Mexico is one of these. It not only
does well in its native section, but has made excellent growth on the
Pacific coast, and gives promise of being a valuable forage plant for
the dry uplands of the West.

As in former years, most of the experimental work connected with
the grass and forage plant investigations is carried on in cooperation

30 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

with prominent farmers in various parts of the country, to whom
seeds are sent for this purpose. During the year 1,600 packages of
seeds, comprising 185 varieties of grasses and forage plants, have
been distributed in this way. These seeds include choice varieties
imported from foreign countries, in the hope that they will show
special adaptability to the conditions which prevail here, and native
sorts, collected by agents sent into the field to study the plants in
their natural condition and to select those possessing characters of
particular value for cultivation. In this way it is being demonstrated
that many of our recently introduced varieties are likely to have a
wide range of usefulness, and that some of the commonly grown sorts
deserve to be much more generally cultivated. Japanese barnyard
millet is not only a most valuable crop for the New England States,
but has given excellent results in many places in the South. Reseue
grass has been grown in the South for many years, but many know
littie of its value as a winter forage or how to cultivate it. The
legumes ought to be much more widely grown in the South, and will
be when their great value, not only for food, but as restorers of nitro-
gen to impoverished soils, is more fully understood and appreciated.

GRASSES AS SAND AND SOIL BINDERS.

The large areas of drifting sands along the Atlantic, Pacifie, and
Gulf coasts and also about the Great Lakes and along some of our
larger rivers, which, because of their unstable character, are a serious
menace to life and property, could in many cases be reclaimed and
converted into valuable pasture and meadow lands. The study of
the grasses suitable for binding these sands has been extended along
the Atlantic coast as far south as Florida, also to various points on
the Pacifie coast and along the Columbia River in Washington and
Oregon. Several native sand binders of great promise have been
discovered, and their utilization in a practical way has been under-
taken. The seaside blue grass, a native of the sand dunes along the
Oregon coast, where it grows abundantly, is said to be a good forage
grass as well as an excellent sand binder, and has been successfully
introduced along the sand dunes of Lake Michigan. The binding of
drifting sands and embankments about fortifications along the coast
is a serious problem which confronts the authorities of the War
Department, and at their request some experiments have been made
during the year on Tybee Island, at the mouth of the Savannah River.
Here, as on the Pacific coast, one of the native grasses promises to
be of greatest value.

THE GRASS COLLECTION,

Important additions have been made to the grass collection, includ-
ing valuable material from abroad as well as from our own country.

In all, 6,246 sheets of mounted specimens have been added to the

a

= —

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 31

herbarium and nearly 4,000 determinations have been made for
correspondents.
PLANS FOR FUTURE WORK.

The great importance of the problems connected with the forage
supply of our country—the close relation which it bears to the welfare
and prosperity of the agricultural classes and the increase of public
interest in grass and forage-plant investigations—make it imperative
not only that the present lines of investigation should be continued,
but that new ones be undertaken. The investigations under way in
the Gulf-coast region and on the Pacific slope ought to be extended
in their scope; the work on range improvement should be continued
along the present practical lines; the investigations looking toward
the preservation and improvement of our most valuable native grasses
and forage plants should be continued; the study of soil and sand-
binding grasses ought to be extended to inelude experiments as to
the adaptability of our native sorts to practical use for fixing the
shifting sands of our coasts and for holding embankments in place,
as well as to the introduction of desirable foreign sorts; investigations
relative to the introduction, cultivation, and management of improved
pasture and forage crops on the abandoned farms of New England
should be undertaken; the question of forage crops suitable to
alkali soils is one of much importance to certain sections of the coun-
try, and should receive full and careful investigation. There is no
question as to the value and importance of investigations along all
the lines indicated, and an increase in the appropriation for the Divi-
sion is recommended in order to effectively carry on the work.

OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS.
RELATIONS OF THE DEPARTMENT TO THE STATIONS.

The relations of the Department of Agriculture to the experiment
stations of the several States become closer every year. An increased
amount of assistance is given every year to the State experiment
stations to enable them to carry out work of a national character.
Cooperative work between the Department and the stations is grad-
ually increasing. The Department is consulted oftener regarding the
organization and management of the stations, the choice of officers,
the lines of work to be undertaken, the execution of special work,
plans for station buildings, materials and apparatus required for use in
connection with the different kinds of agricultural investigations, ete.

The Department has been able to bring some influence to bear
against the frequent change of station officials, which has been too
common in certain States. At the same time no effort has been made
to interfere with the independence of each as a State institution.
The farmers of the States are appreciating the stations more and

32 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

more, giving them attention, requiring better work, securing State
funds, and interesting themselves in the management and supervis-
ion. This is having an excellent effect and resulting in better work
for the communities in which they are located, all along the line.

NATIONAL AND STATE AID TO THE STATIONS.

The stations in all the States and Territories are visited regularly
every year by officials of the Office of Experiment Stations, whose
report is transmitted annually to Congress for the information of the
national legislators. Where the experiment station is a part of the
agricultural college of the State the connection has a beneficial influ-
ence on the course of instruction, as the work of the station in the
interest of the locality has a tendency to better instruct the officers of
the college engaged in teaching. There is much need that the endow-
ment of the Federal Government should be supplemented by the State
in nearly every case, and many of the States are appropriating money
to enable the stations to extend their work. The erection of build-
ings for the colleges has often been done for the purpose of increasing
the facilities for experiment-station work.

The printing of station bulletins in a number of the States is regu-
larly done at the public expense, while some of the stations are
unable to publish the results of their experimental work for want of
means for the purpose. Experimentation has been begun in Alaska
with the aid of national funds. In each of the States of Alabama,
Connecticut, New Jersey, and New York a separate station is main-
tained wholly or in part by State funds. The Louisiana experiment
station, supported for a number of years by the sugar planters, is
now under the management of the State. Every year the sum of
$720,000 is paid to the several stations by the National Government,
while nearly $500,000 is paid by the States, individuals, communities,
and as fees for analyses of fertilizer, ete.

THE FUNDS OF THE STATIONS.

It has happened occasionally that boards of trustees have diverted
experiment station funds to college purposes. The opinion of the
Attorney-General of the United States has been had on this subject.
According to this opinion, no portion of the funds appropriated by
Congress in accordance with the terms of the act of March 2, 1887, can
be used, either directly or indirectly, for paying the salaries or wages
of professors, teachers, or other persons whose duties are confined to
administration, teaching, or other work connected with the course of
instruction given in the colleges with which stations’ are connected,
or in any other educational institution, nor should any other expenses
connected with the work or facilities for instruction in school or
college courses be paid from said fund.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. a3

THE STATIONS CENTERS OF INFORMATION FOR LOCAL REQUIREMENTS.

In the development of methods of investigation and special appa-
ratus the Department can now accomplish much more than any one
of the stations. On the other hand, the stations are, to an increasing
extent, becoming centers of information and authority on the lines of
work in which they have been engaged with special reference to the
local requirements of agriculture, and in some instances the stations,
through the liberality of State governments or connection with strong
colleges and universities, are in better position than the Department
to carry on investigations requiring the knowledge and skill of—
experts or expensive forms of special apparatus.

By recognizing the authority of the stations in their several locali-
ties, securing the services of their expert oflicers, and the use of
special facilities at their command, it is believed that the Department
may oftentimes most economically expend the funds intrusted to it
by Congress for special investigations, and can at the same time
devote the energies of its officers more fully and effectively to the
large enterprises for the promotion of the science and practice of
agriculture.

THE EXHIBIT AT THE PARIS EXPOSITION.

An exhibit of the publications of the stations and of the Office of
Experiment Stations, with photographs and charts showing the build-
ings and equipment of the stations, special features of their work, an
illustrated report on the history of the stations, and a collection of
special devices for station work, with illustrations of notable results
by means of models and otherwise, will be made at the Paris Exposi-
tion. Investigations in Alaska, in nutrition, and in irrigation, in
charge of the Department, will also be included in this exhibit. The
materials for the exhibit will be largely furnished by the stations.

NEED OF STATIONS IN THE NEW POSSESSIONS.

There is a pressing necessity for the establishment of experiment
stations in Puerto Rico, Hawaii, and the Philippines. The newer and
more intimate relations existing between these islands and the United
States, the responsibility assumed by the United States regarding
them, and the necessity for giving to the peoples of those islands
information regarding their staple crops, their development, and the
insect and bacteriological pests to which they may be Hable, suggest
the necessity of scientific investigation of everything pertaining to
production. These stations will be needed in our island possessions
much more than they are needed in our States and Territories. Special
investigations along these lines will not take the place of permanent
experiment stations.

There is no method of informing the tiller of the soil so valuable to

1 Aa 99

3

34 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

him as to have practical scientists studying the conditions of pro-
duction in his neighborhood. There is thus provided not only an
object lesson, but the foundation of a farm literature. A local station
should be placed in each of the groups, on land belonging to the
Government, with buildings and equipments for field and laboratory
investigations, for careful surveying of the agricultural capabilities
and requirements of the lands, cooperative experiments with inter-
ested farmers, the dissemination under frank of bulletins of original
and compiled information, and the holding of farmers’ meetings in
different localities for the diffusion of practical information.

In general, there should be a systematie effort to disseminate use-
ful information on agricultural subjects among the people and to gain
new knowledge which may be utilized for the benefit of the agricul-
ture of those regions. Edueational influences of this nature estab-
lished among the peoples of the islands will not be the least potent
influences in elevating them to higher intellectual levels. Fifteen
thousand dollars could be wisely appropriated for Hawaii, $10,000 for
the Philippines, and $5,000 for Puerto Rico. These stations for the
present should be under the direction of the Seeretary of Agriculture
until such time as, under the benign influence of the United States,
the people in the islands are thoroughly prepared to take charge of
institutions of this kind and manage them for themselves.

INFORMATION REGARDING WORK OF THE STATIONS.

A series of Farmers’ Bulletins, based on the work of the experiment
stations, for the purpose of disseminating throughout the country
information regarding the work of the stations, and thus to acquaint
farmers in a general way with the progress of agricultural investiga-

tion, on its practical side, has been printed by the Office of Experi-

ment Stations. The demand for this class of Farmers’ Bulletins is
growing very rapidiy. The aim is to provide our farmers with a
popular record of the progress of agricultural research.

WORK IN ALASKA.

Work is progressing in the establishment of an experiment station
in Alaska. Prof. C. C. Georgeson, a thoroughly educated and practi-
cal experimenter, has been put in charge of the work. Headquarters
for the present are established at Sitka, and a building is being
erected there for the convenience of the scientists connected with the
station work. Seeds have been distributed among different localities
in Alaska, and measures instituted to obtain information regarding
the crops, methods of cultivation, feeding of animals, and agricultural
possibilities of the different regions.

Professor Georgeson is experimenting in the growing of different
varieties of cereals, forage plants, flax, and vegetables in gardens

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 35

placed at his disposal by citizens of Sitka. In spite of late planting,
oats, barley, potatoes, flax, and a number of different kinds of vege-
tables of good quality were matured. Clover and grasses made an
excellent growth. Useful data were also obtained from these experi-
ments regarding the effect of different soil conditions on the germina-
tion of seeds and the growthof plants. Experiments similar to those
being conducted at Sitka were made at Skagway.

Observations regarding soil temperatures are being made at Sitka
and Skagway, and arrangements forsimilar observations will be made
at other places. Samples of soil were collected at Sitka, at Kenai,
and at Cooks Inlet, for which the moisture determinations were made
under the direction of the chief of the Division of Soils in this
Department. Circulars of inquiry regarding the agricultural con-
ditions in different parts of Alaska, including both the coast region
and the interior, were sent out, and a number of replies were received
and reported. A number of places on the coast region of Alaska
have been visited and surveys and reservations of land for experi-
mental purposes have been made at Sitka, Kadiak Island, Kenai, and
Cooks Inlet.

Botanical investigations in Alaska under Dr. Evans, of the Office
of Experiment Stations, have been carried on during the past year.
A considerable number of specimens of the flora of the coast region
were collected. Several species were found that may prove of con-
siderable value as sand binders, for which there is great need in many
localities of the United States.

Careful experimentation with grains grown in northern latitudes is
being made. Efforts will be made by selection, and probably through
the results obtained by crossbreeding, to find grains suitable for that
territory. The effect of draining the soil is being tested, and the use
of the silo for preserving stock feed is being demonstrated.

HUMAN NUTRITION.

Several bulletins on the subject of human nutrition have been
issued by this Office during the past year. ‘‘ The chemical composi-
tion of American food materials” (Bulletin 28, revised edition) con-

tains the maximum, minimum, and average of 4,000 analyses of
American food products, and gives a large number of analyses made
since the first edition was issued. As a standard table of food
analyses, it is, therefore, much more full and complete than any
table which has preceded it. ‘‘ Dietary studies in Chicago” (Bulle-
tin 95), by W. O. Atwater and A. P. Bryan, contains a report on the
food habits of fifty fereign and three American families in the con-
gested west side of Chicago. ‘‘Fish as food” (Farmers’ Bulletin 85)

- and ‘Sugar as food” (Farmers’ Bulletin 95) contain a considerable
amount of information derived from the reports on nutrition inves-
tigations mentioned elsewhere.

36 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

IRRIGATION INVESTIGATIONS.
BEGINNING OF THE WORK.

The first appropriation for irrigation investigations became available
July 1, 1898. The literature of irrigation, especially that containing
accounts of experimental inquiries, was collated and reviewed, and
correspondence was had with experiment station officers, State engi-
neers, and other experts who were devoting their energies to the study
of irrigation problems in thiscountry. A conference of station officers
and engineers was held in Denver July 12 to 13, 1898, at whieh the
needs of agriculture under irrigation were earnestly considered and
much valuable advice regarding plans for the work of this Office was
obtained.

As a result of this preliminary inquiry, it was determined to limit
the work of this Office under the appropriation to two general lines:
First, the collation and publication of information regarding the laws
and institutions of irrigated regions in their relation to agriculture;
and, second, the publication of all available information regarding
the use of irrigation waters in agriculture, as determined by actual
experience of farmers and experimental investigators, and the
encouragement of further investigations in this line by the experi-
ment stations. Prof. Elwood Mead, State engineer of Wyoming, was
asked to undertake the direct management of the investigations in
charge of this Office. Two irrigation bulletins were completed within
the fiscal year for which the appropriation was made. A report was
alse made to Congress on the usefulness of storage reservoirs as a
part of the irrigation system. Thirty-five thousand dollars have been
appropriated by Congress for the work of the present year, measures
have been taken to organize the work on a more permanent basis, and an
expert force with sufficient clerical assistance has beenformed. The
subjects requiring investigation are numerous. The conditions and
needs of different localities vary, and the demand on the part of the
people for more immediate information in so many lines is so urgent
that much attention will have to be given to the selection of lines of
work to be undertaken.

NEED OF EXPERTS.

One great difficulty is to find an adequate number of men who
have had proper training to fit them to prepare publications or carry
on investigations in the manner which our work requires. Asarule,
the men who are best fitted for this work are engaged in other enter-
prises and can not be induced to enter the Department’s service on
the terms necessarily imposed. In this, as in other special lines of
investigation which the Department has undertaken, it will be nec-
essary to organize a force to work under the immediate direction of
the expert in charge, and some time must elapse before this force ean

wheal

,
|

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 37

be thoroughly trained so as to perform the most efficient service.
Considerable effort has been made to ascertain who are available can-
didates for positions in this service. The establishment of agricul-
tural colleges for education in the sciences relating to agriculture has
done something toward preparing scientists in several directions, but
there are many lines in which very little has been done, and this
is one of them.

When the Department requires soil physicists, plant pathologists,
or scientists well informed regarding animal husbandry and irrigation,
it has been found almost impossible to get them. The Western agri-
eultural colleges, where scientific knowledge of the facts concerning
irrigation is most imperatively necessary, are making vigorous efforts
to educate along these lines. The boards of management of the sta-
tions have been led to see the importance of the work in irrigation
which the Department has undertaken, and are moving in the diree-
tion of the employment of a large number of competent investigators
who can work in cooperation with the Department. There must be
a period in which the training of experts, both by the Department
and the experiment stations, will be the most important features.

REASONS FOR A GENERAL STUDY OF THE SUBJECT.

The need of an impartial and thorough study of water rights and
the laws and methods of enforcing them is so urgent that the Depart-
ment has been under continuous pressure from the people of the arid
States to devote all the funds for irrigation investigations to this
branch of the subject. The immense area embraced in the irrigated
regions, the wide difference between the laws and methods of the dif-
ferent States, and the complexity and number of the problems to be
considered have required the expenditure of a great deal of time and
thought in the organization of this investigation. It is the intention,
if sufficient provision is made, to include all the arid and semiarid
States in this study during the coming year. In each of these States
the law and methods differ widely. Even where conditions are of a
similar nature, titles to water and methods of distribution are wholly
unlike.

There is a second reason for making the investigation general.
Many most important rivers are interstate streams. Some of them are
used for irrigation in half a dozen different States. The water rights
of these several States deal with a common supply. They vary so
widely in their character that there must sooner or later come a time
when their differences must be reconciled, or at least be brought to
the attention of the Federal Government, and become a subject of
legislation by Congress. It is of the utmost importance that before
either of these things occurs there should be a thorough understand-
ing of the character of the rights which are vested under these laws
and of the disturbances which will ensue if a uniform or interstate

38 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

system of water rights should be put in force. It is only through the
eollection and publication of these facts that either the several States
or Congress can intelligently determine whether or not the control of
rivers used in irrigation should be left exclusively to the States, as
is done at present, or whether the present practice should be over-
turned and the streams be divided under the operation of federal
laws and under the control of federal officials.

Measurements of the actual volume of water used in irrigation and
the time of such use are being carried on in fifteen States and Terri-
tories. An approximate knowledge of the quantity of water required
to irrigate an acre of land growing any given crop is sooner or latera
necessity in any irrigated district. Farmers, canal builders, water
commissioners, State lawmakers, and Congress all need this informa-
tion in the making of water contracts, the planning of works, and the
determination and protection of rights in streams. Without it all
these important transactions are largely based on conjecture. The
mistakes to which this gives rise are a serious obstacle to the con-
servation of the water supply and its orderly division.

It is the purpose of this investigation to begin the collection of this
. information, but in order that it may have general acceptance and
value the facts secured must embrace a wide range of conditions
and crops and be continued through a series of years, in order that
accidental variations of seasons may be eliminated. Before the
investigation is ended it is expected that it will embrace a study of
more economical methods and a determination of the extent to which
the reclaimed area can be extended thereby; but at the outset it is
desired to ascertain what is the common practice of irrigators.

The method of measurement adopted had to take into considera-
tion the fact that the demands of crops are not the same during dif-
ferent seasons of the year, nor is the supply uniform. Streams rise
and fall. The adoption of any device for delivering a uniform flow
would not, therefore, meet the demands of either the users of water
or the character of the supply. What has been done has been to pro-
vide for keeping a constant record of the amount used, without any
regard to the intentional variations in use or the accidental changes
in the supply. To do this it has been arranged to measure the depth
of water passing over a weir or fiowing through a flume, and from
this record to compute the amount of water used.

One object of the studies on the duty of water is to secure greater
economy in its use, the reclamation of an increased area, and a larger
yield of crops through its more skillful application. Something
more is necessary than measurement of the quantity employed. The
factors which tend to produce a high or low duty must also be studied.
These include the amount of rainfall, records of temperature, rate
of evaporation, character of soil, losses in transportation in canals,
the merits of different methods of distributing water over the land,

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. oo

and the influence which is exerted by the character of private water-
right contracts for delivering water or of State laws governing titles
thereto.

Before we ean rightly estimate the value of reservoirs we must
know not only the amount of water required by different crops, but
the time when such water is needed. The purpose of reservoirs is to
bring fluctuations in stream flow into harmony with the variations in
the demands of crops. A dependence on the natural flow of many
Western rivers permits of only a small fraction of their natural dis-
charge being utilized, because the waters run to waste before or after
they are needed. We must know when the water is needed, and how
much is needed in different months of the year, before we can rightly
estimate how much must be stored in order to utilize the entire
supply.

The character of water-right contracts has much to do with the
economy or waste which prevails in irrigation. Many of these con-
tracts have been prepared by people having little practical knowledge
of the subject. Among the classes of contracts which have been
productive of either discontent or abuses are, first, perpetual water
rights. Under these contracts the user pays a certain amount per
acre for all the land on the canal, whether he irrigates it or not.
These contracts usually specify a certain duty which has been fixed

efore the needs of the lands or the crops to be cultivated were
known. Sometimes this duty is so low as to be a direct incentive to
waste; in others, so high as to be manifestly one-sided and unfair.

A second class of contracts comprises those for the delivery of the
water used at a specified rate per acre, without regard to the economy
or waste of the irrigator. These contracts lead to controversies,
because of the temptation on the part of the irrigator to use all he
can, regardless of his necessities, since in that way he gets more for
his money; while on the part of the canal owner the temptation is to
agree to provide water for as many acres as he can without regard to
his ability. The objections to these two classes of contracts are lead-
ing to the evolution of a new system in which payment is made for
the quantity of water used.

The usefulness of this investigation is not limited to the arid region.
On the contrary, there is no question but that irrigation can be profit-
ably employed in the cultivation of large areas in the Eastern and
Southern States. A hundred thousand acres of sugar iand are being
irrigated in Louisiana. Irrigation of the rice fields in the Carolinas is
very extensive. The market gardener could profitably use irrigating
waters. Irrigation is being experimented with in the growing of tea
in South Carolina. Prof. E. B. Voorhees, of the New Jersey Agricul-
tural Experiment Station, is collecting data on the area of land now
irrigated in that State, the methods employed, the duty of water
obtained, and the benefits received.

-

40 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Many of the valleys of the mountain States are being injured
seriously by the injudicious use of water. Wherever the soil con-
tains alkali, it is being brought to the surface when too much water
is applied, and the land thereby rendered infertile.

More than one-third of the country depends upon the suecess of
irrigation to maintain the people, the industries, and the political
institutions of that area, and future growth will also be measured
by the increase of the reclaimed area. In a region which, in the
extent and diversity of its mineral wealth, has no equal on the globe,
the riches of the mines in the hills are already surpassed by the pro-
duetions of the irrigated farms in the valleys, and the nation at large
is at last awakening to the fact that the development of the use of
the rivers and arid lands of the West will constitute one of the most
important epochs in our increase in population and material wealth.

Ii is not possible at the present time for the owner of an irrigated
farm to know exactly what his right is. The nation has made no
provision for the distribution of either the natural flow of the streams
or the stored water. The States vary greatly in their enactments
regarding the use of water. If the control of this element of produc-
tion is to be left to the States, there should be a definite declaration
to that effect. If it is to be assumed by the General Government, it
should be done at once.

OFFICH OF PUBLIC ROAD INQUIRIES.
INQUIRIES REGARDING ROAD-MAKING MATERIAL, ETC.

Something has been done during the past year by the Office of
Public Road Inquiries to ascertain what can be accomplished in
making roads by the use of the material found in the several States.
Cooperation has been had with the experiment stations of several
States in making steel roads, macadamized roads, and gravel roads.
The people of all the States are very much interested in the improve-
ment of their public highways. There is a great demand upon the
Department of Agriculture for assistance in road making, in address-
ing the students at our agricultural colleges, and in giving instruc-
tion regarding the best methods of using what material may be found
convenient. Publications have been sent out from the Department
covering the several features of road making, and for these there is
great demand. Much attention is being given to this subject by the
legislatures of the several States of the Union.

I am of the opinion that it would be wise to have the resources of
the Eastern, Southern, Middle, and Western States carefully inquired
into by the appointment of competent men in each of these sections
who would ascertain and report upon the road-making material obtain-
able, and at the same time give instruction in the actual construction
of roads. There is alsoa necessity for scientific inquiry into the com-
position of road material in the several sections of our country, and

me

ie

of

a

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 41

the facility with which these materials when brought together com-
bine to make good highways. Many sections of our country have
within reach hard rock from which good roads can be made. Other
sections are entirely lacking in this regard, and must, in my opinion,
eventually look to steel tracks for supplying permanent good roads.
In order to get information along these lines, short sections of steel
track were laid during the past year at Omaha, Nebr., Ames, Iowa,
and St. Anthony Park, Minn. The Western States are not well sup-
plied with stone and gravel for road-making purposes, and the people
of these States are watching these experiments with great interest.
It is our intention to encourage the laying down of steel-track sec-
tions during the coming year wherever we can induce the localities
to purchase the steel. Wedo not yet know what is the best shape

‘for the steel rail, nor do we know the best material to lay between the

tracks, but inquiry is being made along these lines and information
is being gathered from experience.

The people of the United States have associated themselves into
national and State organizations for the purpose of encouraging the
building of better roads and for the consideration of ways and means
to that end. There is a great deal of agitation and considerable edu-
eation along road-making lines. The people of many localities are
exceedingly anxious to have the cooperation of the Department in
improving their roads, and demands of this kind are so numerous
that our limited force is entirely inadequate to give the assistance
required. ‘The object-lesson road work of the year has been as exten-
sive in territory covered as it has been far-reaching in results accom-
plished. Model roads of various kinds have been built, under the
supervision of agents of the Office of Public Road Inquiries, in Mary-
land, Nebraska, Minnesota, Iowa, Kentucky, Indiana, and Wisconsin.
Elementary knowledge of road making is being rapidly spread among
the people. Students at our colleges are taking a great interest in
the study of road making. Gentlemen of means, enterprise, and
public spirit are doing much along experimental lines for the educa-
tion of their neighbors.

PRINCIPAL INQUIRIES OF THE YEAR.

The principal inquiries during the year were upon the following
subjects: New road legislation, especially as regards State aid; the
use of convict labor in road building or in the preparation of road
material; experiments with steel roads and other new plans; methods
of raising road funds; conditions of new roads under wear, especially
the sample roads designed by officers of the Office of Public Road
Inquiries; the promotion of rural free delivery of mails by good roads;
the progress of organizations for road improvement; the prospects
for road construction in several localities. The invention of road

42 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

graders for use in the great productive prairies of the West has sim-
plified the construction of roads more than any other one feature of
progress. The value of these graders in making roads by horsepower
is not well understood in all parts of the United States.

RECOMMENDATION.

The great activity on this line among the people of the United
States during this fall, and the necessity of getting facts for use in
the several localities of our country, induce me to reeommend that

Jongress increase the appropriations of this Office sufficiently to
justify the appointment of four experts, so that information can be
gathered regarding valuable road material and cooperation be had
with experiment stations, colleges, and universities, and with the men
of enterprise who are now actively seeking such information and
such assistance.

DIVISION OF PUBLICATIONS.
NUMBER AND COST OF PUBLICATIONS.

During the year 603 different publications were issued, aggregating

26,420 pages of printed matter, and the total number of copies was
7,075,975, greatly exceeding the work of any previous year. Of this
number, 176 were Farmers’ Bulletins, of which 2,437,000 copies were
printed and distributed. The cost of printing these publications was
$91,966.59, and of blanks, blank books, ete., $36,624.93, making the
amount expended for this purpose $128,591.52. There was paid for
artists and illustrations, labor and materials in connection with the
distribution of documents, and for artists’ supplies, $29,836.55, mak-
ing the total expenditures under the supervision of the Division of
Publications, exclusive of the amount appropriated for statutory
salaries, $158,428.07.
_ In this connection, it may be said that the care and prudence which
have characterized the management of the Department printing are
strikingly manifested by a comparison of the number and cost of
the publications since the period when the Division was first estab-
lished. In 1891, the first year when the Division was fairly organ-
ized, there was expended for actual printing 59.8 per cent of the total
appropriation for that year, while 40.2 per cent was expended for
editing, illustrating, and distributing, whereas in 1899 of the total
appropriation for printing only 27.1 per cent was absorbed for edit-
ing, illustrating, and distributing, leaving 72.9 per cent available for
actual printing. Thus, in 1891, when the total appropriation was
$57,600, the number of copies of publications printed was 2,348,447,
while in 1899, with total appropriations of $185,260, the number of
copies of all publications printed was 7,075,975, showing a propor-
tionate excess of at least 2,000,000 copies in the actual output of
printed matter in 1899 over 1891.

i
:
;
:

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 43

FARMERS’ BULLETINS.

’

Of the total number of copies of Farmers’ Bulletins printed
(2,437,000), Senators, Representatives, and Delegates in Congress
took 1,101,985—considerably less than last vear and the year previous.
Under the law, when Senators, Representatives, and Delegates do
not avail themselves of the entire number of Farmers’ Bulletins
allotied to them, the same revert to the Department for miscellaneous
distribution or for satisfying further Congressional orders. I am
therefore able, for the current year, to increase the quota of Farmers’
Bulletins allotted to Members of Congress from 4,000 to 5,000 copies.
During the year 22 new Farmers’ Bulletins were issued and 154 of
those heretofore published were reprinted. Most of the bulletins of
this series are of permanent value, and are therefore suitable for
continuous distribution. It is my intention to still further increase
this series by adding to it bulletins upon such subjects as the people
seem to require information, and to give the same the widest pos-
sible distribution. The total number of Farmers’ Bulletins issued
since the series was inaugurated up to the close of the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1899, was just 100, and the total number of copies
printed was 11,270,500, of which Senators, Representatives, and
Delegates in Congress have received and distributed 6,851,752.

MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS.

Of publications other than Farmers’ Bulletins, 427 were prepared
in the various Bureaus, Divisions, and Offices of the Department. As
usual, these bulletins, many of them scientifie or technical in ehar-
acter, have been distributed as judiciously as possible, the effort being
to place them in the hands of those only to whom they will be of
special interest and value, and to prevent waste or duplication. I
regret that under the law the editions of some of the most valuable
of these bulletins are restricted to 1,000 copies, so that the important
information they contain can not be given the wide dissemination it
should receive. It is earnestly hoped that this unwise restriction
may be speedily removed, so that there may be no obstacle to the dis-
tribution of publications for which an urgent demand exists. It is
interesting to note in this connection that during the year the Super-
intendent of Documents sold 18,750 copies of the publications of this
Department, which had been turned over to him under the law, con-
stituting 70 per cent of all the public documents disposed of by him
during that time, thus indicating that there is a considerable number
of persons to whom the small price affixed by the Publie Printer is no
obstacle to obtaining publications in which they are interested.

THE YEARBOOK FoR 1899.

The Yearbook for 1899 is now in course of preparation and is
modeled in accordance with the plan suggested in my last report. It

44 YEARBOOK: OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

will contain a résumé of the achievements in the United States in
every branch of science related to agriculture during the nineteenth
century, and it is hoped that Congress will see the propriety of order-
ing an extra number, say 20,000, for distribution at the Paris Exposi-
tion in 1900. In connection with our agricultural exhibit, the distri-
bution of special-bound copies of this publication would serve the
useful purpose of acquainting foreign countries with the achievements
in agriculture in the United States.

AN EVIDENCE OF THE DEPARTMENT'S USEFULNESS.

This steady and rapid growth in the publication work is a most
gratifying indication of the success of the Department in fulfilling
that section of the organic law creating it which makes it an essen-
tial part of its duty to diffuse information among the people on sub-
jects relating to agriculture. Brief, popular pamphlets continue to
afford the most acceptable means of widely disseminating the results
of the Department’s investigations, while the scientific and technical
publications, still considered as standard works of reference and

uthority by scientists both in this country and abroad, are accorded
their deserved prominence in libraries and institutions of learning.
The people have a right to look to this Department as the highest
authority on every subject connected with agriculture, and the num-
ber of publications issued which are designed to supply the informa-
tion requested, as well as the very wide distribution given to them,
is a most satisfactory indication that the Department is occupying
the place intended for itin the machinery of the General Government.

THE LIBRARY.

GROWTH OF THE LIBRARY.

Additions to the Library during the past year have numbered about
4,000 volumes, including some very rare works and scarce sets of

periodicals. The periodical list of the Library is growing very fast, |
? > D ’

owing to the efforts made to increase our exchange lists with pub-
lishing scientists and the officials of various countries. There are
currently received by the Library at the present time nearly 2,500
periodical publications, more than 1,800 being obtained by way of
exchange and gift. The care of this mass of literature is becoming a
more and more serious problem in the limited room at the disposal of
the Library.
CATALOGUES.

The card catalogue during the four and a half years since its incep-
tion has grown enormously. There are now more than 50,000 cards
in the catalogue, covering, in author and subject entries, more than
two-thirds of the books in the Library. The publication of a eata-
logue of books on forestry has shown that the collection on this subject

2 heed

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 45

is extremely full, having undoubtedly more than three times the
extent of any other similar collection in this country. Catalogues of
the books on botany and chemistry are well advanced and will prob-
ably be published before the end of next year. There is also in prog-
ress a complete author and subject catalogue of the publications of
the Department of Agriculture since 1839, with such analytical entries
as will bring out the subjects of separate papers in publications like
the Yearbook and the Farmers’ Bulletins.

DEMAND FOR THE PUBLICATIONS OF THE DEPARTMENT.

The demand for the publications of the Department is increasing
at home and abroad very rapidly. They are attracting great atten-
tion among the learned men of foreign countries. We receive in
exchange for them a large proportion of the valuable agricultural
publications of all countries, and every attempt is made by corre-
spondence to increase the material obtained in this way.

DIVISION OF ACCOUNTS AND DISBURSEMENTS.

For the fiscal year ended June 30, 1899, Congress appropriated for
the Department of Agriculture $2,829,702. By the same aet $720,000
was provided for the 48 agricultural experiment stations. The total
expenditures for the year amounted to $2,797,173.49. The unex-
pended balances were covered into the Treasury.

SECTION OF FOREIGN MAREBETS.
INQUIRIES REGARDING FOREIGN TRADE.

Our heavy foreign trade within late years has attracted much atten-
tion, both at home and abroad. Numerous inquiries have been
received regarding the commercial opportunities offered by the former
Spanish possessions. No authority has been given to this Depart-
ment to get exact information regarding trade facilities in Puerto
Rico, Cuba, and the Philippine Islands. The Section of Foreign Mar-
kets, has, however, collated and published everything available
regarding the trade of those islands. Frequent inquiry comes regard-
ing trade in China and Russia, which seem to offer great commercial
possibilities in the immediate future. There is a dearth of reliable
information regarding both these countries.

REPORT ON THE TRADE OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.

The report by this Section on the trade of the Philippine Islands
required an unusual amount of research. It was found that the
statistics from Spanish sources were meager and gave a very inade-
quate idea of the commerce that belonged to these islands. The
Section has also printed a report dealing with the agricultural resources
of the islands, especially plant products, to meet the great demand
for information on this subject. The report contained a general

46 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

description of the most important Philippine cereals, vegetables,
roots, fibers, dye plants, ete., supplemented by statistics of produc-
tion, price, and exportation.

AGRICULTURAL EXPORTS AND IMPORTS.

The record for 1898 shows that our agricultural exports were
decidedly the largest in the history of the country. Their total value
reached $858,507,942. Among the exports that showed the largest
gains were wheat and wheat flour, corn, oats, rye, bacon, lard, hams,
cotton-seed oil, and oil cake. It was found that there was a falling
off in the agricultural imports, the total value being $314,291,769,
which was $86,579,672 less than the year previous. The decline in
agricultural iniports for 1898 amounted to 22 per cent. Sugar and
wool were the principal factors that marked this falling off.

STUDY OF DANISH IMPORTS FROM THE UNITED STATES.

A study of Danish imports from the United States shows that that
country was importing in considerable quantities some of the articles
that enter most extensively into its export trade—butter and bacon,
for example. The Danes, having established a profitable market for
putter and bacon abroad, sell their own and buy from us. It is not
well established, however, that they do net import American farm
products for reexport under local names. We know that American
bacon is heavily imported into Ireland and sold in England as Irish

acon. We have also information from agents abroad that the thrifty
people of that country (Ireland) import well-bred American horses
and sell them to the English, in many eases, as Irish hunters.

American wheat flour is competing in Denmark with the home
product. During the fiscal year 1898 our shipments of this article to
Denmark amounted to 61,019 barrels, more than 20,000 barrels in
excess of the largest shipments previously sent. The Danish bakers
find that the American flour is as good as the best Hungarian,
although less expensive, and it is being generally substituted for the
latter. The milling industry of Denmark is declining. Every indi-
cation points to an increase in the amount of flour imported from the
United States.

The American farmer is furnishing eow feed to the Danes. They
imported 16,874,945 bushels of indian corn in 1898. This, in addition
to the more nitrogenous mill feeds imported, enables the Danish
farmers to supply the British markets with some thirty-three million
dollars’ worth of dairy products every year. The growth of the dairy
industry in the United States indicates that before many years the
American farmer will feed his cow feed at home and sell the product
of his skill in foreign markets. The Danes bought 55,958,939 pounds
of oil cake from the United States in 1897, and in 1898 they bought

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 47

155,121,048 pounds. The American farmer can not afford to export
the nitrogenous by-products of the mills, as the soil that grows them
is regularly reduced by taking them from the farm.

In this connection, it may be interesting to state that butter made
in Denmark from these American imports is peculiarly well adapted
to the markets of tropical countries. The butter has a higher melt-
ing point than butter made from the wider carbonaceous ration gen-
erally used in the United States. We raise linseed in the United
States to get the oil with which to make paint for our buildings, but
have not learned that the nitrogenous by-product is of the first
importance in feeding live stock, especially the dairy cow. We are
also shipping considerable quantities of bran, and the trade is grow-
ing in these nitrogenous exports.

The Danish farmer is enabled to furnish the markets with the finest
possible product, and at the same time maintain the fertility of his
acres. The Danes are reclaiming waste lands through the use of
fertilizers resulting from the purchase of our nitrogenous by-products.
We are reducing our lands to sterility by selling these products. It is
the duty of this Department to assist the farmers of the United States
to find markets for all their surplus products. It is also our duty to
warn them of the consequences of exporting stock feed to foreign coun-
tries. The Danes have developed a heavy export trade in some of the
products of the farm, and the seeret of their suecess lies in the great
pains they take to cater to the particular requirements of the foreign
consumer and the care they exercise to maintain the uniform high
standard of their products.

Not only is every precaution taken to prevent the exportation of
inferior or damaged articles, but sufficient attention is always devoted
to the packing and methods of shipment to insure arrival in good
condition of the articles exported. We exercise no supervision over
the shipments of American dairy products. The foreign buyer can
depend upon the character of the consignments received from the
Danes, but unscrupulous traders in the United States devote their
utmost energies to imitations of our best dairy products. Some years
ago we had an excellent market in Great Britain for our cheese,
whereupon a spurious article was exported that destroyed the good
name of American cheese. This is being done now with regard to
American butter.

Copenhagen is the natural distributing center for the trade of the
Baltie Sea, and it has established a free port for the transshipment
of merchandise billed to other destinations. The amount of American
merchandise distributed through the Baltie region is increasing very
rapidly. During the fiscal year 1898 our direct shipments to these
Seandinavian-countries amounted in value to more than $25,000,000.
Although agricultural products form a large part of this item and
show a material gain for the past decade, the principal increase has

48 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

occurred in our shipments of manufactured wares, such as machinery,
tools, utensils, ete.

Ten years ago the annual value of the exports of manufactured
articles from the United States to the Baltic countries did not exceed
$3,000,000. It now amounts to $10,000,000. Meanwhile the annual
value of our agricultural exports to the same region has risen from
less than $10,000,000 at the beginning of the decade to about $15,000,000
at its close. As long as the United States produces the cheapest cow
feed in the world for export, the market for agricultural produets will
grow in the Baltie countries. Our best opportunity in this region,
however, lies in the development of a wider demand for our manu-
factures, of which the prospect isexcellent. Transshipment at Copen-
hagen for other Baltic ports is a blunder on our part. American
ships should take goods to their destination under the American flag
in all parts of the world.

WORK OF THE SECTION IN FURNISHING INFORMATION.

One of the most useful features of the work performed by the Sec-
tion of Foreign Markets is the furnishing of information to American
citizens all over the country regarding these lines of industry. These
inquiries are very extensive. Pamphlets have been prepared, and
others will be, covering the information in most general demand, and
at a time when the products of our fields and factories are so much
beyond the requirements of home markets, the work of this Section
is peculiarly valuable.

BUREAU CF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
NUMBER OF ANIMAL INSPECTIONS AND COST.

“he report of the chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry for the
last year shows that the work carried on by the Bureau is increasing
rapidly from year to year, and is becoming more and more an impor-
tant factor in the economy of animal production and in the exporta-
tion of animal products. Meat inspection was conducted during the
last year at 1338 abattoirs in forty-one cities. The total number of
antemortem inspections of animals was 55,223,176, of which 34,405,973
were for official abattoirs and 18,817,203 for abattoirs in other cities
and for miscellaneous buyers. The number rejected upon this exam-
ination was 156,559. The growth of this feature of the work is
shown by the fact that in 1892 the total antemortem inspections for
official abattoirs was only 3,809,459. The total number of post-
mortem inspections was 34,163,155. The cost of this inspection was
$465,709.23. The cost per head on antemortem inspection was 0.88
cent; in 1892 the cost per head was 4.75 cents, and only once was it
less (0.8 cent).

The number of hog carcasses examined microscopically was 2,227,740.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 49

Of this number, 2,160,230 were free from all appearance of trichinze
and 25,913 contained only trichinz-like bodies, while 41,597, or 1.87
per cent, contained living trichinz. The exports of this pork to coun-
tries requiring inspection amounted to 108,928,195 pounds, while only
70,046 pounds went to countries not requiring inspection. The cost
of this work was $198,355.14, or 8.9 cents for each carcass, and 0.182
eent for each pound exported.

There were inspected for export 436,595 American and 67,688 Cana-
dian animals. The number of inspections of vessels for carrying
export animals was 852. Of the cattle exported to Great Britain, the
losses were but 0.31 per cent; of sheep, 1.54 per cent; of horses, 1.11
per cent.

The expense of inspection of animals for export, the supervision of
the movement of Southern cattle, and the inspection of animals im-
ported from Mexico amounted to $107,023.31. It is estimated that
the cost per head of inspecting cattle and sheep for export averaged
13 cents. . During the quarantine season of 1898 there were unloaded
at stock yards north of the infected area 911,455 quarantine cattle,
and there were inspected in the noninfected area of Texas 236,369
cattle for shipment into other States for grazing. The imports from
Mexico requiring inspection at the boundary line were 79,908 cattle,
1,254 sheep, 64 hogs, and 121 goats. The imports from Canada, not
subject to quarantine, were 90,468 cattle, 172,985 sheep, and 1,769
horses. Some of these were for breeding, but the large majority were
for feeding purposes. The total number of animals received at the
ports of import was 2,465.

All of this work was done to prevent the spread of disease among
the animals of the United States, to protect consumers from diseased
meats, to secure the arrival of our animal products in foreign mar-
kets in good condition, and to maintain the reputation of those
products at home and abroad.

LOSS FROM BLACKLEG.

According to the latest report, it is estimated that the annual loss
| of cattle from the disease known as blackleg, or symptomatic anthrax,
in the districts principally affected has ranged from 5 to 35 per cent.
The Bureau of Animal Industry has been for some time distributing
a vaccine for the prevention of this disease, and this, it is estimated,
has reduced the loss to 0.54 per cent among the animals treated. As it
is known that a large percentage of this loss was due to careless ope-
rators, it is believed that with more care in the use of the vaccine
future investigations will show a still further reduction. Vaccine is
still being sent out, and during the fiscal year 545,289 doses were dis-
tributed. The indications are that the contagion gradually dies out
where systematic inoculations are practiced, and it was with the hope

1 A 99——_4

——@Q =

50 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

of eradicating the disease from many sections that the preparation of
vaccine was undertaken.

TEXAS-FEVER INVESTIGATIONS.

oo

The experiments of the Bureau demonstrated that Northern cattle
might be made immune from Texas fever by inoculating them with
the blood of immune animals. This has recently been adopted and
practiced with most satisfactory results by some of the experiment
stations. The practical application of this discovery is of great
importance both to the breeders of improved stock in the more
Northern States and to the cattle raisers of the infected district, as it
permits the improvement of Southern herds without the discouraging
lesses that have heretofore always occurred.

Experiments have been continued with a view of obtaining a mix-
ture in which cattle from the Texas fever districts may be dipped
for the destruction of the ticks which spread the disease, and which
at. the same time will not injure the cattle. This effort has not been
entirely successful, but the progress of the work heretofore leads
to the hope that such a mixture may be found. The difficulty in
finding such a mixture is plain to those who know how tenacious of
life is the tick which is the carrier of this disease.

Investigations in Puerto Rico show that the cattle tick is prevalent
there, but the ticks which were brought from there and placed on
cattle in the United States failed to produce Texas fever. Whether
this result was accidental or whether these ticks are without infee-
tious properties is a question of great importance. If further inves-
tigations show that the Puerto Rican tick is free from the Pyrosoma,
the true contagion of the disease, and that the cattle of Puerto Rico
are susceptible, the introduction of a single animal bearing the Pyro-
soma might convert these comparatively harmless parasites into the
most deadly scourges of the bovine race. This subject will receive
further attention during the current year.

TREATMENT FOR HOG CHOLERA.

The preparation of serum for treating hog cholera and swine plague
has been on a very much larger scale than last year, and the results
are exceedingly satisfactory. The diseased herds in four counties of
lowa have been under treatment, the results showing a saving of from
75 to 80 per cent of the animals injected, though the final reports are
not all received at this writing. It is evident, however, that this
method of treatment is far in advance of any other heretofore tried.

SHEEP SCAB.

For many years the parasitic disease of sheep popularly called seab
has been quite prevalent, especially among the flocks of some of the

ES ee eee

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 51

Western States and Territories. Diseased sheep have been shipped
from one State to another in violation of the law, and the stock yards
and stock ears have been almost continually infected. The result of
this condition has been that sheep could not be purchased for feeding
purposes in any of the markets of the country without danger of
bringing to the farm with them the contagion of this disease.

Sheep scab has been one of the greatest evils which the sheep in-
dustry has had to contend with. Not only does it always damage and
often destroy the fleece, but it reduces the strength and condition of
the affected animals so much that they fall an easy prey to internal
parasites or succumb to unfavorable conditions of food and surround-
ings. Congress has specifically referred to this disease in the appro-
priation act as one of the diseases which the Department is authorized
to control by sanitary regulations.

The first step taken by the Department looking to the limitation
and control of this disease was the issuance of a cireular letter noti-
fying transportation companies and shippers of the existence of the
contagion, and pointing out the prohibition of shipment and the pen-
alty provided by law. Subsequent to this an order was issued that dis-
eased sheep discovered by the inspectors in the channels of interstate
commerce should be detained and dipped before going on to destina-
tion; also, that sheep purchased in infected yards for feeding should
be dipped before they were allowed to go to farms. The effect of
these orders was to protect the purchasers of store sheep and to lessen
the number of diseased animals sent to market. It was found, how-
ever, that some of the dips used by the stock yards, companies, and
owners of sheep were not efficacious under the conditions which
obtain in this service, and that others were so severe or poisonous as
to be dangerous. An order has, consequently, been issued specifying
the kinds of dips which would be recognized and the manner in which
these should be prepared and applied.

The effect of these measures has been extremely satisfactory, and
the number of diseased shipments received at the principal stock
yards have been very materially decreased. This has been accom-
plished without putting the shippers of heaithy sheep to any incon-
venience or expense unless the animals were going to farms from
infected stock yards. The inconvenience of detention and the
expense of dipping have had an excellent effect in lessening the num-
ber of diseased sheep sent to market, and has led to active efforts
everywhere to cure them on the farm or ranch before shipping. The
indications are at this writing that it will soon be possible to make
the stock cars, the central stock yards, and other channels of inter-
state commerce safe and free from infection, in which case store sheep
eould be purchased in the markets without danger of infection, and
only diseased sheep would come under the restrictions.

52 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

EXPERIMENTAL EXPORTS OF DAIRY PRODUCTS.

The experimental exports of dairy products made during the last
two years and now in progress under special provision of law have
produced marked results. But these are not satisfactory in all
respects and the reputation gained needs to be protected by authority
from Congress for some system of export inspection. The new mar-
kets opening for our dairy products require a guaranty of the purity
and quality of butter and cheese sent from the United States, such
as is given by other Governments, and especially Canada.

Not long ago this country supplied and practically controlled the
cheese market of Great Britain. In some years we sent to England
nearly 150,000,000 pounds, or two-thirds of our entire cheese product.
But as no system of export inspection existed to guard the established
reputation, unscrupulous merehants exported great quantities of
inferior, adulterated, and counterfeit cheese, until the reputation of
States cheese was destroyed in England, and that market lost to us.
Canada, on the other hand, adopted a system of government control,
was enabled to guarantee all cheese exported as pure and of standard
quality, and thus secured, and still holds, the desirable British cheese
trade which this country lost. We have recovered a little, but only
a little, of the lost ground. The best cheese now exported from this
country goes through Montreal, seeking the same avenues and the
good company of Canadian cheese, finding a market virtually asa
part of that product.

The same unfortunate result seems likely to follow the efforts to
export fine creamery butter to Great Britain unless measures are
promptly taken to avoid it. An active demand has arisen for this
butter especially in the northern counties of England, supplied from
Manchester, largely through the experimental efforts of this Depart-
ment. During the sammer of 1899 an exceptional scarcity of Euro-
pean butter caused very high prices, and British merchants sent
large orders to New York. Inthemonth of August our butter exports
were six times as great as for the same month a year ago. This new
and profitable demand for fine creamery butter had seareely begun,
however, before large quantities of an inferior article and also of imi-
tation creamery, ‘‘ process,” or renovated butter, began to appear
among the exports.

This article, which is a more dangerous and damaging counterfeit
of fresh creamery butter than straight oleomargarine, was sent to
New York by the carload for export. In at least one instance parties
had renovated butter put up in the West, in the style of package
adopted by this Department in its recent export trials to England,
and this went abroad labeled ‘‘ Finest American creamery butter.”
The effect of this upon future butter trade with Great Britain will
probably be like that which followed the export of so much unidenti-
fied filled cheese. Already English merchants, who have been trying

ee

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 53

to introduce States creamery butter among their customers, have writ-
ten to this Department complaining of the deception practiced upon
them.

Out of six large lots of butter received by one firm at Manchester
from the United States, all represented as ‘‘extra creamery” goods,
five were rejected as being far inferior to the quality represented—
apparently only poor imitations. Meanwhile Canada is forging
ahead, with government supervision and guaranty to assist, and
securing for its creamery butter a firm hold in the British markets.
The lack of some protection by Government certification of exports
from this country is already causing butter shipments by way of Can-
ada, as in the ease of cheese, previously mentioned. British mer-
chants state that some of the best States creamery butter they have
lately seen (as shown by makers’ marks) has been among lots received
from Canada.

I recommend, as a simple and effective remedy for these growing
evils and obstacles in our export trade, that the existing system of
Government inspection and certification of meats and meat products
for export be extended by law so as to include butter, cheese, and
condensed milk and cream. With slight modifications the organ-
ized force and regulations which now give protection and standing
to our meat exports may be made to cover the new work proposed.
The services of an inspector who is an expert in butter and cheese
would be necessary for parts of the year at three or four exporting
points; but until these exports increase New York would be the only
place at which such an inspector would have to be continuously
emploved. ;

li such inspection and certification is authorized by Congress, the
pure and unadulterated dairy products of the United States that are
of a quality entitling them to official mdorsement can be given a posi-
tion in foreign markets which they ean net otherwise secure, and
which will enable them to compete successfully with like products
from any other country.

This inspection of dairy products for export has been indorsed by
nearly all the national and State dairy organizations in this country
and has met with decided approval by commercial bodies and by indi-
vidual exporters wherever it has been duly considered.

DIVISION OF STATISTICS.
INVESTIGATIONS DURING THE YEAR.

The condition of the agricultural industry, as indicated by the area
of land devoted to the cultivation of the principal products of the
soil; the actual volume of production and the value of particular
crops, both on the farm and in the principal markets; the cost of pro-
duction per acre and per unit of quantity and the cost of transporta-
tion; the number and value of farm animals and the losses annually

54 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

resulting from disease and exposure; the volume, condition, and pros-
pects, according to the season of the year, of such of the crops of
foreign countries as compete with those of the United States in the
world’s markets, have constituted the field of investigation in whieh
this Division has been engaged during the past year.

STATISTICAL REPORT.

Of the regular periodical reports of the Division there has been
printed a total of 1,621,700 copies. These reports cover that general
work of the Division which is continuous in its operation and which
has constituted for a generation or more the only source of informa-
tion available to the farmer that has been comprehensive, prompt,
and unbiased.

THE CROP-REPORTING SYSTEM.

No change of essential or far-reaching importance has been made
during the year in the methods of collecting agricultural statistics,
but there is a marked improvement in all the different agencies
employed, the monthly reports being more complete, giving evidence
of greater care in their preparation, and generally displaying a more
intelligent conception of the requirements of the Department on the
part of its correspondents.

Af the end of the fiscal year the organization included 41 salaried
State statistical agents, with 8,750 correspondents, upon whose reports
their monthly statements were mainly based; 2,627 county corre-
spondents, with 7,851 aids and 36,426 township correspondents report-
ing each for his own immediate neighborhood. From this large body
of persons—selected with great care, not only as to their geographie
distribution, but also as to their qualifications for the perfermance of
the duties required of them—reports have been received monthly,
and at the close of the calendar year a select body of farmers, num-
bering about 90,000, reported upon the crops of their own individual
farms. The Department is indebted to numerous transportation
companies for monthly returns of cotton carried over their respective
lines, information which has been of the greatest value in the making
up of its final returns on the production of cotton.

No important change in the crop-reporting system will be recom-
mended until the approaching federal census shall have furnished
the Department with a new and definite statistical basis as to the
distribution of crop areas. The Department’s system is based, in the
main, upon a periodic comparison of the acreage devoted to particular
crops with that so used in the preceding year, and it is consequently
not only impossible to make any increase, during the closing years of
an intercensal period, in the number of products reported upon, but it
is difficult, even as regards those which are reported upon, to keep

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 55

exact step with a fluctuating acreage and a constantly varying pro-
duction when the cumulative effect of even a small annual error in a
report based on percentages may reach large proportions.

A PUBLICATION FOR CROP CORRESPONDENTS.

Much of the improvement so gratifyingly in evidence in the reports
of correspondents is doubtless attributable to the issue of a new
monthly publication known as ‘‘The Crop Reporter,” designed for
the exclusive use of the Department’s crop correspondents. The
necessity of compressing into very small space the instructions printed
upon the monthly reports, the marked localization of the area of pro-
duction in the case of not a few of the crops reported upon, and the
general lack of uniformity in the agricultural methods and conditions
obtaining in the different sections of the country have alike suggested
the employment of some agency by which correspondents could be
more fully instructed as to their duties and the instructions given
them be better adapted to their various needs.

Such an agency has been found in the new publication, which has
been received with many expressions of satisfaction by correspond-
ents in every part of the country. By anticipating their needs,
interesting them in their work, making intelligible to them the rela-
tion which, as individual correspondents, they bear to one of the
most important branches of the work of the Department, and putting
into their possession, without trespassing upon the province of the
agricultural journals, a great variety of information calculated to
make them better judges of agricultural conditions, and consequently
more valuable correspondents to the Department, ‘‘The Crop
Reporter” has been the means of greatly improving the crop-reporting
service, while incidentally reducing the enormous correspondence of
the Division by nearly one-half.

SEED DISTRIBUTION.

COST OF DISTRIBUTION AND FAVORABLE REPORTS RECEIVED.

An appropriation of $130,000 was made by Congress for the
purchase and distribution of valuable seeds, ete., during the year
1899. Of this sum, there was expended for the purchase of seeds for
distribution through Members of Congress $70,978.36. For rare and
valuable foreign seeds distributed by the Section of Seed and Plant
Introduction, under the Division of Botany, $20,300.92 was expended;
for the purchase of sugar-beet seed distributed to experiment stations
and individuals, $2,566; for seeds and bulbs distributed to Members
of Congress through the Division of Gardens and Grounds, $3,400,
and for seeds distributed for special investigation by individuals in
the several States, $3,000. There was paid for salaries of employees
connected with the seed distribution $25,912.98, and for miscellaneous

56 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

supplies in connection with the work, $221.85. There are some out-
standing vouchers for freights, etc., not yet adjusted.

The contractor was required to provide a building within the City
of Washington in which to pack the seeds, and samples were tested
by the Division of Botany for purity and germination. The high
quality of the seed now being sent out by the Department is scarcely
equaled by any of the distributing agencies of the United States.
Of 979 letters received regarding the seed distributed, 972 report
favorably upon the quality.

AIM OF THE DEPARTMENT IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF SEED.

The original intention of Congress in providing for the distribution
of seed undoubtedly was to do for the producers a class of work they
could not do for themselves—to search the various localities of the
Old World for seeds and plants, and distribute them in the United
States to the several regions where they would be most likely to suc-
ceed. The Department at present is endeavoring to bring back the
practice, as much as possible, to the original intention of Congress.
Quite a large percentage of the $150,000 appropriated is now spent in
finding, purchasing, importing, and distributing rare seeds and plants.

The Department is in receipt of letters from seedsmen throughout:

he country urging the discontinuance of this work, and there is an
uneducated sentiment here and there cooperating with the seedsmen
along this line, which prompts ill-informed individuals to coneur with
these representations. Iam well satisfied that the introduction and
distribution during the last two years of seeds and plants rare or not
found at all in the United States has been worth more money to the
people of the country than all the expenditures of Congress for seed
distribution to date. To the extent to which the distribution by the
Department competes with the sales of seedsmen and others distribu-
ting precisely the same kinds of seed, with no experimental feature
and no intelligent direction regarding the use of the seeds beyond
that which is-provided by dealers, the practice is questionable.
But the furnishing to the pecple of the United States of sugar-beet
seed of the most approved quality, for experimentation, to ascertain
where beets can be grown sweet enough to produce our own sugar, is
justifiable; the introduction of drought and rust-resisting grains from
fereign countries, which are urgently needed by people in the United
States who are losing heavily from drought and rust, is justifiable; the
rehabilitation of the Western ranges that have been destroyed and
in many cases reduced to desert conditions by injudicious grazing, is
justifiable; the encouragement of tea growing in the States along the
Gulf of Mexico, where labor is as plenty and as idle as anywhere in
the world, is justifiable; the inquiry into the several plants that pro-
duce rubber, the gathering of the seed of these plants, their germina-
tion and preparation for setting out in such localities in the new

Se eee errr.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 57

island possessions of the United States Government as may be best
suited for producing the $50,000,000 worth of rubber now purchased
from foreign countries, is justifiable; the introduction of the date
palm from Tripoli in Arizona, establishing a new industry in that
region which may extend to other localities in the same latitude, is
justifiable. The introduction of these and many other seeds and
plants, entirely beyond the ability of private individuals to compass,
in order that such seeds and plants may eventually enter the com-
mercial class and be handled by seedsmen, is the aim of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture in seed distribution at the present time.

SUGAR BESTS.

During the last three years extensive experimentation has been
had in cooperation with most of the States of the Union to ascertain
where sugar beets can be produced sufticiently sweet to justify exten-
sive growing and manufacturing. It has been fairly well demon-
strated that many States have soil and climate, fuel, water, and
limestone admirably adapted for this industry. Thirty-two factories
are now in operation and, many more in contemplation. There is
every indication that the United States will preduce its own sugar
within a few years. The rich valleys of the mountain and Pacifie
coast States find sugar making very profitable. It is being demon-
strated that the rich cornfields of the Northern States are also admir-
ably adapted to the growth of the sugar beet. This industry will
eventually be more profitable where the by-product is fed to the dairy
cow and other domestic animals. The Department publishes annu-
ally a report setting forth all the facts in relation to this industry and
the latest developments of interest to producers.

THE MARKET FOR AMERICAN HORSES.

Within the last two years horses have greatly appreciated in value
and exports have rapidly increased. The Department issues annually
a revised report, giving horse raisers facts regarding exports, as well
as the requirements and demands of foreign countries for horses for
different purposes.

DOMESTIC TEA PRODUCTION.
EXPERIMENTS AT SUMMERVILLE, S. C.

An interesting experiment is being conducted at Summerville, S. C.,
in the preducticn of tea. Three thousand six hundred pounds of
dry tea were produced during the past season. Dr. Shepard, a gen-
tleman of education and enterprise, who owns the garden, has over-
come the difficulties arising along labor lines by building a school-
house for the education of the children of his colored neighbors, where
they are taught free of expense, with the understanding that they shall

58 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

pick his tea when required, at a reasonable rate of wages. This class
of labor in the South is very plenty and very idle. The elementary
education and habits of industry acquired must have a good eifeet
from every standpoint from which the best interests of these people
‘an be considered. If a new industry of this kind can be introduced
into the Gulf States, which will save the peopie of the United States
the many millions of dollars now sent abroad for the purchase of this
commodity, and at the same time provide light work for the young
people who are now entirely idle, there is a double incentive to make
research to the utmost regarding the production of a commodity in
such universal use.

INVESTIGATIONS TO BE CONDUCTED.

Congress at its last session appropriated $1,000 to enable the
Department to conduct experimentation in tea growing. While the
average rainfall at Summerville ranges between 50 and 60 inches,
there are times when the rain does not fall for considerable periods.
Experimentation is now being arranged for to ascertain whether by
irrigation a more continuous growth ean be maintained and more
frequent picking of the leaves be had. Arrangements are also being
made to experiment in the manufacture of green tea without the
use of chemicals. The Department of Agriculture has a sufficient
number of plants growing in pots to start experimental tea gardens in
all the Gulf States from Florida to Texas, and including California.
Efforts are being made to induce the experiment stations in those
States to cooperate with the Department in conducting these experi-
menis.

Experiments in South Carolina have shown that the production of
200 pounds of dry tea per aere is readily obtainable under favorable
conditions, with a probability of double or perhaps treble that amount
when the plants have arrived at full bearing. It is desirable to
ascertain the limit of productiveness under all the varying conditions
of surface, soil, and seed varieties. It is gratifying to note that the
yield per acre has steadily advanced, in spite of all hindrances, from
50 to 150 pounds per annum per acre for the whole of the older tea
gardens at Summerville within the past few years. The best varieties
from all the countries of the Orient are being experimented with,
and efforts will be made to add promising new varieties, both by
importation and by hybridization. Experimentation of this nature is
beyond the capacity of men of moderate means, and I am of opinion
that it is entirely justifiable that Congress, through the Department
of Agriculture, should assist in demonstrating the probability of
raising tea in the United States, for home consumption at least.

It will be necessary as the work progresses to employ professional
tea tasters of wide experience to indicate the value of the several
varieties being experimented with. A higher valuation per pound

ee

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REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 59

may offset a lesser production. Experimentation in shading from the
direct rays of the sun is very encouraging. The leaf thus produced
was tender, very lustrous, and made a very delicate tea. The means
of manufacturing must of necessity be increased, and the testing of
new machinery as regards cheapness of work and thoroughness of
execution provided for. It is desirable to study carefully the eompo-
sition of tea made from the same bushes at different times during the
picking season, to analyze the product in this country of gardens
raised on soil from widely separated sources, and to test the effect on
tea of different sorts of manure. This is a large and expensive kind.
of experimentation, requiring special chemical apparatus and unusual
nicety and skill.
LEASING THE PUBLIC LANDS.
CONDITION OF THE RANGES.

I have looked carefully into the condition of the ranges in most of
the States west of the Missouri River. The Department of Agri-
culture has been conducting experiments in most of these States
with native and imported grasses through the experiment stations,
private individuals, and sometimes directly under the management
of its own officers. Injudicious grazing has greatly impaired the
capacity of the ranges to produce meats. Careful inquiry shows
that in many cases the ranges do not support more than half the
meat-bearing animals they did ten years ago. The ranges have been
overstocked, the grasses have been eaten bare and pulled out by the
roots, and where formerly nutritious grass supported a large number
of animals, there is now left nothing but a desert of drifting sand.

The principal reason for this condition of the ranges undoubtedly
is that no single individual has an interest in any one part of the
public domain. The object of the flock master is to secure all the
grass possible, irrespective of the effect it may have on the future
condition of the pasture. Thousands of sheep that can not find graz-
ing on the plains are being taken into the innermost recesses of the
mountain systems.

LEASING AS A MEANS OF IMPROVEMENT.

It would seem wise to inaugurate a more sensible policy regarding
these public grazing lands. They should be rented to individuals in
sufficiently large areas and for a sufficiently long time to induce the
lessee to give attention to their improvement. The title should
remain in the United States, so that the homesteader might have an
opportunity, under such conditions as would not interfere with the
renting, to make settlement wherever practicable. The rents arising
from these leases might very well be given to the States for such
uses as they might deem wise, either for educational purposes or for
irrigation work. A very cousiderable amount of money would come

60 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

every year from these leases, with which the States could begin experi-
mentation in the way of building dams and holding the water against
atime of need. My main object in making this recommendation is
that the lessee and the Department of Agriculture may enter into
cooperative experimentation looking to the improvement of the graz-
ing lands.

EFFORTS TO SECURE PLANTS FOR SEMIARID REGIONS.

There are millions of acres that can not be cultivated in any crops
with which we are now familiar. The Department of Agriculture is
searching the dry areas of the world for plants that may be successful
in furnishing the materials of food to a greater extent than is now
practicable on our semiarid regions. The introduction of sorghum,
Kafiz corn, dry-land alfalfa, the Russian brome grasses, ete., is ena-
bling the farmers of the States west of the Missouri to extend cultiva-
tion over lands that did not succeed in corn, or oats, or clover.

ABANDCNED FARMS.

My attention has been called to what is known as the abandoned
farms of New England. A personal inspection of some of these
farms shows that they are not abandoned on account of sterility of
soil, but are in many cases capable of affording a good living to indus-
trious farmers, and under more favorable auspices than are farms
in some of our newer States, on account of nearness to market, edu-
cational institutions, and other desirable environments. The Agros-
tologist of the Department has visited several of these farms to
ascertain in what way help can be given by the introduction of grasses
suitable to their various conditions, and the Soil Physicist will study
conditions on these farms and indicate which soils may be profitably
cultivated and which should be devoted to forestry. The Forester
will also visit these localities and determine what varieties of trees
are most desirable. The Department will endeavor to have Farmers’
Bulletins prepared along these several lines for distribution among
the farmers of New England.

TROPICAL IMPORTS.

Our imports of tropical-plant products have a value of about
$200,000,000 a year. Nearly all of these could be produced in Puerto
Rico, Hawaii, and the Philippines if the best use were made of the
agricultural possibilities of these islands, and of American industry,
ingenuity, and financial resources. Our tropical-plant imports are
four times as great as the total exports of Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the
Philippines. For coffee and sugar we pay an amount exceeding by
more than $80,000,000 the agricultural and all other exports of these
islands. Omitting sugar and tobacco, our tropical-plant imports still

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 61

greatly exceed the total agricultural exports of these tropical depend-
encies. Our imports of oranges, lemons, and cocoanuts have about
the same value as the sugar and tobacco exports of Puerto Rico, and
eould readily be produced on that island.

There are several staple agricultural imports of the United States
other than oranges, lemons, and cocoanuts to which attention should
especially be called as worthy of consideration for introduction into
Puerto Rico, such as vanilla, our imports of which vary in value from

279,755 to $1,015,608 per year; gutta-percha and india rubber, about
$30,000,000, and cacao, $5,000,000. The improvement and extension
of coffee culture in Puerto Rico is well worth careful investigation and
encouragement, since our total coffee imports in 1898 amounted to
$65,067,651. There is every reason to believe that a portion of our
banana imports, which during the year 1899 reached a value of
$5,665,588, may to good advantage be grown in Puerto Rico.

INDIA RUBBER.
IMPORTANCE OF THE TRADE.

The india-rubber trade is of great importance to the United States
and has shown a rapid increase during the last few years. For the
fiscal year ended June 30, 1890, the total importations of crude rub-
ber amounted to 33,842,374 pounds, valued at $14,854,512, while that
of manufactured rubber was valued at $367,647. In the fiscal year
1898 the imports of crude rubber and gutta-percha amounted to
46,055,497 pounds, valued at $25,386,010, while that of manufactured
articles and waste or serap rubber was 9,488,527 pounds, worth
$805,951. This shows not only a decided increase in the quantity
imported, but also a rapid rise in price. In 1890 about two-thirds of
the entire amount imported came from Brazil. In 1898 about three-
fifths came from that country.

A recent United States consular report shows that the importations
into England for 1898 amounted to 20,026 tons, about half of this
being Brazilian. New fine Para rubber was quoted at New York
from 66 to 69 cents per pound in 1893, 69 to 71 cents per pound in
1894, 73 to 77 cents in 1895, 74 to 88 cents in 1896, 80 to 87 cents in
1897, and 82 to 85 cents January 1, 1898. <A single cargo of rubber,
consisting of 1,167 tons, shipped from Para February 25, 1898, was
valued at $2,210,000 in United States gold. The exports of rubber
from Brazil in 1898 amounted to $38,400,000 gold.

COLLECTION AND TREATMENT AND SOURCES OF SUPPLY.

Rubber is derived from the milky sap of a number of trees and
shrubs, all native to the tropical regions of South America and the
Old World. There are many plants with milky sap which contain
small quantities of rubber, but none are known which produce it in
commercial quantities anywhere outside of the Tropics. The methods

62 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of coilection and treatment of rubber are, in the main, very crude.
There is a great deal of waste and considerable deterioration through
improper methods of treatment in the field and in transit, and through
impurities. The only successful experiments at cultivating rubber
plants which have thus far been made were undertaken by the English
Government in Ceylon, India, and some of the other tropical colonies.
By following the most improved methods of cultivation and by giving
the rubber plantations the same careful attention which is devoted to
other crops, it appears possible to make this an exceedingly profitable
investment.

The larger part of the Brazilian rubber is produced by the Para
rubber tree, Hevea brasiliensis, which grows naturally in the deep
shade of the swampy forests of the Amazon, where the air is fever-
laden and the land is unsuited for human habitation. Experiments
have been made with this tree in various of the British possessions
in the East Indies, but without any marked degree of success, because
the tree attains its full development only in the shade of dense trop-
ical jungle lands and not in the solid plantations. Its suceessful
handling appears to lie in the direction of a proper system of forest
management. The Central American rubber tree, Castilloa elastica,
grows only in the dense tropical forests from southern Mexico to
northern South America, on rich, well-drained bottom lands along the
rivers. This tree has been found to grow luxuriantly under eultiva-
tion, but in the experiments thus far tried it develops a bark much
thicker than in its native state, and this has been found a decided
drawback to the successful drawing of the sap.

The Ceara rubber tree, Manihot glaziovu, is a native of one of the
driest portions of southern Brazil, where the mean temperature ranges
from 77° to 86° F. There are now many plantations of it in India
and Ceylon, and it is probable that this tree will be the first to pro-
duee an important addition to the natural supply of india rubber.
There are fifty or more species of trees, vines, and shrubs which are
a commercial source of india rubber and gutta-percha, and the list is
annually increasing. Experiments should be tried in the cultivation
of every one of them. Gutta-percha is derived almost entirely from
the tree Jsonandra gutta, a native of the islands of the Malayan
Archipelago. The careless methods of the collectors have resulted in
killing off most of the plants from which this substance is derived, so
that a serious shortage has occurred during the last few years. The
feasibility of cultivating this plant in the Philippines should be very
carefully investigated.

TURKESTAN ALFALFA.

The unusually severe winter of 1898-99 killed off probably half of
the alfalfa of western Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, and Wyoming,
and many fields in the central prairie States to the eastward were

_

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 63

badly damaged, but the Turkestan alfalfa grown in the States men-

tioned was not affected. At the Wyoming experiment station a plat

of Turkestan alfalfa was exposed for two weeks without injury to a
daily temperature of —35° F., the lowest point reached being —45°.

In California it was subjected without damage to a drought which

seriously injured ordinary alfalfa. In view of the notable success
of this plant in withstanding drought and cold, it has been decided

to purehase a large amount of seed grown in America from our

imported steck and to distribute it widely over the arid West until

it has been thoroughly tested under all the different climatic and soil
conditions existing in that region. From the results already secured,

it is believed that this one introduction will add miilions of dollars to
the annual hay product of the United States.

INTRODUCTION OF IMPROVED RICB5.

About fifteen years ago the enterprising farmers of southwestern
Louisiana began to adapt modern machinery to use in their rice fields,
and within a decade they had replaced the antique implements of the
hand laborer by the gang plow, disk harrow, drill, and broadeast
seeder; they had insured sufficient water by the construction of irri-
gation canals; and, finally, they had adapted the twine binder of
Northern wheat fields to the cutting of rice. So far as methods were
concerned, they had created a new system of rice culture which
greatly reduced the cost of rice production. It was discovered, how-
ever, that sufficient attention had not been paid to the question of
varieties. The Louisiana rice, when milled, gave a high percentage
of broken grains, and much of it brought, therefore, only a second-
class price.

To remedy this difficulty the Department of Agriculture undertook
to secure a productive rice of high milling quality. This it has sue-
ceeded in doing by importing, after a careful search in Japan, a quan-
tity of Kiushu rice. In yield this rice has proved a distinet success,
and if, as is expected, it maintains in Louisiana the high milling aver-
age that it possessed in Japan, hundreds of thousands of dollars will
be added to the yearly profits of Louisiana rice growers.

In this connection, it may be said that flattering reports have been
received about many of the other introductions of the Department,
and from time to time, when these reports are amply substantiated,
due commendation of these crops will be made to the agricultural
publie.

NATIVE DRUGS.

The collection of native drug plants in the United States, consid-
ered from a purely financial standpoint, aside from medical and
humanitarian aspects, involves the expenditure of millions of dollars
annually. The commercial extermination of some of the most useful
species is already threatened, and doubtless others would be found

64 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

in the same condition were the facts known. The price of one native
plant, ginseng, our exports of which average more than half a million
dollars annually, has more than quadrupled in the past thirty years,
so that its cultivation, as urged four years ago by this Department,
has now become profitable. It is clear from. this and many similar
eases that the native drug industry is capable of either decline or
improvement, according to the way in which we handle it.

The Pan-American Medical Congress has recently submitted to me
a proposition to cooperate with this Department in a technical and
statistical investigation and classification of our native drug plants.
By accepting this proposal we shall secure, in a research of which we
have leng felt the need, the cordial assistance and support of an
influential association of learned physicians; we shall encourage each
of the other American nations, all of which are represented in the
Pan-American Medical Congress, to proceed with a similar investiga-
tion of their own medical flora; we shall furnish a basis for the
remunerative employment of much land and many people, and we
shall stimulate the great and growing trade in drugs between the
countries of North America and South America. I urge the appro-
priation of $10,000 to enable this Department to cooperate in this
investigation.

HEMP.

Our imports of hemp fiber for the past five years have averaged in
value $678,475 annually, coming chiefly from Italy and southern Rus-
sia. This hemp is worth about 7 cents per pound and is used princi-
pally in the manufacture of carpet warps. In addition, we import an
unknown but doubtless large amount of manufactured hemp in the
form of the cheaper grades of linen. The domestic produet of hemp
reported by the last census, at a valuation of 3 cents per pound, was
worth $690,660 and was grown chiefly in Kentucky. This hemp is
used principally in place of jute butts for cordage purposes. The
Kentucky hemp producers grow a short plant in small areas with
shallow plowing and little or no fertilizing. The crop is reaped and
broken by hand, and the fiber is extracted by the process of dew ret-
ting. In addition to these heavy charges, an annual rental, averaging
probably $10 per acre, is ordinarily paid for the land. There is a
reasonable prospect of establishing an extensive hemp industry in the
United States on new lines, involving the use of either a taller variety
or two crops of the short variety, growing the crop on large areas of
cheap land, plowing deep, putting on the necessary fertilizers, reap-
ing and breaking by machinery, and using the process of water
retting.

EGYPTIAN COTTON.

The importation of cotton from Egypt steadily increased from less
than 200,000 pounds in 1884 to more than 43,000,000 pounds in 1896.
Since the latter date, the direct importations from Egypt have fallen

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 65

off slightly, but the prices have had an upward tendency, and the
demand for this staple remains good at from 4 to 6 cents higher than
the price of ordinary American upland cotton. Our annual import
of cotton from Egypt for the past three years has averaged in value
$3,738,338. The Egyptian cotton has a very fine silky fiber, generally
shorter than that of sea island but longer than that of upland varie-
ties. It is used in the manufacture of fine yarns for the finer quali-
ties of hosiery and knit goods. It does not come into direct competi-
tion with our upland cotton, the fiber of which is too coarse for the
finer yarns. Some attempts have been made to grow Egyptian cotton
in this country, and in 1594 the Department imported and distributed
a stock of Egyptian seeds. The experiments with these have shown
promising results, but there is need of further trial to determine the
exact conditions under which this cotton can be grown to best advan-
tage. There is good ground for hope that with proper management
the industry may become well established in the United States.

NEW LABORATORY BUILDINGS.

The Department of Agriculture is now conducting all of its labora-
tory work in rented buildings located outside of the Department
grounds. These buildings are for the most part mere makeshifts,
consisting of dwelling houses remodeled to permit laboratory work.
Some of them are overcrowded and none are fireproof. There are
five of these buildings which, with rent and other expenses, cost the
Department about $10,000 a year. The work carried on by the. labo-
ratories is of the highest importance, including the investigations of
the Bureau of Animal Industry, the Division of Chemistry, the Divi-
sion of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, the Division of Soils,
and the Division of Botany. Much of the material now in use by
these branches of the Department, as well as that being constantly
accumulated by them, is of great value, and it would be impossible
to replace it in case of loss by fire. It is absolutely necessary that
better facilities be secured for this scientific work, either by the rent
of additional buildings or by the erection of a Government building.

As best adapted to our necessities, plans have been prepared for
suitable buildings to be erected upon the Department grounds. The
plans show structures which are fireproof throughout, and which are
arranged so that the several lines of work can be kept as distinet as
may be required by their nature, and at the same time the build-
ings be heated, lighted, and ventilated from one central plant. The
several laboratories are now occupying, approximately, 35,000 square
feet of floor space, and the new buildings provide about 10 per cent
increase over this to allow for future growth. Careful estimates
show that the buildings as planned will cost, approximately, $200,000.
I therefore earnestly recommend that this amount be appropriated,

1 A 99——5d

66 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

as it will not only be a saving of money to the Government, but will
at the same time furnish facilities commensurate with the importance
of the work

A PROPOSED ARBORETUM.

One of the needs of the Department is an arboretum in which can
be brought together for study all the trees that will grow in the eli-
mate of Washington, D.C. The need of such an establishment was felt
early in the history of the Capital, and was brought forward more than
fifty years ago among the various plans proposed for the use of the
Smithson bequest, which was finally devoted to the founding of the
present Smithsonian Institution. In the report of the building com-
mittee of that institution for 1850 the following statement occurs:

Mr. Downing, the well-known writer on rural architecture, at the request of
the President, is now preparing a plan for converting the whole Mall, including
the Smithsonian grounds, into an extended landscape garden, to be traversed in
different directions by grayeled walks and carriage drives and planted with
specimens, properly labeled, of ail the varieties of trees and shrubs which will
flourish in this climate.

This admirable plan, apparently from lack of financial support
from Congress, was never systematically proseeuted, and the plant-
ings at first made were so neglected that the nurse trees crowded out
and killed most of the valuable sorts, and even the nurse trees them-
selves are now being rapidiy broken down and destroyed by storms,
disease, and decay. When the grounds of the Department of Agri-
culture were laid out in 1868, Mr. William Saunders, then, as new,
Horticulturist of the Department, established a small arboretum
commensurate with the size of the grounds. An arboretum in this
climate, however, requires an area of several hundred acres. The time
has come when the economic needs of the Department and the education
and pleasure of the people demand a rich collection of trees planted
so as to secure the best effects of landscape art, furnishing complete
material for the investigations of the Department of Agriculture, and
so managed as to be a perennial means of betanical education. We
are now engaged in introducing useful trees from all parts of the
world, such as those producing fruits, dyes, nuis, oils, and tans, these
useful for ornamental purposes, and especially those promising shade,
shelter, and fuel in the arid region. At the present time we have no
central place in which to plant and maintain a series of these trees
for study and propagation. The importations must be sent out as
fast as they are received, without an opportunity for our investigators
to make any observations on their behavior under cultivation, and, in
the case of smail and valuable importations, subjecting the whole

stock te the possibility ®f total loss. In view of these conditions, I

wish to bring to the attention of Congress the importance of placing
at the disposal of this Department an area of suitable size and situa-
tion for a comprehensive arboretum. Inorderto give a specific basis

ce

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 67

for consideration of this project, I suggest that the area known as the
Mall be set aside for this purpose.

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION.

NECESSITY OF AGRICULTURAL TEACHING IN INSTITUTIONS OF
LEARNING.

The great prosperity of the country at the present time has resulted,
among other things, in a largely increased attendanee upon our uni-
versities, colleges, and other institutions of learning. When we con-
sider that half the people of the United States are occupied in pro-
ducing from the soil directly; that about three-fourths of our exports
to foreign countries come from the soil, and that the $600,000,000
balance of trade coming to the United States during each of the last
two fiseal years have been, to a great extent, the price of farm prod-
ucts, if is somewhat remarkable that so very little attention is given
to the education of half the people of the nation and their prepara-
tion for their future life work.

The beautiful valleys of the mountain and Pacific-coast States are
being injured to a considerable extent by the injudicious use of irri-
gating waters. The pasture lands of the public domain west of the
Missouri River are being rapidly destroyed by injudicious grazing.
The wheat-growing area of the country, where crops are grown ¢on-
tinuously, are refusing to yield as they did when first brought under
cultivation; and from the Dakotas to the Pacific we find systems of
fallowing in operation and crops of wheat being taken once in two
years, indicating the rapid destruction of the plant food in the soil.

SCIENTIFIC TRAINING IN THE DEPARTMENT.

The people ery aloud to this Department for help. We have gone
repeatedly but in vain to the Civil Service Commission and had
them advertise throughout the country for soil physicists in order that
we might cooperate with the people regarding the deterioration of
their soils. All the older sections of the United States have injured
their soils by injudicious management. A knowledge of plants—
their life history, the diseases to which they are subject, their rela-
tions to the soil, the climate, and food necessary to their best devel-
opment—is so scaree among us that plant physiologists and patholo-
gists ean not be found by advertising for them.

Animal husbandry is very little understood, and in most of the edu-
eational institutions of the country sufficient instruction is not being
given to have it better understood, yet from this source we make our
most profitable sales to foreign countries. The Biological Survey and
other Divisions have also to train the men to do their work. When
the Department requires the assistance of men educated along these
lines it is necessary to educate them in its own scientific Divisions,
under the direction of its own scientists. When it has trained such

>

68 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

men until they become expert and stand at the head of their special-
ties in the United States (and in many eases in the world), then
wealthy institutions take them away by offering higher salaries, inter-
fering with the work of the Department, along the lines mentioned,
which is so necessary to the producers of the United States.

REGISTER OF GRADUATES OF LAND-GRANT COLLEGES.

To meet some of these difficulties and avoid in future their fre-
quent recurrence, I have arranged with the Civil Service Commission
to make a register of the graduates of the land-grant colleges of the
United States (those endowed by Congress to educate the young
farmers of the country). From this registration the scientifie Divi-
sions of the Department select young men who will assist the Division
scientists in their work, and have opportunities for post-graduate
study and for better preparing themselves along the lines of applied
science, whereby the producer is helped by the scholar. We pay
these young men no more than we pay a laborer, and mueh of the
work they will perform in the Divisions could be performed by skilled
laborers.

Slight inquiry into education along the lines of agricultural science
will show that there is no university in the land where the graduate
of an agricultural college who has been studying along the lines
indicated can take post-graduate work. The scientific Divisions of
the Department of Agriculture come nearer furnishing the necessary
facilities than can be found elsewhere. If two or three young men
come to each of our scientific Divisions and study along the lines of
the application of science to production in the field, the stable, and
the farm factory, the Department will in a few years have a force
from which it can not only fill vacancies when wealthy institutions
take away trained men, but be able to supply the agricultural col-
leges, experiment stations, and other scientific institutions in the land
with men of superior scientific attainments in these branches.

EFFORTS OF THE DEPARTMENT TO MEET THE DEMANDS FOR HELP.

By this new departure the Department is merely arranging to meet
the imperative demands of the producers of the country for help to
solve the problems that are beyond their education and their means,
The Congress of the United States, in providing for the endowment
of agricultural colleges and experiment stations, did more for the agri-
culture of the country than has been done by governmental agency
for the people of any other nation. Congress could not endow these
institutions with teachers trained in the applied sciences relating to
the farm, but Congress has built up the Department of Agriculture
and encouraged the development of the foremost scientists known in
their several specialties. The step we have taken toward bringing
the brightest students of the agricultural colleges to prosecute their

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 69

studies under the supervision of scientists in this Department is one
step necessary to complete the educational system.

Something no doubt remains to be done at the other end of the
educational line. The education of the young farmer in the district
and high schools should be such as to help him toward the agricul-
tural college. The other educational institutions of the country have
done their work well, but so abundantly that the college graduate
upon leaving college is not sure of employment that will give the
salary of a brakeman on the railroad. Only a very few of those who
upon leaving college must earn their livelihood through their literary
education are sure of incomes equal to that of a locomotive engineer.
The great unexplored field for the educator is along agricultural
lines. Half the people of the United States are interested in it. The
prosperity of our country as a nation among nations depends upon it.

I hope to have the approval of Congress in this effort to provide
for the higher education of the graduates of the agricultural colleges
by appropriations sufficiently considerate to justify the very moderate
expense that will be entailed.

AGRICULTURAL TEACHING IN THE COMMON SCHOOLS.

In my last Annual Report, I referred to the growing interest in
elementary instruction in the sciences that relate to agriculture, and
mentioned the special appropriation of $25,000 made by the State of
New York to be used in aiding the introduction of nature teaching
into the common schools and the carrying on of simple agricultural
experiments in different parts of the State under the supervision of
the college of agriculture of Cornell University. Encouraging prog-
ress has been made during the year in this movement. The work at
Cornell has been materially extended, and colleges in other States are
affording opportunities for teachers in the common schools to receive
such special instruction as will fit them to give elementary courses in
nature study. In Missouria recently enacted law calls for instruction
in agriculture and horticulture in the common schools, and during
the past summer a considerable number of- Missouri school superin-
tendents and teachers spent some time in attending lectures and
formulating elementary courses of instruction in these studies.

CONCLUSION.

The Department, through its Bureaus, Divisions, and Offices, is
getting into more immediate contact with all classes of producers
throughout the country. More extensive cooperation is being entered
into between the Department and the experiment stations of the sey-
eral States. Especial attention is being given to the reclamation of
soils that have been reduced in fertility by injudicious manage-
ment. Production from the soil in all parts of the United States
is being diversified by importations from foreign countries. The

70 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

scientist and the cultivator are working together for greater national
prosperity through more economic production. The farmers of the.
country are having their knowledge increased through the publica-
tions of the Department and the experiment stations, and the future
tillers of the soil are being better educated in the agricultural colleges
as teachers are developed who more thoroughly understand the appli-
eation of science to practical agriculture. The field of operations for
the future activity of the farmer is from the Arctic Circle to the
Equator. Newproblems, requiring scientific investigation and entirely
beyond the ability of localities or private individuals to solve,
are presented from both extremes. The especial attention of the
Department in the future will be given to the production, under
United States jurisdiction, of products of the soil that now eome from
foreign countries, keeping steadily in view the object for which the
Department was organized—the help of the producer who is strug-
gling with nature.
Respectfully submitted.
JAMES WILSON,
Secretary.
WASHINGTON, D. C., November 21, 1899.

WORK OF THE METEOROLOGIST FOR THE BENEFIT OF
AGRICULTURE, COMMERCE, AND NAVIGATION.

By F. H. BIGELow,
Professor of Meteorology, Weather Bureau.

INTRODUCTION.

A consideration of the development of meteorological science in the
United States, especially in its practical application to agriculture,
commerce, and navigation, involves mainly a review of the United
States Weather Bureau and its work. Not only, as will be shown, is
the study of meteorology largely confined in this country to its pro-
fessors and other employees, but the application of the results obtained
to the service of the farmer, the shipper, and the navigator, is and has
been for years exclusively the province of the Bureau. Necessarily,
therefore, a large part of the present paper must be devoted to a
history of the Weather Bureau and an account of its workings.

THE ORGANIC LAWS ESTABLISHING THE WEATHER SERVICE.

The Weather Bureau of the United States has reached its present
development under three organic laws. The joint resolution approved
February 9, 1870, is as follows:

Be it resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of
America in Congress assembled, That the Secretary of War be, and he hereby is,
authorized and required to provide for taking meteorological observations at the
military stations in the interior of the continent and at other points in the States
and Territories of the United States, and fur giving notice on the northern lakes
and on the seacoast, by magnetic telegraph and marine signals, of the approach and
force of storms.

In compliance with the appropriation bill of 1871, reports relative
to the stages of water in the rivers were added to the above. The
appropriation bill approved June 10, 1872, provided:

For expenses of storm signals announcing the probable approach and force of
storms throughout the United States, for the benefit of commerce and agriculture;
and that the Secretary of War be, and hereby is, authorized and required to pro-
vide, in the system of observations and reports in charge of the Chief Signal Officer
for such stations, reports and signals as may be found necessary for the benefit
of agriculture and commercial interests.

In the act transferring the meteorological work of the Signal Office
to the Weather Bureau of the Department of Agriculture, approved
October 1, 1890, the duties of the service are thus summarized:

The chief of the Weather Bureau shall have charge of forecasting the weather;
the issue of storm warnings: the display of weather and flood signals for the bene-
fit of agriculture, commerce, and navigation; the gauging and reporting of rivers;

we

t2 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the maintenance and operation of seacoast telegraph lines and the collection and
transmission of murine intelligence for the benefit of commerce and navigation;
the reporting of temperature and rainfall conditions for the cotton interests; the
display of frost and cold-wave signals; the distribution of meteorological infor-

mation in the interest of agriculture and commerce, and the taking of such mete-
orological observations as may be necessary to establish and record the climatic
conditions cf the United States, or as are essential for the proper execution of the
foregoing duties.

THE THREE EPOCHS OF METEOROLOGICAL SERVICE

The acts of Congress indicate that the meteorological service of the
United States has passed through three distinct epochs, each of which
has been natural in the practical development of this branch of
science. The laws are in fact but the crystallized expression of the
outcome of years of experience on the part of those interested in
meteorology. Thus, the laws of 1871 and 1872 mark the end of a long
agitation, the purpose of which was to persuade Congress that fore-
casts of the weather were practicable in the United States and that an
organized systematic effort to give the public due warning of the
approach of storms was wortha trial. The organization of this service
was intrusted to the Signal Service of the War Department. At first
the service was for the benefit of navigation on the seacoast and on
the Great Lakes, but it was soon extended so as to include the interior
districts and the great rivers of the central valleys.

The experience incident upon the gradual extension of the service
soon showed that it would be necessary to include the regions adja-
cent to the United States in order to secure the most efficient forecasts
of the weather, especially the Dominion of Canada, along our northern
border, for the eyelones; the West Indies, to the south and southeast,
for the hurricanes, and also Mexico and even Alaska for other loeal
effects. The benefits of the weather service were readily appreciated
by nearly every industry and every department of our complex civili-
zation. Climate and crop conditions were demanded for the farmer,
and observations and warnings for the public and for railroad and
water carriers. Hence, it soon became necessary to enlarge the scope
of the service so as to include agriculture and commerce as well as
navigation, and to extend the sphere of the meteorologist to cover the
study not only of the dynamics and motions of the atmosphere, but of
climatology (the prevailing temperature and rainfall), together with
their effects upon human life. This great enlargement of the original
idea regarding the scope of the work gradually produced an enyviron-
ment which became less suited to the duties inherent in the purely
military service that had so suecessfully fostered this very growth
through twenty years, till at length it was concluded that a more
strictly scientific bureau could better carry on the work. Accordingly,
the second epoch came to an end on July 1, 1891, when the Signal
Service of the War Department was reeyee of its meteorological

WORK OF METEOROLOGIST FOR AGRICULTURE, ETC. to

duties and the Weather Bureau of the Department of Agriculture
was organized and charged with the future of meteorology in the
United States.

In the latter administrative department of the Government the
civilian and scientific methods predominate, though it must be said
that the spirit of subordination inherited from the Army discipline
still continues, and tends to make the organization of the Weather
Bureau more efficient and homogeneous than it otherwise could be.
A detailed review of the incidents connected with these changes in
the service, both on the practical and on the theoretical sides, involves
such a multitude of facts as to be quite incompatible with any brevity,
if treated fully; hence, only asummary description of the service can
be attempted here.

PRELIMINARY HISTORICAL SKETCH OF METEOROLOGY.
AMERICAN CONTRIBUTORS TO METEOROLOGY PRIOR TO 1870.

During the eighteenth century but little progress was made in
detecting any sort of regular lawful sequence in the apparently erratic
phenomena known as the weather. Franklin had perceived that
storms moved northeastward from Philadelphia toward New Eng-
land, which view was the result of his observations and private cor-
respondence regarding the exact time when the maximum severity of
storms was felt at different places. Thomas Jefferson, at Monticello,
and James Madison, at Williamsburg, in Virginia, had taken some
simultaneous observations in the years 1772-1777, and certain conelu-
sions were drawn fromthem. The belief gradually took shape among
students of the day, both in America and in Europe, that storms had
a progressive movement and a whirling motion about the center.
Lavoisier and Borda, in France, proposed to establish stations over ¢
large territory and examine the simultaneous records in order to
detect the laws of storms. Mitchell, in America, Capper, in India,
Langford for the West Indies, and Brandes and Dove, in Europe, had
contributed certain notions on the subject, some holding that storms
are whirls in the atmosphere, though generally the view was expressed
that they are straight-line gales. Charts of various kinds were con-
structed by different individuals, and the publication of these at
length placed students in a position to begin the slow advance from
mere hypothetical conjectures regarding the motions of the air to the
definite scientific knowledge of the laws which we possess to-day. It
is quite remarkable to note the extent to which American students
have been pioneers in these meteorological researches, their views
having been confirmed or elaborated rather than originally suggested
by Europeans in their studies.

During the nineteenth century the observations of atmospheric
phenomena have been enormously multiplied all over the world, and

74 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

a correct scientific classification of them around fundamental laws has
proceeded steadily, if not very rapidly. In 1831 Redfield published
his first essay, which contained these important generalizations:
Storms and hurricanes are great revolving whirlwinds which turn
from right to left and have a northeastward, progressive movement;
the winds increase in violence toward the center, where a calm usually
exists; storms are gyrating portions of the atmosphere in which they
are carried along, and the low barometric pressure at the center is due
to the centrifugal force. In 1843 the same author ascribed the great

velocity of the wind at the center of tornadoes to the law that the

product of the velocity at any point multiplied by its distance from
the center is constant. In 1846 he described the warm southerly winds
on the easterly side of storms and the cold northerly winds on the
westerly side, and thus nearly apprehended the cause of cold waves.
He seems to have been fully aware that the winds do not mové
exactly in circles about the center, but rather approach it in spirals,
and he stated that his instructions to the engraver were to make the
wind lines spiral or involute in shape on his charts, but that, for ease
in drawing, circles were substituted, which gave an erroneous impres-
sion regarding the theory to his readers. He stated distinctly, in 1846,
that these lites made an angle of about 48° with the tangent to the
circle. Espy, who was at one time appointed meteorologist to the
National Government, was the first to study and point out clearly
some of the temperature processes which are going on in the atmos-
‘phere. He applied the laws of thermo-dynamics in 1841, at about the
time when this subject first took shape in theoretical physies, and
showed that an ascending mass of air expands its volume and cools its
vapor contents down to saturation, thus causing rainfall; that a
descending mass warms by compression, clears the air of clouds, and
causes it to appear to be dry; he proved that in the condensation of
aqueous vapor to water the production of latent heat retards the rate
of cooling with the ascent, and showed that the daily heating of the
lower strata by the sun’s rays produces a general ascending buoy-
ancy during the early portions of the day, thus developing the cumu-
lus and cumulo-nimbus clouds,! which dissipate in the evening as
the strata settle back toward the ground; he attributed the rainy
belt in the Tropics to an ascending movement and the clear space at
the eye of a hurricane to a descending current of air; he also attempted
to show that the cause of storms consisted in the local buoyant ascent
of heated air, which produced a radial indraft below in the lower
strata; but he failed to see that this reasoning could not account for
the prevailing low pressures which permanently surround the cold
polar regions.
The Espy theory of the cause of storms, namely, the convectional

1By “cumulus” and ‘‘cumnlo-nimbus” is meant the massive white clouds
which form chiefly in the afternoons, often producing thunderstorms.

——————— ee aC

a) ae nh

WORK OF METEOROLOGIST FOR AGRICULTURE, ETC. 1D

indraft in a radial direction, and the Redfield view that storms are
essentially whirls in circles about a center with low pressure at that
place due to centrifugal motion, contain elements in apparent con-
tradiction to each other, and a long controversy ensued over the
merits of these rival views, which is hardly yet completely settled in
the minds of many students of meteorology. In 1843 Tracy published
an article which added a new force in the construction of storms,
namely, the right-hand deflecting component of motion in the Northern
Hemisphere, which depends upon the rotation of the earth and is
proportional to the velocity of motion and the sine of the latitude.
Unfortunately, this was not noticed at the time, and it had no influence
upon the controversy, though it is really decisive against Espy’s theory
of the radial direction of motion.

The labors of these intelligent students were rapidly bringing order
out of chaos in meteorology. Such physical work was supplemented
by the statistical results which were being compiled in various places.
Coffin, in 1853, published his ‘‘ Winds of the Northern Hemisphere.”
After his death, appeared his ‘“‘ Winds of the globe,” edited by his son
and the Russian meteorologist Woeikoff. He deseribed the right-
hand rotation of cyclones in the Northern Hemisphere and the left-
hand rotation in the Southern. He considered storms to be eddies in
the general currents of the atmosphere, and claimed that both Red-
field and Espy had elements of truth in their theories, which must be
mutually combined to produce a correct view of the subject. Loomis,
of Yale College, also was engaged in the compilation of statistics and
the construction of maps through his long active career as a meteor
ologist, and he added many important facts to our scientific knowledge,
though no essential part in the theoretical development seems to be
associated with his name. It was during the years 1850 to 1860, how-
ever, that the greatest advance was made in a systematic analysis of
meteorological phenomena and that the reduction of the entire subject
to definite mathematical expressions first took place. Prof. William
Ferrel, of the Signal Service, has the honor of thus having first con-
tributed an analytical description of the motions of the air, and there-
fore of having done most to establish meteorology upon a scientifi¢
basis. His work is so well known to students that it is not necessary
to describe or comment upon it in this place. He was by nature a
profound mathematician and an accomplished astronomical computer,
and while some of his discussions are cumbersome, it must be remem-
bered that he had not the advantage in his active years of advanced
modern mathematics, which will surely find one of its most important
applications in the study of the motions of the atmosphere.

Ferrel did especially good work in his treatment of the general
motions of the air, but he is not now regarded as having been so suc
cessful in his handling of the local cyclones and hurricanes. His dis-
cussion of tornadoes was also ably presented, and can be improved at

76 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

this time only in certain details. Regarding the cause and structure of
local cyclones, Ferrel himself was never quite satisfied with his own
conception. He saw distinetly the value of Espy’s convectional buoy-
ancy, of Redfield’s gyratory rotation, and of Coffin’s subordination of
the local eddies to the general circulation of the air, and it is not too
much to say that, while he wavered in his theory, he inclined strongly
to Coffin’s point of view. He unfortunately forced the parallelism of
the local to the general cyclone so far that a reaction has taken place
against him in recent years by students who have had the advantage
of the use of the best modern materials. This mistaken comparison
of the local cyclone with the general cyclone has been an important
factor in the rather slow progress characierizing the last twenty years.
In the hands of Ferrel, supplemented by the important contributions
of many distinguished Europeans, meteorology has already reached
such a development as to require a high order of mathematical talent
to make any important advances.

THE WEATHER MAP.

The above brief account of the development of the principles of theo-
retical meteorology in the United States previous to 1870, the date when
the subject was taken up by the National Government, has been neces-
sary in order to show that meteorology had already acquired a firm
standing among students of the subject. Yet, it is quite improbable
that the Government would have been authorized by Congress to under-
take such functions as were at that time assigned to it unless there
had been in connection with the improvement in the theory a corre-
sponding advance on the practical side, which would be of direct use-
fulness to the public. This consisted in the possibility of making fore-
east warnings of the approach of storms, in order to justify the heavy
expenses connected with the collection of the observations, and the
dissemination by telegraph of the information contained in the study
of the simultaneousreeords. About 1784 Lavoisier, the famous chemist,
suggested that instruments be scattered over France, and declared
that with their aid ‘‘it would not be impossible to publish each morn-
ing 4 journal of predictions which would be of great use to society,”
so that the dream of forecasting the weather is a century old. After
the invention of the electric telegraph, Lavoisier’s idea became prac-
ticable, and in 1842 Kreil renewed the plan of collecting daily simul-
taneous observations of the state of the atmosphere. During the next
ten years this view was urged by various scientific men, Redfield
(1846), Henry (1847), Ball (1848), Maury (1851), in many papers and
addresses. Brandes, Piddington, Espy, Redfield, Henry, Loomis, and
others had been compiling weather maps from reports, and were con-
vinced that there was sufficient sequence in the weather conditions to
forecast them if the reports could be collected promptly enough and
from a suitable number of widely distributed stations. The agitation

—————

—_—

WORK OF METEOROLOGIST FOR AGRICULTURE, ETC. U7

therefore took the form of urging some cooperative scheme which
would make this possible.

In 1848 Glaisher, and in 1851 the Crystal Palace authorities, made
some weather maps. In 1856 weather charts were displayed every
day by the Smithsonian Institution, in Washington, D. C., under the
direction of Professor Henry, wherein appropriate symbols indicated
the state of the atmosphere over the United States, and this enlight-
ened plan was continued till interrupted by the civil war in 1861.
Leverrier, the great astronomer of France, in 1854 studied the Euro-
pean reports received concerning the weather. In 1855 he submitted
a plan to the Emperor for a meteorological network over France. In
1856 he began to make maps, with a system of thirteen telegraph and
eleven post stations. In 1857 he published an international bulletin.
In 1858 it became a daily bulletin. In 1863 he first made predictions
for ports. On September 11, 1865, he printed the weather map for
the day, and it has not been discontinued gince that time. It is
thus seen that to France is due the credit of first issuing a permanent
set of daily maps with forecasts. After the conclusion of the Ameri-
ean civil war efforts were renewed to set on foot a plan of meteoro-
logical operations for the United States. While the great extent of its
territory made this country a most favorable theater for such a project,
there was necessarily connected with the undertaking a very consid-
erable expense for telegraphic messages, so that a scheme of operations
on a large scale was essential to its inauguration.

In 1868 Prof. Cleveland Abbe, the veteran meteorologist of the serv-
ice in this country, while director of the Cincinnati observatory, secured
the assistance of the Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce and the West-
ern Union Telegraph Company, so that he was able to prepare and
issue a daily bulletin, and afterward a map based upon thirty stations
covering the region from the Atlantic coast to the Rocky Mountain
slope. These maps gave the temperatures, cloudiness, rain, snow,
and the direction of the wind, but no pressure or isothermal lines.
During the years 1845 to 1865 Congress was being urged to give
authority for storm and weather predictions, by Espy and Henry on
behalf of the Smithsonian Institution, Maury on behalf of the Navy,
General Reynolds on behalf of the Army Engineer Corps, Major Lach-
lan on behalf of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science, and Commissioner Watts on behalf of the Department of
Agriculture. In 1869 Gen. A. J. Myer presented to the Secretary
of War a scheme of weather warnings suitable for execution by the
Signal Corps. Prof. I. A. Lapham, of Milwaukee, Wis., sought to
secure for the Great Lakes the benefit of weather forecasts by extend-
ing the service over that region, and solicited the cooperation of the
Chicago Board of Trade. He drew up a petition to the Chicago
Academy of Sciences, but one of its most clear-minded members, Hon.
Halbert E. Paine, said, ‘‘ This petition should go to Congress, and the

78 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

weather predictions should be for the whole country and not for any
small section thereof.” The indorsement of the National Board of
Trade was secured. Mr. Paine obtained the approval and support of
the Secretary of War, and, happily, procured the passage of the joint
resolution by Congress, already quoted, which was approved Febru-
ary 9, 1870. Thus, the service of forecasting weather conditions was
formally authorized by the Government of the United States and
intrusted to the Signal Corps of the War Department, of which Brig.
Gen. Albert J. Myer was in command.

ADMINISTRATION OF THE WEATHER SERVICE.

The successive chiefs of the Weather Service, including the chiefs
of the Weather Bureau since its transfer to the Department of Agri-
culture, with their respective terms of office, have been as follows:

Brig. Gen. A. J. Myer, February 9, 1870, to August 24, 1880.

Adjt. Gen. R. C. Drum (acting chief), August, 1880, to Deeember,
1880.

Brig. Gen. W. B. Hazen, December, 1880, to December, 1886.

Brig. Gen. A. W. Greely, December, 1886, to July 1, 1891.

Prof. Mark W. Harrington, July 1, 1891, to July 1, 1895.

Prof. Willis L. Moore, July, 1895, to the present time.

FEATURES OF THE SEVERAL ADMINISTRATIONS.

The prominent features of the several administrations, briefly stated,
are as follows:

General MYER organized the service with the material at his hand,
namely, the observers and sergeants of the Army Signal Cerps. He
introduced nearly all the methods of operation still in use by the office,
including synchronous observations, telegraph circuits, weather maps,
bulletins, synopses and forecasts, signals and distribution of warn-
ings as widely as possible, the publication of daily, weekly, monthly,
and annual reports of regular work, special investigations, instrue-
tions to observers, and information to the public. He sought to have
organized a separate, permanent corps of officials, specially devoted to
this service, instead of depending upon the military assignments of a
more or less temporary character, but he was unable to accomplish this
important improvement in the organization. General Myer also sue-
ceeded in securing the cooperation of the European weather bureaus
in entering upon a plan of international simultaneous observations,
which were to cover the Northern Hemisphere as far as possible.
These were begun in 1875 and continued through General Hazen’s
term of office, till in 1887 General Greely was obliged to discontinue
them on account of the expense.

General DruM’s administration was so far of a temporary nature as
to give no opportunity to impress new methods and results upon the
service.

———— ee

a

WORK OF METEOROLOGIST FOR AGRICULTURE, ETC. 79

General I[AZEN sought in every way to improve the service, which
had been founded on really bread lines, and became convinced that
the military corps ought to be supplemented by a corps of civilian
assistants, who should be favorably known for scholarship in meteor-
ology, and who were to be free to pursue such studies, in an uninter-
rupted manner, as the service demanded. <A body of such civilians
was appointed in 1881-1884 by General Hazen, and they have become
an indispensable part of the organization of the service. General
liazen furthermore entered upon the internaticnal scheme for the
exploration of the Arctic Zone by simultaneous meteorological and .
magnetic observations, which was executed in 1881-82.

General GREELY took up what was now a well-organized and fully-
equipped service already fixed in the esteem of the public in this
country, and carried it along the same lines. He made further efforts
to secure from Congress an independent set of officials for the meteoro-
logieal service of the Signal Corps, and finally succeeded in that pur-
pose by procuring the act of Congress approved October 1, 1890, which
not only made permanent the organization, but also provided for the
absolute transfer of the meteorological work from the Signal Corps of
the War Department to the Department of Agriculture. The same
act provided for the assignment of Army officers to duty in the
Weather Bureau, and this remained in force till the outbreak of the
Spanish-American war, when the provision was revoked in May, 1898,
so that now the service is not only organized as a permanent corps,
but is composed wholly of civilians. During General Greely’s
administration the fruits of several years’ observations of the weather
conditions of the United States began to appear in a series of valuable
compilations, giving the normal distributions of pressure, tempera-
ture, rainfall, and the climatological features of the country.

The transfer of the meteorological work from the War Department
did not change its essential features in any important respect, but
left it free to develop along the lines most suited to its purpose.

Professor HARRINGTON, in his administration, was occupied by a
transfer of the ofiicials who resigned from the Signal Corps, and who
were generally reappointed in the Weather Bureau; by a reorganiza-
tion of the divisions in the office; by a considerable extension of the
activities of the service in the number of stations which were occupied,
the number of volunteer observers engaged, and the publication of a
greater number of maps, reports, and special investigations. A some-
what unfortunate though very natural change had already manifested
itself before this time, and yet one which could not be readily counter-
acted, namely, the practieal absorption of meteorological studies in
the United States by the national service and the diminution of the
number of independent students scattered over the country. The
growth of meteorological records, which are necessarily deposited at
the central office, gives the professors of the Weather Bureau so

80 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

great an advantage over outsiders in accessibility of the materials for
scientific research as to practically exclude them from serious com-
petition along these lines. This is to be regretted, because an intelli-
gent body of students associated with the universities of the United
States would not only serve to spread the knowledge of the higher
meteorology, but would form a body whose opinions as to the good of
the service should be always important.

Professor MoorE has met the practical wants of the publie by an
increase in the facilities for distribution of forecasts, by improve-
ments in the local daily weather-map, in the unification of the form
of the local publications in the different States, by several important
scientific investigations, including the relations of the sun to the earth
through magnetism, the exploration of the lower strata of the atmos-
phere by means of kite ascensions and the higher strata by cloud
observations in cooperation with the international commission during
1896-97. Many reports of permanent value continue to be issued
by the office, and these are usually of a very practical character,
though sometimes necessarily technical.

METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS AND STORM WARNINGS.

On November 1, 1870, at 7.35 a. m., the first systematized syn-
chronous meteorological reports ever taken in the United States were
read from the instruments by the observer sergeants of the Signal
Service at twenty-four stations and placed upon the telegraph wires
for transmission.

On the same day the tabular bulletin reports were furnished to
twenty-four cities. A copy of this bulletin is given here as an inter-
esting record. The drawing of isobar lines is quite impracticable
from the data, but an improvement was speedily effected in the deter-
mination of the heights of the stations and the reduction of the actual
pressures to the sea level, as shown by the fact that early succeeding
bulletins gave smooth isobars. An excessive amount of space seems
to have been assigned to the record of the wind velocity in three dif-
ferent scales. Provision was also made in the form of the table for
the twenty-four hour changes in pressure and temperature, and for the
relative humidity.

Copy of the first daily bulletin published by the United States Signal Office from the
observations taken November 1, 1870, 7.85 a. mM.

Place of ob- Helelt Temper- eeegee vou oe eine Force of |Amount| State of
servation. |,.,meter. ature. wind. |per hour. ee wind. of cloud.|weather.
Inches. | Degrees. Miles. | Pounds. Per cent.
Boston _------- 29. 65 44 W. 3 Of.) (Gentle -2~ -3)\- cane ee Fair.
Buttalo..< -2-- 29.38 40 W. 7 See NENG c=. | ae eee Clear.
Cheyenne. ---- 27.12 45 W. 13 .83 | Brisk. -.--- s-=2)s see see
Chicago .......- 30. 03 40 SW. 14 Soy MEDISK. Sa BSS Sire Clear.
Cincinnati ---- 29. 52 40 SE. 5 Sih ee ab eco 1.4 | Clear.

ya

»

WORK OF METEOROLOGIST FOR AGRICULTURE, ETC. 81

Copy of the first daily bulletin published by the United States Signal Office from the
observations taken November 1, 1870, 7.35 a. m.—Continued.

=

Place of ob- ne iene Temper- oe eee? cet Force of | Amount | State of
servation. | moter. ature. wind. |per hour. pee wind. of aaa te
Inches. | Degrees. Miles. | Pounds. Per cent.|
Cleveland_---- 30. 09 35 SE. 12 lS Iss aE | eae ae | Clear.
Detroit. ..-.-- 29. 84 37 Ss. 5 md Pa aT Cot ol ae en 9 ee a Clear.
tt a 28. 99 37 SW a -07 | ale Pity eet ae
Key West----- 29. 98 75 E. 4 .07 | Gentle _-__.- 4.4 | Cloudy.
Lake City, Fla 30. 05 62 0 0 QO) Calmeeees5 1.4 | Clear
Milwaukee..-- 30.07 2 WwW 12 Sa Briskee sce -sipeecseee ee Clear
Nashville ___-- 30.08 51 N 2 02 | Gentle ...-- 1.2 | Fair
New Orleans-.- 30. 08 64 NE 3 04 | Gentle -__-- 1.4 | Fair
New York ---- 30.12 45 0 0 On Cale ieeeseeccsn cas Clear.
Omaha ..-.---- 29. 32 iS) 4 50% | Gentle sels ce acest Clear.
Oswego ----.-- 29. 94 W. 20 807) Viery, biasike [ee seas .| Fair.
Pittsburg----. 29.32 38 Ss. 3 .04 | Gentle -_-_--- 1.4 | Fair.
Rochester ---- 30. 03 40 Ww 7 ved) Tonight Ss. 3.4 | Fair.
POWs... - 29.91 45 SE 7 37 ie) Bit 2 eye eR Clear.
Bi, Panis. ->.. - 29.50 38 E 1 SOL) Wory light. |£-.222 23 Clear.
olan. <= .-=- 30.00 38 Ss 2 20) | Grentuies-| 2 oes Clear.
Washington .- 30. 03 45 Ww a S004} "Light, <2. 1.4 | Fair.
!

The first storm warning was telegraphed and bulletined along the
Lakes on November 8, 1870. The issue of ‘‘Synopsisand probabilities,”
as they were styled, was commenced on February 19, 1871, and were
made thrice daily after that date, the forecast being intended to cover
only the twenty-four hours then next ensuing. Signal stations for cau-
tionary warnings of storms were soon established along the Atlantic
and Gulf coasts, and the first of such signals was displayed on Tues-
day, October 26, 1871, at 7 p. m., at the port of Oswego, N. Y. Till
the middle of 1872, the work of forecasting devolved upon the civilian
assistant, and after that time was shared between him and officers
detailed from the Army.

The growth of scientific work under General Hazen called for the
services of specially trained scientists, and a number of civilian pro-
fessors were appointed, but they all, with two exceptions, resigned in
afew years; the trausfer of the service to the Department of Agri-
culture and the opening of the Chicago and the Pacific centers for
forecasts called for new men.

INSTRUCTION IN METEOROLOGY.

The first task devolving upon General Myer, in the organization of
the service, was that of instructing a sufficient number of officers and
sergeants as forecasters and observers, the definition of the duties in
general meteorology, and in the proper transaction of the business
connected with this new branch of the service. At Fort Whipple, now
Fort Myer, Arlington, Va., there existed a school of instruction for
officers of the Army and Navy, and the work of teaching a corps of

1 A 99——6

82 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

meteorologists was added to its formal functions. During the first
year seventy-three sergeants were instructed in the ‘‘ Manual of sig-
nals,” the ‘‘ Practice of electrical telegraphy,” Loomis’s ‘‘ Meteorology,”
‘The Smithsonian instructions,” and ‘‘Instructions to observer ser-
geants.” Among the earliest papers published by the office were a
practical treatise on meteorological phenomena, adapted to the use of
observers, and instructions as to the details of office duties. Such
writings have been kept prominently before the office ever since, and
they have gradually covered every conceivable phase of the subject
likely to be of value to the officials themselves or to the public. In
1872 there was established the so-called study room, under the charge
of Professor Abbe, where scientific and practical questions were taken
up for discussion, and this did good work in educating several men,
who have since become well known in science, till it was officially
abolished in 1886. Since that time the scientific problems have been
assigned by the chief of the Bureau to the several professors, or else
to boards especially appointed to report on definite propositions.

In the year 1882, by direction of General Hazen, the school of
instruction at Fort Myer assumed a decidedly collegiate aspect in the
extent and strength of the instruction offered. Courses of lectures
were delivered by Professor Abbe on instruments, published later in
1887; by Professor Upton on practical astronomy; by Professor Hazen
on meteorology; by Professor Waldo on elementary mathematies and
thermo-dynamics. Other lectures on more general topics were deliv-
ered by Lieutenants Story, Dunwoody, and Birkheimer. This very
commendable attempt to provide a much higher grade of education
for meteorologists lasted until 1886, when the school at Fort Myer
was discontinued. The demand for higher scientific instruction has
been met to a very limited extent by the colleges and universities of
the United States, and yet, as a distinct subject, meteorology has
been taught in only a meager fashion up to the present time. This
state of affairs is accounted for to a considerable extent by the fact
that entrance upon a career as a meteorologist is almost entirely lim-
ited to the Government service, together with the circumstance that
most of the routine work of the office, making the observations and
distributing the forecasts, is of an elementary kind, and does not
demand the knowledge of any large amount of mathematics or physics.
The few professorships open to young men are so slowly attained as
to discourage ambition in this direction. In 1892 and the following
years the entire service was classified and became subject to the
civil-service rules, so that examinations are now the rule for admit-
tance to all grades. Under Professor Moore’s administration progress
is being made in prescribing requirements for entering the Govern-
ment weather service and for promotions within it up to the highest °
grade, so that the educational side of the Weather Bureau is likely
to assume gradually a definite and permanent character.

—

WORK OF METEOROLOGIST FOR AGRICULTURE, ETC. 83

MEANS OF INSTRUCTION AND INFORMATION FOR THE PUBLIC.

Besides the persistent efforts which in one form or another have
always been made to instruct the officials of the service in their duties
as observers and in their scientific understanding of the problems of
meteorology, a much more extensive and difficult task has been ear-
ried on simultaneously in the endeavor to teach the public to appre-
ciate and appropriate the results of this systematic research into the
laws controlling the weather. In spite of discouraging results attend-
ing the attempt to propagate much exact knowledge of this compli-.
cated science to a large population, the evidence preponderates that
the work of the Government has already been of an enormous valu
to the whole country from an educational point of view. The iney-
itable failures attending the attempt to forecast weather conditions
for periods of from twenty-four to forty-eight hours in so unstable
a medium as the ever-changing atmosphere, filled as it is with long
currents of different temperatures, large and small vortices, the sen-
sitive physical processes giving rise to clouds and precipitation, must
be admitted as an unavoidable part of the imperfections of this prac-
tical work. These errors were formerly used by the press and by
critics generally as a ground for complaint against the service, but
now it is notable how greatly improved has become the tone of criti-
cism, which recognizes that the successes far outweigh the failures
in forecasting. While there has not been any important advance in
the amount of instruction given by the universities in the higher
theoretical meteorology of late years, yet it should be observed that
meteorology is extending rapidly throughout the common schools of
the country as a required branch of instruction for every child, and
it can be inferred that this process of beginning at the bottom will
culminate in producing occasionally an individual who shall attain
strength and success in studies embracing the highest reaches of
science pertaining to the physies of the atmosphere. These changes
have certainly resulted from the persistent propaganda of publications
emanating from the Weather Bureau during the past thirty years.

THE ANNUAL REPORTS,

Among the most important publications of the service must be
placed the Annual Reports of the chief of the Weather Bureau, which
now comprise a most creditable array of volumes, filled with interest-
ing and valuable information regarding the administration of the
work and the latest results of scientific investigations. Therein one
may find an account of the gradual growth of the service; a descrip-
tion of all the severe storms experienced since 1870, whether cyclones,
hurricanes, or tornadoes, together with marvelous incidents in the
history of the latter destructive agents; statistics of the wreckage of
vessels on the Lakes and on the seaboard, showing a remarkable lower-
ing of the percentages of wrecks in consequence of the obedience of

$

84 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

navigators to the storm warnings; descriptions of the growing depend-
ence of the railroads and other public carriers upon the information
regarding heavy snowstorms, cold waves, and floods, which endanger
all perishable products during transportation; data of the gradual
improvement on the part of small farmers and great agriculturists in
the care of their stuffs in consequence of the frost warnings and the
increased knowledge of the effect of seasons and climate upon the crops;
also facts showing the almost complete reliance of the cotton, rice, corn,
wheat, and raisin industries upon the information regarding normal
or abnormal temperatures and rainfall. There will also be found in.
these reports a description of the instrumental equipment of the mete-
orological stations, with the gradual evolution of self-registering appa-
ratus of all kinds by means of electrical attachments, including
barometers, thermometers; humidity, sunshine and cloud recorders;
anemometers and vanes for the force and direction of the wind; self-
measuring rain gauges, and kite and cloud-height apparatus of vari-
ous kinds. Many of the self-registering pieces of apparatus display
the greatest mechanical ingenuity in the devices employed, and their
resulting records agree so closely with direct observations on the
standard instruments as to be perfectly acceptable within the limits
of accuracy required in current observations. (lor kite and cloud-
motion apparatus, see Pls. I and II.)

The practicability of such a service of course depends upon oie
telegraph for its efficiency in promptly collecting the observations
taken simultaneously on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, on the Lakes
and the Gulf of Mexico, and through the Rocky Mountain region and
the central valleys. The magnificent result of receiving at Washing-
ton, D. C., and at all the larger cities of the country at the same time
the complete records from one hundred and fifty stations within an
hour after the observations are made is testimony to the skill and
experience of the electricians of the Weather Bureau and the tele-
graph companies. This result depends upon special arrangements
which have been slowly brought to perfection. The first of these
arrangements is the cooperation of the telegraph lines, by which spe-
cial wires are devoted to the Government service during certain hours
of the day, when the weather messages take precedence of all private
dispatches; in 1870 there were six telegraph companies concerned in
transmitting weather messages, but these have all been merged into
one; in 1871 there was some controversy as to the financial terms of
the telegraph service, but it was settled by the fixing of rates through
the Postmaster-General, and later Congress vested in the Secretary of
Agriculture the power to make contracts with the telegraph compa-
nies; also to prescribe the precedence of all Government messages.
The second arrangement consists in the establishment of certain tele-
graph circuits, including groups of cities in an extensive territory, so
regulated that the same message is recorded simultaneously at all the

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 1899 PLATE lI.

FiG. 1.—THE MARVIN METEOROGRAPH.

[Self-registering instrument to record the pressure, temperature, humidity, and wind velocity of
the air. Very light in construction; adapted to kite ascensions where the minimum of weight is
required for lofty flights. Used in the explorations of the lower atmosphere in 1898.]

Fig. 2.—THE MARVIN NEPHOSCOPE.

{Mirror with attachments, by means of which direction and relative velocity of cloud motions
can be determined. Used at the Weather Bureau stations during the International Cloud Survey of
1896-97. ]

“4%

i
' t
j
‘
g
OLA
i an
'
‘
!
2
ea
7 ~
be
we
A
:
{
a
2) 1
ae
.
' si
af i
Leah
'
”
: '
,

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899. PLATE Il.

Fic. 1.—PREPARING TO FLY WEATHER BUREAU KITE.

nd

Fig. 2 —WEATHER BUREAU KITE IN THE AIR.

[The kites shown are cellular or Hargrave, which have been perfected by the Weather Bureau.
They fly with great steadiness, and are held by a fine steel wire and iron reel at the ground. A
single kite has ascended to 8,000 feet, and several kites in series have risen to 13,000 or 14,000 feet. ]

A ae

WORK OF METEOROLOGIST FOR AGRICULTURE, ETC. 85

.
stations on the circuit; by an ingenious arrangement of the order of
transmission of the circuit messages not only Washington, D. C., but
many other cities have the exact weather records furnished for the _
hour of the observations; this has become quite necessary, because
at many of the large cities weather maps are constructed and printed
similar to the one in Washington, D. C., and which, though the latter
is somewhat larger and more complete, practically contain the same

‘important information; from many local centers the Washington

forecast and the map itself are distributed to an enormous population
and displayed in all the most important places of business and in the
schools and private institutions. The third arrangement required
was a method of reducing the expense of telegraphic messages to a
minimum, since the actual cost of transmitting so many million words
per year isan exceedingly heavy item; this has been done by construct-
ing a compact and ingenious cipher code which can be readily trans-
lated, and in which five or six words give all the data which would
otherwise require twenty-five or thirty words; the bill for telegrams -
alone under this cipher code is about $180,000 annually, and it may be
readily inferred how great is the saving to the public in this direction.

Furthermore, the Annual Reports contain a complete statistical state-
ment of all the important meteorological records made at the tele-
graphing stations, compiled so as to give the normal values of the
pressure, temperature, precipitation, and wind movements. These
statements have been continued from year to year in the same form,
and it is now proposed to combine them into a complete scheme of
normals based upon the work of the past quarter of a century. If
such normals can be formed at intervals of twenty-five years, many
questions regarding the long-range variations of the climate and
weather will be finally answered for the benefit of future generations.
When we reflect that astronomers have been engaged for several cen-
turies in constructing the mean values upon which the larger ques-
tions of the structure of the universe depend, it may not be amiss for
meteorologists to patiently continue a campaign as far-reaching as
that of the astronomers ip its outlook.

The discovery of the laws affecting the seasonal changes would
certainly be of such benefit to mankind, in the complex civilization
upon which modern life is entering, as to justify the expense and the
patient labor involved in such a contribution from each generation to
its successor. The crude method of tilling the soil common in these
days will certainly give way to an exact economical procedure, based
largely upon the result of meteorological research, increasing in pre-
cision with the lapse of time. There already exists in the archives of
the Weather Bureau an immense quantity of valuable material cal-
culated to serve these purposes. The great mass of weather observa-
tions, the collection of which is characteristic of this branch of science,
is being systematically studied and condensed year by year in the

86 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

records division, so that, before the original records are placed in the
fireproof vaults, the central facts are extracted and appear annually
in the report of the chief of the Bureau.

The expert investigator must be intrusted with the work of dis-
cussing the results in special researches, and the Annual Report con-
tains aseries of valuable papers drawn up on these lines. Thus, there
have been published papers on the laws of storms; the physical proe-
esses in the air; the climatic conditions; the relation of crops to the
weather; atmospheric electricity; terrestrial and solar magnetism;
auroras; eclipses of the sun; Ferrel’s treatises; Langley’s researches
on the solar constants; Abbe’s translations; instruments and cloud
studies; Bigelow’s reports on magnetism, storm tracks, and the inter-
national cloud observations; aseries of professional papers containing
reduction tables in all branches of the subject; scientific notices; and
aset of scientific bulletins on a variety of subjects. The Annual
Reports also contain the results of the great work of the international
simultaneous observations over the Northern Hemisphere, which were
inaugurated by General Myer and published from January 1, 1875,
to June 30, 1889. This vast series of observations has been compiled
in a set of valuable charts and distributed in recent years, but it is
believed that too little research work has been done to bring out the
laws which are contained within these records. There is also an
account of the international polar expeditions of 1882-83, when Gen-
eral Greely had charge of the American expedition to Fort Conger
and Lieutenant Ray of that to Point Barrow.

THE MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW.

Another important method of instructing the public in the science
of meteorology has been the regular publication of the Monthly
Weather Review, first issued for January, 1873, which was extended
backward to July, 1872, and reprinted in the annual volume. For
the next ten years these Reviews were reprinted in the Annual Report
itself, but since 1884 they have appeared as a separate publication only.
The Monthly Weather Review has regularly contained an accurate
description of the incidents connected with the severe storms which
have developed in the United States, giving the facts regarding warn-
ings issued by the Bureau, the path of the storm and its intensity, and
the damage inflicted, if important; the tracts of the high and low
pressure areas across the country have been carefully charted from
month to month; there are details of all the other important weather
phenomena, and the weather record of several thousand volunteer
observers, who are gradually constructing the complete climatological
data for the normals and abnormals of temperature and precipitation;
important reports on scientific research have usually been included
in this publication, and they still form an occasional feature; in late
years a series of interesting short notes of a more popular character
has added to the value and popularity of the publication.

WORK OF METEOROLOGIST FOR AGRICULTURE, ETC, 87

THE LIBRARY.

It may be stated in connection with this subject that the library of
the Weather Bureau has grown steadily since 1870 at the rate of
about 700 titles a year, till we now have something like 17,000 books
and 3,000 pamphlets. The collection is strong in strictly meteorolog-
ical data, and it is fairly complete in the department of physics and
in the current periodical scientific literature. The library is provided
with a ecard catalogue, an extensive bibliography of meteorology, and
a foreign index of scientific titles.

THE CLIMATE AND CROP BULLETINS.

At the very beginning of the operations of the Signal Office a strong
effort was made to obtain the active cooperation and support of the
agricultural societies of the country and the boards of trade of the .
cities, who should, it was proposed, in conference with the chief, |
devise plans for practical weather work, and by missionary efforts
in their respective communities should interest the people in meteor-
ology, as well as instruct them in the utility of the national service.
In the report of 1872 is contained a long list of such cooperating
organizations. This system of mutual support was of the greatest
value in establishing the weather service firmly among the necessary
adjuncts of our modern life; but the important fact to note is that
this beginning soon consolidated into one of the most important per-
manent features of the service. Such a development of local activity
in the several States led to the establishment of the system of State
weather services. There had been a few detached attempts by the
different States, New York (1825), Pennsylvania (1837), Massachusetts
(1849), Iowa (1875), and Missouri (1876), to apply local funds to the
study of problems of interest to the special districts, having particular
reference to the agricultural requirements and a knowledge of the
effect of the climate upon crops. The experience of ten years with the
national service showed that it could be efficiently supplemented by
the addition of reports from each county in every State of the tem-
perature, the rainfall, and the conditions and need of the crops. On
the proposal of Lieut. H. H. C. Dunwoody and Professor Abbe such
a cooperation was organized with the States, which one after the other
took up the plan.

Im 1881 the scheme was formally begun, and it has developed into
the useful work now carried on by the climate and crop division of the
Weather Bureau. The work consists in collecting by telegraph or
postal card the required information and discussing the same prior
to publication. This takes two forms, the compilation of special
monthly reports by the several States and Territories, and the con-
struction of weekly reports by the national Weather Bureau. The
monthly reports by States at first were incomplete so far as the total
number of States was concerned, and the style of the publications was

88 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

very irregular when compared together and sometimes unsatisfactory.
As the result of Professor Moore’s efforts to secure uniformity these
faults have at last been remedied, and nearly every section now pub-
lishes, in a uniform type and size, a monthly report of the climate of
its region. In 1887 the Signal Service began to publish the national
Climate and Crop Bulletin, giving each week an account of the condi-
tions of all agricultural interests of the country. At first it contained
about 600 words, with a summary of the general weather, and espe-
cially of the temperature and rainfall; then statements regarding the
progress in farm work and the effects of weather on the crops were
added, the reports being derived originally from the farmers them-
selves. In 1891 the Bulletin was enlarged and improved by adding
two charts, showing the variation of the temperature and rainfall
from the average normal conditions in the several districts for the
week of issue; in 1891 brief telegraphic reports from the several
States giving the condition and prospect of the crops were made a
regular feature of the preparation; in 1894 two more charts, the tem-
perature extremes and the total rainfall, were added; the Bulletin,
therefore, now contains four charts, a general summary of the weather,
and brief reports on the condition of the crops for each State. The
climate and crop service as at present organized has forty-four sec-
tions, including Puerto Ricoand Cuba, and utilizes 13,000 mail reports,
furnished by more than 3,000 voluntary observers. Each section,
besides providing material by telegraph for the national Weekly
3ulletin, issues a local bulletin, in which the climatic conditions are
fully and accurately described. It is obvious that such records must
ultimately make the climate of the United States a subject of exact
knowledge, and that in the future the, most successful farming will
take it into account.

THE DAILY WEATHER MAP AND FORECAST,

Besides the special, the annual, the monthly, and the weekly reports
another most important publication remains to be mentioned. This
is the Daily Weather Map. The primary object in establishing the
weather service of the United States was the issuing of warnings of
the approach of storms and floods for the benefit of commerce and
transportation, though, as already shown, it logically was extended to
cover the agricultural interests in the most complete form possible.

These warnings must be based upon simultaneous observations
taken at stated hours, collected with the utmost rapidity, transferred
to charts, studied and discussed by practical experts, who, by their
knowledge of the weather laws, should-give the best interpretation to
the conditions in the form of forecasts. The daily weather report
consists of four parts: (1) The bulletin of the weather conditions,
pressure, temperature, rainfall, and wind direction and velocity; (2)
amap displaying the isobars, isotherms, wind direction, state of the

WORK OF METEOROLOGIST FOR AGRICULTURE, ETC. 89

sky, areas of rain and snowfall during the past twelve hours, storm
signals, cold-wave signals, and thunderstorms; (3) a synopsis of the
general weather conditions of the United States; (4) a detailed fore-
east for the several regions of the country. These daily maps were
issued originally November 1, 1870, as the ‘‘ Weather bulletin,” being
at first made by a new manifold process, and they were published in
the daily newspaperswf many cities. About March, 1872, they began
to be reprinted under the title “Daily bulletin of weather reports,
with synopsis, probabilities, and facts.” Subsequently a small-sized
weather chart was added, being printed by lithography.

In the course of 1872 the scope of the map was enlarged, and it soon
contained the original data of observations, the isobars, isotherms,
synopsis, and probabilities. The reports of the river stages appear
regularly on the same sheet; also an account of the storm signals,
cold-wave signals, frost warnings, local storm warnings, and other
phenomena of importance to the public. Almost at the outset the
system of observations for the United States embraced the Canadian
provinces; rather irregular reports were received from the West
Indies during the hurricane season, until May, 1898, when a regular
permanent service was established throughout that region. During
the first years of the work three daily maps were prepared, made up
from observations taken at 7.35 a. m., 4.35 p. m., and 11.35 p. m.,
Washington time, thus dividing the day into periods of about eight
hours. This tridaily series of maps was changed in 1888 to a bidaily
series, taken at 8 a. m. and 8 p. m., all times being those of the seventy-
fifth meridian. In 1895 the printing of copies of the evening maps
was suspended at Washington, D. C., and now the published maps
at Washington City and the other large distributing centers are made
from only the morning observations. The observations were made at
less than 50 stations in 1871, but this number was increased in a few
years to 150 stations, which sufficiently cover the territory under
consideration to record all the general conditions of the atmosphere.
The distribution of the resulting morning forecasts begins in less
than two hours after the instruments are read, first by telegraph and
telephone to about 1,000 centers of distribution, thence by telephone,
mail, and railway-train service to more than 73,000 addresses, the
greater part being delivered early in the day, and none later than 6
p.m. Besides these 1,000 telegraph distributing centers, the forecasts
are telegraphed, at Government expense, to about 1,800 additional
places, to be communicated to the public by means of visual and
sound signals, the former consisting mainly of flags and the latter of
steam whistles. At the telegraph distributing centers an immense
number of the forecast messages are quickly printed by hand stamp
and logotypes on postal cards bearing an official frank. These are
mailed to all communities that can be reached not later than 6 p. m.
of the day of issue, and suitably posted for the benefit of the public.

90 YEARBOOK OF "HE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

There is, besides, an additional system of distribution, by which more
than 8,000 stations are furnished by telegraph at Government expense,
as occasion justifies, with the ‘‘emergency warnings,” that is, for
hurricanes, cold waves, frosts, or local storms of unusual severity.

With this effective system, which is being extended and improved
as opportunity affords, there is scarcely a community in the entire
country that does not receive the benefit of the forecasts of the
Weather Bureau. As soon as the forecasts are prepared they are
sent to the press associations, through which they reach all important
newspapers and are thereby given an almost unlimited circulation
through the country. The morning forecast only is used for visual
and sound signals; in the bulletin displays by the various means of
distribution the morning forecast is also mainly used, the prediction
applying more particularly to the following day. The evening fore-
cast is published in the morning newspapers of the succeeding day
and the morning forecast in the evening papers of the same day on
which the forecast is made. A system of special reports from sta-
tions, in cases of unusual weather conditions in any district, supple-
nent the regular observations, whereby the progress of a storm may
be more closely followed. Special bulletins are also issued detailing
the history of a hurricane or violent cyclone along the most important
portions of its track. The verification of the forecasts shows that on
the average about 82 per cent are strictly correct. A large portion of
the failures are due to minor irregularities in the location of the rain-
fall or temperature changes, and these are really unimportant to the
public. Contrary to general opinion, it is much less difficult to fore-
cast the direction and force of well-defined and even dangerous storms
than the common variations of the weather, when the conditions are
flat and the course of the weather really uncertain; it is very seldom
that any dangerous winds are not timely predicted by the Weather
Bureau.

For some years the view prevailed that a local observer could fore-
cast better for his immediate district than the national official at the
central office, but after an extensive trial it was found that the Wash-
ington City forecasts verified 4 or 5 per cent better than the local
forecasts, and the local system was therefore abandoned. It is diffi-
cult to obtain any very exact account of the actual saving of property
to the publie as the result of these storm warnings, but it is every-
where agreed that it amounts annually to a very large sum. The
direct cost of the weather service to the people has for several years
been less than $1,000,000 annually, and those in the best position to
judge believe that the salvages alone would cover the expense of the
work. This is quite independent of the many advantages accruing
to our civilization from the agencies above described for serving the
publie in an agricultural, commercial, and educational way. The
committees of Congress which are charged with inspecting the money

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WORK OF METEOROLOGIST FOR AGRICULTURE, ETC. 91

value of the estimates are in many instances ready to reeommend the
appropriation of more money than even the chief of the Bureau or the
Secretary of Agriculture asks for. Another fact is that there has
been a steady natural growth in the operations and in satisfying the
legitimate needs of the public, so that the people see for themselves
the practical advantages of this great scientific work.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE WEATHER BUREAU TO METEOROLOGY.

The Weather Bureau has always sought to bring its methods to the
knowledge of the public by courteously explaining the details of fore-
casting to all visitors at the central or local offices. It has made very
creditable exhibitions at the world’s fairs at Philadelphia, Chicago,
New Orleans, Atlanta, Omaha, and Paris. It has put itself in line
with all the great international reforms by advocating and adopting
international standards of measures and standard time for its obser-
vations. It has organized the international simultaneous observations
of 1875-1887, and cooperated in the international polar expeditions of
1881-1883, and in the international cloud observations of 1896-97. It
has sent delegates to European meteorological congresses. It has con-
tributed to meteorology several standard memoirs—Ferrel’s ‘‘ Profes-
sional papers,” Nos. 8, 12, and 13, his ‘‘ Recent advances,” his reports
on ‘‘ Psychrometry,” and on ‘‘ Reduction to sea level;” Abbe’s ‘‘ Mete-
orological apparatus and methods,” his ‘‘ Storm and weather predic-
tions,” his two ‘‘Coliections of translations;” Marvin’s reports on
instruments of various kinds and on kites; Bigelow’s reports on mag-
netism, on storms and storm tracks, and on clouds; and reports by
Mendenhall on atmospheric electricity, by Finley on tornadoes, by
Henry on rainfall, by Hazen on thunderstorms, by McAdie on light-
ning; besides a multitude of minor papers of every kind. Special

_observations at the higher levels of the atmosphere have been made

by means of the mountain stations—Mount Washington, Mount
Mitchell, Pikes Peak; by cloud heights with theodolites; by kite
ascensions, and by eleven balloon voyages. Several series of hourly
observations are regularly taken of all the meteorological elements;
the vertical gradients of the pressure, temperature, and vapor have
been discussed by several methods; a great deal of attention has been
given to plateau barometry, together with the determination of the
elevation of the stations throughout the United States, and the instru-
mental and atmospheric corrections. The dynamic problem of the
motions of the atmosphere is kept steadily in view, and advances are
being made from time to time in this most important subject.

LATEST VIEWS ON THE THEORIES OF THE ORIGIN OF STORMS.

Perhaps it may be well to close this paper by stating the latest
views on the theories of the origin of storms, which have been dis-
cussed by means of nearly every conceivable hypothesis during the

92 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

past fifty years. The question involved has been how much emphasis
should be given to the horizontal dynamical action of the large general
currents of the atmosphere, due to the polar-tropic differences of tem-
perature, and how much to the local vertical convectional action due
to surface heating. Some meteorologists have laid stress upon one of
these theories, and others upon the other, but, as in the Redfield-
Espy controversy regarding the circular and the radial components of
motion, it is now seen that both are efficiently in operation, though
the cireular dominates in intensity; so, while both the horizontal
dynamic forces and the vertical convection are actively concerned in
the structure of storm circulations, it is the former which preponder-
ates, that is to say, local cyclones are but minor whirls in the general
atmospherie circulation, which is continuously striving to reduce the
difference of temperature of the atmosphere between the Tropics and
the polar regions; also they are sometimes strengthened by the evolu-
tion of the latent heat of precipitation. The vertical currents in
eyelones and anticyclones are primarily components of vortex motion,
and these serve to set in operation the thermo-dynamic processes con-
cerned in the making of clouds and rain or snow fall. The larger
questions of meteorology concerning the slow seasonal variations,
which depend upon special solar actions, and which mark the effect
of solar energy expended in its most delicate and subtle forms, must
require, like the large problems of astronomy regarding the structure
of our solar system and the universe of stars, a considerable expendi-
ture of labor and the lapse of no little time to arrive at an ultimate
solution. Each generation has therefore imposed upon itself, in
meteorology, as in astronomy, the duty of faithfully collecting obser-
vations of the phenomena as they occur in their day. In view of the
distinet practical return which the Weather Bureau has been able to
make to the public for the expense of its maintenance there has never
been any disposition on the part of the people to omit to provide for
such eurrent scientific researches as the benefit of future generations
seems to call for.

SOME EXAMPLES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF KNOWL-
EDGE CONCERNING ANIMAL DISEASES.

By D. E. Satmon, D. V. M.,
Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry.

INTRODUCTION.

The acquirement of knowledge in the domain of animal diseases
during the century now closing has been constant and amazing, and
compares favorably with the advancement in other branches of science
which, with the zeal and activity of investigators, has attracted the
wonder and admiration of the world. While something is known
even to the general reader of the progress of knowledge in this field,
and of the usefulness of this knowledge in explaining and preventing
the diseases of man, there are comparatively few who have an adequate
conception of the vast array of facts which have been accumulated
and the revolution which these facts have brought in the prevailing
ideas as to the nature of the various diseases and the methods by
which they should be treated. To enter into all the details of the
development of this subject during the century would require the
writing of a series of volumes on the respective subdivisions, which,
when completed, would be of professional rather than popular interest.
A review of this character is manifestly impossible, even if such
détail were desirable, in a Yearbook paper. The writer, therefore,
deems it wise to confine himself to the work that has been done
upon a few great problems which are, or should be, of interest to
the many, and the elucidation of which has done most to ameliorate
the condition of mankind as well as that of the domesticated animals.

The beginning of the nineteenth century almost defines the line at
which the old and fantastic doctrines on animal pathology began to
crumble and to be replaced by facts and scientifie principles. Pre-
vious to that time a more or less elaborate system had been compiled,
based upon observations made during the past history of the world;
but as the ideas in regard to the structure and activities of the animal
body were in many cases crude and erroneous, it is not surprising
that the conceptions of disease were often distorted and strange, as
viewed from the standpoint of our present knowledge. Whatis it that
has brought light out of the darkness and order out of the chaos of the
preceding centuries? What new factor, what change of method, was

introduced with this century which accounts for the overthrow of the
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94 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

old doctrines that had been built up from the world’s previous expe-
rience, and the substitution for these doctrines of definite and accu-
rate knowledge? The answer, to these questions is as interesting as
the story of the achievements, and is of particular value at the present
time. It should be a guide to us in directing the forces that will in
all human probability make the twentieth century even more glorious
in its accomplishments than the one which preceded it. The purpose
of this paper is, therefore, not only to show the great strides of
progress, but to indicate how this progress has been made.

INEFFECTIVENESS OF OBSERVATION WITHOUT EXPERIMENTATION.

t was in the early part of the seventeenth century that Bacon
pointed out the weakness of the old speculative philosophy which
built a great superstructure of doctrine or theory upon a foundation
having a minimum of substantial fact andevidence. Such structures

were without stability; they represented the individual workings of-

the philosopher’s mind rather than the truths of nature, and for that
reason they were constantly toppling over, to be replaced by another
philosophic effort no more substantial than the first. Although Bacon
at that time clearly demonstrated the necessity of first gathering all
available facts and of interpreting these without preconceived bias by
the inductive method, it was long before these teachings had their
legitimate influence, either in human or veterinary medicine, and they
are by no means universally accepted, outside of the scientifie world,
even at the present day.

The great question has always been, How are the facts relating to
any branch of natural science to be obtained? The philosophers of
the old school said, ‘‘ by observation and deduction;” and they have
their followers to-day who seek to direct, through legislative enact-
ment, that physiological and pathological investigations shall be
limited to ‘‘observation.” But, if there is one great truth which
stands out more prominently than others in the history of the progress
of science, it is that observation, as contrasted with experimentation,
is of itself insufficient to solve the problems or lead to an accurate
comprehension of the facts.

EFFORTS TO DISCOVER THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD BY OBSERVATION,

The insufficiency of observation without experimentation is dem-
onstrated by the long-continued efforts to discover and explain the
action and use of the heart, the arteries, the veins, and the blood.
For hundreds of years the anxious students of physiology had made
observations upon the living and the dead subject, but the mystery,
ever elusive, had baffled the keenest vision. Thus, Hippocrates
(460 B. C.) knew something of the movement of the blood. Aristotle
(384 B. C.) taught that in man and the higher animals the blood was
elaborated from the food in the liver, thence carried to the heart, and

KNOWLEDGE CONCERNING ANIMAL DISEASES. 95

sent by this organ through the veins over the body. Praxagoras of
Cos (341 B. C.) distinguished the arteries from the veins and regarded
the former as air vessels. Erasistratus (304 B. C.) and Herophilus,
of the Alexandrian school, taught that, while the veins carried blood
from the heart to the organs of the body, the arteries carried a subtle
kind of air or spirit. Galen (130 A. D.) discovered that the arteries
were not merely air pipes, but contained blood. Servetus (1553

added to this knowledge the belief that the blood flowed from the
heart to the lungs and from the lungs back to the heart. Thus, the
studies and observations of two thousand years had only given a very |
incomplete and inaccurate idea of the circulation, leaving the great
eentral fact of the heart’s influence unknown and unsuspected.

HARVEY'S EXPERIMENTS FOR THE DISCOVERY OF THE MOVEMENTS OF THE HEART
5 AND BLOOD.

It remained for Harvey (1578-1657), the great contemporary of
Bacon; to elucidate the subject most thoroughly by a long series of
experiments upon living animals. He tellsus that he began his inves-
tigations into the movements of the heart and blood by experimenting
and seeing the phenomena in living animals. He minutely described
what he saw in pigs, dogs, serpents, frogs, and fishes. He even made
use of slugs, oysters, lobsters, and insects, and lastly of the chick
while still in the shell. He particularly described his observations and
experiments on the ventricles, the auricles, the arteries, and the veins.
He explained the mechanism of the valves in the veins, showing that
their function was not to moderate the flow of blood from the heart,
as Fabricius believed, but to favor its return to the heart. He clearly
demonstrated the effect of obstruction of the blood stream in arteries
and veins by the forceps in the case of a snake and by a ligature on
the arm ofaman. He proved that it is the contraction, not the dila-
tion, of the heart that coincides with the pulse; that the pulse is not
produced by the arteries expanding and filling themselves, but by the
blood being forced into them and causing their enlargement; that
there are no pores in the septum of the heart, and that all of the blood
in the right ventricle is sent to the lungs and returned by the pul-
monary veins to the left side of the heart, being forced again by the
left ventricle into the arteries, round by the smaller veins into the
vene cave, through which it is brought back to the right side of the
heart, making a complete circulation; that the blood in the arteries
and that in the veins is the same blood; that the action of the right
and left sides of the heart, auricles, ventricles, and valves, is the same,
the mechanism in both being forthe reception and propulsion of liquid
and not of air; that there is no to-and-fro undulation in the veins, but
a constant stream; that the dynamical starting point of the blood is
the heart and not the liver. (Pye-Smith.)

All of these conclusions were revolutionary in their effect upon the

96 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

doctrines of the times, and thus Harvey, by a few years of experi-
mentation, completed the solution of this great problem, and con-
tributed more in the way of definite facts to sustain his views and to
clearly explain the phenomena of the circulation than had been fur-
nished by all his predecessors from Hippocrates to his own time.

COMMENCEMENT OF SYSTEMATIC STUDY IN VETERINARY SCIENCE.

It was not until after the middle of the eighteenth century that
veterinary schools were established and systematic instruction in ani-
mal pathology was commenced. Previous to that time there had
been published some remarkable treatises on the diseases of animals,
but the building up of the science may be said to have had its begin-
ning at the foundation of the schools dedicated to the investigation
and teaching of veterinary medicine. ‘The first veterinary school was
established at Lyons, France, in 1761; the second at Alfort, near
Paris, in 1765. These were followed by one at Copenhagen, in 1773;
Vienna, in 1775; Berlin, in 1790, and London, in 1791.

The beginning of the nineteenth century, therefore, found veteri-
nary instruction in progress in the principal countries of Europe, and
considerable literature suitable for text-books was already accessible.
The study of the subject was stimulated not only by the establish-
ment of the schools, but by the invasion of deadly epizootics, which
had followed the course of the armies to all parts of the Continent
and which threatened the annihilation of the domesticated animals.
Knowledge of these plagues and the best means of controlling them
had become essential to the existence of animal husbandry and the
maintenance of the food supply. The accumulation of facts and cor-
rect views concerning these diseases was the greatest task of the vet-
erinary profession, and the progress of this work is perhaps the best
general indication that can be accepted in regard to the development
of animal pathology.

. GLANDERS AND FARCY.

One of the most terrible plagues of equine animals is called glan-
ders when it affects the air passages and lungs, and farey when it
appears upon the skin. The principal symptoms are a discharge from
the nose, ulceration of the inside of the nasal passages, particularly
of the septum, enlargement of the glands under the jaw, and pustules
of the skin. This disease, from which there is seldom recovery, was
known to the Greek and Latin writers as one of the most serious dis-
eases of horses and asses, and its contagiousness was quite generally
admitted.

EARLY VIEWS REGARDING GLANDERS,

About 1749 the elder Lafosse, of Paris, began to teach the spon-
taneous origin of glanders, and endeavored to show from theoretical
considerations and clinical observation that this was a purely local
disease of an inflammatory nature and could not be contagious. At

KNOWLEDGE CONCERNING ANIMAL DISEASES. 97

first this view was combated by many practitioners and by the vet-
erinary schools, but being in harmony with certain medical doctrines
it gained adherents, was taken up by the Alfort school, at first timidly
and later with all the energy and eloquence of Renault, Delafond, and
H. Bouley, and became predominant in France and’ perhaps also in
Germany.

Renault thought that the disease might originate as a consequence
of the absorption of pus from suppurating surfaces or abseesses, and
this view was largely accepted. H. Bouley substituted the hypothe-
sis that its origin was due to the exhaustion of the vital forces as a
result of bad hygienic conditions or excessive work. Those who speci-
fied instances where the disease spread from an affected horse to
others were met by the citation of instances where it did not spread.
As H. Bouley afterwards admitted, the advocates of the hypothesis of
noncontagion and spontaneous generation, by a singular disposition
of mind, believed themselves authorized to invoke against the facts
which proved contagion other facts where contagion did not result.
This was the consequence of wrong methods of investigation and of
improper use of evidence. Positive evidence establishes a fact: neg-
ative evidence can not overthrow positive evidence. It was by not
understanding this apparently axiomatie proposition that the errone-
ous views in regard to the causation of glanders were so widely
accepted and did so much harm.

The veterinarians of France, especially those of the army, were
largely from the Alfort school, and, acting upon the teachings which
they had received, they no longer treated glanders as a contagious dis-
ease, but permitted the retention of diseased animals and allowed
these to be stabled with healthy ones without precautions to guard
against communication. The inevitable happened, and the conti-
nental countries were overrun with glanders. The cavalry horses in
particular were decimated, and thousands that beeame useless for the
army were sold to civilians and served to propagate the contagion
upon the farms, the very fountain head of the equine supply. From
1830 to 1540 the condition was almost intolerable, and the disease was
becoming more and more prevalent. Those observers who believed
the disease due to contagion were everywhere met by others equally
sincere and able who believed it of spontaneous origin. It is a strik-
ing example of the difficulties of settling such questions by clinical
observation alone.

EXPERIMENTS REGARDING THE CONTAGIOUSNESS OF GLANDERS.

the question of the contagiousness of glanders settled by experimental
investigation. A commission was appointed, the members of which
were mostly partisans of the doctrine of noncontagion, and evidently
strongly biased, for after more than three years’ investigation, in

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In November, 1836, the French war department undertook to have
1 A 99——7

98 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

which 138 healthy horses were used, they were still unable to reach
a deeision. The minister of war then added to the commission a
number of eminent men, members of the Academy of Sciences, who
came with unprejudiced minds and a scientific spirit to the study of
this important problem.

In 1837 an incident had occurred which had served to cheek to a
certain extent the enthusiasm of those who denied the contagiousness
of the disease. In this year Rayer recognized that a man who came
under his observation Was affected with a disease resembling glanders.
Such eases, if appears, were not uncommon, but had been designated
as putrid, or adynamiec, fever. Investigation developed two facts of
importance: First, the subject was a stable man, and as such had
been intimately associated with horses; secondly, some of the horses
which had been under his care were ascertained to be affected with
glanders. This was strongly corroborative of Rayer’s diagnosis, but
it was not sufficient to meet the arguments of those who thought
otherwise. Might not the ocecupation of the man and the presence of
glandered horses be simply coincidences and without bearing upon
the origin of the disease? It was necessary to prove the identity —
of the disease in the man with the well-known glanders of the horse.
How was this to be done? Obviously not by disputation or by clinieal
observation, for these methods were incapable of reaching a definite
and ineontestable decision. There was but one course that had in it
the promise of success, and that was experimentation. If the disease
with whieh the groom was affeeted could be inoculated upon a horse,
and if this horse developed the characteristic symptoms of glanders,
then this would constitute a demonstration that the man was suffering
from the equine disease. Fortunately for science and for humanity,
this test was made. The liquids from the diseased regions of the
man proved extremely virulent when inoculated upon the horse, and
the disease which developed was glanders with all its well-known
characteristics.

Rayer, who had investigated this case of glanders in man, was added
to the commission of inquiry, as was also the well-known Boussingault.
The strongest partisans of noncontagion were Renault and Magendie,
both members of the commission. Octeber 8, 1841, ten horses, care-
fully selected and perfectly healthy, were stabled with eleven other
horses which presented the symptoms of chronic glanders. Each of
the healthy animals was placed between two diseased ones, in order
to intensify the contagion to which they were exposed, in case such
contagion existed. Only eleven days had passed when four of the
healthy horses presented symptoms which indicated that they had
been infected. On November 22 there were only two horses remain-
ing which did not show symptoms of infection. December 4 glanders
with all its characteristics had developed in one of the horses, and by
February 11 three more horses were in the same condition. Asa result

anil

KNOWLEDGE CONCERNING ANIMAL DISEASES. 99

of about four months’ close association nine out of ten healthy horses
showed symptoms of glanders, and with four of these the disease was
so fully developed as to be entirely characteristic.

The commission caused two of these horses to be killed, and on
post-mortem examination found all the lesions of chronic glanders.
The mucous membrane of the trachea and bronchi was covered with
ulcerations, among which were found cicatrices, which Renault be-
lieved justified him in suspecting that the animals had been affected
before the beginning of the experiment. However slight may have
been the grounds for doubt, after the first experiment, it was decided
that another test should bemade. This was commenced April 11, 1842,
with seven selected horses, which were placed two by two in the
stables, so that each healthy horse would come in contact only upon
one side with a glandered horse. By August 7 glanders had developed
in every one of these experimental animals.

Just previous to these last-mentioned investigations, that is, in 1840,
a special commission composed of officers of the different branches of
the cavalry service, which had been charged to submit a plan of a
model stable in which should be united the most advantageous hygienic
conditions, made a report attributing the development of glanders
among cavalry horses to the unsanitary conditions of the stables. An
academic commission reported by the younger Bouley held the same
opinion and thought that the bad construction of the cavalry quarters,
the unhealthfulness of the stables, the crowding of the animals, and
the vitiation of the atmosphere should be placed among the principal
causes of what was called spontaneous glanders. Contagion, the true
cause of the disease, was left out of consideration or given an entirely
subordinate position, while attention was concentrated upon conditions
which, at most, could but favor, to a certain extent, the propagation
of the infection. Does not this bring to mind the contentions now
being made by those who wish to find the cause of tuberculosis in
some other agency than contagion and who invoke the influence of
the identical conditions which the French military commission of 1840
found sufficient to explain the origin of glanders? H. Bouley, one
of the most able contestants of the theory of contagion, and who
afterwards frankly admitted his error, says in regard to the project
for eradicating the disease by reconstructing the stables:

If the certainty had been acquired, as it has been to-day, that contagion alone
was the cause, and that to guard against it was sufficient to avoid the ruinous
losses which glanders then occasioned, there is no doubt that the reconstructions

proposed would not have been undertaken, or, at least, that they would have been
upon a smaller scale and the expenses distributed over a larger number of years.

CONTAGIOUSNESS OF GLANDERS DETERMINED AND EFFORTS TO CONTROL THE
DISEASE,

One other question remained to be solved. It was held by some
that acute glanders might be contagious, while the chronic form, that

100 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF “AGRICULTURE.

usually encountered in the horse, could not be communicated. In
the experiments which have been already mentioned the persons who
held to this opinion thought that the contagion was explained by the
disease having assumed an acute form in some of the animals to which
exposure had been made. To answer this contention Saint-Cyr made
a series of inoculation experiments, reported in 1863, from which he
eoncluded:

Under all its forms, in all its degrees, in all its conditions, in all its stages, and,
finally, at every instant of its existence, glanders is contagious; and there is
always danger of contagion, not possible, eventual, or conditional danger, but
certain, actual, and always menacing danger.

This ended, in France, the contest over the contagiousness of glan-
ders. A similar difference of opinion had existed in other countries,
especially in Germany, but the problem was solved for all by experi-
mental exposures to the contagion or by inoculation. Without these
experiments upon living animals it is impossible to conceive how the -
views of those who interpreted differently the facts of observation
could have been harmonized; and in the presence of doubt on the
essential question of contagion or spontaneous origin, there was and
always would have been hesitation and lack of thoroughness in apply-
ing preventive measures and in enforcing regulations for eradicating
the diseases

After settling the question of contagion there were still two great
problems which confronted the veterinarian in his efforts to con-
trol this disease. The first of these related to the cause of the
disease; and while there was ignorance in regard to this it was
impossible to have an intelligent comprehension of the conditions
under which the contagion survived or of the kind and strength of
disinfectants required for its destruction. This problem was solved
simultaneously during the year 1882 by Bouchard, Capitan, and
Charrin, in France, and by Loeffler and Schuetz, in Germany. Here,
again, inoculation experiments were absolutely necessary to demon-
strate that the suspected bacillus was the cause of the disease.
Numerous forms of bacteria are usually obtained by making eultures
from virulent material, and there is no way of learning which variety
produces the disease except by making the trial, that is, by inoculat-
ing susceptible animals with a pure culture of each of these micro-
organisms. In that manner the bacillus of glanders, now known as
the Bacillus mallet, was proved to be the active agent of the conta-
gion, and the acquisition of this fact has brought with it a flood of
light that has served to clear up the doubt and confusion of earlier
years.

The second great problem was to find a speedy and certain method
of diagnosing the disease. Glanders with horses is usually a chronic
malady, which in its first stages presents very slight and indefinite
symptoms that are entirely insufficient to enable the observer to state

a

KNOWLEDGE CONCERNING ANIMAL DISEASES. 101

positively that the animal is affected with this dangerous and fatal
disease. Nevertheless, the disease is contagious at that period and
is liable to be disseminated to other horses and to the attendants;
indeed, it is the animals that have failed to develop characteristic
symptoms which are most dangerous, since very often they are not
even suspected as sources of contagion. Sometimes affected horses
live for several years in this condition, and attention is only attracted
to them finally because a series of horses which have been exposed to
them have successively developed the disease. Evenaftersuch horses
were suspected it was a most difficult and embarrassing matter for the
veterinarian to produce sufficient evidence to warrant their destrue-
tion, particularly if they happened to be valuable or if the owners
were attached tothem. This difficulty of diagnosis was largely respon-
sible for the continuance of the contagion, and it was especially felt
in large stables containing many horses and where it was conse-
quently essential to successful treatment to have every affected animal
removed.

The first efforts to aid clinical observation in making a diagnosis
were by inoculation. Either the suspected horse was inoculated with
its own nasal discharge (auto-inoculation) or another individual of
the equine species was used for this purpose. Very often satisfactory
evidence of glanders could be obtained in this way, but in far too
many cases the results were uncertain or unreliable. With the bac-
teriological studies and the inoculation of small animals came the
knowledge that the guinea pig was very sensitive to this contagion,
and that, if inoculated in a proper manner, it would present charac-
teristic symptoms in afew days. ‘This was an extremely valuable dis-
covery, and where only one or at most a small number of horses were
suspected, it made it possible for the veterinarian to reach a quick
and reliable decision.

JUSTIFIABLENESS OF INOCULATIONS IN GLANDERS,

The question is now raised as to whether these inoculations are
justifiable, and the antivivisection societies, with many of the humane
societies, have joined in an effort to secure legislation to make it a
criminal offense to conduct such experiments upon living animals.

The ethical questions relating to the alleged wrong of causing suffer-

ing to an innocent guinea pig, either for the advancement of science
or the diagnosis of a disease, are too broad to receive more than a mere
mention in this connection. It may be admitted, however, that so
long as we acknowledge the right and the morality of raising animals
to be slaughtered for food, and so long as we permit such a painfui
operation as castration to be performed on millions upon millions of
individuals to make them more docile, to cause them to fatten more
readily, to improve the quality of the meat—in a word, for the finan-
cial profit which arises from the operation—it is inconsistent to deny

102 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT ‘OF AGRICULTURE.

the propriety of a method of experimentation which in the aggregate
has saved much more distress than it has caused and which is essen-
tial to the advancement of medical knowledge. Inthe case which has
just been mentioned, for instance, it may be asked whether the practi-
tioner would be justified in leaving a horse suspected of glanders to
come in contact with other animals, perhaps to communicate the
disease to some human being, when he could definitely decide the
question by inoculating two or three guinea pigs. It might be said
that a suspected horse should be put in quarantine in order to pre-
vent such untoward consequences, but there are all degrees of suspi-
cion, and a horse can not be quarantined under the law and his owner
put to expense and loss without some evidence. It is a question of
danger and suffering with men and horses on the one side and with
guinea pigs on the other. Under such circumstances the objections
appear unworthy of serious consideration.

THE MALLEIN TEST FOR GLANDERS.

Fortunately, a continuation of the experiments with living animals
has led to a discovery which largely does away with the necessity of
inoculating guinea pigs or other creatures in order to make a diagno-
sis in the doubtful cases to which reference has been made. In eul-
tivating the bacillus of glanders it was observed that it produced
during its growth a toxic substance which, when injected into the
tissues of an animal affected with glanders, caused a local swelling
and raised the body temperature to such a marked extent as to be of
great assistance in making a diagnosis. This toxin is called mallein,
and the experiment of injecting it for the purpose of making a diag-
nosis is called the mallein test. It is particularly useful in cases
where a large number of horses which are stabled together have been
exposed, and where it is, consequently, of the utmost importance
that those which have become infected shall be recognized and
removed at the earliest moment. It may not be quite as accurate a test
as the inoculation of guinea pigs, but it is more expeditious, less expen-
sive, and saves the guinea pig from dying of glanders, though it may
eventually die of some other disease equally painful, even if it does
not contract it by inoculation.

Tn addition to the investigations to which reference has been made,
there have been many others yielding much information in regard to
the pathological anatomy, histology, and pathology of glanders which
for want of space can not receive consideration.

VARIOLA (COWPOX, HORSEPOX).

Some time during the sixth century there was introduced into Europe
one of the most horrible and fatal diseases from which mankind has
ever suffered. This disease, now known as variola, or smallpox, is no

, KNOWLEDGE CONCERNING ANIMAL DISEASES. 103

longer greatly feared, but at that time and through the middle ages,
and in fact down to the beginning of the nineteenth century, it was a
scourge that could neither be avoided nor conquered. Practically
every adult person’s face showed the sears. One-tenth of the deaths
weré caused by it. In England in 1796 the death rate reached the
highest point, being 183 in every 100 deaths from all causes. No
city or district was long free from it. People exposed themselves
to it or were inoculated with the contagion in order to have an attack
under as favorable circumstances as possible, and thus secure immu-
nity tor the future. Inoculation was of some benefit—often produced
a comparatively mild form of the disease and gave immunity; it had
the great disadvantages, however, that it frequently caused a fatal
attack, and, in all forms, it kept up and spread the contagion.

JENNER’S DISCOVERY OF A PREVENTIVE OF SMALLPOX.

In 1798 Edward Jenner announced his discovery that smallpox
might be prevented by inoculation with the virus of cowpox, and that
cowpox was identical with a disease of “horses known by the farriers
as grease, or sore heels. This discovery has been of such enormous
advantage to humanity, and there have been so many questions raised
relative to the nature of the so-called grease of horses, from which
cowpox originates, that it is of unusual interest to inquire how Jen-
ner’s discovery was made and what developments in our knowledge
of the disease have since occurred.

There is no doubt that there was a popular belief in Jenner’s native
county of Gloucestershire, England, to the effect that the men and
women who milked the cows and who developed the vesicular erup-
tion of ‘‘the cow disease,” would not afterwards contract smallpox.
To what extent this belief was held in that section of England, and
whether it existed in other countries, are subjects in regard to which
there is little reliable information. Itis certain that those physicians
of the period who had heard of the belief regarded it as due to an
erroneous interpretation of facts, but Jenner’s conclusions were
accepted so promptly that we are justified in concluding that the
skepticism and opposition were not greater than might reasonably be
expeeted toward a similar discovery at the present day.

As an indication of the wonderful change which has been brought
about since the introduction of vaccination, the writer has taken the
latest mortality statistics compiled by the Marine-Hospital Service,
based upon the returns from 1,597 cities and towns in the United States,
for the year ending December 31, 1897. The population covered was
22,472,554, the total number of deaths 538,994, the number of deaths
from smallpox 44, being in the proportion of 1 to 7,704.

How did Jenner make this discovery? How did he determine that
the belief of certain people of his county in the protective power of
the cowpox eruption against the dreaded smallpox was more worthy

104 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT? OF ‘AGRICULTURE.

of credence than the opinion of others that it did not have this effect?
He accomplished this in the only possible way—by experimentation.
A boy was vaccinated from a pustule upon the hand of a milkmaid
which had been contracted in milking affected cows. The vaccina-
tion produced the pustule so well known at the present day, as the
result of this operation. After recovery from the vaccination the
boy was inoculated with smallpox virus, an operation then very com-
mon in England. From this inoculation there were only the effects
usually seen following the inoculation of persons who had recovered
from an attack of smallpox.

Jenner went a step further and inoculated another child with virus
taken from a pustule upon the teat of a cow in an outbreak of the
so-called spontaneous cowpox. This child also developed a pustule
at the point of inoculation, with slight general symptoms of illness.
Starting from this child many arm-to-arm inoculations were made,
proving the characteristic appearance of the disease and that it could
be propagated indefinitely.

Jenner also cited the case of a farrier who, in caring for horses
affected with a disease called grease, had contracted an eruption of
the hands with ulceration and suppuration that was accompanied with
quite severe illness. Six years later Jenner inoculated this man at
different times upon the arms with smallpox virus and only succeeded
in producing slight inflammation, which soon disappeared. An iden-
tical observation was made with a farmer who had contracted an erup-
tion by taking care of a horse having this disease of the pasterns
called grease. It was also observed that when the horses having this
eruption were cared for by the same men who milked the cows the
disease was carried by these men and caused the eruption of cowpox.

ORIGIN OF COWPOX.

The belief of Jenner that cowpox originates from the inflammation
of the skin of the horse’s pastern, properly known as grease, has been
generally accepted, and we still find the statement in medical works
that grease, or equinia mitis, is the origin of cowpox. Now, what is
this grease which is communicable to the cow, and from the cow to
man, granting such remarkable immunity from smallpox? The dis-
ease known to the veterinarian as grease is a more or less aggravated
inflammation of the skin of the heels and adjacent parts of the horse,
with cracks and fissures, from which there is an offensive discharge,
. which looks greasy, but which is really a serous exudation. This
inflammation may increase until the whole surface is ulcerated and
covered by fleshy excrescences slightly resembling grapes in form, and
in this stage was popularly called ‘‘the grapes.” This disease arises
from irritation due to moisture, mud, and filth in contact with the skin
of the lower part of the limbs. Itis not contagious; inoculation from it
produces nothing resembling the vaccine vesicle, and for many years

KNOWLEDGE CONCERNING ANIMAL DISEASES. 105

it was a mystery how Jenner could have found in this local and spon-
taneous disease the origin of cowpox.

In 1802 Dr. Loy, of England, published an ‘‘Account of some experi-
ments on the origin of cowpox,” in which he stated that the horses
which communicate the eruption to the men who groom them have at
the commencement of the disease symptoms of fever and marked
indisposition, which subsides after the appearance of an eruption
upon the heels and upon the skin of the greater part of the body.
Loy, desiring to confirm the experiments of Jenner, did not hesitate
to inoculate his own brother, with the result that after a few days
inflammatory symptoms appeared, followed on the eighth day by a
vesicle, with slight symptoms of fever, which continued for a day or
two. This eruption had precisely the characters of the true vaccine.

In another experiment Loy inoculated the udder of a cow with clear*
lymph taken from the heel of an affected horse, which produced a
characteristic vaccine vesicle. The limpid fluid fromthe vesicle on
the cow’s udder was used to vaccinate a child, and produced a vesicle
which completely protected from an inoculation with smallpox virus
made on the ninth day. Loy also inoculated direetly from the ves-
icle on the horse to the arm of a child, and suecessfully produced the
vaccine vesicle. From this child three other children were suecess-
fully inoculated, and their immunity was afterwards tested by inocu-
lation with smallpox virus. With none of them did the smallpox
inoculation produce more than a very slight inflammation, which dis-
appeared by the fifth day.

This extremely valuable work of Loy’s appears to have been lost
sight of for many years, and veterinarians and physicians sought in
vain in the various loeal affections of horses’ feet for the virus of
eowpox. Chapped heels, grease, and even fistulas furnished material
for unsuccessful inoculations, and some of the ablest men of the first
half of the century absolutely denied that cowpox could originate in
this manner. This opinion was due to the failure of Jenner to
describe the disease of horses from which the virus was obtained,
and to the ignorance of the farriers, which led them to confound
widely different diseases under the one name of ‘‘grease.” Loy’s
description, in which he clearly points out the general symptoms pre-
ceding the eruption with the horse, and the appearance of vesicles
on various parts of the surface of the body, should have been an
indication of the cause of failure, but did not attract attention at
the time.

The great veterinarians of England, including Coleman and Per-
cival, denied the existence of a disease of horses which could be
communicated to cows and produce cowpox, and it was not until sixty
years after the cbservations and experiments of Jenner and Loy that
the mystery was cleared up and the facts demonstrated.

The rediscovery of the variola of the horse was largely accidental.

106 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT: OF AGRICULTURE.

In the spring of 1860 a number of horses near Toulouse, France, were
affected with a disease which seemed to be of an epizootic character;
in less than three weeks it appeared in more than a hundred animals.
According to Sarrans, the veterinarian in charge, this disease began
with a slight fever, soon followed by swelling of the hocks, with heat
and tenderness of the skin, and the appearance of many little pus-
tules on the surface of the swollen parts. In three to five days a
purulent discharge began, which lasted eight or ten days, during
which the inflammatory symptoms gradually disappeared. Afier this
second stage the pustules gradually became dry, and from the
fifteenth day the crusts and matted hair began to fall, leaving sears
of variable development. The pustules did not appear on the limbs
only, but also upon different parts of the body, particularly about the
nose, lips, thighs, and vulva.

Sarrans did not recognize in this disease the ‘‘ grease” of Jenner,
but he did observe its contagious character. No cows were affected,
because the persons taking care of the horses did not engage in milk-
ing, and there was no opportunity for transferring the contagion. It
is, therefore, probable that the nature of the malady would not
have been discovered had not one of the affected horses been taken
to Professor Lafosse, of the Toulouse veterinary school. At the first
visit only febrile symptoms could be made out, but eight days later
the animal was suffering from lameness, with swelling of the left pos-
terior pastern, which was hot, painful, and covered with pustules,
discharging an ammoniacal ane less fetid than the exudation of
grease.

It occurred to Lafosse that this was the acute form of grease, and
probably the disease to which Jenner had traced the origin of cowpox.
He therefore inoculated the udder of a cow with this equine dis-
charge, which he believed was the product of the initial period of
grease (eaux-aux-jambes). ‘The success of this inoculation was com-
plete, and in eight days a pustule appeared at each point where the
virus had been inserted. These elevations were large, flat, firm, and
circular, with a central depression. There could be nomistake; these
pustules were the cowpox of Jenner, drawn from their equine souree,
and they confirmed the accuracy of the conclusions of that eminent
investigator.

In order that the demonstration might be complete, a second cow
was inoculated from the pustules of the first, causing a typieal cow-
pox eruption, which was in turn inoculated successfully upon a child
and a horse. <A second child was inoculated with virus taken from
this horse and developed a typical vaccine vesicle. Finally, compara-
tive inoculations were made with virus of equine origin and with the
ordinary vaccine, which demonstrated that the former produced larger
and better developed vesicles, but which were slower in their evolu-
tion than the latter.

6

KNOWLEDGE CONCERNING ANIMAL DISEASES. 107

HORSEPOX,

There was here satisfactory experimental demonstration that this
horse disease was identical with cowpox, but what was the horse dis-
ease? Lafosse at first considered it the early stage of the acute form
of grease, but as it developed he observed the confluent pustules
developing upon the pasterns and fetlocks, and afterwards dissemi-
nated over other parts of the body, particularly upon the lips and
nose. This differentiated the affection from grease and proved it to
be a specific eruptive disease. It was now plain why there had been
failure for so many years to obtain the cowpox vesicle by inoculating

‘with the discharge from greasy heels and fistulas of the feet. Two
entirely different and distinct diseases had been confoanded under
the same name.

These unexpected results obtained at Toulouse led H. Bouley, of*
the Alfort veterinary school, to undertake, in 1863, the inoculation
upon the cow of all eruptive diseases of the horse which by chance
came under his observation in his daily clinics. Strangely enough, the
very first disease that he inoculated produced a clearly defined case
of cowpox. What was this disease of the horse? It could not be
designated ‘‘sore heels,” since it was localized in the head, and con-
sisted of small blisters, the size of a pea, upon the mucous membrane
of the lips, the lower surface of the tongue, the inner face of the
cheeks, and the gums. There was no trace of the eruption except
within the mouth.

During the next few months this horse disease, which was capable
of generating cowpox, appeared in the clinics of Alfort under all the
various forms which it is capable of assuming. At one time localized
in the pasterns, as seen by Jenner, at other times affecting the hocks,
the general surface of the body, the nose, or the internal surface of
the mouth; it at first appeared inexplicable that all of these different -
manifestations of disease should produce cowpox when inoculated
upon the udders of bovine animals. ‘‘If I was able to recognize the
specific nature of the disease,” says Bouley, ‘“‘it was owing to the
course that I had adopted of interrogating by inoculation all the
eruptive es of the horse that the chances of the clinic brought
under my eyes.”

When all the evidence from these and other inoculation experiments

was brought together, it became plain that what had been regarded
as a number of distinct diseases was in reality but one and the same
contagion affecting different parts of the horse’s body. When this
contagion was transferred from animal to animal by the shoer in
handling the lower part of the limbs, the eruption was usually con-
fined to the pasterns and fetlocks. When the communication was by
means of the currycomb and brush, the pustules were disseminated
over the surface of the body, but appeared particularly where the skin
was thinnest and the virus most easily introduced, as upon the neck,

108 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF: AGRICULTURE,

thighs, and hocks. When the animal contracted the disease by
smelling of affected individuals or rubbing its nose against them, the
eruption very naturally occurred upon the skin of the lips and nose
and upon the mucous membrane of the interior of the nostrils. When
the virus was taken into the mouth with contaminated forage, the
vesicles appeared upon the mucous membrane of the lips, tongue, and
cheeks. And, finally, when the contagion was communicated by the
act of copulation, the eruption was seen upon the external organs of
generation. To this specific disease, which appeared under so many
forms, H. Bouley gave the appropriate name of horsepox.

RELATION OF SMALLPOX, COWPOX, AND HORSEPOX,

Whether the virus of this disease is taken from the horse or cow
and inoculated upon a susceptible human being, it produces substan-
tially the same effects—a characteristic vesicle with regular course of
development, which confers immunity, more or less complete, from
smallpox. This remarkable result has raised the question as to the
relation which exists between smallpox, on the one hand, and horsepox
and cowpox, on the other. Are these essentially one and the same
disease, due to contagion of the same origin, but which has been
modified by developing in different animal speeies for a series of
generations? or, are they distinct, different, and incapable of being
changed one into the other? There have been many investigations
made with a view of settling this question, which have been variously
interpreted, but for most pathologists it is probably still held as unde-
eided. The experiments upon animals as well as upon mankind
prove that cowpox grants immunity from smallpox and smallpox from
cowpox; and it is, therefore, reasonable to conclude that they are
closely related, if not identical, in origin. It has, however, been
shown to be very difficult, if not impossible, to transform smallpox
into cowpox by inoculating the virus upon a series of bovine animals,
and in the few cases where it is supposed that this was accomplished
there are reasons for doubting the correctness of the conclusion.

EXPERIMENTAL INOCULATIONS UPON ANIMALS AND CHILDREN,

What strikes the student of methods as most conclusive in the his-
tory of the development of our knowledge of variola is the prominence
of experimental inoculations upon animals and children. The clinical
observer had problems presented to him which he was unable to solve
by observation alone, and in order to clear up the mysteries and obtain
light he was obliged to combine experimentation with observation.
There are those, no doubt, who will be horrified by the references to
these experiments upon children, but it should be remembered that
at that period smallpox was the great destroyer of children; that they
were frequently and purposely exposed to it or inoculated with its
virus in order that they might have an attack at a favorable time and

KNOWLEDGE CONCERNING ANIMAL DISEASES. 109

obtain immunity. Smallpox inoculation, if not as common as the
vaccination of the present day, was certainly very largely practiced.
Under such circumstances, the inoculation of children with smallpox
virus, after they had been vaccinated with cowpox, is no more to be-
condemned than the general practice of inoculation, which before the
discovery of vaccination was so widely adopted and so useful as a
prophylactic measure.

CONTAGIOUS PLEURO-PNEUMONIA OF CATTLE.
SPREAD OF PLEURO-PNEUMONIA.

In the early part of the eighteenth century there began to appear
accounts of an acute lung disease of cattle, which affected these animals
in the mountains of Suabia and Switzerland. This disease very slowly
extended to adjacent parts of Germany, Italy, and France, and in
1769 the first really important investigation was made of it in France
by Bourgelat, the founder of the veterinary schools, who published
an excellent account of his observations. Bourgelat described what
he saw—the symptoms, the appearance of the diseased organs, the
course of the disease, and its fatal character. He considered that the
cause was atmospheric variations, cold and abundant rains, to which
the animals were exposed, and sudden passage from warm stables to
such rains. ‘There is no evidence that he suspected contagion.

During the wars of Napoleon the disease was considerably spread
over Continental Europe, but it was not until the increased traffie
and interchange of animals, which dates from about 1820, that its
general dissemination oceurred. From 1820 to 1840 it extended into
most parts of France and Germany. In 1826 Belgium was infected;
in 1833 it reached Holland; in 1839 it was carried from Holland to
Ireland; in 1841 or 1842 it reached England, and from there was
exported to Sweden in 1847. The contagion was brought to the
United States with imported cattle in 1843. It was carried to Spain in
1846, to Denmark in 1848, to South Africa in 1854, and to Australia
in 1858.

During all of these years there was a constant discussion and con-
test between the clinical observers as to whether the disease was of
spontaneous origin or whether it was due to contagion. Haller, in
1773, expounded the doctrine of contagion with a clearness and force
that is surprising, and stated that even in Switzerland, the home of
pleuro-pneumonia, this disease does not arise except by contagion.
In 1792 Chabert published his ‘‘ Instruction sur la peripneumonie,” in
which his great influence was thrown with those who believed in con-
tagion. Nevertheless, from 1800 to 1850 the conclusion that pleuro-
pneumonia was not a contagious disease steadily gained adherents.
During this long polemi¢ and period of uncertainty, sanitary regula-
tions were neglected, the plague spread to all parts of Europe, and
even invaded America. Before the experimental proofs of contagion

/

110 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT? OF AGRICULTURE.

were generally accepted tthe disease had been carried to the African
and Australian continents, and practically the whole cattle-producing
world was infected.

This brief history of the invasion of a large part of the world by
one of the most serious and fatal forms of contagion demonstrates
again the impossibility of determining such pathological problems by
mere observation, and yet we are told by those who oppose experi-
mentation upon living animals that the investigator must not experi-
ment, but must confine himself to clinical observation. Let us see
how the question as to the contagiousness of bovine pleuro-pneumonia
was finally solved.

INVESTIGATIONS OF PLEURO-PNEUMONIA IN EUROPE,

In 1850 the prevalence of the disease had become so serious that
Dumas, then minister of agriculture, commerce, and public works of
France, appointed a commission to investigate its nature and cause.
This commission at once proceeded to test the contagiousness of
pleuro-pneumonia by experimentation. 'Todetermine the question as
to whether the disease could be communicated from a sick to a well ani-
mal, they adopted the plan of introducing sick animals into a stable
of healthy ones and noting what followed. The result of this experi-
ment was that 50 per cent of the exposed animals contracted pleuro-
pneumonia—15 per cent died and 35 per cent recovered. In addition,
30 per cent of the exposed animals contracted a cough indicative of a
very mild form of the disease, while 20 per cent appeared to entirely
resist the influence of the contagion. It is this 20 per cent, remarked
H. Bouley, which furnished the facts upon which rest the arguments
of the noncontagionists.

In Great Britain there was a similar difference of opinion on the
subject of contagion, and as late as 1859 an article was published in
the Transactions of the Highland Agricultural Society of Scotland,
written by Professor Dick, principal of the Edinburgh Veterinary
College, in which he tried to prove that pleuro-pneumonia is produced
by atmospheric causes, but not by contagion.

A commission appointed in Prussia to investigate the cause and
method of transmission of this disease reported in 1852, through Ulrich,
that it was certainly contagious.

Notwithstanding this and much other experimental work, there
were many in all countries who refused to accept the evidence, and,
basing their conclusions upon clinical observation, they insisted that
the disease was of spontaneous origin and not due to contagion. This
contest over the cause of the disease led to intense opposition to
suppressive measures and permitted the continued spread and destrue-
tive effects of the contagion. In Australia the contagion might have
been stamped out if proper measures had been promptly enforeed,
but this seems to have been prevented by the obstinacy and active

KNOWLEDGE CONCERNING ANIMAL DISEASES. LT]

opposition of the noncontagionists. A pleuro-pneumonia commission
was appointed to investigate the question of contagion, and while
the commission investigated and gathered observations to establish
the noncontagiousness of the disease the contagion leaped beyond the
possibility of control, and to this day (1899) its ravages unfortunately
continue among the herds of that great cattle-producing continent.

The members of the Australian commission were to a man noncon-
tagionists, and they labored with all the strength of a preconceived
opinion to prove their side of the controversy. They fetched healthy
cows from Tasmania, where pleuro-pneumonia had never been, placed
them in stalls beside diseased animals, inoculated them in various
erucial ways, and then declared their inability to communicate the
fever by contagion. They reported the result to the legislature, and
based upon their failure an advice deprecating any further legislative
interference. And yet the Government printer’s ink was hardly dry
upon their report when a counter report came from the butchers of
Geelong, who had bought for slaughter the experimental bullocks,
that the animals were all diseased, unfit for human food, and demanding
back their money.!

While the methods of this commission can hardly be taken as a
model in all respects for scientific investigations, the evidence finally
obtained from their experiments was nevertheless convincing, and,
although the critical period when the disease might have been stamped
out was allowed to pass without decisive action, the contagiousness
of the disease is no longer seriously contested.

INVESTIGATIONS OF PLEURO-PNEUMONIA IN THE UNITED STATES.

In the United States the experience with pleuro-pneumonia was
almost parallel with what oecurred in Australia. Introduced in the
vicinity of New York City in 1843, the disease appears to have been
regarded as due to climatic conditions rather than contagion, and
was allowed to slumber without attracting much attention until it
was investigated by Gamgee in 1868 and 1869. In the meantime an
importation of cattle from Holland had carried the disease to Massa-
chusetts in May, 1859. Although the nature of the disease was
recognized and brought to the attention of the legislature, the conta-
gion was allowed to spread for a year before authority was granted
for its suppression. It was then necessary to slaughter 932 animals
to dispose of all that were known to be exposed.

A year later it was found that some affected animals had eluded the
commission and that the disease still existed. There now began a
most remarkable series of delays, obstructions, and efforts on the part
of misguided persons to prevent the eradication of the plague. Com-
missioners were appointed who did not believe in the existence of a
contagious disease. The governor directed that experiments be made

1 Veterinarian, 1875, p. 681.

112 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

to test the question of contagion, and, as so frequently happens where
scientific methods are not used, these were unsatisfactory. In 1864
the board of commissioners had again been reorganized and experi-
ments were still in progress to test the contagiousness and curability
of the disease. In 1865-66 it was stated that the commissioners had
been so far successful that but few cases had occurred during the
year. The experiments also seem to have had positive results, as it
was reported that of six animals exposed four had certainly contracted
the disease. In the report for 1866-67 the commissioners announce
the extinction of the disease, the last cases having occurred in October,
1865. A

The contagion which was imported at New York was, however,
allowed to exist and spread until, in 1879, an effort was made by the
States of New York and New Jersey to eradicate it from their terri-
tory. At this time the infection existed in Connecticut, New York,
New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, District of Columbia, and
Virginia. The efforts of the States were not well sustained and resulted
unsuccessfully, though they served to attract attention to the danger
which constantly menaced our eattie industry. The realization of
this danger led Congress in 1884 to establish the federal Bureau of
Animal Industry, the principal object in view being the investigation
of the disease and the adoption of measures for its control.

There has been much skepticism expressed by influential persons as
to the existence of pleuro-pneumonia in the United States, and doubt
as to its contagious character in case the disease were found. Opin-
ions of this nature were so freely declared that the Commissioner of
Agriculture deemed it advisable to direct an experiment to be made
which would once for all settle these questions. According to his
instructions, new stables were erected upon an island easily accessible
from the city of New York. There were but fifteen native cattle
upon this island, and there was no history of any disease ever having
appeared among them. When the stables were completed eighteen
cows and thirteen calves were brought direct from Canada, a section
where no disease having symptoms at all simulating those of pleuro-
pneumonia had been observed, and were placed in the stables erected
for this experiment. These animals were thoroughly examined by
experts and found to be entirely healthy.

It was believed that by selecting an island where no lung disease of
cattle had been known, in building new stables on well-drained land,
and in bringing healthy cattle from a country where the disease had
never been observed, the conditions of the experiment were such that
the results would be absolutely reliable. To expose these animals in
such a manner as to test the contagiousness of the malady, five cows
selected in the city of Brooklyn as being affected with conta-
gious pleuro-pneumonia were placed in the stable with the healthy
Canadian cattle. As a result of this exposure by close association,

a

KNOWLEDGE CONCERNING ANIMAL DISEASES. FS

twenty-two of the thirty-one experimental animals contracted pleuro-
pneumonia between September 30, 1884, and January 3, 1885, a period
of less than three and one-half months.

This experiment was convincing as to the existence.and contagious-
ness of the disease. Within a comparatively short period 71 per cent
of the exposed animals had become affected, and with a number of
these the attacks were very acute and typical in symptoms and
development, while the appearances of the lungs after the death of

the animals were perfectly characteristie.
SUCCESS OF EXPERIMENTAL EXPOSURES AND INOCULATIONS.

This ended the experimentation with pleuro-pneumonia in the
United States and furnished an incontestable basis for the rigorous
sanitary measures which led to the final eradication of the contagion.
What must appear to every reader as remarkable is the doubt as to
the contagiousness of the disease which was so tenaciously held in
every affected country. It appears as though clinical observation
led more people to erroneous conclusions than to correct ones. And
where such differences of opinion resulted from observation, how was
the truth to be known? In every country the resort was finally to
experimental exposures and inoculations, and the results of these
have been clear and satisfactory. The measures formulated in har-
mony with the conclusions drawn from the experiments have been
successful in extirpating the disease from the United States, Great
Britain, and other countries, and the question of its contagiousness
appears forever settled.

There have been numerous other questions that have been investi-
gated, and the effort to discover the active agent of the contagion has
been persistent and thorough. It has long been known that the serum,
or exudate, of the diseased lung was virulent, and it has been exten-
sively used for inoculation with the purpose of conferring imma-
nity. The microscopic examination of this serum and the attempts
to make cultures from it by the ordinary bacteriological methods
failed to reveal any microorganism, and it is only recently that appar-
ent success has been obtained by making such cultures in collodion
capsules placed in the abdominal cavity of an animal a sufficient time
for multiplication to take place. The microorganism obtained was
much smaller than any previously discovered and could not be
defined with existing powers-of the microscope.

ANTHRAX (OR CHARBON).

Accounts have come down to us from the earliest historical times of
outbreaks of a plague affecting man and most species of animals
which are identified by students of this subject with the disease now
known as anthrax, carbuncular fever, malignant pustule, or charbon.
Whether the plague deseribed. by Homer in the first book of Iliad and

2 A499 8

114 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the sixth plague of the Egyptians were or were not manifestations of
anthrax may be epen to some question; but by the beginning of the
Christian era the descriptions became so clear that there is no reason
to doubt the prevalence of anthrax at that period with substantially
the same characteristics as it presents at the present day. During
the long period of the middle ages frequent outbreaks are noted,
which, with the revival of learning and the increasing attention given
to professional studies, were more often mentioned. The eighteenth
century is remarkable for the large number of epizootics of this
nature which occurred in Europe.

' EARLY DESCRIPTIONS OF ANTHRAX.

As might be expected, the diagnosis at that period was far less accu-
rate than to-day, and it is not difficult to perceive that widely differ-
ent diseases were sometimes confounded under the single term of
anthrax. Thus, rinderpest was confused with anthrax during the
eighteenth century and as late as the second quarter of the nineteenth,
while blackleg, or symptomatic anthrax, and malignant cedema have
only been differentiated from it in recent years by bacteriological
researches.

Chabert (1782) gave the first systematic description of the disease
and pointed out the symptoms which were peculiar to it. He
described three forms: (1) Anthrax fever, or internal anthrax, char-
acterized by fever without external swellings; (2) essential anthrax,
manifested by external swellings without preceding general symp-
toms; (3) symptomatic anthrax, characterized by fever followed by
external swellings. The dark color of the blood and flesh, together
with the severity of the symptoms, and the rapid course and fatal
termination, were characters recognized from the earliest antiquity.

INVESTIGATIONS REGARDING THE CAUSE OF ANTHRAX.

As there are numerous and extensive districts where anthrax has
been endemic and enzootic from time immemorial, and as it attacks
nearly all varieties of animals and is readily contracted by man in
caring for diseased animais, skinning carcasses, making post-mortem
examinations, eating the infected flesh, handling the skins, or sorting
the wool, the great number of cases attracted much attention and led
to constant efforts to discover the cause. The various investigators
attributed the origin of the disease to about every condition to which
the animals could possibly have been exposed. Some taught that it
was due to small, badly ventilated, and unsanitary stables; others
that it was caused by food of bad quality, forage and grain too
recently harvested, or covered with rusts or molds; still others attrib-
uted it to the herbage of artificial pastures, clover, lucern, and corn;
yet another class found its origin in atmospherie conditions, such as
excessive heat and moisture; while, finally, there were those who,

|

KNOWLEDGE CONCERNING ANIMAL DISEASES. 115

rejecting all of these conditions, found what they believed to be the
true cause in the conditions of the soil, that is, in the moisture, the
clay, and the lime, which were believed to coincide with the areas in
which the disease was enzootic.

Renault and Reynal, authors of the article on charbon, in the
‘Nouveau Dictionnaire de Médecine, de chirurgie et Vhygiene vétéri-
naires,” writing as late as 1857, after recapitulating these various
theories, naively admitted that ‘‘the causes which give birth te
anthrax are still enveloped in a certain obscurity, in spite of the
researches of which they have been the object. Perhaps, even, it is
true to say that this obscurity results from the large number of these
researches and the different points of view of the observers who sought
to study this disease. In fact there are almost as many special and
different causes which have been assigned to it as there are particu-
lar treatises on the subject. It is here, above all, that the old aphorism
is true: Quot homines, tot sententiz [minds as many as the men].”

Nevertheless, from the beginning of the century physicians had
observed that certain malignant pustules in man originated by acci-
dental inoculation from animals affected with anthrax, or from their
carcasses, and Barthélemy, in 1823, succeeded in producing the dis-
ease in horses and sheep by inoculation and feeding with anthrax
blood. The following year Leuret communicated the disease by trans-
fusion of blood from a diseased to a healthy horse.

These positive results were explained away by comparing them with
the effects which follow inoculation with putrefying animal matters,
and the most that was gained was the assumption of the putrid nature
of the anthrax virus.

In 1836 Eilert obtained infection in every case by inoculation of
blood from sheep to sheep, from sheep to horses, and from cows to
sheep. The feeding of clover hay which had been moistened with
infectious blood and afterwards dried in the sun killed two sheep out
of three.

One of the studies of this disease was made in 1842, under the diree-
tion of the French minister of agriculture, by Delafond, an exeeed-
ingly able professor of the Alfort veterinary school. There had been
for many years an enzootic disease affecting the sheep of La Beauce,
provinee of Eure-et-Loir. This is a district with fertile soil, favorable
to animal production, and where sheep are raised and fed in large
numbers. There was but one obstacle to the maintenance of this
industry in a prosperous condition—the presence of the disease known
as sang, coup de sang, maladie de sang, or sang de rate, which
destroyed 20 per cent of the animals annually. The first fact observed
by Delafond after reaching this section was that the disease most fre-
quently attacked the animals which were youngest, which had been
thriving in the highest degree, and which promised to be the best in
the flock. Considering this fact in connection with the fertility of

116 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the soil, the abundance and the quality of the crops, and the liberal-
ity of the feeding, Delafond reached the conclusion that the disease
was only a condition of plethora, an excess of blood circulating in the
veins, and, above all, a predominance of red globules in this liquid.
He analyzed the soil, proving its fertility favorable to the production
of forage rich in nutritive principles; he analyzed the blood, showing
this to contain a high percentage of albumin, fibrin, and red globules;
he analyzed the plant food and found this, as he predicted, having a
hich nutritive value; he examined the sick animals and the carcasses
of the dead ones, finding the distended blood vessels, the thickness of
the blood, the frequent hemorrhages, the swollen spleen, the conges-
tion and dark color of the other organs, all apparently uniting to
establish his theory that the disease was plethora, caused by too rich
and too abundant food. The frequent development of malignant
pustules in persons who handled the dead carcasses or their products
he explained as due to a septic or anthracoid alteration of the blood,
resulting from insufficient ventilation of the stables and the inhalation
of putrefactive gases.

H. Bouley afterwards remarked concerning the above report:

Nothing proves better than this document, remarkable for the logic of its
deductions, but the premises of which were a fundamental error, how difficult it is
to seize and interpret the relations of things when one has no other basis for
judgment than that which observation alone can furnish. Delafond had founda
part of the truth when he established a relation between the food supply and the
aptitude of the sheep to contract the disease. But observation could not conduct
him further and give him an accurate notion of this maladie de sang. It was
necessary to resort to experimentation, and it was because he did not invoke this
me.hod that his researches led him into error, and that he only saw plethora in

this disease of La Beauce, the identity of which with anthrax was soon afterwards
recognized.

It was but ten years later (1852) that Boutet read before the Acad-
emy of Medicine of France a report of an experimental study of this
disease of La Beauce. He showed that the disease might be com-
municated by inoculation, by transfusion of blood, by direct contact,
and exceptionally by cohabitation. It was not only communicable
to sheep, but to horses, cattle, and rabbits. The sang de rate of. the
sheep, the sang, or anthrax fever, of cattle, the anthrax fever of the
horse, the malignant pustule of man were shown by these inoculation
experiments to be one and the same disease. It was also shown that
the contagion resided in all the organs and liquids of the body and
that it might be inoculated from animal to animal indefinitely without
losing its virulence. Here at last was something definite and tangible
in regard to this disease, a foundation of fact upon which to build by
future researches.

In 1845 and 1846 Gerlach had published papers giving accounts of
further experiments proving the contagiousness of anthrax and show-
ing the persistence of the contagion in the soil three years after the

KNOWLEDGE CONCERNING ANIMAL DISEASES. Lit

burial of carcasses of animals dead of this disease. In 1850 Rayer and
Davaine ealled attention for the first time to the presence in anthrax
blood of small filiform bodies, in length about twice the diameter of a
blood globule and without spontaneous movements. In 1855 Pollen-
dar stated that he had observed since 1849 the little rods mentioned
by Rayer and Davaine, and that they possessed the histochemical reae-
tion of a vegetable substance. He was unable to determine whether
there existed any relation between the presence of these bodies and
the virulence. These rod-like bodies were again mentioned by Braueil
in 1857, who not only observed them in the blood of men and animals
which had died of anthrax, but saw them in the blood before death,
and concluded that their presence confirmed the diagnosis and war-
ranted the prediction of early death. Brauell did not suspect that
these bodies caused the disease, but, on the contrary, was of the opin--
ion that they were transformed after death into the mobile vibrios of
putrefaction.

In 1860 these little rods of charbon were studied by Delafond, who.
confirmed their significance in the diagnosis and prognosis of the dis-
ease when they were found in the blood of sick animals. He observed,
further, that when the blood containing these bodies was preserved in
small glass vessels in contact with the air they developed in the course
of four days to two or three times their original length, while preserv-
ing about the same diameter. In eight or ten days their length was
quadrupled or quintupled. These experiments having satisfactorily
demonstrated that the anthrax filaments were an organic vegetable
substance, he tried to obtain a complete development of this organ-
ism, that is, to make it produce spores or grains. In this he failed,
but he concluded it was extremely probable that there circulated some
time before death in the blood of animals affected with anthrax, mul-
tiplying prodigiously, vegetable filaments which might develop when
the blood was drawn from the veins and placed in conditions favor-
able to vegetation, producing a very remarkable mycelium formed
of numerous delicate filaments. He did not dare to decide whether
the anthrax rods were the cause or the effect of the disease. Nocard
and Leclainche remarked that the sarcasm with which these too
advanced views were received is sufficient to explain his timid
hesitation.

APPLICATION OF THE GERM THEORY TO ANTHRAX.

The publication in 1859 of Pasteur’s memoir on butyric fermenta-
tion threw new light upon the development and effects of the micro-
organisms, and led Davaine to apply the “‘germ theory ” to anthrax,
which he did in papers published during the years 1863 and 1864.

. This was a great step in advance, as previous to that time there was
not only ignorance of the cause of anthrax, but of all contagious dis-
eases. The nature of contagion was the béte noire of the medical
profession. It was the one thing that appeared unattainable, either

118 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

through the reagents of the chemist or the apparatus of the mieros-
copist. There is consequently no need for wonder that when an
investigator claimed to have pierced the impenetrable veil that for
all time had shrouded this subject, he was met with the most pro-
nounced skepticism and the keenest criticism.

For thirteen years the discussion continued without much progress
either against or in favor of the new theory. New facts were pro-
duced, some of which apparently had a bearing in one direction and
some in the other. Davaine’s conclusion was still but a hypothesis
or conjecture without positive evidence to sustain it. This was the
condition of the subject when Koch published his remarkably able
paper on the subject in 1876. He began by a study of the biology of
the anthrax rods, finding that in the liquids of living animals they
multiplied rapidly by lengthening and dividing, and that although he
inoculated them from mouse to mouse for twenty consecutive times,
no other forms were produced. In the blood and juices of dead ani-
mals or other favorable nutritive liquids, with admission of air and
between certain extremes of temperature, they grew into extraordi-
narily long threads, with the formation of numerous spores. These
spores, placed in a suitable liquid under favorable conditions, germi-
nate and produce again the bacillus threads.

The bacillus threads or filaments are delicate and easily destroyed.
A few days in an unfavorable temperature, a similar period deprived
of air, diluting the fluid containing them with a large quantity of
water, or drying the substances containing them was sufficient to
destroy their vitality. On the other hand, the spores are very resist-
ant, and when once formed are capable of existence under the most
unfavorable conditions. These facts furnished the clew by which
Koch was able to demonstrate the agency of this particular organism
in causing the disease known as anthrax.

When fresh anthrax blood was preserved without contact with the
air till the filaments died, the fiuid at once lost the power of commu-
nicating the disease, as shown by inoculation experiments. On the
other hand, with the admission of air under otherwise identical con-
ditions, the organism grew, formed spores, and the liquid retained its
virulence indefinitely. Again, by admitting air, but by keeping the
fluid in a temperature of 8° R., which prevented the formation of
spores before the rods died, the virulence was again lost. So by dry-
ing rapidly or by diluting with much water the death of the bacilli
resulted and the activity of the liquid disappeared. Koch further
showed that when spores had once formed, neither cold, nor depriva-
tion of oxygen, nor drying, nor dilution with water any longer
destroyed the virulence of the anthrax liquids.

Iiere was a scientific demonstration of the identity of this miero-
organism with the active principle of the infectious liquids. It showed
that while the bacillus or its spores retained vitality the contagion

——

—_—

KNOWLEDGE CONCERNING ANIMAL DISEASES. 118

existed, and when the bacillus lost its vitality without forming spores
the contagion disappeared. The connection between the bacillus and
the contagion was established beyond reasonable doubt.

The publication of these facts placed the germ theory of contagion
upon a solid foundation which neither the storms of criticism nor the
earthquakes of negative evidence have been able to destroy.

The first objection raised to this theory was that when the blood
first becomes virulent no bacilli can be discovered by the most careful
microscopical examinations; if the bacilli were the cause of the dis-
ease they should be apparent as soon as the blood is capable of com-
muni¢ating it by inoculation. Pasteur explained this facet as due to
the difficulty of discovering ene or two bacilli in such a large surface
as is made by a drop of blood under the higher-power lenses. For
instance, a drop of blood pressed flat between the objeet glass and*
thin cover presents a surface of one-half inch in diameter; this mag-
nified only 500 diameters gives a surface with a diameter of 20 feet.
And this is sufficient to fill the field of vision nearly 1,800 times. The
accuracy of this explanation was proved with culture experiments, by
showing that whenever the blood was virulent a drop of this blood
added toa suitable culture liquid would produce an abundant growth
of the bacillus.

The distinguished investigator, Paul Bert, took up the subject, and
read a paper before the Académie des Sciences, in which he showed
that compressed oxygen, which was supposed to kill all living things,
did not destroy the anthrax virus, and that blood treated with it
would still yield an alcoholic extract capable of producing anthrax.
Now, absolute alcohol, as well as compressed oxygen, had been sup-
posed to be fatal to all life. If, then, the virus survived both the
action of compressed oxygen and solution in alcohol, he reasoned it
was because it was not a living organism, but a chemical agent
allied, perhaps, to diastase.

Once more the genius of Pasteur was equal to the occasion, and he
demonstrated, to the satisfaction of Bert, that although the bacilli
were destroyed by the agents he had used, their spores were not.
Ile subjected Bert’s alcoholic extract to microscopie examination and
proved the presence of large numbers of these spores. Bert after-
wards found that such spores preserved for five months in ordinary
alcohol were as virulent as at first.

THE GERM THEORY ESTABLISHED,

The great contest over the germ theory of disease was settled by
the experiments reported in 1876 and 1877, and the way was open to
apply this great discovery to practical medicine. What a revolution
in medical thought and practice has resulted can only be appreciated
by comparing the text of medical works of twenty-five years ago with
that of the present day. There were some individuals, however, who

120 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

could not understand the difference between positive and negative
evidence, and who did not for years fully grasp the fact that the germ
theory was established. These persons continued to raise objections,
and some of them are still telling us that investigators have gone mad
over bacteriological studies and that the whole structure which they
have raised during the last quarter of this century is doomed to erum-
ble and disappear. Such objectors can have little effect upon the
progress of science at this day, since every student has learned that
a fact once established by positive evidence is as solid as the moun-
tains and endures for all time; yet, many will die without accepting
the germ theory, just as numerous contemporaries of Harvey died
disbelieving in the circulation of the blood, but the recorded facts
and the demonstrations of the germ theory will stand, as Harvey’s
diseovery has stood, and it is as fruitless to inveigh against them as
to attempt to sweep back the rising tide with a broom.

Many practical results in the treatment of anthrax outbreaks have
followed the discovery that it is caused by a particular microscopic
organism which we now know as the Bacillus anthracis. It has been
recognized that this bacillus may multiply in the soil and in stagnant
water; that its spores may retain their vitality and virulence after
remaining in the earth for many years; that these spores form in the
carcasses of dead animals and are brought to the surface from the
pits where such carcasses are buried through the agency of earth-
worms; that disinfection, as it was practiced previous to 1876, was
ineffectual in destroying the spores of this microbe, and that more
active agents were required; that the essential condition which keeps
up the disease is not the character of the soil, not the condition of
the atmosphere, not the defects of the stable, but the presence of the
bacillus in the soil of the pastures and upon the forage gathered from
infected fields; and, finaily, that the bacillus may be attenuated and
form a vaccine which will in most cases grant immunity and protect
animals from the infection. The use of this vaccine is increasing,
and has reduced the mortality in the infected districts from an aver-
age of 10 per cent with sheep to less than 1 per cent, and from 5 per
cent with cattle to less than one-half of 1 per cent.

BLACKLEG (SYMPTOMATIC ANTHRAX).

This disease, which is characterized by a rapidly developing swell-
ing, with the abundant formation of gas in the tissues of the affected
part, is seen principally in cattle, and until reeent years was supposed
to be identical in cause and nature with anthrax fever. The swelling
appears most frequently in the upper part of the limbs, and when cut
into is found filled with blood and very dark in color; hence, the name
blackleg, by which it is commonly known in the United States. It is
a common disease and almost invariably fatal.

KNOWLEDGE CONCERNING ANIMAL DISEASES. 123i

DESCRIPTIONS OF BLACKLEG FROM OBSERVATIONS.

When Chabert wrote his classical description of anthrax in 1782, as
we have already seen, he divided it into three clinieal forms: (1) An-
thrax fever, or internal anthrax; (2) essential anthrax, manifested by
external swellings without preceding symptoms of fever; (3) symp-
tomatic anthrax, beginning with fever and soon followed by external
swellings. In the first division there could only be included eases of
true anthrax, but in the second and third divisions there were brought
together those forms of anthrax in which the virus penetrated the
skin or mucous membrane and formed a visible swelling at the point
of entrance, and also the swellings due to the contagion of an entirely
distinct disease now known as blackleg, or symptomatie anthrax.

In general, the anthrax swellings precede the fever, while with black-
leg the swellings frequently precede and often follow the fever.
Chabert’s classification, while a great advance from the ideas of his
predecessors, was in this respect artificial and inaccurate, but was
nevertheless the accepted interpretation of the facts for nearly a
century.

There was little advance in the knowledge of this subject until 1856,
when Walraff described an emphysematous form of anthrax, thus
calling attention to the essential difference between the clinical symp-
toms of the anthrax and blackleg tumors, but he apparently did not
suspect that they were distinct diseases. Bollinger in 1873 and Feser
in 1875 pointed out marked differences, and Schindler and Weber in
1876 again called attention to the disease characterized by these
emphysematous, or gaseous, tumors, and expressed their opinion that
it should be differentiated from anthrax, since no case of its trans-
mission to man had been observed, although the skins of affected
animals were utilized, and the flesh even was consumed by the inhab-
itants of the infected districts in the Alps.

These opinions were not generally accepted, or at the best were
regarded as of the nature of conjectures rather than demonstrations.

The divergent views expressed by different authorities and the
apparent inconsistency of the observations served to increase the con-
fusion rather than to bring order and light into the controversy. It
had been observed that anthrax fever was often communicated to the
men who handled the carcasses or skins of animals which had died of
the disease, and that such accidents never occurred from the emphy-
sematous tumors of symptomatic anthrax. In attempting to learn
the reason for the transmission in one case and apparent noneconta-
giousness in the other, when both were regarded as essentially the
same disease, inoculation experiments were made which showed that
anthrax fever was regularly communicated from animal to animal by
inoculation with the blood of an affected animal, while the blood of
animals affected with symptomatic anthrax was not virulent, and
material from the diseased tissues failed to communicate the disease

122 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

in the great majority of cases. Did these facts indicate that two dis-
tinct and separate diseases existed where but one had previously been
recognized ? or, did they simply mean that in anthrax fever the disease
was generalized and the contagion circulating throughout the body,
while in symptomatic anthrax the contagion was localized in the
swelling, which was the principal symptom of the morbid condition,
and that it was here modified by septic complications?

THE NATURE OF ANTHRAX DEMONSTRATED BY EXPERIMENTS,

This question could not be answered by observation alone, nor were
those who attacked it by experimentation able to solve the difficulties
until the inspiration which followed from the investigations of Koch
and Pasteur pointed the way. The demonstration that the Bacdllus
anthracis is the cause of anthrax fever, the clear description of its
form and biological characters which enabled the investigator to
identify it with certainty, and the methods of cultivating and study-
ing bacteria introduced at this period made it possible for Arloing,
Cornevin, and Thomas to earry out the brilliant series of experiments
which demonstrated that anthrax fever and symptomatic anthrax
were entirely different and distinct diseases.

These investigators published their first paper in 1879, three years
after Koch had shown that anthrax fever was caused by the Bacillus
anthracis, and when it was well known that the bacillus was easily
found in the blood and tissues of animals which had died of that disease.
They announced that careful microscopic examination and cultures,
according to Pasteur’s method, failed to reveal the Bacillus anthracis
in the tumors or in the blood of animals affected with blackleg either
before or after death. They also made thirty-four inoculations, using
three young cattle, three sheep, two horses, and twenty-six rabbits
and mice. All of these failed to communicate the disease. They
therefore concluded that neither the blood nor the liquids of the
tumors or affected lymphatic glands, in cases of symptomatic anthrax,
contained either the Bacillus anthracis or its spores.

In later communications it was shown that blackleg is inoculable
from animal to animal, and that the failures of the earlier inoct-
lation experiments were partly due to the use of insusceptible animals.
Cattle, sheep, goats, and guinea pigs readily contract the disease.
Horses, swine, dogs, cats, rabbits, and fowls are either immune or
have a great power of resistanee toward this virus. Even cattle, the
species in which this malady develops most frequently under natural
conditions, are not susceptible at allages. Calves under three months
old and cattle over four years were found -to have a high resisting
power.

It was also necessary to determine experimentally the parts of the
body in which the virusexisted in most concentrated form. The blood
is not virulent until just before death, and then, like the serum from the

KNOWLEDGE CONCERNING ANIMAL DISEASES. 23

tissues surrounding the tumors, often fails to communicate the disease.
The liquid of greatest virulence is obtained from the most discolored
and darkest parts of the tumor, though the bile and amniotic liquid
are both quite active. Further, it was found that a certain dose of
virus must be used, and that this should be inserted into favorable
portions of the body in order to obtain uniform results.

Microseopie study of the virulent liquids revealed the constant pres-
ence of a rod-shaped microorganism, which is endowed with power of
active motion and having in many cases a spore at oneend. The first
attempts to cultivate this germ were not successful. It would not
multiply in the presence of oxygen, as it belonged to that class of
organisms known as anaerobic, and it required liquids of special com-
position to favor its growth. These difficulties overcome, it was found
that the bacillus could be grown through many generations and

retain its virulence indefinitely with proper conditions of environ- ~

ment.
BLACKLEG AND ANTHRAX COMPARED,

The bacillus of blackleg differs remarkably in some respects from
that ofanthrax. While the former isanaerobie and forms spores within
the body of the living animal, the latter is aerobic and can only form
spores after it has come in contact with the air. These peculiarities
in the microbes explain the remarkable differences in the resisting
powers of the two forms of virus under varying conditions. Thespore
being the resting stage of the bacillus and the form in which it is most
resistant to unfavorable conditions, it is clear that, if this micro-
organism is the true cause of the virulence, the virus should retain its
active properties longer and be more difficult of destruction when it
contains spores than when rods alone exist. This is exactly what was
found to be the case, and it explains why a disinfectant which will
destroy the contagion at one time will not do so at another.

The contagion in fresh anthrax liquids, as they contain no spores,
is destroyed in a few minutes by a temperature of 58° C., while fresh
blackleg virus, always containing spores, requires a temperature of
100° C. for twenty minutes to produce the same effect. And on
account of this ever-present spore the blackleg virus more surely
resists the influence of putrefaetion and other unfavorable condi-
tions, and is therefore one of the most diffieult to eradicate of all the
known forms of contagion.

Comparing anthrax and blackleg experimentally, it was found that
the former was easily communieated by searifications or pricking the
skin with a lancet charged with the virus, while the latter was only
exceptionally transmitted in this manner. When inoculated into the
connective tissue the loeal lesion produced by anthrax virus in most
eases consisted of a small inflammatory area, with slight accompany-
ing cedema, while blackleg virus similarly inoculated caused an enor-
mous swelling, with abundant cdema. Again, the inoculation with

124 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

anthrax virus into the veins is more dangerous than when inserted
into the connective tissue, and is fatal with infinitesimal doses. On
the contrary, blackleg virus may be inoculated into the veins in much
larger doses than into the connective tissue without producing fatal
effects. It was shown that one attack of either of these diseases
granted immunity from that particular contagion, but that an attack
of anthrax did not protect from blackleg nor did an attack of black-
leg protect from anthrax.

REMEDY FOR BLACKLEG.

The above experimental studies consequently established the fact
beyond controversy that two distinct diseases had previously been
grouped together; that the germs of these two diseases were distinct
and very different in their biological characters, and that different
measures were required for their control.

These investigators did not stop at this point, however, but con-
tinued their researches with a view of finding a prophylactic treat-
ment. The remarkable suecess of Pasteur in attenuating the virus
of anthrax and fowl cholera led them to endeavor to produce an
attenuated virus, or vaecine, for blackleg. This was finally accom-
plished by drying the virulent flesh and afterwards reducing it toa
powder and subjecting it toa temperature between 85° and 100° C,
for a sufficient time to properly reduce its activity. This vaccine,
perfected by years of experience, is now in use in most parts of the
world. It is supplied by the Bureau of Animal Industry to the stoek
raisers of the United States to the extent of half a million doses a
year, and where used has reduced the losses on infected pastures from
10, 15, or 20 per cent, which annually occurred before using, to less
than 1 per cent per annum.

This great practical triumph in the control of an infectious disease
is due entirely to the application of the experimental method. With-
out experiments upon living animals and confined to clinical observa-
tion, it was impossible to.determine whether anthrax and blackleg
were essentially identical in nature or whether they were distinct dis-
eases, and much less was it possible to isolate and identify the germ
or so to change the activity of this organism as to transform it from
one of the most deadly organisms to a harmless protective vaccine.

TEXAS FEVER, SPLENETIC FEVER, OR SOUTHERN CATTLE FEVER,
HISTORY OF TEXAS FEVER.

In 1814 we find the first known accounts of a disease being dissem-
inated by apparently healthy cattle from certain districts in the
Southern States when these cattle were driven North to market.
Attention was at that time ealled to this phenomenon by Dr. James
Mease in a lecture before the Philadelphia Society for Promoting
Agriculture, who stated that the cattle from a certain district in South

~

KNOWLEDGE CONCERNING ANIMAL DISEASES. 125

Carolina so certainly diseased all others with which they mixed in
their progress to the North that they were prohibited by the people
of Virginia from passing through the State; that these cattle affected
others while they themselves were in perfect health, and that cattle
from Europe or the interior taken to the vicinity of the sea were
attacked by a disease that generally proved fatal. In a paper read
before the same society in 1825 he says: ‘‘ The circumstance of cattle
from a certain district in South Carolina affecting others with this
disease has long been known.”

The precise locality from which these cattle originated, or its extent,
he was, however, unable to ascertain, notwithstanding inquiries upon
the subject.

Dr. Mease gave an account of an outbreak of this disease which
occurred in 1796 in Laneaster County, Pa., as a result of South Caro-
lina cattle being brought and sold there. These cattle were penned
over night in a plowed field and did not come in contact with the
cattle on the farm; nevertheless, the latter commenced dying a short
time afterwards. In every instance where sold they communicated
the disease to the cattle with which they mixed. The symptoms were
loss of appetite and weakness of the limbs, amounting to inability to
stand; when they fell, they would tremble and groan violently. Some
discharged bloody urine, others bled at the nose. Onbeing opened the
kidneys were found inflamed and sometimes ina state of suppuration.

Many similar outbreaks occurred in North Carolina, Virginia, and
Maryland in the first half of the century, but the accounts of them
are too meager to be of use. Legislation was enacted in North Caro-
lina, however, as early as 1837 to prevent the driving of cattle into
that State from either South Carolina or Georgia between the first day
of April and the first day of November; also, to prevent cattle from
being driven from those parts of North Carolina, where the soil is
sandy and the natural production or growth of timber is the long-
leafed pine, into or through any of the highland parts of the State,
where the soil or growth of timber is of a different kind, between the
dates already mentioned.

Very little more was heard of this disease until about 1850, when
cattle bred in Texas began to be driven through Arkansas, Missouri,
and Kansas for distribution to feeders in those and other Western
States. A mysterious and highly fatal disease then appeared along
the great roads, highways, or trails over which these cattle were
driven, destroying about 50 per cent of all the native cattle. Persons
living near the fording places lost as high as 90 per cent. It was two
years before the origin of this disease was traced to the Southern cattle.

From 1856 to 1860 many Texas cattle were driven into the States of
Kansas, Missouri, Kentucky, Iowa, and Illinois, and it was stated that
the native stock in the sections to which they were taken were swept
away by a ‘“‘dry murrain.” An epizootic under such circumstances

126 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

was so unexpected and contrary to all previous experience that at
first the source of the disease was not suspected, and when the South-
ern cattle were accused there were many who looked upon their pres-
ence aS a mere coincidence. However, by 1861 the conviction that
Texas cattle disseminated disease became so strong that laws were
enacted by the States of Kansas, Missouri, Kentucky, and Illinois
regulating the movements of Southern cattle.

The disease ceased in these States during the civil war and its ray-
ages had apparently been forgotten, when it reappeared during 1866,
1867, and 1868 with the first droves of cattle from Texas. There was
little attention given to it at first, as the number of cattle driven m
1866 and 1867 appears not to have been very large. In 1868, how-
ever, the markets and other conditions were more encouraging to
those who handled this class of stock, and large herds of Texas cattle
were sold for feeding in Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New
York, and other Northern States.

As the hot weather of summer came on the disease broke out where-
ever the Southern cattle had been taken. Of 320 head of native stock
shipped from one farm to the East for slaughter, 224 died before they
reached their destination, and the remainder were said to have been
sent to the rendering tanks. At the little town of Tolono, Hl., from
15,000 to 18,000 Texan cattle were landed. The fever commenced its
destructive work about July 20, sweeping away nearly every native
animal of the bovine race in that section. Nine hundred and twenty-
six head of cattle died in that township, which polled but a trifle over
200 votes, and 5,000 head suceumbed in the county. Within 2 miles
of the Chicago stock yards, aceording to the report of the medical
officer of the city, but 1 cow escaped, 161 animals having perished.
In the vicinity of Loda, Il, it was estimated that not less than 1,800
cattle died. In Warren County, Ind., the losses reached about 1,500
head; in Jasper County, 400 head; in Marion County, 100 head.

These losses are simply examples of what was occurring in many.
parts of the Northern States. The disease was soon traced to the
Southern cattle, and in the absence of specific knowledge concerning
its character there was great alarm as to the extent to which it might
spread and its effect upon the public health. While the direct loss
from the disease was very heavy and brought disaster to many indi-
viduals, the contagion was fortunately one which did not spread from
the sick native cattle, and was consequently self-limited. It was
also a disease that is not communicable to the human species, and
hence did not appreciably affect the public health.

INVESTIGATIONS OF TEXAS FEVER BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND
BOARDS OF HEALTH.

The excitement and interest aroused by the outbreak of 1868 led to

extensive investigations by the Department of Agriculture and by the

boards of health of Chicago and New York. These researches were

KNOWLEDGE CONCERNING ANIMAL DISEASES. 127

sufficient to establish the symptoms, the post-mortem lesions, and
some of the peculiarities in regard to the transmission of the disease.
It was shown that there was intense fever, with a temperature rang-
ing from 105° to 110° F., accompanied by great weakness and pros-
tration. The ears and head drooped, the hind legs were advanced
under the body, and the fetlocks were partially flexed, constituting,
when taken together, a more or less characteristie attitude. The
urine, at first tinged with red, became deeper colored, until it had the
appearance of undiluted venous blood. On post-mortem examination
the liver and spleen were found to be the organs most seriously
affected. Both were congested and enlarged. In the liver there was
bile-stasis in the ultimate biliary canaliculi, which were found dis-
tended and occluded, while the spleen was greatly engorged with
blood, and its interior was transformed into a dark semifiuid mass.
The kidneys, also congested, presented numerous blood ext¥avasa-
tionsin the pelvic portion.

A study of these symptoms and lesions threw little light upon the
nature of the disease. The condition of the spleen suggested that it
might be allied to anthrax, but there was an absence of the gelatinous
exudations seen in that disease, and, moreover, there was no ease of
the transmission of the malady to mankind. The course of the dis-
ease was also longer than in anthrax fever. <A consideration of the
phenomena observed relating to the transmission of the contagion
only served to deepen the mystery. The cattle from the South which
brought the disease were themselves apparently healthy. The sick
Northern cattle did not communicate the disease. The contagion in
most cases was confined by ordinary farm fences, and, indeed, it
appeared to be the ground over which the Southern cattle had trav-
eled rather than the cattle themselves which was dangerous to sus-
ceptible animals. And this infected ground retained its power to
communicate disease until it was purged by the frosts of approaching
winter.

Strange to say, the pastures did not always become dangerous
immediately after the Texas cattle had traveled over them. In some
cases it was observed that susceptible cattle had fed upon such pas-
tures for a month or more after the Texas cattle had left them, and
had then been removed to other fields without sustaining any injury,
while other Northern animals of the same lot allowed to remain a few
weeks longer suddenly developed the disease in a most violent form.
How different from the phenomena of other contagious diseases were
these manifestations! and how inexplicable in the light of the medical
knowledge of that day! Of what did this contagion consist that it
could be propagated by well animals and not by those affected with
the disease; that it could remain upon pastures inactive and resist
sun and rains for weeks and then suddenly attack in the most viru-
- lent form all Northern animals that so much as walked across them,

128 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

while it respected the animals from the South? Surely they were

justified who called this a ‘“‘romance in pathology,” since these phe-

nomena were without precedent and to the most enlightened appeared
ineredible.

These investigations of 1868 and 1869 established the more apparent
characteristies of the disease, though for sixteen years afterwards
there were scientific men who tried to prove that no such disease
existed. During all this time the cattle driven from Texas and
Indian Territory to the Northwestern States and Territories for graz-
ing left a deadly trail behind them, which was destructive to the
native cattle that crossed it. The stock yards and stock cars became
more and more infected, and cattle purchased in the public markets
and taken back to the farms for feeding were in so many instances
found to have contracted the disease that purchasers avoided such
places as much as possible. Even our export cattle that were given
the greatest care en route became infected, and as many as two or
three hundred would sicken on a single ship. This brought Ameri-
ean cattle into disrepute and threatened to lead to annoying restric-
tions or even prohibition by foreign governments.

TEXAS-FEVER DISTRICT DEFINED AND EFFORTS TO SEPARATE INFECTIOUS CATTLE.

The almost intolerable condition described above existed when the
writer took up the study of Texas fever in 1879.

The first questions were: How shall this difficult problem be
attacked? and, what methods of investigation shall be adopted? One
question that appeared possible of solution had reference to the extent
and the exact boundaries of the district from which the cattle came
that spread the contagion. This could be determined partly by col-
lecting all the information possible as to outbreaks of Texas fever in
the Northern States and ascertaining exactly where the cattle came
from which caused them, and partly by ascertaining the sections of
the Southern States where Northern cattle imported to improve the
stock were liable to die with acclimation fever, a disease which the
writer had shown to be synonymous with Texas fever.

By pursuing these lines of investigation a great section of the
country was found to be already invaded by the infection. This sec-
tion included half of Virginia, the greater part of North Carolina,
all of South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Loui-
siana, Arkansas, and large portions of Tennessee, Indian Territory,
and Texas. The defining of this district made it possible to sepa-
rate the infectious cattle in the ears and pens, while in transit, from
the Northern susceptible cattle, and thus tended to lessen the spread
of the contagion. However, there were many difficulties in enforcing
regulations for this purpose, as there was no way of distinguishing
between these different classes of animals when they reached their
destination, and the waybills and car marks could not be implicitly

Eee

KNOWLEDGE CONCERNING ANIMAL DISEASES. 129

relied upon. It was also desirable to know of what the contagion
consisted, how it was disseminated, what disinfectants could be used
to destroy it and in what strength these should be present to be
active, what was the true period of incubation, what measures could
be adopted to reduce the losses among pure-bred cattle taken to the
Southern States to improve the stock, and what safeguards could be
thrown around cattle from the infected district when taken North for
grazing so that they would not destroy the animals in the sections to
which they were permitted access.

The people of the South said: ‘‘ What right have you to put restric- |
tions upon our cattle when they are going to market? There is no
disease among our cattle; and if the Northern cattle sicken and die,
the loss should not be charged against our healthy cattle, the presence
of which in certain cases was probably a mere coincidence.” These
arguments were difficult to meet, doubly so when the cases went to
the courts, and it became necessary to explain the part played by
the Southern cattle in originating the disease. Here, as in many other
cases, observation of the outbreaks which develeped spontaneously
failed to reveal the mysteries, and it was necessary to question and
cross-question nature through experiments in order to olstain the
information which she withheld from the ordinary observer.

CONJECTURES AS TO MANNER OF DISSEMINATION OF TEXAS FEVER.

There were numerous conjectures as to the manner in which the
contagion was disseminated. Some thought that in driving the
Southern cattle such long distances their feet became worn, sore,
and ulcerated, and that the discharge from these ulcerated surfaces
poisoned the grass and developed contagion. It was believed that
this hypothesis was confirmed by the known fact that the Southern
cattle apparently lost the power to transmit the disease after they had
been upon the Northern ranges sixty to ninety days. Another con-
jecture was that the contagion resided in the saliva and was dis-
tributed over the grass while the infectious animals were grazing. It
was also contended by some that the Texas cattle became infectious
by drinking from pools of stagnant water, particularly that which
eontained alkali, and that the infection was distributed with the
urine and excrement. Still another conjecture was that the ticks, with
which most of the Southern cattle were covered, passed from these to
the Northern animals, and the latter, not being accustomed to their
bites, became affected with and died from the irritation and fever thus
induced. A modified form of this hypothesis was also held, to the
effect that the ticks dropped from the Southern cattle laid their eggs
in the grass; that myriads of young ticks hatched, covered the herb-
age, and were taken into the stomachs of the cattle with the food,
causing inflammation of the digestive organs, fever, and death.

How were we to decide which, if any, among these divergent views

1 A 93-——-9

130 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

was the correct one? The writer was asked to make a hasty examina-
tion of the subject and prepare a preliminary report for publication.
This he did, and it is at least instructive as to methods to read his
views concerning the part played by the ticks in the transmission of
the contagion. The following appeared to be extremely good argu-
ments at the time the report was written (1830):

The tick theory.—One of the most widely spread opinions in regard to the causa-
tion-of Southern fever is the pathogenic influence of the ticks with which Southern
cattle are generally covered and which migrate in large numbers to the bodies of
other cattle with which they mix. But the acceptance of this view is simply an
evidence of the desire of the human mind to explain the origin of mysterious
phenomena. The same principle is exhibited in the popular views regarding the
pathogenic nature of hollow horn, hollow tail, wolf teeth, black teeth, hooks, ete.,
none of which have the least foundation in fact or reason. The tick theory
scarcely explains a single one of the many peculiar phenomena of the disease.
Ticks are found everywhere, but are simply more numerous at the South. Their
attacks are not confined to the latter half of the summer, nor would they be likely
to remain on a pasture from spring till August without doing harm and then
suddenly cause an outbreak of the disease. Again, the post-mortem examination
plainly indicates the cause of the disease to be an agent taken into the circulation
and causing the most important changes in the composition of the blood.

Alas, for the limitations of human observation and reasoning when
we fail to establish our premises by rigid experimentation! It has
since been shown by experiments, outlined by the writer and carried
out successfully by his direction, that the ticks do transmit the con-
tagion of Texas fever, and that all of the mysteries connected with
this transmission are explained by an accurate knowledge of the
biology of the particular tick involved (Boophilus bovis), and of the
other parasite (Pyrosoma bigeminum), which cooperates to produce
the pathogenic effect.

EXPERIMENTS TO DETERMINE THE CAUSE AND DISSEMINATION OF TEXAS FEVER.

The first step toward revealing the nature of the disease was evi-
dently to determine if it could be inoeulated from animal to animal.
If this question were decided in the affirmative, it would be possible,
by continuing the inoculation experiments, to determine how widely
the virus was distributed through the body, and with what secretions
or excretions it was disseminated by the affected animal. It might
also be possible to identify a microorganism as the essential cause
and to study its biology.

With these purposes in view, the writer, in 1879 and 1880, inoculated
six head of eattle and drenched three with liquids that appeared most
likely to contain the contagion. Two of these animals had an attack
of fever, one being so seriously affected that it became quite weak
and emaciated. In 1882 three more animals were inoculated, one of
which became sick in ten days and died three days later of acute
Texas fever. This was the first demonstration of the inoculability of
the disease, and it proved that a mixture of blood and splenic pulp
contained the contagion.

KNOWLEDGE CONCERNING ANIMAL DISEASES. 131

In 1886 Dr. Smith, in studying microscopic preparations from the
spleen of an animal that had died of the disease, observed peculiar
bodies in the red corpuscles which were suggestive of parasitic micro-
organisms. In1888 and 1889 further studies of these bodies were made,
which led to the conclusion that they were protozoa. As the most
prominent feature of the disease was found to be a breaking down and
destruction of the red corpuscles, and as these parasites existed almost
exclusively in the red corpuscles of the blood, there was some reason
to think they might be the cause of the disease.

At this period, having completed the survey of the permanently
infected district, the writer observed that this district corresponded
almost exactly with the habitat of the tick (Boophilus bovis), which
was almost invariably found to infest the cattle that were capable of
transmitting the disease. Taking this coincidence, with the strong
belief held by many cattle men of experience, that the ticks had some-
thing to do with the production of the disease, it was determined to
have this aspect of the question fully investigated. Dr. F. L. Kil-
borne, who was at that time in charge of the Bureau experiment sta-
tion, was consulted and given explicit instructions to carry through
one or more series of experiments with this object in view. The first
experiments were made in 1889, and the result was: (1) That Northern
cattle pastured in a field with cattle from the infected district which
were infested with ticks contracted Texas fever; (2) that Northern cat-
tle pastured in a field with cattle from the infected district that were
carefully freed from all ticks by hand picking did not contract Texas
fever; (3) that Northern cattle pastured in a field where no cattle
from the infected district had been, but over which had been seattered
a large number of ticks, contracted Texas fever.

The result of these experiments was a distinct and positive advance
in our knowledge of the disease. It was now known (1) that the dis-
ease was inoculable; (2) that the blood of diseased animals contained
amicroscopic protozoan parasite; (3) that ticks picked from Southern
cattle and spread upon pastures were a means cof communicating the
infection.

It was next important to learn in what manner the ticks conveyed the
contagion. From a medical point of view the most plausible theory
was that the biting parts of the ticks became soiled with the blood of
the Southern cattle, and that these contaminated ticks, migrating to
susceptible cattle, carried the virus and inserted it when they began
sucking blood from the latter. A study of the life history of the tick
showed, however, that this theory was not consistent with the facts.
The ticks do not leave one animal and go to another. When they
are once upon an animal they remain there until they become mature,
and then they drop off, lay their eggs on the surface of the ground,
and die. There is no opportunity for this parasite to carry blood
directly from the Southern to the Northern animal and inoculate it.

132 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Another hypothesis was that with the blood sucked from Southern
cattle the tick took into its body the virus of the disease, and that
when the mother tick died and became disintegrated upon the pas-
tures the contagion was liberated and the grounds infected. This
supposition was entirely demolished by experiments, which proved
that the disease was caused by young ticks hatched from the eggs of
the mature ticks which developed upon the Southern cattle, that is,
the contagion is in some manner transmitted from the adult tick
through its egg to its progeny, and this progeny has the power of
inserting the contagion into the circulation of the cattle upon which
it happens to fasten itself.

These facts threw much light upon the propagation of the malady,
but they were not sufficient to establish a scientific theory explaining
the transmission. Indeed, it was yet to be proved that the Southern
‘attle carried the protozoa in their blood. Microscopic examination
was not sufficient to decide the question. A few minute points were
observed in the red corpuscles of Southern cattle, but these points
were much smaller and far less numerous than the protozoa in sick
Northern cattle. The Southern cattle, besides, were in good health,
and it seemed improbable that they harbored so deadly a parasite.

There was but one way to decide as to whether Southern cattle car-
ried this contagion in their blood, and that was to inoculate suscepti-
ble Northern cattle with the blood of Southern cattle. This experi-
ment was made, and it demonstrated that a comparatively small quan-
tity of blood from a Southern cow, injected under the skin or into the
veins of Northern cattle, produced an acute attack of Texas fever.
In Northern cattle infected in this manner the protozoa appeared in
the blood corpuscles with the same characteristics as when the infee-
tion occurred through the medium of ticks. There could no longer be
any doubt that the blood of cattle from the infected district contained
the contagion of Texas fever.

it was now important to decide how long Southern cattle carried
this contagion in their blood after leaving the infected district.
Again, it was necessary to resort to inoculation, as the microscope
vas powerless to decide. The first experiments had been made with
the blood of cattle immediately after they had been brought from the
South. In the next experiment blood was used from an animal that
had been away from the infected district seventy-four days. This
also produced disease. In succeeding years experiments were made
by inoculating with the blood of cattle that had been under observa-
tion, with no chance for reinfection, for one year, two years, three
years, four years, five years, six years, and seven years, and in every
ease the disease was produced. It was concluded, therefore, that this
contagion once introduced into the blood of cattle remained there in
an active condition throughout the animal’s life.

KNOWLEDGE CONCERNING ANIMAL DISEASES. to

THE PRINCIPAL FEATURES OF TEXAS FEVER.

We were now in a position to understand and explain the principal

features of this disease, that is, it was plain that cattle in the infected
district carried in their blood the contagion of Texas fever; that this
contagion was in reality a protozoan organism called the Pyrosoma
bigeminum, analogous to the parasite of human malaria; that this
parasite was transferred to susceptible cattle outside of the infected
district by the Southern cattle tick Boophilus bovis; that Southern
cattle, although carrying the contagion, were harmless unless infested.
by this particular tick; that the Southern cattle carried this conta-

. gion in their blood for years after leaving the infected district, and

| would again be dangerous to other cattle if by any chance they were
reinfested with the proper species of ticks. A study of the biology
of the tick showed that the time required for the eggs to hateh depends +
upon the atmospheric temperature, and that all the mysteries of the
propagation and incubation of the disease depended upon the hatch-
ing of these eggs.

THE PROGRESS MADE IN THE CONTROL OF TEXAS FEVER.

The above isa remarkable chapter in the progress of medical science,
and has already led to extensive studies of the part played by insects
in the propagation of human diseases, and particularly the malarial
fevers. That it has opened up a new field of medical research is
unquestionable. What has it accomplished toward the control and
eradication of Texas fever? In the first place, it has given us a ready
method of identifying infectious cattle found in the channels of com-
merce. Previous to these investigations it was often impossible to
tell whether a given carload of cattle unloaded at any stock yards
was from the infected or noninfected district. The point from which
if was billed was no criterion, since it was common to rebill cars,
often for the express purpose of deceiving the inspectors. These
great centers of cattle traffic were, consequently, continually infected.
To-day, if cattle are infested with the Boophilus.bovis ticks, they are
sent without question to the quarantine yards.

Another line in which progress has been made is in lessening the
area of the infected district. Whole counties have been placed above
the cattle quarantine line, because the ticks have been destroyed in
those counties and the danger of contagion removed. In many other
counties the citizens have taken up the task of tick killing and are
making rapid progress in freeing their districts from this pest. The
infected district, instead of advancing and enlarging in area, as before
these investigations, is now diminishing. This work is of immense
advantage to the people of the districts involved.

Great success has also been achieved in immunizing cattle taken to
the infected district for improving the stock. In the past the greater
part of the cattle taken to the infected district died of Texas fever.
These losses were 80, 90, and even 95 per cent of the animals intro-
duced. Still, it was so important to grade up the cattle in the vast

134 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

herds of the South and Southwest that the people of those sections
persisted and accomplished much even under such discouraging eir-
cumstances. In pursuing the inoculation experiments it was learned
that young animals, particularly calves, were much less severely
affected than old ones, even with the same dose of virulent blood;
also, that as cold weather approached a milder form of disease was
produced in the same class of animals. Putting these two facts
together, it was decided to immunize some young cattle and test their
resistance in the infected district. This wassuccessfully accomplished,
and proved that young stock inoculated in the late fall or early win-
ter with virulent blood contracted a mild form of disease, from which
the experimental animals recovered, and that these animals sent to
the infected district the following spring were but slightly affected
with the disease, although untreated animals sent with them either
died or were very severely affected and barely survived.

This method of immunizing has now been adopted in practice and
is proving very satisfactory. Instead of a loss of 90 per cent among
breeding stock taken South, it kas been shown that more than 90 per
cent can be saved. This means rapid improvement of Southern herds
and a vast increase in the value of the animals produced.

There is one other problem under experimentation, which, if it can
be solved, will remove the last terrors of Texas fever. That problem
is the rapid and inexpensive destruction of the ticks upon cattle from
the infected district. Such cattle are now dangerous because of these
ticks. They are not allowed to go North, except for slaughter, during
ten months of the year. They are always regarded with suspicion,
quarantined, and sold as quarantine cattle at a reduced price. This
is a constant hardship to the people of a great section of the coun-
try; but destroy all the ticks and the cattle are harmless and can go
anywhere, for any purpose, at any season of the year. The plan of
destroying the ticks is to drive the cattle through a vat containing some
liquid that will be fatal to the ticks without injuring the cattle. While
it has proved a difficult task to find a liquid that will answer these con-
ditions, there are some which are so nearly satisfactory as to inspire
hopes that success in this line will in the near future be achieved.

Confining our argument to the facts which have already been dem-
onstrated, Have we not abundant justification for the experimental
method? With a disease so obscure and complex, depending upon
two different parasites for its dissemination, one of these so small as
to tax the highest powers of the microscope, it was impossible for
observation, unaided by experimentation, to solve the mysteries and
elucidate it. But the experimental method was invoked, and, as in
many other fields of biology, has brought order out of chaos, giving
an intelligent comprehension and control of phenomena, where before
were only ignorance and helplessness.

PROGRESS IN ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY IN THE UNITED
STATES.

By L. O. Howarp, Ph. D.
Entomologist.

INTRODUCTION.

At the beginning of the present century the United States, with its
population of only 5,000,000, with its restricted geographical area, with
its small fields and its comparatively slight diversity of crops, and
with its infrequent communication and limited commercial relations
with other countries, suffered comparatively little from the attacks of
insects on its crops. There are old last-century records of the local
destruction of the grain crops by the army worm, and as early as 1793
the cotton caterpillar did a great deal of damage to the cotton crop
of Georgia and South Carolina. Similar outbreaks occurred in 1800
and 1804, while the Hessian fly,!as its name suggests, made its destrue-
tive appearance soon after the close of the war of the Revolution.

With the rapid growth of the new Republic, both in geographic area
and in population, and with its marvelous agricultural development,
many native plant-eating insects, finding in cultivated crops an almost
unlimited abundance of food greatly to their taste, multiplied rapidly
and became important factors in crop production. As commercial
relations with Europe and other countries increased and as the intro-
duction of steam made international journeys more and more rapid,
new injurious insects were introduced from abroad, many of them
becoming readily established and assuming an importance as crop
enemies surpassing that of native species. Many of them, in fact, as
has frequently been pointed out, became, for reasons which need not
be discussed here and which are not well understood, more prolific and
injurious than in their native homes. Fora long time these imported
species, beginning their work on the Atlantic seaboard, traveled west-
ward by natural spread, entering new regions after a few years, fol-
lowing in the track of the pioneers. Comparatively few have entered
our territory from the South, but with the development of agriculture

‘The ‘‘ Hessian fly” is a name which well illustrates a tendency to apply asa
popular term to an injurious insect the cognomen of a disliked or hated class or
individual. Other examples are the use of the name ‘‘Abe Lincoln bug” in Geor-
gia after the close of the civil war for the harlequin cabbage bug, which at that
time had just reached that State on its northeastward march; the later application
of the term ‘Third Party bug” to the same insect in Texas, and the term “ French
weed” to the stink weed in portions of Canada of anti-Gallic sympathies.

135

136 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

upon the Pacific coast and with increasing commercial relations with
countries beyond the Pacific, injurious insects have at last begun to
reach us from a westward direction. From this it will be seen that as
the century has grown older the need of remedies against insects has
grown greater. Fortunately in this case, the supply of remedies has
commensurately satisfied the demand, and the nation has not failed
in this-direction to justify its claim to be called ‘‘a practical people.”

SOME OF THE WORKERS AND CAUSES OF PROGRESS.
FIRST NATIVE SCIENTIFIC ENTOMOLOGIST.

William Dandridge Peck, who commenced to write in 1795, was our
first native scientific entomologist, and he was as well our first eco-
nomic worker in this line. The first economic publication of value was
probably his ‘‘ Description and history of the cankerworm,” origi-
nally printed in the Massachusetts Magazine for 1795, and reproduced
in the Massachusetts Agricultural Repository and Journal under the
title ‘‘The natural history of the cankerworm,” in October, 1796.
This first paper was followed by ‘‘ Natural history of the slugworm ”
(the common cherry slug), published in1799; ‘‘Animportant communi-
cation relative to the cankerworm,” 1816; ‘‘On the insects which destroy
the young branches of the pear tree and the leading shoot of the
Weymouth pine,” 1817; ‘‘Some notice of the insect which destroys
the locust tree,” 1818; and ‘‘Insects which affect the oaks and cher-
ries,” 1819, all of these articles being published in the Massachusetts
Agricultural Repository and Journal.

FIRST OFFICIAL ENTOMOLOGIST AND HIS WORK IN MASSACHUSETTS.

Dr. Thaddeus William Harris (1795-1856) was probably the first
American entomologist to receive public compensation for his labors,
and in this sense he may be called the earliest official entomologist in
thiscountry. His first entomological article, entitled ‘‘ Upon the natu-
ral history of the salt-marsh caterpillar,” was published in 18231 and
illustrated by an excellent full-page steel-engraved plate. Although
it does not appear from the title, the article was of a distinetly eco-
nomic character. The introductory paragraph reads as follows: ‘‘ In
the present state of agriculture, hay has become an important prod-
uct to the farmer in this vicinity. From the high price and the
increased demand for the imported and cultivated grasses, the indige-
nous and natural growth of the soil must rise in value; and of this
perhaps none is more valuable on the seaboard than that of the salt
meadows.” |

Dr. Harris shows that the ravages of insects in the salt meadows,
particularly of caterpillars and grasshoppers, had become formidable,
and states that the object of his paper is an attempt to elucidate the
natural history of the caterpillars, ‘‘ with the hope that it may lead to

1Massachusetts Agricultural Repository and Journa! for 1823, pp. 322-851.

PROGRESS IN ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY. Tt

some sure method of exterminating them, or of limiting their ravages
to a shorter period.” After a full account of the life history of the
species and of the dates of trapsformation, bringing out the interest-
ing point that the caterpillars are imbued with so great a vitality that
long immersion in water does not destroy their life, he concludes by
recommending, first, that the grass should be cut early in July, and,
second, that the marshes should be burned over in March. It was, in
fact, a good, plain, practical paper.

The publication of Dr. Harris’s first paper was followed by a con-
stant succession of interesting and valuable articles, published for
the most part in the New England Farmer, more than half of them
being devoted to the economic bearings of entomology. In 1831 he
prepared a catalogue of insects, which was appended to Hitchcock’s
Massachusetts Geological Report, and at a later period he was
appointed by Massachusetts as one of a commission to make a more
thorough geological and botanical survey ofthe State. In this capacity
he prepared his noted classic report on insects injurious to vegetation,
first published in full in 1541, the portion on beetles having appeared in
1838. He reprinted the work under the name of “‘ treatise” instead
of ‘‘report” in 1842, and again in revised form in 1852. The whole
sum received by him from the State for this labor was $175. After
his death the work was reprinted by the State in its present beautiful
form, with wood engravings which marked an epoch in that art. The
practical value of Dr. Harris’s work has been vast. His scientific
reputation has steadily grown. * His book is to-day as valuable as it
was when first written, more than fifty years ago. m entering any
entomological workshop in the land the first book that will catch the
eye upon the desk is a well-worn copy of the ‘‘ Treatise upon insects
injurious to vegetation.” He was fortunate in having a new field;
but it is impossible to conceive that this field could at that time have
been more intelligently worked, from both the scientific and the prac-
tical standpoint. Many new insect pests have been studied since his
time, and many new and practical ideas in regard to the warfare
against injurious insects have been advanced; but no one has had to
do over the work which Harris did so well. He kept constantly in
mind the idea that it is necessary to know the life history of the
insect before suggesting remedies, and although in his work he had
little to say about insecticides or their application, he was successful
in many instances, as in the case of the salt-marsh caterpillar, to
which reference has been made, in showing that after the life history
and periods of transformation of a given insect foe are accurately
known, some slight variation in cropping or in agricultural methods
will do away with the loss. This important idea was lost sight of
until comparatively recent years, and even of late the great develop-
ments in the mechanical destruction of insects caused it to become
temporarily obscured; but there can be no doubt that as a general

138 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

principle it affords the most natural method of fighting many insect
pests. If Harris had been an agriculturist himself, or if he had
known more of agricultural methods, he would perhaps have given
his work a greater practical turn than he did. He was, as a matter
of fact, a naturalist and a student in disposition; the fact that he
was educated as a physician and was by occupation a librarian (theo-
retically an unfortunate combination for practical agricultural ideas)
emphasizes the broad-mindedness of the man when we realize the
value of his work.

INVESTIGATIONS BY THE STATE OF NEW YORK,

In his eeconomie line Harris worked practically alone throughout the
greater part of his career, until during the latter part of his life, when
Dr. Asa Fitch, of New York (1809-1879), began to write for different
agricultural journals about injurious insects. Two years before the
death of Harris, in 1854, the New York State legislature made an appro-
priation of $1,000 for an investigation of insects, especially of those
injurious to vegetation, and authorized the appointment of a suitable
person to perform the work, the matter being placed in the hands of the
New York State Agricultural Society. Dr. Fitch received the appoint-
ment, and from 1854 to 1870, with the exception of the years 1859,
1865, and 1868, he published an annual report in the ‘‘ Transactions
of the New York State Agricultural Society.” The value of his labors
was great. In his fourteen reports the great majority of the inju-
rious insects of the State of New York received more or less detailed
consideration, and in most cases the life histories of the insects
treated were worked out with great care. The remedial measures
which he suggested have, however, been largely improved upon, and
the practical value of the reports to-day rests almost entirely on the
life-history side.

COMMENCEMENT OF INVESTIGATIONS BY THE GENERAL GOVERNMENT,

At about the time when the State of New York began her annual
appropriation to support State work in economic entomology, the
General Government, in a small way, took up the same line of inves-
tigation. Townend Glover was appointed on June 14, 1854, by the
Commissioner of Patents to collect statisties and other information on
seeds, fruits, and insects in the United States under the Division of
Agriculture of the Patent Office. His first report, illustrated by six
plates engraved on stone by the author, was published in the Annual
Report of the Commissioner of Patents for 1854, and comprised some
consideration of the insects injurious to wheat, the cotton plant, and
the grapevine; also of the plum curculio, codling moth, and peach
borer, closing with an account of the more common species of benefi-
cial inseets. His second report, in 1855, continued the consideration
of cotton insects and contained some account of insects affecting the

PROGRESS IN ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY. 139

orange. He published nothing in 1856 and 1857, but in 1858 he con-
tinued his report upon orange insects. He then resigned his position,
to be reappointed in 1863, shortly after the establishment of the
Department of Agriculture as a separate institution. From that date
his reports follow consecutively down to 1877. From 1856 to 1866
Fitch and Glover had the field in economic entomology in the United
States practically to themselves.

OCCASIONAL ENTOMOLOGICAL WRITERS,

Occasional entomological articles were published in agricultural and
other journals, among the writers of which may be mentioned Miss
Margaretta H. Morris, Dr. William Le Baron, James Kirkpatrick, Dr.
S. 8. Rathvon, Dr. 8. 8S. Haldeman, Cyrus Thomas, Thomas Affleck
(in the South), and, beginning in 1864, Dr. Isaac P. Trimble.

INVESTIGATIONS BY THE STATE OF ILLINOIS,

In the above list we have not mentioned perhaps the most forcible
and clearest of all, a man who combined in the highest degree practi-
cal ideas with scientific attainments, for the reason that he deserves
separate and independent mention. This was benjamin D. Walsh
(1808-1869). He began to write on economic matters in 1860, and con-
tinued to do so with great prolifieacy until the time of his death, pub-

’ lishing in all three hundred and eighty-five articles upon injurious
insects. In 1865 he founded the first journal devoted to economic
entomology in this country, and the writer is inclined to believe the
firstin the world. It was entitled ‘‘ The Practical Entomologist,” and
was published by the entomological society of Philadelphia, lasting
through two volumes of twelve numbers each, being discontinued in
September, 1867, for lack of financial support. In the meantime,
however, the Illinois State legislature during the winter of 1566-67
passed a law, as the result of a petition from the State horticultural
society, enacting that a State entomologist be appointed by the goy-
ernor with a salary of $2,000 per annum fora period of two years.
At a special session of the legislature held in June, 1867, the governor
sent in the name of Mr. Walsh for confirmation, but the senate post-
poned action upon it until the next regular biennial session in the
winter of 1868-69; hence, it follows that Mr. Walsh’s first and only
official report was published as acting State entomologist, its prepara-
tion having been delayed by a long period of ill health which pre-
ceded the railway accident that was the immediate cause of his death.

Walsh was a very forcible character, a ready writer, and a ready
public speaker, and by virtue of his strong personality, as well as by
a marked hatred for fraud and pretense, was the best man who could
have been found to place the comparatively new field of investigation
upon a firm basis. He showed up prevalent quack remedies in the
most scathing and at the same time humorous manner, and attracted

140 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

new workers to his school. An instance in his career, illustrating
his power as a speaker, reminds one of the circumstances surrounding
the so-called ‘‘lost speech” of Abraham Lincoln. Walsh delivered
a lecture before the Dlinois State Horticultural Society in January,
1860. He spoke extemporaneously for two hours, communicating his
ideas in such a manner as to hold the audience perfectly.~ The
reporter of the lecture stated that he became so intensely interested
that his hand refused to-move his pencil. In 1868, in joint editorship
with Charles V. Riley, Walsh started a second journal devoted largely
to economie entomology, which was known as the ‘‘ American Ento-
mologist,” and which also lasted through two volumes before lack of
funds caused its publication to cease.

INVESTIGATIONS BY THE STATE OF MISSOURI.

Up to this time we have seen that three States had given official
support to scientific work on the subject of injurious insects, namely,
Massachusetts, New York, and Illinois, although the Massachusetts
support, as already shown, was of a most meager character. In 1868
the State of Missouri joined the list by the appointment as entomolo-
gist, of Charles V. Riley, who entered upon his duties on April 1 of
that year, and published his first annual report the following Decem-
ber. From that date there followed, annually, eight additional
reports, the ninth being submitted March 4, 1877, and covering the
year 1876. At the time when Riley began his work, in spite of what
had been done by the isolated labors of the men we have mentioned,
the study of economic entomology in the United States compared
most unfavorably with that in Europe. There elaborate works pre-
pared by well-known naturalists had been published at Government
expense, and smaller treatises on the subject of insects injurious to
gardens, fields, and forests had frequently appeared, while the sub-
ject was taught in the numerous agricultural colleges and schools,
especially in Germany. But with the beginning of the publication of
the Missouri Reports, and perhaps even a little earlier—with the
influence of the practical-minded Walsh, with whom Riley had been
intimately associated for several years—the United States was about
to begin a rapid progress in this direction, which ultimately placed
her at the head of all other countries. Riley’s nine reports were mon-
uments to the State of Missouri, and more especially to the man who
wrote them. They were original, practical, and scientific. They coy-
ered a very great range of injurious insects, and practically all the
species which were especially injurious during those nine years
received full and careful treatment. These reports may in fact be
said to have formed the basis for the new economic entomology of the
world, and they included a multitude of observations and intelligent
deductions which have influenced scientific thought. Their value
to the agriculturist, as well as to scientific readers, was. greatly

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899. PLATE III.

ASA FITCH. TOWNEND GLOVER.

T. WM HARRIS.

BENJ. D. WALSH. C. V. RILEY.

Some WORKERS IN ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY.

PROGRESS IN ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY. 141

enhanced by a remarkable series of illustrations, which were drawn
by the author and engraved upen wood by the most skillful wood
engravers of that time.

BEGINNING OF A PERIOD OF GENERAL INTEREST IN ENTOMOLOGY,

While the Missouri Reports were being published, Dr. William Le
Baron was appointed State entomologist of Illinois, an office which has
been continued down to the present time, and the work of Le Baron
and his successors, Cyrus Thomas and 8. A. Forbes, has contributed
in a marked degree to the progress of the economic application of
entomology. During the Missouri period the well-known zoologist,
A. 5. Packard, acted as entomologist to the State board of agriculture
of Massachusetts, and published three reports, covering the years 1871,
1872, and 1873; a number of young men also began to interest them-
selves in this line of work, and appreciation and interest on the part
of the farming and fruit-growing population steadily grew.

In 1877 the United States Entomological Commission was founded
by act of Congress and placed under the charge of the Secretary of
the Interior, who appointed as members of the commission Charles
V. Riley, A. 8. Packard, and Cyrus Thomas. This commission, estab-
lished for the purpose of investigating the ravages of the Rocky Moun-
tain locust, or Western grasshopper, an insect which had destroyed
the crops of certain Western States during the years 1874-1876, existed
for several years and published five reports of lasting value, as well
as seven bulletins.

In 1878, Townend Glover’s health having failed, Riley, fresh from
his successful labors in Missouri and from the completion of the first
volume issued under the entomological commission, was appointed
entomologist of the Department of Agriculture in succession to Glover.
He held the office for a year and resigned, owing to a misunderstand-
ing with the authorities. He was succeeded by J. H. Comstock, of
Cornell University, who held the office for two years, when Dr. Riley
again took charge of the Government entomological work, continuing
until June, 1894. During the successive incumbencies of Riley and
the intervening term of Comstock the Government work constantly
improved, became more and more appreciated, and was an all-impor-
tant factor in the development of public interest and appreciation.
(For portraits of Harris, Fitch, Walsh, Riley, and Glover, see Pl. III.)

INVESTIGATIONS BY THE STATE AGRISCULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

A most important step was taken when the so-called Hatch Act
passed Congress, under which agricultural experiment stations were
established in all of the States of the Union. Most of the stations
were organized in the spring of 1888. A number of entomologists
were soon appointed and active work began practically in the month
of February. The first entomological bulletin published by any of
the experiment stations was issued in April, 1888, from the Arkansas

142 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

station, by 8. H. Crossman, and was entitled ‘‘ The peach-tree borer
and the eodling moth.” Bulletins from Hulst in New Jersey, Morse
in California, Tracy in Mississippi, Ashmead in Florida, and Weed in
Ohio, followed in May. Popenoein Kansas, and Perkins in Vermont,
published one each in June, and Fernald in Massachusetts, and Lug-
ger in Minnesota, published one each in July. This movement, the
importance of which to American economic entomology can hardly
be overestimated, is too recent to require full historic treatment at
this time. Activity in this branch of the work has increased with
very great rapidity since 1888, and the character of the work done is
on the whole better in almost corresponding ratio. Early publica-
tions were, largely as a matter of necessity, compilations. It was
desirable to inform State agricultural constituencies of what was
already known. With the gradual increase in libraries, laboratory
facilities, and financial support, as well as appreciation on the part of
farmers, opportunities for original investigation and experimentation
have been gradually increasing until the present time. The majority
of the entomologists of the State agricultural experiment stations are
now in position to add to entomological knowledge and to do practi-
cal field work of value, and they are taking advantage of these facil-
ities in a most praiseworthy manner. Of course, a large share of the
influenee of the work of these offices is gained through their corre-
spondence with agriculturists and through addresses before farmers’
institutes and other agricultural gatherings; but judging by the pub-
lications alone the gain has been very great. During the calendar
year 1898, for example, sixty-one separate publications were issued
by the different State experiment stations, either devoted entirely to
matter on economic entomology or containing articles upon the sub-
ject, the total number of pages on applied entomology reaching nearly
1,400. During the same period nineteen separate publications on
economic entomology were issued by the Department of Agriculture,
containing a total of about 1,000 printed pages.

FOUNDING OF THE ASSOCIATION OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGISTS,

The founding of the Association of Economic Entomologists in
1890 was an important step in the progress of the application of agri-
cultural science. It has brought together in its annual meetings
working economic entomologists of different parts of the country,
placed them in personal relationship with one another, enabled
them to discuss questions of general remedies, and has helped them
to broaden their local entomological horizons. By virtue also of a
regulation which admits to corresponding membership persons engaged
in economic entomology in other parts of the world and which pro-
vides for the constant interchange of publications between all mem-
bers of the association, the desirable object has been reached of a
compact and rather intimately associated union of all the workers in

PROGRESS IN ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY. 143

‘all parts of the world engaged in this particular subject, a condition
which it is believed does not exist in any of the other sciences as
applied to agriculture. This broad movement, originating in the
United States and carried on almost entirely by American workers,
deserves special mention in an account of the progress made in this
country.

DISCOVERY OF SAN JOSE SCALE IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES.

An historical account of American progress in eccnomic entomology

in the present century would be a poor one indeed if it did not mention .
the one thing which perhaps more than any other aroused general
interest in the subject and brought the economic entomologist most
prominently to the front. We refer to the discovery of the existence
of the San Jose scale in the Eastern United States in the year 1893.
This insect, introduced into the United States from some unknown
region, made its appearance in the vicinity of San Jose, Cal., late in
the seventies. It spread rapidly over the State of California and was
soon known as the most dangerous enemy to deciduous fruit trees on
the Pacific coast. In 1887 or 1888 two innocent nurserymen living in
New Jersey unwittingly brought it to the East upon nursery stock.
Its presence was not discovered until 1893, when it had already been
spread far and wide upon shipments of young trees. So great an
industry had the sale of nursery stock become and so rapid was the
multiplication of the insect that without another introduction of the
scale from California the product of these two introductions into the
Kast had in six or seven years been spread through portions of almost
every one of the Eastern and Middle States. The scale established
itself at almost every point where it was introduced except in certain
northern localities, where the climate appears to have been too cold
for its development, and it multiplied so excessively as to cause the
death of thousands of trees before its presence became known. It was
first found at Charlottesville, Va., and other infested localities were
discoveredin 1894. Warning publications were issued to fruit growers
and nurserymen, and year after year discoveries of its occurrence
in unsuspected regions multiplied until in 1897 and 1898 it was seen
that there was hardly an important fruit-growing region in the United
States which was not directly threatened by the pest. In the mean-

_ time there was the greatest activity with regard to the insect on the
| part of economic entomologists, agricultural and horticultural socie-
ties, agricultural journals, and State organizations. The literature
relating to the insect became very great. Its bibliography by July,
| 1898, comprised several hundred titles of permanent record and several
. thousand titles in ephemeral publications. It occupied the attention
| of nearly every meeting of farmers and fruit growers that was held in
the United States from 1894 to 1898, from the village club to the great
State agricultural or horticultural society. It was the exciting cause

of a national convention of fruit growers, farmers, entomologists, and

144 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

nurserymen which was held in Washington, D. C., in the spring of
1897. It has been the subject of legislation in eighteen States of
the nation and its suppression the principal object of two bills which
were laid before Congress.

The general spread of this destructive insect worked great hard-
ship to many fruit growers, and was the cause of the loss of many
thousands of dollars; but looking at it in another way, the writer is
firmly of the opinion that it has already been productive of great
good and that its ultimate effect will be shown to have been most
beneficial. Some of the State laws and the regulations which have
been adopted to take effect under the provisions of these laws may
not be wholly justified or thoroughly wise, but much beneficial legis-
lation has been enacted, and no one cause has begun to operate so
strongly as this in indicating the economic value of entomological
knowledge and of Government support to entomological investiga-
tions, while the actual practical work which has been done against
this insect by the small army of workers has greatly increased our
knowledge of the action of insecticides, both upon insects and upon
plants, and of the best methods of applying them.

PROGRESS IN REMEDIAL DISCOVERIES.
EARLY REMEDIES.

The remedial recommendations of the first sixty years of the cen-
tury were on the whole not very valuable. A few common-sense
suggestions were made, based upon a thorough knowledge of the life
histories of certain insect pests, due almost entirely to the work of
Harris and Fitch and in a lesser degree to the observations of Peck,
although in this connection it should also be stated that exeellent
work was done on the Angoumois grain moth, or so-called fly weevil,
of the South by two Southern planters, namely, Landon Carter and
Edmund Ruffin. The majority, however, of the recommendations
published in the agricultural journals and reports were theoretical
and frequently nonsensical, seldom based on any accurate knowledge
of the insect’s life history, and sometimes derived from European
sources. The following short list has been gathered in a haphazard
way from publications of the period, and will serve to illustrate the
general character of the recommendations:

To protect cabbages from the depredations of caterpillars.—Sow a belt of hemp.

seed around the borders of the ground when the cabbages are planted.—New
England Farmer, June 25, 1830.

Cankerworms.—Use leaden gutters filled with some fiuid over which the grub
could not pass. Lamp oil is reeommended.—New England Farmer, July 18, 1831,

Cankerworms.—Make a band of chestnut burrs by stringing them together with
strong twine and tie around the trunk.—New England Farmer, April 9, 1834.

Bot-fly of the horse.—Scrape off the eggs every ten days with a sharp knife.

Phlebotomize over the jugular vein and use mild oils freely.—New England
Farmer, May &, 1826.

- PROGRESS IN ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY. 145

Cankerworms.—Strew slacked lime an inch thick around the trees to the extent
of 3 or 4 feet from the roots.—New England Farmer, July 7, 1826.

Cankerworms.—Tarring the trees.—New England Farmer, July 25, 1828.

Slugworms.—Dusting lime on the leaves by suspending an old seive on a long
pole.—New England Farmer, July 25, 1828.

Rose-chafer.—Slacked lime applied from a dredging box while the fruits or
plants are wet with dew, wetting the plants first with a weak solution of gum
arabic.— New England Farmer, May 8, 1829.

Cankerworms.—Scrape the trees and tie on bands of hair rope.—The Cultivator,
April, 1838.

Tent caterpillars.—Fasten a bottle brush (made to clean the insides of bottles and
composed of hogs’ bristles introduced between two stiff wires closely twisted) toa
long pole, press it on the small nest, turning the pole in hand and tangling and
removing the web.—Timothy Pickering, in Massachusetts Agricultural Journal,
Vol. IV, July, 1817.

Pea weevil.—Let everybody feed all of their peas to their cattle and import a
new stock of seed from Europe.—Wiliiam Bartram, in Memoirs Philadelphia
Society for Promoting Agriculture, Vol. I, 1815 (read July 4, 1789).

Plum curculio.—Suspend bits of board about the size of a case knife, dipped in
tar, on the tree asa deterrent. Make a pavement about the tree by placing flat
stones cemented with limecement. Give hogs the run among the trees to destroy
the fallen fruit.— William Bartram, in Memoirs Philadelphia Society for Promot-
ing Agriculture, Vol. I, 1815, Appendix, pp. 34-88.

Hessian fly.—Destroy the stubble of grain soon after harvest by burning or oth-
erwise.—Jonathan N. Haydens, in Transactions Society for Promotion of Agri-
culture for New York, Vol. I, 1792, pp. 89-107.

Caterpillars on trees (presumably tent caterpillars).—Bore a hole into the tree
about 6 inches deep and fill it with sulphur, a remedy which is said to have never
failed. Several cases instanced.—George Webster, Albany, in Memoirs Board of
Agriculture State of New York, Vol. 11, 1823, p. 251.

All insects on trees.—Sulphur plug.—Farmers’ Register, Vol. I, 1834, p. 149.

Moths in wheat.—Mix large parce!s of the twigs of the China tree with the wheat.
In one fortnight, on experiment, not a weevil was to be found.—Farmers’ Regis-
ter, Vol. I, 1834, p. 227.

Hessian fly.—Late sowing.—Farmers’ Register, Vol. I, 1834, p. 310,

Peach-tree borer.—Remove the soil around the base of the trunk, put in a com-
position of clay and ashes, and wrap stiff brown paper around the tree to the height
of a foot.—Farmers’ Register, Vol. I, 1834, p. 417.

A rather elaborate article was published as a prize essay of the New
York State Agricultural Society in 1843' under the title‘ ‘A treatise on
insects injurious to field crops, fruit orchards, vegetable gardens, and
domestic animals, with a description of each and the best methods of
destroying them or preventing their ravages.” This essay, which
eovers about fifty pages, contains practically nothing original, and
some of the remedial recommendations are rather amusing. For
example, in writing of the wheat midge, the author says: ‘‘ Fumigat-
ing the fields with sulphur or smoke from any materials will retard
their action fora time, and, could it be continued, might destrey them.

1Transactions New York State Agricultural Society, Vol. III, 1843.
£ A 99 10

.

146 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

All pungent odors are offensive to the grain fly, as they are to the mos-
quito, and that most offensive of all odors, the one proceeding from
the skunk, has been tested and highly recommended as a preventive.”

It was this sort of work that especially aroused the indignation of
Walsh. The caustic manner with which he showed up the unfounded
utterances of impractical and. ignorant persons may be illustrated by
his comment upon a newspaper article which recommended banding
trunks of trees as.a remedy for all the insects which injure trees:

The worm in fruit trees! As if fruit trees were not afflicted by hundreds of dif-
ferent worms, differing from. each other in size, shape, color, and habits.of life,
time of coming to maturity, etc., as-much. as a hozse differs from ahog. Yet the
universal bandage system is warranted to kill them all. Does the apple worm
bore. your apples? Bandage the: butt of the tree, and he perisheth forthwith.
* * * Does the web worm spin his webin the branches? Bandage the butt, and
hediethimmediately. Does-the caterpillar known as the red-humped prominent or
the yellow-necked worm strip the leaves off? Bandage the butt of the.tree, and hey!
presto! he quitteth his evil ways. Does the Buprestis borer bore into the upper
part of the trunk? * * * Still you must bandage the butt with the same uni-
versal calico, and in a twinkling he vamoseth the ranch. Be the disease what it
will, the universal, patent, never-failing pill is certain sure to extirpate it. * * *
In obstinate cases it may perhaps be necessary to bandage the whole tree, trunk,
branches, twigs, and all; but if you only apply bandages enough, the great bandage
anthelmintic vermifuge is sure to be a specific against the genus worm. The
genus bug may perhaps require a distinct prescription; something in the nature
of a cataplasm or an emollient lotion. * * * Long live King Humbug! He
still feeds fools on flapdoodle, and many of them have large and fiourishing fami-
lies, who will perpetuate the breed to the remotest generation.

A NEW ERA IN REMEDIES.

With the writings of Walsh, immediately followed by those of
Riley, a new era. of excellent remedies founded upen accurate knowl-
edge of the economy of the insects in question began. Aside fromthe
excellent recommendations which had been made with regard to: agri-
cultural practice, as it has been termed, and which refers to such
matters as rotation of crops, different times of planting and harvest-
ing, and different methods of cropping, etc., the first great start whieh
the new economic entomologist received from the remedial standpoint
was probably the introduction of Paris green as an insecticide.

Paris. green.

At the time this substanee was introduced, the best insecticides in
use were the various forms: of soap, tobaceo, quassia chips, earbolie
acid, and hellebore, although: the last was a comparatively newremedy
and came into general use at about the time of the spread of the
imported currant worm inthe late fifties. The spread of the Colorado
potato beetle into the Eastern States. between the years.1859 and 1872
started a great deal of experimental work in regard to remedies, and
Paris: green was first used at some time early in the sixties. The
name of the first man to use it is not known, but by 1568 it was. being
used by several persons. The editors of the American Entomologist

PROGRESS IN ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY. 147

(Vol. I, p. 219, July, 1869) recommended it confidently as a result of
experiments tried both in 1868 and 1869, and in the former year Mr.
J. P. Wilson, of Illinois, took out a patent for one part Paris green and
two parts mineral paint, to be used to kill potato bugs. The use of
Paris green against the cotton caterpillar seems to have been first
suggested by Riley at the St. Louis meeting of the National Agrieul-
tural Congress in 1872, although in January, 1871, T. W. Mitchell, of
Texas, secured a patent for the use of a solution of arsenie against
this insect. Its extensive use against the cotton caterpillar has been
a great boon to the cotton planters of the South.

In 1872 Dr. Le Baron recommended the use of Paris green against
the spring cankerworm, which was abundant that year. This was
the first recommendation for its application to fruit trees. Four years
later Prof. A. J. Cook repeated the recommendation, and in 1878 the
advice was followed by many apple growers in Michigan. In 1878
Mr. J. 8S. Woodward, of Lockport, N. Y., advised Mr. Edward P.
Haynes, of Niagara County, N. Y., to spray his apple trees with Paris
green against cankerworms. The following autumn Mr. Haynes
noticed that the apples in the sprayed part of the orchard were much
less infested by the codling moth than in other parts of the orchard.
Mr. Woodward visited the orchard, verified this fact, and reported it
at the January meeting of the Western New York Horticultural Soei-
ety. Mr. Woodward, writing to the late E. G. Lodeman, when the
latter was engaged in preparing his work entitled ‘‘The spraying of
plants,” said: ‘‘I shall never forget this, because of the way in which
I was jumped upon asa crank.” Almost at the same time the same
discovery was made by Professor Cook, in Michigan, and by Hon. John.
M. Dixon, of Oskaloosa, Iowa, the latter, however, using London
purple instead of Paris green.’ This discovery has resulted in the
use of arsenical poisons in enormous quantities in regular orchard
work. It was adopted slowly, on account of the supposed danger from
its use. Even Riley, who had been so prominent in urging the use of
arsenical poisons against the Colorado potato beetle and the cotton
eaterpillar, writing in the Farmers’ Review, in the autumn of 1880,
says”

Professor Cook, of the Michigan Agricultural College, has lately reeommended
them [Paris green and London purple] for the killing of a strawberry leaf-beeile
(Paria aterrima Oliv.), which, as he shows, lives in its larva state beneath the
ground; also for the destruction of the apple worm. In the first instance it were
eminently dangerous to use such a poisonous remedy while the plants are fruiting,
and I would not recommend it even later in the season until every other available
remedy had been tried. In the second case it is even less to be recommended.

It will undoubtedly serve to kill many of the first brood of worms, and this is
desirable; but there is as good evidence that lime or plaster dusted onto the young

1See the writer’s article on the codling moth, in the Annual Report of the
Department of Agriculture, 1887, pp. 88-115, for a discussion of this question.
*See American Entomologist, Vol. III, p. 244.

148 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

fruit has much the same effect, while experience has shown that the bandage sys-
tem and other methods of fighting this insect, when judiciously and persistently
adopted from year to year, are sufficient to insure a crop at trifling cost. Finally,
if the poison is so persistent in the calyx as to have any effect in destroying the
second brood of worms, that will only heighten the danger to those persons who
subsequently eat the fruit.

Professor Cook, in a paper read before the American Association
for the Advancement of Science at its Boston meeting, in 1880, as
well as in subsequent papers read before the Michigan Horticultural
Society and the Society for the Promotion of Agricultural Science,
gave his annual experience, and was the most ardent advocate of this
treatment for codling moth. The careful experiments made by Forbes
in 1885 added great weight to the remedy, on account of his wide rep-
utation for care and conservatism. E.S. Goff, then at Geneva, N. Y.,
also published results of some careful experiments made in 1885. In
1887 experiments made by W. B. Alwood and E. H. Cushman for the
Division of Entomology emphasized the value of the treatment, which
the writer did not hesitate to strongly recommend in his article on
the codling moth, published that year. As Lodeman has shown, how-
ever, very few of the most progressive orchardists adopted the rem-
edy until after the establishment of the State agricultural experiment
stations in the spring of 1888, when added emphasis was given by the
experiments and recommendations of the newly appointed entomolo-
gists and horticulturists.

The same substance, Paris green, was first recommended against
the plum cureulio by Mr. G. M. Smith, of Berlin, Wis., in 1871, but
the idea that it would be efficacious was generally discredited. ~ Mr.
J. Luther Bowers, of Herndon, Va., used it in 1880 with good results.
Mr. William Creed, of Rochester, N. Y., recorded the complete suc-
cess of two years’ work against the insect in Purdy’s Fruit Recorder,
in November, 1885, and during the same year Forbes experimented
most carefully in Illinois. In 1887 W. B. Alwood and Herbert
Osborn, working for the Division of Entomology; A. J. Cook, in
Michigan, and C. M. Weed, in Ohio, also carried out suecessful exper-
iments, and the remedy has since come into general use. By 1887, in
fact, arsenical poisons had become the standard remedy against nearly
all mandibulate or gnawing insects. Their use in other countries
has been brought about very slowly, and they have but slight vogue
in Europe to-day. Miss Ormerod, in her numerous reports, has
recorded the difficulty which she has experienced in securing their
adoption by English orchardists. The English colonists, however,
more enterprising and less conservative than the home people, have
taken them up, and they are used to-day in New Zealand, Australia,
and South. Africa.

Arsenical compounds.

Much experimental work with different arsenical compounds has

been carried on in the United States since Paris green made its

PROGRESS IN ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY. ~ 149

appearance. London purple, a by-product in the manufacture of
aniline dyes, was introduced through the efforts of a London house
in the early eighties, and it has been used to a very considerable
degree. Its peculiar color was considered a strong argument in favor
of its use on account of the ease in distinguishing sprayed plants
and on account of its ready recognition as a poison. This latter
argument failed in one instance, at least, as was pointed out by the
late Dr. W. 8. Barnard, who, on one occasion, while traveling on
a Mississippi River steamboat, discovered that the London purple
sifting through sacks in the cargo had been used by the enterprising
steward to color the ice cream which was served to the passengers.
The variable amount of arsenic contained in this compound, however,
renders it a less satisfactory substance to use than some of the other
arsenical combinations. The use of common white arsenic, especially
when mixed with lime, has been recommended, and its experimental
use in this combination was first tried and advocated by Gillette
when connected with the lowaexperiment station. Acompound known
as arsenate of lead has come into somewhat general use in the last few
years. This substance was first used by the gipsy-moth committee
of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture in its work against
the gipsy moth, an insect which is able to consume a considerable
quantity of arsenic without harm, from which fact a poison was
needed which could be sprayed upon the trees in very strong solution.
The lead compound enabled its use in great strength without the
ordinarily resulting damage to the foliage. Later compounds are the
simple arsenite of copper, first recommended by Mr. C. L. Marlatt, of
this office, and a mixture recommended by Professor Kedzie, of the
Michigan Agricultural College, in the following proportions:

men eererien = Slo 2-2 Sou Tet, ens. (2 pone se
(OES AY 2 ey oe ee oe Coe: Unie ene © dos 5.4
MRED tt. 2 Nt oe a teat ees ales meee eS gallons._ 2

Boil together for fifteen minutes; then slake 2 pounds of lime and stir it in 40
gallons of water, adding a pint of the above mixture.

The simple arsenite of copper is preferable to Paris green on
account of its smaller cost and in being a very fine powder, which
remains easily in suspension. It contains about 50 per cent of
arsenic, and is marketed under the name of green copper arsenite.

Kerosene emulsions.

Another distinct and very important advance in the line of reme-
dial application was the general adoption of kerosene, emulsified so
as to stand dilution with water, against sucking insects. The insec-
ticide properties of pure kerosene have long been known. Lodeman
has shown that kerosene was recommended for the destruction of
scales on orange trees in 1865,1 and was also successfully applied to

‘Gardeners’ Monthly, December, 1865, p. 364.

~150 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

oleander, sago palm, acacia, and lemon trees. This, however, was
only greenhouse work, as the oil was poured into a saucer and applied
by means of a feather. The Gardeners’ Monthly the following year
recommended it for destroying ail insect life, but modified this ree-
ommendation later by the statement that the vegetable oils were
safer. Mr. William Saunders, of the Department of Agriculture, told
the writer, in 1878, that he had been using a mechanical mixture of
kerosene and water in greenhouse work for many years. Mr. George
Cruikshank, of Whitingsville, Mass., used a mixture of kerosene and
whale-oil soap as early as May, 1870, practically producing an emul-
sion.! Henry Bird, of Newark, N. J., in 1875, made a mixture in
which he used a little kerosene oil with strong soapsuds, finding that
it combined readily, and could be apphed uniformly with a syringe.

In 1878 A. J. Cook? recommended a mixture of kerosene oil and
soapsuds. In 1880 W.S. Barnard, working for the United States Ento-
mological Commission, suggested and produced an emulsion of kero-
sene with milk, which was used with some success. In the winter of
1881-82 H. G. Hubbard, working for the Division of Entomology, made
a stable milk emulsion with condensed milk, which he used suceess-
fully against seale insects on orange trees, and in 1884 the same inves-
tigator originated by experiment the standard kerosene-soap emulsion
now commonly known as the ‘‘ Riley-Hubbard formula.” Cook, work-
ing in Michigan, had arrived at a different formula, and his failure
to make a good emulsion by the ‘‘ Riley-Hubbard” formula was
shown by Marlatt to be due to the exclusive use of very hard
water at the Michigan Agricultural College. This kerosene-soap
emulsion, generally made according to the so-called ‘‘ Riley-Hub-
bard formula,” was speedily adopted, and has become one of the
most used and most reliable insecticides against all sucking insects.
(See Yearbook for 1896, footnote to page 232, for mention of a possi-
ble earlier use of kerosene emulsion.)

Hydrocyanic-acid gas.

Another very important insecticidal process which has come into use
during the last fifteen years is that of fumigation with hydrocyanic-
acid gas, although the introduction of this process has had by no
means the same far-reaching effects as the discovery and general use
of arsenical poisons and kerosene emulsion. The process originated
in California as the direct outcome of the efforts of this office against
scale insects, the original work being carried on by D. W. Coquillett,
a field agent of the Division of Entomology, and F. Morse, of the
University of California, and subsequently largely by private enter-
prise, although experimental work in different modifications of the
process was done by Mr. Coquillett, or under his supervision. The
plan of covering trees with oiled tents and liberating beneath the

Gardeners’ Monthly, February, 1875, p. 45.
* Report of the Michigan State Board of Agriculture for 1878, p. 434,

PROGRESS IN ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY. 151

tents a supply of this deadly gas, produced by treating eyanide of
potassium with sulphuric acid, was adopted by eitrus growers and by
county horticultural commissioners to a very considerable extent in
California. Its use was practically restricted to this State down to
1895, although some experiments had been made with its use on the
island of Montserrat, British West Indies, against scale inseets on
orange and lemon trees in 1894-95, upon the recommendation of Pro-
fessor Riley, who visited this island in company with Mr. Hubbard in
the spring of 1894. With the development of the San Jose scale work
in the East, however, this process was soon introduced in this part
of the country. The first experiment made with it was undertaken
by Mr. Coquillett on the grounds of Dr. C. H. Hedges, of Charlottes-
ville, Va. (the first point where the San Jose scale was discovered east

of the Rocky Mountains), in the month of March, 1894, and the writer.

of this paper in April, 1894, described the process without especially
recommending its use, as at that time the results of the Charlottes-
ville experiment had not become apparent.' More recently the proc-
ess has been carried on, apparently with great suecess, in Mary-
land orchards by Prof. W. G. Johnson.

A great and important development of the use of this fumigating
process, however, soon took place in its application by nurserymen to
their stock before delivery to purchasers. This process, adopted by
many nurserymen for self-protection and required by the laws of cer-
tain States, was, the writer believes, first recommended by him in
conversation with Dr. J. B. Smith, entomologist of the New Jersey
Agricultural Experiment Station, in September, 1894, while visiting
the nurseries of the Parry Brothers, in New Jersey. Its use in
this way was recommended in Bulletin No. 3, new series, of the Divi-
sion of Entomology, but in the meantime it had been recommended by
Dr. Smith in Bulletin No. 106 of the New Jersey station, published
November 22, 1894. To Dr. Smith, therefore, belongs the eredit of
the first published recommendation. Since that time the process has
come into very general use. Experiments by Alwood in Virginia and
by Johnson in Maryland have resulted in the fixing of methods and
in the establishment at many points of buildings erected for the sole
purpose of fumigating nursery stock.

Another form of the use of hydrocyanic-acid gas against insects has
received consideration during the past five years and has now reached
practical results; this is its application against insects affecting green-
house plants. The greenhouse itself, being a closed building or a
building which may be elosed, renders the use of the gas at night a
comparatively simple matter, but the great variety of plants of vary-
ing resistant qualities which are found in greenhouses has rendered
necessary extended experimentation in order to insure safety to
the plants themselves. The extended work of Messrs. Woods and

‘Circular No. 3, second series, Division of Entomology, published April 4, 1894.

452 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Dorsett, of the Department of Agriculture, and Mr. Hemenway, of the
Massachusetts Agricultural College, as published by the Division of
Entomology, has established the usefulness of this application within
certain limitations. It seems, however, that specific experiments
under all possible varying conditions and upon all possible varieties
of plants must be made before the remedy can come into general use.

The three main insecticide discoveries.

The use of arsenicals, of kerosene emulsions, and of hydroeyanic-
acid gas are the main insecticide discoveries of the closing portion of
the century, and their use as practiced to-day has been dependent
upon a great amount of experimental work, carried on, perhaps,
mainly by economic entomologists. This experimental work included
not only a consideration of the proper proportions of the insecticides
when used against different insects, but also a determination of their
effect upon the foliage of different plants in different climates, under
different local climatic conditions, in different seasons, and even at
different times of the day, as well as different methods of preparation
involving the points of ease and economy.

Experimental work with other insecticide substances.

A great deal of valuable experimental work has been done also with
other substances and mixtures. This work has been of value, even
where the results have been negative, as forestalling future labor and
especially as putting a quietus upon unfounded recommendations
and upon valueless proprietary claims. The extensive experiments
with pyrethrum mixtures, for example, which resulted in the estab-
lishment of an extensive industry in home-grown pyrethrum powder
and in a large series of tests in growing Pyrethrum roseum and P.
cinerartefolium; the extensive experiments with different whale-oil
and fish-oil soaps, begun originally in the work of the Division of
Entomology against the hop plant-louse in 1886 and carried on
much further in 1895-96 in the work against the San Jose scale;
the experimental work with the old quassia chips soiutions and decoe-
tions; the series of experiments with supposed insecticidal native
plants, and a host of other experiments of similar nature may be cited
as evidence of the extent of this work. Probably the most important
of the remedies of what may be termed secondary value, and which
have been brought forward by this work of recent years, is the use of
bisulphide of carbon against insects affecting stored grain.

Machinery for distributing insecticides.

The development of machinery for the application of insecticide
mixtures is another great advance in applied entomology made during
the past twenty years; and this is a line of work in which especially
the horticulturist and also the vegetable pathologist have had a hand.
This work first became prominent in the investigations undertaken

PROGRESS IN ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY. 1535

* by the Government both under the Division of Entomology, Depart-
‘ment of Agriculture, and under the United States Entomological

Commission in the work against the cotton caterpillar in the South.

It is true that in the early days of the march of the Colorado potato
beetle toward the East a number of sprinklers and dusters were
invented for the purpose of applying Paris green to potato plants;
and two or three of these, like ‘‘ Gray’s improved sprinkler,” invented
by Frank M. Gray, of Illinois, in 1874, and ‘‘ Peck’s spray machine,”
invented by W. P. Peck, of Pennsylvania, about the same time, were
prophetic of the improved knapsack sprinklers which have come into
such great use, especially for diseases of the grape in France, and
also to a lesser degree in this country. But it was not until the late
W.S. Barnard, working under the direction of Riley, invented the
admirable eddy chamber, or ‘‘ cyclone system” of nozzles, following :
it with the construction of a number of ingenious, but since super-
seded, machines for the field distribution of the poison that what may
be termed the “‘insecticide-machinery epoch” began. This work was
soon after taken up in France, where it has been carried to a high
degree of excellence by such firms as V. Vermorel and others, Ver-
morel inventing a modification of the cyclone nozzle, known there as
the Vermorel modification of the Riley nozzle and in this country as
the Vermorel nozzle. It was not, however, until the use of arsenieal
sprays in orchards, against the codling moth in particular, and also
against the plum cureulio and the cankerworm, became general that
the full tide of perfection of insecticide machinery began. As was
quite to be expected, so soon as there was a strong demand for such
improved machinery intelligent manufacturers took hold of the prob-
lem and began to place machines of great excellence on the market.
The demand increasing, improvement became more and more abun-
dant, and there are at the present day many firms in the United States
putting out distributing machines of a high degree of merit and of
almost unending variety, from the hand bucket pump for garden use
to the motor engine pumps and machinery for orchard use on a large
scale. Many nozzles have been invented since Barnard produeed his
first rough tin model of the eddy chamber, or ‘‘ cyclone,” as he termed
it, but the modifications of his system remain to-day the most gen-
erally used and the most efficient and economical of any that have
been produeed.

WORK OF AN INTERNATIONAL CHARACTER.

In 1889 was brought about by American entomologists the first
example of what may be termed beneficial international work in
economic entomology. The introduction of Noviuws (Vedalia) cardi-
nalis from Australia into California, where it utterly destroyed the
white or fiuted seale, an insect which had damaged the citrus crops
of California to the extent of hundreds of thousands of dollars, and

154 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

which threatened the extinetion of the citrus industry of the Pacifie
slope, is an event which is too well known to need deseription here.-
It was also an event which has been termed ‘‘epoch-making,” and
which would deserve the title could it only be often repeated. It
opened up, however, in a practical way a line of work which had
often been suggested by American writers on entomology (the first of
them, by the way, it must be stated, being a Canadian, Rey. C. J. S.
Bethune).

The first and successful importations of this beneficial ladybird
were made by Albert Koebele, a salaried agent of the Division of
Entomology, working under the direction of the late Dr. Riley, but
whose traveling expenses were defrayed from the fund appropriated
by Congress for the representation of the United States at the Mel-
bourne Exposition. A later trip to Australian regions was undertaken
by Mr. Koebele while still on the pay rolls of the Division of Ento-
mology, but his expenses were paid from the appropriation granted
by California to its State board of horticulture. The results of this
second trip, although not as conclusive as those of his first trip, still
demonstrated in marked degree the advantage of this class of inter-
national work, namely, the introduction of beneficial insects from one
country to another. After Koebele’s second trip he resigned his posi-
tion, and was soon after employed by the newly established Hawaiian
Republie for the purpose of continuing the same elass of work for
that country. From reliable accounts if seems certain that his work
along the same line has resulted in great benefit to the agricultural
interests of Hawaii, which, since its annexation to this eountry, has
once more made Koebele’s work a feature of the economic entomology
of the United States.

The United States has been able to assist other Governments in their
work against injuriousinseets. Sendingsof the same ladybird (Novius
cardinalis) to South Africa, to Egypt, and later to Portugal, have
brought about results similar to those which proved the salvation of
the citrus industry of California, while other less important experta-
tions of beneficial insects promise good results. Through the office
which the writer represents there have been several introductions of
beneficial insects from foreign countries. Collections of museum
specimens of injurious insects of foreign countries have also been
made and brought to this country in the course of a study of the
greatly increasing danger which enlarging commercial relations and
rapidity of ocean traffic are constantly bringing about by the intro-
duction of new inseet pests.

A striking exemplification of the benefits to be derived from the
prosecution of this international work is actually developing in Cali-
fornia in the probable establishment in that State, through the efforts of
this Department, of Blasiophaga grossorum, an insect which in Mediter-
ranean countries fertilizes the Smyrna fig, and which it is confidently

PROGRESS IN ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY. 155

expected will result in the building up of a fig industry in California,
the output of which will rank favorably with, if it does not exceed,
that of the countries which have made the Smyrna fig the standard
fig of commerce. At the time of the present writing (December, 1899)
four generations of the fertilizing insect have been reared under
natural conditions at Fresno, Cal., and there is every probability that
it will be carried through the winter suecessfully. The insect hiber-
nates in so-called ga}l-figs upon the wild fig tree. Such figs heretofore
at Fresno have fallen with the first heavy frost. The present winter,
however, a certain number of trees have been protected from the action
of the frost by a canvas covering, and a commercial product of Ameri-
can-grown Smyrna figs during the summer of 1900 is confidently
expected.

PRESENT STANDING OF THE UNITED STATES IN ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY.

The writer has referred in an earlier portion of this paper to the
fact that as late probably as 1878 this country was behind certain
European countries in its accomplishments in the field of economic
entomology, but owing to the crying needs of a rapidly growing pop-
ulation of practical people and to the consequent encouragement
given by legislatures in making appropriations, as well as by the
energy, ability, and adaptability of the individual workers, many of
them men of high standing in the field ef pure science, the United
States has jumped to the front. English colonists, themselves con-
fronting many of the same problems which we have had to meet, were
among the earliest to recognize this fact, and agricultural papers of
the Australian colonies, of New Zealand, of Cape Colony, and of
British India have for years been extensively quoting from American
writings. Other countries have followed their lead. Cape Colony has
employed an American economic entomologist. Argentina sent for an
American entomologist to advise that Government in its work against
migratory locusts. The British West Indies are at the present time
in search of the proper man to go from the States to help them in their
work along these lines. In 1896 the French authority, Dr. Paul
Marchal, writing on the subject of applied entomology in Europe,
began his paper with the words (freely translated):

There exists nowhere an organization dealing with applied entomology capable
of rivaling that of the United States. The extraordinary development which this
service has taken in America is well known. * * * The progress realized in
these later years under the influence of this organization has been of the highest
kind. In particular that which concerns the application of insecticides on a large
scale and biological observations of a high interest from the point of view of pure
science have been accumulated in their publications. * * * European nations

have commenced to follow the example which has been given to them on the other
4 side of the Atlantic. * * *

Recently, Miss Eleanor A. Ormerod, the well-known English writer
and investigator, referring to the work of American economic ento-
mologists, wrote: ‘‘It really is impossible for me to say how highly I

156 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

fully believe that their serviceable scientific and applied information
is benefiting the world as well as their own country.”

All this is encouraging, and it appears to the writer, who, however,
is perfectly willing to confess that he may be prejudiced, well deserved ;
yet the rapid strides which other countries are taking will necessitate
the most strenuous endeavors on the part of American workers if this
temporary supremacy is to be maintained. This, of course, should
not be an especial aim of economic investigators in this country, but
is perhaps worth the mention. Weshall aim to secure the best results
possible, and it should be our hope that others in other countries
may do as well. The extremely rapidly growing publie interest in
investigations in this line during the past few years, as well as the
excellent results obtained by the workers, are fast placing this coun-
try in a position where agriculturists may work to the best advantage
in their warfare against injurious insects.

=

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES.

By Az-C: TRun; Ph.D:,
Director of the Office of Experiment Stations.

INTRODUCTION.

In previous articles in the Yearbooks for 1894, 1897, and 1898 the
origin and development of the system of agricultural education in the
United States have been discussed, and special features of that system
have been described in more or less detail. The main purpose of the
present article is to present a general view of the different agencies for
education in agriculture in this country as they exist at the close of
the nineteenth century, and to indicate the directions in which the
movement for the diffusion of knowledge on agricultural subjects
among our people is tending. In order that the reader may have a
proper understanding of the real significance of the present remark-
able activity in the sphere of agricultural education, it is necessary
that he should have in mind at least an outline of the history of this
movement, and be able to form some estimate of the progress which
has been made in defining and organizing the various branches of
agricultural education. In presenting such an outline as an introdue-
tion to the main theme of this article, advantage will be taken of a
recent review of the available literature relating to the history of agri-
eultural education in this country made under the direction of the
writer by Prof. Herman Babson, of the Massachusetts Agricultural
College, through which additional light has been thrown on the be-
ginnings of various important movements for the promotion of such
education.

The activity in agricultural education during the present century
will seem all the more impressive if it.is remembered that, after the
cessation of the efforts of Greek and Roman writers to encourage
agriculture by describing the processes of the art, centuries elapsed
before the educated men in Europe took interest enough in agricul-
ture to write books about it. War was the chief occupation of gen-
tlemen, and the arts of peace were left to the ignorant and the lowly.
But these centuries nevertheless marked the steady progress of civili-
zation, and ‘‘soon after the beginning of the sixteenth century agri-
eulture partook of the general improvement which followed the
invention of the art of printing, the revival of literature, and the
more settled authority of government, and, instead of the occasional
notices of historians, we can now refer to regular treatises, written by

157,

158 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

2238 EE

men who engaged eagerly in this occupation.” The first
English treatise on husbandry appeared in 1534, entitled ‘‘The book
of husbandry,” and was written by Sir A. Fitzherbert, a judge of com-
mon pleas. The voyages of exploration in various hitherto unknown
quarters of the globe and the colonization of America brought new
agricultural plants and breeds of animals to Europe and caused the
spread of the old ones in the new countries. The natural sciences
were rapidly developed and investigations relating to agriculture
began. Something of the progressive spirit of the age begun to stir
in even the dull frame of this oldest of industries, and by the close of
the eighteenth century the advance movement in agriculture had
taken the form of organized effort. Societies, like the Bath and West
of England Society and the Highland Society, were formed in Europe,
and a Government board of agriculture was organized by Great
Britain.

EARLY EFFORTS FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In this country the first agricultural efforts necessarily were direeted
toward clearing the land and growing the crops immediately needed
for the sustenance of the settlers and for export to the mother coun-
try, whenee alone manufactured articles eould be obtained. As is
common in hew countries where vast tracts of land are open to free
occupation, many speculative attempts were made to grow crops bring-
ing high prices with a minimum of laber. Some of these attempts,
like that relating to the production of silk, proved utter failures,
while other ereps, such as tobaceo, were very profitable. Land was so
plentiful that in many regions the easiest and most profitable thing
to do when yields deciined was to change to new fields and abandon
the old to weeds. There was little incentive to careful eultivation
and scarcely any motive for seeking new knowledge for the improve-
ment of agricultural practice; and to this ean be added the general
absence of any educational system for the masses, together with the
deep-rooted prejudices against ‘‘book learning” as applied to any
industrial pursuit, especially agriculture. Wars, at first with the
Indians and then between the various European nationalities oceupy-
ing the American continent, engaged much of the attention of the
most vigorous portion of the farming community, and these struggles
culminated in the united efforts of the colonies to free themselves
from Great Britain, which led to the protracted contest known as the
American Revolution.

Occasionally some pioneer of agricultural edueation arose, like
Jared Eliot, of Connecticut, who published in 1747 a series of essays
on farming ‘“‘full of valuable suggestions,” but little heed was paid
to the advice of such men. 'The Revolution naturaily left agriculture
in a most deplorable condition, so that the attention of statesmen was
alnost necessarily drawn to measures for its resuscitation. But far

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 159

more important for the begetting of a progressive movement in agri-
eulture was the new feeling among the people that this. country was to
be forever the home of themselves and their descendants. They were
no longer adventurous colonists seeking wealth to be taken back to
the mother country, but citizens of a young nation with vast possi-
bilities of material development. It was.also evident that for a long
period agriculture would be the chief industry of the new Republic,
and that the development of other industries, as well as suceess in
ecommeree, depended largely on wise utilization of the agricultural
resources of the country. The wisest heads took in the real situation
most quickly, and, following the fashion set across the sea, begun a
propaganda for agricultural improvement. This was not due to any
demand of the people for information, but to a desire on the part of
the leaders of thought and action to awaken interest in what they
deemed a matter of vital importance to the welfare of the nation.
Hence, most of the early agricultural societies were begun in cities,
and their membership was largely composed of men who had only a
secondary interest in agriculture, though it must be remembered that
in those days there were comparatively few Americans in active busi-
ness, professional, or political life who did not have some direct deal-
ings with farm property.

ORGANIZATION OF AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES.

The organization of agricultural societies, beginning early in 1785
at Philadelphia, then the national capital, and taking in such men as
George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, and Timothy Pickering,
spread rapidly south and north along the fringe of Atlantic coast
communities, then constituting the United States. At Charleston,
S$. ©., in 1785; Hallowell, Mass. (now Maine), in 1787; New York
City, in 1791; Boston, Mass., in 1792; Wallingford, Conn., in 1794;
Middlesex County, Mass., in 1794; Sturbridge, Mass., in 1799, and
perhaps in a few other places, similar societies were formed prior to
the elose of the eighteenth century. Thismovement continued, until
in 1809 we have the germ of a national organization in the society
formed in the District of Columbia, to which the seat of the National
Government had a few years before been permanently transferred.

BEGINNING OF PUBLICATIONS ON AGRICULTURE.

During this period various methods for diffusing agricultural infor-
mation were proposed or put in operation, very largely through the
efforts of these agricultural societies. Bookson agricultural subjects
began toappear. Among these, mention may be made of a volume of
over 300 pages, published at Worcester, Mass:, in 1790, entitled ‘‘ The
New England Farmer, or Georgical dietionary: Containing a com-
pendius aceount of the ways and methods in which: the most impor-
tant art of husbandry, in all its various branehes, is or may be

160 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

practiced to the greatest advantage in this country, by Samuel Deane,
A. M., Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences;” and
the ‘‘Rural Socrates, or an account of a celebrated philosophical
farmer, lately living in Switzerland and known by the name of
Kliyogg.—Hallowell (District of Maine). Printed by Peter Edes, and
sold by the booksellers in the principal towns of the United States.
A. D. 1800.” The author of this book was Dr. Vaughan, a prominent
member of the Maine Agricultural Society, who, in 1803-1804, like-
wise published a series of agricultural papers and essays of much
value.

The more important societies soon began the publication of informa-
tion on agricultural subjects. As early as 1792, the New York society
published a small quarto volume of its transactions. In 1797 the
trustees of the Massachusetts society began the publication of pam-
phlets, or, as we now say, bulletins, on agricultural topics, which after-
wards were developed into a regularly issued journal. Thesame year
this society established ‘‘a regular library,” having accumulated, ‘‘ by
gift and purehase, a considerable number of works on agriculture.”

ESTABLISHMENT OF FAIRS FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES,

Four years later (1801) a communication was presented to the trus-
tees of the Massachusetts society which contained the germ of an
educational movement on behalf of agriculture, destined to have an
important influence on the improvement of the art in this country,
especially down to the opening of the civil war. This was the sug-
gestion that fairs should be held in May and October in Cambridge
common and ‘‘small bounties given for certain articles.” Nothing
was immediately done to carry out this plan; but in 1804, Dr. Thorn-
ton, the first United States Commissioner of Patents, proposed that
fairs should be held in the city of Washington on market days, after
the English fashion. This idea was eagerly taken up by the citizens
and municipal authorities, and the first fair was held in October of
that year. It was such a decided success that two others were held
in succeeding years, after which, however, they were discontinued.
A great impetus seems to have been given to this movement by the
enthusiastic labors of Elkanah Watson, of Massachusetts, who, begin-
ning with an exhibition of two merino sheep on the public square at
Pittsfield in 1807, soon developed the more elaborate and picturesque
‘cattle shows,” which for many years were the popular rural festivals,
especially in New England. Much interest also attaches to the
‘sheep shearings,” the most famous of which was annually held for
a dozen years, beginning with 1808, by George Washington Parke
Custis, at ‘‘Arlington,” his estate near Washington, on the Virginia
bank of the Potomac. This was attended by throngs of prominent
men, and had much social as well as agricultural importance. The
interest in the movement for the promotion of agriculture awakened

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 161

at the national capital is further shown by the organization in 1809 of
the Columbian Agricultural Society, which was the foundation of
the national organization finally formed in 1852. From 1809 to 1812,
inclusive, this society held six fairs, at which cattle, woolen goods, cot-
ton cloth, fancy work, clothing, bed linen, sewing thread, carpeting,
rugs, dyes, ete., were exhibited.

THE BEGINNING OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION,

Washington’s deep interest in measures for the advancement of
agriculture is evidenced not only by his letters but by his message to
Congress in 1796, in which he earnestly pleads for the establishment
of a national board of agriculture. Congress, however, took no deci-
sive action on this proposition.

Meanwhile definite efforts had been made to secure for agriculture
a place in the school system of the country. From the Transactions
of the New York Agricultural Society we learn ‘‘ that the legislature by
an act passed April 11, 1792, had granted the sum of L.750 (£1,500)
for five years to the trustees of Columbia College for the purpose of
endowing additional professorships, and that the trustees had insti-
tuted, among others, a professorship for natural history, chemistry,
and agriculture, * * * and that lectures had been given upon
the different parts of the course.” Samuel L. Mitchill, M. D., LL. D.,
an active member of the society, was elected to this professorship,
probably on the recommendation of Dr. Samuel Bard, another mem-
ber, who chanced to be a trustee of Columbia College. How far agri-
culture was directly taught. by Dr. Mitchill we do not know, but we
have his assurance that in the course in botany which he gave ‘‘the
physiology of plants, including their food, nourishment, growth, res-
piration, perspiration, germination, ete., is therefore particularly
enlarged upon as connected with gardening and farming.” He also
wrote essays on the chemistry of manures.

In 1794 the Philadelphia society received the report of a committee
in which the claims of education in agriculture through the establish-
ment of professorships in the colleges, as well as the teaching of agri-
eulture in the common schools, are urged upon the attention of the
State legislature.

In 1801 the Massachusetts society subseribed $500 for the establish-
ment of a professorship of natural history in Harvard College, and a
committee was appointed to obtain subscriptions for the permanent
endowment of this professorship and for the support of a botanic
garden. This resulted in the election of William D. Peck, in 1804, to
fill the new chair, and in the later establishment of the botanic garden.

** Just as the country was well started toward helpful discussions
and improvements along agricultural lines,” says Professor Babson,
‘“the second war with England placed many hindrances in the
way of further progress in this direction, and these hindrances were

tx 99 11

162 YEARBOOK OF THH DEHPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ubsequently strengthened by the rapid growth of manufacturing facil-
ities and wealth-seeking industries. The tendencies of the times were
citywards, and the era of good feeling naturally became an era unfa-
vorable for great agricultural advancement. Nevertheless, the farmers —
and their friends, clearly understanding the unsatisfactory state of
affairs, did what they could in spite of the indifference of the general
public regarding their efforts.” The formation of agricultural socie-
ties was continued and their number rapidly increased. In South
Carolina, for example, eleven societies were in existence by 1823. The
movement for the establishment of a national board of agriculture
was renewed in 1817 by the Berkshire Agricultural Society of Mas-
sachusetts, which presented a memorial to Congress on this subject.

The bill which resulted from this effort was, however, defeated in
the House of Representatives. The following year (1818) saw the
establishment of the New York Horticultural Society, the first organ-
ization of its kind in the United States. The American Farmer, the
first distinctively agricultural periodical in this country, was started
in Baltimore in 1819, and was very shortly followed by The Plough
Boy, published by ‘‘Henry Homespun, jr.,” at Albany, N. Y. The
first agricultural paper in New England was issued in 1822.

Books on agriculture began to come more frequently from the press;
among the most characteristic of these were‘ The Farmer’s Assistant,
by John Nicholson, esq., published at Albany, N. Y., in 1814 [a see-
ond large edition in 1820], embracing every article relating to agri-
culture, arranged in alphabetical order;” ‘‘Nuge Georgice ” (Agricul-
tural Trifles), by the Hon. William Johnson, senior vice-president of
the Literary and Philosophical Society of Charleston, 8. C., published
in 1815, which is an ‘‘endeavor to sketch the outlines of a picture of
the cares and amusements, the duties and employments, of the Caro-
lina farmer;” ‘‘Arator,” by John Taylor, an eminent statesman and
agriculturist, published at Petersburg, Va., in 1818, and considered
the forerunner of the American Farmer, which seems to have had a
great influence on Virginia agriculture; ‘‘The Farmers’ Library,” by
Leonard E. Lathrop, published at Rochester, N. Y., 1826-1828, “‘to
explain some of the fundamental principles which relate to agricultural
science.”

Gradually there came into being a desire for more exact and fresh
information regarding agricultural conditions and needs, as is evi-
denced by the action of the State of Massachusetts in 1857 in author-
izing an agricultural survey of the State to ‘‘collect accurate informa-
tion of the State and condition of its agriculture and every subject
connected with it, point out the means of improvement, and make a
detailed report thereof, with as much exactness as circumstances will
admit.”

Along with these general measures for the instruction of the farmer
there went a series of efforts to develop agencies for direct school

7

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 163

training in the science and practice of agriculture. In 1819 Simeon |
De Witt, surveyor-general of New York, published a pamphlet at
Albany urging the foundation under State authority of ‘‘The Agri-
cultural College of the State of New York,” not so much ‘‘to give
instruction to farmers as to make farmers from the other classes of
society, which are stocked with such a superfluity of members that
hordes of them must otherwise remain useless or worse than useless
tothe community.” Two years later (1821) Robert Hallowell Gardiner,
of Maine, obtained an annual grant of $1,000 from the State legisla-
ture to aid in maintaining an institution which was to give mechanics
and farmers ‘‘such a scientific education as would enable them to
become skilled in their professions.” This institution was incorpo-
rated as the ‘‘ Gardiner Lyceum;” a stone building was erected for its
use, and students were first received January 1, 1823. Rev. Benja-
min Hale, a former tutor in Bowdoin College and later (1827-1835)
professor of chemistry in Dartmouth College, was the first president.
The course of study at the lyceum was arranged for two years, and
there were twenty students the first year. ‘The courses may generally
be deseribed as a chemical and a mechanical one. There was a per-
manent professor of agriculture, a practical farm, and special short
winter courses. The school kept up for many years, its numbers
reaching at one time as high as fifty-three. It had a good library and
collections. About the same time (1822) the agricultural society of
Albemarle, Va., made an earnest but unsuccessful effort to raise funds
for the establishment of a professorship of agriculture in the Univer-
sity of Virginia. Prominent in this movement was James Madison,
then president of the society, and the following extract from the let-
ter written over his signature to the other agricultural societies of the
State is interesting as showing the interest manifested in chemistry
as an aid to agriculture:

This science is every day penetrating some of the hidden laws of nature and
tracing the useful purposes to which they may be made subservient. Agrical-
ture is a field on which it has already begun to shed its rays, and on which it
promises to do much toward unveiling the processes of nature to which the prin-
ciples of agriculture are related. The professional lectures on chemistry, which

are to embrace those principles, could not fail to be auxiliary to a professorship
having lessons on agriculture for its essential charge.

in 1825 a plan for an agricultural college was submitted to the leg-
islature of Massachusetts and discussed there and in the New Eng-
land Farmer and other papers for some time. It was to be much
like other colleges of the time, with the addition of courses in agri-
eulture and mechanic arts, provided with a farm and shops. No
immediate results followed this agitation. An agricultural school
established at Derby, Conn., in 1826, proved immediately successful,
and was obliged to increase its accommodations for students. <An-
other phase of this movement is seen in the “‘ manual-labor” schools

164 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

organized in a number of places in New York between 1525 and 1840.
They were founded for the purpose of enabling needy students to
secure an education by devoting a part of their time to actual labor
in the fields or shops, which should also constitute a part of their edu-
cation. Though somewhat enthusiastically undertaken, this plan soon
proved a total failure. The same idea has, however, been revived
from time to time by those who are not aware of the teachings of
experience in this direction.

Agitation on behalf of agricultural education grew more active, and
between 1845 and 1850 a number of agricultural schools were estab-
lished by private enterprise in New York and Connecticut, some of
which met with considerable success for quite a period. In 1846 John
P. Norton was appointed professor of agricultural chemistry and
vegetable and animal physiology at Yale College, and the demand for
teachers of agricultural chemistry had grown to be sufficient by 1848
to warrant the establishment of a course for their preparation at the
same institution. In 1853 the New York legislature passed acts
establishing a State agricultural college and an industrial school, to
be known as ‘‘The People’s College.” These institutions, however,
did not beeome firmly established. Agricultural colleges which have
grown to be permanent and strong institutions were opened for students
in Michigan in 1857 and in Pennsylvania and Maryland in 1859.

State agricultural colleges were incorporated in Iowa and Minnesota
in 1858, and professorships of agriculture were established about this
time in several literary colleges.

During the twenty years preceding 1860 the movement for the
advancement of agriculture was greatly broadened and strengthened
by organizations representing the different States. By the end of this
period State agricultural or horticultural societies had been formed in
Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Georgia, Ohio,
Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Indiana, and State boards of agri-
eulture in Indiana, Massachusetts, and Maine.

ORGANIZATION OF A NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

In 1841 an attempt was made to organize a national agricultural
society at Washington and to secure the fund left by Hugh Smithson
for the maintenance of such an organization, but this resulted in fail-
ure, owing to the decision to use this fund for the establishment of
the Smithsonian Institution. But eleven years later (1852), at a con-
vention called by twelve State agricultural associations, the United
States Agricultural Society was organized. Professor Babson thus
writes of the work of this society:

The annual meetings practically accomplished the results which would have
been obtained by a national board of agriculture, as suggested by General Wash-
ington and subsequently by the Berkshire Society in Massachusetts. The meet-
ings were prolific of important reports, investigations, and, best of all, discussions.
Association and communication of thoughts and interests were the secrets of its

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 165

great work, and up to the beginning of the civil war it was essentially the center
of the agricultural interests of the country. At each of its meetings it urged the
establishment of a Department of Agriculture, until finally the result was attained.
It published a record of its transactions and also a periodical with ‘‘ reports of
the annual meetings, exhibitions. and operations of the society, with a general
statement of the position of agricultural affairs at the metropolis and reports of
the operations of State boards and societies and agricultural colleges and of all
legislative recognition of the predominant interests of the country.

ORIGIN OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Congress first took an active interest in the promotion of agricul-
ture in 1839, when, on the recommendation of Hon. Henry L. EUs-
worth, Commissioner of Patents, an appropriation of $1,000 was made
for the ‘‘ collection of agricultural statistics, investigation for promot-
ing agricultural and rural economy, and the procurement of cuttings
and seeds for gratuitous distribution among the farmers.” This work
was gradually developed; investigations in entomology, chemistry, and
botany were provided for by 1555, and the way was thus opened for

the establishment of the United States Department of Agriculture in

1862. It is sufficient to call attention here to the fact that the Depart-
ment has taken an active part in movements for the technical eduea-
tion of farmers, and has directly disseminated a very large amount of
useful information on agricultural subjects, much of which has been
obtained through its own investigations and scientifie researches. !
DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION.

In the foregoing brief outline of the main facts attending the de-
velopment of the movement for the dissemination of agricultural
information and the organization of institutions for agricultural edu-
cation in this country during the first half of the nineteenth century,
it has been shown that there was a gradual broadening and deepening
of the public demand for national and State action in this direction.
This movement on behalf of agriculture was, however, only one
phase of a general intellectual and industrial advance, which widely
affected public sentiment in the United States, as well as in the rest
of the civilized world. The physical sciences, especially chemis-
try and geolegy, were developed with remarkable rapidity during this
period and were revolutionizing some of the arts and producing
great changes in agriculture. The development of steam transporta-
tion, the invention of the telegraph, the multiplication of machinery,
the discovery of gold in California, the emigration of European peo-
ple to this country, and the rapid spread of population west of the Alle-
ghenies, all these things, scientific, industrial, and political, had
brought about a general recognition of the fact that the old order of

'The work of the Department of Agriculture is fairly presented in the various
papers in this Yearbook, each one of which discusses some phase of scientific or
economic investigation in relation to agriculture in which the Department has
taken part.—Eb.

166 - YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

things was passing away and awakened a great desire for new informa-
ticn and new training. Thesciences found their way into the curricula
of academies and colleges, slowly at first, but with accelerated rapidity
as the years passed and competent teachers increased in number.
The friends of the old classical education were, however, powerful
enough to make progress in this direction altogether too slow to satisfy .
these who had enthusiastically adopted new views of education, and
prevented anything like a symmetrical reorganization of courses of
‘study so as to fully recognize the claims of the natural sciences to be
a component part of the system of higher education. Moreover, insti-
tutions founded on literary and philosophical lines were not able to
bring themselves at that period to favor the introduction of courses
of instruction based on the needs of the students desiring to perfect
themselves in the technical principles and practice of the arts and
industries. Thus arose a demand for a new class of institutions
which should be entirely devoted to scientific and technical education.

Some efforts were made to supply this demand by private enter-
prise, but the people, who by this time had become accustomed to the
support of public schools for elementary education, quickly saw the
advantage which would flow from the organization and maintenance
of these new institutions under State or national patronage, and read-
ily seconded the efforts of their leaders to secure recognition for the
movement in State legislatures and in Congress. In their enthusiasm
for the direct application of science to the arts, the people and edu-
eators alike oftentimes attempted to found agricultural and other
technical schools on too narrow a basis, making them manual-labor
or trade schools in which the fundamental principles of sound peda-
gogy were almost entirely neglected. There were, therefore, many
failures and much confusion of thought as to the best curricula for
scientifie and technical schools. It was, in fact, too early in the his-
tory of the ‘‘new education” to expeet clear definition of aim and
purpose or the perfection of details of instruction. There must neces-
sarily be many experiments and numerous failures before a system of
technical education suited to the complex needs of modern indus-
tries and the American continent and people could be even fairly well

formulated.
THE MORRILL ACT OF 1862.

It was fortunate that at this juncture the national leader who
sought to crystallize the growing demand of the people for tech-
nical education into an act of Congress, endowing colleges for this
purpose in every State of the Union, was a man of broad views and
large practical sense, willing to draw his measure on comprehensive
lines and leave future experience to work out successful results,
even through many tribulations and great risk of fatal bungling.
This man was Justin L. Morrill, of Vermont, who, having by his own
efforts risen to success in mercantile and agricultural pursuits in the

-

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 167

midst of a hard-working but intelligent and progressive community,
had come to Congress in the prime of life with an open mind toward
every measure which promised to widen the cpportunities and increase
the welfare of the masses and had in it the promise of attaining prac-
tical results by businesslike methods.

On December 14, 1857, Mr. Morrill introduced into the House of
Representatives a bill ‘‘donating public lands to the several States
and Territories which may provide colleges for the benefit of agricul-
ture and mechanic arts,” and granting 2,000 acres of land for each
Member of Congress for this purpose. The bill was referred to the
Committee on Public Lands, who brought in an adverse report April
15, 1858. Nevertheless, in the next session of Congress the bill passed
both Houses, but was vetoed by President Buchanan. In spite of this
defeat and the legislative disturbances caused by the opening of the

aid for industrial education, and on December 16, 1861, introduced an
amended bill. A similar measure was introduced in the Senate May
2,1862, by Benjamin Wade, of Ohio. On May 28 the bill was reported
adversely in the House by the Committee on Public Lands, but was
passed by the Senate June 10, and nine days later by the House.
President Lincoln approved the bill July 2, 1862.

The provisions of the Morriil Act.

As finally passed the Morrill Act of 1862 was a comprehensive meas-
ure, providing for ‘‘the endowment, support, and maintenance of at
least one college [in each State] where the leading object shall be,
without excluding other scientific and classical studies, and including
military tacties, to teach such branches of learning as are related to
agriculture and the mechanic arts, in such manner as the legislatures
of the States may respectively prescribe, in order to promote the lib-
eral and practical education of the industrial classes in the several
pursuits and professions in life.” For these purposes there was
granted to the several States 30,000 acres of public land for each Sen-
ator and Representative in Congress, the entire proceeds of the sale
of which must be so invested as to constitute a perpetual fund yield-
ing not less than 5 per cent interest, ‘‘the capital of which shall
remain forever undiminished (except so far as may be provided in
section 5 of this act) and the interest of which shall be inviolably
appropriated by each State which may take and claim the benefit of
this act.” The exception to this requirement is ‘‘that a sum, not
exceeding 10 per cent upon the amount received by any State under
the provisions of this act, may be expended for the purchase of lands
for sites or experimental farms.” ‘‘No portion of said fund, nor the
interest thereon, shall be applied, directly or indirectly, under any
pretense whatever, to the purchase, erection, preservation, or repair
of any building or buildings.” The colleges were to be entirely under

4
great civil war, Mr. Morrill persisted in his efforts to secure national

168 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the control of the States, and in fact could not be established or main-
tained unless the States provided buildings. It is obvious, therefore,
that in this, as in other acts passed by Congress to aid the institu-
tions, the national funds were intended to be only partial endowments,
which were to be supplemented by the States in any way and to any
extent required by their growing necessities.

Land donated and number of institutions benefited wnder the Morrill Act.

The amount of land actually obtained under this act ranged from
24,000 aeres for Alabama to 990,000 acres for New York. Unwise
management in many States caused the premature sales of the lands
at a period when large grants to railroads and the opening of vast
areas to settlers free of cost had made the college-land serip almost
worthless. The general result was that many States received small
advantage from the land grant, the income of which in some cases was
not sufficient to properly maintain even a single department of a eol-
lege. Ina few States, like New York and Michigan, where the num-
ber of acres received was large and the sale of the land was skillfully
made, large funds were obtained and strong institutions were estab-
lished. The total fund received from this land amounts to over
$10,000,000, and 1,240,000 acres still remain to be sold.

Twenty-five years after the passage of the land-grant act of 1862 the
United States Bureau of Education reported that forty-eight institu-
tions had shared in the benefits of the act.

In thirteen States the grant was made over to universities or colleges already
existing, and has served to establish or angment the funds of courses, departments,
or schools of applied science in thesame. In the twenty-five remaining States the
fund has served as the chief source of endowment for new institutions, or as the

nucleus around which have collected additional funds, in several cases far exceed-
ing the amount received from the national grant.

Early relations of tnstitutions benefited by the Morrill Act to agricultural education.

In diseussing the early relations to agricultural education of the
institutions which received the benefit of the Morrill Act, it is diffieult
to make any general statements which wiil not be misleading. The
broad provisions of the act; the widely varying amounts of money
obtained from the sales of the land; the vagueness and incompleteness
of the system of scientific and technical edueation in all lines, and
especially in agriculture; the indifference of the farmers to agricul-
tural education and their demand for the training of their children
in other directions; the conservatism of the public and of educators
regarding changes in long-established courses of study; the claims of
established institutions to share in the benefits of this act; the no less
urgent claims of the promoters of new colleges; the local, political,
and denominational influences; the industrial conditions in this
country—these are some of the factors which contributed to produce
the greatest variety in the institutions organized under this act and
to vary in still larger measure the attention which they gave to

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 169

:

education in agriculture. Whileit is true that the sciences had begun
to make their way into schools and colleges in this country prior to
1862, it is also the fact that for the most part the American colleges
were institutions maintaining a single classical course, which must be
rigidly followed by all students desiring to graduate. Courses of
study in the sciences were yet to be developed, teachers in these
branches were to be trained, and the system of elective studies was
to be organized, while graduate courses of instruction and research
were hardly thought of. Technical and industrial edueation neces-
sarily had to wait until instruction in the sciences, on which such
training must be based, had been put on something like a sound basis
and had secured a reasonable supply of well-trained teachers and at
least fairly adequate buildings, apparatus, text-books, and other
equipment.

Even in the strongest institutions established under the Morrill Act
of 1862, for many years most of the State and national funds obtained
for their maintenance were wisely expended in building up sound
education in the natural sciences. In this way only could they lay
strong and deep foundations on which to rest a substantial super-
structure of technical edueation when the times were ripe for its
erection. Speaking broadly, the chief function of the land-grant
institutions during the first quarter century of their existence was to
aid in the establishment and perfecting of instruetion in the natural
sciences throughout the country. In doing this they did a great work
for agriculture and the other industries by giving free tuition to thou-
sands of students drawn from the industrial classes, who have since
used their trained talents for the development of our industries by
utilizing scientific facts and principles for their advancement. But
more than this, these colleges at once begun, in greater or less degree,
the building up of technical courses in agriculture and the devélop-
ment of agricultural research along scientific lines. If the farmers
had responded to the efforts of the colleges in this direction many
more of their children might have received direct, even if imperfect,
instruction in the theory and practice of agriculture, and the move-
ment for the development of such instruction might have been greatly
accelerated. Amid many discouragements within and without, the
colleges for technical education in agriculture gradually made their
way, and the various lines of endeavor now hopefully expanding had
their foundations surely laid in the institutions established under the
Morrill Act of 1862. A new and peculiarly American principle had
been introduced into our educational system by this great act, which
is well set forth in the memorial address of President Buckham, of
the University of Vermont, on Senator Morrill before the Association
of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations at San
Francisco, July 6, 1899, in the following words:

What Mr. Morrill meant, as his many speeches show, was that the liberal edu-
cation of the industriai classes should make their pursuits professions, and should

170 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

liberalize the industries and arts of life. This is really the central and controlling
thought of thé whole scheme—to bring the light of learning and the aid of science
to bear upon those pursuits and callings which, hitherto regarded as illiberal and
wearing the badge of inferiority, would thus be lifted to the plane with the other
professions, and confer equal respectability upon their members.

DEVELOPMENT OF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES.

Meetings which the general public and especially farmers were
invited to attend were held at a comparatively early day under the
auspices of the local or State agricultural societies. Out of these
meetings grew a more or less clearly defined institution for the
technical education of the adult farmer, now known as the farmers’
institute. While the character of the institutes is such as to make
it impracticable to assign any definite date as the time of differentia-
tion from other farmers’ assemblies, yet the period following the
organization of the agricultural colleges under the Morrill Act of
1862 seems to have been the time when the farmers’ institutes took a
distinct form, and under that name began to receive the patronage
of the States. Thus, in 1862 the Massachusetts State Board of Agri-
culture held a public meeting of four days’ duration, and in 1866 the
Connecticut State Board of Agriculture held. its first farmers’ con-
vention for lectures and discussion. In 1870 the newly organized
State Board of Agriculture of New Hampshire began a series of farm-
ers’ meetings, and the following year Vermont followed this example.
The same year the Massachusetts board requested the twenty-nine
agricultural societies of the State to organize annual meetings, to be
denominated the ‘‘ Farmers’ Institutes of Massachusetts,” and several
societies began at once to hold such meetings. About the same time
institutes were inaugurated in Kansas, and a little later in Michigan,
by the agricultural colleges of these States. Other States joined the
movement, and legislatures began to make appropriations to maintain
the institutes. i

In 1885, when the board of regents of the University of Wis-
consin organized a course of institutes, a special officer, called the
superintendent of farmers’ institutes, was appointed to plan and man-
age them, and this arrangement was afterwards confirmed by the
State. While the institutes are carried on under varied auspices in
the different sections of the country, the character of the meetings
themselves has been essentially the same wherever they have been
held. They are usually held during the winter months, but in some
cases at other seasons of the year, and as a rule continue from two to
four days. ‘‘The programmes are planned to promote the inter-
change of ideas, a full and free discussion being sought upon topics
introduced in an address or paper by some specialist.” Officers of
agricultural colleges and experiment stations, and other experts,
together with successful farmers who have attained more than local
reputations, are usually selected as institute workers by the officers

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 71

who have charge of the system of institutes for the State, or they
may be chosen by the local authorities from lists prepared by the cen-
tral bureau. There is very often a local committee, which provides
local speakers, music, literary, and other general exercises, and
arranges for the place of meeting, refreshments, and advertising.

All persons in attendance, the humblest as well as the most prominent, are
urged to ask questions upon points suggested in the address and to present related
facts gained from personal experience. A ‘‘ question box” is frequently made use
of, answers being given by the conductor of the institute or by some one specially
fitted to supply the information asxed. For the evening sessions the usual plan
is to have a popular lecture upon some subject of general agricultural interest.
This address is made somewhat more elaborate and complete than those of the
day sessions and less opportunity is given for discussions.

ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND EXPERI-
MENT STATIONS. ~

The need of coming together for conference was definitely recognized
by the institutions organized under the Morrill Act of 1862 as early as
1883, when a convention of delegates from the agricultural colleges
met at Washington, D. C., for the special purpose of promoting the
establishment of experiment stations in connection with these col-
leges. On July 8, 1885, a convention of agricultural colleges and
experiment stations (a number of which had by this time been organ-
ized by the States as separate institutions) met at the Department of
Agriculture in Washington in response to a call issued by the then
Commissioner of Agriculture, Norman J. Colman, of Missouri, and on
October 18, 1887, at a second convention in the same city a perma-
nent organization was effected, under the name of ‘‘ The Association
of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations.” This
association was at first very largely interested in the establishment
and development of the agricultural experiment stations, but from
the outset gave considerable attention to the general interests of the
land-grant colleges, and from time to time has made this feature of
its work more prominent. The work of the association is, in fact,
much broader than its name would indicate. The institutions com-
prising it cover a very wide range of educational work, several of them
being great universities, numbering their students by the thousand
and their instructors and courses of study by the hundred. The
association has, however, always been active and earnest in its efforts
to promote agricultural education, and has been an influential factor
in aiding the advancement of such education throughout the country.

THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

Even before the passage of the Morrill Act of 1862 the agricultural
schools and colleges established under private or State auspices began
experimental inquiries on agricultural problems, and the institutions
whieh received the benefits of that act took up the same work ina
larger way. In 1875 a regularly organized experiment station was

172 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

established by the State of Connecticut. Other States followed this
example by establishing experiment stations either as separate insti-
tutions or in connection with the land-grant colleges. In 1887 Con-
gress nationalized this movement by the passage of the Hateh Act,
which provided for the establishment and maintenance of experiment
stations as departments of the land-grant colleges in all the States
and Territories. These institutions are in law and in fact integral
parts of the higher institutions for education in agriculture, repre-
senting essentially the university side of such edueation, being set
above the undergraduate departments of the colleges as organizations
devoted to original research.'. They are the fountain heads of agri-
cultural knowledge, and the results of their work are more and more
to form the basis of all instruction in agricultural seienze from the
college down to the common school and out to the masses of workers
on our farms. Already they have surpassed all other agencies in the
dissemination of useful information among our farmers and have
collected a fund of new knowledge which has radically changed the ~
text-books and courses of instruction in agriculture in this country.

THE SECOND MORRILL ACT.

The establishment of the experiment stations greatly quickened
the interest in agricultural education throughout the country. The
demand for other forms of technical edueation had also grown apace.
It became evident that the land-grant institutions in many States
were unable to meet the calls made upon them to inerease their facul-
ties and facilities for technical education. There was increasing lib-
erality on the part of the States toward these institutions, but the
State appropriations were in many cases very inadequate. At this
juncture Mr. Morrill came forward with a proposition to inerease the
endowment of the land-grant colleges out of the national funds aris-
ing from the sale of public lauds. His bill for this purpose passed
both Houses of Congress and was approved by President Harrison
August 30, 1890. This act provides for an annual appropriation, as
follows:

To each State and Territory for the more complete endowment and maintenance
of colleges for the benefit of agriculture and the mechanic arts now established, or
which inay be hereafter established, in accordance with an act of Congress
approved July second, eighteen hundred and sixty-two, the sum of fifteen thou-
sand dollars for the year ending June thirtieth, eighteen hundred and ninety, and
an annual increase of the amount of such appropriation thereafter for ten years
by an additional sum of one thousand dollars over the preceding year, and the
annual amount to be paid thereafter to each State and Territory shall be twenty-
five thousand dollars, to be applied only toinstruction in agriculture, the mechanic
arts, the English language, and the various branches of mathematical, physical,
natural, and economic science, with special reference to their applications in the
industries of life, and to the facilities for such instruction.

1'The history of experiment stations is given in a separate article in this Year-
book.—Eb.

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 173

Provision is made for separate institutions for white and colored
students in States which may desire to make such an arrangement.
The Secretary of the Interior is charged with the adininistration of
the law, and is given authority to withhold the appropriation to any
State or Territory for cause, subject to an appeal to Congress.

DEVELOPMENT OF COLLEGES OF AGRICULTURE DURING THE CLOSING
DECADE OF THE CENTURY.

The second Morrill Act has been of great benefit to agricultural
education in this country. Many of the land-grant colleges which
formerly had done little for their agricultural courses, either because
of their limited funds or through lack of interest in the subject, were
enabled to put them on a respectable footing, and were aroused to
renewed efforts to make them substantial and attractive. The State
legislatures were also more easily led to make liberal appropriations
for buildings and facilities for instruction in these institutions, now
that their value and importance had been recognized in such a not-
able manner by Congress. The friends of agricultural education
became more active in urging their claims upon faculties, boards of
management, and legislatures, and met with increasing suceess in
securing for agriculture a larger recognition in the college curriculum.
The establishment of the experiment stations had attached to these col-
leges a much larger and stronger body of men whose prime interest
was on the side of agriculture, and the increased financial revenues
of the colleges made it possible to utilize the services of many more
instructors in agricultural subjects. The ten years which have
elapsed since the passage of the second Morrill Act have therefore
been marked by the development of agricultural education along a
number of new lines. They have been in great measure years of
preparation, the result of which will be realized in the coming century.
Many plans for advancement in agricultural education have been
proposed, and many tentative propositions for the improvement of the
working scheme for such education have been suggested. Here and
there new enterprises in this direction have been very successful;
and what is perhaps the most important thing, there has been a grow-
ing hopefulness that before long there will be such a system of educa-
tion in agriculture in this country as will not only supply a sufficient
number of well-trained leaders in agricultural progress, but will also
spread abroad among the masses of our rural population definite and
useful information regarding the principles and the best practice of
agriculture.

The rapid advance in the number and extent of scientific investi-
gations along agricultural lines has revealed to scientists, schoolmen,
and farmers alike something of the breadth and depth of the subject
of agriculture, whether considered as a science or as anart. This
has led to a recognition of the fact that no single scheme of technical

174 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

education in agriculture will meet the needs of our times. Two gen-
eral results of vital importance have followed: First, the subjeet of
agriculture has been divided into an increasing number of specialties,
and each year more men have devoted themselves to the study and
teaching of some one branch of agriculture; and, second, instead of
being satisfied with maintaining one general curriculum in agricul-
ture, covering the usual period of four years, the colleges have more
and more endeavored to diversify the courses in agriculture and
adapt them to the needs of different classes of students. Agriculture,
considered as a subject of education, has felt the same influences whieh
in other subjects have produced such wide specialization and such
varied courses of instruction. The movement, as related to agricul-
ture, has not, however, proceeded so far as in the case of other sub-
jects, and the century will close without witnessing the thorough
organization of agricultural education in this country along permanent
lines. :

In the older curriculum the teaching of agriculture was for the most
part divided between the agricultural chemist, who dealt especially
with matters relating to soils, fertilizers, and the principles of feeding
and dairying, and the so-called agriculturist, who usually was expected
to cover the round of farm practice. Instruction regarding the diseases
of animals was at an early day given a distinet place under the name
of veterinary science. The diseases of plants were turned over to the
botanist or horticulturist, and insect pests to the zoologist or ento-
mologist. In most institutions horticulture was clearly divided from
agriculture. The new movement for the division of the general sub-
ject of agriculture in the colleges of this country may perhaps be said
to have begun with the separation of dairying as a distinet branch of
instruction. This was in large measure due to the revolution in the
methods of dairying, caused by the investigations of the experiment
stations, which led to the multiplication of creameries and cheese fac-
tories. The technology of dairying on bothits scientific and practical
sides became a large and distinct subject in the minds of the farmers
and the college authorities. This made it easy to assign dairying a
separate place in the curriculum, and to provide one or more special
teachers for this branch of agriculture. The science of animal pro-
duction (zootechny) about this time assumed large proportions, and
as means increased it was found desirable to have at least one teacher
in the college faculty who should devote himself exclusively to this
subject. But this has already proved too large a burden for any one
man to carry to the complete satisfaction of his students, and a few of
our strongest colleges have subdivided this subject. More recently
studies in agricultural physics, especially as related to soils, have been
so far developed and systematized that special laboratories and teachers
for this branch of agriculture have been found very desirable wherever
the resources of the institution would permit. By the changes above

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 175

indicated a place has been made for the more systematic organization
of instruction in plant production (agronomy) as a distinet ecllege
department, and this has been doneat a numberof colleges. Thus far
rural engineering and rural economics, including the history of agri-
eulture, have been incidental features of our college courses, and have
been assigned to teachers whose main work has been in other lines.

The specialization of work and the consequent increase in number
of instructors have made it possible to more efficiently organize vari-
ous forms of short and special courses in agricultural subjects. <As
long as the four years’ course in agriculture was a simple and rigid
eurriculum, the attempt to introduce a shorter course on the same
general plan, but more superficial and imperfect in detail, did not
prove generally successful. It was diffieult for the outside public to
distinguish between the two courses, which led the long-course stu-
dents to think that their standing as college men was imperiled by
misunderstanding regarding their status as compared with that of the
short-course students. While the pedagogicai character of the long
course was asa rule nondescript, that of the short course was still more
so. Sogeneral was the dissatisfaction with these earlier short courses
that at one time it seemed as if the colleges would wholly abandon
them; but now they are being revived in new and much more satis-
factory forms. When the short course covers the general subject of
agriculture, a better selection of topics is made and the student
receives from different specialists more definite information and a
more intense stimulus to pursue the subjects further on his own
account. But the greatest success has been attained with the short
courses which have included only a limited number of agricultural
topics and afforded more precise and extended practical instruction
along one or two lines. This has been particularly true of the short
eourses in dairying, in which it has been found practicable to unite
with the theoretic instruction sufficient practice to enable the student
taking such a course to become an efficient worker in the farm dairy
or the creamery or cheese factory. The diversification of the four
years’ course in agriculture, through the introduction of the elective
system, and the elevation of this course to a grade more nearly approxi-
mating other courses for which the bachelor’s degree is given, have in
large measure done away with the student’s opposition to the ob-
viously lower courses occupying a shorter time. The present tend-
ency is toward the organization of the shorter courses as schools dis-
tinct from the college departments, though belonging to the same
institution. These may be special schools, as in dairying, or general
agricultural schools of secondary grade.

THE IMPROVEMENT OF COLLEGE COURSES IN AGRICULTURE.

Courses in agriculture in our colleges have developed very largely
according to the views of individual teachers or the supposed or real

-

176 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

necessities of the institutions, owing to their local environment; but
with the establishment of courses in the natural sciences on a sounder
pedagogical basis and the rapid enlargement of the courses for
instruction in the theory and practice of agriculture, there has been
increasing realization of the desirability of systematizing -courses in
agriculture according to modern pedagogical methods.

Realizing this need, the Association of American Agricultural Col-
leges and Experiment Stations, at its convention in 1894, appointed a
committee on entrance requirements, courses of study, and degrees,
whose final report, presented two years later, was adopted. This
report recommended as a standard series of entrance requirements for
college courses the following subjects: (1) Physical geography; (2)
United States history; (3) arithmetic, including the metrie system;
(4) algebra to quadraties; (5) English grammar and composition,
together with the English requirements of the New England Associa-
tion of Colleges and Preparatory Schools; (6) ancient, general, or
English history. Recognizing the fact that a considerable number of
the land-grant colleges were not in a position to immediately insist on
these entrance requirements, the committee suggested that all should
unite in requiring the first five subjects as a minimum for admission
to their lowest collegiate class. For all four years’ courses, leading toa
bachelor’s degree, it was urged that the colleges should require the
following general studies: (1) Mathematies, at least through algebra,
geometry, and trigonometry; (2) physics and chemistry, with labora-
tory work in each; (3) English language and literature; (4) other
languages (one at least modern); (5) mental science and logic or moral
science; (6) constitutional law; (7) social, political, or economic
science.

In 1895 the association appointed a standing committee on methods
of teaching agriculture, which has thus far presented four reports of
progress. Taking up the work where the committee on entrance
requirements left it, this committee first suggested that the following
subjects be added to the general subjects named above to complete
the four years’ course in agriculture leading to the degree of bachelor
of science: (1) Agriculture; (2) horticulture and forestry; (5) vet-
erinary science, including anatomy; (4) agricultural chemistry; (5)
botany, including vegetable physiology and pathology; (6) zoology,
including entomology; (7) physiology; (8) geology; (9) meteorology;
and, (10) drawing. It then proceeded to divide the subject of agri-
culture as follows: (1) Agronomy, or plant production; (2) zootechny,
or animal industry; (3) agrotechny, or agricultural technology; (4)
rural engineering, or farm mechanics; and, (5) rural economies, or
farm management. It has since presented somewhat detailed outlines
of courses in agronomy and zootechny. It is believed that the work
of these committees is chiefly significant as indicative of an earnest
and widespread movement among the colleges of agriculture to

4

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. Ly it 4

systematize and improve the courses in agriculture. The committees
have simply endeavored to give form toa general desire for the elevation
of college courses in agriculture to the same level as other college
courses and the specialization of the instruction in agriculture as is
being done everywhere in regard to other subjects included in the
modern scheme of liberal education.

ORGANIZATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE.

The improvement of the college courses in agriculture has been
accompanied by efforts to provide courses which are distinctly of
secondary grade. It has become clear that the college courses will
meet the needs of only a comparatively small number of students
from the farms, and that a large part of the college graduates will find
their most suitable employment as investigators, teachers, journal-
ists, or workers in those industries more or less closely connected
with agriculture in which knowledge of the science as well as the
practice of agriculture is requisite. Instruction in agriculture of the
secondary grade has for some years been given in connection with
the other industrial courses at the Hampton Institute, in Virginia,
and more recently at the Tuskegee Institute, in Alabama, and some
other similar schools for colored students. In 1895 a secondary schook
of agriculture was organized at the University of Minnesota, with a
course of study and faculty clearly differentiated from those of the
college of agriculture. This school has been largely attended and
has proved quite successful. For the past two years girls as well as
boys have been admitted to this school, and special provision has
been made for their residence at the institution. A similar school
has recently been opened at the University of Nebraska. The State
of Alabama has for a few years past made provision for the mainte-
nance of schools of agriculture of secondary grade in each of the nine
Congressional districts of the State. The Baron de Hirsch Agricul-
tural and Industrial School, at Woodbine, N. J., regularly opened for
students in 1894, provides general and agricultural education of the
secondary grade, combined with a large amount of practical farming
and horticulture, to a limited number of boys and girls. <A similar
school for boys is the National Farm School at Doylestown, Pa..
opened for students in 1597.

EFFORTS TO INTRODUCE AGRICULTURE INTO THE COMMON SCHOOLS.

_ Throughout the century efforts have been made from time to time to
introduce instruction in agriculture into the common schools. These
efforts have uniformly failed, partly because too much was attempted,
and partly because the condition of the schools did not permit of
changes in their curriculum in this direction. Thus far our common
schools, especially in the rural districts, have done very little toward
introducing even elementary lessons on natural objects, and much
A 99 12

178 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

less the systematic study of the elements of any natural science.

The organization of anything like a complete system of common schoels
over vast areas of a new territory with a rapidly growing population

has been a gigantic task, and until recently there has been little

opportunity for the consideration of measures for the improvement of
courses of instruction in our rural schools. We have been justly

proud of the wide and free dissemination of elementary education in

this country, but we have hardly yet come to realize how much needs

to be done to put these schools on the most efficient basis. For some

years it has been apparent to close students of the rural schools that.
the most practicable step toward the introduction of instruction which

would directly bear on agriculture was to secure some definite train-

ing of the pupil’s powers of observation through exercises based on

natural objects. A very hopeful beginning of a movement in this
direction, which now promises to become widespread, was made in

1894 in connection with the College of Agriculture of Cornell Univer-

sity, under the leadership of Prof. L. H. Bailey.

By visiting the rural schools and giving sample lessons, the officers
in charge of this work ascertained the needs and requirements of
these schools as regards nature study and secured the interest and
cooperation of a considerable number of school officers and teachers
in a comparatively short time. To show the teachers more definitely
how nature study may be presented to their pupils, a series of leaflets
was begun, which were distributed throughout the State wherever
teachers showed an interest in the movement. The plan proved at
once successful, and means for its extension have been increased by
succeeding legislatures. A corps of instructors have been employed
in canvassing the State, and these have been aided by special teachers
from time to time as occasion requires. These instructors meet the
teachers of the schools in the presence of their pupils and at teachers’
meetings for the purpose of illustrating methods for teaching nature
studies. The leaflets serve as texts for the subjects taught. Very
naturally, many of-these leaflets are on subjects directly relating to
agriculture, such as cultivated plants, fruits, weeds, and insects. It
has been impracticable, even if it were at all desirable, to confine
this movement to the rural schools, for the eity teachers, who had in
many cases begun nature teaching in one form or another, have been
very eager to receive and utilize the leaflets and other special instrue-
tion on nature teaching emanating from Cornell University. It is
reported that 25,000 teachers in New York State alone have received
some instruction in this way, and the leaficts, being sold, are widely
disseminated in other States. Some of the other colleges of agricul-
ture, notably in Indiana, Missouri, Rhode Island, and Pennsylvania,
are taking up this work, and plans for the introduction or more
effective use of nature study in the common schools are being made
in a number of States.

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 179

DEVELOPMENT OF UNIVERSITY EXTENSION IN AGRICULTURE.

Other forms of university-extension work in agriculture are being
actively pushed by the agricultural colleges. Allusion has already
been made to the work of these institutions in connection with the
farmers’ institutes. This work has been greatly developed since the
establishment of the experiment stations. In one sense the immense
amount of literature on agricultural subjects disseminated by the
experiment stations and this Department form the most important
and successful university-extension work thus far carried on in this -
country.

FEATURES OF THE EXTENSION WORK.

An interesting feature of this movement was inaugurated in a defi-
nite way by the State College of Pennsylvania in 1892, under the title
“Chautauqua course of home reading in agriculture.” The college
provided a list of books and offered examinations on the subjects read.
it was soon found desirable to help the readers over difficulties by cor-
respondence. When the lack of suitable books for such a course
became apparent, the coilege undertook to send out printed lessons
and questions on particular subjects treated in the books, which should
guide the readers to an intelligent use of the books, bring out their
important points, and extend and illustrate the information which
they contained. This plan proved highly successful, and the number
of subjects on which lessons were thus prepared was extended until
during the past year five courses, each comprising seven subjects, or
books, were offered. On March 1, 1899, there were 3,416 readers
enrolled, of whom 460 received systematic¢ instruction by means of
the lessons. There were readers in most of the States and some in
foreign countries. This work of the college has outgrown the resources
which can be devoted to its maintenance, and of late no special effort
has been made to increase the enrollment. Farmers’ reading courses
have since been undertaken in various forms by the agricultural col-
leges in Michigan, New Hampshire, Connecticut, West Virginia, South
Dakota, and New York.

In New York the reading courses form part of a more elaborate
scheme of university extension than exists elsewhere in this country,
one feature of which is the nature teaching already referred to. Here
the course began with horticulture, but has been extended to include
general agriculture. In its present form the New York plan is to send
the farmer short, specially prepared lessons, with questions on a few
topics, and to organize reading clubs; these clubs are visited by lec-
turers and inspectors, who give information and help to keep up the
organization and enthusiasm. Last year 8,600 readers were enrolled,
of whom over 8,000 were residents of New York. Another feature of
the New York university-extension work is the itinerant school, in
which special topics in horticulture or agriculture are taught for a

180 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

few days by experts, thus imparting more definite and extended infor-
mation than is possible in the single lectures at farmers’ institutes.

Cooperative experiments, in which farmers in different localities
have participated, have been made in Connecticut and other States
almost from the beginning of the experiment-station enterprise.
More attention is now being given to perfecting the plans and records
of these experiments, and it is quite generally recognized that they
are chiefly valuable as educational agencies. In New York this work
has been joined with the general plan for university extension, in
charge of the college of agriculture of Cornell University, and liberal
appropriations have made it possible to carry on hundreds of simple
experiments throughout the State.

Now that the educational world has become fairly awake to the
comprehensive mission of the teacher, it sees that the set institutions
of learning are not simply to do what they can for the youth who hap-
pen to come within their halls, but that they are rather to be the
centers of light and inspiration to all the community about them. It
is their business to go out and instruct men wherever they can find
them, as well as to offer any proper inducement for pupils to come
into their class rooms, because there can be found what is suited to
their varied needs as regards both culture of body and mind and
training for the life’s work. Standards of acquirement there must be,
and these have been made more thorough and exacting. Instruction
must conform to sound pedagogical principles, and more attention is
being devoted to studies of the mind of the pupil as related to his
acquisition of knowledge. Todo his best work the teacher must have
aptitude and general and special training beyond what has hitherto
been thought necessary. But after all the school must take the pupil
where it can find him and do for him the best it can, considering
chiefly his status and environment. It is the recognition of this
fundamental principle, partial though the recognition has been thus-
far, which is producing the most profound change in the work and
spirit of our institutions for education in agriculture, as it is also in
other educational institutions everywhere.

AMERICAN BOOKS ON THE SCIENCE AND PRACTICE OF AGRICULTURE.

For many years one of the serious hindrances to the success of
education in agriculture in the schools or among the farmers was the
lack of good books on agriculture setting forth the facts and principles
of agricultural science and practice as related to conditions of farm-
ing in the United States; but since the establishment of the experi-
ment stations, and especially within the past few years, there has
been a great increase in the number of books which are useful for the
education of our agricultural people along the lines of their art.
Much attention is being given to the preparation of books which may
serve aS works of reference or as text-books in different grades of

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 181

agricultural instruction. The publications of the stations and of the
Department in large measure supply the materials for these books,
and they are written from an American standpoint. There is already
a healthful competition in the production of books best adapted to
special purposes of agricultural education, and thus the way is being
prepared for the more general and satisfactory diffusion of such edu-
cation in the twentieth century.

DEVELOPMENT OF GENERAL AGENCIES FOR THE EDUCATION OF
FARMERS.

The second half of the nineteenth century has witnessed a great
awakening of the farmers of this country to their educational needs
and opportunities. This has led to the broadening of the work and
influence of general agencies for their education. The State and local
societies have been supplemented by great national organizations,
such as the Farmers’ Alliance and the Patrons of Husbandry (granges),
which, besides doing a great deal for the promotion of their general
welfare, have done much to quicken the desire of multitudes of farmers
for definite education in matters relating to their art. That portion
of the newspaper press which is wholly or partially agricultural has
been more active and far-reaching than ever before in its efforts to
disseminate useful information among the rural masses. State depart-
ments and other agencies for aiding the farmer to acquire knowledge
along agricultural lines have been greatly strengthened. The limits
of this article will forbid anything more than the mere mention of the
origin and usefulness of these general agencies for agricultural eduea-
tion. In considering in any broad way the institutions for the farm-
ers’ education which now exist in this country, great credit must be
given to those organizations which, though established for more gen-
eral purposes, have exerted their influence to arouse the farmer to
see the need of progress and enlightenment, and which have labored
earnestly for the establishment and maintenance of institutions defi-
nitely organized for technical education in agriculture. Without the
movement for the farmers’ uplifting, begun and fostered by those
general agencies, the schools and colleges of agriculture could not
have reached their present promising condition.

THE AMERICAN SYSTEM FOR AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN THE
YEAR 1900.

Without taking into aceount the general educational agencies just
referred to, the American system for agricultural education as it exists
at the close of the nineteenth century comprises a number of impor-
tant branches whose functions may be more or less clearly differen-
tiated.

182 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

DEPARTMENTS OF ORIGINAL RESEARCH AND GRADUATE STUDY IN AGRICULTURE,

At the head of this system stand the Department of Agriculture
and the agricultural experiment stations now in operation in all
the States and Territories chiefly as departments of the land-grant
colleges. These constitute very largely the university, or graduate
branch of agricultural education in this country, having for their
chief functions the discovery and dissemination of new truths regard-
ing the theory and practice of agriculture. Organized primarily with
reference to research, both the Department and the stations to a con-
siderable extent directly promote agricultural education, in the tech-
nical sense, by giving instruction to students. This is done by open-
ing their laboratories to assistants who participate in research work
while continuing their studies, or by imparting new inspiration and
knowledge to students who become acquainted with the research work
by indirect contact through residence at the institutions where it is
being conducted. From time to time officers of the agricultural col-
leges and experiment stations come to work in the Department of
Agriculture for a period, to carry on special investigations or to enlarge
their knowledge of scientific facts and principles in special lines. In
accordance withan arrangement recently made, a limited number of
graduates of the land-grant colleges are admitted to the Department
for advanced study and research. At the universities and colleges
having courses in agriculture there are now a considerable number of
persons pursuing graduate courses in agricultural subjects. This has
for the most part been made possible by the establishment of the
experiment stations as research departments of these institutions and
the consequent employment of experts in different lines of agricul-
tural science competent to give graduate instruction in their several
specialties.

COLLEGE COURSES IN AGRICULTURE.

Under the provisions of the acts of Congress of July 2, 1862, and
August 30, 1890 (Morrill acts), sixty-four colleges are in operation in
the several States and Territories. Of these, about sixty institutions
maintain courses in agriculture. In fourteen States separate institu-
tions are maintained for white and colored students. These insti-
tutions are brought together to constitute a national system of higher
education in the sciences and industries through the Association of
American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, the Office
of Experiment Stations of the Department of Agriculture, and the
Bureau of Education of the Department of the Interior. The col-
leges of agriculture may be divided into three classes, according to
the general differences in their organization: (1) Colleges having
only courses in agriculture; (2) colleges having courses in agricul-
ture along with those in a variety of subjects, including especially
mechanic arts; and, (3) colleges (or schools or departments) of agri-
culture forming a part of universities. The only institution in this

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 183

country which is simply an agricultural college is the Massachusetts
Agricultural College.

Agricultural and mechanical colleges have been organized in Ala-
bama, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Iowa, Kansas, Ken-
tucky, Maryland, Michigan, Mississippi, Montana, New Hampshire,
New Jersey, New Mexico, North Carolina, North Dakota, Oklahoma,
Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota,
Texas, Utah, Virginia, and Washington. Separate institutions of this
class for colored students are maintained under the Morrill Act of 1890
in Alabama, Delaware, Florida, Mississippi, North Carolina, South
Carolina, and Virginia. The instruction in these institutions has,
however, very wisely been confined for the most part to courses below
the college grade. A similar institution, maintained by private funds,
is the well-known Tuskegee Industrial Institute, in Alabama.

Colleges of agriculture (or equivalent schools or departments) in
universities are maintained with the aid of national funds in Arizona,
Arkansas, California, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Louisiana,
Maine, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada, New York, Ohio,
Tennessee, Vermont, West Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. In
Massachusetts, Harvard University has a school of agriculture known
as Bussey Institution.

The college course in agriculture in most of these institutions
extends through four years and leads to a bachelor’s degree. The
eourse varies considerably in different institutions as regards the
requirements, both for admission and for graduation. In some cases
students are admitted directly from the common schools, while in
others the entrance requirements are on a level with those for admis-
sion to other college courses in high-grade colleges. The course at
the Massachusetts Agricultural College may be taken as a type of a
relatively high-grade college course in agriculture as given in Ameri-
ean colleges. Candidates for admission must be at least 16 years old,
and are required to pass examinations in English grammar, geogra-
phy, United States history, physiology, physical geography, arith-
metic, the metric system, algebra (through quadratics), geometry (two
books), and civil government. The student is required to follow a
definitely prescribed curriculum during three years, and in the fourth
and last year of the course he is allowed wide latitude of choice among
numerous specialties, English and military science being the only
required studies. In freshman year the following subjects are
included in the course: Agrieulture, botany, chemistry, algebra,
geometry, bookkeeping, English, French, military tactics, and mechan-
ical drawing; in sophomore year, agriculture, horticulture, botany,
chemistry, anatomy and physiology, trigonometry, surveying, English,
and mechanical drawing; in junior year, agriculture, horticulture,
chemistry, zoology, entomology, physics, English (including rhetoric
and literature); in senior year, together with the required English

184 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and military science, at least three elective studies must be taken,
which may be selected from the following: Agriculture, botany, chem-
istry, entomology, veterinary science, civil engineering, analytical
geometry, calculus, English, German, Latin, political economy, his-
tory, and farm law.

In these colleges, as a rule, ample provision is made for the teach-
ing of the sciences related to agriculture. Horticulture, vegetable
pathology, economic entomology, and veterinary science are com-
monly taught along with agriculture, but by separate instructors.
An outline course in forestry is also often given. The subject of agri-
culture is not infrequently divided among two or more instructors.
Matters relating to soils, fertilizers, and the composition of plants,
dairy products, ete., are often taught under the head of agricultural
chemistry. Agricultural physies, especially as relating to soils, has
been recently made a separate department of instruction in a number
of colleges. The theory and practice of dairying, animal husbandry,
and plant production have, in some eases, each been assigned to dif-
ferent instructors. Here and there some branch of animal husbandry
(as sheep raising) has been deemed sufficiently important to require
a special teacher. In general, differentiation of subjects hitherto
grouped together under the general term ‘“‘ agriculture” is more and
more followed by the employment of specialists to teach in a limited
field. Much greater attention is being given than formerly to the
improvement of methods of teaching agricultural subjects. This is
evidenced by the employment of more thoroughly trained teachers,
by individual and associated efforts to define and arrange the topies
of instruction in accordance with pedagogical principles, by the gen-
eral adoption of the laboratory system as applied to the field, the
plant house, and the barn, as well as to the buildings constructed
with special reference to the peculiar needs of instruction in agricul-
tural subjects.

The collection and devising of apparatus and illustrative material
are being pushed with much enthusiasm and success. Wherever
means will permit, and in an increasing number of institutions, the
housing and equipment of the agricultural department will compare
favorably with that of other departments. Along with the improve-
ment of the college courses in agriculture has come the realization of
the true function of these courses. It is now well understood that
they are for the training of the leaders in agricultural progress and
not for the general education of the agricultural masses. For this
purpose they are to be made as thorough and complete internally and
externally as the manifold needs of American agriculture for well-
trained and intelligent leadership may require. ‘Their success is to
be judged by the same standard that is applied to other college courses,
and the number of students is not of so much importance as their
quality. Torthe general edueation of the agricultural people, young

eee —

a a

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 185

and old, other agencies than the four years’ college course are to be
employed, which will require for their management a large share of
the graduates of the agricultural colleges.

Owing to the complicated organization of many of the institutions
having courses in agriculture and the fact thatthe students in agricul-
tural courses in many subjects are in classes with students in other
courses, and that much of the equipment is used in common by the
students in all the courses, it is impracticable to show by statistics,
with exactness, the means and facilities for strictly agricultural edu-
eation. The general statistics of the land-grant institutions may,
however, serve to show with how great an enterprise, devoted chiefly
to higher education along scientific and industrial lines, agriculture
has been joined in permanent alliance, and to indicate in some meas-
ure how extensive are the educational facilities at the command of
the youth of the country who have sufficient intelligence, courage,
and perseverance to follow out long and thorough courses of study in
agriculture.

The aggregate value of the permanent funds and equipment of the
land-grant colleges and universities in 1898 is estimated to be as fol-
lows: Land-grant fund of 1862, $10,170,549.99; other land-grant funds,
$1,204,234.44; other permanent funds, $11,816,258.16; land grant
of 1862 still unsold, $3,838,219.48; farms and grounds owned by
the institutions, $6,046,500.16; buildings, $15,185,476.95; apparatus,
$1,916,227.85; machinery, $1,383,137.14; libraries, $1,634,190.25; mis-
eellaneous equipment, $1,765,243.19—total, $53,632,852.25. The
income of these institutions in 1898, exclusive of funds from the
United States for agricultural experiment stations ($720,000), was
as follows: Interest on land grant of 1862, $645,546.28; interest
on other funds, $578,067.58; United States appropriation under act
of 1890, $1,108,610.38; State appropriation (annual or regular),
$1,827,924.51; State appropriation (occasional), $533,794.98; tui-
tion fees, $450,847.52; incidental fees, $146,458.72; miscellaneous,
$679,130.95— total, $6,008,579.20. The value of the additions to the
permanent endowment and equipment of these institutions in 1898 is
estimated as follows: Permanent endowment, $1,424,277.64; build-
ings, $851,481.75; library, $105,661.11; apparatus, $132,111.90; machin-
ery, $123,477.63; miscellaneous, $167,336.53— total, $2,796,350.97. The
number of persons in the faculties of the colleges of agriculture and
mechanic arts were as follows: For preparatory classes, 254; for colle-
giate and special classes, 1,564—total, 1,722. In the other depart-
ments the faculties aggregated 889, making a grand total of 2,611
persons in the faculties of the land-grant institutions. The students
in 1898 were as follows: (1) By classes: Preparatory, 6,593; freshmen,
6,016; sophomores, 4,202; juniors, 3,216; seniors, 2,506; special, 4,526;
post graduate, 878—total, 31,658. (2) By courses: Agriculture, 4,181;
mechanical engineering, 2,797; civil engineering, 1,504; electrical

186 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

engineering, 1,698; mining engineering, 554; architecture, 411; house-
hold economy, 1,298; veterinary science, 449; military tacties, 8,952.
The graduates in 1898 were 2,328, and since the organization of these
institutions 34,168. The average age of graduates in 1898 was 22.1
years. The total number of volumes in the libraries was 1,221,226.

SHORT AND SPECIAL COURSES IN AGRICULTURE,

In many of the colleges of agriculture provision has been made for
more elementary and practical education in agriculture by establish-
ing short courses. These may continue through two college years or
be limited to a few weeks, chiefly in the winter months. Recently,
suecessful short courses have been given at a few colleges in the sum-
mer, when the regular college courses were suspended. The short
courses may either cover agriculture in general or be confined to some
special line, as dairying. Now that the short courses are quite clearly
differentiated from the regular college courses in agriculture the objec-
tions formerly made to tnem are no longer strongly urged, and in popu-
larity and success they seem to have entered on a prosperous career.

The short courses offered by the University of Wisconsin may serve ~

to illustrate the nature of this feature of the American system for
agriculturaleducation. ‘‘ The short course in agriculture,” it is stated,
“is designed to meet the wants cf young farmers who desire practical,
helpful instruction in agriculture before taking up their chosen voca-
tion. This course covers two terms of twelve weeks each, beginning
the first of January each year.” It includes lectures on feeds and
feeding, breeds of live stock, agricultural chemistry, agricultural
physics and meteorology, plant life, veterinary science, dairying, farm
bookkeeping, horticulture, agricultural economics, and bacteriology.
Laboratory practice is given in dairying, physics, plant life, stock
judging, and horticulture, and practical work in carpentry and black-
smithing. The dairy course occupies one term, and includes theoret-
ical and practical instruction in the science and practice of dairying
and dairy farming. It is definitely planned to meet the needs of per-
sons intending ‘‘to operate creameries and cheese factories,” and has
been very successful in training men competent for work of this kind.
The students engage in milk testing, operate separators and butter
extractors, and attend to the ripening of the cream, churning and
packing butter, and all the operations of a creamery and cheese
factory.

This dairy school has already sent out 800 trained butter and cheese
makers and has also taught nearly 2,000 young men butter making on
the farm, as distinct from the creamery. The short course in agri-
culture at this institution was reported in 1899 to have had 190 stu-
dents in attendance, and its practical outcome is thus stated by the
dean: ‘‘ We have found places on farms this year for more than fifty

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 187

young men, who will seeure from $2 to $10 more per month because of
their training with us.”

Another interesting special school is that for training sugar experts,
which has been in successful operation for a number of years at Audu-
bon Park, New Orleans, in connection with the State university, and
has received financial assistance from the Sugar Planters’ Association.

UNIVERSITY EXTENSION IN AGRICULTURE.

The term “‘ university extension” has been used in recent years to
denominate in a general way the efforts of our colleges to promote the
diffusion of knowledge outside of their own halls. Though not always
spoken of under this head, no university extension movement in this
country has actually been so widespread as that on behalf of agricul-
ture. Broadly speaking, this would properly include the dissemina-

tion of agricultural information through the publications of the
experiment stations and this Department. The stations annually
issue over 400 publications, which are distributed to mailing lists
aggregating half a million addresses, and this Department supple-
ments these with some 600 others, of which about 7,000,000 copies are
distributed. But confining ourselves to what would more usually be
considered university extension work, we find the colleges of agricul-
ture largely engaged in conducting farmers’ institutes and home-
reading courses and helping to-introduce nature study into the com-
mon schools.

IMPORTANCE OF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES AS FACTORS IN EDUCATION,

The farmers’ institutes are sometimes under the direct management
of the agricultural colleges and sometimes are controlled by inde-
pendent State officers, but in either case the colleges do much of the
actual teaching in them and in various ways contribute largely to
their success. These institutes are regularly held in over forty
States. Itis estimated that about 2,000 institutes were held in the
United States last year, which were attended by half a million farmers.

The importance of the institutes as factors in the general education
of farmers in some of the States where they have been most success-
ful may be indicated by the following brief statistics:

In Wisconsin there are now annually held 120 institutes, with an
average attendance of over 50,000 persons. Sixty thousand copies of
their annual institute bulletin, in which the best addresses are grouped
together, making a book of over 300 pages, are annually distributed.
A copy of this book is put into every school library in the State. For
this work the State appropriates $12,000 annually.

' In Massachusetts 125 institutes are held, with an attendance of
i about 11,000 farmers.

4 In West Virginia over 60 institutes are held, with a total attend-
ance of 14,000.

188 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In Minnesota 50 farmers’ institutes are held of two or three days
each, with an attendance of from 300 to 1,000, and 25,000 copies of
their annual report are distributed.

In Indiana an attendance is reported of over 25,000, with an aver-
age of 272 persons in about 100 institutes.

In Kansas 135 institutes are held, with a total attendance of 20,000.

In Michigan institutes.are held in nearly every county, and the
total attendance is reported to reach 120,000.

In Nebraska 60 institutes are held, with a total attendance of over
26,000.

In Pennsylvania some 300 institutes are held, with a total attend-
ance of over 50,000.

In Ohio 250 institutes in 88 counties are held, with an aggregate
attendance of about 90,000.

In New York over 300 institutes are held in a single year.

In California about 50 institutes are annually held, with a total
attendance of 16,000.

HOME-READING COURSES IN AGRICULTURE.

The agricultural colleges in a number of States, notably in Penn-
sylvania and New York, are carrying on courses of home readings in
agricultural subjects. These at present are developing into what
may very properly be called correspondence courses. Not only are
lists of books furnished by the college, but series of lessons with
questions are sent out, and much correspondence is had with the per-
sons following the courses. College officers also visit classes or clubs
of farmers who are pursuing these courses to give them advice and
instruction along the lines in whieh they are reading. Thousands of
farmers are already enrolled in these courses, and only lack of funds
prevents their rapid extension.

SECONDARY COURSES IN AGRICULTURE.

Thus far comparatively little has been done in the United States
toward the establishment of schools of agriculture of secondary or
high-school grade. As previously stated, a successful school of this
grade is maintained at the University of Minnesota, and a similar one
has been begun at the University of Nebraska. The agricultural
courses maintained in a number of the institutions for colored stu-
dents in the South are of this grade. In Alabama provision has also
been made for secondary schools of agriculture for white students in
the nine Congressional districts. There are a few private schools
in which agricultural subjects are taught. There is some agitation
in favor of the introduction of agriculture in the public high schools,
but no definite movement in this direction has as yet been attempted.
Meanwhile, however, books of reference and text-books on agricul-
tural subjects suited to this grade of schools are being published in

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 189

increasing number, and the way is thus being prepared for more rapid
development of secondary courses of instruction in the schools in the

near future.
AGRICULTURE IN THE COMMON SCHOOLS.

While there has been much agitation at different times during the
present century in favor of introducing agriculture into the common
schools, thus far no widespread efforts to do-so have been made.
Under present conditions, it appears to most persons who have made
a careful study of the subject that very little can successfully be done
in this direction until much preliminary work has been bestowed on
the formulation of courses in nature study suited to the needs of the
rural schools, on the training of teachers in this line, and on the gen-
eral introduction of nature teaching in the schools. The success
which is attending the movement on behalf of nature study in New
York, Indiana, Pennsylvania, and elsewhere is so pronounced that
there is good reason to hope that it will ere long secure the general
recognition of the value of nature study for young children and its
widespread introduction into the common schools. Important fea-
tures of this movement are the strong indorsement which it is receiv-
ing from school officers and teachers, and the fact that nature study
has already become quite generally a part of the curriculum in the
graded schools of the cities. As this movement in the interest of the
rural schools is being led by the agricultural colleges, agriculture
seems likely to have its claim fully recognized in the formulation of
nature-study courses. Already many of the lessons used in sueh
courses are on subjects directly related to agriculture. Visely
planned and effectively taught, courses on natural objects and phe-
nomena in the common schools will not only train the powers of
observation of the children, but will interest them in the subjects
included in the theory and practice of agriculture, and thus pave the
way for the successful introduction of this complex subject in courses
of higher grade.

PRESENT CONDITIONS AND PROSPECTS FOR THE FUTURE.

In general, the century now closing has witnessed an intellectual
awakening of the farmers of this country, the volume and depth of
which have been increasing with greatly accelerated speed in the past
few years. We now have a considerable body of well-trained inves-
tigators, teachers, and other promoters of agricultural progress who
are working earnestly and with greater success each year to raise the
general intelligence of farmers and give them accurate and definite
information for the improvement of their art; we have the wide-
spread dissemination of knowledge on agricultural subjects through
the press and through publie agencies liberally endowed by the States
and the nation; we have strong local, State, and national organiza-
tions which are laboring diligently for the promotion of the general and

190 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

technical edueation of the farmers. Strong institutions for original
research and higher education in agriculture have already been built
up, and hopeful beginnings have been made in the formulation and
introduction of more elementary courses of instruction in agriculture
in schools of various grades and among the farmers generally. We
shall therefore enter the twentieth century with a reasonable expecta-
tion that the education of our farmers in agricultural lines will goon
increasing in efficiency and extent, and ere long become general and
satisfactory.

PROGRESS IN THE TREATMENT OF PLANT DISEASES
IN THE UNITED STATES.

By B. T. GALLOWAY,
Chief of Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology.

INTRODUCTION.

In looking back over the work of the past century in the treatment
of plant diseases, two facts immediately enlist attention: (1) That the
last fifteen years have witnessed by far the greatest advances made, and
(2) that in every step taken there has been shown the characteristic
American spirit of striving to get direct practical results as quickly
as possible. For the first three-quarters of the century there was
practically no systematic attempt to obtain light on the diseases of
crops. Of course, diseases have been recognized as long as plants
have been grown, but in all these earlier years it was the custom to
regard them more in the nature of obstacles, against which it was
practically useless to contend, than as subjects for study and thought.

PRESENT CLASSIFICATION OF PLANT DISEASES.

A few words at this point in regard to present methods of classi-
fying plant diseases will perhaps make clearer the discussion to follow.
Briefly stated, diseases may be produced in three ways: (1) By living
organisms acting as parasites; (2) by unfavorable environment in

_ which the plant grows; and, (3) by combinations involving both organ-

isms and environment. No line can be drawn between these groups,

for their relations and interrelations are so intimate that sharp sepa-

' ration at any point is out of the question. The living organisms, such

_as fungi, bacteria, ete., produce diseases by attacking the higher

plants and destroying them in order to build up their own structures.

On the other hand, when the surroundings, such as unfavorable soil,

too much or too little food, improper cultivation, excess of water,

insufficient aeration of the soil, or other similar conditions occur, dis-

ease may follow without the action of such organisms as fungi or
bacteria.

It might, however, be held that the plant ought not to be subject to
disease produced by organisms, for if it were surrounded by condi-
tions exactly suited to its growth and was at all times able to adapt
itself to these conditions, growth would in a measure be perfect, con-
sequently no disease could be produced by outside agencies. Butthe .-
plant is always in a state of unstable equilibrium, and it is this faet

191

192 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

that makes it subject to the attacks of organisms and likely to be
injured when any marked change of environment occurs. While this
appears to be an element of weakness, it nevertheless affords vast
opportunities, and is really the keynote to successful plant culture, as
the writer will endeavor to show farther on.

EARLY THEORIES ON PLANT DISHASES.

It is not surprising that the man who grows plants looks to the
weather as the source of all that is good or bad. In his own way he
learns by experience that the weather has an important relation to the
success or failure of his work, and he soon begins to connect certain
weather conditions with what he sees going on about him. In all the
early literature, therefore, references are found to the effects of
‘““unfavorable weather,” ‘‘meteorological disturbances,” ete.

Other facts gained by long experience were also brought to bear on
peculiar phenomena connected with plant diseases and their treat-
ment. Thus, it was known at the beginning of the century and earlier
that the injury from wheat rust was influenced by the presence of the
common barberry plant. So strong was this conviction that laws were
passed prohibiting the growing of barberry for ornament or for hedges.
The opinion prevailed that the barberry caused rust, but it was not
until many years later that its connection with rust was shown scien-
tifically by the investigations of De Bary in Germany. It was also
believed: by many of the older agriculturists that smut was the
direct result of a rupture of the cells of the plant itself, and that the
rust of wheat was often produced by similar causes. Not only was
this the general belief among many agriculturists, but it was credited
by anuinber of workers abroad who made special studies of the subject.

About the year 1845, largely through the efforts of one or two inves-
tigators abroad, light began to dawn upon the nature of a number of
the common diseases of plants, and these efforts were destined to haye
a marked influence on all future knowledge bearing on this subject.
Although there was as yet no systematie attempt in this country to
make special investigations, the work done abroad was gradually
made known here, and through the agricultural press and other
sources, became more or less familiar to farmers and others interested.

The great prevalence of the potato-rot fungus about this time
(1845) gave a decided impetus to work on plant diseases. The rot
swept over the earth, and many attempts were made to diseover its
cause and to provide a remedy. ‘The relation of the parasite to the
disease was worked out in Germany, and this knowledge soon became
known to the farmers of this country. The same was true of wheat
rust, corn smut, ete., so that even in these early days there was some
knowledge of treating diseases by the direct use of remedies or pre-
ventives. This is particularly true of the smuts, which were among
the first diseases to be controlled by the use of substances designed

PROGRESS IN TREATMENT OF PLANT DISEASES. 193

to destroy the reproductive bodies of the fungi themselves. Aside
from this, the principal efforts in the way of treatment were in the
direction of giving the plants the best surroundings possible and
treating wounds by the use of simple paints, wax, ete.

Experience had taught that blight of the pear and apple must be
eut out, although believed to be due entirely to ‘‘atmospherie influ-
ences.” This emphasizes the important fact that has already been
referred to, that is, that although the growers of plants did not, as a
rule, concern themselves much with the causes of diseases, their expe-

‘rience had taught them certain methods of treatment which in some

eases are even to-day accepted as the best that can be followed.
THE BEGINNING OF MODERN RESEARCH.

From 1845 until 1861 there was considerable advance in knowledge
concerning plant diseases, particularly as regards their causes, or in
other words, the relation to them of certain parasitic organisms. This
knowledge came about largely through the investigations of a few men
in Europe. From 1861 to 1873 the accounts of investigators abroad were
published from time to time in our horticultural and agricultural
reports and in agricultural and other journals. There was an increas-
ing interest in the subject, however, and it is not surprising that in
1875 and 1874 there was a marked tendency to advance in knowledge
along these lines.

Prof. T. J. Burrill, of the University of Illinois, was one of the
pioneers in this field. Early in 1874 he commenced publishing arti-
cles on the parasitism of fungi and the relation of various organisms
of this kind to such diseases as leaf blights, rusts, and other maladies.
The following year Dr. W. G. Farlow, of Harvard University, began
a series of papers which were epoch making in their nature. These
papers dealt with a number of important diseases of plants and treated
them in a masterly way. Although up to this time knowledge as to
combating such diseases was limited, the information obtained in
regard to the life histories of the organisms and the manner in which
they attack the host plants and cause their death was of great value
in suggesting lines of action looking toward prevention. Farlow’s
papers were followed by similar ones by Halsted, Bessey, Trelease,
Earle, Arthur, and others.

Early in the eighties the intérest in the subject became marked, as
may be seen by the increased number of papers and the fact that
some of the universities and colleges were devoting time to lectures
and studies relating to the work. The State agricultural experiment
station at Geneva, N. Y., inaugurated some important werk under
the direction of Dr. J. C. Arthur, who was made botanist of the sta-
tion in 1884, and whose work was almost entirely on the diseases of
plants. This was really the first systematic attempt on the part of
any station or organized body in the United States to undertake a

fA. 39 13

T94 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

thorough study of the subject. Dr. Arthur published four reports,
which dealt with a great number of important diseases. He paid
particular attention to pear blight, which was recognized as one of the
most destructive diseases of fruit in the United States, and had
already been shown by Dr. Burrill to be due to bacteria. Dr. Arthur’s
work tended to establish more thoroughly the parasitic nature of a
number of fungi. The keynote to the practical work of treatment
had not yet been struck, but was to come later as a natural result of
the studies made at this time.

THE EPOCH-MAKING PERIOD FROM 1885 TO 1898.

A careful study of events, such as are to be described here, shows
that in nearly every case where a line of work stands out preeminently
as having a marked influence on the welfare of a country, two things
have conduced to this end: (1) Through writings, lectures, and other
channels the publie has been educated so as to understand its need
in this direction, and (2) after the recognition of this need there has
been the proper direction of the forces necessary to satisfy it.

Prior to 1885 much had been done toward educating the farmers
and fruit growers to the necessity of protecting their crops. There
was a well-grounded belief that many of the common and destructive
diseases owed their existence to causes which could be discovered, and
which if once known might be controlled. The time, therefore, was
ripe for starting the work on a more extensive scale than had ever
been done before. The demand at this time was largely for informa-
tion as to the best methods of treatment from a practical standpoint.
It was not so much a question of knowing what the diseases were as
it was how to best get rid of them. Recognizing these questions and
their importance, the Department of Agriculture inaugurated some
work which was destined to have far-reaching effects. F. Lamson-
Seribner, who was assistant botanist at the time, was active in bringing
about a proper recognition of the importance of the work. He under-
took the publication of papers, which appeared first in the report of
the Botanist of the Department of Agriculture. Soon such an inter-
est was awakened that the Commissioner of Agriculture, Hon. Norman
J. Colman, took steps to have the work put on a sound basis. Small
appropriations were obtained, and the Section of Mycology was estab-
lished as a distinet branch in the Department. Fortunately, a great
impetus was given to the work at this time by the efforts being made
in France to find remedies for the downy mildew of the grape. When
black rot, another American disease, appeared in the French vine-
yards, there was widespread alarm, and consequently renewed efforts
to find means of checking it.

It is well to call attention to the marked difference in the conditions
existing in France and in this country with respect to such matters.
Our country is so great, and the possibilities of diversified culture so

es

PROGRESS IN TREATMENT OF PLANT DISEASES. 195

numerous, that many farmers and fruit growers do not feel the neces-
sity of putting forth any marked effort in treating the diseases. In
France, however, the life of the community itself depends in many
eases on the success or failure of a particular crop in that community,
and so it was that the greatest pressure was brought to bear on the
French Government to make a determined effort to check the ravages
of downy mildew.

Through a fortunate accident—the sprinkling of vines bordering a
roadside with bluestone and lime in order to prevent the pilfering of
the fruit—there was discovered about 1885 a fungicide which was to
have a marked influence not only on the welfare of France, but also
on the interests of America as well. This fungicide thus accidentally
discovered is the so-called Bordeaux mixture, which is made by com-
bining copper sulphate, or bluestone, with lime. It has long been
known that copper in various forms is able to destroy fungus spores,
but it was not until the discovery of the Bordeaux mixture that a great
impetus was given to the study of its effects on many plants. No one
could have imagined the consequences which were to come from the
combined use of two such simple things. Not only was the fruit
saved from the thieves, but it was protected against mildew as well.

Soon after the success in France in the treatment of grape mildew
with Bordeaux mixture, its usefulness was noted in this country by
the Department of Agriculture and also by others. It was difficult,
however, to convince fruit growers of the importance of making
thorough trials of this and other preparations. This was one of the
greatest obstacles that the Department met with in the early stages
of the work. However, circulars were sent out describing the prep-
aration of the fungicide and suggesting diseases that might be effect-
ively treated with it. The success of the work was marked. Imme-
diately there sprang up probably one of the most remarkable series
of investigations and experiments ever witnessed in this or in any
other country. Fungicides of many kinds were proposed and tested
on a large seale, and extensive lines of investigation were inaugurated
not only by the Department of Agriculture, but also by private indi-
viduals in various parts of the country.

In 1887 Professor Lamson-Scribner severed his connection with the
Department of Agriculture, accepting an appointment to the chair of
botany in the University of Tennessee, and the Department’s work
in this line was put in charge of the writer. The investigations were
pushed forward as vigorously as possible; new lines of investigation
were inaugurated, and a special effort was made to bring about prac-
tical results. Black rot of the grape was successfully treated in 1887,
and the same year decisive results were obtained in controlling sev-
eral potato diseases.

A great impetus was also given tothe work in 1887 by the estab-
lishment of the agricultural experiment stations. By means of these

196 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

stations it was made possible for many of the States to inaugurate
work not only in the study of plant diseases and their treatment, but
also in many other lines of investigation as well. Several of the sta-
tions immediately commenced investigations, and as a result for the
next eight years the educational work done throughout the country
had the most remarkable effect in putting farmers, fruit growers, and
others in possession of knowledge most valuable to them. During the
period under consideration a revolution was wrought in our horticul-
tural methods, and, as a result, it is now as rare to find people who
are not thoroughly convinced of the importance of spraying as it is to
find those who are satisfied that the cultivation of the soil is not
necessary.

This vast amount of work on the fungicides carried with it the
necessity of providing suitable apparatus for the application of the
various preparations, there being a great need for such apparatus
when the work was started. Just prior to the beginning of the impor-
tant line of work in 1885 attention had been called to the value of the
eyclone nozzle, an apparatus invented by Dr. W. 8S. Barnard while
connected with the United States Entomological Commission.
Although this nozzle was designed for the application of insecticides,
it was found that with some minor changes it would be equally as
valuable for use in connection with fungicides. There was also an
urgent need in 1887 for suitable power pumps for the application of
the various preparations. Some advances had been made with such
apparatus in France, particularly in the knapsack forms, but such of
these as were in actual use were more or less cumbersome, and none
could be obtained in this country. Early in 1887 the first American
knapsack pump was put on the market, largely through the efforts of
Col. A. W. Pearson, of Vineland, N. J., who was one of the pioneers
in the work of treatment. The machine was somewhat complicated,
however, and did not attract the attention that it really deserved.
In 1888 the writer devised a new form of knapsack spray pump, which
was soon put on the market, and this became the pattern from which
many designs have been made. In a few years such was the demand
for apparatus of this kind that numbers of machines were manufae-
tured. The knapsack forms of sprayers have had a marked influence
in the suecess of the work described. Through them it was made
possible to apply the remedies in the most thorough manner, a fea-
ture which is of the greatest importance in such work. Asa direct
result of this work many other forms of sprayers were designed; in
fact, in this feature of the investigation the United States ean well
claim to have constantly led the way.

SOME RESULTS OF THE WORK.

The ten years’ work just described was unique in its way. There
was a united effort to concentrate on as many practical problems

PROGRESS IN TREATMENT OF PLANT DISEASES. 197

as possible, with a view of solving these first and attending to the
more difficult ones later. Immediate results were demanded, and by
obtaining them confidence was engendered; and thus the foundation
for future efforts was laid. Within the limits of such a paper as this,
it is not possible to review all the direct practical results of the work
in question, but a few examples will sufiice.

GRAPE GROWING.

One of the most striking examples of results obtained is furnished
by the grape. Grape growing in this country has had a curious his-
tory. At the beginning of the century numerous attempts had been
made to introduce and grow the foreign or European varieties. It
was recognized that in this vast country abundant opportunities were
offered for the production of grapes and the manufacture of wine.
Our native varieties were not considered of value, and for this reason
all the early efforts were put forth in importing and testing the for-
eign, or Vinifera, vines. All the attempts in this direction, however,
proved disastrous, mainly on account ‘of several diseases, which, from
all that can be gathered, were the same as those known to-day as
downy mildew and black rot.

After many discouraging attempts to successfully cultivate these
European vines, the work was in a measure abandoned and attention
was turned toward our native varieties, many forms of which were
found growing in the woods. Some of these vines proved to be
resistant to the diseases, no doubt because through a long struggte
for existence there had been a survival of the fittest, and these were
by nature endowed with the ability to resist the various maladies
which had been so destructive to European vines. The diseases
being American, the European vines had had no chance to develop
anything like natural resistance before being attacked.

The discovery of the value of some of our native kinds gave the grape
industry a new impetus, but as soon as vineyards began to increase and
eultivation brought about changes in the vines themselves it was found
that the latter were becoming more and more subject to the attacks
of their old enemies. Consequently there are recorded many disas-
trous failures in grape culture between 1850 and 1860, when mildew
and black rot were veritable scourges. In a number of places where
grape culture had been very profitable the vineyards had to be aban-
doned. New localities, in which the grape had not been tried, were now
planted to vineyards, and for a time these produced remunerative
yields, but it was enly a question of time when the diseases reached
these places and it became necessary to abandon them and again
seek more favored localities.

By 1885 grape growing had been tried in most of the important sec-
tions of the country, and as the diseases continued to spread it was
realized that something would have to be done or else the industry

198 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. .

would have to be abandoned. At this time the work of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture commenced, but so many efforts had already
been put forth to control the diseases and there had been so many
failures that it required a great deal of encouragement to induce
growers to even make thorough trials of the treatments proposed. By
carrying on experimental work in typical regions, however, and by
demonstrating by actual trials that the treatments were effective
(fig. 1), the value of the work was fairly established, and consequently
fungicidal treatments were rapidly adopted. The money value of this

Fic. 1.—Grapes from vineyard affected with black rot: Sprayed and unsprayed.

work to the grape grower can not be estimated. It has given viti-
culture a new lease of life and has furnished profitable employment
in many regions which otherwise would have been abandoned, so far
as this crop is concerned.

NURSERY-STOCK DISEASES.

Prior to 1887 no attempt had been made to control the many serious
diseases which affect nursery stock in this country. The nursery
interests had assumed immense proportions and the value of the
output was worth millions of dollars. Nursery stock, such as apples,
pears, plums, cherries, ete., had long been subject to a number of
serious diseases, which mainly affected the foliage. Often as a result

PROGRESS IN TREATMENT OF PLANT DISEASES. 1993

of these injuries it was found impossible to properly bud the stock,
and a large part of it was therefore rendered worthless.

In 1888 the Department of Agriculture inaugurated the first experi-
ment with a view of finding some means of holding these diseases in
check. After several years’ work it was clearly shown that some of
the most destructive maladies could be controlled (fig. 2). Spraying
nursery stock, therefore, has come to be a general practice, and has
been the means of saving thousands of dollars to the growers every
year. The Department and the State stations have gone hand in
hand in this work, and some of the most striking features of the
practical side of the investigations have come about through the efforts

in ip Sze

ane
—

Fiac. 2.—Treatment of peach leaf curl: Sprayed and unsprayed trees. (Pierce, Cal.)
of the latter. Potato scab, the smuts of cereals, and many other
diseases are now controlled as a result of the good work done by
these organizations.

DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FEATURES.

Perhaps there is no more striking instance of the growth of this
subject than that witnessed in the development of the educational
features connected with it. In 1885 there were only three institutions
besides the Department of Agriculture making an organized effort in
the way of teaching or in experimental work of this character. Ten
years later there were fifty colleges and stations engaged in the work,
and no less than one hundred special investigators were devoting
their time to it.

THE PRESENT AND THE FUTURE OF PLANT PATHOLOGY.

Since 1896 there has been a marked tendency toward a higher
appreciation of a true science of plant pathology. The outlying prob-
lems have in a measure been solved and opportunity has been given

200 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

to survey and take a clearer view of the fundamental questions upon
which the future success of the work must depend. We are far
enough along to see that a new epoch has begun—one which we
believe is to place this country in advance of all others in getting the
most from the soil with the least expenditure of time and money.
Our farmers and fruit growers are intelligent, quick to perceive, and
quick to act. They are now in possession of knowledge which gives
them a decided-advantage over their competitors in other countries,
and therefore it will not be difficult with such men and such cendi-
tions as we have to build up a science which will have a marked
influence on the welfare of the country.

What then are the lines along which this science is to be built?

First, we must recognize more plainly the possibilities within the
plant—its plasticity and its ability to change; second, we must learn
to look more carefully outside of the plant, that is, at its environ-
ment and the effects this may produce; and, third, we must discover
the principles whereby the grower of plants shall be able to bring
about such perfect harmony between the plant and its environment
that an approximately ideal organism will result. This means that
our aim should always be toward making two blades of grass grow
where only one grew before.

The foundation of this work is physiology, involving a study of the
phenomena of life itself. Here we learn the possibilities of future
development, and here hinge the vital questions relating to nutrition
and heredity. The pathology of the future, thérefore, will not stop
at the mere correction of conditions involving the loss of a crop or
part of a crop. It will put within the power of the intelligent grower
knowledge that will enable him to forestall injuries by furnishing
conditions best suited to the development of the plant. We must
bring to our aid many lines of work. Plant breeding will enable us
to attain ideal forms. Selection will make it possible to fix these
forms within certain limits. Nutrition goes hand in hand with
breeding and selection. Chemistry and physics play important parts,
and in the study of pathological phenomena themselves other branches
of science will be brought to bear. Thus, as we have pointed out
elsewhere, the highest aim of the investigator in this field will be not
to deal with effects only, but to study causes, for it is only by sueh
means that the greatest good can be accomplished.

eC

THE RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO THE PROGRESS OF
AGRICULTURE.

By Dr. H. W. WILEY
Chemist.

INTRODUCTION.

This paper will be devoted, in so far as possible, to the progress of
agriculture in the United States during the nineteenth century. Inas-
much, however, as the factors of a chemical nature influencing agri-
culture are largely made up of forces emanating from other countries,
it will not be possible to separate entirely the discoveries made in
foreign countries from those made in the United States.

In order to keep the paper within suitable limits for the Yearbook,
no attempt will be made to trace the progress of agriculture in its
relation to chemistry from year to year, and the subject will be con-
sidered from three principal points of view only, namely:

(1) The relation of chemistry to agriculture at the beginning of the
century.

(2) The impetus given to scientific agriculture in its relation to
chemistry by the discoveries of Liebig, Gilbert, Boussingault, and
other workers, which began to produce effects about the middle of the
eentury.

(3) A résumé of the relations of chemistry to agriculture up to and
at the present time, with a brief reference to the principal methods
whereby chemical research has been made useful to practical agri-
eulture.

The above is not only a convenient division of the whole subject for
the purpose of discussion, but it also portrays the three principal
epochs in the relations of chemistry to agriculture for the century.

From a chemieal point of view, the knowledge of scientific agricul-
ture, as it existed at the beginning of the century, was practically all
that was known until near its middle point, when the work and
researches of the distinguished men mentioned and others associated
with them were beginning to have practical application. From this
point onward to the present time the influence of chemical research
on progressive agriculture has been more and more felt through cer-
tain lines of investigation, until it has brought the science of agricul-
ture to its present condition.

In a statement of that part of the subject relating to chemistry and

agriculture at the beginning of the century it will be sufficient to
201

202 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

refer to the standard works which were published at or about that
time, and which are still accessible in our libraries. The literature
of the middle of the century is so voluminous that only a brief refer-
ence to it can be given. In a discussion of the third division of the
subject, or a review of the relations of chemistry to agriculture to the
present time, ete., the progress of agriculture under the influence of
chemical studies and researches will be considered in the briefest pos-
sible manner in several typical lines, among which may be mentioned:
First, the teaching of agriculture in schools, colleges, and universities;
second, the agricultural colleges and experiment stations; third, the
agricultural press; and, fourth, the chemical studies conducted under
the auspices of the Department of Agriculture, including those col-
lected in the reports of the Patent Office relating to agriculture, which
began to issue shortly before the middle of the century.

The attitude of chemical science toward agriculture at the begin-
ning of the century may be presented under three divisions:

(a) The knowledge which was possessed concerning the nature of
the soil and its relation to plant growth.

(b) The knowledge possessed concerning the nature of manures and
the manner in which they increase the yield of crops.

(c) The prevalent ideas concerning the composition of agricultural
crops in relation to their demands upon the soil and upon fertilizers.

STATUS OF AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AT THE BEGINNING OF THE
CENTURY.

Under this head will be given, first, a summary of the state of
knowledge at or about the beginning of the century in regard to the
above several points, and second, some brief observations of a general
nature on the soundness or unsoundness of the views then held.

Fortunately for the purpose of this part of the paper, the relations
of chemistry to agriculture at the beginning of the century have been
accurately and faithfully portrayed in works appearing near that
period and still accessible. Among these may be mentioned:

A work of great scientific importance entitled ‘‘ The Natural and
Chemical Elements of Agriculture,” translated from the Latin of
Count Gustavus Adolphus Gyllenborg by John Mills, published in
London in 1770.

**'The Spectacle of Nature,” translated from the French by Mr. Ilum-
phreys, the first edition of which was published about the beginning
of the century, and the second edition, to which the writer has had
access, about 1807.

The most important work, however, from a scientific point of view,
and that which gives the most accurate statements pertaining to the
relation of chemistry to agriculture, is a compilation of the lectures of
Sir Humphry Davy. These lectures, delivered before the Royal Agri-
cultural Society of England, were first published in England in 1813

RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE. 203

and republished in this country in 1815 by John Conrad & Co., of
Philadelphia, Pa.; Fielding Lucas, jr., of Baltimore, Md.; Robert
Gray, of Alexandria, Va.,and William F. Gray, of Fredericksburg, Va.

Another work of a more popular nature, and yet containing a résumé
of the knowledge of that time concerning the relations of chemistry to
agriculture, is entitled ‘‘The Rural Socrates; or, An account of a cele-
brated philosophical farmer, lately living in Switzerland, known by
the name of Kliyogg.” It was translated from the German by Benja-
min Vaughan, a writer distinguished in many fields of work and a
personal friend of Joseph Priestley. This work was published in
Hallowell, Me., by Peter Edes in 1800.

Chemistry as a science has undergone such a wonderful transforma-
tion during the century as to make any just comparison of its rela-
tion to any particular industry at the present time with that it held a
hundred years ago somewhat difficult. We regard with a feeling
akin to compassion the ideas entertained one hundred years ago in
reference to chemistry, especially in its relations to agriculture; but
the pride we may feel in our present knowledge of this science should
not be allowed to carry us too far, since at the end of the next cen-
tury the writer who shall undertake a review of this subject may look
with equal compassion on the views we now entertain.

The efforts which were made by Lavoisier and his school to place
the science of chemistry upon a sure foundation some twenty-five
years before the beginning of the century, although making great
progress, had not yet entirely dominated the world of chemical theory.
The crude notions of the earlier chemists concerning phlogiston,
phlegms, essential oils, exudations, evaporation, and other processes
still held sway, and agricultural chemistry was probably the last of
the different branches of chemical science to be liberated from the
thraldom of these erroneous theories. In spite of this fact, however,
the observations which scientific men had made of the chemical
aspects which agricultural science possessed are not without value
nor are they wholly false.

KNOWLEDGE OF THE COMPOSITION AND FUNCTIONS OF SOILS.

By far the most accurate account of the composition of the soil, as
it was understood at the beginning of the century, is furnished by Sir
Humphry Davy.'! According to Davy the substances which constitute
the soil ‘‘are certain compounds of the earths, silica, lime, alumina,
magnesia, and of the oxides-of iron and magnesium; animal and
vegetable matters in a decomposing state, and saline, acid, or alkaline
combinations.” Minute descriptions are given of the various ele-
ments composing the soil, and for the most part these descriptions
represent the state of our knowledge even at the present time. Silica
is described as a compound of oxygen and silicum. Lime is

1A gricultural Chemistry, pp. 154 et seq.

204 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

stated to exist in soils usually united with carbonic acid, and some-
times with phosphoric and sulphurie acids. Lime itself is said to
consist of 40 parts by weight of calcium and 15 of oxygen, which is
very nearly the composition assigned to the substance CaO at the
present time. Alumina, with less accuracy, is described as being
composed of 33 parts by weight of aluminum and 15 of oxygen. Mag-
nesia is described as existing in combination with carbonie acid. Two
oxids of iron are mentioned, the brown and the black, and their
chemical composition as understood at that time is given. The oxid
of manganese, or manganesum, as Davy ealls it, is stated to be dis-
tinguished from the other substances found in the soil by its property
of reducing muriatie acid and converting it into chlorin. Vegetable
and animal matters are to be known by their sensible qualities and by
their property of being decomposed by heat. The saline compounds
of soils are described as common salt, sulphate of magnesia, sometimes
sulphates of iron, nitrates of lime and of magnesia, sulphate of
potassa, and carbonates of potassa and soda. These compounds Sir
Humphry regards as of so little importance that he says it is not
necessary to describe their characteristics minutely.

The methods of soil analysis, many of which are still in use at the
present time, are fully described. Upon the whole, most of them, how-
ever, are crude and unsatisfactory, and could not possibly have led
to correct ideas of the composition of the soil. Davy further adds:
“‘In the first trials that are made by persons unacquainted with chem-
istry, they must not expect much precision of result. Many diffieul-
ties will be met with; but in overcoming them the most useful kind of
practical knowledge will be obtained, and nothing is so instructive in
experimental science as the detection of mistakes. The correct analyst
ought to be well grounded in general chemical information; but per-
haps there is no better mode of gaining it than that of attempting
original investigations.”

Davy fuily recognized that the soil is the source of nourishment for
plants, as he says in another place: ‘‘ Plants being composed of no
locomotive powers, can grow only in places where they are supplied
with food; and the soil is necessary to their existence, both as afford-
ing them nourishment and enabling them to fix themselves in such a
manner as to obey those mechanical laws by which their radicles are
kept below the surface and their leaves exposed to the free atmos-

‘phere. As the systems of roots, branches, and leaves are very differ-

ent in different vegetables, so they flourish most in different soils.
The plants which have bulbous roots require a looser and a lighter
soil than such as have fibrous roots, and the plants possessing only
short fibrous radicles demand a firmer soil than such as have tap-
roots or extensive lateral roots.”

Of vegetable and animal matters Davy says: ‘‘ Vegetable or ani-
mal matters when finely divided not only give coherence, but likewise

RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE. 205

softness and penetrability; but neither they nor any other part of the
soil must be in too great proportion, and a soil is unproductive if it
consist entirely of impalpable matters.” He says of mineral constitu-
ents: ‘‘ Pure alumina or pure silica, pure carbonate of lime, or car-
bonate of magnesia are incapable of supporting healthy vegetation.
No soil is fertile that contains as much as 19 parts out of 20 of any of
the constituents that have been mentioned.”

Again, hesays: ‘In all eases the ashes of plants contain some of the
earths of the soil in which they grow; but these earths, as may be
seen by the table of ashes afforded by different plants given in the
last lecture, never equal more than one-fiftieth of the weight of the
plant consumed. If they be considered as necessary to the vegetable,
it is as giving hardness and firmness to its organization. Thus, it
may be mentioned that wheat, oats, and many of the hollow grasses
have an epidermis principally of the siliceous earths, the use of which
seems to be to strengthen them and defend them from the attacks of
insects and parasitical plants.”

The physical quality of earths in their relation to water are fully
exploited by Davy. He says: ‘‘ The power of soils to absorb water
from the air is much connected with fertility. When this power is
great, the plant is supplied with water in dry seasons, and the effect
of evaporation in the day is counteracted by the absorption of aque-
ous vapor from the atmosphere, by the interior parts of the soil dur-
ing the day, and by both the exterior and the interior during the
night.”

In regard to the food of plants, Sir Humphry states: ‘*‘ Water and
the decomposing animal and vegetable matter existing in the soil
constitute the true nourishment of plants, and as the earthy parts of
the soil are useful in retaining water, so as to supply it in the proper
proportions to the roots of the vegetables, so they are likewise effica-
cious in producing the proper distribution of the animal or vegetable
matter; when equally mixed with it, they prevent it from decompos-
ing too rapidly, and by their means the soluble parts are supplied in
proper proportion.”

In speaking of the derivation of soils from rovks, he says: ‘‘ The best
natural soils are those of which the materials have been derived from
different strata, which have been minutely divided by air and water
and are intimately blended together; and inimproving soils artificially
the farmer can not do better than imitate the processes of nature.
The materials for the purpose are seldom far distant; coarse sand is
often found immediately on chalk, and beds of sand and gravel are
common below clay. The labor of improving the texture or constitu-
tion of the soil is repaid by a great permanent advantage; less manure
is required, and its fertility insured. The capital laid out in this way
secures forever the productiveness and consequently the value of the
land.”

2906 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Commissioner Newton, in his first Annual Report, paid a fitting
tribute to the services of Sir Humphry Davy in establishing agricul-
tural chemistry as a separate department of science. He says, speak-
ing of the board of agriculture established by Pitt in 1793:

More than all, the board was instrumental in employing Sir Humphry Davy to
make those experiments which are not only an honor to intellect, but which estab-
lished agricultural chemistry as a department of science, and are of inestimable
value. Hedelivered his lectures on thissubjectin 1802. The fundamental principle
which he developed and demonstrated was this—that the productions of the soil
derive their component elements, which for the most part are hydrogen, oxygen,
and nitrogen, either from the atmosphere by which they are surrounded or from
the soil in which they grow. He showed that the process of vegetation depends
upon the perpetual assimilation of various substances to the organs of the plants
in consequence of the exertion of their living powers and their chemical affinities,
stimulated chiefly by moisture, light, and heat. The discoveries in chemical sci-
ence before Davy's time had undoubtedly prepared the way for his triumph, but
he is none the less entitled to praise. He first recognized a plant as a living thing,
the laws of whose existence were to be studied in order to develop a perfect
growth. He showed, by analvsis of soils and plants, what properties and condi-
tions would best furnish the elements needed in cultivation.

KNOWLEDGE OF FERTILIZERS AND MANURES.

The chemical knowledge of the composition and functions of fer-
tilizers at the beginning of the nineteenth century was extremely
nebulous. Experience of a wholly empirical nature had shown from
the earliest history of agriculture the value of certain refuse products
of the stable and the barnyard in increasing the yield of crops; but
the component parts of these materials and the manner in which they
acted were entirely unknown. It was the custom in many of the
older countries for the farmers to increase the litter of the farmyard
by gathering leaves and twigs, which were used in bedding the ani-
mals. As, for instance, it was said of Kliyoge: ‘‘He is attentive also
to gather all the dried leaves, moss, and rushes from his ground that
can serve for litter. * * * A compost dunghill appears to him an
object of so great importance to the improvement of land that of all
branches of labor he regrets the want of assistance in. this the most.
* * * In prosecution of this design, in autumn, during the moon’s
increase, Kliyogg goes into his wood with a hedge bill to prune the
supernumerary branches of fir and pine trees. * * * These he
binds into faggots and earries home. * * * At leisure hours, and
especially in long winter evenings, he prepares these faggots for the
purposes intended. * * * By this method he amasses many
proper materials for good manure.” !

Kliyogg was also careful to preserve the liquid manures which
exuded from his stables, and for this purpose he constructed trenches
in his cow houses. It is interesting to know that, unwittingly, he had

1The Rural Socrates; or, An Account of a Celebrated Philosophical Farmer,
Lately Living in Switzerland, Known by the Name of Kliyogg, p. 8.

RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE. 207

discovered the true function of much of this material, which he

regarded asa ferment. The record says: ‘‘ Thus placed, it receives
the urine and dung of his eattle, and being always kept half full of
water, it forms a thick mixture and serves as a ferment, with which a
very great quantity of water may in a very short time be converted
into liquid manure. One portion of this ferment being mixed with
seven portions of the freshest spring water soon makes the whole
become corrupt, especially if the reservoir in which the mixture is
made is of wood and placed in a warm situation, or if an artificial
heat is substituted in case a natural heat is wanting. By means of:
this fermentation an excellent manure is produced, which proves the
best assistant which can be given to such meadow and arable lands as
are naturally dry.” ?}

The earlier accounts of scientific agriculture at the beginning of the
century recognized the great value of gypsum as a fertilizing material.
All the writers refer favorably to its use. The use of gypsum asa
fertilizer is said to have been the discovery of the Rey. Mr. Meyer,
pastor of Kupferzell, Germany. Mr. Meyer published a detailed
account of the manner of using gypsum. According to the method
deseribed by him, gypsum should be spread in its natural state after
being reduced to powder, and is useful upon meadows containing both
the common and cultivated grasses. Mr. Meyer also found gypsum
valuable with peas, vetches, lentils, oats, rye, and tobacco. Its most
surprising effect, however, was upon clover, and this in soils the most
dry and arid. On marshy ground it was found to produce no good
effect. It is urged that gypsum should be spread upon the grass or
grain before it begins to shoot. Upon meadows, the best time for
spreading it is stated to be at the melting of the snow, and upon fields
of grain, as soon as they are sown. Benjamin Vaughan, the trans-
lator of ‘‘ The Rural Socrates,” says that at the end of the last cen-
tury and at the beginning of the present gypsum was used largely in
the United States, and he refers to the writings of Judge Peters, Robert
Morris, Dr. Mitchill, Mr. Bordley, and others on the subject.’

The use of marl was also fully understood at the beginning of the
century. Since the time of the Roman conquest, and probably before,
the marl beds of northern France and southern Belgium have been
constantly exploited. Great hollows are found in many of the fields
of northern France made by the excavation of marl many centuries
ago. Kliyogg calls the marl bed ‘‘that mine of farming gold,” and
says: ‘“‘I owe to this marl not only abundant harvests, but the char-
acter of my children. It is true that they murmured against me at
first for employing them in hard labor, even during the winter. * * *
But at length the rich harvests with which Providence blessed us

'The Rural Socrates; or, An Account of a Celebrated Philosophical Farmer,
Lately Living in Switzerland, Known by the Name of Kliyogg, p. 128.
*Tbid., pp. 128 and 129.

908 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

forced them to confess that I had said nothing which was not both
true and useful.” !

The true function of marl, however, was but little understood, and
even its chemical composition was practically unknown by those
using it.

In the article on husbandry, in ‘*‘ The Spectacle of Nature,” the Prior,
in conversation with the Chevalier, says in regard to manure: ‘‘ This
manure, which completes what the dews of heaven had begun, is the
most contemptible substance upon the face of the earth, and is chiefly
composed of the litter taken from stables and sheepfolds; dove houses,
hencoops, and the dwellings of all domesticated animals furnish
manures that differ in their degrees of heat, and which being blended
together, as well as quenched and corrected by each other, replenish
the land with all the fertility it had lost.” Among other substances
which the Prior mentioned as being used for manures are straw,
stubble, shells of pulse, useless leaves, refuse of garden herbage,
rotten wood, chimney and oven soot, rags, hair of animals, cuttings of
leather, skins of beasts, bark of trees, lees of wine, sediments of oil,
malt dust, tanners’ bark, dyers’ lees, soapsuds, of which last it is said,
‘¢ which are commonly thrown out of the laundry as useless, though
soap is impregnated with oils and salts, which are the principal ele-
ments of plants.”

The Prior also says: ‘‘No kind of manure has more prolifie quali-
ties than the soil which is swept from populous cities, and especially
those where a great number of kitchens and dyers of wool are continu-
ally discharging into the streets a fat and oily sediment, which is very
beneficial to corn.” ”

he value of ashes is fully recognized, in the essay on husbandry,
by the Prior, who says that they can supply the place of all the rest
if a sufficient quantity can be obtained. The ashes of wood are pre-
ferred to those of any other substanee. He advises the burning of
turf for the purpose of securing the ashes. The methods of forming
composts with ashes are fully described.

The prevailing idea at that time that oil is one of the most valuable
of manures is developed in his description, it being stated that ‘‘oil
and salts constitute the chief merit of the manure.”

The fact that the principal value of the ashes is due to the potash
and phosphorie acid which they contain was not even suspected by the
earlier scientific agriculturists. The early agriculturists in our country
were imbued with the customs of their European homes in regard to the
use and value of manure, although upon the virgin lands there seemed
to be but little necessity for the application of fertilizing substances.
The necessity of fertilizers, however, soon became evident, especially
on lands planted continuously to cereals and to tobacco. When the
first abundant crops, due to the virgin fertility of the soil, began to

1The Rural! Socrates, pp. 143 and 144. ? The Spectacle of Nature, pp. 231 and 282,

i) a Se

‘tal

RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE. 209

diminish, the colonists received a valuable lesson in the use of artifi-
cial fertilizers from Squanto, one of the leading Indians of the New
Englandcoast. In Governor Bradford’s ‘‘ History of Plimouth Planta-
tion” is given an account of the early agricultural experiences of the
Plymouth colonists. In April, 1621, at the close of the first long,
dreary winter, ‘‘they [as many as were able| began to plant their
corne, in which service Squanto [an Indian] stood them in great stead,
showing them both ye manner how to set it, and after how to dress
and tend it. Also he tould them, axcepte they got fish and set with
it [in these old grounds], it would come to nothing; and he showed .
them yt in ye middle of Aprill, they should have store enough come
up ye brooke by which they begane to build and taught them how to
take it.”

In George Mourt’s ‘‘ Relation; or, Journal of the beginning and pro-
ceedings of the English Plantation settled at Plimouth, in New Eng-
land, by certain English adventurers, both merchants and others,”
London, 1622, it is said:

We set the last spring some twenty acres of indian corn, and sowed some six
acres of barley and pease, and according to the manner of the Indians. we manured
our ground with herrings, or rather shads, which we have in great abundance and
take with great ease at our doors. Our corn did prove well, and, God be praised,
we had a good increase of indian corn, and our barley indifferent good.

Thomas Morton, in his ‘‘New England Canaan,” Londen, 1652,
wrote of Virginia:

There is a fish (by some called shadds, by some allizes) that at the spring of the
yeare passe up therivers to spawn in the pond, and are taken in such multitudes
in every river that hath a pond at the end that the inhabitants doung their ground
with them. You may see in one township a hundred acres together set with
these fish, every acre taking 1,00) of them, and an acre thus dressed will produce
aud yield so much corn as three acres without fish; and least any Virginea man
would infere hereupon that the ground of New England was barren, because they
use more fish in setting their corne, I desire them to be renembered, the cause is
plaine in Virginea, they have it not to sett. But this practice is onely for the
indian maize (which must be set by hands), not for English grain; and this is
therefore a commodity there.

The following amusing quotation is from the records of the town of
Ipswich,,Mass., May 11, 1644:

It is ordered that all the doggs for the space of three weeks from the pub-
lishing hereof shall have one legg tyed up, and if such a dogg shall break loose
and be found doing hari the owner of the dogg shall pay damage. If aman
refuse to tye up his dogg’s leg, and hee bee found scraping up fish in a corn field,
the owner thereof shall pay twelve pence damage, beside whatever damage the
dogg doth. But if any fish their house lotts and receive damage by doggs, the
owners of these house lotts shall bear the damage themselves.

It is thus seen that even on the old ground cultivated by the Indian
before the advent of the colonists it was not possible to raise good
crops except by the artificial manuring which has been deseribed
above. Little was known, however, of the nature of these fertilizing

- A 99 14

210 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

materials and the manner in which they nourished plants. The first
real knowledge of fertilizing materials which was in vogue in this
country came from the republication of Sir Humphry Davy’s ‘‘Agri-
cultural Chemistry” and its distribution throughout the eolonies. It
may be stated that this book produced the first real impression, of a
scientific nature, of the relation of chemistry to the progress of agri-
culture. Many of the lectures given by Sir Humphry Davy were on
the subject of manures, in which he treated of the manures of vege-
table and animal origin, of the manner in which they became the
nourishment of the plant, of fermentation and putrefaction, of mixed
manures, of general principles in respect of the use and application
of manures of mineral or animal origin, of fossil manures, of lime, of
gypsum, of alkaline salts employed as manures, of alkalies, and of
common salt. He also gave a lecture on the improvement of land by
burning and the chemical principles which underlie this operation.
He first announced the general principles that all manures must prae-
tically be dissolved before they can enter the organism of the plant.
He says: ‘‘ The pores in the fibers of the roots of plants are so small
that it is with difficulty they can be discovered by the microseope.
It is not, therefore, probable that solid substances can pass into them
from the soil.” ?

Sir Humphry supposed that sugar was a valuable fertilizing mate-
rial, because when he grew plants ina solution of sugar, jelly, and
mucilage he found that they grew vigorously. He recognized the
fact that vegetable and animal substances, before they can become
useful as plant food, must be changed in some way, since he says,
“They ean only nourish the plant by affording solid matters capable
of being dissolved by water or gaseous substances capable of being
absorbed by the fluids in the leaves of vegetables. * * * The
great object in the application of manure should be to make it afford
as much soluble matter as possible to the roots of thé plants, and that
in a slow and gradual manner, so that it may be entirely consumed
in forming the sap or organized parts of the plant. * * * Vege-
table manures in general contain a great excess of fibrous and insolu-
ble matter, which must undergo chemical changes before they can
become the food of plants.” ”

Chief among these changes he regarded fermentation, thus recog-
nizing at that early date the great principle of change which organie
matters must undergo before they become useful as plant foods. Sir
liumphry, however, was familiar only with the variety of fermenta-
tion which produced carbonic acid and alcoho!, and of course had no
knowledge of the really essential fermentation, from a fertilizing point
of view, which such substances undergo. He, however, realized that
there was a fermentation of a different kind, because he says: ‘Ani-
mal matters in general are more liable to decompose than vegetable

‘Agricultural Chemistry, p. 269. > Ibid., pp. 272 and 273,

eS

RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE. ait

substances; oxygen is absorbed and carbonic acid and ammonia formed
in the process of their putrefaction. They produce fetid compound
elastic fluids, and likewise azote.” !

The principal substances which are found in animal manures,
according to Davy, are gelatin, fibrin, mucus, animal fats and oils,
and albumin and urea. The effect of sterilization or pasteurization
in preventing the decay of animal matters is fully recognized by Davy
in describing what he calls ‘‘ Appert’s method of preserving animal and
vegetable substances,” which is practically the pasteurization of the
present day. Hesays: ‘‘ This method is by filling a vessel of tin plate
or glass with the meat or vegetables; soldering or cementing the top
so as to render the vessel air-tight, and then keeping it half immersed
in a vessel of boiling water for a sufficient time to render the meat or
vegetables proper for food. In this last process it is probable that
the small quantity of oxygen remaining in the vessel is absorbed; for
on opening a tinned iron canister which had been filled with raw beef
and exposed to hot water the day before, I found that the minute
quantity of elastic fluid which could be procured from it was a mix-
ture of earbonic-acid gas and azote.” *

It appears, therefore, that the process of pasteurization is at least
as old as the nineteenth century.

Sir Humphry makes the following additional observation: ‘‘ Where
meat or vegetable food is to be preserved on a large scale for the use
of the navy or army, for instance, Iam inclined to believe that by
forcibly throwing a quantity of carbonic acid, hydrogen, or azote into
the vessel by means of a compressing pump, similar to that used for
making artificial seltzer water, any change in the substance would be
more effectually prevented. No elastie fluid in this case would have
room to form by the decomposition of the meat, and the tightness
and strength of the vessel would be proved by the process. No putre-
faction or fermentation can go on without the generation of elastic
fluid, and pressure would probably act with as much efficacy as cold
in the preservation of animal or vegetable food.” ?

The use of oil cakes for fertilizing is reeommended by Davy, and
rape cake and linseed oil are mentioned, although the knowledge that
their value depends upon their nitrogenous bodies did not obtain.
The fertilizing value of malt dust, which consists of the powdered
radicle of malt, is attributed to the amount of sugar which it con-
tains. Linseed eake is said by Davy to be too valuable as a food for
cattle to be employed as a manure. Seaweed is also recommended as
a valuable fertilizing material. He also dwelis upon the value of
wood ashes, animal careasses, and fish for fertilizing purposes. The
value of fish is explained by Davy as fellows: ‘‘It is easy to explain
the operation of fish asa manure. The skin is principally gelatine,
which, from its slight state of echesion, is readily soluble in water;

‘Agricultural Chemistry, p. 274. *Ibid., pp. 278 and 279.

212 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

fat or oil is always found in fishes, either under the skin or in some
of the viscera, and their fibrous matter contains all the essential ele-
ments of vegetable substances.” !

The curious idea that the oil is the chief manurial substance is
further advanced in the statement that blubber is a valuable manure.
Probably the real value of the blubber was from the minute quantity
of nitrogen which it contained. f

The value of bones is recognized by Davy. It is stated that ‘‘the
more divided they are the more powerful are their effects.” Bone
dust and bone shavings, according to Davy, may be advantageously
employed, and he recognizes that the basis of bone is the phosphate
of lime, and also that it contains gelatin and cartilage, which seem
to be of the same nature as coagulated albumin. It is evident that
horn appeared to Davy to be a more powerful manure than bone.
The refuse of the slaughterhouses, as skin, leather, hair, feathers,
and blood, were regarded as valuable by him.

The value of guano as a fertilizer was also fully recognized at the
beginning of the century, a much earlier date than is generally sup-
posed. Davy says that ‘‘the value of guano as a fertilizer is easily
inferred from its composition. It contains one-fourth part of its
weight of uric acid, partly saturated with ammonia and partly with
potassa, some phosphorie acid and lime, and small quantities of sul-
phate and muriate of potassa, and a little fatty matter.” ?

The value of lime for fertilizing purposes is fully discussed by
Davy and the principles of its application most justly set forth.?

Magnesia was supposed to have almost equal value. The value of
gypsum was also thoroughly appreciated. The use of ashes of burned
peat was said to be very beneficial.

The value of phosphorus as a plant food was not appreciated, even
at the time of Davy, and no large deposits of mineral phosphates were
known. Inspeaking of phosphate of lime, he says: ‘‘It exists in some
places in these islands native, but only in very small quantities.
* * * Jt is probably necessary to corn crops and other white
crops. * * * Bone ashes ground to powder will probably be found
useful on arable lands containing much vegetable matter, and may
perhaps enable soft peats to produce wheat; but the powdered bone
in an uncaleined state is much to be preferred in all cases when it
can be procured.” 4

Davy thus unwittingly shows the great loss of fertilizing matter
which attends the burning of bones by the destruction of the nitrog-
enous bodies which they contain, but was not aware that this loss
diminished their utility. Speaking of wood ashes, he says: ‘*‘ Wood
ashes consist principally of the vegetable alkali united to carbonic

' Agricultural Chemistry, p. 289. °Tbid., pp. 315 ef seq.
*Tbid., p. 297. ‘Tbid., p. 336.

Ss

RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE. a5

acid, and as this alkali is found in almost all plants, it is not difficult
to conceive that it may form an essential part of their organs.” !

The vegetable alkali referred to is potash, and its efficiency was
supposed to be due to the fact that it rendered soluble carbonaceous
and other substances and permitted them to be absorbed by the tubes
in the radicle fibers of plants.

In regard to soda, which he calls ‘‘ mineral alkali,”* in distinetion
from vegetable alkali, he regards it of equal value. The use of com-
mon salt is also urged, because it is offensive to insects.

The observations made by Davy on the use of nitrate of potash are
extremely interesting. He says: ‘“‘Sir Kenelm Digby states that he
made barley grow very luxuriantly by watering it with a very weak
solution of niter; but he is too speculative a writer to awaken confi-
dence in his results. This substance consists of 1 portion of azote,
6 of oxygen, and 1 of potassium, and it is not unlikely that it may
furnish azote to form albumen or gluten in those plants that contain
them; but the nitrous salts are too valuable for other purposes to be
used as manures.”*® This is a very apropos observation, since it was
made at the time of the Napoleonic wars.

Sulphate of potassium, Davy says, is considered a valuable manure
by Dr. Home. Mr. Naismith questions his results, and quotes experi-
ments hostile to his opinion, and, as he conceives, unfavorable to the
efficacy of any saline manure.

In a general view of the whole subject of the use of saline sub-
stances, Davy says:

It is unnecessary to discuss to any greater extent the effects of saline substances
on vegetation, except the ammoniacal compounds, or the compounds containing
nitric, acetic, and carbonic acid; none of them can afford by their decomposition
any of the common principles of vegetation—carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

The alkaline sulphates and the earthy muriates are so seldom found in plants,
or are found in such minute quantities, that it can never be an object to apply them
to the soil. It was stated in the beginning of this lecture that the earthy and
alkaline substances seem never to be formed in vegetation, and there is every rea-
son, likewise, to believe that they are never decomposed, for after being absorbed
they are found in their ashes.4

It is thus seen that as late as 1815 there was no practical apprecia-
tion of the use of mineral fertilizers, even in the most advanced
studies of the relation of chemistry to agriculture, and the notions
regarding the application of vegetable and animal matters for fertiliz-
ing purposes were in most cases erroneous and the knowledge of their
good effects principally empirical.

KNOWLEDGE OF THE COMPOSITION OF AGRICULTURAL CROPS.

All that was practically known at the beginning of the century in
regard to the chemical composition of agricultural products is con-
tained in the third lecture given by Sir Humphry Davy before the

1Agricultural Chemistry, p. 337. Sbid.; p
Ibid., p. 337. *Ibid., p. 340.

—

914 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

British Board of Agriculture.! It will not be necessary, therefore, to
give the opinions of other authors on this subject.

Vegetables are thus defined: ‘‘ Vegetables are living structures dis-
tinguished from animals by exhibiting no signs of perception or of
voluntary motion; and their organs are either organs of nourishment
or of reproduction; organs for the preservation and increase of the
individual, or for the multiplication of species.”

Nineteen different bodies or classes of bodies were recognized e
Davy as constituting vegetable substances in general. These are: ‘‘1,
gum, or mucilage, and its different modifications; 2, starch; 3, sugar;

4,albumen; 5, gluten; 6, gum elastic; 7, extract; 8, tannin; 9, indigo;
a narcotic principle; 11, bitter principle; 12, wax; 13, resins; 14,
camphor; 15, fixed oils; 16, volatile oils; 17, woody fiber; ae acids;
19, alkalies, earths, metallic oxides, and saline compounds.”

Gum, or mucilage, which is a certain variety of gum, is described
as being easily soluble in water and insoluble in alcohol. Ail the
varieties of gum and mucilage were regarded as valuable plant foods,
as well as useful in some of the arts, as, for instance, in calico printing.

Starch is described as being soluble in boiling water.

Sugar is regarded as furnished chiefly by the sugar cane, and only
small quantities by other sources. It is remarkable that Davy
describes a method, which he proposed for purifying raw sugar, which
has lately been made the subject of patents in this and other coun-
tries, namely, by washing the crystals, or raw sugar, with a sugar
sirup. The sugar which is derived from the beet is said to be peculiar
in its nature and to agree with the sugar of grapes in its general
properties and in having a bitter taste. The properties of sugar, as
an animal food, were recognized by Davy, who states that the British
market was overstocked with this article from the West India Islands,
and for this reason proposals had been made for using it as a food for
cattle. His opinion that it was a valuable food for vegetables has
already been cited.

Vegetable albumin was known to exist in the juice of the papaw
tree, and tables of analyses are given showing its percentage com-
position.

The properties of gluten are described, and it is said to be distin-
guished from albumin chiefly by its insolubility in water. Its high
nutritive value was also appreciated, and it is stated to be one of the
most nutritive of vegetable substances.

Under the head of ‘‘ extract” is deseribed a variety of substances
obtained from different plants, evidently mixtures of various bodies.
Extract, it is said, in its pure form can not be used as an article of
food, but it is probably nutritive when united to starch, mucilage, or
sugar.

Tannin is declared to be of no nutritive value.

1 Pages 55 et seq.

RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE. mis

The other bodies found in plants, as enumerated by Davy, are of
no value, from a food point of view, except the oils, which he divided
into two varieties, namely, fixed and volatile.

Among the acids which were known to exist at that time in the
vegetable kingdom, are mentioned oxalic, citric, tartaric, benzoic,
acetic, carbonic, and prussic.

Of the fixed alkalies, potash is recognized as being the one common
to the vegetable kingdom.

Of the mineral acids, Davy states that phosphoric, sulphuric, muri-
atic, and nitrie exist in many saline compounds in the vegetable
kingdom, but they can not be vroperly considered as vegetable
products.

Davy held to the opinion, which was prevalent in his time, and
which still exists in many quarters, that the rigidity of plants is due
solely to the quantity of silica which they contain. His views of the,
composition of plants were the most advanced and scientific which
had ever at that time been proposed, and their scientific value espe-
cially may be recognized by a comparison with the theory of plant
composition exposed by Dr. Thomson in his elaborate and learned
system of chemistry. He quotes Thomson as describing six vegetable
substances, which he calls mucus, jelly, sarcocol, asparagin, inulin,
and ulmin. Davy does not agree with this view, and says: ‘‘It is
probable, from the taste of sarcocol, that it is gum combined with a
little sugar. Inulin is so analogous to starch that it is probably a
variety of that principle; ulmin has been lately shown by Mr. Smith-
son to be a compound of a peculiar extractive matter and potassa;
and asparagin is probably a similar combination.” !

It is not to be wondered at that the views, even of the most advanced
kind, concerning the composition of plants were of such an erroneous
nature when we consider the state of analytical chemistry at that
time. Sir Humphry Davy was, without doubt, the most skillful and
accurate chemist of his time or of any time that preceded him, and
the wonder is that he could have reached such correct results with
the methods of analysis which he himself describes.

In regard to the theoretical composition of bodies resembling each
other in vegetable substances, Davy says:

Gum and sugar afford nearly the same elements by analysis, and starch differs
from them only in containing a little more carbon. The peculiar properties of
gum and sugar must depend chiefly upon the different arrangement or degree of
condensation of their elements; and it would be natural to conceive from the com-
position of these bodies, as well as that of starch, that all three would be easily
convertible one into the other, which is actually the case. *

At the time of the ripening of corn the saccharine matter in the grain and that

carried from the sap vessels into the grain, becomes coagulated and forms starch;
and in the process of malting, the converse change occurs. The starch of grain

'Third lecture by Sir Humphry Davy before the British Board of Agriculture,
jo dale

216 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

is converted into sugar. As there is alittle absorption of oxygen and a forma-
tion of carbonic acid in this case, it is probable that the starch loses a little carbon,

: : : a : ¥ (]
which combines with the oxygen to form carbonic acid; and probably the oxygen

tends to acidify the gluten of the grain, and thus breaks down the texture of the
starch, gives a new arrangement to its elements, and renders it soluble in water.!

The first table showing the comparative nutritive value of different
foods ever published was probably that constructed by Davy, in which
all the more common vegetable varieties of foods are compared in
respect of their proportions of nutritive matter. These nutritive
bodies are grouped under four heads—mucilage, or starch; saccharin
matter, or sugar; gluten, or albumin; and extract. Rather strangely,
the oils and fats of vegetables are not regarded as of sufficient nutri-
tive importance to find a place in the table.

The value of gluten in bread making is fully recognized in Davy’s
studies of the composition of plants, and some of the earliest observa-
tions upon the nutritive value of different kinds of wheat are found
in his writings. He says:

It is probable that the excel‘ence of the different articies as food will be found
to be in a great measure proportional to the quantities of soluble or nutritive
matters they afford; but still these quantities can not be regarded as alsoiutely
denoting their value. Albuminous or glutinous matters have the characters of
animal substances; sugar is more nourishing, and extractive matter less nourish-
ing, than any other principles composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Cer-
tain combinations likewise of these substances may be more nutritive than others. ?

It was also recognized that flour made from hard wheat is to be more
esteemed than that made from soft, even when there is no difference
in the process of making them into bread; but the flour from hard
wheat will absorb and retain more water in making into bread, and
will consequently produce a greater weight of bread. It is shown by
chemical analysis that this difference in incorporating hard and sofv
wheat in bread making is due to the larger amount of gluten con-

ained in the hard wheat.

REVIEW OF THE EARLY KNOWLEDGE OF THE RELATION OF CHEMISTRY
TO AGRICULTURE.

It is now possible to give a general view of the knowledge of the
relations which chemistry held to praetical agriculture at the begin-
ning of the century. In regard to soils, some general notions of a
true character were held as to their composition. The real plant
foods in the soil, however, were not appreciated. While in a general
way it was recognized that phosphoric acid, potash, and lime entered
into the composition of the plant, it is evident from a study of the
literature of the time that siliea was regarded as more beneficial to
the plant than any of the other mineral matters mentioned. The
manner in which the food, was furnished to the plant was imperfectly

'Third lecture by Sir Humphry Davy before the British Board of Agriculture,
. 127 and 128, bids, prelow.
pp

a -

es

RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE. 2L7

known, save that it was generally conceded that the mineral mat-
ters must first enter into solution before they could be distributed
throughout the plant.

In regard to the physical nature of the soil, it was a matter of com-
mon observation that it had much to do with the efficacy of plant
growth. The open and porous soiis were more prized than those of
a hard and impenetrable nature, and the general distinctions between
sandy, loamy, and clayey soils were well understood.

The notion was extremely prevalent that the soils serve more as a
resting place and support for the root system of the plants, while the
materials for plant growth in some way resemble exudations, or
emanations, which come partly from the soil itself and partly from the
atmosphere. The actual chemical composition of soil was but little
understood, and this arose from the fact that the means of chemical
analysis were so meager and its processes so unsatisfactory as to pre="
clude the possibility of securing exact data. Nevertheless, a reason-
ably accurate knowledge was had of the chief constituents of the soil,
if not of the functions which they played in plant growth. That the
soil was a vehicle for the administration of the nourishing elements
of food, was not fully appreciated at the beginning of the century.
The nitrogen, or azote, as it was called in that day, was supposed to
reach the plant exclusively in the form of ammonia, and no accurate
knowledge of the relation of the soil to the production of azotized
foods was extant.

Perhaps, however, the most striking error in connection with the
notions relating to the constitution of the soil itself in respect of plant
growth is found in the fact that the true functions of phosphoric
acid and potash in the nutrition of plants were imperfectly, if at all,
understood by even the most advanced agricultural chemists of that
day.

It is true that the chemical composition of manures which were then
in use was not well known, nor were the processes by which manures.
beeame available as plant food at all undersiood, but the practical
knowledge of the use of stable manures, of marls, of gypsum, and of
lime was generally diffused and acted upon. Of artificial manures,
other than those mentioned, little was known save that the aborigines
of the New England States had taught the early settlers the great
value of using fish as a fertilizer.

Some idea also was entertained of the value of the refuse of the
slaughterhouses for fertilizing purposes, and it was known that blood,
bone, and horn were useful in promoting the growth of crops, but
how and why were not understood.

The value of clover and other leguminous crops in increasing soil
fertility was recognized, but the causes which established this value
were not at all known. The process of fermentation was recognized
in the manufacture and preparation of manures, but the nature of

218 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

this fermentation was wholly unknown to the investigators and chem-
ical agriculturists of that time. Empiricism in the use of manures
through thousands of years had led to most valuable practical results,
out little was due at that time to the discoveries and researches of
chemistry. When we look at the knowledge which was possessed of
the composition of plants, we do not wonder that the relations of the
soil and of fertilizers to plant growth were so little understood. The
methods of investigation in vogue were totally inadequate to reveal
the true constitution of plants, and it is a matter of wonder to us at
the present time that with such crude apparatus and such imperfect
methods so much accurate knowledge could have been obtained. The
processes of organic analysis had only just been introduced, and only
the general constitution of the carbohydrates, as represented by the
gums, mucilages, starches, and sugars of that day, was definitely
established, but the percentage of nitrogen contained in the albumin
and gluten recognized as existing in plants is searcely more accurately
known at the present day than it was then.

The more important organic acids also existing in plants had been
discovered, separated, and identified, and in general it must be con-
fessed that, in so far as the progress of chemistry relating to the com-
position of plants is concerned, the agricultural chemists of the
beginning of the century are to be congratulated on the attainments
which they had made. The weak point of their researches and inves-
tigations was that they had made no systematic effort to correlate the
composition of plants and of the soil to the principles of plant growth.
With their imperfect ideas of the nature of plant nutrition, it did not
occur to them that a great system of scientific agriculture could be
based upon investigations of this kind. They, however, had done
enough to pave the way for the great impetus which the investiga-
tions of Liebig, Gilbert, Boussingault, and others gave to systematic
agricultural chemistry some thirty or forty years later.

SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE ABOUT THE MIDDLE OF THE CENTURY.
THE ERA OF LIEBIG.

The publication of Liebig’s work entitled “Chemistry in its appli-
cations to agriculture and physiology,” in 1840, marked a complete
change in the theories of chemistry in respect of agriculture existing
at the beginning of the century as portrayed in preceding pages, and
inaugurated the new science of agriculture, resting upon his investi-
gations asa foundation. If Wurtz could say, ‘‘Chemistry is a French
science, founded by Lavoisier, of immortal memory,” with all the
greater propriety may we say of the agriculture of to-day, ‘‘Agrieul-
ture is a chemical science, founded by Liebig, of immortal memory.”
“Perfect agriculture,” Liebig says in the preface to the first edition
of his book, “‘is the true foundation of all trade and industry; but
a rational system of agriculture can not be formed without the

«

RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE. 219

application of scientific principles, for such a system must be based on
an exact acquaintance with the means of nutrition of vegetables and
with the influence of soils and actions of manure upon them; this
knowledge we must seek from chemistry, which teaches the mode of
investigating the composition and of studying the character of the
different substances from which plants derive their nourishment.”

Within a year after Liebig’s book was published it was translated
into English, and soon thereafter was found in the languages of all
the leading nations of the world. Liebig, however, must not be given
the sole praise for the establishment of the true theory of scientific
agriculture. Very much earlier in the century De Saussure, a cele-
brated French chemist and botanist, published his ‘‘ Chemical
researches on vegetation,” and a decade before Liebig published his
first work Boussingault, the most celebrated French agricultural
chemist of the early part of the century, had produced a great many *
works on the relations of chemistry to agriculture. To both of these
authors Liebig is largely indebted, and to each of them he gives full
credit. The part which Davy took in preparing the way for these
later investigations has already been pointed out.

Previous to the time of Liebig, as already indicated, it was com-
monly understood that organic substances, such as sugars and oils,
were the chief foods of plants, either in the fresh state or in the par-
tially decayed condition known as humus. In fact, the attitude of
chemistry toward agriculture in the first four decades of the century
was so strongly marked on this point that the whole system of plant
nutrition, as understood at that time, might with propriety be desig-
nated the humus theory. Although other writers before the time of
Liebig had intimated that the air and water, and not the earth, were
the source of the carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen in plants, it must be
admitted that it was through the researches of Liebig that the great
principles of plant nutrition, founded on the elaboration of the ele-
ments of carbohydrates from the air and water, were fully developed.
As in most other instances, however, the tendency of mankind to
reach extremes was shown on this point. Liebig in his fight against
the humus theory naturally went to the other extreme of denying that
the humus took any part at all in plant nutrition. He based his chief
objection to the humus theory on the ground that humus was prac-
tically insoluble, and that therefore it could not enter into the circu-
lation of the plants. ‘This argument we know now is not a valid one,
but it served as the basis of an attack upon an erroneous theory which
had established itself firmly in the minds of advanced agriculturists.

As early as 1807 Thompson observed that if plants be deprived of
earbonie acid, they wither and die, and these observations had been
confirmed by a great many observers. It was Ingenhousz who first
made the observation that plants absorb carbonic acid only under the
influence of sunlight, while in darkness the tendency of plants is to

99290 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

give off rather than absorb this gas. It was urged against Liebig’s
theory of plants deriving their carbon from carbonie acid that the
quantity of this gas in the air was so minute as to render Liebig’s
idea absurd. It is well known at the present time that the amount
of ecarbonie acid in the air does not much exceed 4 parts in 10,000, and
yet this quantity is amply sufficient to furnish the immense quanti-
ies of carbon of which the structures of plants are largely composed.
It is easy to believe that in past ages, especially the one known by
geologists as the Carboniferous Era, the quantities of carbonic acid
in the air were much larger than at the present time and the amount
of precipitation much greater. These two conditions, combined with
the fact that the temperature of the earth must have been higher,
account for the luxuriant growth of vegetable matters in those epochs,
the gradual decay of which, under pressure, has provided the coal
deposits of the present day. Liebig and his colaborers finally deter-
mined experimentally that organic matters were not suitable foods
for plants, and that when sugar, gum, or starch are offered to a plant
these compounds do not nourish it in any true sense. The vital
functions of plant life consist rather in the elaboration of these
organic bodies and other compounds from the inorganie elements on
which the plants are fed. This is true, especially of green plants;
whereas in the case of colorless plants the reverse is probably true,
and these feed rather upon organic matter than upon inorganic. It
was in this instance that Liebig’s theory led him too far in denying
the part of organic matter in any kind of plant life. Indeed, it has
been found by researches carried on in the Division of Chemistry that
the elements of humus may enter into the plant, as shown by the
dark color of the juices of sugar cane grown upon humus soils and in
the increase of amid nitrogenous matter in oats grown upon soils
extremely rich in humus.

Long after the establishment of the practical truth of the doctrines
of Liebig it was discovered that Lavoisier, fully sixty years before the
time of Liebig’s discoveries, had observed the same phenomena,
although the information was not given to the public until the final
publication of the papers of the great French chemist in 1862. It was
then discovered that in one of Lavoisier’s notes he had made this preg-
nant observation: ‘‘ Plants derive the materials necessary for their
formation from the air which surrounds them, from the water, and in
general from the mineral kingdom.” Thus, after all, we must attribute
to Lavoisier the credit of having discovered the true theory of plant
nutrition. The following from Lavoisier’s observations wonderfully
increases our admiration for the genius of this great man:

Animals feed on plants and on other animals fed by plants, so that the sub-
stances composing them are, in the last instance, always drawn from air and from
the mineral kingdom. On the other hand, fermentation, putrefaction, and com-

bustion continually restore tothe air and to the mineral kingdom the principles bor-
rowed from them by plants and animals.

RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE. Zak

While the theory of Liebig touching the formation of carbehy-
drates is fully corroborated by all modern investigations, in so far as
the food of green plants is concerned, he never obtained the true solu-
tion of the method in which nitrogen was fed to plants. He assumed
that the nitrogen was fed in the form of ammonia produced by the
putrefaction of plants and animals, and, as is now well known, formed
in the atmosphere by electrical discharges:and in other ways. Liebig,
as appears from his researches, was not at first aware of the importance
of the part played by artificial fertilizers and manures in furnishing
nitrogen to plants.

MINERAL THEORY OF PLANT NUTRITION.

The advances which chemistry has made in establishing the meth-
ods by which nitrogen becomes food for plants will be shown later.
While the older view of the nutrition of plants is properly characterized
by the term ‘‘humus,” or ‘Sorganic,” theory, the school established
by Liebig held to the theory of plant nutriticn which may properly be
denominated the ‘‘mineral” theory. Liebig was the first to study
systematically the subject of mineral or artificial manures, and his
views in this matter soon found their way into the United States. In
the agricultural part of the Patent Office Report for the year 1845
Liebig contributes an interesting letter on the subject of artificial
manures. In this letter it is believed the true principles connected
with artificial manuring were first brought to the attention of Ameri-
can farmers. Among the artificial manures mentioned by Liebig in
this letter are the earthy phosphates, of which at that time practically
only one variety, namely, apatite, was known to exist. Liebig, how-
ever, in discussing the value of phosphate of lime as a fertilizer makes
the curious mistake of saying that bones are most efficient for fertiliz-
ing purposes after they have been burned. It is strange that so keen
an observsr as Liebig could have been led into such a great error. He
was right, however, in assuming that so far as the phosphate of lime
is concerned, its utility as a plant food is determined largely by the
rapidity with which it will enter into solution. It was for this reason
that he assumed that the burned bones were more efficient than the
unburned, arguing with great skill that the gelatin, or glue, which the
bones contained had a tendency to keep the phosphatie material
insoluble. He was the first who recommended the use of sulphuric
acid on bones and mineral phosphates for the purpose of converting
the lime into gypsum and securing the phosphoric acid in a state
more easily soluble and assimilable. He alsorecommended the alka-
line phosphates, such as those of soda and potash, as being excellent
fertilizing substances on account of their high solubility. He recog-
nized that the alkalies, namely, potash and soda, should be constitu-
ents of every rationally composed manure, since by them the original
fertile condition of the fields is preserved. He observed that the soil

222 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

which contains alkalies in too small a quantity may be fertile for grain,
but not necessarily so for turnips or potatoes, which require a great
quantity of alkali. Sulphate of potash, common salt, and chlorid of
potash were regarded as valuable manures, and the latter was said te
be found in milk in large proportions.

Gypsum is recommended as a nourishment for leguminous plants.
In speaking of the salts of ammonia, Liebig says it is certain that the
azote, or nitrogen, of the plants is derived from the ammonia of the
atmosphere or from a manure which is provided in the shape of ani-
mal fluid and solid excrement, and, further, that nitrogenous bodies are
only useful in plant nutrition in proportion as they give up their
nitregen in the form of ammonia. In regard to decaying vegetable
matters, he regarded them as useful only in so far as by their decay
they afforded carbonic acid, but says that they are not indispensa-
ble in manure. As before mentioned, Liebig rather inclined to the
extreme view in this case, denying to humus matters any proper place
in plant nutrition. He fertifies the observations made by citing analy-
ses of the ashes of some common crops, such as beans, peas, potatoes,
clover, and hay. He also deduces the conclusion from these analyses
that for stalks and leaves, manurial elements are required other than
for seeds. The stalks and leaves contain no alkaline phosphates, but
they require a rich supply of alkaline carbonates and sulphates. On
the other hand, the carbonates are entirely wanting in the seeds, but
the latter are very rich in phosphates. Itis rather curious that Liebig
should have fallen into the error of supposing that the carbonates in
the ash existed in this state in the plants themselves; that he did not
know that the occurrence of carbonates in the ash of the leaves and
their nonoccurrence in the ash of the seeds are due solely to the pres-
ence of peculiar constituents of each, which permit a formation of car-
bonates on combustion in the ash of the leaves and prevent its forma-
tion in the ash of seeds on account of the excess of phosphoric acid,
whichata high temperature completely expels carbonic acid from com-
bination. In his letter to American farmers he calls particular atten-
tion to the facet that a manure which furnishes only one constituent
element of plant food may rapidly exhaust the soil of all the other
elements of fertility, and hence the necessity of supplying complete
fertilizers instead of partial ones where the fertility of the soil is to be
preserved or increased. He ascribes the fact that guanos have not
always met the expectation of those who have used them to the pres-
ence in them of ammonia and alkaline phosphates and the practical
absence of alkalies. He therefore urged particularly that fertilizers
containing large quantities of potash and soda be used in conjunction
with guanos in order to secure the best effects. In this letter Liebig
also calls attention to the loss of the soluble elements of manure
by lixiviation in the soil, and for this reason recommends that the
manure of the barnyards be preserved, either in pits from which the

RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE. 233

water can not escape or in covered sheds, to prevent the exhaustion
of their soluble fertilizing ingredients. He says:

The reason why in certain years the influence of the best and most plentiful
manuring is scarcely perceptible is that during the moist and rainy springs and
summers the phosphates and other salts with alkaline bases, as also the soluble
ammoniacal salts, are entirely or partly removed. Art must find out the means
of reducing the solubility of the manuring substances to a certain limit; ina word,
of bringing them into the same state in which they exist in a most fertile virgin
soil, and in which they can best be assimilated by plants.

Looking forward, too, with a prophetic eye, Liebig saw a great indus-
try which would grow out of his researches in the establishment of fac-
tories where artificial manures would be prepared for agricultural uses.
He says at the close of his letter:

Manufactories of manure will be established in which the farmer can obtain the
most efficacious manure for all varieties of soils and plants. Then no artificial
manure will be sold whose exact amount of efficacious elements isnot known, and *
this amount will be the scale for determiningits value. Instead of the uncertainty
of mere empiricism, all the operations of agriculture will be carried on with cer-
tainty, and instead of awaiting the results of our labors with anxiety and doubt,
our minds will be filled with patience and confidence.

In reading over this admirable letter, contributed by request of the
Commissioner of Patents to the American farmers by Professor Liebig,
we are struck with the fact that fifty-five years ago the farmers of
this country were provided with a creed for judging fertilizing mate-
rials which has undergone but little change as the result of all the
researches which have been made since that time. It is hardly to be
expected that even Liebig at that day would have correctly appreciated
all the problems connected with fertilizing processes. The great
principles, however, which underlie the application of artificial fertili-
zers were fully set forth, and the publication of this information to
American farmers is therefore justly considered an epoch in the rela-
tions of chemistry to agriculture in the United States.

Although the views of Liebig were first promulgated in 1540, and,
as indicated, were placed before the farmers of America as early as
1845, we find that as late as 1848 grave doubts of their accuracy were
still entertained by those in charge of the Agricultural Division of the
Patent Office. In the report for 1848 there is a long article, begin-
ning on page 195, in which the views of Liebig are vigorously com-
bated by references to authorities of his own country, chiefly von Thaer
and Sehulze. Sir Humphry Davy is held up in this discussion as an
authority of greater value than Licbig. Considerable space is given
to showing that it is quite improbable that the air, however rapidly it
may move, ean furnish enough carbon for the use of the plants; and
Professor Sehieiden, in his criticism of Liebig’s theory, says: ‘‘ Must
we here adopt the ignorance of physics, or a wholly thoughtless inser-
tion of it, as a cause of this monster of the wind theory?” It is con-
cluded from a very elaborate study of the various theories relating to

994 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the nutrition of plants that Liebig’s theory is Hable to some funda-
mental objections, and the question is raised whether the humus
theory, of which von Thaer was the chief apostle, supported, how-
ever, by the eminent authority of Professor Schulze, could be main-
tained against the objections which Liebig had urged to it. The Com-
missioner of Patents adds:

It may be thought by some we have devoted too much time and space to this
subject, but Liebig’s works have been so extensively diffused in this country and
in their charm of style and the enthusiasm with which tie author entered into
his discussions, the boldness displayed in his enunciation of his novelties, and
other concurrent causes, they have exerted so great an influence in various sec-
tions that these facts seemed to justify the attempt to present, in as condensed a
form as we could with any justice to the author, one of the ab’est criticisms to
which his principles have been subjected. Having in former reports presented
the history of Liebig’s views, we may claim the right of giving, too, the other side
of the question, and the more so since a right discrimination of the points is con-
tained in the foregoing synopsis of Professor Schulze’s elaborate criticism.

It is evident, therefore, that even at this time, almost the middle of
the century, the view was still stoutly maintained by eminent men
that the organic matters of which plants are composed were derived
chiefiy from the soil, and not from the atmosphere and water. Hence
it was, that with wonderful pertinacity the agricultural chemists clung
to the theory that the organic matters of plants were directly derived
from the decaying organic matters of the soil, and that therefore
humus was the chief element in the nourishment of plants. (Pls. IV
and V show portraits of some of the early and of the more recent
workers in agricultural chemistry mentioned in this paper. )

RELATIONS OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE AT THE PRESENT TIME.

METHODS BY WHICH RESULTS OF CHEMICAL STUDIES HAVE BEEN
MADE OF PRACTICAL USE.

Among the methods which have been chiefly instrumental in bring-
ing the results of chemical research into practical use in agriculture
at the present time may be mentioned the following:

(1) The teaching of agriculture in schools, colleges, and universities,
and instruction given in farmers’ meetings.

(2) The activity of agricultural colleges and experiment stations.

(3) Instruction in the relations of chemistry to agriculture given in
the agricultural press.

TEACHING OF AGRICULTURE IN SCHOOLS, COLLEGES, UNIVERSITIES, ETC,

It is rather diffieult in discussing the first of these subjects to deter-
mine when the first instruction was given in schools, colleges, or
universities in regard to the relations of chemistry to agricultural
science. The first professorship evidently established for this pur-
pose was founded at the University of Halle in 1727, when Frederick
William, King of Prussia, established a professorship of rural economy,

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899 PLATE IV.

——_

<
|
L 0,

3 ce
“JER (anto\™

Some EARLY WORKERS IN AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.

RELATION: OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE. 225

in which the relations of chemistry to agriculture, as then under-
stood, were developed and taught. The order in which similar chairs
were established in other universities is hard to say, but in 1800 it is
certain that other universities in Europe had followed the example of
that of Halle.!

The importance of agricultural education was early recognized in
the United States, as is seen in the Agricultural Reports of the Patent
Office. In the report for the year 1847 a special plea is made for the
establishment of agricultural education in the United States, as
follows:

We might remark on the application of chemistry, animal and vegetable physi-
ology, geology, and other sciences, with domestic economy, in reference to this
great question of progress and as elements not without their bearing on the devel-
opment of our agricultural resources. But these topics may be better touched
upon in another part of this report, where we may treat of modes of cultivation
and feeding of animals, with kindred topics.

There is one particular, however, which seems to claim our notice. This is agri-
cultural education; a new era seems, in this respect, to be opening upon us. It
may take years before we shall have our Hohenheims, Schliesheims, Tharands,
and Moeglins, as in Germany and Prussia, but a beginning is made by attempts to
establish such schoo!s and colleges. There have been a number of the former set
in operation by private enterprise, and in several of our co‘leges professors have
been appointed who are well qualified to lecture on these subjects. In the t:me-
honored uniyersities of Harvard and Yale, two gentlemen who have enjoyed
ample opportunities of pursuing their studies in Europe fill the chairs of the pro-
fessorships. A man of experience also in science has recently been placed in this
department in one of the colleges of Ohio. Much may be expected from the influ-
ence of these and similar positions in relation to this important subject; and here,
too, we may refer our readers to the account given of agricultural education as
well as of the agricultural convention at Breslau, by C. L. Fleischmann,esq. This
account, with other articles of deep interest to the agriculturist of the United
States, may be found in Appendix No. 1.

It is thus seen that more than half a century ago several agricul-
tural schools, pure and simple, were established in Europe, and that
at least two of the leading universities of this country, namely, Har-
vard and Yale, had established chairs of agricultural chemistry.

In the same report it is urged that traveling lecturers could dif-
fuse agricultural knowledge, and the custom of the farmers’ clubs and
agricultural colleges of Great Britain in. bringing together distin-
guished scientific men to give their views upon some topic selected as
the subject of discussion is mentioned with favor. It is stated that
the lectures of this kind indicate the principles of the application of
manures, and deal with many other questions in which a knowledge
of chemistry plays an important part.

In the article of Mr. Fleischmann, in the same report, on the agri-
cultural schools of Germany, an account is given of his visit to one of
the earliest and most famous of these schools, namely, that founded

1 Rural Socrates, p. 15.

1 A-99 15

226 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and conducted by von Thaer. In this school Dr. Trommer, a ecele-
brated chemist of his time, was employed as a lecturer on chemistry
and physical philosophy with reference to their employment in agri-
cultural industry. On page 319 of the report it is stated that the
lectures of Dr. Trommer were especially devoted to agricultural chem-
istry, illustrated by experiments required fora clear insight of the
same, with constant regard to the use of these seiences in agriculture
and the business therewith connected, such as breweries and distil-
leries, sirup and sugar making from beets and potatoes, and other mat-
ters of a technical nature relating to agriculture. Besides this, the
student was given an opportunity of performing simple chemical
analyses under a superintendent. There was also taught the outline of
the physiology of plants, thus enabling the educated agriculturist to
penetrate deeper into the science and to secure a clearer insight into
vegetation.

Thus early it is seen that agricultural chemical technics, and the
principles upon which they are based, were made a principal part of
the instruction given in agricultural schools to the young man
engaged in acquiring a knowledge of agricultural science.

Space will not allow the tracing of the evolution of agricultural
education step by step, and so we must pass over the early history
and proceed to the consideration of the practical foundation of such
education in the United States.

The first endowment for teaching agriculture in the United States
was provided for Harvard University in 1837 by the will of Benjamin
Bussey, and for Yale in 1846, and the first instruction in agricultural
science from a chemical point of view was given at Yale in 1847.
Since that time chairs of agricultural chemistry have been regularly
established and maintained in these institutions.

ROLE OF CHEMISTRY IN THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND EXPERIMENT
STATIONS.

In a study of the impress which chemical research has made upon
agriculture, there has been no factor during the past twenty years
which can compare with the work of the agricultural experiment sta-
tions of the United States. Richly endowed as they are by the Gen-
eral Government, they have had every opportunity to secure the best
results for practical agriculture.

In this work chemical science has played a very important part in
the furthering of agricultural prosperity. Of the forty-nine directors
of the stations at the present time, twenty were professional chem-
ists at the time of their appointment. The selection of so many pro-
fessional chemists was no mere chance, but evidently had some
relation to the dominant position which the science of chemistry
held to the promotion of agricultural chemical research. The list of
directors of the agricultural experiment stations of Germany shows
the same condition of affairs.

RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE. 227

The great influence of chemistry on the agricultural experiment
stations of this country is not measured alone by the number of pro-
fessional chemists which is found in the directorates, but also in a
comparison of this number to that of other scientific men holding
similar positions. Very few of the other sciences are represented
among the directors of stations, and no one of them can compare in
its number of representatives to the science of chemistry. Among
the working forces of the stations chemists also predominate. There
are twice as many chemists employed in the stations as there are men
eugaged in any other professional scientific work. Statistics show.
that the number of chemists employed in the agricultural experiment
stations of the United States is one hundred and fifty-seven, while the
number of botanists is fifty and the number of entomologists forty-
two. The number of employees belonging to other branches of science
is very much less than that of the botanists and entomologists, and
the total number of scientific men employed in all other branches of
scientific work in the stations does not greatly exceed, even if it be
equal to, the number of those employed in chemical research alone.

While dwelling upon the predominance of professional chemists in
the directorate and upon the staff of the experiment stations it seems
eminently proper to mention here in a special manner some of the
earlier eminent chemists who have contributed so much to the value
of chemical research in our agricultural colleges and experiment sta-
tions. Among these must be mentioned Prof. F. H. Storer, of Bus-
sey Institute (Massachusetts), who first began the regular publication
of a bulletin recording the work of the school and station, which has
**set the step to which the bulletins from many other stations are still
marching.” The bulletins of the Bussey Institute describing original
research, work on agricultural subjects have proved of the highest
benefit to agriculture. Professor Storer’s work entitled ‘‘ Chemistry
in some of its relations to agriculture,” the first edition of which was
published in 1887, has had a marked effect upon agriculture in this
country.

As early as 1846 Yale University, then called Yale College, appointed
a professor of agricultural chemistry. This was John Pitkin Norton,
who had devoted himself to the study of scientifie agriculture both in
this country and Europe, especially with the celebrated Liebig. He
brought to his position a ripe knowledge and wisely directed enthu-
siasin for agriculture, which he used with the greatest prefit in its
service. In 1855 Samuel William Johnson was appointed instructor
in agricultural and analytical chemistry, and soon after full professor.
Perhaps no one ever succeeded more fully in popularizing scientifie
agriculture than Professor Johnson. His two books, ‘‘How plants
feed” and ‘‘ How plants grow,” the first editions of which were pub-
lished in 1868 and 1870, respectively, have been kept abreast of mod-
ern progress in successive editions, and are still used as standard

228 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

text-books and as authorities on the practical relations of chemistry
to agriculture.

In the University of California the work of Prof. EK. W. Hilgard
must be mentioned as being of fundamental importance in the devel-
opment of the relation of chemistry to agriculture in this country.
Professor Hiigard in his classical work on soils has placed himself in
the front rank of investigators on this subject, not only in this country
but in the world, and his achievements have been recognized both by ©
his countrymen and by the most celebrated societies of Europe. A
knowledge of the soil and its reiations to pliant growth constitutes one
of the fundamental principles of chemistry, and the researches of
Professor Hilgard in this line have done much to place agriculture in
the United States on a strictly scientific basis.

At Cornell, even before her doors were open to students, a profes-
sorship in agricultural chemistry was established. Prof. G. C. Cald-
well was appointed to fill this position, and he has done so with dis-
tinction to himseif and the university, and with the greatest benefit
to agriculture. One of the most important services in connection
with Professor Caldwell’s labors at Cornell has been the publication
of his work on agricultural chemical analysis in 1869. At that time
-no work of a similar nature existed in the English language, and Pro-
fessor Caldwell’s book was a veritable boon to students in agricultural
science.

This brief reference to the contributions of some of the earlier
workers in agricultural chemical science in this country would not be
complete without mention of the labors of Prof. C. A. Goessmann, of
the Massachusetts Agricultural College.

It is not possible in the space assigned to this paper to even name
the more prominent later workers.

A national epoch in agricultural education in this country began
with the passage of the Morrill Act, in 1862, establishing and endow-
ing colleges where agriculture should be one of the principal branches
in which instruction is given. An additional impetus was given to
this great work in 1887 by the passage of the Hatch Act, establishing
agricultural experiment stations in the several States. The organiza-
tion lists of the agricultural colleges and experiment stations of the
United States now show the great number of men working in the
lines of agricultural chemistry. This most remarkable evolution
of agricultural education has taken place practically within the last
thirty years, and there is no country which can now be compared with
the United States in the munificence of the endowment for agrieul-
tural chemical research or in the vast amount of research and experi-
mental work conducted in these lines.

SES es TSS

RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE. 229

DISSEMINATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY THROUGH THE
AGRICULTURAL PRESS.

One of the important channels through which the principles of
agricultural chemistry have been disseminated throughout the United
States has been the agricultural journals. In no other country has
the agricultural press obtained so firm a hold and exercised such an
authority as in this country. Early in the century agricultural
journals were established, many of which are still in existenee. In
1845 it is stated in the agricultural report for that year that there were
twenty-six journals in the United States devoted exelusively to agri-
eulture. Of these, eight were weekly, sixteen monthly, one quarterly,
and one unelassified. Among those which are still in existence, and
which were mentioned at that time, may be cited the Maine Farmer,
the Boston Cultivator, the Massachusetts Ploughman, the American
Agriculturist, the American Farmer, the Indiana Farmer, the Prairie
Farmer, and perhaps a few others. A list of the agricultural jour-
nals of the present time would show a wonderful increase in number.
In addition to the purely agricultural journals, a great many of the
newspapers of the country have agricultural departments which, at
least once a week, convey to the farmer important information in
regard to scientific agriculture. It is evident, therefore, that many
of the beneficial effects of chemical research relating to agriculture
have found their application through the columns of the journals
mentioned.

PROMOTION OF SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE BY THE ASSOCIATION OF
OFFICIAL AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTS.

It is evident that one of the most important ways in which chemis-
try can promote the interests of agriculture is by furnishing reliable
and accurate means of studying soils, agricultural products, and
other bodies connected with the interests of farming. If researches
of this kind are not made in a uniform way, they can not be compared
among themselves, and if they are not made by accurate methods may
lead to erroneous results. The full benefit of chemical research,
therefore, on agricultural progress can only be secured when the
methods of investigation employed are uniform and accurate. The
condition of the methods of agricultural research in the United States
up to within twenty years was not satisfactory. With the exception
of the book by Professor Caldwell on ‘‘Agricultural chemical analysis,”
no distinctively American work had been done along these lines. To
Professor Caldwell, scientific agriculture owes a great debt for being the
first in this country to attempt to systematize the methods of chemical
research as applied to agriculture. Nevertheless, this work had no
official authority, and chemists engaged in agricultural research could
use the methods described by Professor Caldwell or not, as they saw
fit. The first steps toward correcting this condition of affairs were

2930 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

taken by the department of agriculture of the State of Georgia. Mr.
H. J. Redding, now director of the experiment station of that State,
induced Hon. J. T. Henderson, commissioner of agriculture of Geor-
gia, to call a meeting of chemists interested in agricultural research,
which was held in Washington City, at the Department of Agriculture,
beginning July 28, 1880. This initial meeting, after making impor-
tant advances, adjourned to meet in connection with the American
Association for the Advancement of Science in August of the same
year. An organization was perfected at this time, and it was again
decided to meet with the American association in August, 1881, at
Cincinnati.

Methods of analysis were agreed upon at these meetings, which,
however, still lacked any official authority, as no permanent official
organization had been effected. After the Cincinnati meeting no
efforts were made to continue the meetings of the new organization,
and it was felt that the personnel of the meetings had been of such
a character as to render impracticable a harmonizing of the different
conflicting elements represented. No further attempts, therefore,
were made to coordinate the work of agricultural analysis until 1884,
when a meeting of chemists connected with official agricultural work

ras held in May, at Atlanta, Ga. Here a strong organization was
effected, and the meeting adjourned to Philadelphia in September.
At the September meeting the organization of Official Agricultural
Chemists was completed, admitting to full membership in the society
all persons officially connected with agricultural research of a chem-
ical nature throughout the United States, and to limited membership
other chemists interested in agriculture having no official position.
The constitution of the association provided that all methods of
analysis which were adopted as official, and thus made binding upon
its members, should be acted upon only by the votes of those who
had official conneetion with chemical work, under government, either
national or State. Since September, 1884, the Association of Official
Agricultural Chemists has held annual meetings, mostly in Washing-
ton City, and, as a result, methods of research have been perfected and
adopted which are made binding upon the members, and which have
been recognized by the courts of the country as official in every
respect. These methods of research have become so perfect and so
effective that they have recognition in all countries, and the work
of the association is everywhere recognized as being of the highest
order and as having secured the greatest good. At the present
time the official methods of investigation inelude not only the study of
soils, of fertilizers, and of agricultural products, but special methods
have been adopted for the study of human and animal foods, of
dairy products, of different fertilizing elements, of manures and
fertilizers in general, of carbohydrates and nitrogenous bodies, of
tanning materials, and of insecticides.

|

RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE. 231

The association has not contented itself with the mere study of ana
lytieal detail, but has mstituted lines of research having for their object
the elucidation of unsolved problems in agriculture and the appliea-
tion of the results to practical work. The direct practical benefit of
the work of this association has been found in the establishment of
efficient fertilizer control in nearly all of the States of the Union. By
means of this official control the farmers are protected in the charac-
ter of the fertilizing materials which they buy. These materials are
inspected by the State authorities, and can only be sold when their
composition comes up to the standard set by these authorities. The
economical value of this control alone is only to be measured by mil-
lions of dollars. The association has published the results of its labors
in numerous bulletins under the patronage of the Secretary of Agri-
eulture and issued from the Division of Chemistry. These bulletins
contain not only the proceedings of the association, with all the dis-
eussions relating to problems.in practical agriculture, but alse recom-
mendations as to methods of researeh to be followed by chemists
throughout the country, whether having relation to agricultural
research or not. One of the most important of the works which has
been undertaken, and which is now partially completed, has been in
determining the standards of purity for food. The work of the Divi-
sion of Chemistry in respect to food adulteration is deseribed further
on. In order, however, that a competent eontrol of food adulteration
may be exercised, it is necessary that the judicial authorities have
reliable standards to which reference can be made in legal preceed-
ings. It is evident that such standards can only be secured by the
comparison of a vast amount of chemical data and an institution of
the most careful research. The Association of Official Agricultural
Chemists has taken up this subject in a systematic manner, and the
various problems relating to the standards of pure food are placed
in the hands of special committees, who have already accomplished a
great part of the work which has been assigned tothem. At the com-
pletion of the work it will be possible to present for the approval of
Congress, and of the various legislative bedies of the country, a sys-
tem of food standards, just and correct, based upon the widest knowl-
edge and the most careful research. With theaid of these standards the
enforcement of pure-food laws will be made easy and the punishment
of these who violate their provisions rendered certain. The proceed-
ings of the association and the methods of analysis and research
adopted by them are found in the bulletins issued from the Division
of Chemistry.

CHEMISTRY IN AGRICULTURAL REPORTS OF THE PATENT OFFICE, ETC.
NUTRITION.

The first work of agricultural chemistry was naturally to develop
the principles upon which plant nutrition is based. It was soon seen,

232 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

however, that animal nutrition rests upon the same general princi-
ples, and that the same methods of research, with the necessary modi-
fications for the changed environment, are to be used in both eases.
Thus early the aid of chemistry was invoked in establishing the true
principles of animal feeding. But little was known of a positive
naturein thismatterin the early parts of the century. Toward the mid-
dle of the century, however, considerable contributions had been made
by agricultural chemists to this subject. The Agricultural Reports
of the Patent Office in early years contained articles on this subject.
In the report for 1849 several pages are given to the discussion of the
nutritive value of foods. The comparative value of the whole flour of
wheat as compared with the fine flour is also given, and the contri-
butions of Peligot, the celebrated French physiological chemist, are
freely referred to. An interesting chapter is also contributed on the
nutritious properties of various other articles of food, and the chemi-
eal methods which were in vogue for determining the composition of
wheat flour and of ascertaining its nutritive value are set forth in
some detail. The work of the Department of Agriculture in regard
to the principles of nutrition has been prosecuted with more or less
vigor by chemists connected with its service from the middle of the
century to the present time. In the agricultural experiment stations
also the principles of animal feeding have been fully developed by prae-
ticalwork. The general principles of animal nutrition were madeavail-
able for farmers’ use at an early day by the publication of Armsby’s
‘“‘Manual of cattle feeding,” in the year 1880. Although this was
essentially a translation of a foreign work, yet in its publication
various improvements and additions were made by the author and
translator, which rendered the book far more valuable than the origi-
nal work. Among the later publications on the same subject may be
mentioned the work of Professor Henry, published in 1898. In addi-
tion to this, various bulletins from the Division of Chemistry and from
the Office of Experiment Stations of the Department of Agriculture
have been issued from time to time on the subjeet of nutrition and
on the composition and nutritive value of foods in general.

As the result of all these investigations the practical farmers of the
country have now at their command, and in forms which they ean
fully understand, the great principles of animal nutrition. It is eer-
tain that the actual cost of the food required for placing an animal
upon the market for meat or in preparing it for work has been very
much diminished. Even if no further progress were made in the
science of nutrition, the economie results which have been obtained
in this line would be a sufficient justification for all the expenditure
of money, time, and labor which has been incurred in the progress
of agricultural chemistry up to the present moment. While it is doubt-
less true that many great discoveries are yet to be made in the domain
of the science of nutrition, yet enough is now known to illustrate fully

Se

RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE. 200

the cirele of life beginning with the inorganic matters in the soil, in
the air, and in the water, passing through the organism of the plant,
and reaching the highest form of organized matter in the living animal.
The investigations in nutrition have even gone further than this, and
show how the elements of food, both for plants and animals, after
having served their complete functions in one or the other of these
organisms, or in both, are preserved intact, to be returned to the
original condition of mineral substances in the soil, in the air, and in
the water, to begin anew the circle of life. The present era, there-
fore, finds established as definite scientific principles the prescient
predictions of the great Lavoisier concerning the methods of plant
and animal nutrition.

DANGER OF EXPORTING PLANT FOOD,

The work done in the Division of Chemistry, as well as by agricul-
tural chemists in other parts of the country, has called attention to
the danger of unlimited exportation of food produets containing large
quantities of plant focd. In fact, early in the history of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture attention was called to this matter. In the Agri-
cultural Report of the Patent Office for 1849 mention is made of the
fact that prior to 1846 Treland was an exporter of large quantities of
cereals, sending abroad more of them than the whole of the United
States. Much of the grain sent from Ireland was oats. The exhaust-
ing effect of cropping a field to oats is known to all practical farmers,
and to this is attributed the fact of the subsequent failure of the crops
in Ireland and the great suffering due to the famines caused thereby.
An elaborate report on the subject of exporting plant food was pre-
sented by the present chief of the Division of Chemistry in his address
before the American Association for the Advancement of Science in
the Buffalo meeting of 1886. In this report the quantities of plant
food removed by the crops from the fields of the United States annu-
ally were set forth. The value of plant food lost at that time by ex-
portation of farm products was, by a carefulcomputation, found to be
over $33,000,000 per annum. Since that time the exportation of farm
products from this country has almost doubled, so that at the close of
the century it is safe to say that the value of the plant food, calculated
from a manurial standpoint, lost by exportation from the United
States is not far from $70,000,000 per annum.

This subject was more fully developed in an address delivered before
the American Chemical Society on December 27, 1893, at the Boston
meeting. While it is true, as illustrated in these addresses, that the
quantities of plant food lost by exportation are less than by other
causes, nevertheless the danger of exhausting the fertility of fields
by the continual sale of agricultural crops is fully understood. Chem-
ical researches in the Department of Agriculture and in other parts
of the country have established this principle beyond peradventure,

2a4 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and have taught the farmers of the United States that one of the
surest methods of retaining the fertility of their soil is to feed as much
as possible of the crops produced at home. The home feeding of
domesticated animals secures a large part of the value of the food
in the form of manure, and this tends to diminish the rate at which
otherwise the fertility of the fields would be exhausted. Chemistry
has shown that there are certain produets of the fields, however, which
can be exported or sold with no loss in fertilizing materials. Among
these may be mentioned starch, sugar, cotton, and oils and fats of
every description. These bodies, contrary to the views held at the
beginning of the century, are now known to have no value whatever
as plant foods, and hence can be sold from the farm with impunity.
It is true that no system of farming can be devised which will abso-
lutely prevent the removal of certain quantities of plant foods in the
crops; but scientific agriculture, founded upon chemical investiga~
tions, will lead farmers to that course of practical economy which
will bring to a minimum the loss of fertility from this cause.

RESEARCHES ON DAIRY PRODUCTS.

The importance of the chemical composition of the dairy products
ras early recognized in the chemical work of the Department of Agri-
culture, and the Agricultural Report of the Patent Office for 1849 con-
tains an article on the chemical properties of milk and butter. The
research work of the Department on these products has been continued
at intervals since that time, and important publications devoted to this
subject have beenissued. The Division of Chemistry, since the estab-
lishment of the Bureau of Animal Industry, has cooperated with that
Bureau in the study of dairy products from a chemical and physio-
logical point of view, and this cooperation is still continued.

IMPROVEMENT OF WORN-OUT LANDS.

Special researches have been made in the Division of Chemistry of
the Department of Agriculture on the methods of improving worn-out
lands. Early in the history of the Department this study was recog-
nized as an important one, and an article is found in the Agricultural
Report of the Patent Office for 1849 on the improvement of worn-out
lands by the use of peas and clover. At intervals since then this
subject has received the attention of chemical research, not only in
the Department but in other parts of the country. A bulletin on
the subject of the reclamation of worn-out lands was issued in 1894,
a large part of which was contributed from the Division of Chem-
istry. The researches which the agricultural chemists have made, in
collaboration with other scientific work of a botanical and mechan-
ical nature, point out the way whereby lands which have been
deprived of the greater part of their fertility and otherwise exhausted
by culture may be restored to a high degree of fertility. In many

RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE. 235

parts of the United States are found abandoned fields and even farms,
since it has been found more profitable to search for new and fertile
soils than to develop and restore old and worn-out fields. At the
present time, however, the area of virgin fertile soils is practically
exhausted, and the attention of scientific agriculture is now directed
with more energy than ever to the restoration of the fertility of soils
long since abandoned. It is certain that in the near future the prac-
tical farmer, with the aid of chemical research, will effect the restora-
tion of the greater part of the agricultural lands of the United States,
which have heretofore been abandoned to briars and brush, to their
natural position as fertile and profitable fields.

CHEMISTRY IN THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Perhaps there is no other method in which the researches of chem-
istry have been made practical for agricultural purposes in a more
general way to the agriculture of the United States than through
the work of the Department of Agriculture. So long as the work of
the Department was conducted in the Patent Office, chemical investi-
gations of agricultural subjects continued to be the chief scientific
inquiry.

ANALYSIS OF GRAINS AND OF FLOUR AND MEAL MANUFACTURED FROM THEM

FOR EXPORTATION,

The first appropriation in this country for purely scientifie services
in agriculture was made at the first session of the Thirtieth Congress,
when $1,000 was given ‘‘for the institution of a system of analyses
of different grains produced in this country and of flour manufactured
here and exported abroad.”

The important problems which it was sought to solve in these
investigations were the effect of soil and climate upon the different
varieties of grains and the effect of asea voyage and storage upon the
flour and meal manufactured from grains produced here and sent
abroad.

Prof. Lewis C. Beck, of Rutgers College, New Brunswick, N. J., an
experienced analytical chemist, was employed to conduct the chemical
work. The Commissioner of Patents made efforts to receive samples
of wheat, indian corn, and flour from the ports of the most distant
countries to which they had been exported. Professor Beck’s report
is made an appendix to the Agricultural Report of the Patent Office
for the year 1848. Professor Beck, in introducing his report, enters
into an elaborate discussion of the economie relations of chemical
studies to agriculture. He states that in 1847 breadstuffs worth
$43,000,000 were exported from this country to Great Britain and
Ireland alone. He is of the opinion that the best method of deter-
mining the real value of wheat and other flours is to examine the
bread made from them, and ealls attention to the fact that chemicals

236 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

are used in some countries in the manufacture of bread in orde1 to
conceal the defects of the flour from which it is made.

In Belgium and the north of France it is stated that sulphate of
copper has been introduced into the manufacture of bread, and that
the use of alum has been practiced from a remote period. In addition
to these, the alkaline carbonates, the carbonate of magnesia, chalk,
pipeclay, and plaster of Paris have all been employed in the manu-
facture of bread from inferior or damaged flour in order to preserve
its moisture or to increase its weight and whiteness. Further adul-
terations of bread are stated to be with potato starch and flour of
leguminous plants, buckwheat, and rice, and citations are made to the
literature where the methods of discovering these adulterations can
be found. Professor Beck quotes largely from Boussingault’s ‘* Rural
Eeonomy,” Dumas’s ‘‘Traité de Chimie Appliquée aux Arts,” and
from Davy’s ‘‘ Agricultural Chemistry.” The method of analysis
employed by him is fully set forth, and the data obtained from the
numerous analyses are given, showing the amount of water, gluten,
starch, and sugars contained in the various samples. In all, thirty-
three samples of flour were analyzed, collected from different parts of
the country, and from distant ports to which flour from this country
had been shipped.

It is thus seen that several of the most important lines of investiga-
tion which have subsequently-been followed in the chemical work of
the Department were marked out at this early period by Professor
Beck. He introduced the first systematic work in determining the
character of the cereals of the country, published methods of analysis
for the guidance of other chemists engaged in similar work, and began
the investigation of the great subject of food adulteration.

A similar work on indian corn was conducted by Dr. J. H. Salis-
bury, of Albany, N. Y.,and the results of his analyses were published
in the report for 1849.

ESTABLISHMENT OF DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY.

In 1862 the Department of Agriculture was organized on an inde-
pendent basis. In the organie act establishing the Department it is
stated that the Commissioner of Agriculture shall ‘‘employ other per-
sons for such time as their services may be needed, including chem-
ists, botanists, entomologists, and other persons skilled in the natural
sciences pertaining to agriculture.”

It is thus seen that chemistry was recognized, by its assignment in
the order of mention, as of the first importance in the scientifie work
of promoting agriculture throughout the country. In accordance
with the authority vested in him by the organic act, Isaac Newton,
who was the first Commissioner of Agriculture, established the Divi-
sion of Chemistry by the appointment of Dr. C. M. Wetherill, a
distinguished chemist, as the first chief of Division. Dr. Wetherill

RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE. 237

was appointed Chemist on August 21, 1862, and served until some time
in 1863.

Commissioner Newton, confirming the statement made by Judge
Buell more than twenty years before, gave as the first of the scien-
tifie objects of the Department ‘‘analysis, by means of a chemical
laboratory, of various soils, grains, fruits, plants, vegetables, and
manures, and publishing the results for the guidance and benefit of
agriculturists.”! Of the work of the Chemist for the first year, the
Commissioner said:

Fortunately the Chemist to the Department was in possession of an extensive
scientific library and apparatus, which he kindly placed at my disposal at the
commencement of my duties as Commissioner. The season had so far advanced,
however, that but few tests could be made. The Chemist has, nevertheless, ana-
lyzed some twenty-two varieties of grapes, and is at present engaged in the exami-
nation of ten or twelve varieties of wines, a'so sorghum from eight or ten different
localities, in order to determine the relative value of sirup and its capabilities for
producing sugar and molasses, as compared with sugarcane. AS soon as arrange-
ments now being made in the laboratory are compieted, the Chemist will enter
into the analysis of the various grasses and grains of the United States, in order
to learn which will produce the greatest amount of fat, flesh, muscle, and bone;
also of soils, manures, and the constituents of plants, with especial reference to
restoring fertility to exhausted farms.

REPORTS OF THE CHEMISTS.

On January 1, 1863, the first report of the Chemist of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture was submitted for publication. This report is
interesting as the first one on a scientific subject ever made to the
Department by a person employed exclusively for the conduet of
scientific work. ‘The Chemist’s report covers the analysis of grape
juices, of sorghum and imphee, the examination of various sugars
and sirups, the analysis of beets, and an article on the chemistry of
sugar manufacture in general. ‘Thus, at the very outset of the special
relations of cheinical science to the Department of Agriculture, some
of the most important lines of investigation which have since been
followed were established. Chief among these may be mentioned the
study of the wine-making industry, both from the fermentative and
chemical points of view, and the beginning of that study in the
chemistry and technies of sugar manufacture, which has since done so
much to establish an indigenous sugar industry in the United States.

The Annual Report of the Commissioner for 1863 contains no report
from the Chemist of the Department.

The report of the Chemist for 1864 (Mr. Henry Erni?*) relates to
organie or vinous fermentation, acetic fermentation, butyric-acid
fermentation, theories of the origin of mold, or fungi, methods of
detecting the artificial coloring matters in wines, the analysis of
wines, and the analysis of soils and guanos.

- 1 Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture, 1862, p. 20, object 5.
*Appointed probably July 1, 1864.

238 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The report for 1865 was devoted to the analysis of soils, sugar beets,
sorghum and imphee, wines, and miscellaneous work of various
descriptions.

In 1866 Dr. Thomas Antisell’ was appointed Chemist of the Depart-
ment. His first report was devoted to the analysis of soils and
manures, agricultural products, and mineral and metallurgical analy-
ses. During this year also the cooperative work between the Division
of Chemistry and other Departments was begun. Dr. Antisell says,
on page 45 of the Annual Report: ‘‘ Besides the foregoing, the labora-
tory has been engaged with analyses for other Departments of the
public service.”

Dr. Antisell, in his report for 1867, enters into an elaborate diseus-
sion of the analysis of sugar beets and of the sugar-beet industry,
thus having laid the foundation for the extensive developments in the
investigations along this line, which have been carried on by the Divi-
sion of Chemistry for the past thirty years. In order to increase the
efficiency of the work of the Division, Dr. Antisell suggested that the
scope of its work should be enlarged so as to embrace the relations of
geology to agricuiture and to include the study of metallurgy. He
suggested that geology had intimate relations to agriculture, and
advised the establishment of a geological and mineralogical labora-
tory and museum to illustrate the economical relations of geology to
the agriculture of the United States. He says: ‘‘ Whatever relations
of soils to their parent rocks exist would thus be brought out ina
prominent and systematic manner.” It will be observed from this
reference that the first official recommendation for the establishment
of a geological survey emanated from the Division of Chemistry of the
Department of Agriculture, as well as the suggestion of the study of
meteorology and other matters connected directly with agricultural
crops.

In 1868 the chemical laboratory was removed from the Patent Offiee
to the building of the Department of Agricuiture, which had just
been completed. The report of the Chemist for that year contains a
reference to the newly discovered phosphatic deposits of South Caro-
lina, with remarks upen their value for agricultural purposes.

The report for 1869 contains an interesting article on the analysis
of soils. The Chemist also urges the establishment of an experi-
mental garden, where the problems involved in chemical research
could be studied actually in the field. This recommendation was a
reiteration of one previously made by him in the same direction. The
importance of practical experimental stations in connection with
chemical research is thus early in the history of the work of the Divi-
sion properly recognized.

The report of the Chemist for 1870 contains an interesting article
on the alkaline soils of the West, giving a complete study of their

' Appointed probably July, 1866.

RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE. 239

physical and chemical properties, especially an account of the deter-
mination of the soluble matter in the surface. The first work which
had been undertaken on the composition of meat extracts is also dis-
cussed in the report, as well as the foods used by the Indians.

The work for 1871 is described by the Commissioner in his report
for that year as being memorable on account of the beginning of two
extensive investigations. One of these was the analysis of several
hundred specimens of cereals carefully selected from the entire pro-
duction of the country. The cther was the examination of the leaf,
stem, and fruit of the grapevine during every week of its growth..
The Commissioner says: ‘‘ by this work it is expected that new analo-
gies in animal and vegetable physiology will be established and infor-
mation gained which bears directly upon the diseases of the vine.”

From the earliest establishment of chemical researches in the
Department, a large part of the time of the Chemist and his assistants
had been taken up with analyses not at all relating to agriculture.
Chief among these were the assay of gold and silver ores and the
study of samples for commercial purposes for private individuals
and corporations. This perversion of the proper functions of the
Division of Chemistry had been so pronounced as to warrant the
Commissioner to say in the report for 1871: ‘‘To enable the Chemist
to devote himself to those important subjects in agricultural science
which await and demand chemical research, I am strongly of the
opinion that the public privilege should be restricted to the employ-
ment of the laboratory for such purposes only as relate to agriculture.”

In July, 1871, Dr. Antisell resigned the position of Chemist, and on
January 11, 1872, Dr. R. T. Brown was appointed to the position.
The report of the Chemist for that year emphasized the importance of
sodium nitrate as a manure, and the value of the deposits in Peru,
Chile, and Bolivia for agricultural purposes is mentioned. _ Attention
is called to the fact that the soils of the blue-grass region of Kentucky
renew their stock of phosphatic materials by the decomposition of the
limestone rocks, and this observation has in later years been confirmed
by the researches of the agricultural experiment station of Kentueky,
which show that these soils are never deficient in phosphates, but only
in potash and nitrogen. The importance of bone and natural phos-
phates fer fertilizing purposes is more fully brought out in this report
than in any previous contribution from the Department, and large
numbers of analyses of commercial fertilizers are given.

In 1872 the report was devoted largely to the analysis of commercial
fertilizers and sugar beets. An important contribution is also found
in this report on the utilization of the wastes of cities and towns for
agricultural purposes, a subject which has since received very careful
investigation in the Division of Chemistry.

In 1873 Dr. Brown resigned and was succeeded by Dr. Ww iliam
MeMurtrie, who held the position until January 2, 1878.

240 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In the first report of Dr. McMurtrie attention is again called to the
fact that the Department has been very much troubled with appliea-
tions for analyses of minerals, ores, commercial preduets, ete., which
have little or no bearing upon agriculture or agricultural chemistry.
The work during the first year of Dr. MeMurtrie’s incumbeney was
largely devoted to the analysis of wines, fertilizers, and soils. An
interesting résume of the knowledge at that time relating to humus is
given, with references to the work of Grandeau on that subject.
Another interesting article in this report is a contribution on the
approximate composition of cereals, indian corn being the one selected
for study. The first investigation relating to tanning materials was
also reported at this time.

The Chemist’s report for 1874 includes a report of an investigation
of the fodder plants of the South and a study of insecticides, especially
Paris green, in regard to their use in agriculture. Reference is also
made to the work of Dr. Goessmann, of the Massachusetts Agricultural
College, on the culture of the sugar beet. This was the beginning of
Dr. MeMurtrie’s investigations of the sugar-beect industry, which he
afterwards carried forward with such suecess and advantage to
American agriculture.

In the work of 1875 the first studies were commenced in chemical
processes affecting agriculture by the actual growth of plants. A
series of valuable experiments was conducted in the appleation of
insecticides to growing plants. The effects of these insecticides were
carefully noted and photographs representing the plants treated were
secured and published. Similar experiments were made to show the
effects of illuminating gas upon vegetation. This was the beginning
of the realization of the recommendations made by Dr. Antisell for
the practical investigation ef agricultural chemical problems upon
the plant itself.

The report for 1876 refers to the part taken by the Division in the
Centennial Exposition which was held during that year at Philadelphia.

The work for 1877 is summarized in the report of the Chemist under
nine different heads, namely: (1) Analysis of lime marls; (2) exami-
nation of soils; (3) analysis of bat guano; (4) analysis of sugar from
Early Amber sorghum eane; (5) estimation of the amount of sugar
in various beets sent to the Department; (6) the examination and
report of an experiment in beet culture made on Batsto farm, Atlantic
County, N. J.; (7) experiments to determine the presence or absence
of the so-called peptone-forming ferment in the roots of plants; (8)
investigation of American sumac; (9) investigation of the physical
and chemical causes tending to the production of mildew and rot.
The latter investigation is interesting from the fact that it indicates
that the first beginnings of studies of this kind were established in the
Division of Chemistry.

At the beginning of 1878 Dr. MeMurtrie resigned to accept the

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899 PLaTe V.

DECEASED CHIEFS OF THE DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY.

ne

RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE. 241

position of representative of the Department at the international
exposition to be held at Paris during the year, and January 22, 1878,
Dr. Peter Collier was appointed Chemist in his stead.

The first report of Dr. Collier covers the beginning of the work con-
ducted by him on the production of sugar from indian-corn stalks and
from sorghum. While, however, during this first year only 8 samples
of these sugar-producing plants were examined, 57 sugar beets were
analyzed. <A joint report ofthe Botanist and Chemist on grasses and
forage plants, issued January, 1884, is interesting as showing, in an
ideal way, the methods in which the different scientific Divisions of
the Department may collaborate in advancing the interests of agricul-
ture. Dr. Collier held the office of Chemist until April 9, 1883. Dur-
ing this time a large part of the activity of the Division of Chemistry
was devoted to the study of sorghum as a sugar-producing plant, and
the most extensive series of analyses ever instituted up to that time
for agricultural purposes was conducted under his direction.

The reports prepared by Dr. Collier on this matter and appear-
ing in the several annual reports deal with every phase of the subject,
chemieal, agricultural. and technical. The high price of sugar at this
time excited the interest of investors in the subject of the practical
manufacture of sugar from sorghum, and a large amount of capital
was placed in this business. Unfortunately for the sorghum indus-
try, the rapid development of the beet-sugar industry in Europe
brought into competition with sorghum a sugar-producing plant
which, under the impetus of careful chemical study and technology,
rapidly produced a surplus of sugar in the markets of the world,
causing an unprecedented fall in price. The difficulties attending
the manufacture of sugar from sorghum, due to the chemical composi-
tion of the plant, were not solved with sufficient rapidity to enable
sorghum to remain as a competitor for supplying the sugar markets
of the world. Asa result of this combination of economic, chemical,
and technical causes, the production of sugar from sorghum never
became profitable. While, as stated, the study of the sugar problem
was the main work of the Division of Chemistry during the incum-
bency of Dr. Collier, other matters, relating to agricultural industries
were not neglected. The study of soils and fertilizers was continued
without intermission, and the foundation was laid for the systematic
study of cereals, which afterwards became so important a part of the
work of the Division.

The portraits of the deceased chiefs of the Division of Chemistry
are given in Pl. V.

1 A 99——16

242 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

LINES OF WORK IN THE DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY SINCE 1883,

Sinee April, 1883, the work of the Division of Chemistry in its rela-
tion to the progress of agriculture has been directed chiefly along the
following lines:

Study of sorghum.

The study of sorghum as a sugar-producing crop was continued
with the special object of overcoming, if possible, the difficulties which
had stood in the way of a successful industry. At first the work was
more of a chemical and technieal nature, looking to the establishment
of methods to secure more economical working and larger yields. To
this end, the diffusion process of extracting the sugar from the canes,
which had been so successfully used with beets in Europe, was applied
to sorghum with such modifications as the different nature of the
material required, An increase in the amount of sugar extracted
from the canes was easily obtained, but the greatest difficulty in the
way of successful sugar making still remained, namely, the chemical
composition of the extracted juices. It was found that the juices
extracted from sorghum canes contain large quantities of starch,
gummy inatters, and unerystallizable sugars. These existed in such
large proportions as to render the separation of the sucrose in large
quantities practically impossible. Various chemical methods of
removing these impurities were devised and applied. Among them,
the two which promised most suecess were the process of saturation
with lime, or earbonatation, as practiced with beet juices, and the
removal of the starchy and gummy matters by precipitation with
aleohol. The former method, after a thorough trial, was abandoned as
impracticable. The latter method resulted in a complete success,
yielding with canes of average composition 200 pounds of sugar per
ton. The fiseal regulations covering the production and use of
alcohol in this country, however, were of such a nature as to render
the use of this reagent impracticable from an economical point of
view without some change in the excise laws of the country.

Meanwhile other investigations were carried on with great suc-
cess; among them the process of developing a variety or varieties
of sorghum in which the objectionable qualities would be reduced to
a minimum and the percentage of sugar raised to a maximum. This
desirable end was accomplished by a series of culture experiments
in cooperation with Mr. A. A. Denton extending over eight years, in
which, by a process of selection, both from the point of chemical
composition and from physical qualities, several varieties of-sorghum
were developed, which were far superior to any which had before been
known. It was established by the researches of the Division that
fields of sorghum could be grown having an average sugar content of
14 per cent and with a much higher purity than characterized the
parent canes from which the varieties were derived.

RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE. 243

In spite of all the progress made, however, it was found that the
increasing competition of sugar derived from the sugar beet had de-
creased the price of sugar in the world’s markets, until it would not
be profitable to manufacture sugar from sorghum, even under the
more faverable circumstances which obtained. But the final results
of these investigations were not without their practical value, as the
utility of sorghum as a source of table sirups and as a eattle food was
fully developed and established. It was also shown that in the semi-
arid regions of the country, where the practice of irrigation was not
possible, there is no crop which is so certain to bring a remunerative.
yield as sorghum when cultivated in the proper manner.

The final result of the work conducted by the Division over a period
of more than twenty years on sorghum as a field crop has established
its status as one of the most remunerative plants when cultivated in
certain areas of the country. In fact there is scarcely any part of the
United States where sorghum is not cultivated, and even in Minnesota
the finest table sirups which are found upon the market in that region
are made from one of the early varieties of sorghum cane which grows
to maturity in the short summer seasons of that State.

Study of cereals.

Another line of investigation which has been carried on extensively
during the past seventeen years has been a study of the composition
of the cereals of the United States. This work, it is true, as has been
stated, is only a continuation of the very first scientific work author-
ized by the Government when the Department was still a section of
the Patent Office. The opportunities, however, for the use of more
accurate means of analysis and to secure samples grown under differ-
ent conditions, from more widely separated areas, have made the con-
tinuation of this study one of the most profitable for the advancement
of agriculture. The bulletins which have been issued on this subject
embody the results of many thousands of analyses, and show with
greater fullness and accuracy than any other publications which have
been issued the variation of cereal products under different conditions
of soil and climate. The successful work of improving a plant by
selection and taking advantage of natural variations, as illustrated
in the case of sorghum, has now been applied to the study of cereals.
The causes which produce variations are under investigation, and also
the methods fer improving the composition of cereals with reference
to certain of their more valuable constituent parts. For instance, the
percentage of gluten in wheat is of the utmost importance to the
bread maker, since it is this body which gives to wheat flour the phys-
ical characteristics that render it more valuable than that from other
cereals for bread-making purposes. Under the varying conditions of
soil and climate in this country it is found that the content of gluten
in wheat changes. The utmost practical advantage, therefore, will

244 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

come to the wheat grower from a practical study of this cause and
suggestions of the best methods of preserving or increasing the con-
tent of gluten in wheat.

The broad principle has been established that, other things being
equal, wheats from a high northern latitude contain more gluten than
those grown farther south and the wheats that are sown in the spring
a larger quantity of gluten than those which are planted in the
autumn. It is believed, however, that a careful chemical study of
this subject in connection with the proper study of meteorological
conditions will enable wheat growers to largely inerease the content
of gluten in the autumn-grown and southern wheats.

Study of food adulteration.

The practice of adulterating human foods, which has been so largely
prevalent in all parts of the world, has proved of incalculable injury
to honest agriculture. The value of scientific farming in its ultimate
measure is determined by the benefit which accrues therefrom. If
the returns from scientific farming prove to be less than those from
unscientific methods, the latter will certainly prevail. The markets
for farm products must therefore be preserved with as much eare as
the fertility of the fields. The sole object of food adulteration is to
enable the unscrupulous manufacturer or dealer to sell an inferior
article at the price of asuperior. Food adulteration, therefore, which
totally changes the aspect of the food of an inferior kind so that it
does not at all resemble the superior kind would defeat its own pur-
pose. Every pound of adulterated food which is sold upon the market
at the price of the genuine article or at a price approximating thereto
is a positive injury to agriculture, since it excludes from the market
an equal quantity of farm produets of a genuine character. Thus,
the practice of food adulteration directly diminishes the profits of the
honest farmer and dealer.

Much of the activity of the Division of Chemistry during the past
seventeen years has been directed to a study of the methods and
character of food adulteration with a view to devising proper legal
restrictions for its prevention. To this end a large part of the scien-
tific corps of the Division has been assigned to a systematic study of
the adulteration of foods, and the results of these studies have been
published in numerous bulletins relating to that subject. The object
of these studies is to finally cover the whole range of food production,
and this has already been largely accomplished.

As an illustration of the way in which adulterated foods may injure
the farmer’s profession may be cited the sale of oleomargarine for but-
ter and glucose for honey. The food value of oleomargarine and of
glucose is not denied. They are, however, very much cheaper prod-
ucts than butterand honey. These adulterated foods, unfortunately,
are often not offered for sale under their own names, except by legal

RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE. 245

compulsion, but are placed upon the market under the names of the
genuine articles which they are manufactured to imitate. Buyers,
therefore, pay, as a rule, prices which would be asked for the pure
articles. The market for the pure articles is diminished just to the
extent to which these other substances are sold, and in this way posi-
tive injury to great agricultural interests is done. The chemists of
many of the agricultural experiment stations throughout the country
have collaborated with the Division of Chemistry in these studies, so
that the whole subject of food adulteration is pretty thoroughly
understood and its extent acknowledged. Many of the legislatures
of the States have already enacted restrictive measures regulating the
sale of adulterated foods, and bills have been before the Congress of
the United States having the same object in view. The work in
which the Division of Chemistry was a pioneer has commended itself
to the people at large, and through the press and befere farmers’
institutes full descriptions of the methods and character of adultera-
tion have been disseminated among the people. Publie opinion has
been so aroused on this subject as to demand of the National Legis-
lature the enactment of laws regulating commerce in adulterated
foods in the Territories of the United States and between the several
States thereof. The work of the Division has therefore already
secured great benefits to agriculture in the way of preserving an
honest market for the products of the farm, and made it possible for
these benefits to be greatly increased by favorable national legislation
on the subject.
Comparative studies of soils.

For the past seventeen years the Division of Chemistry has con-
tinued its researches in the study of the soils of the United States.
Before the organization of the Association of Official Agricultural
Chemists, and for the benefit of agricultural chemists throughout
the country, a bulletin was prepared giving the results of soil
studies and a summary of the best methods known at the time
for conducting them. In order to study comparatively typical soils
special authorization was obtained from Congress for the estab-
lishment of a vegetation house in which soils from different parts
of the country and even from foreign countries could be studied
under similar conditions in respect of their powers of producing
organic matter and in their relations to nitrifying organisms. In no
other way can the relations of different soils from the point of view of
their chemical and physical composition in producing crops be so
definitely determined. A knowledge of the soil is the fundamental
structure on which agricultural chemistry is built. While in all parts
of the world numerous experiments have been carried on to determine
the relative value of fertilizing principles on plant growth, it is
believed that the comparative Jetermination of native soil fertility
under standard meteorological ecvaditions has first been studied in

246 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

this Division. The great problem of human nutrition is to find its
only solution in the maintenance or increase of soil fertility, and
henee every study of this kind which tends to give additional knowl-
edge regarding the cause of fertility and the means whereby it can be
maintained, is of the highest economic importance. The complete
triumph of agricultural chemistry will be realized when with increased
crops shall be found increased soil fertility.

The system of agriculture which has so largely prevailed in this coun-
try of exhausting the fertility of one field and then moving the farm
to another has come to an end. Seientific agriculture now retraces
its steps and restores the fertility of the abandoned fields while it
prevents the exhaustion of those which are still productive. Agricul-
tural chemistry in its fullest development will only ask of nature to fur-
nish meteorological conditions and a place on which to plant the crops.
Even these will be modified and changed to suit the demands of the
agriculture of the future, for it is certain that by the proper manipu-
lation of the soil and the addition of preper chemieal fertilizers the
capacity for retaining moisture for use in seasons of drought or for
disposition of excessive moisture in seasons of rains will be greatly
increased. With a wise disposition of the water at his command, the
scientific farmer of the future will cultivate millions of acres which
are now regarded as hopelessly arid, and recover from he exeess of
water other large areas now abandoned to swamps and marshes. In
these scientifie studies of soil composition and soil possibilities with
relation to the composition of plants and to increased fertility will be
found in the future, as has been the case in the past, some of the most
notable triumphs of agricultural chemistry.

In connection with these soil studies, there has also been made a
systematic study of the nitrifying organisms through whose agency
organic and atmospheric nitrogen become available for plant food. A
practically new system of soil analysis has been inaugurated by which
it is possible to determine both the number and activity of the nitri-
fying organisms contained in a sample of soil. These researches are
of the greatest practical benefit in agriculture, since they show how
the number and activity of nitrifying organisms can be increased, and
thus the availability of the nitrogenous food of plants be enhanced.
An outline of the relations of these studies to practical agriculture
has been prepared for this paper by the first assistant of the Divi-
sion of Chemistry, Mr. E. E. Ewell.

RELATION OF MICROORGANISMS TO NITROGEN NUTRITION OF
CULTIVATED PLANTS.
EARLY STUDIES OF MICROORGANISMS AND NITROGENOUS PLANT FOOD,

The development of the prevailing opinions relative to the réle of
the microorganisms in the preparation of the nitrogenous food of our
cultivated plants is a long story. Indeed, its beginning may be

RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE. QAT

traced back to the closing years of the eighteenth century (1770 to
1809), during which period the labors of Black, Scheele, Priestley,
Lavoisier, Cavendish, Watt, Ingenhousz, Senebier, and Woodhouse
established the chemical nature of the constituent gases of the atmos-
phere—nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxid, and water vapor—and began
the study of the relation of these substances to vegetable growth.
Early in the present century De Saussure materially advanced the
knowledge of the processes by which the carbon dioxid and the water
of the atmosphere and of the soil are converted into vegetable tissue,
and expressed the opinion that the nitrogen therein contained was
obtained from the compounds of that element found in the soil and
in the air; but the relation of atmospherie nitrogen to vegetation
remained obscure until within two deeades of the century’s close.

Boussingault devoted a considerable part of twenty years (1837-1858)
to the study of this question. His experiments seemed to show coneclu-
sively that plants are unable to use the free, uncombined nitrogen of
the air for the construction of the nitrogenous bodies which form parts
of their tissues, and that their nitrogenous food is exclusively drawn
from nitrogen compounds contained in the soil.

The experiments of Ville (1849-1854) led to precisely the opposite
conclusion. In1854, appreciating the importanee of the subject, the
Academy of Sciences of France appointed a commission, consisting of
Dumas, Regnault, Payen, Decaisne, Peligot, and Chevreul, to observe
and report upon a repetition of these experiments to be conducted by
Ville, with the assistance of Cloez, in the Muséum d’Histoire Natu-
relle. In 1855 Chevreul reported on behalf of the commission ‘‘ that
the experiment made at the Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle by M. Ville
is consistent with the conclusions which he has drawn from his pre-
vious labors.”

Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, at their now famous experimental farm
at Rothamsted, England, have devoted much time to this question
sinee 1857. ‘Their earlier experiments (1857-1860) were negative for
both leguminous and nonleguminous plants, thus contradicting the
results of Ville and confirming those of Boussingault.

Two of Boussingault’s experiments, made 1858-59, seemed to indi-
eate that free nitrogen had been brought into combination either by
some lupine plants or by the rich garden soil in which they were
growing. He did not accept these results as evidence of the assimila-
tion of nitrogen by plants, however, as is indicated by the following
from his letter to Gilbert, dated May 19, 1876:

As for the absorption of the gaseous nitrogen of the air by arable soil, I know
of not one single irreproachable observation that establishes it. Not only does
the soil not absorb gaseous nitrogen, but it emits it, as you and Mr. Lawes have
observed, as Reiset has found th the case of manure, and as Schloesing and I have
noted in our researches on nitrification. If there is a perfectly demonstrated fact
in physiology, it is that of the nonassimilation of free nitrogen by vegetation,
and I may add by the lower plants, such as the mycoderms and fungi.

248 . YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Many other investigators devoted muchtime to this question between
the years 1850 and 1886: Cloez and Gratiolet, 1850-1855; Méne, 1851;
Petzholdt, 1852-53; Wolff, 1853-1886; Hasting, 1855; de Luca, 1856;
Dehérain, 1875-1885; Berthelot, 1876-1886; Atwater, 1883-84; Dietzel,
1884; Joulie, 1885; Frank, 1886.

This long series of experiments, covering more than half a century
of time, were contradictory, one of another, erroneous in conception
in some cases, and erroneous in manipulation in others, while the
conclusions drawn from them were correspondingly inaccurate and
incomplete. The most fruitful source of wrong conclusions was,
however, to be found in the fact that in the zeal of many of the
workers to deprive their experimental soils of compounds of nitrogen
they so treated them as to destroy what we now know to be the potent
factor in the assimilation of free nitrogen by plants—the microorgan-
isms which form the nodules upon the roots of leguminous plants and
thereby enable the plants of that order to indirectly draw upon the
atmospheric store of uncombined nitrogen. Attention had frequently
been drawn to these pecular nodular structures on the roots of clover,
lupines, beans, etc., notably, by Lachmann in 1858, by Berkeley in
1863, and by Rautenberg and Kuehn in 1864. Indeed, it was sug-
gested by some of these writers that possibly the nodules were con-
nected in some way with the taking in of nitrogen by the plants. It
eame to be a well-established fact that there was a something that
distinguished the manner of the nitrogen nutrition of leguminous
plants from that of other plants. They were found to contain more
nitrogen than it seemed possible for them to obtain from the combined
nitrogen of the soil and the atmosphere in which they grew.

WORK OF BACTERIA IN THE SOIL IN SUPPLYING NITROGENOUS FOOD FOR
LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.

At the Berlin meeting of the agricultural section of the Naturfor-
scher-Versammlung, September, 1886, the late Professor Hellriegel
read a paper disclosing results which have revolutionized our ideas
relative to the nitrogen nutrition of plants, and which show the mis-
takes and the blindly groping nature of the experiments enumerated
above. This paper throws a flood of light upon the path to be fol-
lowed by practical agriculturists in the future. In short, Professor
Hellriegel proved by evidence which has been accepted by the entire
scientific world that the root nodules of leguminous plants are caused
and inhabited by a species of bacteria; that these bacteria, by their
Symbiosis, enable the plants to indirectly feed upon the practically
unlimited and costiess store of free nitrogen, which forms eight-tenths
of the earth’s atmosphere. True, clover and other leguminous plants
had previously been valued as soil renovators, but we are now able
to use them with an understanding and a confidence hitherto impossi-
ble; with the hope that by their use as green manure, as food for

RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE. 249

farm animals, and as a source of merchantable produce, we may main-
tain the fertility of our fields, in so far as the element nitrogen is
concerned, without the costly use of artificial nitrogenous manure,
the nitrogen compounds of which will thereby be preserved for other
industrial needs.

There is still some investigation needed to determine the most cer-
tain and economical methods of insuring an abundant supply of the
nodule bacteria in soils on which leguminous erops are to be grown.
Nobbe and Hiltner have secured patents for the manufacture and the
use of pure cultures of several varieties of nodule organisms. These
cultures are prepared on a commercial scale in Germany and placed
on the market under the name of ‘‘ Nitragin, a germ fertilizer for
leguminous crops.” The value of these preparations has been inves-
tigated by the experiment stations of Europe and of this country, but
the results thus far obtained are conflicting.

WORK OF BACTERIA IN SUPPLYING NITROGENOUS FOOD FOR PLANTS IN GENERAL,

We have to this point only mentioned the microorganisms that par-
ticipate in one method of nutrition of the leguminous plants. We
have yet to consider those microorganisms which are active in the
preparation of the nitrogen compounds on whieh plants in general
feed, including leguminous plants growing without the assistance of
the nodule bacteria. It now appears well established that combined
nitrogen, chiefly in the form of nitrates, is practically the sole
nitrogenous food of agricultural plants in general.

It is to be noted, however, that a method for enabling nonnitroge-
nous plants to draw their supply of nitrogen from the atmosphere has
been brought to the attention of agricultural scientists during the
last decade. The cultures of the organism for which this property is
claimed are manufactured in Germany and sold under the name of
*Alinit.” The experiments which have hitherto been made with
“Alinit” as an agent for soil inoculation have not confirmed the
elaims of Caron, the German agriculturist, who discovered the Bacil-
‘lus ellenbachensis a, the organism contained in ‘‘Alinit,” and the
interesting properties with which he credits it. There is, however,
some experimental evidence, obtained in the laboratory, which is
more favorable to it.

Since we must furnish our agricultural plants in general with an
abundant supply of nitrogenous plant food, chiefly in the form of
nitrates, there is no more important question in agricultural science
than that of the manner in which this is to be done with certainty
and with the greatesteconomy. Although the judicious introduction
of leguminous plants into our systems of crop rotation and stock
feeding may make the farmer independent of the dealer in commer-
cial nitrogenous manures,’ it is still necessary to study with earn-
estness the methods by which the supply of crude nitrogenous

250 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

compounds contained in barnyard manures and in crop residues are
to be transformed into nitrates speedily and with the least possible
loss. :

It has long been a common experience that straw, manures, ete.,
when incorporated with arable soil, are found to have disappeared
after some weeks or months, and that crops planted on the soil so
treated grow more luxuriantly than upon adjoining unmanured land.
The agencies by which organic matter is thus destroyed and changed
into plant food were not at all understood at the beginning of the
present century. Some of the most important facts remained unknown
until the eighth decade, and even now there are many points requiring
further elucidation.

The first six decades of the century were spent in experiments and
disputations which served to determine the relations of mieroorgan-
isms to the phenomena of fermentation and putrefaection, and to set-
tle in the negative the much controverted question in regard to the
spontaneous generation of those organisms. In this connection, we
must recall the names of several persons prominent in the controversy,
or in the events which led up to it: The Hollander Antoon van Leu-
wenhoek, ‘‘the father of micrography,” who lived from 1632 to 1723,
was the first to observe minute organisms in fermenting and putres-
cent liquids by means of the microscope; Needham, 1754, and Spal-
lanzani, about 1760-1770, who were champions pro and con, respect-
ively, of the theory of spontaneous generation; Schultze, 1836, who
first asserted that the phenomena of putrefaction and fermenta-
tion are induced by the microorganisms ever present in the air and
not by spontaneously created organisms; Schwann, 1839, founder of
the science of antiseptics, who was another opponent of the theory of
spontaneous generation; Liebig, who asserted in 1839 and for many
years after that fermentation and putrefaction are not biological phe-
nomena; Schréder and Dusch, 1853, who were inventors of the use of
cotton wool for freeing a stream of air from microorganisms; Pasteur,
who, beginning the study of the question in response to a prize offered
in 1860 by the Paris Academy of Science, demonstrated that any sub-
stance whatever may be freed from the germs of putrefaction by a
suitably prolonged heating at a sufficiently high temperature, and
that the substances so sterilized will maintain that condition indefi-
nitely if the access of organisms from the air is prevented.

This forms the starting point from which has been developed, by a
host of workers, our knowledge of the organisms of putrefaetion and
deeay, the changes which they work in the media in which they grow,
and the conditions which favor or hinder their growth. It was early
discovered that a great number of species of organisms is engaged in
the destruction of organic matter in soils and other substances, and
that the final products of the process are carbon dioxid, water, and
ammonia, with some free nitrogen, and hydrogen in some eases.

RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE. 251

Tt was a well-known fact, however, that ammonia does not aceumu-
late in arable soils in any such quantities as do nitrates, especially
under conditious highly favorable for the phenomenon of nitrification,
as in the artificial and natural nitrate beds, which were under obser-
vation in various parts of the world. j

The next point of contention was very naturally the nature of the
process by which the nitrogen of ammonia is converted into the form
of nitrates under natural conditions. Although Miller, in 1873, and
Pasteur, as early as 1862, had suggested the possibility of its being a
biological phenomenon or species of fermentation, the change we
generally regarded as a purely chemical one, probably wrought by the
highly condensed oxygen supposed to exist in the interstices of the
soil and of other porous substances. This doctrine was overthrown
by the experiments of Schloesing and Miintz (1876), which showed
that nitrification is interrupted by the action of antisepties (chloro-
form), and that the process can be started again by inoculating the
medium with a small amount of fresh soil. These experiments were
soon repeated and extended by the discoverers and by Warington,
Soyka, and others. An additional proof of the fermentative nature
of the process of nitrification was found in the fact that it was stopped
by heat when applied in the manner in which it is usually employed
for sterilization. During the next thirteen years (1878-1890) many
workers took up the study of the nitrifying organisms, and much val-
uable knowledge relative to their properties was obtained, but the
numerous attempts to satisfactorily isolate them and study them
apart from the host of other soil organisms were fruitless. Again, an
unknown factor rendered futile the efforts of some of our best experi-
menters, as had been the case in the investigation of the question of
the fixation of free nitrogen by agricultural plants, mentioned above.
The valuable method of gelatin-plate cultivation invented by Koch
for the isolation of bacteria, was found to be inapplicable. Indeed,
numerous failures led Frank, as late as 1887, to assert that there
eould be no organism of nitrification, since no organism separated
from the soil was found to possess that property, in spite of the facet
that numbers of experimenters had transferred the nitrifying agent
from culture to culture, in liquid media, by the usual method of inocu-
lation. It gradually became apparent that the organie matter habit-
ually used in the media employed in plate cultivations was unfavorable
to the growth of the nitrifying organisms. Indeed, by repeatedly
reducing the proportion of organic matter used in the preparation of
liquid media, in which nitrification proceeded satisfactorily, a medium
was finally tried which contained no added carbon other than that of
the alkaline or earthy carbonates which had been found necessary to
neutralize the acid formed by the process, and of which an excess had
been found to be detrimental. In this medium the process proceeded
with the vigor normal for the liquid media hitherto found most
favorable.

252 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Here then was the key tothe situation. The organisms of nitrifiea-
tion do not thrive in the presence of an excess of organic matter. In
1890 a new investigator entered the field, a young Russian named
Winogradsky. His first triumph was ina satisfactory isolation of the
nitric organisms by means of culture plates composed of gelatinized
silica, impregnated with nutritive salts and carbonates, but made with-
out any added organic matter whatever. His work upon the subject
was temporarily interrupted, but it is now in progress with one or
more collaborators.

In addition to the above, there must be mentioned to complete this
very brief sketch of the history of the development of the knowl-
edge of the phenomenon of nitrification and of the organisms to which
it is due, the work of Warington, Frankland, Jordan and Richards,
Godlewski, Burri, Stutzer, Hartleb, Lawes and Gilbert, Dehérain, and
others. The results of their joint labors teach us that in order that
nitrification may be active in our fields the soil must be well aerated
by stirring or by improving its mechanical condition; that a proper
degree of moisture must be maintained, and that excessive acidity
must be prevented or destroyed by liming. Indeed, this fact explains
much of the beneficial action that is known to attend the application
of lime to arable land, and strongly argues in favor of a judicious
extension of such use. The work of the Division of Chemistry has
shown that the nitrifying organisms from soils from all parts of the
country are uniformly highly susceptible to the inimical action of an
excess of acids in the medium in which they grow.

INJURIOUS SOIL BACTERIA,

We have still to consider a class of soil organisms which are able
under certain conditions to destroy a considerable part of the bene-
ficial work of the organisms mentioned above by decomposing the
nitrates contained in the soil and returning the nitrogen in them to
the atmosphere in the form of free nitrogen. These organisms are
normally present in soils and manures and upon erop residues, but
only seem to exert their destructive powers in the presence of such an
excess of organic matter and under such definite conditions of aera-
tion as seldom obtain in well-tilled soil of good quality and location.
Some alarm was occasioned a few years ago by the announcement by
German investigators that allstable manures should be sterilized before
applying them to the soil, in order to destroy these denitrifying organ-
isms, but this was not supported by subsequent investigation, nor is
it generally regarded as good counsel, as the decomposition of the
manure is delayed by such a practice.

CARE OF MICROORGANISMS AS NECESSARY AS CARE OF CROPS.

From the above statements the conclusion follows that the farmer
must care for the microscopie organisms growing in his soil, manure

—=

ext

RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE. 253

pits, and compost -heaps, as well as give unceasing attention to the
crops which make their appeals directly to his unaided eye. It may
be well to add, however, that the best interpretation of the experience
hitherto gained is that the farmer should seek to make his soils
a highly favorable home for the organisms he wishes to thrive there,
rather than attempt to transplant them by ‘‘soil inoculation.” The
rapidity with which most organisms multiply and their extremely
wide distribution show that they are sure to follow their favorite food
and other conditions of growth sooner or later. It may of course be
true in many cases that time will be saved by inoculating the soil or
seed with the organism desired.

The same principle should govern endeavors to eliminate organisms
which are found to be unfavorable.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY.

Chemistry has done much to promote the progress of agriculture
in the line of chemical technology. Good markets for farm products,
as has already been stated, are essential to progress and prosperity.
Many cf the raw materials produced upon the farm enter at once
into manufacture, and their value on the market largely depends
upon the demand for manufacturing purposes. The principal agri-
cultural chemical industries are starch and giucose manufacture,
sugar manufacture, wine making, brewing, distilling, tanning, and
fertilizer manufacture. In all these industries chemistry plays a
leading part.

STARCH MANUFACTURE,

In the making of starch, chemical science has brought the utiliza-
tion of the by-products to such perfection that the value of these
products alone more than pays the whole expense of manufacture.
This fact enables the producers to put the starch upon the market at
a price far below what would be possible if chemistry had not come to
the aid of the industry. Thus, a vastly greater demand for the raw
materials of which starch is made is secured. In Europe potatoes are
the principal source of starch, while in the United States indian corn
is practically the sole material of economic importance used for this
purpose. It is true that in Maine there is a large industry devoted to
the manufacture of starch from potatoes, and a few small factories
are found in other parts of the country, notably Michigan. The total
quantity of starch, however, made from potatoes is extremely small
when compared with the product from indian corn. In the manu-
facture of starch from indian corn chemical problems of the greatest
importance are involved. The presence of nitrogenous matter in
starch is undesirable, and the separation of the starch in the indian
corn from the nitrogenous materials is of the utmost consequence to
successful manufacture. By chemical processes, joined with mechan-
ical ingenuity, this separation is now effected in such a way as to

954 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

leave the nitrogenous matters ina state suitable for animal food.
Thus, while, on the one hand, the starch of the indian corn is obtained
in a practically pure state, on the other, the waste products are recoy-
ered in the form of cattle food of high nutritive value. Again, the
germs of indian corn are composed chiefly of oil and protein matter.
These are also separated in the process of manufacture, the oil is
expressed, and the residue forms a food extremely rich in protein,
and valuable both as a cattle food and as a fertilizer. The oil itself,
by chemical processes, is prepared for various purposes, among others
for the manufacture of a material resembling rubber. All these
results have been accomplished by the application in a practical way
of the principles derived from chemical investigations.

GLUCOSE MANUFACTURE,

The manufacture of glucose from starch is a chemical process pure

and simple. In chemical studies it was early discovered that when
starch was submitted to the action of certain ferments and acids it
was converted into sugar. This is the principle upon which the
manufacture of glucose rests. Formerly sulphurie acid was chiefly
employed in producing this hydrolysis. At the present time, how-
ever, hydrochloric acid is more commonly used. The starch in the
form of a thin paste is subjected to the action of dilute hydrochlorie
acid under pressure. In afew moments the starch is converted into
a mixture of dextrin and dextrose, in which condition it is used for
the manufacture of the liquid material known in commerce as “ glu-
cose.” <A longer treatment with hydrochloric acid converts the dex-
trin into dextrose, and this is the form in which it is used in the
manufacture of a solid sugar known as ‘‘grape sugar.” After the
conversion is completed, the hydrochloric acid is neutralized with
soda, forming a little common salt, which does not interfere with the
use of the glucose and grape sugar for the purposes for which they
are used.
SUGAR MANUFACTURE.

In sugar manufacture we see even a more important utilization of
chemical knowledge. Especially is this true of the beet-sugar indus-
try. By means of chemical studies the sugar beet has been developed
from the common garden beet, containing only 5 or 6 per cent of
sugar, to its present condition of a root containing from 12 to16 percent.
This great improvement has been secured solely by the aid of chem-
ical science conjoined with the highest skill in practical agriculture.
In the process of manufacture, however, chemical science has been
even more successful. Beet juices, on account of their composition,
present greater difficulties in manufacture than the juice of sugar
cane. Without the aid of chemical science the present status of beet-
sugar manufacture would have been impossible of attainment. Thus,
through the exertions of chemistry, an industry has been established

a

RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE. 255

which has made a profound impress upon agriculture in general.
Regions which are devoted to beet culture are everywhere known as
those in which the highest form of scientific agriculture is practiced.
Around the beet factory are naturally grouped vast dairy interests,
where the cattle are fed upon the pulp from the diffusion batteries.
The culture of beets implies the application of those principles of
agricultural chemistry which secure an increase of the soil fertility.
Every beet field, therefore, becomes a practical experiment station,
where the best forms of agriculture are taught. All crops receive the
benefits of this high culture, and thus, in these applications of the
principles of practical agricultural chemistry, the general welfare of
the agricultural interests of the community issecured. Perhaps there
is no other instance in chemical technology where the application of
scientific principles has proved of such signal advantage to the progress
of agriculture.
WINE MAKING,

Wine making rests also largely upon chemieal principles. In grapes
we find large quantities of sugar combined with organic acids, of
which tartaric acid is the chief, coloring matters, tannic principles,
ete. The production of wine of fine flavor consists in securing the
fermentation of the sugars of this mixture with appropriate ferments
and under carefully controlled conditions of temperature. Only
through the most careful chemical control are the most favorable con-
ditions maintained. Consciously or unconsciously, the wine maker
is a practical chemist, and under the influence of modern research
the scientific principles of wine making are very much more firmly
established and more easily practiced than they were before the con-
ditions under which wine is produced were thoroughly understood.
In wine making chemistry also exercises an important function in the
utilization of the by-products. The tartaric acid present in grapes is
very valuable in commerce, forming, in combination with potash, the
well-known substance cream of tartar, which isso extensively employed
in the manufacture of baking powders and for other purposes. By
the application of the principles of chemical technology to the residues
of the wine press and to the incrustations which form upon the vats
the cream of tartar of commerce is secured.

BREWING.

Brewing is also largely a chemical science. The chief problem in
the brewing industry is that of fermentation, and the development of
fermentation has been due solely to the researches of chemists. In
the brewing industry the first object is to convert the starch of the
cereal into maltose and subsequently to change the maltose into
alcohol by fermentation with yeast. By the researches of physiological
chemists, it was discovered that the active principle in the conversion
of starch into sugar is an enzymic ferment commonly called diastase,

256 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

which is developed in barley by germination. This ferment rapidly
converts starch into maltose, the conversion often taking place within
a few minutes. By the researches of Pasteur and other distinguished
chemists, the method of producing pure cultures of yeast was estab-
lished. It is important, in order to secure a fine flavor to the finished
product, that the ferment be as pure as possible. It is thus seen that
in the chief problems which underlie the brewing industry chemistry
takes a leading part.
DISTILLING.

The industry devoted to the manufacture of aleohel, whisky, and
brandy is also chiefly of a chemical nature. The distilling industry
naturally follows after the brewing industry. The manufacture of
alcohol from starch may be described as the same in both industries.
After the alcohol is formed it is separated from the mash by distilla-
tion. In spite, however, of the greatest care in the selection of yeasts,
several varieties of alcohol as well as of organic acids are formed
during the process of fermentation. After the distillation is finished,
therefore, the separation of common alcohol from the impurities with
which it is naturally mixed becomes a difficult chemical problem.
The progress which has been made in this line, however, has been so
great as to render the production of pure alcohol on a commercial
seale an industrial proceeding of great magnitude. Chemical prinei-
ples also of the utmost importance underlie the production of whisky
and brandy, due to the elimination of objectionable alcohols by means
of oxidations produced by storage under proper conditions of tempera-
ture and in suitable vessels. The whole process of aging a whisky or
brandy or wine rests exclusively upon the proper conduet and control
of the chemical reactions which take place.

TANNING.

The hides (at least indirectly) and also the principal part of the
materials used in the process of tanning are products of the soil.
Chemical technology has shown that in the process of tanning the gela-
tinous matters of which hides are composed are impregnated with
tannic principles in such a way as to change their nature, rendering
them insoluble in hot or cold water, resistant to atmospheric influ-
enées, flexible, and lasting. All these conditions are obtained by
strictly chemical processes which have been carefully worked out.
The relations of gelatin to tannin have been made the subject of the
most careful chemical research. In like manner the utilization of the
tannin-producing forests has been rendered much more economical.
Formerly only the bark of the oak, the hemlock, and the chestnut
was employed, but chemical science has shown that mixed with the
fiber of the wood itself are tanning properties of a high value. In
canaigre and other plants, chemical research has discovered sourees of
tannin that will take the place of tan bark, in the quest of which vast
forests have been destroyed. Chemical technology has also taught the

ee, ee

RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE. 257

method of extracting from the bark and the wood their active princi-
ples, thus enabling dealers to transport the tannic principles in a
condensed state and at a greatly reduced cost for freights. Almost
all the great tanning industries of the country at the present time
employ skilled chemists, and in many instances these chemists are
directors of the factories.

FERTILIZER MANUFACTURE.

Perhaps chemical technology has rendered agriculture no other
service so valuable as that which it has given in the development of
the fertilizing industries of the world. The vast deposits of plant
foods which oceur in South America in the form of nitrate of soda, in
Germany in the form of various combinations of potash, and in this
country in deposits of mineral phosphates are made useful to agricul-
ture only through the intervention of chemical technology. The
earths saturated with nitrates in South America are treated chemic-
ally and the fertilizing principle obtained in a condensed form, mak-
ing their economic transportation possible. The compounds of potash
obtained in the mines near Stassfurt are subjected to chemical treat-
ment, whereby the potash salts are concentrated and obtained chiefly
in the form of sulphate and chlorid. The vast deposits of mineral
phosphates furnish abundant materials which are subjected to treat-
ment chiefly with sulphuric acid, and thus phosphorie acid is secured
in a soluble form suitable for absorption by the growing plant. The
wastes and offal of the cattle pens and abattoirs are collected and
treated chemically and the nitrogenous and other fertilizing materials
they contain secured in merchantable shape. Bones are subjected to
mechanical and chemical treatment in order to render their phosphorie
acid quickly soluble. Chemical technology has even established an
intimate bond of union between agriculture and metallurgy. Iron
ores that a few years ago were totally unfit for use by reason of the
large amount of phosphorus they contained are now converted into
the finest steel by new chemical processes which at the same time
secure the phosphoric acid in the form of basic phosphatie slags, con-
sidered one of the most valuable phosphatic manures in use.

RELATION OF CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY TO GENERAL AGRICULTURE,

In the above ways, the science of chemistry has offered to agriecul-
ture stores of plant food which a few years ago were totally inaccess-
ible and useless. These stores are practically inexhaustible, since
chemistry has shown that the atoms of plant food which are thus
employed in the nutrition of the plant return after their cycle of life
to the mineral state, only again to be made available for human
nutrition. Chemistry in its relations to the technology of fertilizing
materials has pointed out the way for indefinitely increasing the fer-
tility of the soil and of laying forever the specter of starvation, which
has so often been raised to threaten the future of mankind.

ae AL 99 17

258 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

It is thus seen that chemical technology, while not directly con-
cerned with the tillage of the fields, has done a wonderful work in
establishing agriculture as a scientific profession and assuring its
future against the principal dangers which menace it.

THE DEBT OF AGRICULTURE TO CHEMISTRY.

The foregoing sketch of the relations of chemical research to the
progress of agriculture during the past hundred years presents an out-
line view of the status of this industry and its debt to science at the
close of the nineteenth century. The true composition of the soil and

its relations to plant growth are now known. The methods of utilizing”

plant food and of conserving it for the coming years have been fully
established. The principles of plant growth and the chemical changes
attending it are understood. The laws of animal nutrition have been
experimentally elucidated, and by their application great economy in
the use of nutrients is effected. The methods whereby organic nitro-
gen is prepared for plant food have been revealed, and some of the
ways in which atmospherie nitrogen enters into organic combination
are marked out. The application of the principles of chemical tech-
nology to the elaboration of raw agricultural products has added a new
value to the fruits of the farm, opened up new avenues of prosperity,
and developed new staple crops.

The closing of the century sees in this country an endowment for
agricultural research which excites the admiration of the whole eivi-
lized world, and a study of the personnel of the scientific corps shows
that fully half the amount expended for strictly scientifie inves-
tigations has been for chemical studies. We find chemistry inti-
mately associated with nearly every line of agricultural progress and
pointing the way to still greater advancement.

When we contrast the condition of agricultural chemical knowledge
which now obtains with the nebulous, empirical, and illogical theories
which characterized it one hundred years ago, the distance we have
traversed seems indeed long; but we should not forget that we are
still only on the threshold of knowledge. The achievements of the
next century ought to surpass those which the past one looks upon
with pride.

To him who writes the story of the progress of agriculture as influ-
enced by chemical research during the twentieth century may come a
feeling of pity for the ignorance which now surrounds us; but he will
at least accord to our workers the merit of being emancipated from
the slavery of opinion and the worship of authority. He will certainly
say they were patient, industrious, and truth loving. To the leaders
of progress for the next eentury we commit our unfinished work, con-
fident of their integrity and hopeful of the good which they will bring
to mankind.

ae ———

A REVIEW OF ECONOMIC ORNITHOLOGY IN THE
UNITED STATES.

By T. S.. PALMER,
Assistant Chief of Biological Survey.

INTRODUCTION.

Eeonomie ornithology has been defined as the study of birds from
the standpoint of dollars and cents. It deals with birds in their rela-
tion to agriculture, horticulture, trade, and sport; it treats of species
important to the farmer, the fruit grower, the game dealer, the milliner,
and the sportsman; in short, it is the practical application of the
knowledge of birds to the affairs of everyday life. The study of the
relations of birds to agriculture is as intricate and difficult as it is
bread and comprehensive. Its successful prosecution presupposes
not only an accurate knowledge of classification, distribution, migra-
tion, and habits, but also an acquaintance with the measures which
have been adopted for the preservation of useful or the destruction of
noxious species. Theoretically, it should be one of the first branches
of ornithology to receive attention; in reality, it has been one of the
last.

DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGY.

The history of American ornithology may be traced back to the

iddle of the sixteenth century, but for one hundred and fifty years
the references to birds consisted of little more than fragmentary notes
in the writings of early explorers and colonists. In the eighteenth
century several important works appeared, the principal one being
Mark Catesby’s great work on the ‘‘ Natural history of Carolina, Flor-
ida,” ete., published in 1731-1743. One hundred and thirteen species
of birds were described and figured, and the plates formed the basis of
many of the species described by Linnzeus a few years later. Impor-
tant contributions were also made by Edwards, Forster, Latham, Bar-
tram, Hearne, and Barton. Bartram’s ‘‘ Travels through North and
South Carolina,” 1791, marked the beginning of the distinctively Amer-
ican school of ornithology, and Barton’s ‘‘ Fragments of the natural
history of Pennsylvania,” 1799, was notable as the first exclusively
ornithological book published in this country. ‘

In the nineteenth century three names, Wilson, Audubon, and
Baird, stand out with such prominence that they mark epochs in the
development of thescience. Wilson’s ‘‘ American ornithology,” 1808—

1814, laid the true foundation of ornithology in the United States;
259

260 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Audubon’s ‘Birds of Ameriea” and ‘‘Ornithological biographies,”
1827-1839, occupy a field entirely alone, and Baird’s ‘‘ Birds of North
Ameriea,” 1858, published in conjunction with Cassin and Lawrence,
made a great advance in all that relates to classification and nomen-
clature (the technical side of ornithology), and exerted a wider influ-
ence perhaps than any previous work. In the meantime the activity
of travelers and explorers had added important contributions. The
expeditions of Lewis and Clark across the continent in 1804-1806, of
Long tothe Rocky Mountains in 1819-20, and of Franklin to the Polar
Sea; the travels of Douglas, Nuttall, Townsend, Maximilian, Audu-
bon, and others; and, finally, the expeditions of the Pacific Railroad
surveys opened up many new fields and brought to light a host of new
birds from previously unknewn regions in the West and North. The
publication of Baird’s work was followed almost immediately bya
rapid inerease in ornithological literature. The number of workers
multiplied, and their contributions covered the whole field, from the
brief description of a new species to elaborate faunal lists and com-
prehensive modern manuals, like those of Coues and Ridgway, which
inelude all the birds of the continent from Mexico to the Pole. In
1883 the organization of the American Ornithologists’ Union (an out-
growth of the Nuttall Ornithological Club, formed ten years pre-
viously) brought the individual workers in touch with one another
and gave anew impetus to North American ornithology. The union
prepared a code of nomenclature, which found general acceptance
among zoologists, harmonized conflicting systems of classification,
and published a new check list of birds. It stimulated research in
every branchof ornithology, and by means of its quarterly journal,
“The Auk” (now in its seventeenth volume), provided a place of
publication and brought together in one series a large number of
papers which otherwise would have been widely scattered.

Since the beginning of the century the field’ of North American
ornithology has been extended from the Atlantic States to the Pacific,
and from the Mexican boundary to Alaska and Greenland. The
list of birds has increased 400 per cent, as shown by the number of
species recognized by different authors: Wilson, in 1814, deseribed
278 species; Audubon, in 1844, increased the list to 506; Baird, in
1858, recognized 738; Coues, in 1873, 778 species and subspecies;
Ridgway, in 1880, 877; the ‘‘ Check list” of the American Ornithologists’
Union, in 1886, 951; and the additions since made have increased the
number to about 1,125.

Compared with the activity in systematic work, the record of economic
ornithology seems meager. The laborsof American ornithologists were
naturally directed at first to the discovery and description of new
species and the acquisition of facts regarding their general habits and
distribution; little attention was given to economic questions. Many
notes concerning the food of birds may be found in the writings of

A REVIEW OF ECONOMIC ORNITHOLOGY. 261

Wilson and Audubon, but there is little of importance outside of the
works of these authors before the middle of the present century. The
history of economic ornithology may be conveniently considered under
three heads: (1) Investigations as to the value of birds; (2) commer-
cial uses of birds; (5) measures for the destruction, preservation, and
introduction of important species.

INVESTIGATIONS AS TO THE VALUE OF BIRDS.

The practical study of ornithology began to attract attention about
1850, and several papers appeared in the reports of the agricultural
societies of Iilinois and Ohio, as wellas in the reports of the United States
Commissioner of Patents. The character of some of these early con-
tributions is indicated by such papers as Le Baron’s ‘‘ Observations on
the birds of Illinois most interesting to the agriculturist” (1855), Wal-
ford’s ‘‘Importation and protection of useful birds” (1855), Holmes**
‘*Birds injurious to agriculture” (1857), Kirkpatrick’s ‘‘Hawks and
owls” (1858), and Dodge’s ‘‘ Birds and bird laws” (1865). Between
1860 and 1863 Dr. J. A. Allen prepared a series of twenty-five popular
bird biographies entitled ‘* Birds of New England,” designed to inter-
est farmers in common birds. In 1864 Elliott published an extended
article on ‘‘Game birds of the United States,” and during the next
four years Samuels contributed three papers devoted largely to the
birds of New England.

COMMENCEMENT OF INVESTIGATIONS ALONG MODERN LINES.

The first investigation along modern lines seems to have been made
by Prof. J. W. P. Jenks, who, in 1858, studied the food habits of the
robin and examined a considerable number of stomachs, collected at
frequent intervals during the year.' Between March and September
specimens were collected weekly and some of thetime daily. Stomachs
taken in Mareh and April contained only insect matter, 90 per cent
consisting of the larve of crane flies (Bibio albipennis). From May 1
to June 21 Bibio larve disappeared, but were replaced by a variety of
insects, including caterpillars, elaterid beetles, and spiders. From
late June to October the stomachs contained strawberries, cherries,
and other fruits, but after October the vegetable diet was discarded
and replaced by grasshoppers and orthopterous insects. The few birds
which remained during the winter fed mainly on bayberries (Myrica
cerifera), privet berries (Ligustrum vulgare), and juniper berries
(Juniperus communis).

By a curious coincidence an experimental investigation of the robin
was made in the same year (1848) by Prof. D. Treadwell. Two young
birds, caught about June 5, were kept in captivity for the purpose of
noting the amcunt of food eaten and the 1ate of growth from day to

Trans. Mass. Hort. Soc., 1859.

262 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

day. One of the birds died after three days, but the other remained
under observation for thirty-two days, when it had attained full size.
‘The fame of this robin has extended over both hemispheres.” Its
capacity for worms seemed unlimited. On the fourteenth day the
worms eaten numbered 68, and their weight amounted to 41 per cent
more than that of the bird, while their length, if laid end to end,
would have measured 14 feet. Treadwell estimated that a pair of
robins feeding a brood of four young at the rate averaged by this bird
would have to collect 250 worms per day—an interesting illustration
of the quantity of food consumed during the breeding season.!

In 1878 Prof. Samuel Aughey’s classical paper, ‘‘ Notes on the nature
of the food of the birds of Nebraska,” appeared in the First Annual
Report of the United States Entomological Commission. It ineluded
observations extending over a period of thirteen years of 90 different
species and an examination of more than 630 stomachs. The stomach
contents were merely separated into grasshoppers, other insects, seeds,
and miscellaneous, and the number of grasshoppers was given in each
ease. The report was the most extensive contribution to economic
ornithology thus far published, and showed that grasshoppers, when
abundant, become the principal food of insect-eating birds, and that
they are largely eaten even by water birds. .

In the meantime two entomologists had published their views on
the relative value of birds and predaceous insects as insect destroyers.
B. D. Walsh, State entomologist of Illinois, declared in 1867 that
unless a bird destroyed at least thirty times as many noxious as bene-
ficial insects it could not be considered a public benefactor.? The
fallacy of this view was shown by Forbes, in 1880, in his ‘*‘ Interaction
of organisms,” and later by Weed.? In 1873 M. Edouard Perris called
aitention to the harm that birds might do in destroying parasitic
hymenoptera, and stated that the utility of a bird depended on how
many injurious insects it destroyed, usually an unknown quantity.*
Forbes published a translation of this paper® seven years later, thus
bringing it prominently to the notice of American ornithologists.

A PERIOD OF NOTABLE ADVANCE IN INVESTIGATIONS.

A notable advance was made in 1880 by Prof. 8. A. Forbes, wko
first called attention to the relative value of the three methods of
investigation now in general use, namely: (1) Field observation; (2)
experiments on wild birds recently caught; (3) examination of stom-
achsin the laboratory. Healso divided the food into three categories—
injurious, neutral, and beneficial. Forbes’s attention was confined

1Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., VI, pp. 396-399, 1859.

*Practical Entomologist, I-. pp. 44-47, January, 1867.

* Proc. Fourteenth Ann. M+ cing Soc. Promotion Agr. Sci., pp. 70-74, 1893.
4Bull. Mensuel Soc. Acclim aris, %., 1873.

’American Entomologist, lit, pp 69 and 96, 1850.

i i ee

A REVIEW OF ECONOMIC ORNITHOLOGY. 263

mainly to thrushes, wrens, and bluebirds, of which he examined 520
stomachs, representing 9 species. His paper on the ‘‘ Food of birds,”
printeded in the Bulletin of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural
History in 1880, is a model of thoroughness, and still remains the best
report published on the food of the robin. A second paper on ‘‘The
regulative action of birds upon insect oscillations,” published in 1883,

was devoted mainly to a discussion of the question whether insectiv-

orous birds neglect their usual food for the sake of other insects

which are unusually abundant, and a number of birds were collected

during two successive years in an old orchard badly infested with

eankerworms. These insects had attracted birds of the most varied

eharacter and habits to the orchard. An examination of 146 stomachs,

representing 36 species, showed that 35 per cent of the food consisted

of eankerworms.

About the same time appeared an elaborate investigation of the-
‘*Kconomie relations of Wisconsin birds,” by Prof. F. H.King.! This
report was chiefly remarkable for the large number of stomachs
examined, more than 1,600, representing about 83 species, and the
attempt to show graphically the percentage of the various elements of
the food. It was the most extensive investigation thus far under-
taken, but many species were represented by too small a number of
stomachs to furnish satisfactory conclusions, and like Aughey’s work
in Nebraska, the identifications were rarely carried out in detail.

In Pennsylvania Dr. B. H. Warren has paid much attention to the
food of birds, and has published the results of an examination of
2,084 stomachs, chiefly of grackles and birds of prey, in his ‘‘ Birds
of Pennsylvania,” 1886. He has given special attention to the eco-
nomic relations of hawks and owls, and in his reports as State zoolo-
gist and his ‘‘ Enemies of poultry,” 1899, has shown the evil resuits
of the Pennsylvania ‘‘scalp act” of 1885. To his energy is due much
of the credit of exposing the evils of bounty legislation on birds.

The destruction of birds and the causes of the decrease in bird life
have been the subject of special study by Hornaday, who published
in 1898 an important paper entitled ‘‘The destruction of our birds
and mammals.” ?

Since 1886 economic investigations have been carried on chiefly with
State or federal aid, and comparatively little has been undertaken by
private individuals, except along special lines. Reference should
here be made to the work of Forbush in connection with the gipsy
moth commission of Massachusetts; to the detailed study of the food
of the robin by Wilcox, who examined 187 stomachs collected during
spring and summer;* and also to the studies of Prof. Clarence M.
Weed, of the winter food of the chickadee (based on an examination

’Wis. Geol. Surv., I, pp. 441-610, 1882.
*Second Ann. Rept. N. Y. Zool. Soc., pp. 77-126, 1898.
$Bull. 43, Ohio Agr. Expt. Station, pp. 115-129, 1892,

2964 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of 41 stomachs) and the habits of the chipping sparrow in feeding
its young.

The important researches thus briefly noticed include four investi-
gations on the robin, an examination of 630 Nebraska birds, some
450 Illinois birds, about 1,600 Wisconsin birds, and an investigation
of 2,084 birds of prey, grackles, and ‘other species in Pennsylvania,
comprising in all more than 5,000 stomachs.

WORK OF THE BIOLOGICAL SURVEY.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DIVISION.

One of the most important results of the organization of the Ameri-
ean Ornithologists’ Union was the impetus given to the study of eco-
nomic crnithology. Committees on the English sparrow, bird migration,
and geographical distribution were appointed at the first meeting, and
elaborate investigations were at once begun. The work, however, had
been planned on such a large seale that it soon outgrew the resources of
the committees, and at the second annual meeting of the union it was
determined to present a memorial to Congress to secure an appropria-
tion for continuing it. The relation of birds to agriculture is so intri-
cate and the thorough study of their food so difficult, on account of
the amount of time and material required, that investigations of this
kind are ordinarily beyond the means of private individuals, and are
entitled to Government support. In recognition of the importance of
the work, Congress granted an appropriation of $5,000, to be expended
under the Division of Entomology of the Department of Agriculture,
and on July 1, 1885, established a section of economic ornithology.
Under the direction of Dr. C. Hart Merriam, investigations were out-
lined on a broad seale, to inciude the ‘‘ food habits, distribution, and
migrations of North American birds and mammals in relation to agri-
culture, horticulture, and forestry.” A year later the seetion became
an independent Division, and in 1896 its name was changed by Con-
gress to the broader title of Division of Biological Survey.

FIRST PUBLICATIONS OF THE DIVISION,

Upon the organization of the Division of Ornithology and Mam-
malogy, the data collected by several of the committees of the Ameri-
can Ornithologists’ Union were turned over to it and formed the basis
of its first two bulletins. The notes on distribution and migration of
birds were published in 1888 under the title ‘‘ Bird migration in the
Mississippi Valley,” and the report on the ‘‘ English sparrow in Amer-
ica” appeared inthe following year. The latter report contained a full
account of the sparrow and its introduction into the United States, its
depredations on crops, and recommendations for destroying it, or at
least preventing its increase. Special attention was called to the
desirability of legislation permitting the destruction of the bird. It

) Bulls. 54 and 55, New Hampshire Agr. Expt. Station, 1898.

A REVIEW OF ECONOMIC ORNITHOLOGY. 265

is interesting to note that at the time the bulletin was issued the
English sparrow was practically protected by law in twenty-two States,
although Ohio and Michigan had taken steps to exterminate it, while
now most of the States have withdrawn protection, and Illinois, Michi-
gan, Ohio, and Utah have vainly attempted to destroy the pest under
the bounty system.

FUNCTIONS OF THE DIVISION FROM THE STANDPOINT OF ECONOMIC ORNITHOLOGY.

From the standpoint of economic ornithology the Division may be
said to have three functions: (1) To determine as accurately as possi-
ble the food of birds of economic importance; (2) to act as a court of
appeal to investigate complaints concerning depredations of birds on
crops; (3) to diffuse the results of its work and educate the public as
to the value of birds. In studying birds’ food dependence is placed
chiefly on examination of stomachs to ascertain what has been actu#
ally eaten. Stomachs are collected in different localities at all seasons
and in sufficient numbers to show clearly the character of the food.
The stomach contents are examined microscopically and identified
by comparison with reference collections of seeds and insects. This
laboratory examination is supplemented by experiment and field work.

INVESTIGATIONS REGARDING SUPPOSED INJURIOUS BIRDS.

Species popularly considered injurious, such as hawks and owls,
the crow, blackbirds, woodpeckers, and blue jays, received attention
first. A report on hawks and owls was undertaken by Dr. A. K.
Tisher, one on the crow by Prof. W. B. Barrows, assisted by Mr. E. A.
Schwarz in the identification of the insect material, while the investi-
gations on the crow blackbird, woodpeckers, and blue jay were made
by Prof. F. E. L. Beal.

The destruction of birds of prey in Pennsylvania, following the
passage of the ‘“‘scalp act” of 1885, had attracted widespread interest,
and showed the necessity for correcting erroneous views concerning
the value cf hawks and owls. About 2,700 stomachs of these birds
were collected, the contents carefully examined, and the results pub-
lished in 1895 in a bulletin entitled ‘‘ Hawks and owls of the United
States,” illustrated by twenty-six colored plates. Of the 75! species
and subspecies which occur in America north of Mexico, only 6 were
found to be injurious, while several were shown to be beneficial.
About the time the work was begun bounties on birds of prey were,
or had recently been, offered by Colorado, Indiana, New Hampshire,
Ohio, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and West Virginia. At present not
only have all the important State bounties been withdrawn (the acts

1 Ninety species and subspecies are now recognized by the Check List of the
American Ornithologists’ Union, but if species of accidental occurrence and tke less
important subspecies are omitted, the number is reduced to about 75. Of these,
food examinations of about 45 species have been made by the Division.

266 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

still in force are mainly local), but several States have adopted pro-
tective measures. New Hampshire and Ohio began with eagles,
Rhode Island with fishhawks, and New York and Minnesota with
owls. Pennsylvania and Alabama now protect all except the six or
seven really injurious species, while during the present year Utah
has gone so far as to make it unlawful to kill any hawks or owls.
Such changes show the gradual appreciation of the value of these
really useful birds.

In the ease of the crow, nearly 1,000 stomachs were examined, and
the charges of pulling up sprouting corn, of injuring corn in the milk,
of destroying fruit, and of destroying eggs of poultry and wild birds
were all sustained. But it was found that corn in the milk formed
only 3 per cent of the total food, and most of the corn destroyed was
waste grain; that the destruction of fruit and eggs was trivial, while,
on the other hand, many noxious insects and mice were eaten. The
verdict was therefore rendered in favor of the crow, since, on the
whole, the bird seemed to do more good than harm.

Similar studies of crow blackbirds (based on about 2,300 stomachs)
and woodpeckers (including nearly 700 stomachs), published in 1895,
showed that these birds were decidedly beneficial. Only 1 of the 7
species of woodpeckers examined—the yellow-bellied—exhibited any
questionable traits, namely, a fondness for the sap and inner bark
of trees. Of the 40 or 50 birds, exclusive of hawks and owls, thus
far investigated, the English sparrow is the only one which has been
condemned.

INVESTIGATIONS REGARDING BENEFICIAL BIRDS.

A number of species usually considered beneficial have also received
attention. The Baltimore oriole, meadowlark, cuekoos, red-winged
blackbird, rose-breasted grosbeak, cedar bird, robin, bluebird, swal-
lows, and several flycatechers have been studied by Professor Beal,
and the shrikes, sparrows, catbird, mocking bird, brown thrasher,
and house wren by Dr. Sylvester D. Judd. One of the interesting
facts brought out in studying the catbird was the discovery that some
birds prefer wild to cultivated fruits, so that the latter may be pro-
tected by planting certain berry-bearing shrubs and trees, especially
in regions where wild fruit is naturally searce. The kingbird, fre-
quently condemned as a destroyer of honey bees, was shown to eat
very few bees, and these mostly drones. On the other hand, it kills
many of the destructive robber flies, and a large proportion of its
food is made up of injurious insects, so that it must be regarded as
decidedly beneficial. Recent investigations show less favorable results
in the case of some other flyeatchers, and indicate that the prevailing
idea that all inseetivorous birds are necessarily very beneficial may
require decided modification; and that there are birds which habitu-
ally feed on beneficial insects to such an extent as to lower their value
to the farmer, if not to place them among the enemies of his crops.

A REVIEW OF ECONOMIC ORNITHOLOGY. 267

RESULTS OF FOURTEEN YEARS’ WORK.

As aresult of fourteen years’ work the Biological Survey has brought
together a collection of about 32,000 bird stomachs, of which some
14,000 have been examined. It has investigated about 100 species
(nearly half hawks and owls) and prepared the results for publication
in the form of bulletins or special papers. The publications on birds
already issued include seven special bulletins,’ fifteen papers in the
Annual Reports for 1886-1893, inclusive, and eight papers in the
Yearbooks for 1894-1898. Some of these papers, such as ‘‘ Seed
planting by birds,” ‘‘ Hawks and owls from the standpoint of the
farmer,” ‘‘ birds that injure grain,” and ‘‘ Birds as weed destroyers,”
deal with general topics of special interest. The investigations on
some 30 grain and insect-eating birds were summarized in 1897 fora
bulletin entitled ‘* Common birds in their relation to agriculture,” and
the work of the Division has also formed the basis of two important
summaries, one by Miss Florence A. Merriam, entitled, ‘‘ How birds
affect the farm and garden,”? the other by Professor Beal, on ‘‘ Eco-
nomic relations of birds and their food.”

The educational work of the Biological Survey has not been con-
fined to laboratory studiesor publications. The Division has prepared
exhibits to illustrate the food habits of birds and modern methods of
investigation for the expositions at Cincinnati in 1888, Chicago in
1893, Atlanta in 1895, and Nashville in 1897. It indorsed the propo-
sition to establish a ‘‘ Bird day” in the schools in 1894, and issued a
circular on the subject two years later. Ever since its organization
it has acted as a bureau of information on all subjects relating to
_ birds or their distribution and habits. In short, it has spared no effort
to advance the cause of economic ornithology in every possible way.

COMMERCIAL USES OF BIRDS.

Birds are utilized in a variety of ways. Some species are valuable
for food, a few as egg producers, others for plumage for millinery
purposes, and still others for their guano. An immense trade has
sprung up in game, feathers, and guano, and our markets draw their
supplies from all parts of the world. Aside from its purely commer-
cial aspect, this traffic is important in its relation to agriculture.
Most game birds are useful to the farmer, and their preservation is
important not only because of this fact and on account of their market
value, but also for the purpose of protecting smaller insectivorous
species which otherwise are likely to be destroyed to supply the

‘No. 1, English Sparrow, 1889; No. 2, Bird Migration in the Mississippi Valley,
1888; No. 8, Hawks and Owls, 1893; No. 6, Common Crow, 1895; No. 7, Food of
Woodpeckers, 1895; No. 9, Cuckoos and Shrikes, 1898; and Farmers’ Bulletin, No.
54, Some Common Birds in Their Relation to Agriculture, 1897.

* Forest and Stream, XLVII, pp. 103,123 and 144, 1896.

* Proc. Twenty-fourth Ann. Meeting N. J. Hort. Soc., 1899.

268 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

increasing demand for game. The millinery trade has already
practically exterminated several native species, and as plume birds
become scarce insectivorous birds are utilized in increasing numbers.
Finally, to the development of the guano trade, agriculture owes
much of the advance which has been made in the modern system of
intensive cultivation and the intelligent application of fertilizers.

GAME.

Accurate statistics regarding birds and bird products are difficult to
obtain, but the increase in this trade has had a marked, and: in some
eases a disastrous, effect on certain native species. The numberof birds
annually killed for game in the United States has increased largely
with the development of railway systems and the perfection of eold-
storage facilities for shipping game to market. Quantities of game
are frequently kept in cold storage for months at a time, or even from
one season to another, so that our large cities can now receive their
supplies not only from neighboring regions but from distant States
and even foreign countries; for instance, South American tinamous,
shipped from Argentina to London, and then imported into this coun-
try, have been sold in the markets of Washington, D. C., having
thus been necessarily kept on ice for several months. New York,
Baltimore, Boston, Chicago, St. Louis, New Orleans, and San Fran-
cisco are all large game centers, and the quantity of birds annually
sold in any one of these cities is simply enormous. D. G. Elliot, writ-
ing as long ago as 1864, states that one dealer in New York was
known to receive 20 tons of prairie chickens in a single consignment,
which were estimated to represent 20,000 birds, and that some of the
larger poultry dealers sold from 150,000 to 200,000 game birds in the
course of six months. ‘‘ These estimates,” he adds, ‘‘so far from
being exaggerated, are probably far below the true state of affairs,
and these, it must be recollected, are but the receipts of a single city.
The total number of birds destroyed throughout the country would
exceed the credibility of everyone.”!

The consumption of game to-day is much greater than it was thirty-
five years ago, and the effect of such enormous slaughter has become
very apparent in the case of several species, as for example, the pin-
nated grouse, or prairie hen, and the passenger pigeon. The prairie
hen (Vympanuchus americanus) oceurs on the prairies of the Mis-
sissippi Valley from Louisiana and Texas, north to latitude 50° in
Manitoba, and from northwestern Ohio and southwestern Ontario to
central Nebraska and Kansas. In the east its range is rapidly con-
tracting; a few are stillfound in Kentucky, but the species is rare in
Indiana and northwestern Ohio. It usually lays from 11 to 14 eggs
in a set, and is considered one of the most prolifie of game birds,

'Rept. Comm. Agr., 1864, pp. 383 and 384,
PI

A REVIEW OF ECONOMIC ORNITHOLOGY. 269

ranking next to the bobwhite in this respect. But in spite of this
and the fact that the bird is gradually extending its range westward
with the settlement of the country, the species can not maintain
its normal abundance in the face of the destructive agents against
which it has to contend.

Audubon states that when he first moved to Kentucky (about 1808)
prairie hens were very abundant, and could be seen frequently in the
farmyards with the poultry and even in the streets of the villages. So
little were they esteemed as game that hunters searcely deigned to
shoot them, and they could hardly be sold for more than a cent apiece.
A quarter of a century later he remarks that the grouse had praeti-
cally abandoned the State of Kentucky, and each year their limit of
abundance was moving farther westward.'! <A few are still found in
the State and in many sections of the prairie region of adjoining
States, but they are no longer abundant east of the Mississippi River.

A still more striking case of extermination is that of the passenger
pigeon (Eclopistes migratorius), which has been reduced almost to
the point of extinction except in two or three Northern States. This
species formerly ranged over the deciduous forest region of Eastern
North America, from the Guif of Mexico to Hudson Bay, and was
remarkable for the enormous numbers which often colleeted together.
To-day its breeding range is restricted to the thinly settled wocded
region along the northern border of the United States, chiefly in
Michigan and Wisconsin. It was one of the first birds to attract the
attention of the early colonists, and references to it may be found as
far back as 1630.2 The enormous breeding colonies and roosts and
the great flights, such as that seen by Audubon in 1813, afforded an
abundant supply of food, and the birds were slaughtered by the mil-
lion. Audubon speaks of seeing schooners at the wharves in New
York in 1805 that were loaded in bulk with pigeons taken on the
Hudson River, and states that the birds sold for only a cent apiece.
In March, 1830, he found them so abundant in the New York markets
that piles of them could be seen in every direction. He purchased
300 live pigeons at 4 cents apiece, most of which were carried to
England. Prof. H. B. Roney has described a breeding colony located
near Petoskey, Mich., in 1878, which covered about 100,000 acres
of land, and from which it was estimated 1,500,000 dead birds and
$0,532 live birds were shipped by rail, and probably an equal number
by water. He estimates the total destruction of pigeons in Michigan
in 1878 at 1,000,000,000, an estimate probably in excess of the number
actually killed.*

The passenger pigeon has long since ceased to have any commercial
importance; the netting and the slaughter to which it was subjected

1Ornith. Biog., IL, p. 491, 1835.
*See Merriam’s Birds of Connecticut, pp. 93-94, 1877.
3 Am. Field, X, pp. 345-347.

270 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

at its roosts and breeding grounds have almost exterminated it.
According to Brewster, the last important nesting in Michigan took
place in 1881, a few miles west of Grand Traverse. In the last twenty
years the species has decreased so rapidly that its occurrence in any
of the States except Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin
ean hardly be considered more than accidental. During the last ten
or twelve years a few flocks of a hundred or more have been reported
from the following places:

Large flocks of passenger pigeons reported between 1889 and 1899.

Esti-
Date. Locality. nied Authority.
ber.
1889, September 10-_.__--. Mackinac Island, Mich-.- 100 | White, Auk, X, p. 223.
SBOE APTI 2 eo es eee Hickory. Minn: --<<-: 22-2 500 | Gault, ibid., XII, p. 80.
1896, May 22-_-...-.---.-.--| Constableville, N. Y----- 300 | Johnson, tbid., XIV, p. 88.
1897, August 17. ~..% +... a] Rogk epras aster a saes 100 | Deane, ibid., XV, p. 184.
B85, October s---.-<--22._ Ann Arbor, Mich...--..- 200 | Covert, Recreation, X, p. 304.
TBD Apri Ol oso. 5st Litchfield, Ohio.—..--.-- 150 | Seudder, ibid., X, p. 488.
; “| INIOP pty, Ws = eee 200 | Eagan, ibid., XI, p. 221.
- |) Spaaeban Wis ee ee 500 | Dervin, ibid., XT, p. 221.
Montport, Wis...----.--- 300 | Collis, ibid., XI, p. 221.

Smaller flocks or single birds have also been reported from Tllinois
(Chadwick, 1899; Lake Forest, 1895; Marengo, 1894); Indiana (sev-
eral points, 1894-1896); Kentucky (Cobb Station, 1898); Maryland
(several points, 1893); Massachusetts (Norton, 1889); Missouri (Altie,
1896); New Jersey (Englewood, 1896; Morristown, 1893); Pennsylva-
nia (Potter County, 1892). Although the wild pigeon is now protected
by law at all seasons in Michigan and Ohio, it is doubtful whether it
can be saved from extinction. Like the bison, it has been sacrificed
through wasteful and useless slaughter.

EGGS.

Large colonies of water birds, such as murres, pelicans, gulls, terns,
and herons, may be found at certain points along our coasts during
the breeding season. The value of these birds has never been prop-
erly appreciated, although in certain localities eggs of some species
are highly esteemed and find a ready market, as on the eastern shore
of Virginia, where eggs of the laughing gull (Larus atricilla) are con-
sidered a great delicacy and are gathered in large numbers for sale
to hotels and private individuals. But in the gratification of this
taste there is the same tendency toward extermination, which is
manifested in the case of feather collecting.

Seott refers to the extermination of gulls and terns near the mouth
of Tampa Bay, Florida, brought about in part by the operation of the

1Auk, VI, pp. 285-291, 1889.

PLaTE VI.

1899

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture,

COLLECTING ALBATROSS EGGS ON LAYSAN ISLAND,

[Photograph by J. J. Williams, Honolulu.]

A REVIEW OF ECONOMIC ORNITHOLOGY. 271

market egg hunters in the early eighties.' Sennett, in speaking of
the quantities of eggs, chiefly of gulls, terns, and herons, gathered a
few years ago along the coast of Texas, says:

There is probably not a port, pass, or bay on the entire coast of Texas whose
inhabitants do not regularly devote several days each year to what they term
“eoging.” * * * All eggs from an inch in diameter upward are taken, except-
ing perhaps those of the pelican, whose eggs are too fishy for any stomach. I have
known of boats which came a distance of over 100 miles to gather these eggs,
cruising from reef to reef until they secured a good load. For days after the
return from these expeditions the shops along the coast expose quantities of birds’
eggs for sale, which are disposed of cheaply, according tosize. * * * In regard
tothe profits of the ‘‘ egging business,” I doubt if even the most successful *‘ egger”
can make as much money as he could have done had he stuck to his regular and
much more praiseworthy occupation.”

The eggs of the ‘“‘arrie” or ‘‘ Pallas” murre (Uria lomvia arra) are
collected for food on the Pribilof Islands, in Bering Sea, and H. W.
Elliott mentions that on the occasion of his first visit to Walrus Island,
in July, 1872, six men in less than three hours loaded a badarrah
carrying 4 tons with eggs to the water’s edge.

On Laysan, one of the northwestern Hawaiian Islands, the ‘‘ gooney,”
or albatross (Diomedea immutabilis), fairly swarms. Immense quan-
tities of its eggs are gathered for the use of the employees of the guano
company, and possibly some are shipped to Honolulu. Photographs
show that the eggs are gathered not only by the wheelbarrow load but
by the car load. (See Pl. VI.) Formerly, it is said, the birds were
accorded rigid protection by the superintendent of the company, but
how long they can survive the recent wholesale removal of eggs is not
difficult to surmise.

A still more striking example of wholesale egg collecting, and prob-
ably the most important one in the United States from a financial
standpoint, is that of the Farallones. These islands, or rather rocks,
situated on the coast of California 50 miles west of the Golden Gate,
are the breeding grounds of myriads of sea birds, chiefly western gulls
(Larus occidentalis) and murres, or California guillemots ( Uria troile
californica). For nearly fifty years murre eggs were collected here
and shipped to the San Francisco market, where they found a ready
sale at from 12 to 20 cents per dozen, a price only a little less than that
of hens’ eggs. During the season, which lasted about two months,
beginning near the middle of May, the eggs were shipped regularly once
or twice a week. The main crop was gathered on South Farallone, the
principal island, and mainly from the ‘‘great rookery” at the west
end. The bird lays only one egg, which is deposited on the bare rock.
When the season opened, the men went over the ground and broke all
the eggs in sight, so as to avoid taking any that were not perfectly
fresh. The ground was then gone over every second day, and the
eggs were systematically picked up and shipped to market.

cs

1 Auk, V, p. 377, 1888.
® Science, VII, pp. 199-200, February 26, 1886.

242 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The business was in the hands of Italians and Greeks, who were also
engaged in fishing, and although only a dozen or fifteen ‘‘eggers” were
employed on the islands, the number of eggs gathered was simply enor-
mous. It is said that in 1854 more than 500,000 were sold in less than
two months, and that between 1850 and 1856 three or four million
were taken to San Francisco. Dr. Heermann states that the value of
the traffic was between $100,000 and $200,000, evidently too large an
estimate, even at the high price of eggs prevailing at that time. Sinee
then the value of the eggs has declined, and the number has also fallen
off considerably. In 1884 there were gathered 300,000; in 1886 about
108,000; while in 1896 the crop was reduced to a little less than 92,000.

The Farallones being a Government light-house reservation, the
‘‘eggers” were allowed on the islands only by sufferanee. From 1850
to 1880 the Farallone Egg Company remained in almost undisputed
sway, but were dispossessed in 1881 by the light-house authorities.
Afterwards the keepers employed men to gather the eggs, but in 1897
the attention of the Light-House Board was called to the decreasing
numbers of birds, and instructions were promptly issued prohibiting
further gathering of eggs for market, thus practically putting an end
to the business forthe present. Full accounts of the methods employed
in this remarkable traffic may be found in the interesting papers of
Bryant and Loomis,' from which the above facts have been mainly
derived.

FEATHERS.

The fashion of wearing feathers and birds on hats has increased to
such an extent during recent years as to cause an immense demand
for birds and plumes to supply the millinery trade. The saying that
a bird which has become fashionable is doomed to almost certain
extinction is exemplified by the great decrease in numbers of terns
along the Atlantic coast and herons of the Gulf States within the last
twenty years. Attention was called to this wholesale destruction by
the American Ornithologists’ Union in 1886,? and the devastation of
the Florida heronries and the barbarous methods of the plume hunters
were vividly described by Scott in 1887 in a series of papers entitled
‘The present condition of some of the bird rookeries of the Gulf coast
of Florida.” 3

Terns of several species were formerly abundant along the coast
from Florida to New England. The common tern (Sterna hirundo)
and the least tern (S. antillarwm) bred abundantly on the New Jersey
coast, but, according to Stone, both were nearly exterminated about
1885 to supply the millinery trade. As an example of the wholesale
destruction of birds, Scott mentions a contract made by two men
on Tampa Bay, Florida, for the delivery of 30,000 terns in a singly

PTOG; Cal. Acad. Sel ed ser., I, pp. 31-36, 1888; ae pp. ). 356- 808, 1896,
*Science, VII, pp. 191-205, 1886.
3 Auk, IV, pp. 135, 218, 278, 1887.

A REVIEW OF ECONOMIC ORNITITOLOGY. 273

season. Similar contracts have been made on the coast of Virginia;
and from Seaford, Long Island, N. Y., more than 3,000 terns were
sent to market during the summer of 1883 by one gunner and his
associates, while about the same time 40,000 are said to have been
killed on Cape Cod, Mass. The results of such slaughter were
swift and sure. An examination of the grounds about the mouth of
Tampa Bay and the bars off Pass Agrille, on the west coast of Florida,
in the summer of 1888 showed that not a tern of any kind was breed-
ing where countless numbers had nested only a few years before.?
Of the northern coast, Chapman says in 1895 ‘‘this little barren,
uninhabited sand island [Gull Island, off Long Island]—only a few
acres in extent—and Muskeget Island, off the Massachusetts coast, are
the only localities from New Jersey to Maine where the once abundant
common tern, or sea swallow, can be found inany numbers. [Each of
these islands now has a keeper who is paid to protect the terns. }
What an illustration of the results of man’s greed and woman’s
thoughtlessness!”?

But the destruction of herons has been, if possible,even worse. The
only heron feathers of any value are the nuptial plumes, commonly
known as aigrettes, and in order to secure these plumes at their best
the birds are killed on the breeding grounds soon after the eggs are
laid or the young hatched. As the herons nest in colonies, it is
often an easy matter to kill a large number by the use of rifles of
small caliber. The American egret (Ardea egretla) and the snowy
egret (A. candidissima) furnish the finest aigrettes, and consequently
have suffered most severely; to-day the latter species is the rarest
heron in the South.

Scott speaks of finding herons abundant in 1880 at a number of
large rookeries on the west coast of Florida, but in 1886 the same
breeding grounds were almost deserted or marked by piles of dead
and decaying birds. The slaughter which had begun at least two
years before was then still under way, and a price had been set on every
bird of any value to the plume hunters. One man who had visited
Florida for four seasons was employing from 40 to 60 gunners, to
whom he furnished supplies and paid from 20 cents to $2.50 apiece
for desirable skins, the average price being about 40 cents. Besides
the plume birds, such as herons, ibises, and roseate spoonbills, vari-
ous others—sandpipers, plovers, turnstones, least terns, boat-tailed
grackles, gray king birds, and even owls—were killed for the Northern
market.* ‘‘I have heard a ‘plume hunter,’” says Chapman, ‘boast
of killing 300 herons in a rookeryin one afternoon. Another proudly
stated that he and his companions had killed 130,000 birds—herons,
egrets, and terns—during one winter. But the destruction of these
birds is an unpleasant subject. It is a blot on Florida’s history.”

—_—

1Scott, Auk, V, p. 376. 3 Auk, IV, pp. 141 and 277.
? Birds East. N. Am., p. 82. +Birds East. N. Am., pp. 133-134.
1 a 99—18

274 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Unfortunately, the demands of the millinery trade are not confined
to plume birds and terns or to any particular State, and the slaughter
_so destructive to the Florida herons is being repeated in less degree
in several sections of the country in the case of other birds.

Among the few redeeming features of the feather trade should be
mentioned the establishment of a new industry through the introdue-
tion of the South African ostrich (Struthio australis). The first birds,
22 in number, reached New York in December, 1882, and a few
months later were placed on a farm near Anaheim, Cal. In 1899

here were several ostrich farms in southern California, and one each

in Arizona, Florida, Texas, and the Hawaiian Islands. Although
ostrich farming in the United States has passed through many vicissi-
tudes and is still in its infancy, the important fact has been demon-
strated that ostrich feathers can be produced in this country which
are equal to the best grades imported from abroad.

GUANO.

Alexander von Humboldt, returning from his extended travels in
tropical America in 1804, carried to Europe some samples of bird
dung, or guano, and first called attention tothe value of the extensive
deposits of this substance on the Chincha Islands, off the coast of
Peru. The announcement excited little interest at the time, but its
importance was realized forty years later, when guano revolutionized
methods in agriculture and furnished a new source of revenue for cor-
porations, and even nations, chief among the latter being Peru, which
for several years depended largely on the income from the Chincha
Island deposits to pay the interest on her national debt. In the early
fifties guano became the subject of diplomatic correspondence between
the United States and Peru and Venezuela; but the negotiations fail-
ing to secure the desired reduction in price of Peruvian guano, depos-
its were sought elsewhere. Finally, Congress was induced to take
action, which resulted in the taking possession by private persons under
the protection of the United States of a number of small guano islands
in the West Indies and in the South Pacifie.

Deposits of the excrement of sea birds occur on rocky islands in
various parts of the world in nearly all latitudes; but guano of com-
mercial value is limited chiefly to the rainless regions of the Tropics,
usually within a few degrees of the equator. Its fertilizing value lies
in the presence of nitrogen, phosphates, and a small amount of potash.
Under a tropical sun the excrement. dries rapidly and undergoes
little change, whereas in moist climates fermentation speedily sets
in, resulting in a loss of nearly all the organic matter, while the sol-
uble alkalies and phosphates are leached out. Guano may therefore
be divided into two main classes: (1) Nitrogenous, represented by
Peruvian guano, which has undergone little change; (2) phosphatie,

[nrnyouoyy ‘sure, “ff Aq ydersoioqd)

“y

| NVSAV7] NO (SITISVLAWWI V2QSWOIQ) SASSOYULYS

"HY ‘ONS

Yearbook U S, Dept. of Agriculture, 1899.

PLaTe VII.

.

A REVIEW OF ECONOMIC ORNITHOLOGY. 275

represented by Baker Island guano, which has lost everything of
manurial value except the insoluble phosphate of lime.!

Concerning the species of birds to which we owe these valuable
deposits, comparatively little accurate information is available, chiefly
because most of the islands are mere rocks or reefs, uninhabited and
inaccessible, and seldom visited by ornithologists. Laysan Island, in
the Hawaiian group, which has been thoroughly explored, is known
to be the resort of myriads of albatrosses (Pl. VII), man-o’-war birds,
pelicans, tropic birds, gannets, terns, and petrels. Besides these
species, shearwaters, gulls, and penguins occur in immense numbers
on some of the islands off South America and Afriea.

The importance of guano as a fertilizer was recognized by the Pe-
ruvians more than three centuries ago. Under the Ineas it was
held in such high esteem that the deposits on the Chincha Islands
were jealously guarded, and the birds which resorted to these rocks
were carefully protected. Indeed, it is said that the penalty of death
was inflicted on anyone killing the birds near the deposits during the
breeding season. Guano was the first of the artificial manures to be
used in large quantities, and hence may be said to have brought
about the modern system of intensive cultivation. The earliest ex-
periments with it in the United States seem to have been made in
December, 1824, with samples from 2 barrels distributed by Hon. John
S. Skinner, editor of the American Farmer.’ Its introduction into
England in 1840 was due to Lord Derby. So rapidly did it increase
in favor that ten years later the imports amounted to 200,000 tons.
It is estimated that this total has since grown to more than 5,000,000
tons. Atthe inception of the export trade in guano from the Chincha
Islands, about 1840, the supply seemed inexhaustible. The deposits
covered the three islands in some places to a depth of 90 or 100 feet,
estimated at 12,576,100 tons, according to an official survey made by
the Peruvian Government in 1853. But so great was the demand for
the new and powerful soil stimulant that this enormous quantity has
now been practically exhausted.

The extraordinary demand caused a rapid increase in the price.
By 1850 it had advanced in the United States to $50 or more per ton,
and negotiations were opened with the Peruvian Government in the
hope of securing a reduction in the rate. Failing to attain the object
in this way, American enterprise began to seek guano elsewhere, and in
1854 the deposits on the Aves Islands, in the West Indies, were taken
possession of by a Boston firm. Venezuela promptly seized the
islands, but after some correspondence abandoned her claim. Mean-
time, in September, 1855, the American Guano Company of New
York was organized, with a capital of $10,000,000, for the purpose of

1Aikman, Manures and Manuring, pp. 296-300, 1894.
“American Farmer, VI, pp. 816-317, 1824.

ee

2976 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

developing the deposits on Baker and Jarvis islands, in the South
Pacific; and on August 18, 1856, Congress passed an ‘‘ act to authorize
protection to be given to citizens of the United States who may dis-
cover guano,” ! under which any citizen of the United States was
authorized to take possession of and occupy any unclaimed island,
rock, or key containing guano, upon filing a notice of such claim and
a bond to insure compliance with the requirements of the law. The
discoverers of such islands were entitled to exclusive rights to the
deposits thereon, but the guano could only be removed for the use of
citizens of the United States and at a price not exceeding $8 per ton
alongside the vessel, or $4 per ton on the spot. Imports were subject
to the laws governing the coasting trade of the United States, and the
Government was relieved from the necessity of protecting or retain-
ing possession of any island, rock, or key after the guano had beea
removed. Thus far, claims have been filed to about seventy-five
islands in the Caribbean Sea and the South Pacific, as shown by the
following list:

List of guano islands now appertaining to the United States.?

[Bonded under act of August, 1856. ]

PACIFIC ISLANDS.

|
| Name. Latitude. | Longitude. | Name. Latitude. | Longitude.
ey, op aw | | oo” ou

America 2.52222. 340 N.| 159 28 W. || Groninque -.--...-.| 1000S. | 156 44 W.
IANINGS cee oreca- ee 9 49S. 151 15 W. || Howland,*or Now- |
Baker, or New | land cuolesaecece-| 1082) Sie ae

Nantucket------- 15 N.| 176 30 W. || Humphrey --------- 10 40 S..| 160 52 W.
Barber ......------- 8 54.N.| 178 00 W. || Jarvis ......-------- 021 S.| 159 52 W.
Barren, or Starve - 5 40 S. 155 55 W. || Johnston -.. .... ---=)25--2- ==
Bauman: 25-5. ee 11 48 §. 154 10 W. || Kemn -_____--------- 4418. 73 44 W.
IBiEnie) So eens 3 35 S. 171 39 W. || Lideron --.-----.--- 11 05 S. | 161 50 W.
@anoline-2----25: = 9 54S. ToD OF We || iltowscce2 ee ee 9 33S. | 170 38 W.
@hristmas \--.<=s->- 158 N.; 157 10 W. }| McKean (Phenix |
Glarence st 3.ccee- ss 9 07 S. 171 40 W. SLOUP) =e = —s 3835S. | 17417 W.
Dangerous....-.---| 1000S. 165.56-W. || Mackin 22222 - 2-252 3 02 N.| 172 46 W.
Dangers Rock ----- 630 N.| 162 23 W. || Malden -..---------- 400 S. | 155 00 W.
Davida. soe 40 N.| 170 10 W. || Mary Letitia ------- 4 40S. | 173 20 W.
Duke of York.--.--- 8 30S. V2 AGW. fl) Miairy.2 a2) ere ee 253 S. | 172 00 W.-
Enderbury (Phe- Mathew: ---25-=-22=2 203 N.| 173 26 W.

Mix: roup)o_s-ea= 3 08 S. 171 08 W. |) Nassau .-.:---------] 11 30'S. | 165: 30).We
Warmer 2p --ee=see 3 00 S. 17050 Wie |) Palmiyra- se 5 48 N.| 162 20 W.
Mav Orie s22- oases 2 50 S. 176 40 W. || Penrhyn ----------- 8 55S. | 158 07 W.
RING Cs see 10 32 S. 162 05 W. || Pescado .-.-.-.------- 10 88 S. | 159 20 W.
LAU ay rs pee So 11 26 S. 151) 48 (W..)|| Phoonix: 2222222 5=-= 3 40.S. | 170 52 W.
Hrances= 22-252 55-5 9 58 S. 161 40 W. || Prospect -------.--- 4 42 N.| 161 38 W.
Frienhaven-.---._--- 10 00 S. 15659 W.. || Quiros---2---5--=-s- 10 32S. | 170 12 W.
Galiero) 48-2 2 o-ce- 1 42 N:| -104'05°W... || Reirson. £22----se-e- 10 10 S. | 160 583 W.
Gangregss.- tons 8 10 59 S. 160 55 W. || Rogewein -------.-- 11 00 S. | 156 07 W.
Gardner (Phoenix Samarang =--..----- 510 N.| 162 20 W.

Broup)ic.s-.0 22-5 4 40S. 174 52 W. || Sarah Anne ..--.---- 400 N.| 154 22 W.

141 Stat. L., 119. ? From data on file in the Treasury Department.

ee

PLATE VIII.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899,

Mure «~
Levu—=

Ly

‘

|
|
s.

_- Ono

Reid IS

+ Ongea

a Vavu
Seo eke
Vatoa -F =" Hapa

wTongalabu

. Nute
gel

. Beveridg
Heryey or Cook IS

* Arusenstern R*® A
lok
ws Me
Pa
. HAWAIIAN Is
2\ Hawaii a
13675,
~ ad 7 4
Sehjetman R* ‘ohnston I
ED
Kingman Sh @
*Palmyra 1.
————
Washington
oPanning I
2 Christmas I.
. Howland Inz
taker I
+ Jarvis J
PD
prenix |:
* \ Enderbury 1°
2M°Kean® © Pharux > Malden I.
ina Gardner |. + Sidney 1
eauges —_—_—_—— ——— Fill
S- : uUlippo
Spetden - Starbuck © Pape
Netherland |
- Tracy tclortia
2 es
Se Ellice Dof York Is
nm sElu . of York
s Union 2 cenrhpril :
’ GrP * « Bowdilch /4 rl é Caroline Is
G Vostok —
and ostok . :
t
ihe Robbie Gf Hermosa *,
“Nassau
Toa = Adolph -Taviunt —
eA Sa aor
Rotumah Fld No Navigs, © Suvarov |
mae
Horneso Manua
Ut, , “Rose
FIgits ae
Vanua Levi “Boscawen
2 A 200
- See! ay yploring Js Paula
ae ~Amarqura Slop,
-Antiope

PRINCIPAL GUANO ISLANDS IN THE PACIFIC OCEAN (BONDED UNDER ACT OF 1856).
of the United States Hydrographic Office. Names of bonded islands underlined. ]}

Sy

[From Chart 923

A REVIEW OF ECONOMIC ORNITHOLOGY 277

List of guano islands now appertaining to the United States—Continued.

PACIFIC ISLAN DS—Continued.

| Name. bafitnde. | Longitude. | Name. | Latitude. | Longitude.
| | |
= —|— aes TPeDos :
> Ci | o 7 ° , |
Sidney (Phoenix | Walker---sseo—- =~ 358 N.| 149 10 W.

|
}
]
|
|
| : |
group).----------| 420 S. | 17100 W. || Washington, or
Starbuck, or Hero | 52>. S: | 155 56 W. || haha se 440 N.| 160 07 W.
Siaver --.--.------- 10 05 S. | 152 16 W. |

-_— — — a — 4

WEST INDIES.

| ° , } ° / il | ° , ° /
Anchor Key ------- | 1418 N. 80 08 W. || North Rocks.......| 1420 N. | 80 26 W.
i Sia | 1540 N.| 6337 W. || Pedro Keys -...---- 1700 N.| 77 52 W.
| } ~
‘

‘
Booby Key. -------- | lt it N.| 80320 W. \ Petre! cs -- se === 1552 N. | 7833 W. |
| Great and Little | Quito Sereno------- 14 30 N. | 81 07 W. |
"hs Sal eae at coe 83 50 W. || Roncador .--------- 13.33 N.| 8003 W. |
Morant Keys | | Serrana Key ..----.| M15 N.| 8024 W. |
(Northeast, Sand, | | Serranilla Keys | |
- Savanna, Seal)..-| 1726 N.| 77 55 w. || (East, Middle, |
Navassa .....------- | 1810 N.| 7500 W. || Beacon) ..-------- 15 20 N. | 79 40 W.

North Keys..---.--- 14 25 N. 80 20 W. || Triangle Keys -----| l4 20 N. 80 05 W.

Fifty-four of these islands are in the Pacifie Ocean (see map, Pi:
VIII), the remainder in the Caribbean Sea or the Gulf of Mexico. Of
the Pacific islands, Baker and Jarvis were bonded in 1856, Howland in
1858, Barren, Christmas, Enderbury, Johnston, McKean, Malden, and
Phenix in 1859, and the others in 1860. The Pacifie islands! are
situated between longitude 150° and 178° W., the most northern
being the Johnston Islands, latitude 16° 53 N.; the most southern,
Bauman, latitude 11° 48'S. Most of them are between the Society and
Hawaiian islands, and are chiefly small coral reefs, a mile or two in
length, almost entirely destitute of vegetation. Oneof the most north-
ern guano deposits, which has been successfully developed, is that on
Laysan, a small island 3 miles long by 24 broad, in latitude 26°, which
has recently been acquired through the annexation of Hawaii.

As would naturally be supposed, the extent and value of some of
the deposits were at first ereatly exaggerated, while others proved to
have little value, and, as in the case of the Alacran Rocks, in the
Caribbean Sea, were afterward abandoned. In an interesting article
on the Pacifie guano islands, Hague, who had visited a number of them,
states that the first cargoes of guano brought from the Johnston Islands
proved to be sand; that samples of guano from Christmas Island were
chiefly coral sand, and that the deposits on Starbuck, or Hero, consisted
of hydrated sulphate of lime. Some of the islands are covered with
vegetation, and hence unsuited for the deposition of guano, while
others, such as David, Farmer, Favorite, Flint, Samarang, Sarah Anne,
and Walker, Hague considered as probably nonexistant, at least in the

1 Except Gallego, which is in the eastern Pacific in longitude 104° 09° and north-
west of the Galapagos Islands.

978 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

positions usually assigned them on charts.’ Still, during the thirty
years from 1869 to 1898, 283,871 tons of guano, valued at $3,229,832,
were brought from the islands appertaining to the United States. The
production was very irregular, varying from a minimum in 1890 of
1,176 tons, worth $9,577, to a maximum in 1878 of 17,930 tons, valued
at $211,239. The returns for each year are shown in the following
table:

zuano brought from islands appertaining to the United States for the years ending
June 30, from 1869 to 1898, inclusive.!

Year. Tons. Value. | Year. Tons. Value. Year. Tons. Value.
1869 eae 15, 622 | $253,545 || 1880. .-..-. 12,795 | $147,051 || 1891 _.--..- 15,857 | $101,918
18702 s2-25| 17,068") 892,072 || 188Ie aaa 16,883 | 179,882 || 1892 ------- 4, 288 26, 032
Othe asez 14,154 | 240,235 |e S BD seen ass 15,249 | 160,016 |) 1893 __-..--. 4,376 26, 256
Shas see 4, 209 60,865 || 1883_.-_..- 7,873 92,130 || 1894 .....-- 5, 137 31,190
TG eae 11,014 | 161,690 || 1884. .-_._. 9,333 | 106,431 || 1895 -.---- 8, 082 48, 164
1S: Saas 6,877 | 100,845. || 1885. ---.-- 12,100 865166) [1896-2 -- == 6, 929 37,374 |
spite eee 269) |) 122.012) 1886eeee. = 5,770 38, 839 || 1897 .-...-- 5,310 31, 860
its y(}) sae 14, 785 192, 9727) 1887_ =... 2 8, 226 Bonet th 1698 = 2 oso 4, 562 27, 372
svt eas 6, 060 9, 822 PAG88eneaee= 5, 765 41, 226 Total _.| 283, 871. 3, 229, 832
koi eserseee 17,930 | 211,239 || 1889.._...-. 10, 459 72, 643
1SFoL eee -: 8, 733 95,137 || 1890......- 1,176 9,577

1Data furnished by the Bureau of Statistics, Treasury Department. The returns for 1859 to
1898 are published in *‘ Commerce and Navigation of the United States,” p. 690, 1899.

Besides the guano deposits belonging to the United States, there are
others in various parts of the world, among which may be mentioned
those along the coast of Lower California, on the Galapagos, and, the
most important of all, the Chincha Islands in latitude 13° 38’ S.,
Guanape, Lobos, and others belonging to Peru. Valuable deposits
have been found along the coasts of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador,
and Bolivia. Guano has also been obtained from Shark Bay and
Swan Island, Australia; Algoa Bay and Saldanha Bay, Cape Colony;
Ascension and Ichaboe islands, off the west coast of Africa, and Kuria
Muria, on the Arabian coast. Some of the best deposits have now
been exhausted; those which remain are expensive compared with
the better artificial fertilizers now in use; but a small amount of
guano is still brought from some of the islands and imported from
abroad, a reminder of the important trade of forty or fifty years ago.

MEASURES FOR THE DESTRUCTION, PRESERVATION, AND INTRO-
DUCTION OF DIRDS.

A review of the progress of economic ornithology would searcely be
complete without some reference to the attempts which have been made’
to destroy injurious birds or to increase benefieial species. Naturally,
attention was first directed to the damage done by birds to crops, and
bounties were paid for the destruction of the marauders. Later, as the

1Am. Journ. Sci., XXXIV, pp. 224-243, 1862.

A REVIEW OF ECONOMIC ORNITHOLOGY. 279

country became settled and the value of birds better appreciated,
attempts were made to protect useful species, and also to introduce
other species that were thought desirable. The subject may therefore
be considered under three heads: (1) Measures for the destruction of
birds—bounty laws; (2) measures for the protection of birds—game
laws; and, (3) introduction of foreign birds.

MEASURES FOR THE DESTRUCTION OF BIRDS—BOUNTY LAWS.

Efforts have been made since colonial days to exterminate certain
birds considered injurious to agriculture. The early settlers, seeing
their crops attacked by crows, blackbirds, and ricebirds, undertook
measures for bird destruction long before they thought of bird pro-
tection. Among the various relief measures were the curious scalp-
tax acts, which were intermittently in force in Virginia for more than
seventy years subsequent to 1734, and which required a certain nun-
ber of bird scalps each year in lieu of taxes. In most localities, how-
ever, the apparently simple expedient of drawing on the county or
State treasury for the payment of rewards was more popular and more
generally adopted. Sixteen or more States (all but two east of the
Missouri River and north of latitude 36°) have waged a desultory
warfare against crows, blackbirds, hawks, owls, certain fish-eating
birds, and English sparrows. Crow bounties have been offered in
eight States, mainly along the Atlantic seaboard; hawk bounties 1n
ten, chiefly in the Middle States and in those along the Great Lakes,
premiums on blackbirds in Minnesota and New Jersey; on fish-eating
birds in Utah, and on sparrows in Illinois, Michigan, Ohio, and Utah.

Until recently depredations on grain crops were the main cause of
hostility to birds; and the crow was the principal object of attack
down to the latter part of the present century. In 1805 a crow-scalp
tax was in force in Virginia, under which taxpayers in five counties
were required to deliver three crow scalps annually or pay a penalty
of 44 cents for each missing scalp. In 1826 a premium of 8 cents on
crows was paid by some of the counties of Virginia, and two years
later by the whole State. Meantime, Delaware had authorized the
creation of a crow-bounty fund in Neweastle County as early as 1810,
and New Hampshire had established a premium of 12} cents on crows
in 1817-1819. Some years later New Hampshire reestablished the
rewards, and subsequently offered premiums of 10 cents in 1829,
1832-1835, and 1849-1851. Maine followed next with an 8-cent bounty,
which was in force from 1830 to 1834. The only recent crow bounties
of consequence are those of New Hampshire (1881-1883) and Maine
(1889-1891)—10 cents in each case.

From the earliest colonial times down to 1875 crows, blackbirds, and
bobolinks, or ricebirds, had been the main, if not the only, subjects
of adverse legislation, but in that year Delaware established the prec-
edent of paying premiums on hawks and owls by offering 50 cents
for all species except ‘‘fishhawks and mouse owls.” These hawk

98() YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

bounties, which were very popular during the succeeding fifteen years,
have probably done more harm than any others. In 1877 Delaware’s
example was followed by Colorado with an act offering a 25-cent
bounty on hawks (in foree until 1885) and by New Hampshire with
one offering a 20-cent bounty (in force until 1881). West Virginia
followed in 1881, Indiana in 1883, and Virginia in 1884. Tinally, in
1885, Pennsylvania passed its famous scalp act, which resulted in
such large expenditures and such glaring frauds that it attracted
widespread attention, and was repealed eighteen months later. Since
then hawk and owl bounties have been far less popular, and the acts
which still remain on the statute books of three or four States are
practically dead letters, being enforced in only a few localities.

In 1887 attention was turned to the English sparrow as a legitimate
subject for bounty legislation. Michigan began by paying 1 cent
apiece for sparrows, and two years later increased the amount to 3
cents. Utah offered one-fourth of a cent apiece and Ohio 10 cents per
dozen in 1888, and both States doubled their rewards in 1890. Ilinois
has paid 2 cents since 1891 on all English sparrows killed in Decem-
ber, January, and February. In 1896 Utah inereased its bounty,
allowing 1 to 3 cents, and established a rate of 5 cents per dozen on
eggs. Sparrow bounties are still maintained in these four States, and
have resulted in large expenditures; but they have not exterminated
the English sparrow or even caused a perceptible diminution in its
numbers except in a few localities. On the other hand, these bounties
have caused the destruction of a large number of native sparrows,
which have been killed for the sake of the rewards.

A dangerous precedent has recently been set by Utah in placing
premiums on fish-eating birds, such as fishhawks, herons, mergansers,
' pelicans, and loons, in the interest of owners of fish ponds and hateh-
eries. The act has not been in force long enough to have much effect,
but.experience in Europe has shown the abuses to which such laws
are subject and the evils in which they are likely to result.

The following table contains a list of the principal bounty laws on
birds which have been in force during the century; local acts, such
as the township bounties in Michigan, and the special county boun-
ties in Marylaud, Virginia, and one or two other States, are omitted:

Principal bounty laws on birds in force from 1800 to 1899.

State. In force. Species. Remarks.

@oloradouse-ooo==- 1877-1885 | Hawks -..---.---.. 25 cents.

Delaware -.------- 1810 @LrOWS 22s tsneoase=s Newcastle County.
1847-1852 |_..-- GOne ee ee 4 cents, March to September.
1852-1873 |.-..- doe see 4 cents.
1875-1877 | Hawks and owls---.| 50 cents (fishhawks and ‘mouse

owls” excepted).
NGOs = 2 <n2n5 1891-1859 | English sparrows-.-| 2 cents, December to February.

A REVIEW OF ECONOMIC ORNITHOLOGY. 281

Principal bounty laws on birds in force from 1800 to 1899— Continued.

State. In force. Species. Remarks.
Padiana. - =.=... - 1883-1899 | Hawks and owls__.| Not exceeding §2 (sparrow hawks
and screech owls excepted).
KMamisas) 22... 222% 1889 Crows....-----.----| Crawford County.
luiiaime = 2-2--2...| 1830-1834 }).....- oe eae ee eae 8 cents.
ibs aS DY Se ar Vo ee 10 cents, April to Oetober.
), Laie Ue Se eres Crowsand hawks. -
Minehi pan” >. -./.-- 1869 -..--- «-----.--.-.--.-| Township bounties authorized.

1887-1899 | English sparrows-..| 1 cent; 1889, 3 cents; 1895, 2 cents;

November to March since 1893.

Minnesota --...-.- 1885 Le) eet he Od (eee

HSSi 8 fiessoS “oko eee ane -| 10 cents per dozen, April to June; 5
cents, July to October.

New Hampshire..| 1317-1819 | Crows......-...-.-- 121 cents. -
1820) Sy. psec. (OG) A CST ae ae 10 cents, April to June.
1127-23 bh RT o Uo, en 10 cents, March 20 to July 20.
1849-1851 | ....do.-..-.........| 10 cents, April 15 to June 15.
1877-1881 | Hawks ._-..........| 20 cents.
1893-1897 |..--- OGecen s+ .>..=-|.20 cents:

BB Win OMBOY s—-.2-|--~--5- .--=<- Blackbirds, crows

atG=sh=2~a5---<---| Lool=lese | Bawks ..-..-- <..... 50 cents. |

1882-1883 | Hawks and horned | 50 cents (‘shen, chicken, or bird
owls. hawks,” only).
1888-1899 | English sparrows 10 cents per dozen; since 1890, 20

cents per dozen.

Pennsylvania- ---- 1885-1887 | Hawks and owls-..| 5!) cents.

Uno fae 1888-1899 | Englishsparrows-.| } cent; 1890, } cent; 1896, 1 to 3 cents,
eggs, 5 cents per dozen.

1896-1899 | Fishhawks, herons,} 10 to 25 cents; since 1897, 25 cents.

fishducks, loons.
Void 1826-18— | Crows..............| 8 cents; 5 counties in 1826; general
in 1828.

1849-18— | Blackbirds, crows.
1884-1899 | Chicken hawksand| 50 cents (screech owls excepted).
. owls.

West Virginia ....| 1881-18— Hawks and owls...

It has been deemed expedient to review this legislation in detail in
order to correct the misapprehension that bounty laws are few in num-
ber or unimportant. More than forty such laws on birds have been
in force during the century, but, besides the Pennsylvania scalp act
and a few others, very little information is accessible concerning
them. There is still a general demand for bounties on certain birds,
as taxpayers ordinarily know little about the cost or the results of
such legislation.

Though the average bounty law seldom remains in force more than
two or four years, it may prove a costly experiment and do much
harm. Maine spent more than $12,000 in her two attempts at crow
extermination in 1830-1854 and 1889-1891, Illinois more than $55,000
for English sparrows in 1891-1896, Michigan about $61,800 for Eng-
lish sparrows in 1887-1895, and Pennsylvania about $90,000 for hawks

282 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and owls in 1885-1887. Altogether it is safe to say that the systematic
destruction of birds in this country during the century has cost more
than $250,000, and most of this money has been spent by half a dozen
States during the last fifteen years. Since the exposure of the evils
of the Pennsylvania scalp act there has been a tendency to repeal
bounties on useful birds of prey, and so far as possible, to provide
against fraud. Premiums on crows and blackbirds have been practi-
cally abandoned, and almost the only important ones still in force are
those on the English sparrow.

MEASURES FOR THE PROTECTION OF BIRDS—GAME LAWS.

It was said some years ago that the United States had done less for
the protection of its birds than any other civilized country. If this
is still true, it certainly is not because of lack of legislation, for nearly
all the States have enacted game laws, and frequently changed themas
their defects have become apparent. Statutory law is notoriously
erratic and unstable, and with forty-eight States and Territories, each
attempting to protect its game in its own way, confusion has naturally
arisen. Protective measures have rarely, if ever, fulfilled expectations,
and consequently game and insectivorous birds have continued to
decrease. Federal legislation has been advocated as the only remedy,
but its feasibility is questionable, since the jurisdiction of Congress
in ordinary cases extends only to the Territories and Government
reservations.

The need of protective measures has long been recognized, and
although the uniformity attained by other countries has not been
secured in the United States, definite progress has been made, as will
be seen from the following brief review: In the present century Mas-
sachusetts, as early as 1818, enacted a law for the preservation of
game birds; Virginia in 1832 prohibited the killing of wild fowl at
night on the water and forbade the use of swivel guns; in 1850 Con-
necticut and New Jersey protected insectivorous birds; and in 1857
Ohio passed a comprehensive law protecting both game and insectiy-
orous birdsand eggs of all species, and prohibiting the sale of game birds
during close seasons. By 1864 similar laws were in force in all the
States south to Maryland and west to Minnesota, excepting West Vir-
ginia and Indiana, and also in California. Several of these acts
related solely to game birds, and those of Illinois and Maryland were
enforced only in certain counties.! At the present day practically all
the States and Territories endeavor to protect game, and most of them
extend protection to insectivorous birds.

CRITICISM OF GAME LEGISLATION,

Game laws have suffered in popular estimation because they have
not been systematically enforced; because, as sometimes alleged, they

'Dodge, Rept. Comm. Agr., pp. 442-446, 1864.

A REVIEW OF ECONOMIC ORNITHOLOGY. 283

are enacted for selfish ends, and because they lack stability and uni-
formity. The enactment of a game law is only a beginning, and
unless some one is charged with seeing that its provisions are carried
out, it is almost certain to be a failure; nor can it be entirely successful
unless supported by public sentiment. The appointment of salaried
game wardens has overcome the first difficulty to some extent.

Credit for much that has been accomplished in protective legisla-
tion is due to sportsmen and game associations, but their efforts have
not always been appreciated, and have even been misconstrued from
the belief that other interests have been overlooked. The relation of
the sportsman to the farmer was aptly stated in the State senate report
on the Ohio game bill of 1861, as follows:

The genuine and honorable sportsman is the friend and ally of the agriculturist.
He will be found always ready to protect birds which are useful, destroy the rapa-
cious and hurtful, to prevent trespasses, and enforcethe laws.! * * * The pur-«
suit of game can not be prevented, and it is useless toattempt it. It should be
regulated, and for this purpose the highest skill and knowledge of the habits of
birds and wild animals should be employed, the most reasonable and perfect rules
established by statute, and all should unite in their rigid enforcement. Any other
system will result in disappointment and failure.

The principles on which such statutes should be based were defined
as (1) protection of useful birds, other than game, at all seasons; (2)
protection of game birds in such manner as to promote their reason-
able increase; (3) withdrawal of protection from species of doubtful
value; (4) use of well-known names in the statutes to avoid confu-
sion.* Another common criticism is that game laws are subject to fre-
quent change. This is, unfortunately, true, but there have been
notable exceptions, such as the act recently repealed in the District
of Columbia, which remained in force twenty-one years, and the
Indiana and Louisiana statutes of 1881 and 1877, respectively, which
are still in force. However, permanency without effectiveness is of
little value.

EFFORTS AT UNIFORMITY IN GAME LAWS.

Repeated efforts have been made to bring about greater uniformity
in the various State laws, including those protecting insectivorous
birds. The International Association for the Protection of Fish and
Game, organized in May, 1875, and comprising representatives from
thirty-eight States and Territories and Canada, prepared in 1877 a
simplified code of cooperative laws for presentation to State legisla-
tures, but then allowed the matter to drop. Between 1890 and 1896
half a dozen conferences of State commissions were held, but they

'This relation is exemplified by the Connecticut Association of Farmers and
Sportsmen for the Protection of Fish and Game, which has for its objects not only
the preservation of game and the enforcement of game laws, but also the protec-
tion of farmers against trespassers and marauders who tear down fences or injure
stock. This association has been in existence ten years.

* Collins, Fifteenth Ann, Rept. Ohio Board Agr. for 1860, pp. 383, 390, 1861.

984 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

accomplished little of permanent value, although at the Saratoga
meeting of 1896 no less than thirteen States were represented. In the
following year the ‘‘ Hallock Code” of cooperative legislation was
advocated by Mr. Charles Hallock. This scheme divides the United
States into three ‘‘ concessions”! (a northern and southern, compris-
ing States, respectively, north and south of latitude 36° 30’ and east
of the Rocky Mountains; and a Pacific, including the region west of
the Rocky Mountains), in each ‘‘ concession” the laws to be as uniform
as possible, the open seasons identical, and protection to be given
inseetivorous birds, but withheld from blackbirds, bobolinks, crows,
hawks, owls, cormorants, pelicans, and English sparrows. *

To a certain extent this idea was carried out by a convention of
game wardens and delegates from six Northwestern States held at
Chicago in February, 1898, which drafted a bill for the protection of
birds and game and agreed to urge its adoption by the respective State
legislatures. This bill was enacted by [llinois in 1899.

As an illustration of the present lack of uniformity in game laws
and the desirability of some such expedient as that provided by the
Hallock Code, the accompanying diagram (fig. 3) has been prepared,
showing the months in which woodecock (Philohela minor) may be
killed in the United States. It will be noticed that twelve States
have no protective laws for this species, so that the birds can be killed
at any season; that while some States, like Michigan and North Da-
kota, limit the open season to six weeks, others extend it to six months
or more; and that in the South where the birds winter and begin to
breed early and thus need protection most, protective measures are
least effective. The States are arranged in two groups, as suggested
in the Code.

SPECIAL RESTRICTIONS.

Game laws, pure and simple, when properly enforced, may be very
effective, as is well shown in the increase of such resident birds as
quail and introduced pheasants. Both species are occasionally pro-
tected by close seasons of several years’ duration, and the open sea-
sons are usually short, that for quail averaging scarcely more than
two or three months. There seems to be a general impression that
migratory birds are so abundant that they require less protection, and
hence the open seasons for them are usually longer, those for ducks
ordinarily being five months or more. The result is becoming very
obvious in the recent marked decrease of these birds. It is interest-
ing to note that forty years ago the same plea was made regarding
the passenger pigeon, now practically exterminated. In a discussion
of the Ohio law of 1861 it was said the bird needed no protection.

1** We call it ‘concession,’ because it is based on compromise and reciprocity.” —
HALLOCcK,.

2 Address before the National Game, Bird, and Fish Protective Association, 1897
(see Western Field and Stream, I, pp. 232-234, 1897).

NORTHERN STATES.

A REVIEW OF ECONOMIC ORNITHOLOGY. 285

The passenger pigeon needs no protection. Wonderfully prolific, having the

vast forests of the North as its breeding grounds, traveling hundreds of miles in

[se on or oe ir no
re a

<= ca ea a DMM LL...
Fi bea Td FS)

Le tcl ee eae ee

New Hampshire. --.--

Mermonte- pata —.-. 2
Massachusetts. --- .---
Rhode Island. .--- -.---
Monnecticut ..-.....---
envan OF Ke =o... 5-2.
New Jersey ---------.
SS ran SQLS EIT ae see SM a a a ee a Le
Mpa ware = —:-......---
Maryland? _.__-...=-.
District of Columbia.

Mieeinin* =. 220.2% --2

LU
Lalit re =
Ui Ce
iMrascomsin: -- .-..5--*-
Minnesota .-....---.-.

Li 3a ae

South Dakota --_..--.-
North Dakota ._.. ___-

SOUTHERN STATES.

North Carolina. -.-....-

- ial

ee, 7a en ee
MUSSISSIppl..__. .-....- eee Ze eee
WNC (22 Whi Yj Y,
en ZLLLae LADLE

Beste one LALA ALL, LY oa

ANN

Oklahoma
Fia. 3.—Diagram illustrating lack of uniformity in game laws, as shown by laws protecting

woodcock (Philohela minor) in force in 1899: The unshaded-area shows the months when wood-
cock are protected; the shaded area, the open seasons when shooting is permitted by law.

search of food, it is here to-day and elsewhere to-morrow, and noordinary destruc-
tion can lessen them, or be missed from the myriads that are yearly produced.

1Loecal regulations in some counties provide a different season from that fixed by State law.

286 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

* * * The snipe, too, like the pigeon, will take care of itself, and its yearly
numbers can not be materially lessened by the gun. The wild goose does not,
perhaps, need general protection, though if any linger here till near breeding time
they should be spared.!

The chief causes of the decrease in game birds are spring shooting,
cold-storage traffic, and sale (during the close season) of birds imported
from other States. Of late years attention has been directed toward
the markets as the chief factor in game destruction, and in order to
prevent undue slaughter, the traffic in game has been restricted more
closely. Since the constitutionality of nonexport laws was estab-
lished by the Supreme Court in 1896,” nonexport clauses have been
quite generally incorporated in game laws, and the shipment of game
from one State to ancther is now restricted or prohibited in more than
half the States. Subjecting cold-storage rooms to inspection has been
advocated, and laws limiting the quantity of game that may be killed
in a day or a season were enacted by Iowa, Minnesota, and Pennsyl-
vania in 1897, and Colorado in 1899. Killing game for sale was pro-
hibited by law in Tennessee in 1889, and in Iowa and Pennsylvania
in 1897. It has even been suggested that the sale of game should be
prohibited at all seasons. This suggestion, advocated in 1894,°
seems to have met with some favor, for it was incorporated in the
laws of Kansas and Vermont two or three years ago, and has been
taken up by the League of American Sportsmen.

The necessity for restricting the list of game birds is still very urgent
‘in certain States. In the markets of New Orleans everything that has
feathers seems to be regarded as legitimate game. In some States
robins, flickers, meadowlarks, and reedbirds are important items of
game, and in California, where true reedbirds do not exist, no less
than a dozen species of native sparrows and finches, masquerading
under the name of reedbirds, have been identified in the markets of
San Francisco. This difficulty is met by the ‘‘Act for the protection
of birds,” proposed early in 1886 by a committee of the American
Ornithologists’ Union, which limits game birds to the Anatide—
swans, geese, and ducks; Rallide—rails, coots, and gallinules; Limi-
cole—plovers, snipe, woodeock, sandpipers, and curlew; and Gal-
line—turkeys, grouse, pheasants, and quail. Species not included in
these four groups are protected -at all seasons, but provision is made
for collecting specimens for scientific purposes. This act was prac-
tically adopted by New York in 1886, by Indiana in 1891, and by
illinois in 1899. With its exact definition of game birds and its pro-
tection of all other species, it does away with the difficulties attendant
upon the enforcement of laws protecting “song” or ‘‘insectivorous”
birds and obviates the necessity for special acts protecting species
that do not properly come within either of these groups. Florida and

1 Collins, Fifteenth Ann. Rept. Ohio Board Agr. for 1860, p. 387, 1861.
* Geer v. State of Connecticut, 161 U.S. 519.
* Forest and Stream, XLII, p. 89.

A REVIEW OF ECONOMIC ORNITHOLOGY. 287

Texas have special acts prohibiting the killing of “birds of plume,”
such as herons, egrets, and ibises; Maine, one prohibiting the killing
of terns; Maryland, Michigan, Oregon, Utah, and Virginia protect
gulls; several States, notably Alabama, Illinois, Pennsylvania, and
Utah, have begun to protect birds of prey, and a majority of States
now protect ‘‘insectivorous” birds. The uniform adoption of the
proposed act would greatly simplify legislation.

PROSPECT FOR ENFORCEMENT OF GAME LAWS.

With the present widespread interest in birds, there is every reason
to hope that in future laws will not be allowed to become dead letters.
Fish and game commissions, sportsmen’s associations, Audubon socie-
ties, farmers, and the general public are all interested in the eause
of bird protection.! In January, 1898, the League of American Sports-
men was organized for the special purpose of enforcing game laws and
protecting song and insectivorous birds. This association, which is
composed of representative sportsmen in all parts of the United
States, advocates the propagation of game and the enactment of laws
licensing guns, limiting the killing of game, and prohibiting the sale
of game at all seasons.’

INTRODUCTION OF FOREIGN BIRDS.

Much interest has been manifested in importing song birds and
game birds from other lands to supplement the list of native species
or replace those which are rapidly decreasing. Neither expense nor
failure prevents the frequent repetition of such experiments, although
searcely half a dozen of the thirty or forty introduced species have
really become acclimated in the United States. Besides the English
sparrow and the European tree sparrow, a score or more kinds of song
birds and ten or twelve of game birds have been imported at various
times.

The introduction of the English sparrow (Passer domesticus) is one
of the most familiar examples of acclimatization. Brought over to
the United States in 1850, the bird developed such a marvelous ability
to adapt itself to new surroundings and increased so rapidly that by
1870 it had gained a foothold in twenty States and the District of
Columbia, as well as in two provinces of Canada. At the present
time it is found in every State and Territory except Alaska, Arizona,
Montana, Nevada, and New Mexico. It is known everywhere as a
great pest, and Illinois, Michigan, Ohio, and Utah are now offering
bounties for its destruction.? The closely related European tree

1 For list of State officials and associations concerned with the protection of
birds and game, see Appendix.

> Recreation, VIII, p. 233, 1888.

34 full account of the habits and distribution of the English sparrow may be
found in Bulletin No. 1, Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy, 1889; see also
the Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for 1898, pp. 98-101.

288 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

sparrow (Passer montanus) has been introduced at St. Louis, Mo.,
but has never spread to any extent. Twenty birds were imported in
1870, and the species is well established in the country immediately
about the city. It is much less objectionable than the English spar-
row, and is said to lack the fighting qualities which have made the
latter bird so unpopular.

Importation of song birds from Europe began about the middle of
the eentury. Thomas Woodcock, president of the Natural History
Society of Brooklyn, is said to have brought over a number in 1846,
and the following season goldfinches, linnets, bullfinches, and sky-
larks were seen at Greenwood and in the suburbs of Brooklyn. The
last species survived two winters.! Early in 1853 John Gorgas liberated
42 skylarks at Wilmington, Del., and a number were set free at
Washington, D. C.? Allen states that in 1853 a considerable num-
ber of skylarks, wood larks, English blackbirds and other thrushes,
robin redbreasts, and goldfinches were set at liberty in Greenwood
Cemetery, New York.?

Between 1872 and 1874 the Acclimatization Society of Cincinnati,
Ohio, spent about $9,000 in importing some 4,000 European birds,
belonging to about 20 species, but the experiment resulted in failure.
At nearly the same time the Society for the Acclimatization of For-
eign Birds liberated at Cambridge, Mass., a considerable number of
European goldfinehes (Carduelis carduelis) and other species. About
1877 anumber of starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) were set free in Central
Park, New York, by the American Acclimatization Society. This was
followed by several similar experiments, only the last of which, in
1890, when 60 birds were released, seems to have been successful.
Goldfinches set at liberty at Hoboken, N. J., in 1878, appeared in Cen-
tral Park, New York, in the following year, and were found breeding
in 1886.4- In 1889 and 1892 the Society for the Introduction of Euro-
pean Song Birds, of Portland, Oregon, imported two lots of birds at
a cost of about $2,000. Some 20 species were represented, including
50 pairs of skylarks, 30 pairs of black thrushes, 35 pairs of starlings,
and 15 pairs of green linnets. As a result of these numerous impor-
tations, the European tree sparrow has become established in the
vicinity of St. Louis, Mo.; the European goldfinch has been found
at various times in several places in eastern Massachusetts and in
Central Park, New York; the skylark has become acclimated on Long
Island, N. Y., and in the vicinity of Portland, Oregon; the starling
is slowly spreading up the lower Hudson Valley and has also gained a
foothold at Portland; a few other species are reported to be doing well
in Oregon, but all the rest have failed to survive.

1 Forest and Stream, XI, p. 406, 1878.

? Rept. Comm. Patents for 1853 (Agr.), pp. 70-71.
*Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club, V, p. 120, 1880.
4Adney, Auk, III, pp. 409-410, 1886.

A REVIEW OF ECONOMIC ORNITHOLOGY. 289

The introduction of game birds has been far more suecessful than
that of song birds. The species include the English pheasant (Pha-
sianus colchicus), the ringneck or Mongolian pheasant (P. torquatus),
the green pheasant (P. versicolor), the golden pheasant (Chrysolo-
phus pictus), the silver pheasant (Huplocomus nycthemerus), the
eapercailzie (Tetrao wrogallus), the black grouse or black game (Ly-
rurus tetrix), the migratory quail (Colfurnix coturnix), the partridge
(Perdix cinerea), the Indian black partridge, and the sand grouse.
Of these, the mostimportant are the Enghsh and Mongolian pheasants.

The Mongolian and other Asiatic pheasants were sent to Oregon
from China by Judge O. N. Denny, formerly consul-general at Shang-
hai, and the first importation was apparently made in 1881. Most
of the birds died on the way and only 15 (12 males and 3 females)
reached Portland alive. These were liberated at the mouth of the
Willamette River, about 12 miles below the city. The second lot,
received in 1882 (?), comprised 35 or 36 ringnecks, which were set at
liberty 12 miles east of Albany, in the Willamette Valley. Nineteen
ringnecks were also liberated in 1882 at Victoria.! Golden and silver
pheasants were imported two or three years later and, with some ring-
necks, were placed on Protection Island, near Port Townsend, Wash.*
These four colonies all flourished, and from them birds were carried
to other parts of the Pacific coast. The Mongolian did far better
than the others, and increased so rapidly that in 1891, when complete
protection was removed, they had spread over a considerable part of
western Oregon. English pheasants have been imported mainly in
the Eastern States; some were Hberated near Tarrytown, N. Y.,
about thirty-five years ago; 78 were turned out on Jekyl Island,
near Brunswick, Ga., in 1887, and these increased to 850 during the
following year;* others were introduced into New Jersey. Since
1890 there has been widespread interest in these experiments, and
pheasants (mainly Mongolian) have now been introduced into at
least twenty-five States and have increased rapidly through protec-
tion laws and the establishment of pheasantries for their propaga-
tion. Of the other species, little need be said. About 1881, 3 sand
grouse were liberated near Portland, Oregon, and 9 farther west on
the Clatsop Plains, but all promptly disappeared. An importation
of Indian black partridges was made in 1891, but only 3 lived to reach
their destination, at Macomb, Ill. The black grouse has been liber-
ated in Newfoundland and in Vermont and elsewhere in the Eastern
United States. Recently the capercailzie has been introduced in the
Adirondacks. European quail have been introduced several times,

1 Forest and Stream, XXXV, p. 28, 1890.
*Ann. Rept. Dept. Agr. for i888, pp. 484-488.
?Forest and Stream, XXXI, p. 221, 1888.
4Tbid., XXXVII, p. 123, 1891.

1 A 99——19

290 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and in 1879 nearly 3,000 were distributed in various places in New
England and the Middle States,! but all disappeared aftera year or two.

In Hawaii foreign birds have been introduced from both Asia and
America. They include the Indian mina (Acridotheres tristis), the
Java sparrow (Munia oryzivora), old world pheasants, the eastern
turtle dove (Turtur chinensis) and two species of herons from China,
the house finch (Carpodacus mexicanus frontalis) and California
quail (Lophortyx californicus) from California, the rice bird, and
the English sparrow.? Of these, the mina and the English sparrow
are the most abundant, and display the same well-known traits which
have given them an unenviable reputation elsewhere. The native
birds comprise about a hundred species, and among those peculiar to
the islands are some of very great interest, but which, unfortunately,
are rare. Since the advent of the mongoose and of the introduced
birds, some of the native species have been still further reduced in
numbers, and apparently are in danger of extermination in the near
future.

In the eagerness to acquire new birds, the risk of importing unde-
sirable species has been overlooked, and even the lesson of the English
sparrow has not been enough to impress on the general public the
dangers of ill-advised acclimatization. But the acquisition of Hawaii
and Puerto Rico, both suffering from the introduction of the mongoose,
has given new importance to the subject of acclimatization, and has
shown the necessity, not only of preventing the pests already on these
islands from being brought into the United States, but also of pro-
tecting our new possessions against future experiments in the intro-
duction of dangerous species. If we are to escape the losses which
have been suffered in the Australian colonies, and especially in New
Zealand, some restriction must be placed on the introduction of exotic
species, as is now done in Western Australia. Attention has been
called to this question, and it is to be hoped that the suggestion that
such experiments be placed under the control of the Department of
Agriculture will receive the approval of Congress at an early date.®

SUMMARY.

The history of American ornithology may be traced back to the
middle of the sixteenth century, but the chief progress in the science
has been made during the last hundred years. So assiduously have
our birds been studied that the avifauna of few regions is better
known than that of the Eastern United States. With the growth
of ornithology, the economie relations of birds, and especially their
relations to agriculture, have attracted more and more attention.
During the last half century ‘‘economic ornithology” has become

1 Forest and Stream, XII, p. 371, 1879.
* Ray, Osprey, IV, p. 1, September, 1899.
’Ann, Rept. Dept. Agr. for 1886, p. 258; Yearbook Dept. Agr. for 1898, p. 108.

A REVIEW OF ECONOMIC ORNITHOLOGY. 291

recognized as a special branch of the seience and has undergone
rapid development. The relation of birds to agriculture depends
mainly on the character of their food, and this is determined in
several ways: (1) By field observation; (2) by experiments on birds
recently captured, and, (3) by examination of stomach contents in
the laboratory—the latter the most complete and satisfactory method.
Thus far, about 20,000 birds’ stomachs have been examined, and
data are now available for determining the extent to which a hun-
dred or more important species are useful or injurious. The English
sparrow and several hawks and owls have been condemned, but only
six or eight species in all have thus far been found injurious, while
several birds commonly considered injurious have been shown to be
beneficial.

The harvesting and commercial utilization of bird products has
been marked by great waste and a reckless disregard for the futures
The game markets, the egg trade, and the millinery trade have all
made heavy drafts on our native birds, and have decimated some
useful or conspicuous species and forced others to the verge of extine-
tion. This is particularly noticeable in the case of the passenger
pigeon, the egrets of the South, and the terns of the Atlantic coast.
Attempts are now being made to place the killing and sale of game
under proper restrictions; the trade in sea birds’ eggs has been cur-
tailed, and wide publicity has been given to the enormous slaughter
of birds exacted by the demands of fashion. The guano trade, which
resulted in the acquisition of a number of islands whose product.
was valued at more than $3,000,000, is now largely a thing of the
past, owing chiefly to the depletion of the deposits, although the
fact that better artificial fertilizers can now be had at lower rates
than natural guano is also partly responsible for this result.

Legislative measures early in the century took the form of bounty
acts directed toward the destruction of birds, but mest of these have
now been withdrawn, except in the case of the English sparrow. Pro-
tective measures, commonly known as ‘‘ game laws,” have multiplied,
and protection is now extended not only to game birds but also to
insectivorous species and in some States to birds of prey. That these
efforts have not accomplished more, is mainly because the laws have
lacked uniformity and have not been properly enforeed, but the
last decade has certainly witnessed some progress along these lines.
Efforts have also been made tosupplement State laws by federal legis-
lation restricting interstate traffic in game killed in violation of State
regulations, but although several bills embodying this principle have
been considered by Congress none have as yet become laws.

Experiments in the introduction of foreign species have not met
with unqualified success. English and Mongolian pheasants have
been ‘added to the list of game birds, and the European skylark, star-
ling, and tree sparrow have gained a slight foothold in a few localities,

202 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

but we have also acquired the English sparrow, one of the worst of
feathered pests.

With the present knowledge of the economic relations of birds
based on thorough seientifie investigation, and with the recent expe-
rienee of the effects of indiscriminate slaughter and unrestricted aceli-
muatization, there is every reason to hope that practical questions in
economic ornithology will hereafter receive more careful and intelli-
gent consideration.

PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN THE UNITED STATES.

By GIFFORD PINCHOT,
Forester.

ATTITUDE OF THE PIONEERS TOWARD THE FOREST.

The sentiment for forest protection was strong among the early set-
tlers of the United States. In Massachusetts repeated enactments
provided for the care and protection of the forests adjacent to the
various communities. In New Jersey laws against forest fires took
their places very early upon the statute books. In Pennsylvania the
founder of the Commonwealth made it a condition that, of all land
acquired from him, 1 acre of forest should be left standing for every 5
acres cleared. This conspicuous care for the forest in regions where
at first it was a hindrance rather than a help to the gaining of a live-
lihood is explained by the early associations of the settlers. They
came from a country where wood was comparatively scarce, and
where the penalties for its destruction were severe and severely
enforeed. The respect for the forest which had been bred in their
ancestors by the early English game laws, and continued in themselves
by enactments of extreme rigor, was brought over almost without
change to their new land, but it was not destined to last. A growing
realization of the vast resources at their command, together with the.
bitter struggle of ‘the farmer against the forest in the early days,
gradually replaced care with carelessness, and respect with a desire
for destruction. The feeling bred by the battle against the forest
began to take a dominant place in the minds of the people and to pre-
pare that mental attitude which is still responsible for the greater
part of the forest destruction even yet in almost undiminished prog-
ress over by far the larger part of the United States.

EARLY PROTEST AND ACTION AGAINST FOREST DESTRUCTION.

Following the spread of forest destruction came protest and action
against it. In the last decade of the eighteenth century the New
York Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts, and Manufac-
tures, and in the first years of the nineteenth, the Massachusetts
Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, took action, inspired by a
desire to protect and promote the growth of forests. In 1799 Con-
gress passed an act for the purchase of timber suitable for the use of
the Navy, or of land on which such timber was growing. This law,

293

294 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

reenacted in 1817 and supplemented in 1820, 1822, 1827, 1828, and 1831,
led to the purchase and partial protection of 244,000 acres of forest-
bearing land in Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, and,
in Florida, to some partially suecessful efforts at the culture of the
live oak.

DEVELOPMENT OF A FOREST POLICY.

Immediately folowing the civil war came a development of rail-
road building without parallel in the history of the world, and with
it a coincident extension of the lumber trade and of forest destrue-
tion. Agitation followed it feebly and at a distance, but not without
planting the seed from which the present agencies for forest protec-
tion have sprung. In 1867 horticultural and agricultural societies in
Wisconsin appointed a committee to report on the results of forest
destruction, and two years later the Board of Agriculture of Maine
took action toward the formulation of a forest policy for the State.
Laws forthe encouragement of tree planting were passed between
1868 and 1874 in nine Western and two Eastern States, and in 1873,
1874, 1876, and 1878 Congress passed and amended the timber-culture
acts, which provided for the granting of homesteads to settlers who
planted one-fourth of their entries with certain specified kinds of
trees. The very mediocre results of these measures led to their
repeal in 1891.

In 1831, under the act of that year, a partial oversight and protection
of the public timber lands was assumed by the Solicitor of the Treasury,
acting through the regular agents of the Department. This function
was transferred in 1855 to the General Land Office, in the Department
of the Interior, where it has since resided. Under this system cases
of deliberate trespass were settled by payment of the stumpage value
of the timber unlawfully taken, while cases of unintentional trespass
were satisfied by actual entry, with the payment of customary entry
fees. Express appropriation for the pay of special timber agents was
not made until 1872, when $5,000 was appropriated, and this amount
was continued annually thereafter until 1878. The ineffectual work-
ing of the system was recognized in that year by an appropriation of
$25,000 to meet the expenses of suppressing depredations. Appro-
priations for this purpose were afterward increased to a maximum of
$120,000 in 1895.

The same act which repealed the timber-culture laws contained a
clause, whose insertion was due largely to the efforts of members of
the American Forestry Association, by which the President was au-
thorized to set aside ‘‘any part of the public lands wholly or in part
covered with timber or undergrowth, whether of commercial value or
not, as public reservations, and the President shall, by public procla-
mation, declare the establishment of such reservations and the limits
thereof.” Under the provisions of this clause, which may fairly be

PROGRESS OF FORESTRY. 295

described as the first marked step toward a national system of
forestry, the reservations shown in fig. 4 were set aside. The
existence of some 18,000,000 acres of forest reserves, wholly without
care or management by the Government, was perhaps the primary
eause which led the Secretary of the Interior, in February, 1896, to
address to the president of the National Academy of Sciences a request
for an investigation and report upon the ‘‘inauguration of a rational
forest policy for the forested lands of the United States,” and upon
the questions which underlie it. In reply, Dr. Wolcott Gibbs recited
the difficulties of the undertaking and the best means of surmounting
them, and expressed his willingness to comply with the Secretary’s
request.

The result of this correspondence was, on the part of the academy,
the appointment of a committee of seven, of whom six were chosen from
among its most distinguished and experienced members, the seventh
being a professional forester, and on the part of the Government, the
appropriation of $25,000 to defray the committee’s traveling and other
expenses. Allits members served without pay. Afterasummer spent
in active examination of forest reserves, proposed and established, on
the ground, the committee recommended as a preliminary step the seg-
regation of eleven new reserves with a total area of somewhat more
than 21,000,000 acres. These reserves were established by the Presi-
dent on February 22, 1897. The wording of the proclamation led
many persons to believe that the lands reserved were to be wholly
withdrawn from every sort of use and development, a belief carefully
fostered by some who, for reasons of their own, were opposed to the
reserves. Nopains were taken to enlighten the public upon this point
until the harm had been done. The report of the committee, whose
appearance would have done much to set matters straight, was not sub-
mitted until May 1 of thesame year. Vigorous andeven violent attacks
upon the President and upon the committee and its members became
frequent in Congress and culminated, after a spirited fight, in a pro-
vision of law which suspended the action of the proclamation of the
new reserves, except in the State of California, until March 1 of the
succeeding year (1898). In the meantime public sentiment concern-
ing the reserves underwent a remarkable change. A better under-
standing of their objects and a knowledge of the new law (act of
June 4, 1897), which regulated their use in practical accord with the
principal recommendations of the committee, spread throughout the
West. <A further official study of the reserves, while it suggested
certain modifications of their boundaries, served to confirm their desir-
ability as a whole, and an attempt to continue the suspension beyond
March 1 failed completely. Instead, the estimate of the Secretary of
the Interior for their care and preservation was more than doubled
by the appropriation of $175,000 in Congress for that purpose, and
shortly after President McKinley proceeded to establish further

296 YEARBOOK OF THE

oy) EH
a: kati, Riv thy
7 “as
WS

ly

\\
ForEST RESERVES 17-7!
F Warrowat PARKS |S

121° 119° 17S

109° 107° 105° 103°

Fic. 4.—Forest reserves and national parks: land 2, Yellowstone Park Timber Land Reserve,
Wyoming, 1,239,040 acres; 3, White River Plateau Timber Land Reserve, Colorado, 1,198,080
acres; 4and 35, Pecos River Forest Reserve, New Mexico, 431,040 acres; 5 and 6, Pikes Peek -
Timber Land Reserve, Colorado, 184,320 acres, 7, Bull Run Timber Land Reserve, Oregon,
142.680 acres; 8, Plum Creek Timber Land Reserve, Colorado, 179,200 acres; 9, South Platte
Yorest Reserve, Colorado, 683,520 acres; 10, San Gabriel Timber Land Reserve, California,
599.520 acres; 11, Battlement Mesa Forest Reserve, Colorado, 858.240 acres; 12, Afognak Forest
and Fish-Culture Reserve, Alaska, 403,646 acres; 13, Sierra Forest Reserve. California, 4,096,000
acres; 15, Grand Canyon Forest Reserve, Arizona, 1,851,520 acres: 16, San Bernardin? Forest
Reserve, California, 737,280 acres; 17 and 40, Trabuco Canyon Forest Reserve. California,
109,920 acres; 18, Cascade Range Forest Reserve, Oregon, 4,492,800 acres; 19, Ashland Forest
Reserve. Oregon, 18,560 acres; 20, Stanislaus Forest Reserve, California, 691,200 acres; 21, San
Jacinto Forest Reserve, California, 137.280 acres; 22, Bitter Root Forest Reserve, Idahoand Mon-
tana, 4,147.20 acres; 23, Priest River Forest Reserve, Idaho and Washington, 645.120 acres;
24and 39, Black Hills Forest Reserve, South Dakota, 1,211.68) acres; 25, Uintah Forest Reserve,
Utah, 875,520 acres; 26, Washington Forest Reserve, Washington, 3,594,240 acres; 27, Olympic :
Forest Reserve, Washington, 2,188,800 acres; 14, 28,and 44. Mount Rainier Forest Reserve,.
Washington, 2,027,520 acres; 29, Big Horn Forest Reserve, Wyoming, 1,127,680 acres: 30, Teton
Forest Reserve, Wyoming, 829,440 acres; 31, Flathead Forest Reserve, Montana, 1,382,400 acres:
82, Lewis and Clarke Forest Reserve, Montana, 2,926,080 acres; 33 and 36, Pine Mountainand
Zaca Lake Forest Reserve, California, 1,644,594 acres; 34 and 47, Prescott Forest Reserve, Ari-
zona, 423.680 acres; 37, San Francisco Mountains Forest Reserves, Arizona, 975,360 acres; 38,
Black Mesa Forest Reserve, Arizona, 1,658,880 acres; 41, Fish Lake Forest Reserve, Utah,
67,840 acres; 42, Gallatin Forest Reserves, Montana, 40,320 acres; 43, Gila River Forest Reserve,
New Mexico, 2,327,040 acres; 45, Lake Tahoe Forest Reserve, California, 136,335 acres; 46, Santa
Ynez Forest Reserve, California, 145,00) acres. Total, 46,983,969 acres. The numbers on the
map refer to proclamations creating or modifying reserves; ence, some of the reserves have
more than one pumber.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899. PLATE IX.

FIG. 1.—TYPICAL FOREST IN STANISLAUS FOREST RESERVE, CALIFORNIA. PREVAILING
SPECIES JEFFREY PINE, WITH A FEW WHITE FIR AND INCENSE CEDAR.

Fic. 2.—GENERAL FOREST VIEW IN STANISLAUS FOREST RESERVE, CALIFORNIA. OPEN
FOREST OF YELLOW PINE, MIXED WITH WHITE FIR, SUGAR PINE, AND INCENSE
CEDAR.

PROGRESS OF FORESTRY. 297

reserves. The areaof all the reserves established by him up to Janu-
ary 1, 1900, is 6,708,425 acres.

The work of the committee of the National Academy of Sciences,
while it failed of much that it might have accomplished, nevertheless
was the spring from which the present activity in forest matters was
derived. The proclamation of the reserves which it recommended
drew the attention of the country as nothing else had ever done to
the question of forestry. Vigorous discussion of forest matters by the
publie press led to a widespread interest, and that in turn to a keen
appreciation of the value of forests in the economy of each State, and
to a willingness to take measures to protect them. It may fairly be
assumed that,as one of the results of this awakened interest, the
policy of making Government forest reserves is now established
beyond the reach of further question. (PI. IX.)

ADMINISTRATION OF THE NATIONAL FOREST WORK.

One of the consequences of the controversy which ended in the
retention of the reserves was the division of the responsibility for
them between two bureaus of the Department of the Interior, and the
consequent separation of the forest work of the Government into
three unrelated parts. As the matter now stands, the General Land
Office is charged with the administration and protection of the reserves,
the United States Geological Survey maps and describes them, and
the Division of Forestry of the Department of Agriculture, in which
are all the trained foresters in the Government service, has no rela-
tion whatever to this most important branch of the Government’s
forest work, except as the officers of the Department of the Interior
may incidentally apply for assistance or advice. The connection of
the United States Geological Survey with the forest reserves is
obviously a temporary one, which will cease when the work of map-
ping and description is at an end; but the complete separation between
the administration of the reserves in the General Land Office and
the force of trained foresters specially equipped for that purpose in
the Division of Forestry constitutes what is perhaps the most serious
defect in the present organization of the federal forest work.

The force employed for the care and protection of the forest reserves
under the General Land Office consists of 9 superintendents, 39 super-
visors, and a number of forest rangers, which in summer attains 350,
but which varies with the seasons and the danger from fire. Protec-
tion against fire, the foremost enemy of forests in America, is the
most pressing and important duty which devolves upon this force.
The law of June 4, 1897, from which the Secretary of the Interior
derives his powers concerning the reserves, confers upon him, and
through him upon the Commissioner of the General Land Office, every
necessary authority and power for their management by whatever

998 YEARBOOK OF TILE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

methods he may deem best. Legally there is no obstacle to the intro-

duction of the most practical and approved ways of handling forest

lands. .
NATIONAL PARKS.

While the national parks, speaking strictly, do not at present form
a part of the forest system of the United States, still, since one of
their prime objects is the protection of the forests within their bound-
aries, they fall naturally within the sphere of the present paper.
They differ from forest reserves chiefly in the fact that no lumbering
can be carried on within them, that the mining laws, except in the
ease of the Mount Rainier National Park, do not apply to them, that
their game animals are fully protected, and that they are under the
care of the troops of the Regular Army, assigned to that duty by the
Secretary of War, but under the orders, for that purpose, of the Seere-
tary of the Interior, and reporting to him.

The best known and the largest of the national parks is the Yel-
lowstone, with an area of 2,142,720 acres, located in Wyoming, with .
small portions in Montana and Idaho. The others are the Yosemite
National Park (967,680 acres), the Sequoia National Park (161,280
acres), and the General Grant National Park (2,560 acres), all in Cali-
fornia, and the Mount Rainier National Park (207,360 acres) in
Washington. ,

PRIVATE FORESTRY. ,

The development of practical forestry in the United States has pro-
ceeded until recently along three prineipal lines—private, State, and
national. Contrary to the general rule in other countries, practical
forestry here began first on private lands and wholly without relation
to governmental action. Apart from the attempts of lumbermen in
the Eastern spruce regions, many of which were successful, to cut
their timber so as to get a second crop, the first instance of systematic
forest management in the United States occurred on the land of Mr.
George W. Vanderbilt at Biltmore, N. C., beginning in 1892. (PI.
X.) From that time, although the work at Biltmore still continued
steadily and successfully, until the middle of 1898 the application of
forestry to large private tracts made little progress. Since then, under
the impetus of an offer of advice and assistance from the Division of
Forestry, private owners have taken the matter under advisement in
considerable numbers, and practical work has already been under
way, at the present writing, on considerable areas for more than a
year. On January 1, 1900, the total area for the management of which
assistance had been asked of the Division of Forestry was more than
2,000,000 acres. Lumber companies and forest-owning associations
as well as individuals are directing their attention with increasing
seriousness and frequeney toward practical forestry.

PLATE X.

1899.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

ie SAS is;

oA he = ;

CONSERVATIVE LUMBERING. A LARGE OAK CUT AND WORKED UP INTO CORD WOOD WITHOUT INJURY TO THE SAPLINGS ABOUT IT.
Bi_TMORE, N. C.

PROGRESS OF FORESTRY. 259

While private forestry has thus been making noteworthy and rap-
idly accelerating progress in the recent past, practical forestry on
Government land during the same period has not advanced beyond
the incipient stages of forest protection. Nor are any of the Statez

more advanced.

STATE FORESTRY.

Practical forestry has not yet been introduced on any State forest
land, and even New York, which owns about 1,250,000 acres in the
Adirondack and the Catskill mountains, has not yet progressed beyond
the stage of simple protection. To have reached this, however, is along
stride in advance. The constitution of New York forbids the cutting,
destruction, or removal of any tree on the ‘‘forest preserve,” as the
lands definitely assigned to forest uses held by the State are collect-
ively called, a provision which is quite as effectively opposed to prae“
tical forestry as it is to forest destruction, and which must be regarded
as purely temporary in character. The forests of the State, as well
as its salt-water and fresh-water fisheries and its game animals and
birds, are under the care of a commission of fisheries, game, and for-
ests appointed by the governor, having under it a superintendent and
a corps of subordinates in the woods. The sincere interest of the
people of New York in the forest preserve is indicated by the recent
appropriation and expenditure of $1,800,000 to increase the area of
the preserve by purchase.

In Pennsylvania the acquisition of wild lands by the State for for-
est uses has become an established policy, and bids fair to result in
the control and management of an area not greatly inferior to the
forest preserve of New York; and Pennsylvania has no legal bar to
practical forestry. Michigan has recently taken steps in the same
direction, and several other States have taken or seem about to take
similar action. It may be said of the forested States in general that
publie sentiment is moving rapidly toward a satisfactory treatment
of the question of State forest lands.

The following is a list of States which exercise control of forest
matters, with the respective authorities through which such control
is exercised in each:

CALIFORNIA.— University of California. A State board of forestry was created in

1885, but was abolished in 1892, its experimental groves passing under the
present control. :

CoLORADO.—Fish and game commissioner. A commissioner of forests was created
in 1885. This office lasted for six years. Appropriations never more than
$2,000.

Kansas.—State forest commissioner since 1887.

Matne.—State auditor, ex-officio forest commissioner, since 1891. This officer,
though greatiy restricted by the smallness of his annual appropriation of $400,
exeris important influence through his published reports and by his adminis-
trative work in carrying into effect the excellent fire law of the State.

300 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

MassacHusetTrs.—The State board of agriculture, which acts also asa board of
forestry.

Micuigan.—Permanent commission of thrse members, serving without pay, but
receiving traveling and other ofticial expenses, was created in 1899.

Minnesota.—State forestry board, created 1899, cooperating with town and county
boards, and consisting of nine members.

Nuew HampsHire.—Forest commission, established in 1893. This is the outcome
of two preliminary commissions of investigation, the first of which was
appointed in 1885 and lasted four years, and the second, appointed in 1889,
lasted two years. It consists of the State governor, ex officio, and four other
members. s

Nrw JERSEY.—State geologist. No independent forest officer.

New Yorxk.—Fisheries, game, and forest commission. There have been three
commissions. The first was created in 1885, and was known as the ‘State
forest commission.” It was remodeled in 1893, the number of its members
being increased from three to five. In 1895 the forest commission and the
fish and game commission were consolidated under the present title.

NortH CaroLina.—State geological survey. No independent forest officer.

Nortu DakotTa.—Superintendent of irrigation and forestry since 1891.

Oxn10.—State forestry bureau was created in 1885.

PENNSYLVANIA.—Commiss‘oner of forestry, appointed in 1893, On the creation
of the State department of agriculture in 1895 a division of forestry was pro-
vided for, of which the forest commissioner became chief.

FOREST-FIRE LEGISLATION,

The legislation enacted by the various States with the object of
preventing damage from forest fires is, on the whole, of a very satis-
factory character. The main difficulty lies in the unwillingness or
inability of the authorities in the various States to enforce the laws
as they stand. Legislation is in most cases in advance of public
opinion, but the latter is making very rapid progress. Among the
best forest-fire laws are those of Maine, New Hampshire, Minnesota,
New York, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin.

The provisions of the New York law direct the appointment by the
fisheries, game, and forest commission of a firewarden in each town in
the counties comprising the forest preserve. Where special liability
to injury from fire exists, the firewardens are required to divide their
towns into two or more districts and to appoint one district firewarden
for each. On the outbreak of a forest fire firewardens are directed to
summon persons to assist in putting out or checking the fire, and no
action which they may take to this end shall constitute a trespass.
The firewardens and their assistants receive a fitting compensation
for the time actually employed at the fire, the expenses being borne
half by the town and half by the State In towns not within the coun-
ties comprising the forest preserve supervisors of towns are made ex-
officio firewardens. In addition to these safeguards the law makes it
a misdemeanor to fire woods or waste lands belonging to the State or
to another, whether willfully or negligently, if such fire results in

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899. PLATE XI.

Fic. 1.—THE EFFECTS OF FIRE AFTER LUMBERING IN NORTHERN MINNESOTA.

Fic. 2.—FOREST LAND IN MINNESOTA DEVASTATED BY FIRE.

PROGRESS OF FORESTRY. 301

injury to woodland, and punishes the offender by a fine not exceed-
ing $250 or imprisonment not exceeding one year, or both, besides
awarding damages to the person injured. ,

The Minnesota law is very similar in general effect, but there is
rather more central authority. The pay of the county wardens is not
left to the counties, though not a dollar can be paid them without the
approval of the county commissioners. The pay is limited to $2 per
day, but can not exceed $15 a year. The chief firewarden, who has
administrative control of all matters pertaining to the extinguishment
of fires, secures the services of settlers to act as wardens in the unor-
ganized territory. Minnesota has this edvantage: That her forest-
fire officials receive their pay more promptly than elsewhere, and thus
take a more live interest in the performance of their duties. Pl. XI
shows effects of fire in Minnesota.

THE DIVISION OF FORESTRY.

In 1873 a committee of the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science was appointed ‘‘to memorialize Congress and the
several State legislatures upon the importance of promoting the culti-
vation of timber and the preservation of forests, and to recommend
proper legislation for securing these objects.” This action was fol-
lowed by the appointment, in 1576, of Dr. Franklin Bb. Hough, of
Lowville, N. Y., who may be considered historically, although not
literally, as the first chief of the present Division of Forestry of the
Department of Agriculture. Dr. Hough’s duties were “‘to ascertain
the annual amount of consumption, importation, and exportation of
timber and other forest products, the probable supply for future wants,
the means best adapted to the preservation and renewal of forests, the
influence of forests on climate, and the measures that have been suc-
cessfully applied in foreign countries or that may be deemed applicable
in this country for the preservation and restoration or planting of
forests, and to report upon the same to the Commissioner of Agricul-
ture, to be by him in a separate report transmitted to Congress.” In
1883 Dr. Hough was succeeded by Mr..N. H. Egleston, who in turn
was followed, in 1886, by Mr. B. E. Fernow, who continued to direct
the work of the Division until July 1, 1898. ;

At first and until recently purely a bureau of information, the Divi-
sion of Forestry has become within the last eighteen months an active.
participant in practical forest work in the woods throughout the
United States. Among the three federal organizations concerned
with forest work (see page 297), the Division of Forestry is alone
responsible for the progress of the science and art of forestry and for
the vast interests which are involved in the spread of conservative
forestry over the enormous private holdings of forest land in the
United States. Its work has recently been reorganized throughout.
This reorganization, together with the fact that the position and

302 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

practice of the Division are largely typical of the present attitude of
the Government toward forestry, makes requisite a somewhat ex-
tended deseription of its work. }

The work of the Division is now chiefly in the field. Its office work
is organized on a scale sufficient to support the field work and secure
its best results, but the principal scene of its activities is in the woods.
At present all the work of the Division is assigned to four sections,
each with a man of special knowledge and qualifications at its head.
These are the sections of working plans, of economic tree planting, o£
special investigations, and of office work. The following extract
from the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture for the year
ending June 30, 1899, describes in sufficient detail the lines along
which the work of the Division is now organized. The total appro-
priation for the year named was $28,520.

PRACTICAL ASSISTANCE TO FARMERS, LUMBERMEN, AND OTHERS.

Last October a circular was issued (No. 21 of the Division of Forestry) offering
advice and practical assistance to farmers, lumbermen, ard others in handling
their forest lands, with a view to bringing about the substitution of conservative
for destructive methods. This offer provided for the preparation of working
plans, with full directions for work and with practical assistance on the ground,
without cost to the owners of wood lots, but in the case of larger tracts requiring
the owners to meet expenses for travel and subsistence, and for the necessary
helpers for the agents of the Division while in the field.

During the year applications were received from 123 owners in 35 States for the
management of 1,513,592 acres. Of these applications, 48 were for large tracts
covering together 1,506,215 acres, the remainder being for wood lots.

Personal attention on the ground was given to 41 tracts, covering about 400,000
acres in 19 States.. The contribution of private owners to the expenses of this
work was about $3,000.

lt was found possible for the owners of a majority of these tracts to carry out
the working plans without personal assistance, but 15 of them required the active
participation of the Division. On two of the latter, comprising 108,000 acres, the
working plans were put into execution early in the year, and the first year’s work
has been successfully completed. The second year’s work is being pursued under
very favorable conditions.

As aresult of a calculation, based on exact measurements, of the amount of
lumber wasted by the prevailing practice of cutting high spruce stumps in the
Adirondacks, there has been a decided change for the better on certain tracts, and
at the same time a great reduction in the amount of young spruce cut for roa
building has been brought about. These are important changes.

In connection with the preparation of the working plans for the two large tracis
in the Adirondacks, a special study has been made of the growth and production
of the spruce on the eastern side of the mountains and of birch and maple on the
western slope.

Of the total amount of land submitted for working plans, about 1,200,000 acres
have not yet been examined. These tracts will be considered during the ensuing
year as fast as the very inadequate force of the Division will permit, and working
plans will be made for a selected number.

The Division has been thoroughly equipped with instruments for field work, in
which it was wholly lacking at the beginning of the year.

PROGRESS OF FORESTRY. 303

COMMERCIAL TREES.

During the year five species of commercially valuable trees have been studied
to determine their rate of growth and to ascertain their special qualities in for-
estry. The more important of these studies relate to the loblolly pine in North
Carolina, a tree of the first economic importance, and the red fir in Washington,
also called Douglas fir, yellow fir, Oregon pine, etc., one of the mest valnable and
widely distributed trees of the world. These studies have met with the cerdial
approval of iumbermen, and much practical assistance has been rendered by them.
In addition, the study of the coast redwood in California has recently been begun,
and later, if enough money can be saved for that purpose, the white oak and the
hickories will be taken up.

DCCONOMIC TREE PLANTING.

The planting of experimental plats in cooperation with State agricultural exper-
iment stations has been discontinued, and the stations have taken over the planta-
tions and assumed the responsibility for them. This was done after a thorough
study of the old plan, after careful examination of the plantations at nine of thé
eleven stations, and with the acquiescence of the authorities of every station.
Two other lines of work have taken the place of experimental tree planting. One
is a careful study of the results of the planting already done, in which all the
species used in the cooperative plantations are represented, and from which prac-
tically all the results to be expected from them after many years may be gathered
without delay and far more cheaply; and the other the giving of practical assist-
ance to tree planters under the terms of an offer (set forth in Circular No. 22,
Division of Forestry) similar to that made to forest owners.

Close relations have been established with five of the most competent men in
the treeless regions, and these gentlemen are preparing reports on subjects of
direct interest to tree planters.

In addition to the studies now being pursued, the work of the present year will
in great measure be devoted, first, to giving practical assistance to tree planters
in the selection of the proper trees to plant and in planting them rightly, and,
secondly, to an attempt to determine the true effect of bare and wooded or brush-
covered slopes on the run-off of streams. The vast interests affected by the solu-
tion of this difficult problem will justify the most persistent and careful work,

SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS.

Forest fires have been studied historically and in the field, and important results
have been reached. Records of more than 5,000 fires have been compiled and
classified, and field work has been prosecuted in seven States.

Aseries of studies of North American forests by experts with special knowledgs
of definite localities is in progress, and it is expected that three of them will ba
completed during the coming winter.

Historical studies of the progress in forestry in New Jersey, Massachusetts, aud
other States have been begun, and those for New York are practically completea.

Much material has been collected for a general account of the progress of for-

estry in the United States and of the practical application of conservative forest
treatment in this country up to the present time.

Noteworthy progress has been made during the year in the photographic forest
description cf the United States.

OFFICE WORK.

The mailing list has been revised and extended, especially among newspapers,
and much material for publication has accumulated and awaits attention during

304 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the w_nter. The botanical work formerly carried on by this Division has been
turned over to the Division of Botany, where it more properly belongs.

During the year the force has been much increased, largely by the addition of
young American foresters. At its highest, the total membership was more than
five times that at the beginning of the last fiscal year.

Through a system of cooperation with experts in forest matters
throughout the United States, the Division of Forestry is becoming in.
fact what it has long been in intention, the center of all forest activity
in the United States, while through the appointment of student assist-
ants it is gathering about its work a corps of young men, who, begin-
ning their forest studies while actively engaged in the work of the
Division, principally in the field, will complete them at one or another
of the forest schools. In this way, as well as through the schools
alone, the need for men, which is among the most pressing require-
ments of forestry in the United States at present, will gradually be met.

TREE PLANTING.

Tree planting in the treeless West is a legitimate and exceedingly
important branch of forestry in the United States. The successful
cultivation of farm crops in many portions of this country is depend-
ent upon the protection derived from successful tree planting, and
over a very large part of the agricultural West both the comfort of
the farmer and his prosperity are deeply concerned with it. Tree
planting has been in active progress for more than thirty years over
considerable portions of the West, and a large amount of informa-
tion has been collected as to the value for planting of a large number
of trees. (Pl. XII.) This information has not been collated and is not
available in any compact form. On account of the vastness of the
interests involved, this is one of the most important pieces of forest
work to be done.

ASSOCIATIONS.

The progress of associated effort for the protection of forests, slow
at first, has of late years become very rapid. There are now some 22
associations in the United States which deal directly with forest mat-
ters. Of these the pioneer, if we disregard those which have not sur-
vived, and in many ways the most influential, is the American
Forestry Association, founded at Cincinnati in 1882, under the name
of the American Forestry Congress. This association, while less
in number of members than the Pennsylvania Forestry Associa-
tion, has done and is still doing work of the first importance toward
the spread of right ideas about forestry, chiefly through its monthly
organ, The Forester. The Pennsylvania association, founded in June,
1886, has been instrumental in placing the State for which it is named
in the first rank of forest progress. It publishes a bimonthly journal
entitled Forest Leaves. Among the other prominent organizations

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Yearbook U. S Dept. of Agriculture, 1899

PLATE Xll.

PROGRESS OF FORESTRY. 305

which have weight in forest matters are the Sierra Club and the Water
and Forest Society of California, the Massachusetts, Wisconsin, Min-
nesota, and Colorado forest associations, and the Mazamas, of Oregon.!

INSTRUCTION IN FORESTRY.

Except in the case of the student assistants mentioned on page
304, the Government of the United States takes no part in the educa-
tion of foresters. Elementary instruction in forestry has, however,
already received noteworthy extension in the State agricultural col-
leges and to some degree in other institutions. Thirty-two of the
former, according to the best information available, now offer instruc-
tion in forestry, either as a separate subject or in connection with
courses in agriculture, horticulture, or botany. Among these institu-
tions the college of agriculture of the University of Minnesota deserves
special mention, both from the value of the forest courses it offers and
because of its priority in the field.

The most elaborate and extensive institution in this country for
the training of foresters is the New York State College of Forestry,
organized in 1898 as a part of Cornell University. Modeled upon
German lines, it offers a four years’ course leading to a degree. Thirty
thousand acres of forest in the Adirondack Mountains, controlled by
the school, furnish an abundant field for practical operations. The
Biltmore Forest School, also begun in 1898, is situated in Biltmore
Forest, on the Vanderbilt estate, near Asheville, N. C., and offers a
happy combination of practical and theoretical instruction. These,
with Berea College, at Berea, Ky., which offers a year’s work in
forestry, and the University of Minnesota, are the principal agencies
for the education of professional foresters.’

Steps have been taken which will result in the opening of a forest
school as a department of Yale University in the autumn of 1900,

PROTECTION OF FISH AND GAME.

The protection of fish and game is less intimately associated with
forest matters in the United States than in many other countries.
Salt-water fisheries, which, because of the great length of coast line,
produce so very large a portion of the total food product derived from
the water, naturally have little connection with forests. As regards
the fresh-water fishes and the game, separation between these two sets
of interests and the forest has worked to the disadvantage of the lat-
ter. Hitherto it has been much easier to secure legislation for the
protection of fish and game than for the protection of forests. In the
future, however, as the various States produce or perfect their machin-
-ery for the right handling of forest lands, a much closer connection

1A full list of States which have forest associations; also alist of the universities
and colleges in which instruction in forestry is given, will be found in the Appen-
dix to this Yearbook.—Eb.
1 A999 20

306 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

may be expected, in which it is most probable that all the interests
will find their profit. The protection of fish and game is a natural
function of the forest guard.

ARBOR DAY.

Prominent among agencies for interesting the children in forest
matters is the observance of Arbor Day. Instituted in Nebraska in
1872 by Hon. J. Sterling Morton, Secretary of Agriculture 1893-1897,
Arbor Day has made its way from State to State until, at the begin-
ning of 1900, provision for its observance has been made in every
State and Territory. Its central idea is the planting of trees by school
children on dates fixed by proclamations of the governors of the vari-
ous States or by other authorities. The planting is usually accom-
panied by exercises, often of considerable elaboration, intended to
impress upon the children the beauty and usefulness of trees, and to
encourage the care and preservation alike of shade trees and forests.
While the planting accomplished may have in itself little economic
value, the institution of Arbor Day may fairly be said to exercise
immense influence in exciting affection and respect for trees in the
coming generations, and so to prepare a body of sentiment which will
assist powerfully hereafter to bring about the general practice of con-
servative forestry.

PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES.

By GEORGE K. HOLMES,

Assistant Statistician.
CRUDE BEGINNINGS BY INDIANS.

Indians carried on agriculture in a primitive and very limited way
in the region now embraced in the United States before the countyy
was inhabited by the white race, and to their crude agriculture they
joined the harvesting of the wild products of nature.

SOME CROPS AND METHODS OF CULTIVATING AND GATHERING,

INDIAN CORN.—The farming practiced on the eastern side of North
America by the Indians was to burn off the forest, scrape up the
top soil into little hills, and, if corn was to be raised, to plant the
seed therein. Indian corn, or maize, was indigenous, and the Indians
raised it from time immemorial. Women did the work, and the only
implements employed were their fingers, a pointed stick for planting,
and a clam shell or the scapula of an animal fora hoe. At the time
of harvest the ears of corn were stored in a cache, or were hung up
to dry, held together by the braided husks.

Topacco.—Tobacco was another plant indigenous to America, and
the Indians, who had learned its narcotic property, were in the habit
of smoking the leaves after they had been dried.

FooD AND TEXTILE PLANTS.—The Indians of northern California
gathered the seeds of wild plants and roasted them on hot stones, to
be ground afterwards into coarse flour by a stone operated in a hollow
inarock. Mojave Indian women planted gourd seeds in the erevices
of rocks, and when the gourds were ripe gathered enormous quantities
ofthem. Especially along the whole western coast of North America,
Indian women gathered wild hemp, agave, and other textile plants;
they dried the leaves or stalks, macerated them in water, extracted
the fiber, and spun it on their naked bodies without the use of any
implement whatever, and then made fabrics for domestic use.

WILD RICE.—Throughout the Great Lake country the Indian women
beat the heads of the wild rice plants while holding them over their
canoes; having fanned the chaff away by using a large tray, they
ground the rice in a mortar and cooked it in much the same way as
corn.

307

308 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

WILD CHERRIES AND ROOTS.—The Sioux. Indians beat dried wild
cherries with buffalo meat to form their winter stock of pemmican.
In Oregon and Washington an immense amount of food was gathered
from the camass root, and also from the kouse root.

FRUITS, NUTS, ETC.—The Indians gathered the indigenous straw-
berries, huckleberries, blackberries, raspberries, cranberries, ete.,
and the chestnuts, butternuts, hickory nuts, walnuts, hazelnuts, and
beechnuts.. They lived also upon fish and the flesh of deer, bear,
buffalo, and other wild animals, both fresh and dried.

BEGINNINGS OF AGRICULTURE BY THE WHITE RACE.

Next the white man came. Poor in the materials of wealth, indeed
almost destitute of them, a stranger in a strange land with a strange
climate, and beset by native enemies, the white settler had in pros-
pect a simple subsistence upon a few products of a crude agriculture
and an insignificant dairy, with such fabries and other produets as
might be obtained from a primitive domestic industry. He saw
the golden ears of maize strung up in the wigwams of the Indians and
learned its value as food; he learned how to plant it, and also the
value of putting fish for fertilizer under the seeds.

EARLY COLONIAL CONDITIONS.

Typical references to early colonial conditions are selected from
Professor MceMaster’s ‘‘ History of the people of the United States;”
from Mr. Weeden’s ‘‘ Economie and social history of New England,”
and from Professor Bruce’s ‘‘ Economic history of Virginia in the sev-
enteenth century.”

In Georgia in 1790 the staple was tobacco, cultivated in the simplest
manner, with the rudest of tools. Agriculture as we now know it can
scarcely be considered to have existed. The plow was little used.
The hoe was the implement of industry; made at the plantation
smithy, the blade was ill formed and clumsy, and the handle was a
sapling with the bark left on. After a succession of crops had ex-
hausted the soil the cows were sometimes penned upon it.

In Virginia the poor whites, who had formerly been indentured
servants, were the most lazy, the most idle, the most shiftless, and
the most worthless of men.” Their huts were searecely better than
negro cabins; the chimneys were of logs, the chinks being filled
with clay. The walls had no plaster, the windows had no glass, and
the furniture was such as they themselves made. Their grain was
thrashed by driving horses over it in the open field; when they
ground it, they used a rude pestle and mortar, or placed it in the
hollow of one stone and beat it with another.

Each family in New England lived in a state of almost entire inde-
pendence of other families and of all other communities than the one

PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. 309

in which it lived. Beef or pork, generally salted, salt fish, dried
apples, bread made of rye or indian meal, milk, and a very limited
variety of vegetables constituted the food throughout the year. The
Massachusetts farmer who witnessed the Revolution plowed his
ground with a wooden plow, sowed his grain broadeast by hand, and
when it was ripe cut it with the scythe and thrashed it, on the barn
floor with a flail. His house was not painted; his floor was not ear-
peted. When darkness came on his light was derived from a few
candies of home manufacture. The place of furnaces and stoves was
supplied by huge cavernous fireplaces which took up one side of the
room and, sending half the smoke into the apartment, sent half
the heat up the chimney. The farmer and his family wore home-
spun. If linen was wanted, the flax was sown and weeded, pulled
and retted, and broken and swingled, for all of which processes nearly
a year was required before the flax was ready for spinning, bleaching
on the grass, and making and wearing. If woolens were wanted,
sheep were sheared and the wool was dyed and spun and woven at
home.

It was almost invariably true of all the settlers that the use and
value of manures was little regarded. The barn was sometimes
removed to get it out of the way of heaps of manure, because the
owner would not go to the expense of removing these accumulations
and putting them upon his fields.

In comparison with present conditions, the farmer’s life in colonial
days was a dreary one, filled with hardships and deprivations, and
treading very closely upon the margin of subsistence. Those condi-
tions continued after the Republic had been established, and were not
measurably ameliorated until the present century had well advaneced—
until an improved intelligence, the dissemination of information, and
especially the work of the inventor had begun to take effect.

FIRST CROPS,!

CEREALS.—The first yield of indian corn, or maize, in any consider-
able quantity produced in the United States by people of English
blood of which we have any authentie record was that of 40 acres in
the Jamestown Colony in 1609.2, Wheat was first sown in Massachu-
setts on the southern coast as early as 1602, and it was first cultivated
in Virginia in 1611. Rye dates back in New England certainly to
1648, and perhaps to 1630, and oats and barley to Gosnold’s Colony
in 1602.

BUCKWHEAT.—The first cultivation of buckwheat dates back to
1625 or 1626, on Manhattan Island.

'Most of the statements under this head are taken from Eighty Years’ Progress
of the United States (1861).

*Bruce’s Economic History of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century, Vol. I,
p. 198.

310 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

PoTATOES.—Plymouth Colony cultivated potatoes as early as 1629.

BEans.—Beans have the date of 1602 on islands south of Massachu-
setts, the date of 1644 at Manhattan, and about the same date in
Virginia.

FRvITS.—The first apples raised in this country were possibly from
trees planted on Governors Island in the harpor of Boston, from
which, on October 10, 1639, ‘‘ten fair pippins” were brought. Goy-
ernor Endicott had on his farm in Salem, now Danvers, Mass., in 1640,
the first nursery of young fruit trees that was ever planted in this
country.

Topacco.—The English first saw tobacco cultivated and smoked in
clay pipes by the Indians of Virginia in 1585, and the cultivation of
tobacco was introduced into the Dutch Colony of New York as early
as 1646, when it sold for 40 cents a pound.

FLAX AND HOPS.—Flax was taken to Holland from Manhattan
Island as early as 1626. Hemp and flax were raised in Virginia prior
to 1648. Hop roots were ordered by the governor of Massachusetts
Bay as early as 1628.

SILk.—Silk culture was begun in Louisiana by the Company of the
West in 1718. It was introduced into Georgia in 1732. Connectieut
began the production of silk in 1760.

SUGAR CANE.—Sugar cane was first introduced into Louisiana in
1751, and the first plantation was established in 1758.

Rice.—The culture of rice was introduced into the colony of Car-
olina about 1694, the seed being obtained by the governor of the
province from a ship from Madagascar."

Cottron.—A pamphlet published in London in 1609 predicts that
cotton would grow as well in Virginia as in Italy, and the author of
another pamphlet, published in 1620, mentions cotton as a produet
that may be had in abundance in Virginia; but Bancroft’s History of
the United States says the first experiment in cotton culture in the
Thirteen Colonies was made in Virginia in 1621, when the cotton
seeds were planted as an experiment, and their ‘plentiful coming
up” was at that early day a subject of interest in America and
England. Cotton wool was listed in that year at 8 pence a pound,
which indicates that it may have been grown earlier.”

FIRST DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

For many months after the arrival of the Pilgrims at Plymouth
they had no beasts of burden; when at last a few cows were brought
over they were poorly fed on the coarse wild grasses, and often they

1 Pitkin’s Statistical View of the Commerce of the United States of America
(1816), p. 97.

2The Cotton Plant; published by the United States Department of Agriculture,
pp. 30 and 31.

PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. 311

died from exposure and want of proper food or fell a prey to the
wolves or the Indians. Owing to the difficulties and expense of impor-
tation, the price was so high as to put them beyond the reach of many
even in moderate circumstances. In the colony of Massachusetts
Bay a red calf soon came to be cheaper than a black one on account
of the greater probability of its being mistaken for a deer and killed
by wolves.

CATTLE.— When cows were so high as to sell, in 1636, at from £25 to
£30 sterling at Plymouth and oxen at £40 a pair, a quart of new milk
could be bought for a penny. The ox of that day was small, ill-
shaped, and in every way inferior to the ox of the present time. Dur-
ing the early part of the last century the average gross weight of the
neat cattle brought for sale to the Smithfield market was not over
370 pounds. E

Dairy cattle were first brought to Virginia in 1611 and to Plymouth
in 1624, from the coast of Devonshire. Some of the Virginia cattle
were from the black cattle of Spain, and those brought to New York,
possibly from the island of Texel on the coast of Holland, were mostly,
without doubt, thé black and white Dutch cattle. Those on the Del-
aware were brought from Sweden; those in New Hampshire were the
large yellow Danish cattle, and, as the earlier importations were the
most extensive that were made for many years, these various stocks
were crossed and thus formed the original stock of the country.

The cattle along the northern Atlantic coast fared miserably in
winter, having little or no protection from storms and cold and being
poorly fed on hay made from overripe swale grass and salt grass cut
from the marshes. It was a common opinion in the Virginia Colony
that the housing and milking of cows in the winter would kill them.

HorsEs.—The first horses taken from Europe to the Western Hem-
isphere were brought over by Columbus on his second voyage, in 1493.
In 1527 forty-two horses were landed in Florida and perished soon
after their arrival. The wild horses of the Southwest are probably
descendants of the fine Spanish horses abandoned by De Soto on the
failure of his expedition. In 1604 a French lawyer brought over
horses to Acadia, and these probably laid the foundation of what are
now known as Canadian ponies. In1609 horses were brought to James-
town, and in 1629 they were introduced into the colony of Massa-
chusetts Bay. Horses were brought to New York in 1625 from Flan-
ders. These importations seem to have been the original stock from
which the race of American horses was constituted. But the horses of
the United States, as in the case of other farm animals, have been
much improved and diversified in special qualities during the last
twenty-five years or so by the importation of thoroughbreds from
Europe and by well-directed breeding.

SHEEP.—It is probable that the first sheep in this country came to
Virginia in 1609 from England. About 1625 some sheep were brought

3812 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT. OF AGRICULTURE.

to New York by the Dutch West India Company from Holland. Sheep
were brought into the Plymouth Colony and that of Massachusetts
Bay very soon after the settlement.

SWINE.—De Soto probably brought the first swine into this country
in 1538 from Cuba, and these were landed in Florida. They were
probably descended from some brought over by Columbus in 1493.
The Portuguese brought swine into Nova Scotia and Newfoundland
as early as 1653. The London Company imported swine into Virginia
in 1609. They were introduced into the Plymouth Colony in 1624 by
Governor Winslow, and into New Netherlands, now New York, in
1625 by the Dutch West India Company.

TRANSITION TO MORE RECENT CONDITIONS.

Although the early white settlers immensely improved and expanded
the agriculture of the Indians, it is nevertheless true that in compari-
son with the agriculture of the present time that of the previous cen-
tury and of the earlier half of the present century was crude, waste-
ful, uneconomical, expensive, laborious, and unscientific. The transi-
tion from the old to the new was gradual, but, having in mind long
periods of time, it is apparent that American agriculture has had two
distinct periods with regard to the characterization above specified.
The change has been rapid since the civil war, and the last thirty
years or so stand out conspicuously as belonging to a period of devel-
opment and results, having little similarity to the long preceding
period beginning with the eighteenth century and approaching an end
about the middle of the present one.

In this paper only a brief mention will be made of some of the causes
and opportunities of the agricultural expansion of the country.

EXPANSION OF POPULATION.

The principal opportunity for agricultural expansion was the immense
cultivable area of virgin soil awaiting primarily to be despoiled of its
fertility, which was subsequently to be partly restored and maintained
by means of fertilizers.

The necessity for this expansion was a rapid and permanent growth
of sturdy population, derived not merely from a natural increase, but
largely from an unprecedented immigration from the peasant laboring
classes of Europe—people who had been unable to obtain the owner-
ship of land in a country of primogeniture, as well as people who had
failed in other countries where land values were beyond their reach,
and who came here with ‘‘a land hunger,” where they found millions
of fertile acres awaiting their acquisition at a cheap price.

The population of this country, according to the census of 1790,
was 3,929,214; in 1850 it had increased to 23,191,876; in 1860, to

31,443,321; in 1880, to 50,155,783; in 1890, to 62,622,250; and various

PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. ao

estimates of the population in 1900 place it at a figure somewhat
above 75,000,000. Immigrants, who are included in these figures,
numbered 145,439 in the ten years 1821-1830; from about 2,500,000 to
3,000,000 in each of the ten-year periods beginning with 1851 and
ending with 1880, and 5,246,613 in the ten years 1881-1890. From

>

1891 to 1899, inclusive, the number was 3,396,011.
THE NONAGRICULTURAL POPULATION,

Since the birth of the nation there must be taken into account also
the great and relative increase in the city population, which must
derive its subsistence mainly from the agriculture of this country
without contributing to agricultural production. The population
living in cities and towns of 8,000 or more was 3.35 per cent of the
total in 1790, 12.49 in 1850, 22.57 in 1880, 29.20 in 1890, and perhaps is
about 35 per cent at the present time, or more than one-third of the
entire population.

These percentages do not include the inhabitants of villages, towns,
and the smaller cities not engaged in agriculture, who, if included,
would swell the percentage above 35.

There has been a further marked increase in the nonagricultural
elements of the population. In 1870 the persons 10 years of age and
over who were engaged in manufacturing and mechanical industries
were 19.61 per cent of the total number of persons of that age having
gainful occupations, and this percentage had increased to 22.39 in
1890. It may easily be 25 per cent at the present time.

The number of persons employed in trade and transportation has
increased from 9.83 per cent of the total number of persons employed
in all occupations in 1870 to 14.65 per cent in 1890.

The percentage for persons engaged in professional services has
increased from 2.97 in 1870 to 4.15 in 1890. For domestie and _ per-
sonal service the percentage has increased from 18.48 in 1870 to 19.18
in 1890,

The census group of occupations embraced within agriculture, fish-
eries, and mining is represented by 49.11 per cent in 1870, or nearly
one-half of the persons having gainful occupations, and fell to 39.65
per cent, or about two-fifths, in 1890, and is likely to be hardly more
than one-third at the time of the Twelfth Census (1900).

PUBLIC LAND.

While marked increase in the demand for agricultural products for
consumption by persons who are in nonagricultural occupations has
thus occurred, the Government at the same time has offered to agri-
cultural producers a vast area of land at hardly more than a nominal
price. Previous to July 1, 1897, final homestead entries to the num-
ber of 529,051 had been made for 70,396,856 acres belonging to the
National Government; the number of entries in the following year

~

314 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

was 22,281, covering 3,095,018 acres, and in the year previous to July
1, 1899, the number was 22,218, covering 3,134,149 acres—total to
1899, entries, 573,550; acres, 76,626,023.

During the twenty-two years preceding July 1, 1897, the publie and
Indian lands disposed of for cash and under the homestead laws, under
the timber-culture laws, located with agricultural college and other
kinds of serip, located with military bounty land warrants, and selected
by States and railroads embraced 299,961,357 acres; in 1898, 8,453,897
acres;in 1899, 9,182,413 acres—total for twenty-four years, 317,597,667.
Some of the States and many railroad companies have been selling
land, mostly for farms, amounting in the aggregate to a vast area.
The number of sales on credit of tracts of land large enough to be
measured by acres, from 1880 to 1889, inclusive, was 60,431 by States
and 140,190 by railroads.

CAUSES OF INCREASED PRODUCTION,

While the country has been developing as above indicated, the
great nonagricultural populations of European countries have been
relatively increasing, and have exhausted in their consumption the
farm production of their own countries, especially with respect to the
items of wheat, corn, and other cereals, animal and dairy products,
and, to the very small extent of cultivation, tobacco and cotton, thus
opening up a foreign market, which has in a large degree warranted
the expansion of the agriculture of the United States, along with the
other causes or opportunities mentioned.

The decided decline in the cost of transportation has also contrib-
uted largely to the transformation under consideration.’

IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES,

The most prominent feature in the development of American agri-
culture is the immense improvement that has taken place in agricul-
tural methods and machines—indeed, the word improvement is not
adequate to express the change that has taken place in the methods
of agriculture in this country, because the implements and machines
are creations rather than improvements, and their mission has been
radical and far-reaching. They have reduced the amount of human
labor required to produce a given quantity of crops and to cultivate
given areas of land, and they have been largely, if not chiefly, instru-
mental in converting local markets into world markets for the prin-
cipal cereals, cotton, tobacco, and animal and dairy products.

A technical description of these implements and machines can not
be attempted here, and it will be sufficient merely to indicate gen-
erally changes in their character and in the results of their work.

1 The development of transportation facilities in the United States is the subject
of another article in this Yearbook.—ED.

PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. 315

Dependence must be placed upon the reader’s knowledge of these
machines and upon his mechanical mind to understand how and why
they have contributed so much to the realization of the present agri-
cultural era.

VEHICLES.—At the beginning of this century carts were used on
the farms and chaises on the roads. Stagecoaches were used on the
main roads of travel, and a few wagons were found here and there.
Carts were more convenient for use with oxen on the farms. For many
years discussion was active as to the comparative economy of oxen
and horses for farm use, and wagons came in with the increased use
of horses and the improvement of the country roads. Buggies and
trotting horses grew up together. Light one-horse wagons first
appeared in Connecticut about 1830, but it was not until 1840 or later
that they became common enough not to attract notice When seen on
the roads.! F

PLows.—In 1657 there were but 37 plows in the colony of Massachu-
setts Bay. Twelve years after the landing of the Pilgrims the farmers
around Boston had no plows, and were compelled to break up the
ground and prepare for cultivation with their hands and with rude
and clumsy hoes and mattocks. It was the custom in that part of
the country, even to a much later period, for anyone owning a plow
to do the plowing for the inhabitants over a considerable extent of
territory. A town often paid a bounty to anyone who would buy and
keep in repair a plow for the purpose of going about in this way.”

Mr. C. C. Coffin thus mentions the plow that his father used: ‘‘I
think it was about 12 feet long. I know that it required eight to ten
oxen to draw it, one man to ride upon the beam to keep it in the
ground, and a man to follow behind with a heavy iron hoe to dig up
the baulks.”®

A writer in the Rhode Island American in 1820 describes the plow
generally in use in the Eastern States at that time, known as the Old
Colony plow, as follows: ‘‘It hada 10-foot beam and 4-foot land side;
your furrows stand up like the ribs of a lean horse in the month of
March. A lazy plowman may sit on the beam and count every bout
of his day’s work. Six of these plows cost me on an average, last
year, $5 each to keep the shares and coulters fit for work, and the
wear of the other parts could not be less than $1 more—S6 per year
for each plow.”

The first patent for a plow in this country was taken out by Charles
Newbold, of New Jersey, in 1797. His was the first cast-iron plow

1A Century of Connecticut Agriculture, by Prof. William H. Brewer, Twenty-
eighth Annual Report of the Secretary of the Connecticut Board of Agriculture,
1894, p. 49.

* Eighty Years’ Progress of the United States, p. 27.

* Arguments before the Committee on Patents of the Senate and House of Rep-
resertatives, 1878, p. 272.

316 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ever made, but the farmers in those times entertained great prejudices
against it. There was a general idea throughout the country that a
cast-iron plow would ‘‘ poison” the land. Mr. Coffin remembers the
first cast-iron plow used in his neighborhood in New Hampshire
in 1837 and the assemblage of farmers who objected to it for the rea-
son mentioned. He says that it required from 1797 to 1842 for the
inventive genius of this country, together with the observations of
farmers and mechanies, to arrive at any just conclusion as to what
would be the best form for the plow.

Without mentioning intermediate plows, it will be sufficient to pass
on to the Oliver chilled plow, which first appeared in 1870. This was
a light, durable plow with a mold board of proper shape to economize
draft and suitably turn the furrow, and this plow in a marked degree
promoted the economy of plowing. It was stated by Mr. Coffin in
1878 that this invention, if used throughout the-United States in the
preceding year, would have effected a saving of $45,000,000 to the
farmers of the country in the expense of plowing.

And then invention followed invention and improvement followed
improvement, until we have sulky plows, gang plows, plows combined
with harrow cultivators and with seed drills, side-hill plows, vine-
yard plows, beet plows, subsoil plows, double land-side plows, and
lastly, what has been the aim, and seems to be the end, of plow inven-
tion, we have the steam gang plow combined with a seeder and a har-
row, which has reduced the time required for human labor (in plow-
ing, sowing, and harrowing) to produce a bushel of wheat, on an
average, from 52.8 minutes in 1830 to 2.2 minutes at the present time,
and which has reduced the time of animal labor per bushel from 57
to 15 minutes; at the same time it has reduced the cost of human and
animal labor in plowing, seeding, and harrowing per bushel of wheat,
from 4 cents to 1 cent.

CORN PLANTERS.—Hundreds of patents have been issued for corn
planters. The earlier ones were adjustments to the hoe, which per-
mitted the release of grains of corn when the hoe was struck into the
ground; then came the hand planter, and the next step was the horse
drill. Next came the idea of marking rows in both directions with a
drag. A long beam with pins in it was dragged both ways across the
field by horses, and then the farmer would go along with the hand
planter and plant the corn at the intersection of the rows. Still, again,
followed an improvement, and this was the corn planter which planted
two rows at one time with the rows running in both directions. <A
man sat on the machine, and, at every point where the drag had
crossed at right angles, he moved a lever that dropped the corn, which
was covered by wheels that turned and pressed down the soil upon
the seed. The check rower followed; it was a simple implement, con-
sisting of a wire chain or knotted rope stretching across the field and
anchored at both ends. This passed through the machine as it was

PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. Es ai

driven across the field and dropped some grains of corn every time
the knot passed through a slot in the machine. It was only necessary
to drive backward and forward all day long until the acres were
planted, and then the corn could be cultivated in both directions.
Subsequently, numerous check-row planters for corn have been
invented with and without fertilizer adjustments, so that several rows
of corn may be planted at the same time in places at regular distances
apart, permitting cultivation in both directions.

CULTIVATORS.—Cultivators have been the subject of several thou-
sands of patents. The original cultivation of corn and other crops
planted in rows was by means of the hoe, but in the course of time a plow
was used to loosen the earth and to suppress weeds and grass, being
drawn twice between the rows and turning the soil against one or the
other. Nextatooth harrow was employed, and this was drawn one Vv ray,
between the rows, and afterwards a cultivator with small double plow-
shares was used. Then followed the double-shovel cultivator, cutting
deep or shallow, as desired, and turning the earth toward two opposite
rows at the same time. The implement is now variously made, but it
has reduced the economy of cultivation apparently toa minimum; the
farmer may now ride while the cultivator is doing its work. He eul-
tivates the rows of his crop in both directions, and the use of the hoe
has been nearly, if not entirely, discontinued throughout large agri-
cultural areas.

Harrows.—Much attention also has been devoted to the invention
of implements for harrowing and pulverizing the soil. The farmer no
longer drives a brush harrow over his field as of yore, nor does he need
to use a tooth harrow, but he has at his command disk harrows, screw
pulverizers, smoothing harrows, spring-tooth harrows, and harrows
combined with plows and seeders.

CORN HUSKER.—The mechanical corn husker is a machine of recent
invention. Previously the husking of corn was done only by hand,
and a peg strapped to the hand was often used for opening the husks;
but there is now a machine that husks the corn and at the same time
cuts the husks, stalks, and blades into feed, the motive power being
steam.

CORN HARVESTER.—Again, we have the recent corn-harvesting
machine drawn by horses that cuts the cornstalks and binds them
into bundles at the same time.

CORNSHELLERS.—The steam cornsheller caused aremarkable change
in the time and expense of the shelling of corn. In the olden time
corn was shelled by hand, a frying-pan handle or shovel being used,
the ears of corn being scraped against it, or perhaps the cob of one
ear was used to shell the corn from another. Then came the first
machine for shelling corn, a cylinder turned by a erank, by which a

318 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

man might shell about 40 bushels ina day. Thousands of patents
have been issued for cornshellers, and the culmination of them is the
steam-power or horse-power cornsheller, which will shell a bushel a
minute, carry off the cobs to a pile or into a wagon, and deliver the
corn into sacks or wagons.

SEEDERS.—From the time when wheat was first sown, up to a com-
paratively recent period, the only method of sowing it was to throw it
into the air by the hand. In this way it is impossible to sow evenly,
especially if the wind blows with considerable force; and if clover
seed is to be sown, the ground must be gone over a second time, while
a third time is required if fertilizer is to be distributed. Then, when
the harrow comes some of the grains are buried too deeply and some
are not covered with earth enough. But not so many years ago inven-
tors set to work to construct mechanical seeders, and the result is an
almost complete abandonment of broadcast sowing by hand and the
substitution of such seeders. They sow all kinds of grain and seeds
at once, with fertilizer if required, and they harrow at the same time.
They make the crop more certain. It is the general opinion that
the wheat crop is increased one-eighth or more by the use of the
mechanical seeders, especially in the case of winter wheat.

MOWERS AND REAPERS.—In 1794 a Scotchman invented what was
described as a most marvelous and wonderful machine for cutting
grain, doing as much in one day as seven men could do with the
sickle. This marvelous machine was only the cradle. The reaper
followed, and the first patent for one issued in this country was given
to Hussey in 1833. McCormick took out his first patent in 1834,
although he had constructed and tested a machine in Virginia in
1831 with some success; but the world heard little of reaping machines
until 1845, when 150 of them were built at Cincinnati; by 1846 fully
300 had been built. There was a general trial of mowers and reapers
at Geneva, N. Y., in 1852. Nine machines contested, for other inven-
tors had taken out patents. Nineteen years had passed since the first
patent had been issued. Out of the nine machines exhibited, not
one could start in the grain without backing to get up speed. There
was a heavy side Craft, the machines were clumsy, and they could
not turn easily.

By 1855 about 10,000 mowers and reapers had been built by different
makers, nearly all being one-wheeled machines. There was an exhi-
bition of reapers at the French exposition in 1855, in which there was
one English, one French, and one American. The French machine
did its allotted work in 72 minutes, the English in 66, and the Amer-
ican in 22.

Two years later, in 1857, there was a trial at Syracuse, N. Y., at
which nineteen machines contested. Of these, all except three started
in the grain without backing to get up speed. There was a trial at
Auburn, N. Y., in 1866, at which forty-four different machines were

ie

PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. 319

entered, and of these, forty-two did their work in a satisfactory
manner.

The mower and reaper combined cut the grain and left it on the
ground bunched up in proper size for a sheaf, subsequently to be
bound by hand. The harvester was supposed to be an improvement
upon this, because it had a place for one or two men to ride to bind the
grain as fast as it was cut; but the self-binder went beyond that and
by means of a mechanical attachment did the binding without the aid
of human labor. It was not until 1870 that the self-binder was a
mechanical success; but that was not the end of invention for con-
structing machines to harvest wheat.

It remained for the ingenuity of man to construct a combined reaper
and thrasher, with which it is necessary only to drive across the wheat
field in order to obtain the grain ready for transportation to the eleva-
tor or elsewhere.

COTTON GIN.—Without the cotton gin it would be practically
impossible to raise and market the cotton crop of this country, which
now commonly amounts to 10,000,000 bales and more annually.
Before Whitney’s invention it is said that the labor of one person was
required for about ten hours to pick the seeds from 1} pounds of cot-
ton lint. At the present time one machine will gin from 1,500 to 7,500
pounds of lint in the same time, the quantity varying according to
the size and power of the gin.

INFLUENCE OF PATENT LAWS ON DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL MACHINES.

The development and creation of agricultural implements and
machines by the inventive genius of this country is one of the most
remarkable features of progress of the century. Its history is one of
evolution and revolution—a revolution of incalculable consequences
to human labor and the production and distribution of wealth, with
an immense bearing upon the trend and character of industry, social
life, and civilization.

This development has been encouraged by the patent laws of the
country, and perhaps nothing could be more tersely expressive of the
influence of these laws in promoting mechanical agriculture than a
mention of the number of patents that have been granted. Under date
of November 17, 1899, the Patent Office reports that patents for agri-
cultural machines had been granted to the number indicated in each
of the following classes: Vegetable cutters and crushers, 701; ferti-
lizers, 822; bee culture, 1,038; trees, plants, and flowers, 1,102; care
of live stock, 3,749; dairy, 4,632; thrashers, 5,319; harrows and dig-
gers, 5,801; fences, 8,404; seeders and planters, 9,156; harvesters,
12,519; plows, 12,652.

It is no longer necessary for the farmer to cut his wheat with sickle
or cradle, nor to rake it and bind it by hand; to cut his cornstalks
with a knife and shock the stalks by hand; to thrash his grain with a

3820 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

flail, nor to drive horses over it to tread it out, nor to serape the ears
of corn against a shovel or the handle of a frying pan. It is no longer
necessary for him to dig potatoes, nor to cut his grass with a seythe
and to spread it with a pitchfork that it may dry, nor to pitch the
hay from the wagon to the haymow in the barn, nor to pick the lint
from cotton seed by hand, and so on with numerous operations
throughout the whole range of agricultural work.

Mechanical contrivances have largely supplanted human labor in
many respects, or have improved the application of labor and increased
the product of agriculture, reduced the cost of production, augmented
the farmer’s gross income, and made his life an easier one than it was
before the machine period.

This country has come to be without a peer in the manufacture of
agricultural implements and machines, both in quality and number.
The manufacturing establishments for producing them in 1890 num-
bered 910, with a capital of $145,313,997 and 42,544 employees, receiv-
ing wages to the amount of $21,811,761, turning out a product valued
at $81,271,651. One of these establishments (the largest in the world),
making various kinds of mowers and reapers, corn harvesters, corn
huskers and shredders, and hayrakes, turned out 187,760 machines
in 1898, or, on an average, one in less than a minute for every work-
ing day.

AGENCIES FOR AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT AND INFORMATION.

Along with the application of invention, have grown up numerous
agencies for educating and training the farmer in agriculture, for dis-
seminating information with regard to improvements, and for stimu-
lating among farmers the associative spirit and increasing the benefits
to be derived from cooperation.

The first of these agencies, chronologically, consisted of voluntary
organizations for the promotion of agricultural interests. These,
under various titles, existed in the colonies even before the beginning
of this century. We have records of five established during the
decade of 1785-1794, in the following States and in the order named:
Pennsylvania, South Carolina, New York, Massachusetts, and Con-
necticut. This method of aid to agriculture has constantly increased
during the nineteenth century, and agricultural societies, the name
generally applied to them, have multiplied so that at the present day
there are probably few counties in the United States where some
form of agricultural society does not exist, while all the leading agri-
cultural industries are represented by State, and, in many cases, by
national organization.

Many of these voluntary associations receive State aid, and espe-
cially is this true of those organized mainly for the purpose of holding
annual fairs. About 1,500 such associations are now in existence,
extensively distributed throughout the country, but more especially

PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. S20

_ throughout the North Central and North Atlantie States. Of farmers’
clubs, it is sufficient to say their name is legion. Another of these
agencies consists of the commissioners of agriculture or boards of agri-
eulture of the different States, and almost every State has some official
organization in the interests of agriculture. To these must be added
the agricultural colleges and the experiment stations, in which the
Federal and State governments cooperate. !

Finally, the most important of the agencies referred to is the Depart-
ment of Agriculture itself, which began as an insignificant division in
the Patent Office, Department of the Interior, in 1839, became a De-
partment under a Commissioner in 1862, and in February, 1889, was
erected into an Executive Department under a Secretary, who is a
member of the Cabinet.

STATISTICS.
AGRICULTURAL CENSUSES,

Important and extensive collections of statistical information with
regard to farms and their products have been made by national and
State censuses.

The first statistics of agriculture collected by a United States
census were obtained in 1540, within limits much narrower than those
adopted in the censuses of 1890 and 1900.

At the present time it is the policy of the Census Office to procure
an inventory of farm property and products, with detailed statements
for acreage, values, quantities, and numbers of live stock, as far as
applicable. It is expected that the national census of this year will
procure many facts with regard to the farms of this country, which
are now supposed to number about 5,000,000. No other country takes
such a thorough, extensive, and detailed census of agriculture as does
the United States.

The use of the censuses of agriculture might be the subject of
extended discussion, but comparatively little can be said here. Not
a day passes that the Department of Agriculture does not need to use
census Statistics of agriculture in many ways and for many purposes,
not only in its own routine work of crop estimates and in the prepa-
ration and conduct of statistical investigations, but also in response
to numerous letters received from residents of the United States and
foreign countries.

Some of the States are required by their constitutions, or by legis-
lative enactments, to take censuses, but not all of them comply with

the requirement. he most elaborate State census of agriculture is
taken by Massachusetts. mong the other States required to take

‘No attempt is made here to explain even briefiy the work of the agricultural
colleges and experiment stations as a factor in the development of agriculture,
both agricultural education, during th's century, and the work of the agricultural
experiment stations being treated at length in other papers in this Yearbook.—Ep. -

1 Aa 99 21

322 | YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

censuses are Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Oregon, Oklahoma,
and Wisconsin.

Useful agricultural statistics are collected and published also by
the boards of agriculture of the several States, notably by the States
of Texas and Kansas.

BOARDS OF TRADE AND COTTON EXCHANGES.

At least twenty-five boards of trade publish statistics of the move-
ment, distribution, prices, etc., of agricultural products, and the fol-
lowing is substantially a complete list of the cities in which these
boards of trade are situated, the variants of the name being some-
times merchants’ exchange, chamber of commerce, produce exchange,
or commercial exchange: Baltimore, Md.; Boston, Mass.; Buffalo,
N. Y.; Chicago, I.; Cincinnati, Ohio; Denver, Colo.; Detroit, Mich. ;
Duluth, Minn.; Indianapolis, Ind.; Louisville, Ky.; Memphis, Tenn. ;
Milwaukee, Wis.; New York, N. Y.; Omaha, Nebr.; Peoria, Ill;
Philadelphia, Pa. (commercial exchange and also produce exchange);
Portland, Oreg.; Richmond, Va.; St. Louis, Mo.; San. Francisco, Cal.
(chamber of commerce and also produce exchange); Seattle, Wash. ;
Toledo, Ohio, and Washington, D. C.

Besides the foregoing boards of trade, there are many in the United
States whose object is to stimulate concerted action by manufacturers,
merchants, financiers, and persons especially concerned in carrying
on the distributive processes. About 800 of these boards of trade have
a national association, which speaks powerfully for interests represent-
ing many hundreds of millions of dollars of capital, and which sub-
stantially represents the class of persons known as middlemen, who
distribute the products of the farm. But this national association
does not inelude all of the boards of trade, chambers of commerce,
and produce exchanges. These in the aggregate number between
1,300 and 1,400, the largest number among the States being found in
New York; second to which stands Pennsylvania; third, Ohio; and,
fourth, Massachusetts.

There is a class of these boards of trade especially concerned with
cotton, generally known as cotton exchanges, which are associations
of middlemen with the object of obtaining information in regard to
the condition of the market as influenced by demand, supply, produc-
tion, available cotton, and, in some cases, of dealing in futures. The
cities and towns where these exchanges are situated are as follows:
Eufaula, Birmingham, Mobile, Montgomery, and Selma, Ala.; Little
Rock and Texarkana, Ark.; Atlanta, Columbus, Rome, Savannah,
and Augusta, Ga.; Monroe, New Orleans, and Shreveport, La.;
Greenville, Greenwood, Meridian, Natchez, Vicksburg, and Yazoo
City, Miss.; St. Louis, Mo.; New York, N. Y.; Newbern, Wilmington,
and Raleigh, N. C.; Charleston and Columbia, 8. C.; Memphis and
Nashville, Tenn.; Galveston, Dallas, Fort Worth, Sherman, Waco,
and Houston, Tex.; Norfolk and Portsmouth, and Richmond, Va.

PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. “oe

STATISTICS OF DEVELOPMENT,

The progress of American agriculture up to the present time has by
no means been thoroughly discussed in this paper, nor is it possible
to do so within the limits of a Yearbock article; hence only a few more
topics can be mentioned. First, statistics expressing development
will be given.

FARMS AND ACREAGE.—The number of farms increased from
1,449,073 in 1850 to 4,564,641 in 1890. During the same time the
total farm acreage increased from 293,560,614 to 623,218,619 aeres, of
which the increase in improved acreage was greater, both absolutely
and relatively, than the increase in the unimproved acreage.

INCREASING IMPORTANCE OF MEDIUM-SIZED FARMS.—The average
size of farms declined from 203 acres in 1850 to 137 aeres in 1890, and
it has been established by a thorough statistical analysis that in the*
more recent years the increase in number of farms has more largely
accrued to farms of medium size than to farms of the smaller and
larger sizes. Why this should be so is only a matter of conjecture.
It may be that the persons who acquire the proprietorship of farms,
either as owners or as tenants, have become more able to acquire the
possession of medium-sized farms, and so reject or consolidate the
smaller farms; it may be also that the larger farms have not been
found to be as profitable as medium-sized farms.

The use of machines is an important element in this country’s agri-
culture, and possibly the medium-sized farm as it exists to-day is
susceptible of being more economically cultivated and managed than
either smaller or larger farms, and among the economic reasons for
this the farm machine must be reckoned as highly impertant. But
whatever the explanation may be, the fact remains that the middle-
class farmer, according to the tendency disclosed by the census of 1890,
is coming more and more to the front among agriculturists.

FARM REAL ESTATE AND MACHINES.—The value of the real estate
of farms increased from $3,271,575,426 in 1850 to $13,279,252,649 in
1890. During this period the value of farm implements and machines
inereased from $151,587,638 to $494,247,467; but these numbers do not
adequately represent the increase in the importance of implements
and machines, partly because these figures take no account of the vast
inerease in their efficiency, which has been infinitely greater than the
figures express, and in a very large degree because of the much cheaper
prices prevailing in 1890.

FARM PRODUCTS.—The censuses have very poorly ascertained the
value of farm products, the statements undoubtedly being consider-
ably under the facts. The published statement of the census of 1890
gives the value of farm products as $2,460,107,454, but an estimate
made on the production ascertained in the census of 1890 by Mr. J. R.
Dodge, former Statistician of the Department of Agriculture, places

324 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the value of farm products in the agricultural year covered by that
census at about $3,500,000,000.

FARM ANIMALS have increased as follows, as shown by national
censuses: Horses, from 4,356,719 in 1850 to 14,969,467 in 1890; mules
and asses, from 559,331 in 1850 to 2,295,532 in 1890; milch cows, from
6,385,094 in 1850 to 16,511,950 in 1890; oxen and other cattle, from
11,393,813 in 1840 to 34,851,622 in 1890; swine, from 26,301,293 in
1840 to 57,409,583 in 1890; sheep, not including spring lambs, from
19,311,374 in 1840 to 35,935,364 in 1890. The wool clip of the census
year of 1890 amounted to 165,449,239 pounds. The value of live
stock increased during the period 1850-1890 from $544,180,516 to
$2, 208,767,573. :

I'ARM DAIRY PRODUCTS are thus stated in the census of 1890: Entire
number of gallons of milk produced on farms, 5,210,125,567; pounds
of butter, 1,024,223,468; pounds of cheese, 18,726,818. It must be
remembered that the production of butter and cheese on farms has
been largely transferred to creameries, whose products are notineluded
in the foregoing figures, but are included in part in the census statis-
tics of manufactures—only in part, however, because it is known that
avery large portion of the creameries and their products were omitted
from the census statistics of 1890.

PoOULTRY.—In 1890 it was reported that the chickens on farms num-
bered 258,871,125; other fowls, 26,738,315; and that the eggs produced
and sold during the census year were 819,722,916 dozen. The poultry
statisties, however, probably fall far short of the facts.

CROP PRODUCTION.—Coming now to the production of crops, the
following extracts are made from the censuses of 1840 and 1890, to
which the figures of the Department of Agriculture for 1899 are added:

Cereals.—Production of indian corn, 377,531,875 bushels in 1840;
2,122,327,547 bushels in 1890; 2,078,143,933 bushels in 1899; and the
corn acreage increased from 62,368,504 acres in 1880 to 82,108,587
acres in 1899.

The wheat product was 84,823,272 bushels in 1840; 468,573,968
bushels in 1890; 547,305,846 bushels in 1899; and from 1880 to 1899
the wheat acreage increased from 35,430,333 acres to 44,592,516 acres.

The United States produces more wheat than any other country in
the world. A comparison may be made for 1898: Crop of the United
States, 675,149,000 bushels; France, 371,881,000 bushels; Austria-
Hungary, 170,938,000 bushels; Italy, 133,372,000 bushels; Germany,
115,000,000 bushels; United Kingdom, 77,170,000 bushels; Russia in
Europe, 404,836,000 bushels; Russia in Asia, 94,000,000 bushels; total
Asiatic production, 421,321,000 bushels; total African production,
44,439,000 bushels; total South American production, 72,000,000
bushels.

The oat product was, in bushels, in 1840, 123,071,341; in 1890,

~

PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. 325

809,250,666; in 1899, 796,177,713. The oat acreage was 16,144,593 in
1880, and inereased to 26,541,380 acres in 1899.

The rye product was 18,645,567 bushels in 1840, 28,421,398 bushels
in 1890, and 23,961,741 bushels in 1899, with a decrease of acreage
from 1,842,253 acres in 1880 to 1,659,308 acres in 1899.

Cotton.—The cotton crop of 1850 amounted to 2,469,093 bales, and
the crop increased decennially up to the census of 1890, and almost
without a break annually since that year until the enormous crop of
1898-99, which amounted to 11,189,205 bales of considerably heavier
weight than the-bales of 1850. The cotton acreage increased from
14,480,019 acres in 1880 to the largest acreage yet attained, in 1898-99,
which was 24,967,295. The cotton crop of the United States substan-
tially dominates the world market for cotton, its proportion of the
world’s crop being from 80 to 85 per cent, and practically having little
competition within the lines of its own grades and qualities. The
State of Texas alone produces more cotton than any foreign cotton-
producing country.

Hay.—The hay production amounted to 10,248,109 tons in 1840; to
66,831,480 tons in 1890, and to 56,655,756 tons in 1899; and the aere-
age increased from 30,631,054 acres in 1880 to 41,328,462 acres in 1899.

Tobacco.—From 1840 to 1890 the production of tobacco increased
from 219,163,319 pounds to 488,256,646 pounds, and the acreage in the
latter year was 695,301 acres.

Potatoes.—W hite potatoes are a crop of extraordinary inerease, the
bushels in 1850 being 65,797,896; in 1890, 217,546,362, and in 1899,
228,783,232. From 1850 to 1890 the production of sweet potatoes
increased from 38,268,148 to 43,950,261 bushels.

AGRICULTURAL EXPORTS.

The development of the agriculture of the United States has much
more than kept pace with the enormous immigration, increase of
population, increase of domestic consumption for food and manufac-
tured products, and for cattle and other domestic animals. It has
furnished besides an enormous surplus for export. Only the exports
of the principal products can be given briefly:

WHEAT.—The wheat export was 4,272 bushels in 1823; 4,155,153
bushels in 1860, and 139,432,815 bushels in 1899. During the same
time wheat fiour was exported to the amount of 756,702 barrels in
1823, 2,611,596 barrels in 1860, and 18,502,690 barrels in 1899.

CoTton.—The exports of raw cotton amounted to 173,723,270 pounds
in 1823, to 1,767,686,338 pounds in 1860, and to 3,773,410,293 pounds
in 1899. The more recent product, cotton-seed oil, had an export of
90,627,219 gallons in 1899, and the export trade in this product has
chiefly grown up since 1889.

HAY AND BARLEY.—The hay export is relatively small, amounting

326 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

to only 64,916 tons in 1899. The barley export also is comparatively
small, amounting to 2,267,400 bushels in 1899, although it reached its
maximum amount of 20,030,301 bushels in 1897.

Corn.—The corn export was 749,034 bushels in 1823; it was 3,314,155
bushels in 1560, and 174,089,094 bushels in 1899. In addition to the
unmanufactured corn exports are the exports of corn meal, and these
amounted to 791,488 barrels in 1899; but a large portion of the corn
product is consumed by domestic animals, the exports of which are
mentioned below.

OATS AND RYE.—In 1899 the oat export amounted to 30,309,680
bushels, and the oat-meal export was 58,042,505 pounds. In the same
year the rye export was 10,140,876 bushels, and the rye-flour export
4,826 barrels.

ANIMALS AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS.—The following are the exports
of farm animals in 1899, the figures representing numbers of animals:
Cattle, 389,490; hogs, 53,031; horses, 45,778; mules, 6,755; sheep,
143,286. These numbers have grown during the last twenty-five
years from almost nothing.

The exports of beef products amounted to 19,053,800 pounds in 1866,
not including preserved meats, and the entire quantity of beef prod-
ucts exported in 1899 was 368,666,638 pounds; in the latter year the
beef-tallow exports amounted to 107,361,009 pounds. In 1866 the pork
products exported amounted to 97,756,169 pounds, and the number
had grown to 1,700,380,357 pounds in 1899. In 1899 the mutton ex-
ports amounted to 379,110 pounds.

A large item of export has grown up within a few years under the
name of oleo oil, and its export in 1899 aggregated 142,390,492 pounds.

The butter and cheese exports have in late years shown a decline,
and in 1899 they amounted, respectively, to 20,247,997 and 38,198,753
pounds.

ToBAcco.—For many years tobacco has been a large item of export,
and its quantity has substantially remained constant for twenty-
five years or so. The pounds of leaf tobacco exported in 1899 were
272,421,295 and the value of the manufactured tobacco exported in
that year was $5,179,012.

Woou.—The wool export has rarely reached 1,000,000 pounds,
although in 1896 it almost equaled 7,000,000 pounds.

The statistics immediately preceding, as well as the others in this
paper, express forcibly and comprehensively, although tersely, the,
agricultural development through which this country has passed up
to the present time—a development which has been unparalleled in
the history of the world in its rapidity and magnitude.

FERTILIZERS.

The decade 1840-1850 marks an epoch in the history of agrieul-
ture. The world was then making rapid strides in applied science.

PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. 327

Railroads were rapidly extending, ocean steam navigation became
established, the electric telegraph came into use, and, what was of great
importance in connection with agriculture, the chemical theory of
manures came to be understood. ‘‘Artificial fertilizers,” made acecord-
ing to formulas founded on the chemical composition of the ashes of
plants, began to be manufactured, and came rapidly intouse. The use
of nitrate of soda and superphosphate of lime was becoming common.
The rapidity of this growth is perhaps best seen in the rise of the use
of guano. Samples had come to Europe early in the century; next a
few casks came; in 1840, Liebig, the eminent chemist, brought it
into notice, and the South American merchants sold a small cargo
that year. The next year some 2,000 tons were imported into Great
Britain.

The use of commercial fertilizers has progressed from year to year,
until, in 1896, 1,894,917 tons were used in the United States, valued at
$37,688,869.

The economic advantages of the use of fertilizers are distinctly
shown in an investigation conducted by the Division of Statisties of
the Department of Agriculture in 1896. This was a unique investi-
gation of comprehensive character, and was applied to the production
of cotton.!

Along with the increased consumption of commercial fertilizers,
there has been a vastly increasing realization by farmers of the value
and utility of barnyard and compost manures, especially in the parts
of the country where cattle are kept in stables throughout a large
portion of the year. While the average production per acre of vari-
ous crops has not materially increased for many years past, yet farm-
ers know that they not only must not, but can not, rob the soil of its
fertility without restoring the elements that go to make plant growth.
In some parts of the country, where the fertility of the soil is mate-
rially impaired, it is still the custom to let cultivated land lie fallow
for sufficient length of time to increase its fertility, but there is also
a large extent of country where this is not done, and where, on the
contrary, domestic and commercial fertilizers are liberally used.

Speaking in general for the whole country, the net result of the use
of fertilizers, so far, has been mainly to preserve the normal fertility
and production of the soil, although farmers’ experiences have numer-
ously and extensively established the economic desirability of more
intensive agriculture.

EVOLUTION OF VARIETIES OF FOODS FROM PRODUCTS.

There is one prominent feature in the agricultural development
of the United States that has received little public attention (a fea-
ture which alone is worthy of an extended article), and this is the

'See Bulletin No. 16, miscellaneous series, Division of Statistics, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, The Cost of Cotton Production.

328 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

extraordinary multiplication of the varieties of foods into which farm
products have been converted by the slaughterhouse, by the packing
house, by the cannery, and by the manufacture of health foods. The
effect of all this upon the consumption of numerous farm products
has been very considerable, and has, to some extent, revolutionized the
diet of the people of this country, and presumably of other parts of
the civilized world, especially of people living in cities and towns.

EARLY PRACTICES REGARDING FOOD SUPPLY.

One does not need to go back more than a generation to find the
meat supply derived from local farmers and butchers. Indeed,
among the great mass of the people living outside of the cities and
large towns the fresh-meat supply was a matter of neighborhood bor-
rowing; a farmer slaughtered an old cow, perhaps, and distributed
some of the quarters or other portions of the carcass among his neigh-
bors, with the expectation that they would return an equivalent when
it came their turn to butcher.

Until comparatively recent years the products of the farm were
distributed throughout the year for food consumption in a crude and
very restricted sense. Apples and green corn were dried in the sun;
indian corn was preserved dry in the crib; potatoes, cabbages, and
turnips were kept fresh in the cellar; some beef was dried; pork and
beef were pickled in brine; squashes and pumpkins were kept for
some time after the harvest without rotting, and so on with a few
other preducts of the farm and garden.

CANNING, PRESERVING, AND REFRIGERATING IN RECENT YEARS.

An immense change in the relation of foods to seasons has taken
place within recent years. Fresh beef and mutton and pork and
poultry preserved by refrigeration can now be had in all parts of
the country from the farms and ranches of the Mississippi Valley, to
say nothing of the improved local meat supply. Many of the principal
garden products now know no season, owing to the canner and the pre-
server. The peach and the pear, the apricot and the plum, peas and
beans, lentils and green corn and tomatoes, and many kinds of ber-
ries—and so on through almost the entire list of the fruit and veg-
etable products of the farm and garden—are now to be had at all times
of the year, not always, perhaps, with the flavor they possessed when
gathered from their vines and stalks and trees, but yet with much of
their original freshness and flavor.

By means of canning and preserving the farmers’ market has been
enlarged both in time and space until the market for farm and garden
products now extends throughout the entire year, not only to remote
parts of this country, but to a large portion of the world.

If a list of the different kinds and descriptions of food were to be
presented, it would, because of its magnitude, overtax the patience of
the reader. An attempt was made several years ago to prepare such

PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. 329

a list for a publisher, and the undertaking had to be abandoned on
account of its unexpectedly large proportions and the time, labor, and
expense required. In this paper it is proposed merely to give three
illustrations of the heterogeneity that has characterized the develop-
ment of farm products as foods and for other purposes.

BUSINESS OF A PROMINENT PACKING COMPANY.

One of the large Western packing companies with enormous eapi-
tal and business has been selected to illustrate how the extension of
the farmers’ market has been promoted and elaborated in recent years.
This packing company owns the cars that are used to distribute its
products and to collect some of them. It has 500 tank ears for trans-
porting blood and tankage for fertilizers and various animal oils; it
has 4,000 ears for transporting dressed beef and 6,500 ears for trans-
porting fruit. From the price lists of this company, sentto its agencies
throughout the United States, the following facts are extracted:

The beef carcass is cut into many different parts in various ways,
all intended to meet the demands of retailers and consumers, and the
different parts so cut, including all of the parts of the animal cus-
tomarily eaten, number 53. With regard to meat cuttings, the num-
bers are, pork 29, mutton 12, veal 5; number of boiled hams 6; vavri-
eties of sausages 43 and of delicatessen sausage 14—total varieties
of sausage 57. The dried salt meats are prepared with 16 different
cuttings; the bacon meats with 16.

There are hams of many descriptions, and dried beef, mess pork,
mess beef, pickled beef tongue, pork spareribs, mince-meat in pack-
ages of numerous sizes, lard, compound lard and lard oil, neat’s-foot
oil, and tallow oil.

The canned meats include numerous varieties, among which may
be mentioned corned beef, pigs’ feet, gelatin, boar’s head, Oxford
sausage, tongue, roast beef, boiled beef, chipped beef, deviled ham,
potted ham and tongue, minced ham, chicken, turkey, chile con carne,
pork and beans, ox marrow, chicken tamale, and sauerkraut and
Vienna sausage, ete.

There are to be mentioned also some of the canned soups, as ox tail,
mock turtle, tomato, consommé, chicken, beef, mutton, vegetable,
purée of green peas, and so on.

The extracts of beef are liquid and in tablets of various deserip-
tions. The pickled tongues, pork hocks, and pigs’ feet are of nine
descriptions, and there is poultry of all sorts and fresh eggs and
canned eggs, ducks, quails, venison, prairie chickens, pigeons, squabs,
and even frogs’ legs.

COTTON SEED.
Cotton seed is a very marked instance of a former by-product of

the farm which has become of enormous value and of varied uses.

830 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

The meats are made into oil cake and oil meal for feeding stuff and
for fertilizers; into crude oil, cotton-seed stearin, salad oil, cottolene,
miners’ oil, and soap, and the oil is exported to Eurepe and brought
back again as olive oil. The hulls may be used for making paper;
they are made into bran for cattle food; they are used for fuel, and
are an important contribution to the list of fertilizers.

Here is an enormous source of wealth which science has given to
the farmers within comparatively recent years. The estimated value
of the cotton seed of a 10,000,000-bale crop of cotton (to the planters)
is about $30,000,000, and this value is now almost entirely appropri-
ated by them.

DIVERSIFICATION OF DAIRY PRODUCTS.

Only one more instance of the elaboration of the products of the
farm need be mentioned to illustrate how varied the farmers’ market
has become and how minutely his products have been made to create
and answer the wants of mankind. The following are the varieties
of the dairy products of the United States, as furnished by Maj. H. E.
Alvord, chief of the dairy division, Bureau of Animal Industry:

Butter.

Dairy and Creamery: In tubs, boxes, family packages, rolls, and prints.
Imitation Creamery: Ladled, Renovated, or ‘‘ Process,” all melted and rechurned.
Fresh or ‘‘Sweet;” that is, unsalted.

Cheese.

I. Hard: (a) Domestic varieties:

Factory Standard, or Cheddar.
English Dairy.
Young America,
Little Favorites.
Picnics.
Ponies.
Skim cheese.
Pineapple.
Sage.

(b) Foreign forms, imitated:
Swiss, or Gruyere,

Differing in size and form rather than in
character,

Edam.
Gouda.
Limburger.
Munster.
Brick.
Il. Soft: Pot cheese, or smearcase.

Neufckatel.

Cream.

Isigny.

Brie.

Camembert.

Potted and prepared cheese, ‘‘ Club-house,” ete.

; PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. ddl

Milk, ete.

Condensed milk, sweetened.

Condensed milk, plain, or unsweetened.

‘*Evaporated cream.”

Cream, sterilized and canned.

Milk and cream, Pasteurized, ‘‘ Certified,” ‘‘ Modified,” etc.
Koumys, Matzoon, Wheyn, etc.

SOME ECONOMIC RESULTS OF MACHINES.

Much remains to be said with regard to the evolution of agriculture
in the United States, but only a brief reference can be made to some
of the more important results of the investigation of hand and
machine labor and processes as applied to agriculture, with a contrast
between farming as it was practiced fifty to seventy years ago and
farming as it is now carried on with the advantage of the labor-
saving and perfecting implements and machines of the present time
as well as with the improvements contributed by the chemist, the
‘*book farmer,” and the more enlightened experience of the last half
century.!

CORN CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING.

O~~

Between 1855 and 1894 the following changes took place in the
cultivation of corn. The time of human labor required to produce
one bushel of corn on an average declined from 4 hours and 34 min-
utes to 41 minutes, and the cost of the human labor to produce this
bushel declined from 35? cents to 103 cents.

In the earlier years the plow and harrow of that period were used;
the check rows were marked with the shovel plow; the seed was
dropped by hand from a bucket or pouch carried by the farmer and
covered with a hoe; the cultivating was done with a shovel plow;
knives were used for cutting the stalks from the ground by hand;
husking pegs were worn on the hand in husking; the stalks, husks,
and blades were cut into fodder with an old-time machine turned by
hand, and the corn was shelled by hand, either on a frying-pan handle
or on a shovel or by rubbing the cob against the unshelled ears.

A radical change had taken place in 1894. The earth was loosened
with a gang plow, and a disk harrow very thoroughly pulverized it.
A corn planter drawn by a horse planted the corn, and the top soil
was pulverized afterwards with a four-section harrow.

When it came to harvesting the corn, a self-binder drawn by horses
eut the stalks and bound them, and the shocks of stalks were then
hauled toa machine, which removed the husks from the ears, and in
the same process cut the husks and the staiks and the blades into
fodder, the power of the machine being supplied by a steam engine.

‘Report of the United States Department of Labor on Hand and Machine Labor.
1898,

332 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Then came the shelling of the corn, which is one of the marvels of
the changes that have been wrought by machines. In this ease, the
machine operated by steam shelled 1 bushel of corn per minute, while
in the old way the labor of one man was required for 100 minutes to
do the same work.

WHEAT CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING.

The use of steam as a substitute for horse power in plowing, in har-
vesting, and in thrashing wheat has not materially contributed to
economy, except from a saving due to the elimination of animal
power, so the more common power supplied by horses is here selected
for the comparison. The years in contrast are 1830 and 1896.

It is one of the marvels of the age that the amount of human labor
now required to produce a bushel of wheat from beginning to end is _
on an average only 10 minutes, whereas, in 1830, the time was 3 hours
and 3 minutes. During the interval between these years the cost of
the human labor required to produce this bushel of wheat declined
from 173? cents to 34 cents.

In the contrast thus presented the heavy, clumsy plow of the day
was used in 1830; the seed was sown by hand, and was harrowed into
the ground by the drawing of bushes over it; the grain was cut with
sickles, hauled to a barn, and at some time before the following spring
was thrashed with flails; the winnowing was done with a sheet attached
to rods, on which the grain was placed with a shovel and then tossed
up and down by two men until the wind had blown out the chaff.

In the latter year, on the contrary, the ground was plowed and pul-
verized in the same operation by a disk plow; the seed was sown with
a mechanical seeder drawn by horses; the reaping, thrashing, and
sacking of the wheat was done with the combined reaper and thrasher
drawn by horses, and then the wheat was ready to haul to the granary.

HAYMAKING,

Hay is the next selection for comparison, the years being 1860 and
1894. When men mowed the grass with scythes, spread it and turned
it over for drying with pitehforks, when they raked it into windrows
with a hand rake, cocked it with a pitchfork, and baled it with a hand
press, the time of human labor required per ton was 35} hours; but
when for this method was substituted a mower, a hay tedder, and a
hayrake and hay gatherers and stackers drawn by horses, and a press
operated by a horse, the time of human labor was reduced to 11 hours
and 34 minutes, while the cost of human labor from the earlier to the
later year was reduced from $3.06 to $1.29.

The more noticeable economy in haymaking is in the mowing and
curing of the grass. In these two operations the time of human labor
declined per ton from 11 hours to 1 hour and 39 minutes, while the
cost of the human labor declined from 834 cents to 164 cents.

PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. o00

The comparisons might be extended throughout many of the crops
produced by the farmer, with a constantly recurring illustration of
the saving of human labor and of the diminution of the cost of pro-
duction by the dimunition of human labor. With regard to animal
labor alone it often appears that an increased time is required in pro-
duction, but where there is an increased cost it is principally due to
the increased value of the labor of animals.

SAVING IN THE COST OF PRODUCING CROPS.

The potential saving in the cost of human labor on account of
improved implements, machines, and processes, at the rate per bushel
or ton, as the case may be, has been computed for seven of the princi-
pal crops of 1899; the comparison is between the old-time methods of
preduction, in which hand labor was assisted only by the comparas
tively rude and inefficient implements of the day and the present
time, when hand labor has not only the assistance of highly efficient
and perfected implements and machines, but has been considerably
displaced by them. The saving in the cost of human labor in cents,
per unit of product, permits a very forcible statement of its equiva-
lent in money by means of a computation consisting of the multipli-
cation of the saving per unit into the crop of 1899. The result expresses
the potential labor saving in the production of seven crops of that year,
and is not an aggregate of the saving of human labor in the cost of
producing the crops for all of the years between the earlier and the
later ones, during which time this economizing and displacement
of human labor has taken place. In the ease of the crop of corn, the
money measure of the saving of human labor required to produce it in
1899 in the most available economic manner, as compared with its pro-
duction in the old-time manner, was $523,276,642; wheat, $79,194,867;
oats, $52,866,200; rye, $1,408,950; barley, $7,325,480; white potatoes,
$7,366,820; hay, $10,034,868.

The total potential saving in the cost of human labor for these seven
erops of 1899, owing to the possible utilization of the implements,
machines, and methods of the present time, in place of the old-time
manner of production, reaches the stupendous amount of $681,471,827
for this one year.

CONCLUSION.

It would be idle to claim that the progress of the agriculture of the
United States and its evolution from the primitive scope and con-
ditions in which it was found by the settlers who came from Europe
have been set forth adequately, even in its important topics and
details, in the foregoing pages, but perhaps enough has been pre-
sented to explain in their main features the causes and opportunities
which in combination have led to an agricultural production actually
too great to be grasped by the human mind.

334 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF. AGRICULTURE.

As great as has been the growth of manufactures, mining, the fish-
eries, and trade and transportation, all of which tend to draw popu-
lation from agriculture, yet more than one-third of the population of
the country is engaged in agriculture or dependent upon agriculturists.
This element in our population has proved to be a strong one. It has
been conservative with regard to those things that experience has
demonstrated to be good. It has been an industrial element upon
which all other elements of the population have needed to depend as
the cornerstone of the social and industrial structure.

The agricultural element is the one independent element in our
society. Let whatever betide that may, this element has a degree of
independence in subsistence and in living that no other element has,
and still, as in the past, remains the chief mainstay of the nation.

SOIL INVESTIGATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES.

By Minton WHITNEY,
Chief of Division of Soils.

INFLUENCE OF TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES ON POPULATION AND
FARM CROPS.

The nineteenth century opened with the civilized communities of
the United States confined principally to the Atlantic seaboard and
along the most important rivers, where easy water communication
could be utilized in transporting farm products to the eities and for"
eign countries. This necessarily restricted farming to what are now
called the Atlantic Coast and Gulf States, but if is an interesting fact
that this area contains a greater variety of soils, ranging from the
most fertile limestone valleys to the most barren sands and elays, than
can be found in an area of equal size in any of the more reeently settled
portions of the country. The most important cities of that period
were situated at the fall line of the rivers for the advantages of water
power in manufacturing and manipulatingfarm products on one side
of the city, and of water transportation to various markets on the
other side. About 1836 the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal was com-
pleted for a distance of about 65 miles from Washington, D. C.,
thereby opening up a large territory by placing it in easy communi-
cation with the coast. About this time also the Erie and.other canals
were completed, and the possibilities of extension began to be con-
sidered. With the wide introduction of railroads, between 1850 and
1870, the possibilities of general and close connection between the
products of Western and inland soils and the Eastern cities and foreign
countries became fully apparent.

The gold discoveries of California in 1849 stimulated the interest
and led to the construction of the transcontinental lines of railways,
which have brought the Pacific coast into closer touch with the Atlan-
tic seaboard than Ohio and Kentucky were at the beginning of the
century; while the effect of steamship transportation furnishing rapid,
sure, and safe delivery of agricultural products to foreign countries
at very reduced prices has been to open up the markets of the world
and make it possible to dispose of the vast quantities of goods pro-
duced in excess of the requirements of domestic markets.

EARLY WESTWARD MOVEMENT IN SEARCH OF NEW SOILS.

At the beginning of the century (and even before) it was noticed
. that the soils, particularly of Virginia and Maryland, were losing in
335

336 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

fertility. With this deterioration of the soils and the effect of compe-
tition from the rapidly increasing population, together with the natu-
rally restless spirit of.a certain class among the settlers, a westward
movement set in along the fertile limestone areas of western Mary-
land, the Valley of Virginia, and the limestone areas (blue-grass
region) of Kentucky and Ohio. It speaks wonders for the intelligent
appreciation of the natural fertility of the soil by the pioneers of those
days that these areas were first settled, which are even now con-
sidered the most fertile and most valuable for general agricultural
purposes. The leading politicians and statesmen of the time, imbued
with the European ideas of intensive cultivation, opposed this exten-
sion and discouraged the tendency to diffusion, which was becoming
so apparent. There were political reasons which weighed even more
with them, but it is an interesting fact that these ideas were held by
such men at this period. The old Maryland and Virginia families,
who, as a rule, were devoted to their homes, contributed but slightly
to this extension, only a small proportion of the population of those
States being adventurous and restless enough to move West and there
open up wild and difficultly accessible tracts.

The products of the soils of Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio, which
began to take a place in the commercial world early in the present
century, were shipped by water to New Orleans.

EFFECT OF RAILROAD EXTENSION ON CROPS AND VALUES.

The Western extension of the railroad, which opened up the virgin
prairie lands of the West, where the cost of production is much less
than in the Eastern States, and where farming operations are of
enormous proportions, has had the effect of forcing specialization
upon the Eastern farmers. Some of the most worthless soils have
become of great value for certain crops, while some of the most fertile
soils have depreciated in value. Other soils have been abandoned
from inability to compete with the Western prairies, and the present
lack of any special crop or interest peculiarly adapted to them.

The influence of the railroads in providing easy, rapid, and cheap
transportation from the fertile prairies of the West and the extraor-
dinarily rapid settlement of the country have been far more potent
in the present distribution of farm crops and land values than the
exhaustion of the Hastern soils through. continuous croppings of
nearly three centuries.

EKARLY USE OF FERTILIZERS.

As before stated, the deterioration of the lands in the older States
was giving no little concern both to statesmen and land owners at
the beginning of the present century. It was very generally believed,
and is even yet held, that the continuous cultivation of tobacco was
very seriously impoverishing the soil. This must have been alarming,
indeed, as tobacco had been the most important crop of the colonies,

SOIL INVESTIGATIONS, Sot

yielding a large part of the revenues, and even passing asecurrency by
legislative enactment for nearly two centuries.

The ideas at that time regarding the requirements of plants and the
office of the soil in plant production were exceedingly crude. It had
long been a matter of dispute whether the soil furnished any essential
‘ingredients of plants. While these matters did not begin to be
clearly understood until Liebig’s remarkable generalization of the
mineral theory of plant growth in 1840, in the elaboration of which
our modern theory and practice of fertilization have been built, it is
a mistaken impression that fertilizers were not used before Liebig’s
time for the increase of crops and the maintenance of soil fertility.
On the contrary, they had been used for a long time. The excrement
of animals had been used from the earliest historic times. It is stated
that the Indians put fish in hills of corn when planting in order to
increase the yield, and they taught our earliest settlers to do likewise.
Guano had been used from the very earliest times by the Peruvians,
and its richness and wonderful effeets were observed by Humboldt in
1806.

Lime, plaster, and marl had long been used on the soil, and were
earnestly advocated by agricultural writers. In 1817 superphosphates
were manufactured for the first time in England, and other substances
had been tried with varying success for restoring and maintaining the
fertility of the land.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE USE OF FERTILIZERS.

It was not, however, until Liebig’s work on the mineral theory of
plant growth that the exact requirements of the plants and the impor-
tant office of the soil began to be fully appreciated. The vehement
discussions to which Liebig’s work gave rise led to a critical study of
the requirements of plants and the availability of soil constituents by
Boussingault, Lawes and Gilbert, and others. Between 1865 and
1875 the foreign experiment sans took up the matter and made a
eritical study, by means of water-culture and sand-culture experi-
ments, on the exact requirements of plants for mineral nutrient
The results of this work have laid the foundation for the development
of the present enormous industry of the manufacture and sale of
commercial fertilizers in this country.

In 1840 the first ship load of Peruvian guano was sent to England
for use as a fertilizer on lands. In 1842 a company was organized
and the trade in this substance was regularly commenced. Guano
quickly spread in popular favor in this ccuntry, and it came to be
used very extensively upon the tobacco soils of Virginia and Mary-
land. After twenty or thirty years cf continual usage, it was very
generally believed that the tobacco lands had been injured by its use.
The guano, it was supposed, stimulated the plant to such an extent
that other food materials in the soil were used up faster than they

1 Aa 99——22

338 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

were made available through the natural process of weathering, and,
the plants suffered in consequence.

The Peruvian guano was used principally for its ammonia. The
West Indian guanos, which came in later, were found to be rich in
phosphates and better adapted and safer for some crops than the
Peruvian.

Ground bones and boneblack were almost the only other sources of
phosphoric acid until 1867, when the South Carolina rock phosphates
were introduced. In this year six tons of this rock phosphate were
put upon the market. The mining of this South Carolina product
rapidly increased until the year of largest production in 1859, when
541,645 tons were produced. The Florida phosphates were developed
as a commercial product about this time, and still later the extensive
deposits in Tennessee were discovered and mined.

Wood ashes had been used for a long time with remarkable success,
but without the knowledge that the success depended largely upon
their potash content. They were indeed the principal souree of sup-
ply of this element until the Stassfurt potash salts were introduced
about the year 1860; since this time the Stassfurt salts have been the
principal and almost the only source of supply of potash in coneen-
trated forms for crops.

In 1860, in the report upon the geology of New Jersey, Cook called
attention to the wonderful richness and effeet on the soils of that
State of the greensand marls due to the potash and especially the
phosphoric acid content. Ruffin likewise called attention to the marls
of Virginia, and taught some valuable lessons on the manipulation
and eare of fertilizers.

The trade in nitrate of soda began between 1830 and 1840. Animal
excrement and fish had long been used, as already stated; and these,
with the refuse from the large modern slaughterhouses, together with
sulphate of ammonia from the gas works, are still the main sources of
supply of nitrogen for crops.

After the early work of Johnson, who had been a student of Liebig,
the great commercial value of fertilizer analysis and control became
apparent, and, after the practical results attained by the German
experiment stations recently established, it is no wonder that on the
establishment of the first experiment station in this country, at Mid-
dletown, Conn., and in the other stations, which rapidly organized,
the subject of fertilizer control became the most popular and really
the most important subject taken up. The early investigations of
the German experiment stations between 1865 and 1873 in water and
sand culture and the subsequent pot and field experiments determined
the essential elements of plant food likely to be deficient in available
form in the soil, and these have been mined or manufactured in vari-
ous forms; but the rule for the mixing of these for various crops or
for different soils has been and is yet very largely empirical.

7 SOIL INVESTIGATIONS. 339

Many very elaborately planned and well executed field experiments
with fertilizers on various soils and with many crops have been car-
ried on in this country during the past twenty-five years, but, owing
to the varying character of the seasons and to other conditions not
clearly understood, the results have been conflicting and impossible
to interpret.

The Cornell experiment station carried on some of the earliest of
these field investigations, then the Massachusetts station, the New
Jersey station, and many others. Atwater carried out a most elabo-
rate series of field experiments with fertilizers for a number of years
through the cooperation of farmers in many of the States. MeBryde
also carried on a most interesting series in Tennessee and another in
South Carolina. Atwater found that the requirement of any partic-
ular crop varies greatly, not only with the locality, but with the
climatic conditions. Results on one soil were likely to be entirely
reversed on another, even with the same crop, and on the same soil
from one season to another, and this has been the general experience
in nearly all such work.

CHEMICAL INVESTIGATION OF SOILS.

The discussion of the development of the use of fertilizers has pre-
eeded that of the chemical investigation of soils, because, although
the latter subject logically comes first, the use of fertilizers has been
developed more as the result of practical experience and deductive
reasoning from other scientific investigations than asa direct result of

the chemical analysis of soils.

It is needless to say that the original expectations and claims of the
Liebig school that a chemical analysis of soils and plants would give
definite indication of the requirements of a particular soil for any
plant have not been realized. There have been too many other fac-
tors influencing plant growth, which have not been considered or
which have not been clearly understood by agricultural chemists. For
example, very little is known about the constitution of silicates or
the form in which the plant food is held in the soil, or the nature of
the influences affecting the solubility of these substances. Further-
more, the influence on plant development of the various elements of
meteorology or their resultant, comprised in the term climatology, are
no better understood. Nevertheless, the investigations have added
greatly to the store of human knowledge and have given a mass of
detail which will undoubtedly form a valuable basis for further generai-
izations and further lines of research.

GROWTH OF SYSTEMATIC ANALYSIS OF SOILS.

As early as 1820 to 1850 various agricultural surveys were organ-
ized in several States, notably in Maine, Massachusetts, New York,
and North Carolina, but one of the first official recognitions of the

340 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

importance of soil analysis was in the establishment, by the legisla-
ture of Maryland in 1847, of the position of agricultural chemist for the
State, who, among other duties, was required to spend one year in each
of the districts and one month in each county and to visit each elec-
tion district; also to analyze specimens of each variety of soil which
might be brought to him or which he might find to exist. This work
was continued in a modified form up to 1859, when the survey was
discontinued. A number of reports were issued during this period,
which, on account of crudeness of the methods of analysis employed,
are only of historic interest so far as the analyses themselves are
concerned.

In the year 1850 Dr. David Dale Owens, assisted by Dr. Robert
Peters, began an extensive chemical examination of the soils of Ken-
tucky in connection with the geological survey of that State. This
is really the beginning of systematic work in the chemical analysis of

soils in this country. In 1860 Hilgard published his report upon the’

geology and agriculture of the State of Mississippi, and in 1875 he
commenced the series of investigations of the soils of California,
which have been vigorously prosecuted ever since. In 1875, in con-
nection with some of Hilgard’s results, Johnson pointed out the
doubtful utility of the ordinary chemical analysis of soils as an indi-
cation of the relation of the soil to plant growth, except in special
and rather exceptional cases. He showed in a most forcible man-
ner that an ordinary amount of fertilizer, though sufficient to make a
difference between a good crop and a failure, could not be detected
in the soil by the most refined chemical means, and he concluded,
therefore, that the ordinary chemical analysis, giving only the gross
amount of substances dissolved by a mineral acid, could give no true
indication of the amount of food in the soil actually available to
crops. This conclusion was substantiated by the fact that nearly all
analyses by the methods then used indicated an amount of food ma-
terial, even in the pocrest soils, sufficient for many average crops.
Notwithstanding Johnson’s argument, the chemical work was con-
tinued by a few scientists. In 1879 the taking of the Tenth Census
provided an opportunity for Hilgard and his colaborers to undertake
avery remarkable and valuable series of investigations, including
the chemical analyses of the soils of the cotton States, and for Kille-
brew to collect a large amount of valuable information in regard to
tobacco soils of the United States. For forty years Hilgard has been
an earnest advocate of the value of the chemical analysis of soils,
although recognizing, to a certain extent at least, the influence of
physical conditions.

In the Tenth Census, Hilgard, in an article prepared in 1879, sum-
marizes the results of his long experience; but these are of the most
general character and adapted only to the most general application.

SOIL INVESTIGATIONS. 341
EFFECT OF CHEMICAL RESEARCH ON SOIL PROBLEMS.

The application of chemical research to the problenis of the alkali
soils and waters of the arid West have been shown by Hilgard to be
of very great economic value. Not only has the character of the
waters been determined and settlers been warned of the use of waters
containing too much salt for irrigation, but the character and loca-
tion of the alkali salts in the soils themselves have been shown, and
in the case of the worst form of black alkali (sodium carbonate) a
remedial measure in the application of gypsum has been pointed out.
Drainage has been advocated in all cases where careful use of water,
thorough cultivation, and judicious cropping will not protect the crops.

The Alabama geological survey republished in modified form the
results of the chemical work on the soils of that State which had been
done for the Tenth Census. Since that time several of the other
States, notably North Carolina and South Carolina, have likewise
republished the census material in modified form. Several of the
State geological surveys have investigated the chemical composition of
the soils of their States. In 1895 Wheeler began and has sinee earried
on an interesting line of investigation upon the acidity of the Rhode
Island soils and the marked value of lime as a corrective for this.

The method of analysis employed by Owens and Hilgard, and which
is still followed to a large extent, was to digest the soil for a considera-
ble time with hot concentrated hydrochloric acid. When it became
apparent that the results secured by this digestion did not clearly
express the relative value of soils for crops, Grandeau’s hypothesis
was taken up and the amount of plant food contained in the organic
matter of the soil was determined. More recently many modifications
have been suggested in the use of dilute mineral and organie acids in
the effort to find a solvent which will express more exactly the amount
of available plant food inthe soil. Owens recognized the advisability
of this in the use of carbonated water in the digestion of some of his
soils. Nothing wholly satisfactory as a method of analysis has yet
been worked out.

Hlilgard recognized, in his Mississippi work, that plants are often a
sure indication of the agricultural value of a soil. In the Tenth Cen-
sus he states:

A soil naturally timbered with a large preportion of walnut, wild cherry, or, at
the South, with the poplar or tulip trees, is at once selected as sure to be both pro-
ductive and durable, especially if the trees arelarge. He (the farmer) knows well
that the black and Spanish oaks frequent only ‘“‘strong” soils, and that the admixture
of hickory is a welcome addition, while the occurrence of the scarlet oak at once
lowers the land in his estimation, and that of pine siill moreso. However much
opposed to the cocklebur in his fields, he welcomes it as a sare sign of a good cot-
ton soil, as much as though he had seen the latter itself growing for a series of
years. * * * Taking for granted the soundness of the principle involved in

judging the productiveness and the peculiarities of soils from their natural vegeta-
tion, and having gained a large array of additional data from personal observation

342 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

in the field, I have then sought to ascertain by close chemical and physical
exam nation of the soils in their natural condition the causes that determined this
natural selection on the part of certain species of trees and herbaceous plants, while
at the same time observing closely the behavior of such soils under cultivation,
their special adaptation, etc.

At the very close of the century the ideas brought out by the devel-
opment of physical chemistry and the modern theory of solution give
promise of many productive lines of investigation, which will undoubt-
edly greatly extend our knowledge of the chemistry of soils and
explain many of the important problems of the distribution of crops
and vegetation.

BACTERIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF SOILS.

During the past twenty years bacteriologists have contributed a
fund of information in regard to the bacteriological changes in the
soil, especially upon the subjects of nitrification, denitrification, and
the fixation of free nitrogen by the soils. These had been subjects
of investigation by chemists for years, but it was not until the work
of Pasteur, on the cause of fermentation and putrefaction in general,
that the true basis of this soil work could be comprehended. Since
then the subjects of nitrification and denitrification especially have
been exhaustively studied. Quite recently the effect of leguminous
plants with their tubercles and of cultures from these on the soil has
received attention from the State agricultural experiment stations,
netably the Alabama station.

This work has not only added to our general knowledge of the con-
stitution and condition of the soils, but it has modified the practice of
field culture, has enhanced the value of leguminous crops for green
manuring, and is opening up the possibilities of pure bacterial cultures
to increase nitrification and promote the fixation of the free nitrogen
of the air by the soil. It has shown the most rational and economical
methods of caring for and manipulating manures and composts and
of applying green manures and nitrogenous fertilizers to the soil.

PHYSICAL CONDITIONS AND SOIL INVESTIGATIONS.

The physical conditions and peculiarities of soils have long been
recognized as a potent factor in erop production. The early Romans
used to plant their crops in wet soils on high ridges in order to secure
sufficient drainage and early maturity. The sea island cotton plant-
ers, in the early part of the century, used the same method in a modi-
fied form to insure the maturity of the long staple crop within the
limits of the growing season. More recently the practice of under-
drainage with poles, stones, and tile-drains has supplanted this crude
method and has given much more effective results.

UNDERDRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION,

About the middle of the present eentury the popular craze for
underdrainage may be considered to have reached its maximum, but

SOIL INVESTIGATIONS. 343

since then there has been enormous development in practice, particu-
larly in the States of New York, Ohio, and Hlinois. Shortly after this
time the subject of subsoiling, to inerease the water-holding capacity
of the soil and as a protection against drought, became a popular fad.
It was advocated by the agricultural press, and was much practiced in
the Eastern States, but the general experience seemed to be that it
was at least of doubtful utility on most soils for the staple crops, and
did not compensate for the cost and great labor involved. In some
cases, especially in horticultural work, it has been of the greatest
value. It has recently been very successfully practiced in the soils
of the semiarid regions of the West in providing a greater storage
eapacity for the soils against seasons of drought.

In 1847 the Mormons, driven out of Illinois, settled in Salt Lake
Valley, Utah, and started the first systematic attempt at modern irri-
gation practiced in this country for the production of crops in arid
soils. Since then this method of cultivation has been extended al-
most to the limit of the available water supply of the arid West.
Volumes have been written upon the subject of irrigation and the
wonderful development in the arid West; and the infiuence on the
commercial world of the crops from the irrigated districts speaks for
the success of this method of cultivation under these special condi-
tions. Quite recently the Department of Agriculture has attacked the
problems of seepage and alkali in the irrigation districts with the most
gratifying success. The alkali soils are being mapped, the source of
the alkali determined, the cause of the accumulation of the alkali
salis shown, and the rational treatment of the lands to prevent injury
and to reclaim abandoned lands pointed out.

TEMPERATURE AND MOISTURE OF SOILS.

Considerable attention has been given in the past twenty years to
the study of the temperature of soils. The work was started in this
eountry at the Houghton Farm in New York in 1882. It was taken up
by the Geneva experiment station in 1883, by the North Carolina station
in 1886, and by the Maine experiment stationin1889. Since then consid-
erable work has been done by the experiment stations of Indiana, Miehi-
gan, and other States. <A great amount of statistical data has been
obtained and some few rather unimportant generalizations have been
made, but the subject is extremely difficult and complicated, and
much of the data has not yet been interpreted.

The North Carolina experiment station recognized the influence of
moisture on the temperature of soils and the very much greater
influenee of the changing moisture content during the growing season
than the normal differences in temperature. This subject was there-
fore taken up as of paramount importance. This moisture work was
continued at the Maryland experiment station and later was consid-
erably developed by the Department of Agriculture.

344 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In the Department of Agriculture an electrical method of moisture
determination has been devised, and a large amount of data collected
and published showing the relation of some of the important types
of soil to crops and the influence of soil moisture on the distribution of
crop interests. It has been shown that this is a factor in climatology.
It is believed that this work has been carried as far as is justifiable
without a very wide extension of the work in the line of climatology,
which circumstances have not warranted.

TEXTURE OF SOILS.

The mechanical composition, or texture, of soils was studied by
Hilgard and many analyses were published by him in the report of
the Tenth Census and in the bulletins of the California experiment
station, but no general conclusions or principles were drawn from the
work. In 1891 the Maryland experiment station developed the work,
in cooperation with the Department of Agriculture, in the study of
the soils of Maryland. In 1892 the Weather Bureau published a
report of this work in a bulletin entitled ‘‘The physical properties of
soils in their relation to crop production,” in which it was shown that
there was a relation between the texture of the soils and the crops
and agricultural interests adapted to the land. This had been recog-
nized to a certain extent in the specialization of the truck farming on
the light sandy soils of the coastal plains, but these soil investiga-
tions showed that nearly all the soil types which differed in agricul-
tural value and adaptation to crops differ also in texture and physical
properties to an extent which might reasonably account for the exist-
ing conditions.

Since then the investigations of the Department of Agriculture of
the truck soils of the Atlantie coast and of the soils of the principal
tobaeco districts, as well as other less complete lines of investigation,
show very strikingly the influence of the texture and physical prop-
erties of soils on crop production. The commercial type and grade
of tobacco and the adaptation to cigars, cigarettes, pipe smoking,
chewing, or export, are dependent partly upon the climatic conditions
and largely upon the texture of the soil.

SOIL MAPS.

Hilgard published an agricultural map of Mississippi in 1860 show-
ing the distribution of the soils of the State. This was based princi-
pally upon the distribution of the native vegetation, especially upon
the forest trees. Following out this idea, soil maps of all the cotton-
producing States were published in connection with the Tenth Census.
Much of this work has subsequently been republished in modified form
by the several States and enlarged maps have been issued.

Many general reconnoissances have been made by State geological
surveys and by the transcontinental surveys for railroads.

SOIL INVESTIGATIONS. . 345

In 1892 the first soil map, based upon the texture and physical
properties of soils, was issued by the Worid’s Fair Commission of
Maryland, in connection with the handbook of the State prepared at
the Johns Hopkins University.

Quite recently the Department of Agriculture has undertaken the
survey and mapping of the soils of some of the important agricultural
districts of the country. The work is based entirely upon the differ-
ences in the texture of the soil as seen in the field, the distribution of
vegetation, or such other evidences of the agricultural value as can
be obtained in the field. While these field methods are quite inde-
pendent of laboratory work in the actual preparation of the maps,
chemical, physical, and geological laboratories are maintained to
investigate the different types of soils, their crigin, and exact chemical
and physical composition. In 1899 about 720,000 acres were thus
surveyed and mapped on a scale of one inch to the mile.

This work includes, as a most valuable feature, the investigation
and mapping of alkali soils and the preparation of alkali maps.
These later maps are based upon actual field determination of the
soluble salts, to a depth of 6 feet or more, by an electrical methed
and by certain chemical field methods devised by the Department of
Agriculture for this work.

IMPORTANT SOIL INVESTIGATIONS AND THEIR UTILITY.

The most important lines of investigation and their probable utility
may be briefly summarized. The most pressing need isa more rational
and more complete theory upon which to base our system of fertiliza-
tion. Itseems hopeless to expect much from the indiscriminate chem-
ical analyses of soils by the methods at present in use to indicate the
actual needs of a soil, save only in exceptional cases. From the
preparation of detailed soil maps and the study of large and uniform
types of soil, with their slight but significant variations in chemieal
composition and physical properties, compared with other types hay-
ing well-marked differences, much may doubtless be learned. The
study of the solubility of the soil constituents, the equilibrium be-
tween the resulting components, and the disturbanees of the equi-
librium by the addition of salts and fertilizers of different kinds,
together with the absorptive phenomena and diffusion and leaching,
is extremely important in view of their bearing upon the needs and
the effect of fertilizers. Then, the effect of leng-continued cropping,
the effect of changing climatic conditions on the crops, the develop-
ment of the crop itself, and the experience of farmers, if thoroughly
investigated, will give suggestive hints of the soil conditions.

The physical investigation of the texture and structure of soils and
of the important changes which are known to result from the physical
forces acting between the soil grains in all conditions, from a loose
loam to a puddled and impervious silt or clay; and the effect on

346 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

these physical forces and physical properties of fertilizers, cropping,
and cultivation, will unquestionably be of economic value.

The relation of soils to moisture and the variation of soil moisture
throughout the season, in connection with temperature, humidity, and
movement of the air, and the duration and intensity of the sunshine
as an essential feature of climatology should be developed to the full-
est extent, as they unquestionably play a very important part in the
development and distribution of crops. The investigations of the
Division of Soils indicate that the time has come when the relation
between these factors can be determined and their relation to plant
growth can be intelligently studied.

Probably the most important immediate results of practical utility
to be derived from these soil investigations are the mapping of large ~
areas in important agricultural districts. In the irrigation districts
these investigations point out any source of alkali which is to be
feared, the cause of the accumulation, and give a basis for the intel-
ligent underdrainage when necessary to remove the salts and seepage
waters. In all cases the maps show the various types of soils, and
the reports accompanying them explain the differences in these soils,
so far as possible, and describe their characteristics. The greatest
value of these maps will be in the possibility of intelligent specializa-
tion. When a light loam is seen adjoining a heavier loam or clay the
methods of cultivation or cropping should not be alike, and will not
be when the farmers realize the importance of the differences in the
properties of the soils. It is generally a waste of energy to attempt
thus to eompete, cr use the same methods, or even to grow the same
crops oftentime on soils of such different texture. The safest and
altogether most practical thing is to recognize the differences in the soils
and the peculiarities of each; use each for the particular crop or class
cf crops best suited to the conditions; then attempt to improve each
by the controlling factors, which are quite sure to be revealed in the
experience of changing climatie conditions and the development of
crops in the course of two or three years. The development of plants
is a sure and safe guide generally to an experienced person as to the
condition of the soil. This specialization is unquestionably develop-
ing in this country as a result of competition and of social conditions,
‘and reliable and detailed soil maps will be the best possible basis for
this purpose.

PROGRESS OF ECONOMIC AND SCIENTIFIC AGROSTOLOGY.

By F. LAMSON-SCRIBNER, B. Sc.,

Agrostologist.
DEFINITION OF AGROSTOLOGY.

The science of agrostology, strictly speaking, relates only to the
true grasses, and an agrostologist is one who has made a special study
of these plants; but in the present paper the term is used in a broad
sense, and embraces not only the true grasses, but all other pasture
and fodder plants. In this broad sense the subject becomes one of
the greatest economic importance, in which every citizen of the United
States is more or less directly interested; but only its more salient
features can be considered in this paper, many interesting minor facts
being of necessity wholly omitted. In the present treatment of the
subject it has been found convenient to divide it into two parts:
First, economic, or applied, agrostology; second, scientific, or system-
atic, agrostology.

ECONOMIC, OR APPLIED, AGROSTOLOGY.
CONDITIONS PRIOR TO THE BEGINNING OF THE CENTURY.

Prior to 1800 practically nothing had been done in this country in
the cultivation of grasses and forage crops. There were compara-
tively few farms, and the food supply of cattle and horses was chiefly
furnished by the natural growth of the indigenous grasses. The
great grazing regions of the West were then unknown, and the almost
boundless capacity of this country to support cattle of all kinds was
not even suspected. The best known hay and pasture grasses were
not unknown in those days; timothy, redtop, tall meadow oat grass,
orchard grass, crested dog’s-tail, and meadow foxtail had been fre-
quently mentioned by agricultural writers for fifty years or more.
Schreber, in his great work on grasses, published in 1769, minutely
describes and illustrates all the species just mentioned, besides many
others, including the now popular smooth brome grass; he notes, too,
the special characteristics of each grass, the kind of soil to which it
is adapted, and its agricultural value. It is a curious fact, noted
also by Schreber, that timothy, a native of Europe, was introduced
into cultivation in Europe through seed secured from this country.

CONDITIONS DURING SEVENTY-FIVE YEARS OF THE CENTURY.
Although at the beginning of the present century the list of forage

grasses contained many names, very few had been taken up by Ameri-

can farmers; in fact, it dces not appear that during the first half of
347

348 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the century any marked progress had been made in the way of eulti-
vating new or improved varieties. A few of the leguminous plants
began to attract attention, but the farmers throughout the New Eng-
land and Middle States were mostly content with timothy and redtop
or timothy and clover and apparently cared for little else. The value
of clovers and leguminous
crops generally for improy-
ing the soil was recognized by
the more progressive farm-
ers, and improved farming
methods were beginning to
be practiced by the more
intelligent. In the South
little attention was paid to
grasses, and the planters
imported most of their hay
supply from the North. The
common cattle found suste-
nance in the natural herb-
age, and crab grass, the poor
man’s hay, was as common
then as it is now. In the
West no attention whatever
was paid to the cultivation
of forage crops, the rich and
abundant growth of grasses
which everywhere covered
the country at that time
seeming to offer an inexhaust-
ible supply for all grazing
animals.

‘Grasses for the South,”
by Rev. C. W. Howard, is the

Fic. 5.—Big blue stem (Andropogon provincialis): a, :
a pair of spikelets; b, first empty glume; c, second subject of a valuable paper

empty glume; d, third glume; e, fourth, or flower-

blished in the Agricultural
ing, glume; f, palea; g, lodicules. oe F =) 3

Report of the Patent Office
for 1860. Thirty-one varieties of grasses and forage plants suited to
the South are deseribed, and in the same paper fifteen economic
grasses of Texas are described by Mr. G. Lincecum. The laying down
of meadows and pastures and the management of grass lands are
also fully discussed.

In 1869 the Superintendent of Gardens and Grounds of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Mr. William Saunders, started a grass garden
upon the Department grounds, in which fifty-one varieties of grasses and
forage plants were cultivated. The results obtained the first season
were published in the Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for

PROGRESS OF ECONOMIC AND SCIENTIFIC AGROSTOLOGY. 349

1869. Further notes in regard to these experiments by Mr. Saunders
appear in the Report of the Commissioner for 1870, and in the same
report there is a most interesting account of the grasses of the plains
and of the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains. Severalof the more
importantspecies, including big blue stem, the various gramas, bromes,
and fescues are described, and their apparent value commented on.
It is claimed that the big blue stem (Andropogon provincialis, fig. 5),
together with the little blue stem (Andropogon scoparius), formed 60
per cent of the grass flora in the Missouri River region and 26 per
cent of the grasses in the Rocky Mountain region. ‘The paper in the
report of 1870 appears to be the first that treated exclusively of the
grasses of the region mentioned from an economic standpoint, and
the grasses then noted as being of most value are those attracting
most attention to-day.

GRASS AND FORAGE PLANT INVESTIGATIONS.

As early as 1878 Dr. Vasey, the Botanist of the Department of Agri-
culture, published in the reports of the Commissioner illustrated ©
papers on the grasses and forage plants of the country, and during
the entire period of his service, from 1572 to 1895, he continued to
give much attention to the subject and to devote much effort to pro-
moting the interests of economic agrostology.

The unwise management and overstocking of the rich grazing lands
of the West have forced upon the farmers of that section the necessity
of giving attention to the cultivaticn of forage crops or at least mak-
ing an effort to preserve those grasses which have not already been
destroyed. The cattle ranges of the Southwest were the earliest to
suffer from overstocking, and it was to this region that the Depart-
ment of Agriculture first directed its attention along lines of grass
and forage-plant investigations. In 1886 the Botanist of the Depart-
ment drew attention to the enormous loss of cattle in the Southwest
through overstocking of the ranges and lack of protection from storms
in winter. In Bulletin No. 3 of the Division of Botany, published
early in 1887, there was presented a report on certain grasses and for-
age plants for cultivation in the South and Southwest. In this report
we find lengthy accounts of carpet grass, hairy-flowered Paspalum,
guinea grass, crab grass, Texas millet, ete. This was the first work
of the kind published by the Depariment, and owing to the very com-
plete and practical treatment of the subject, it at once excited a good
deal of interest among the farmers and ranchmen of the region it was
designed to cover; and it set them to thinking about improving their
hay lands and pastures. During the year 1887 the Botanist carried
on field investigations through western Texas, New Mexico, Arizona,
Nevada, and Utah, the results of which were published in Bulletin
No. 6 of the Division of Botany. An enumeration of the grasses of
Texas was published in 1890 in Vol. Ii of the ‘‘ Contributions from the
U.S. National Herbarium.” The most comprehensive economic work

350 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

published by the Department on grasses and forage plants was issued
in 1889 under the general title of the ‘‘ Grasses and ferage plants of
the United States, by Dr. George Vasey, with an appendix, giving the
chemical composition of grasses, by Clifford Richardson.” This work
contains 114 full-page plates, illustrating the various grasses and for-
age plants described, and is essentially a revised and enlarged edition
of a similar report published in 1884, under the title ‘‘Agricultural
grasses of the United States.”

During the year 1888 the results of the investigations in the arid
regions the two previous seasons bore fruit in the way of securing
from Congress an appropriation for the establishment of a grass
experiment station at Garden City, Kans. This was the first effort of
the kind receiving governmental support. The tract selected for this
station contained 240 acres, and experiments were carried on there for
five years, from 1888 to 1893. The results accomplished were on the
whole satisfactory, and were given in detail in the Reports of the
Secretary of Agriculture for 1891, 1892, and 1893.

There have been a number of works on grasses and forage plants
published by private enterprise during the last half of the present cen-
tury. These works, being widely read, have played no insignificant
part in diffusing a knowledge of the plants of which they treat, and
doubtless they have had a direct influenee in improving American
agriculture. Among the more important of these publications, the
following may be mentioned: ‘‘The grasses of Wisconsin,” by Dr.
I. A. Lapham; ‘‘ The grasses and forage plants of Tennessee,” by J. B.
Killebrew, published in 1878; ‘‘ Grasses and forage plants,” by C. L.
Flint, an illustrated work of nearly 400 pages; ‘‘A handbook of the
grasses of Great Britain and America,” by J. Henderson; ‘‘ Farmer’s
book of grasses and other forage plants for the Southern United
States,” by D. L. Phares; ‘‘ Grasses and their culture,” by J.S. Gould,
212 pages and 74 plates, published in the Report of the New York
Agricultural Society for 1869; and the first volume of Beal’s ‘‘ Grasses
of North America,” which includes chapters on the physiology, com-
position, selection, improving, and cultivation of grasses and clovers.

During the past twenty years great progress has been made in the
introduction of new forage plants and improved methods of forage
production and feeding. Probably the greatest advance has been
made in the use of silage and soiling crops and in the increased pro-
duction of leguminous plants. The agricultural press of the country,
the numerous publications of the State experiment stations, and the
various bulletins and reports issued by the Department of Agricul-
ture, have all helped to bring about these improved conditions, until
to-day our country leads all others in the art of applied agrostology.

ESTABLISHMENT AND WORK OF THE DIVISION OF AGROSTOLOGY.

A new impetus was given to the work of applied agrostology in the
United States by the establishment, in 1895, of a division in the

PROGRESS OF ECONOMIC AND SCIENTIFIC AGROSTOLOGY. 351

Department of Agriculture devoted exclusively to the investigation
of grasses and forage plants. The recommendation for the establish-
ment of such a division was made by the Secretary of Agriculture in
his Annual Report to the President for 1894, as follows:

The forage interests in the United States are vast in value. Seventy million
tons of hay are cut and cured each summer. This crop is taken from 50,040,000
acres of land. Each year’s hay crop is estimated to be worth $600,000,000. No
accurate means have been found for ascertaining the cash value of grasses upon
pasture and other lands that are grazed. It is known, however, that these lands
support and fatten vast herds of cattle, sheep, and horses. In 1890 such ranges in
the United States fed 14,059,030 head of domestic animals. As these millions of
animals subsist largely upon native grasses and other fcrage plants, the magnitude
of these figures -elucidates the vital necessity of securing, if possible, new and
better forage plants in this country. * * * Therefore * * * itis proposed
to create a new division in this Department [Agriculture], as provided in the
estimates submitted herewith, to be called ‘‘The Division of Agrostology.”
* * * If the hay production in the United States, as a result of this effort in
behalf of agrostolozy, is raised only 1 percent, itis equal to an increase of $6,000,000
per year in the value of this single farm product.

The law passed by Congress, in accordance with the above recom-
mendation, establishing the Division of Agrostology, provided for field
and laboratory investigations relating to the natural history, geo-
graphical distribution, and uses of the various grasses and forage
plants and their adaptability to special soils and climates; the estab-
lishment and maintenance of experimental grass stations; the collec-
tion of seeds, roots, and specimens for experimental cultivation and
distribution; the preparation of drawings and illustrations for special
purposes, as well as illustrated circulars of information, bulletins, and
monographic works on the forage plants and grasses of North America.
This law authorized work along technical, or systematie, lines, as well
as lines of applied, or economic, agrostology. It made possible greater
eoncentration of purpose and more systematic effort than had before
existed, and gave due recognition to an agricultural subject of the
greatest importance to the entire country. It afforded means fora
wider distribution of the knowledge already gained by the Depart-
ment and the State experiment stations, and rendered possible the
undertaking of new lines of research and closer cooperation with
experiment stations and individuals in future investigations. Imme-
diately upon the establishment of this new Division, plans were laid
for a vigorous and systematic prosecution of the work along the lines
indicated in the act of Congress. In a country of such vast extent
and varied character as the United States, there were necessarily
many problems relating to the forage supply that demanded the atten-
tion of the Agrostologist, and the range of investigations, embracing
both purely botanical work and the more practical questions relating
to methods of cultivation, adaptation of varieties to local conditions,
and the factors governing the forage supply of the different sections
of the country, opened a broad and interesting field of labor.

352 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

INVESTIGATIONS IN THE WEST.—One of the first subjects to engage
the attention of the Agrostologist was the cause of the depletion of
the Western stock ranges and the best means of restoring the grasses
which had been destroyed by overstocking. Preliminary work was
at once undertaken through studies in the field and by the establish-
ment of grass gardens at Washington, D. C., and elsewhere, and by
instituting cooperative work with individuals and State experiment
stations. During these investigations the more important regions
concerned were visited, leading stockmen and farmers were consulted,
and data secured concerning soil and climatic conditions relating to
forage problems, distribution and value of the native grasses and
forage plants, the existing conditions of the stock ranges, the best
methods of growing grasses and forage crops, and other questions per-
taining to forage production. It soon beeame evident that one of the
most effective means for ascertaining the best methods of restoring or
improving the ranges would be the establishment of stations at typi-
eal points, where tests could be made with drought-resisting grasses
and forage crops, and where general methods of range improvement
could be practiced. Such stations were established in 1898 in Texas—
one at Abilene and one at Channing. Another station was carried on
at Knoxville, Tenn., in cooperation with the experiment station of
that State, and early in 1899 arrangements for cooperative work with
the experiment station of South Dakota were effected, and a station
established at Highmore. Other station work has been done in coop-
eration with Western railroads at points in eastern Washington.

The field investigations carried on by the Division in the West have
been in the States of Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, the Dakotas,
Nebraska, Iowa, and Texas. From this work in the West, which is
still being carried on, the following publications have directly resulted:
*“Grasses and forage plants of the Rocky Mountain region,” Bulle-
tin No.5; ‘‘ Grasses and forage plants of the Dakotas,” Bulletin No. 6;
‘‘Grasses and forage plants of Iowa, Nebraska, and Colorado,” Bul-
letin No. 9; ‘‘Grasses and forage plants of Central Texas,” Bulletin
No. 10; ‘‘Grasses and forage plants and forage conditions of the
Eastern Rocky Mountain region,” Bulletin No. 12; ‘‘ The Red Desert

f Wyoming and its forage resources,” Bulletin No. 13; ‘‘ Grazing
problems in the Southwest and how to meet them,” Bulletin No. 16,
and Cireulars Nos. 21 and 23, the former being the first report on the
experiments at Highmore, and the latter dealing with the results of
the work at Abilene.

GRAZING AND FORAGE PROBLEMS IN THE SOUTH.—The grazing and
forage problems in the South are of great importance. Keen compe-
tition is forcing the planters to adopt more diversified systems of
agriculture. Four hundred species of grasses occur in the Southern
States, and there are broad areas in these States which may profitably
be devoted to meadows and pastures. While investigations have

PROGRESS OF ECONOMIC AND SCIENTIFIC AGROSTOLOGY. 353

been going on in the West, a study of those grasses most likely to
sueceed and at the same time meet the needs of stock raisers and
dairymen in the South has been made a feature of the work of the
Division, particular attention having been given to the native forage
plants and the best methods to be employed in maintaining or improy-
ing the existing pastures and forage supplies. In cooperation with
the experiment station at Knoxville, Tenn., already referred to, trial
cultivation of many varieties of grasses and other fodder plants has
been made. Field work has been carried on in the States of Missis-
sippi, Louisiana, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, North Carolina, and
South Carolina, and a large amount of material of both botanical and
practical interest has been gathered by direct observation or through
correspondence. Several bulletins bearing upon this work have been
published. The first bulletin issued by the Division was ‘‘ Notes on,
the grasses and forage plants of the Southeastern States,” and the
following is taken from the introduction to this bulletin:

Very few plants are widely cultivated in the South for hay or pasturage, the
farmer relying for the most part upon the wild grasses. These may be roughly
divided into two classes, the first comprising introduced grasses, mostly annuals,
which spring up on cultivated land after the regular crops have been removed;
the second, native grasses, the majority perennials, which make the buik of th
pasturage. Of the first class, by far the most important, is crab grass (Panicum
sanguinale), which forms a great part of the volunteer hay crop of the South
Atlantic and Gulf States. With it are often associated crowfoot or barn grass
(Eleusine indica), little crowfoot (Dactyloctenium cegyptiacum), pigeon grass
(Setaria glauca), and, in the far South, spur grass (Cenchrus echinatus), and
Mexican clover (Richardsonia scabra). Of the native, perennial grasses. per-
haps the most important belong to the genus Paspaliwn, Louisiana grass (Pas-
palum platycaule) being the most common and best known. Panicum serotinum
is also a valuable pasture grass over extensive areas. The broom sedges ( Andro-
pogon species), early in the season, make the bulk of the grazing on thin, dry soils.
Three other widely known forage plants, belonging to neither of these classes,
must be mentioned. Johnson grass, dreaded as a weed, yet esteemed as a forage
plant,is an introduced perennial grass, highly valued for hay. Japan clover
(Lespedeza striaia) is perhaps the most valuabie pasture maker, for the largest
area, in the Southern States, while both for hay and for grazing Bermuda is
king among grasses throughout the South.

Other publications relating to the work done in the South are
‘** Forage plants and forage resources of the Gulf States,” Bulletin No.
15, published in 1896; and ‘‘Southern forage plants,” Farmers’ Bul-
letin No. 102, published in 1899.

INVESTIGATIONS ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE.—The grasses and forage
plants of the great region west of the Rocky Mountains, constitut-
ing the Pacific slopa, have from time to time received some attention
from the Department of Agriculture, but the first systematic work of
investigating the plants of that region was begun in 1898, when the
Agrostologist visited the more important localities, noting the physi-
eal conditions of the soil and natural forage resources. Throughout
the drier sections east of the Cascades the capacity of the cattle

1 A 99—23

354 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ranges has been much reduced through drought and overstocking and
the forage problems there are very similar to those in western Texas
and Wyoming, and can be met by similar methods. Experimental
work with grasses and forage plants was begun in 1898 in cooperation
with the Northern Pacific Railroad and the Oregon Railroad and
Navigation Company. The preliminary report on this work has been
published as Circular No. 22 of the Division of Agrostology.
SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS.—Aside from the general work of inves-.
tigation of grasses in their relation to the forage supply of the country,
special studies have been made on individual species, such as cow-
peas, sorghum, millets, saltbushes, vetches, ete., concerning which
special papers or reports have been issued by the Department. Investi-
gations have also been carried on relative to the adaptability of grasses
to special uses, such as the formation of lawns, the binding of soils
subject to wash, and the holding of drifting sands. Careful studies
have been made of the grasses used in various parts of the country fer
lawns, and the results of this work were published under the title of
‘* Lawns and lawn making” in the Yearbook of the Department for
1897. The question of texture and color, so important in the making
of a perfect lawn, were discussed in that paper, and illustrations
introduced showing diversity of texture between several varieties of
grasses which have been used as lawn grasses. In the United States
there are long stretches of country bordering the Atlantic and Pacifie
coasts, and even along the shores of the Great Lakes, which are coy-
ered with drifting sands. These shifting sands are not confined to
the shores of these great bodies of water, but frequently occur along
the river banks and at various points in the interior of the country.
In some eases the drifting of these sands is a serious menace to profit-
able agriculture, and along the coasts and rivers there is often danger
to navigation, resulting from the shifting of large bodies of sand by
the winds or waves. A few grasses have been found which may be
utilized in effectually binding these shifting and destructive sands.
The results of the discoveries and investigations made along these
lines were published in the Yearbook of the Department for 1898 in
an illustrated article on ‘‘Sand-binding grasses.” One of the most
recent discoveries of the Division in the way of sand-binding grasses is
the seaside blue grass (Poa macrantha), which grows in the sands along
the Pacifie coast of Oregon and Washington, where it is often seen
covering the summits of the highest dunes. It is an excellent sand
binder, and possesses the advantage over beach grass in haying more
tender leaves and stems, which render it of value for grazing. It has
the habit of sending out slender lateral branches, which, lying pros-
trate on the sand, extend 4 to 6 feet or more from the parent stock,
and as these readily develop roots at the joints, the grass is rapidly
propagated over considerable areas. If available for cultivation in
the interior, seaside blue grass will prove a most valuable acquisition

PROGRESS OF ECONOMIC AND SCIENTIFIC AGROSTOLOGY. 355

for cultivation in very sandy soils. The important subject of forage
plants for cuitivation on alkali soils is discussed in a paper from the
Division in the Yearbook of the Department for the same year (1898),
and in the Yearbook for 1895 is a paper on the ‘‘ Grasses of salt
marshes,” the result of a previous year’s investigation of the marshes
along the coasts.

SOME VALUABLE GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS.—Some of the
grasses and forage plants which the Division of Agrostology has rec-
ommended or to whieh special
prominence has been given in
its experimental work on ac-
count of their value for agri-
cultural and other purposes
are here given, as follows:

Blue grasses.—The blue
grasses, of which Kentucky
blue grass (Poa pratensis)
may be considered the type,
are among the most valu-
abie species for pasturage,
and some of them are unex-
celled forhay. Kentucky blue
grass is useful for both pur-
poses, and is one of the most
widely distributed species of
the genus. In the United
States it ranges from Maine
to the Gulf, westward to the
Pacific Ocean, and northward
to Alaska. Some of the forms
present qualities of unusual
excellence, and the Division
is giving attention to the se-
lection of these for improving
our forage supply. In the
Rocky Mountain region are
many species of Poa; a few of
these the Division has experi- ™'* sie en etna - eae ae oi
mented with to some extent,
and so far quite satisfactory results have been secured, Wyoming
blue grass (Poa wheeleri, fig. 6) being found one of the best. Its
habit of growth is not unlike that of Kentucky blue grass, but it is
probably much better able to survive long periods of drought than is
that species. Smooth bunch grass (Poa levigata) is another species of
the blue-grass class common in the Rocky Mountain region. Mutton
grass (Poa fendleriana) is one of the best grasses of the mountain

356 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ranges of New Mexico and Arizona. Nevada blue grass (Poa neva-
densis) is a fine variety occurring in the Rocky Mountain regions
of Montana and Colorado, some forms of it extending westward to
the Cascades. It promises to be a very productive hay grass, and
trials are being made with it having that in view. Sand blue
grass (Poa leckenbyt) is a newly discovered species of eastern Wash-
ington, and is remarkable in growing in almost pure sand under
conditions where the well-
known Eastern grasses
would fail entirely. It is
hoped that this grass will
prove to be not only a good
sand binder but a good
grass for very sandy soils
and sandy areas in which
other crops have failed.
It is undoubtedly an exeel-
lent sand-binding species,
and if it finally proves sue-
cessful in the interior it
will serve the double pur-
pose of holding drifting
sands and furnishing excel-
lent forage.

JRE

SESS

A

fle

Lyme grasses.—The lyme
grasses present a number
of varieties of special in-
terest, and seeds have been
collected of severalof them.
In some sections, Canadian
lyme grass, or a form refer-
able to that species, prom-
ises to be a most productive
hay grass. It has been
tried by the Division in
Texas and at the stations
in the Northwest. Wood-
land lyme grass (Hlymus
glaucus) is a common grass in Montana, Washington, and Oregon, and
promises to be of some agricultural value. Giant lyme grass (Hlymus
condensatus) isa tall, rank-growing species of the Pacific slope, extend-
ing eastward to Montana. It is one of the dry-land grasses, and may
prove of considerable value for hay or grazing in the drier regions of
the Northwest. Yellow lyme grass (Hlymus flavescens) and small
sand lyme grass (Hlymus arenicolus) are species of Oregon and Wash-
ington which are excellent natural sand binders. Along the Columbia

Fia. 7.—Western wheat grass (Agropyron spicatum): a,
empty glumes; 8, florets.

PROGRESS OF ECONOMIC AND SCIENTIFIC AGROSTOLOGY. 357

River the spontaneous growth of the sand lyme grass has in many
eases effectually checked the drifting of the sands which are blown
out from the river bed. Both of these species deserve careful con-
sideration by those who are endeavoring to prevent the blowing of
destructive sands.

Wheat grasses.—Vhe wheat grasses are characteristic grasses of the
Northwest. Western wheat grass (Agropyron spicatum, fig. 7), known
to many of the ranchers as
bluestem, is one of the best
native grasses for hay, and
efforts are being made to ex-
tend its cultivation. Meadow
wheat grass, a closely allied
species, is also a promising
native variety. Bunch wheat
grass (Agropyron divergens)
may be classed as first among
the dry-land species. It grows
naturally in exceedingly dry
soils and where the annual
rainfall is very light. This
wheat grass and the two
feather grasses (Siipa viridula
and Stipa comata), common
to the same region, are the
most promising species for
regrassing the overstocked
ranges.

Biue grama and _ side-oats
grama.—Blue grama (Boute-
loua oligostachya), known also
in some sections of Montana
as buffalo grass, is one of the
pasture grasses among our
native species. It is readily
propagated y seed and

Hrives in almost any soil. It Fic. 8—King’s fescue (Festuca kingii): a, spikelet;
b, floret.

has been grown at all of. the
stations and by many volunteer experimenters. It apparently does
as well in Washington, D.C., in the heavy clay soils as in the light
and dry soils of eastern Washington. Side-oats grama (Bouteloua
curtipendula) has a wider natural range, and although making a
turf inferior to that of blue grama, it is nevertheless an excellent
pasture grass, and under favorable circumstances yields an abundant
hay crop.

Fescue grasses.—The mountain districts afford many native species

358 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of fescues. Creeping fescue and sheep’s fescue exist in many varie-
ties, some of them possessing great points of exeellence. Aside
from these two species there are others of equal value. King’s
fescue (estuca kingii, fig. 8) is one of these. It is a native of Col-
orado, and it has been successfully propagated by seed, which it
vields abundantly. Buffalo bunch-grass covers extensive meadows
in Montana, affording excellent grazing, and is occasionally cut for
hay, being very productive.
It grows to the height of 3
or 4 feet, and its introduc-
tion into agriculture wiil be
a test of its merits under
cultivation.

Brome grasses.—Native
brome grasses are well
worth more attention than
has been given’ them.
They seed abundantly, the
seed is easily harvested,
and germinates readily.
The Division of Agrostol-
ogy has tried several of the
Western species, and from
the limited experiments
made, it is evident that
there are important grasses
in this group. Bromus
pumpellianus, a native of
Montana, Colorado, and
Wyoming, is hardly to ba
distinguished from the
EKuropean smooth brome
(Bromus inermis, fig. 9),
the introduction of which
has done so much to im-
prove the stock interests

Fig 9.—Smooth brome grass (Bromus inermis): a, of the country.
spikelet; b, flowering glume seen from the back; c, = 7p ‘
floret seen from the anterior side, showing palea. Che above list m ight be

greatly extended, for there
are many species as deserving of notice as those here mentioned.
Bulletin No. 14 of the Division of Agrostology treats of the economie
grasses and gives an extended list of the same.

Forage plants.—There are many forage plants which do not belong
to the order Gramineze. The greater proportion of these, and those
which are generally regarded as the most valuable, belong to the
Leguminose, or family of legume-bearing plants, which includes the

PROGRESS OF ECONOMIC AND SCIENTIFIC AGROSTOLOGY. 359

clovers, vetches, beans, peas, lupines, ete. There are seventy varie-
ties of native clovers, ninety lupines, forty vetches, and half as many
wild beans, from among which doubtless selections can be made of
varieties possessing special qualities superior to any of those now
eultivated.

The leguminous forage crops, which now play such an important
part in agriculture, were made the subject of a paper from the Division
in the Yearbook for 1897. The cultivation of these plants is increas-
ing every year, and their great value as soil renovators and cheap
producers of fodder, rich in nitrogenous compounds, is becoming more
and more widely known and appreciated. Referring briefly to the
history of the cultivation of these plants, the writer of the paper in
question states:

The oldest cultivated forage plants and the best for enriching the soil are those,
of the clover family. Not one of the now well-known hay or pasture grasses has
been cultivated more than three hundred years, while a number of leguminous
crops have been grown for forage from prehistoric times. The chick-pea, or gram,
dates back full thirty centuries. It is to-day one of the leading grain crops and
soil renovators of Spain, India, and central Asia,

Alfalfa, which is recognized as the best forage plant in the semiarid Western
States, or wherever dependence must be placed upon irrigation, was cultivated by
the Romans at least two hundred years before the commencement of the Christian
era. The soy beans have been grown in China and Japan and lentils in Hungary
from prehistoric times. The field pea, originally from northern Italy, was intro-
duced into cultivation eight or ten centuries ago. Sainfoin was grown in France
and red clover in Media during the early years of the fifteenth century, and white,
or Dutch, clover in Holland at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Sulla,
which is largely grown in southern Italy and northern Africa, and which seems
to be admirably adapted to well-drained soils in Florida and the Gulf States, was
first introduced-into cultivation in 1766. The cowpea has been known in this
country nearly as long as sulla. Alsike, or Swedish clover, was taken up as a
forage about thirty years later, while during this century and within recent
years a score or more of valuable legumes have been brought to the attention of
the farmer, and hardly a year passes that new ones are not added to the list.

One of the most recently introduced and promising of the legumi-
nous plants is the velvet bean, a native of India. Its range of profit-
able cultivation is limited to the Southern States. The velvet bean
is fully described and illustrated in Cireular No. 14 of the Division
of Agrostology.

The saltbushes of this country are very numerous in variety and
often cover extensive areas in the far Western States and Terri-
tories. Their value to the stockmen of the West is clearly set forth
in Bulletin No. 15 on the ‘‘Red Desert of Wyoming and its forage
resources,” and a number of both the native and introduced species are
described in Farmers’ Bulletin No. 108, which is devoted exclusively to
them. Itis only within the last few years that the forage value of these
plants has been recognized in this country, and their importance in
increasing our forage supply is fully treated of in a paper on ‘‘ Forage

860 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

plants for alkali soils,” in the Yearbook for 1898, as already noted.
It is for reclaiming or rendering valuable for grazing purposes soils
highly impregnated with alkali that these plants are especially use-
ful. The following is from the paper just referred to:

The saltbushes and salt sages, both introduced and native, have proved to be of
value in all alkali-impregnated soils. A more extended cultivation of saltbushes
is recommended throughout the West, and while trials are being made with the
Australian species, the native forms, many of them being fully as leafy and hay-
ing as succulent herbage, should not be overlooked. It is probable that quite a
number of the thirty or more salt sages and saltbushes that grow wild on the
high plains, mesas, and deserts of the West would, if only given an equally favor-
able opportunity, prove to be as well adapted to cultivation as any of the foreign
species. As the West is developed the amount of grazing land is each year
decreasing and the extensive areas of alkali-impregnated soils are hecoming more
valuable. The increase of-these soils in value in the estimation of the Western
cattle growers will come through the use cf saltbushes and other alkali-to!erant
forage plants.

Through the Division of Agrostology the Department has dis-
tributed the sceds of a number of the native saltbushes and quanti-
ties of several of the Australian species, the one receiving the
most attention being the Australian saltbush (Atriplex semibaccata).
Seed of this species was introduced into this country nearly
twenty years ago by the California experiment station at Berkeley,
but it has been only within the last year or two that it has received
any widespread attention. During the present season large quanti-
ties of the seed have been distributed by the Secretary of Agriculture
in regions where this saltbush is likely to prove most useful in the
way of increasing the forage resources of our country.

VOLUNTEER EXPERIMENTERS.— Much of the work done by the Divi-
sion of Agrostology in testing the adaptability of varieties to the pre-
vailing conditions in different sections of the United States has been
earried on in cooperation with farmers and stockmen as well as with
a humber of State experiment stations. These tests or experiments
have been made chiefly by sending the experimenters seeds of the
grasses or forage plants which have been collected or obtained by
purchase, and requesting that reports be made as to the success or
failure of the attempts made to grow them. Nearly ten thousand
packages of seeds, including two hundred and fifty-five varieties,
have been sent out in this way to those expressing their willingness
or desire to cooperate with the Division. The reports received on
account of this method of seed distribution during the past three
years have been prepared for publication as Bulletin No. 22, which
will serve to illustrate very well what can be accomplished in aequir-
ing a practical knowledge of grasses and forage plants through volun-
teer experimenters. These experiments have proved of great value,
not only as being the means of finding out the suitability of varieties
for cultivation in different sections of the country, but also of bringing

PROGRESS OF ECONOMIC AND SCIENTIFIC AGROSTOLOGY. 361

the work of the Division in closer touch with the people whom it is
designed to serve. The results of these tests have shown that many
of the valuable native grasses adapt themselves readily to cultivation,
and have also demonstrated the value of some of the newly intro-
duced varieties, as well as the possibility of a wider eultivation of
many of those already commonly grown in the United States. Thus,
it has been discovered that slender wheat grass and a number of the
native bromes and blue grasses can be utilized in the formation of
artificial meadows and pastures; that other of the wheat grasses, the
grama grasses, blue grasses, and native fescues may be utilized in
reclaiming the worn-out ranges in the drier sections of the country;
that smooth, or Hungarian, brome grass, recently introduced from the
Old World, is a most valuable hay and pasture variety for the drier see-
tions of the West and Northwest; that Australian saltbush, as well as
a number of native saltbushes, is well adapted to cultivation on lands
strongly impregnated with alkali, such as are found in many parts of
the Southwest; and the experiments now in progress seem likely to
demonstrate the value of other varieties in certain sections, such as
oasis alfalfa for the hot, dry Southwest, and Turkestan alfalfa for the
dry sections of the Northwest where the climate is colder.

SOME RESULTS OF WORK OF DIVISION OF AGROSTOLOGY.—The
Secretary of Agriculture, in summing up the work of the Division
of Agrostology in 1898, said:

Through the efforts of this Division we are learning the needs of the several sec-
tions of the country and the forage problems they have to meet. We are acquir-
ing a better knowledge of the distribution and value of our native grasses and
forage plants, as well as the peculiar conditions of soil and climate best suited to
their growth.

The discovery of new economic grasses or new and valuable forage
plants, the adaptability of the native species to cultivation, the intro-
duction of forage plants into new or untried regions, the application of
species to new or special uses, and the general diffusion of knowledge
through publications and correspondence respecting these plants are
among the important results of the work of the Division.

EXTENSION OF INVESTIGATIONS.—Throngh the Division of Agrostol-
ogy the Secretary of Agriculture is working not only to produce more
and better hay on every acre of meadow land, but also to preserve or
improve the great cattle ranges of the West and the pasture lands of
the whole country. In the Report of 1899, the Secretary says:

The investigations under way in the Gulf-coast region and on the Pacific slope
ought to be extended in their scope; the work on range improvement should be
continued along the present practical lines; the investigations looking toward the
preservation and improvement of our most valuable native grasses and forage
plants should be continued; the study of scil and sand-binding grasses ought to
be extended to include experiments as to the adaptability of our native sorts to
practical use for fixing the shifting sands of our coasts and for holding embank-
ments in place, as well as to the introduction of desirable foreign sorts; investi-
gations relative to the introduction, cultivation, and management of improved

362 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

pasture and forage crops on the worn-out farms of the East should be undertaken;
the question of forage crops suitable to alkali soi’s is one of much importance to
certain sections of the country, and should receive full and careful investigation,

APPLIED AGROSTOLOGY IN THE STATE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS,

Nearly all the State experiment stations, ever since their organiza-
tion in 1887, have given more or less attention to the subject of grasses
and forage plants, and a few of them have made this a leading feature
of their work. Among the first to undertake work along these lines
was the California experiment station at Berkeley, and this station,
under the direction of Prof. E. W. Hilgard, has done very much to-

rard the introduction of valuable forage plants into that State by
the distribution of seeds of many varieties. Other stations which
have given special attention to grass and forage-plant investigations
are these in Nebraska, South Dakota, Tennessee, Mississippi, Ala-
bama, Ohio, Connecticut (Storrs), Kansas, Michigan, New York, Min-
nesota, and Massachusetts.

Over two hundred bulletins and reports have been issued by the
several stations on the subject of grasses and forage plants—a fact
which in itself demonstrates the great interest taken in these investi-
gations and the manifest importance attached to the subject. Some
of the stations have published deseriptive and illustrated grass floras
of the States in which they are located, which have done much
toward disseminating a knowledge of grasses and inciting greater
interest in the improvement of forageresources. One of the most com-
plete and elaborate of these floras is that published by the Tennessee
station, in which all the grasses known to occur within the State
are illustrated. :

The effect of the grass and forage-plant investigations which have
been earried on by the Department of Agriculture during recent
years, together with similar investigations at the different State
experiment stations, is seen at the present time in the changed meth-
ods of farming that are being practiced in many sections of the coun-
try. This is well illustrated in the South, where but a few years ago
it was thought by many that the better cultivated grasses and forage
plants could not be successfully grown. It is also Ulustrated in the
improved methods of handling pastures and ranges that are coming
into practice in many parts of the West, and in the greater diversity
of the grass and forage crops that are grown in almost all sections of
the country where dairying is a leading industry. ;

SCIENTIFIC, OR SYSTEMATIC, AGROSTOLOGY.

At the beginning of the century the number of known North Ameri-
can grasses barely exceeded one hundred species. These had been
published chiefly in the works of Linnzeus, Lamarck, and Walter. In
1803 Michaux published his ‘‘ Flora Boreali Americana,” in which he

PROGRESS OF ECONOMIC AND SCIENTIFIC AGROSTOLOGY. 363

deseribes as new sixty-eight species. Michaux’s work was soon fol-
lowed by those of Persoon, Pursh, Nuttall, Muhlenberg, Elliott, and
Beauvois, in which many new North American species were published.
Beauvois, in his ‘‘Agrostographiz,” undertook to establish a natural
arrangement of the whole Gramine:, with deseriptions of the genera
then known, together with many new ones, some of which were North
Ameriean, and the majority of which have sinee been’ adopted.
Between 1820 and 1850 appeared the great works of Kunth, Trinius,
and Nees yon Esenbeck, in whose writings, especially those of Trinius,
who confined himself exelusively to grasses, many North American
species were published for the first time. It was during this period
that the great American botanists, Drs. John Torrey and Asa Gray,
did much to advance our knowledge of North American plants, and
many new species of Graminez appear in their various works. These
authors, especially Dr. Gray, whose publications continued until a
comparatively recent date, made further additions to agrostological
science, and their works are essential to the student of grasses to-day.

Steudel in 1855 published the first volume of his ‘‘Synopsis Planta-
rum Glumacearum,” which contains a general enumeration of the
grasses of all countries, and is the last work in which such an ennu-
meration has been attempted. All the older North American species
are included, and Steudel describes many new ones, some few of which
are still retained.

The knowledge of Southern grasses was greatly advanced by the
publication of Chapman’s ‘“‘ Flora of the Southern United States” in
1862. Grisebach, in his ‘‘ Flora of the British West Indies,” published
in 1864, deseribed a number of species which come within our southern
limits, and in Ledebour’s ‘‘ Flora Rossiea,” which appeared in 1853,
many species common in Alaska are published for the first time. In
England, General Munro was for many years the leading authority on
grasses, and in this country Dr. George Thurber was the court of last
resort in all pertaining to American grasses. The chief contribution
to agrostology made by the former was his monograph on the tribe
Arundinariz, and the latter is best known to the student of grasses
to-day by his contribution to Brewer and Watson’s Botany of Cali-
fornia, published in 1880, in which all the species of that State then
known were fully deseribed.

A marked impetus was given to the study of grasses by English-
speaking students by the publication of Bentham’s ‘* Noteson grasses,”
in 1581, in the Journal of the Linnzan Society. In this work the sey-
eral tribes and genera are discussed. The classification presented-is
essentially based upon the opinions of General Munro and finally
adopted in the third volume of Bentham and Hooker’s ‘* Genera Plan-
tarum,” published in 1883. A work of much interest to the student
of the grasses of the Southwest is Fournier’s ‘*‘ Graminez” in his ‘‘ Enu-
meration of Mexican plants,” published early in the last decade. It is

364 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the only work especially devoted to the grasses of Mexico, and includes
many species occurring in the States and Territories bordering that
country. After the death of General Munro, in 1880, Prof. E. Hackel,
of St. Poelten, Austria, was at once recognized as the highest authority
on grasses, and his contribution to the great German work on the
‘‘Natural families of plants,” by Engler and Prantl, is ample evi-
dence of his right to the position. An American transiation of this
work, under the title of ‘‘The true grasses,” published in 1890, has
done much to promote the study of systematic agrostology in this
country. It presents in a clear and concise manner the general fea-
tures of the grass family, enumerating the best-known economie spe-
cies, discussing their structure and morphology, and their arrangement
into tribes and genera, thus placing in the hands of the American stu-
dent a manual by which he is enabled to classify any grass which may
come into his hand, and materially assisting the systematic study of
grasses, which now forms such an important feature in the curriculum
f nearly all our agricultural colleges.

In 1889 Hackel published an extensive monograph of the Andro-
pogonesx, in which all the North American species of that tribe then
known are fully described, a few of which are presented as new to
scienee. Thesystem of classification of the tribes and genera of the
xraminez presented by Hackel in his ‘‘ True grasses,” and now gen-
erally adopted in this country, was much modified by Baillon in his
‘* Monographie des Graminées,” published in Paris in 1893. This is
he latest general treatment of the grass family as a whole that is of
special interest to the student of American grasses. In this work not
only is there a decided modification in the limitation and arrange-
ment of the tribes and genera from that proposed by Bentham and by
Hackel, but an attempt is made to adopt the more advanced system
of nomenclature.

Four years ago, in 1896, Prof W. J. Beal, of the Michigan Agricul-
tural College, published the second volume of his work on the
‘‘Grasses of North America,” wherein are brought together for the
first time descriptions of all the North American species known to
the author. He enumerates over one thousand three hundred species,
including many from Mexico and Central America, with full deserip-
tions. No other single publication covers the same extended field.

SYSTEMATIC AGROSTOLOGY IN THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

While the Department of Agriculture has always been more or less
active in promoting the interests of applied agrostology, it has in
later years been hardly less energetic in advancing scientific knowl-
edge of grasses and developing a wider interest on systematic lines.
Immediately following the publication of the third volume of Bentham
and Hooker’s ‘‘Genera Plantarum,” already referred to, Dr. George
Vasey, then Botanist of the Department, published as a special report
a list of the grasses of the United States, together with a synopsis of
the tribes and genera, which were chiefly translated from Bentham

PROGRESS OF ECONOMIC AND SCIENTIFIC AGROSTOLOGY. 365

and Hooker’s work. Two years later, in 1885, a revised and somewhat
enlarged edition of this list was published under the title of “‘A
descriptive catalogue of the grasses of the United States.” This work
included many economic notes, and was prepared with the view of
assisting both the scientific student and the farmer. Between the
years 1891 and 1893 the Department published two volumes prepared
by Dr. Vasey, containing descriptions and full lithographic plates of
two hundred species of grasses belonging to the region of the South-
west and the Pacific slope. The illustrations in this work are for the
most part excellent and the descriptions are very full. The plan
adopted is not unlike that of Trinius’s ‘‘Icones,” and it is a matter of
regret that the work could not have been continued until all of the
Ameriean species were illustrated in the same manner. In 1892 Dr.
Vasey published as Part I to Vol. II of the ‘‘ Contributions from
the U. S. National Herbarium” what he designated as Part I of,
a ‘‘Monograph of the grasses of the United States.” Following the
classification of Prof. Edward Hackel this part contains descriptions
of all the North American species of grasses known to the writer
through the subtribe Phleoidez in the seventh tribe Agrostidese. At
the time of his death (March 4, 1893), Dr. Vasey had prepared the manu-
script of a considerable portion of the second part of this monograph,
but the work in the form in which it then appeared has not been con-
tinued. During the years between 1881 and 1893 Dr. Vasey published
many new species of North American grasses, not only in the bulletins
issued by the Department, but in the leading botanical journals and
in the proceedings of scientific societies. The total number of species
published by him between 1885 and the time of his death was one
hundred, and nearly as many new varieties.

Since the establishment of the Division of Agrostology in 1894, sys-
tematic work on grasses has been continued by the Agrostologist and
his assistants. Papers which may be classed as belonging to sys-
tematic agrostology have been published in Bulletins Nos. 4, 7, 8, 11,
17, 18, 19, and in Circulars Nos. 9, 10, 15, 16, and 19 of the Division.
Circular No. 15, published July 14, relates to ‘‘ Recent additions to
systematic agrostology,” while the other circulars referred to contain
chiefly descriptions of new species. Under the general title ‘‘ Studies
on American grasses,” to which Bulletins Nos. 4, 8, 11, and 18 belong,
there have been published revisions of certain North American genera
and enumerations of species collected in the little-known regions, and
a large number of species presumably new have been deseribed. In
Bulletin No. 19 there was published a very carefully prepared paper
on the structure of the seeds of grasses, the investigations being made
largely with the view of establishing a basis of classification upon
the Caryopsis. Six hundred and twenty-seven North American grasses
are figured and described in Bulletins Nos. 7and 17. The illustra-
tions in these two bulletins are all drawn from original material and
form a part of a series which, when complete, wil! illustrate all of our
North American grasses. The Agrostologist has also published in

366 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

botanical journals and in proceedings of scientific societies many
papers bearing on the subject of systematic agrostelogy, notably
among these may be mentioned ‘‘ Notes on the grasses in the Bern-
hardi Herbarium, collected by Thaddeus Haenke and described by
J.S. Presl,” published in the Tenth Annual Report of the Missouri
Botanical Gardens. This paper is illustrated by fifty-four plates,
drawn from the types of species deseribed by Presl in ‘‘ Reliquisze
Haenkeane.” In these various papers and in the publications of the
Division, the Agrostologist has during the last five years published
one hundred and twenty-five species and thirty-three varieties.

A good herbarium or collection of grasses forms an essential part—
is, in fact, the basis of all work in systematic agrostology. The
Division of Agrostology, since its organization, has been steadily at
work building up an herbarium of grasses, until now the collection
numbers nearly thirty-five thousand mounted sheets of specimens,
more than twenty-five thousand of which have been added during the
past five years. This collection, which forms no inconsiderable part
of the great National Herbarium located in Washington City, is
especially valuable, not only on account of its richness in North
American species, but also on account of its containing a great many
types of the species published in recent years.

SYSTEMATIC AGROSTOLOGY IN THE STATE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

It is believed that the work of the Department of Agriculture in
the way of scientific investigation of grasses has done much to develop
similar lines of work in the agricultural experiment stations. ‘The
work at these stations, in order to meet the demands of the people,
must of necessity be more along the lines of applied agrostology.
Several of the stations have, however, published descriptions of the
erasses of the States in which they are located. In 1894 the Tennessee
Agricultural Experiment Station published a bulletin in whieh all
the species known to occur within the State were fully described and
illustrated. This work contained keys of analysis to the tribes and
genera, and in the larger genera to the species also. Less fully illus-
trated descriptive bulletins have been published by several other
stations, but comparatively little original work has been done by any
of them along systematic lines. The Division has lent material aid to
this work, not only through its several publications, but by the dis-
tribution of many thousands of named specimens of grasses to these
agricultural experiment stations. As illustrating the attention now
paid to systematic agrostology and the rapid progress being made in
this branch of the subject, it may be stated that during the last five
years three hundred and seventy-four new species of North American
grasses and one hundred and sixty-six new varieties have been pub-
lished.

PROGRESS OF ROAD BUILDING IN THE UNITED STATES.

By Maurice O. ELDRIDGE,
Acting Director of the Office of Public Road Inquiries.

INTRODUCTION,

The history of road building in the United States parallels in but
few particulars the road history of the other great civilized nations of
the world, and in many respects our highways bear but slight resem-
blanee to those of the older countries. There is little doubt that had
the first settlers arrived in this country when the Roman Empire was
at the zenith of its glory our Republic would now be bound together
with a perfect system of magnificently constructed highways, but
when America was settled by the English, in the early part of the
seventeenth century, the mother country was still using those systems
in road building which it had inherited from the dark ages.

The Britons neglected the roads which had been made by the
Romans, and, failing to build new ones, their country for centuries
was provided with only bridle paths, or at most with narrow highways
for small carts. These highways were, except in dry weather, practi-
cally impassable, and in the sparsely settled districts much of the
travel had to be carried on by means of pack animals. The idea of a
central control of road systems, which is the only means by which any
extended work in this direction has ever been accomplished, had died
out in the middle ages and had not at this time been revived. For
these reasons the traditions relative to the construction and manage-
ment of roads which followed the first settlers to this country were
practically valueless.

ROAD METHODS OF THE FIRST SETTLERS.

The first settlements in the United States were naturally located
along the seashore and upon the banks of navigable streams. Narrow
and mysterious Indian trails led from the settlements along the coast
to the interior, and aside from an occasional rude path beside some
stream or along the coast, these were the only lines of communication
up to the end of the seventeenth century. Indeed, for a century after
the settlement at Plymouth Rock there were few roads in this country
over which goods or passengers could be transported in wagons or
carriages.

The little traffic and intercourse that were carried on between the

settlements was maintained principally by boats or by horsemen or
367

368 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

pack trains over the obscure Indian trails. A systematic attempt at
road building was then, of course, impossible, owing to the crude state
of society and the sparse population. Soon there was an eagerness to
penetrate the vast wilderness of the interior and communicate with
settlers in other regions by shorter routes than those afforded by the
winding streams. Acting upon this impulse, the pioneer blazed his
way through the forests and brambles. He made temporary bridges
over the streams by felling large trees across them, and threw brush
and poles over the boggy places in his bridle paths. With the steady
increase in wealth and population, this ‘‘pack-train era” in road
building was gradually superseded by original trackways or widened
trails and then by wagon roads, but without any attempt at improve-
ment. Another century elapsed before anything like improved high-
ways was established outside the eastern coast districts, and it was
not until the beginning of the present century that there were any
well-built roads in the rural communities.

ONE OF THE EARLIEST ROADS IN THE UNITED STATES.

The first great American road which the historian tells anything
about was laid out in 1711, and ran from New York to Philadelphia.
Its antiquity, and the fact that it connected these two cities, gave to
it the name ‘‘The Old York Road.” The opening of- roads was an
important affair.in those days; money was more scarce than it is now,
and doubtless it was more of an undertaking to construct roads than
it is to build the railways of to-day. By studying the history of the

id York Road we at onee realize the potency of the adage that ‘‘the
history of roads is the history of civilization.” The Indian trail, the
blazed trees, and the footpath, followed by the bridle road for pack
trains, and then the rough roads for carts and wagons, which were
subsequently graded and paved, making a more easy means of trans-
portation, are all stepping stones to higher degrees of civilization.'

FORCED-LABOR SYSTEM AND -ROADS OF THE EARLY COLONISTS.

In the early colonial days the roads were at first built and main-
tained principally by the use of volunteer aid or free labor. Each
town or settlement had what was called a ‘‘ village green,” and in this
open place the citizens assembled to discuss matters of public import.
At these meetings the care of the poor, the infirm, the deaf mutes,
ete., was discussed; the opening of new and the maintenance of the old
roads were also among the most interesting subjeets of discussion.
The citizens would here offer their services free of charge to the com-
munity or town for building or maintaining the roads running through
or by their lands. These offers to maintain the roads free of charge
soon became so limited, however, that the towns were forced to pass

'The York Road Old and the New Fox Chase and Bustileton, by 8S. F. Hotchkin.

PROGRESS OF ROAD BUILDING. 369

ordinances compelling all able-bodied men to ‘‘work the road” a
specified number of days, or in lieu of such labor to pay a money tax
to the pathmaster or road overseer. It is easy to trace progress in all
those matters which were discussed on the ‘‘ village green” save one,
and that is the ‘“‘foreced-labor” system of working roads, which exists
in most of the States to this day.

The following extract, relating to the early methods of locating
and building roads, is copied from a letter dated November 30, 1785,
written by George Washington to Patrick Henry, then governor of
Virginia:

Do you not think, my dear sir, that the credit, the saving, and convenience of this
country all require that our great roads leading from one place to another should
be straightened, shortened, and established by law, and the power in the county
courts to alter them be withdrawn? To me these things seem indispensably
necessary, and it is my opinion they will take place in time. The longer, there-
fore, they are delayed, the more people will be injured by the alterations when
they happen. lt is equally clear to me that, putting the lowest valuation upon
the labor of the people who work upon the roads under the existing law and the
customs of the present day, the repairs of them by way of contract, to be paid by
an assessment on a certain district, until the period shail arrive when turnpikes
mmay with propriety be established, would be infinitely less burthensome to the
community than the present mode. In this case the contractor would meet no
favor; every man in the district would give information of neglects; whereas
negligence under the present system is winked at by the only people who know
the particulars or can inform against the overseers, for strangers had rather
encounter the inconvenience of bad roads than the trouble of an information, and
go away prejudiced against the country for the polity of it.!

This system of ‘‘ working out” the tax was as unsatisfactory in the
days of Washington as it is now. Much delay and inconvenience
was caused by the deplorable condition of the main roads. The ruts
were deep, the hills steep and full of gullies, and when stagecoaches
were first used travelers were often compelled to get out and assist
the driver in pulling the vehicle out of the mud. Even the roads run-
ning out of the large cities and towns were no exception to the general
rule; they were often in such wretched condition that passage was
rendered difficult and sometimes dangerous. It was no uncommon
sight to see the horses floundering in mud up to their haunches.

York road, running out of Philadelphia, was a quagmire of black
mud for nine months of the year, and on this road long lines of wagons
were every day to be met with drawn up near Logan’s Hill, where the
wagoners unhitched their teams to assist each other in pulling through
the deep sloughs. Sticks or rails were often stuck up to warn tray-
elers out of the quicksand or mud holes, and the fences were sometimes
pulled down in order to permit passage through the adjacent fields.?

In 1796 the worst road in the country was said to be the one from
Elkton, Md., to the Susquehanna Ferry. It was so uneven and full

} Writings of Washington, Vol. XII, edited by J. Sparks.
> Watson's Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania in the Oiden Times,
1 a $9 24 B

370 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ef holes that stagecoach passengers were often requested by the
driver to lean out the side of the coach to prevent being overturned.
““Now, gentlemen,” he would say, ‘‘to the right;” ‘‘Now, gentlemen,
to the left.” 4

INAUGURATION OF TURNPIKE ROADS BY CHARTERED COMPANIES.

The making of turnpike roads by chartered companies was Maugu-
rated in the last quarter of the eighteenth century with the advance
of population tothe West. State and national charters were given to
many turnpike companies, which at first yielded large profits to eap-
italists. The establishment of turnpikes and the maintenance of
them by toll, however, effected but little improvement in the general
system, and the tax imposed upon those who were compelled to use
many of these roads was not paid without protest.

THE WILDERNESS TURNPIKE.

The Wilderness Turnpike was the name of one of the earliest of
these roads. From the Shenandoah Valley, in Virginia, it followed for
some distance the Holston River; thenee it crossed the Allegheny
Mountains at Cumberland Gap to central Kentucky. This route
was opened at first for pack trains, but afterwards was so improved
that it became the main road for wagon trains from Virginia to the
valley of the Ohio. A large commerce was carried on between Virginia
and the West over this highway, and it proved very advantageous to
Kentucky and adjacent States in their early settlement and develop-
ment. During the first deeade of this century the Wilderness Turn-
pike was the best highway south of the Potomac River; but soon the
traffic began to decrease and the revenues became so limited that it
was neglected. For years, however, the tollgates were maintained
and travelers were required to pay a toll of $2 on passing the gates,
which were 70 miles apart, although tools frequently had to be carried
in the vehicle with which to repair the portions of the road that were
impassable.*

THE PHILADELPHIA-LANCASTER TURNPIKE.

The desire to speculate in those days was as great as it is now, and
such were the profits of some of these roads that they were often the
subject of speculation. A notable example of this is shown by the
organization of a company in 1792 to build a turnpike from Phila-
delphia to Lancaster, Pa., a distance of 60 miles. The charter was
secured, and in ten days 2,275 subscribers made application for stock.
As this was more than the law allowed, the names were placed in a
lottery wheel and 600 were drawn; with these subscriptions the work
began. The road builders of that day knew little or nothing regarding

' History of the People of the United States.
* N.S. Shaler, American Highways, pp. 19 and 93.

PROGRESS OF ROAD BUILDING. 371

the construction of highways, and the mistakes made on this ocea-
sion taught them some vaiuable lessons. The land was condemned,
the trees felled, and the roadbed prepared. The largest stones that
could be found were dumped upon it for a foundation, and upon this
colossal base earth and gravel were spread; then the work was declared
complete; but when the washing rains eame deep holes appeared on
every hand, sharp stones protruded from the surface, and the horses
received scratched and broken limbs as they sank between the bowlders
up totheir knees. The gigantic error of the read builder was then made
plain. Indignation meetings were held, at which the turnpike eom-
pany was condemned and the legislature blamed for giving the char-
ter. Had it not been for an Englishman who offered to rebuild the
turnpike on the macadam plan, as he had seen roads built in the old
country, improved road construction would have received a severe,
blow. The Englishman’s proposition was accepted by the company,
and he was successful in completing the Lancaster and Philadelphia
turnpike road, which was then declared to be ‘‘the best piece of high-
way in the United States—a masterpiece of its kind.” !

ERA OF SPECULATION AND RESTORATION OF FORCED-LABOR SYSTEM.

The success of the Lancaster pike encouraged road building every-
where, and before the first decade of the new century had elapsed
many of the well-settled States were voting money, setting apart rev-
enues derived from the sale of public lands, and establishing lotteries
to build turnpikes between prosperous towns in the East and to the
frontier. The prospect of increasing their land values by the build-
ing of good roads and the fascination of reeeiving large dividends from
investments induced many people to risk their all upon these sehemes.
Speculation was rife in the land, turnpike building rapidly beeame
the rage, and in a few years a sum almost as large as the publie debt
at the close of the Revolution was invested by the people in turnpike
ventures. By 1811 over 317 pikes had been ehartered in New York
and in the New England States, their total length being 4,500 miles
and their combined capital over $7,500,000. Hundreds of miles of
publie turnpikes* were constructed in New York and in some of the
Western States with thiek, wide boards or planks, and for a few years
it was thought that this method would supersede all others. While
the planks lasted the roads were good; but the boards decayed very
rapidly, and for this reason the method, proving unsuccessful, was

' History of the People of the United States, Vol. IT, p. 554.

* The term ‘‘ turnpike” is of medieval origin, having been first used in England
to designate a graded road, for the use of which travelers were expected to pay
toll. A pike across the road indicated a tollgate, where the traveler was required
to stop before proceeding on his journey. After he had paid the fees the pike
was turned and he was allowed to go on his way. ‘: Turnpike” has now come to
mean any public highway constructed of stone or gravel. Asa rule, however, the
term is only applied to a toll road or one upon which formerly toll was collected.

3872 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

gradually abandoned. Except for a few short stretches in the New
England and the Southern States, the toll system also proved unsuc-
cessful, and many of the companies lost money. Some surrendered
their charters and others were bought out by the States or counties.
The turnpike system was gradually superseded by the restoration of
the ‘‘foreed-labor” system, explained elsewhere, and until within the
last few years this method was universally followed, each county
taking care of its own highways. The States exercised no supervision
whatever, and skilled road builders or road engineers were unheard
of. The ‘‘forced-labor” system was borrowed by our ancestors from
the dark ages, and is not unlike the ‘“‘ militia” system adopted in
Kentucky and a few other Southern States.

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS.

Early in the present century, with the movement started in England
by Telford and Macadam in favor of broken-stone roads, the impor-
tance of improved roads for military, postal, and commercial purposes
began to be widely appreciated. Road reform assumed such propor-
tions that it was advocated by many of the great patriots of the day;
indeed, the movement waxed so strong in this country that it became
one of the leading questions of national politics, and was supported
by such statesmen as Thomas Jefferson, John C. Calhoun, and Henry
Clay. Next to the tariff, it was one of the most important subjects
under consideration in Congress.

Those who believed in a liberal construction of the Constitution
were favorable to the building of roads by the General Government,
while the strict constructionists denied the power of the Government
to spend money for any such internal improvements. During Presi-
dent Jefferson’s second term the bill admitting Ohio as a State, passed
April 30, 1802, contained 'a provision setting apart 5 per cent of the
net proceeds from the sale of public lands in that State to the build-
ing of public roads leading from the navigable waters emptying into
the Atlantic to and through the State of Ohio—3 per cent for road mak-
ing within the State and 2 per cent for highways outside the State.
Such roads were to be laid out under the authority of Congress and
with the consent of the States through which they would pass.

THE CUMBERLAND ROAD,

In 1806 the sale of public lands in Ohio had amounted to over
$600,000, and after some discussion in both Houses of Congress a bill
appropriating $30,000 was passed. The construction of the so-called
Cumberland road was then begun. From Cumberland, Md., it was
to extend through southwestern Pennsylvania and over the Allegheny
Mountains to the Ohio at Wheeling, W. Va., and then on to St. Louis,
Mo. It was constructed after the principles advocated by Telford
and Macadam, and was so well built thatit is yet a good road, although

Yearbook U.S Dept. of Agriculture, 1899 PLATE XIll

Fic. 1.—THE BIG CROSSING ON THE OLD CUMBERLAND ROAD, SUMMERVILLE, PA.

Fic. 2.—OLD CUMBERLAND ROAD APPROACHING CHESTNUT RIDGE MOUNTAINS, PENN-
SYLVANIA (LOOKING WEST).

PROGRESS OF ROAD BUILDING. Slo

it has since passed into the hands of the States in which it is located,
and has not been systematically repaired for years. (Pl. XIII.) This
road was well described by a writer in 1879, as follows:

It was excellently macadamized; the rivers and creeks were spanned by stone
bridges; the distances were indexed by iron mileposts, and the tollhouses supplied
with strongiron gates. Its projector and chief supporter was Henry Clay, whose
services in its behalf are commemorated by amonument near Wheeling. There
were sometimes twenty gaily painted four-horse coaches each way daily. The
cattle and sheep were never out of sight. The canvas-covered wagons were drawn
by six to twelve horses. Within a mile of the road the country was a wilderness,
but on the highway the traffic was as dense as in the main street of a large town.
Ten miles an hour is said to have been the usual speed for coaches, but between
Hagerstown and Frederick they were claimed to have made 26 miles in two hours.
These coaches finally ceased running in 1853. There were also through freight
wagons from Baltimore to Wheeling which carried 10 tons. They were drawn by
twelve horses, and their rear wheels were 10 feet high.

From Cumberland to Baltimore the road, or a large part of it, was built by cer-
tain banks of Maryland, which were rechartered in 1816 on condition that they
should complete the work. So far from being a burden to them, it proved to bea
most lucrative property for many years, yielding as much as 20 per cent, and itis
only of late years that it has yielded no more than 2 or 3 per cent. The part built’
by the Federal Government was transferred to Maryland some time ago, and the
tolls became a political perquisite; but within the past year it has been acquired
by the counties of Allegany and Garrett, which have made it free.

From 1810 to 1816 six appropriations, amounting to $680,000, were
made by Congress for continuing the work on this road.

PROPOSITION IN CONGRESS FOR A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF ROADS.

In 1817 John C. Calhoun, Henry Clay, and others favored the crea-
tion of a new fund for internal improvements. A bill was introduced
in the House of Representatives by Mr. Calhoun to set aside for roads
and canals the bonus and dividends received by the United States
from its newly chartered national banks. In supporting this measure
Mr. Calhoun, although a stanch believer in the doctrine of State
rights, delivered a speech before the House in which he thus expressed
himself:

Let it not be said that internal improvements may be wholly left to the enter-
prise of the States and of individuals. I know that much may justly be expected
to be done by them; but in a country so new and so extensive as ours there is
room enough for all, the General and State governments and individuals. to exert
their resources. Many of the improvements contemplated are on too great a scale
for the resources of States or of individuals, and many of such a nature that the
rival jealousy of the State, if left alone, might prevent. They require the
resources and general superintendence of the Government to effect and complete
them.

But there are higher and more powerful considerations why Congress should
take charge of this subject. If we were only to consider the pecuniary advantages
of a good system of roads and canals, it might indeed admit of some doubt whether
they ought not to be left wholly to individual exertions; but when we come to con-
sider how intimately the strength and political prosperity of the Republic are
connected with this subject, we find the most urgent reasons why we should apply

374 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

our resources to them. Good roads and canals, judiciously laid out, are the proper
remedy. Let us, then, bind the Republic together with a perfect system of roads
and canals.

The first great object is to perfect the communication from Maine to Louisiana.
This may be fairly considered as the principal artery of the whole system. The
next is the connection of the lakes with the Hudson River. The next object of
chief importance is to connect all the great commercial points on the Atlantic with
the Western States, and, finally, to perfect the intercourse between the West and
New Orleans. There are others, no doubt, of great importance which will receive
the aid of the Government. Thefund proposed to be set apart in this bill is about
$650,000 a year, which is doubtless too small to effect such great objects of itself,
but it will be a good beginning. Every portion of the community—the farmer,
the mechanic, and the merchant—will feel its good effects; and, what is of great-
est importance, the strength of the community will be greatly augmented and its
political prosperity rendered more secure.

Henry Clay also spoke in favor of the proposed act, particularly in
reference to its constitutional merits, but the House amended and
passed it in such a manner as to enable the States to proseeute the
work under the supervision of the National Government, and in this
form it passed the Senate. On March 13, 1817, President Monroe
vetoed this bill on the ground that he believed it to be unconstitu-
tional, even though its provisions were agreed to by the States. An
attempt was made to pass it over the President’s head, but failed of
the necessary two-thirds majority.

CONGRESSIONAL ACTION REGARDING ROAD BUILDING.

Upon the defeat of the bill for a national system of roads and for
the funds for the same, Congress returned to its former method of
providing for road building from funds derived from sale of public
lands. In 1811, 5 per cent of the net proceeds of the sales of public
lands in Louisiana were, as in the case of Ohio, given to that State
for the building of roads and levees, in 1816 the same percentage of
a similar fund was given to Indiana for roads and canals, and in 1817
a like sum was given to Mississippi for this purpose. In 1818, 2 per
cent of a similar fund was given to Illinois for roads leading to that
State; in 1819, 5 per cent to Alabama; in 1820, 5 per cent to Missouri,
and in 1845, 5 per cent to Iowa. In the meantime the annual appro-
priations for the Cumberland road, of sums to be replaced from the
funds thus set aside in the States through which it passed, were con-
tinued. For the fiseal year 1819 over half a million was donated, and
on May 25, 1838, the last appropriation, amounting to $150,000, was
made, the sum total being about $7,000,000.

While the Cumberland road was being built twelve other great
national highways were laid out in the States and Territories, making
what was then regarded a complete system of roads, and more or less
work was done in opening and constructing them. Congress pro-
vided in 1806 for a road from the frontier of Georgia, leading toward
New Orleans, La., and one from Nashville, Tenn., to Natchez, Miss.

PROGRESS OF ROAD BUILDING. 375

From 1806 to 1838 a total of $1,600,000 was appropriated by Congress
for roads in various places, and of this sum $200,000 was used in Flor-
ida; $286,000 was expended for a road from Chicago, Ill., to Detroit,
Mich., and other points; $206,000 was also used toward the construc-
tion of a road from Memphis, Tenn., to the St. Francis River, in
Arkansas. In addition to the appropriations above mentioned, grants
of land have been made from time to time by the States to aid in the
work, and the labor of United States troops has been occasionally
employed.

In 1822 the regular appropriation for the Cumberland road was
vetoed by President Monroe, and in 1830 the Maysville and Lexington
turnpike bill, authorizing a Government subscription to the stock of
a turnpike company in Kentucky, was passed by Congress, but was
vetoed by President Jackson. ‘

The monetary crisis of 1837 put a damper on all projects requiring
large Government expenditures, and from that time to 1854 only a
few small appropriations were made. Another period of activity
then began and lasted until the civil war, during which time over
$1,600,000 was laid out chiefly on roads in the Territories. From that
time to this only a few military roads have been made, and of late
years nothing has been done in the way of national aid, save the build-
ing of roads in the District of Columbia, in national cemeteries, and
on reservations. .

INTRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF STEAM RAILROADS.

The work of building national highways, it will be observed from
the foregoing, progressed but slowly, and before much had been
accomplished in this direction steam railroads were introduced. It
was seen at once that this form of transportation would be far superior
to the old method, and many people believed that railroads would
eventually do away with the need of public highways. The national
highways were, therefore, abandoned, and for several decades there-
after the public roads were almost completely neglected, while private
capital undertook the construction of railroads.

The railroad had its birth in the United States on the Fourth of
July, 1828. On that day the ceremony of breaking ground for the
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was performed by Hon. Charles Carroll,
who was at that time the only surviving signer of the Declaration of
Independence. From the small section that was operated at first by
horse power has grown a system which places this country in the front
rank in the character and extent of its railroads.

The mania for building railroads soon began to spread; speculators
again came to the front, as they had done when turnpike building
was so popular. Railway lines were projected which, had they all
been built, would have far surpassed the number now in actual opera-
tion. Seven years after the commencement of the construction of

376 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the Baltimore and Ohio, over 1,000 miles of railroads were in opera-
tion in the United States, and to-day they penetrate nearly every sec-
tion of our land.

Thus, the rapid development and extension of railways has, to a
large extent, monopolized the thoughts, energies, and finances of the
people, and tended to exclude consideration of the no less important
source of national development, the public highways.

There must, however, be a limit to the building of railroads. With
all our railroads, the transportation problem has not yet been solved.
Indeed, the building of so many railroads has made it more neces-
sary than ever that the primary means of transportation, the country
road, should be improved. Ninety-nine per cent of all the commerce
of the United States which is transported by steam is carried for some
distance over the public thoroughfares, and ‘‘it costs as much in
some eases to haul goods to or from the railway station over the coun-
try road as it does to transport by steam the same amount of goods
from ocean to ocean or from continent to continent.”

DIFFICULTIES OF TRANSPORTATION AND OF TRAVEL.

For many years after the introduction of railroads so little attention
ras given to the construction and maintenance of the public high-
ways that their condition in most places became even more deplorable
than ever. The local roads as well as the interstate turnpikes became
practically impassable. As an illustration of these conditions the
following facts are cited:

When agricultural machinery began to be manufactured at Walnut
Grove, Va., great difficulty was experienced in procuring some of the
material which had to be brought from a distance. Neither was it
easy, when the machines were once manufactured, to get them to
market. Sickles were made 40 miles away, but as there were no rail-
roads and but few highways fit for wagons, the blades, 6 feet long,
had to be carried on horseback. It was soon realized that while reap-
ers were luxuries in Virginia and the East, they were a necessity in
Ohio and Illinois and on the plains of the great West. When it was
discovered that the West was the natural market for these agricul-
tural machines, the next and most difficult question was that of get-
ting them there. The question was finally solved by shipping the
first consignment, in 1844, by wagon trains from Walnut Grove to
Scottsville, Va., then down the canal to Richmond, thence by water
down the James River into the Atlantic and around Florida into the
Gulf of Mexico, thence by way of New Orleans up the Mississippi and
Ohio rivers to Cincinnati, Ohio.

When Charles Dickens visited America in 1842 he had oceasion
to travel by stagecoach from Cleveland to Sandusky, Ohio. Uis

1Men of Achievement, Inventors, by P. S. Hubert, jr.

Yearbook U.S Dept. of Agriculture, 1899 PLATE XIV.

Fic. 1.—THE ROLLED FOUNDATION OF AN OBJECT-LESSON ROAD BUILT AT HOT SPRINGS,
VA., UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE OFFICE OF PUBLIC ROAD INQUIRIES OF THE DEPART-
MENT OF AGRICULTURE.

FiG. 2.—FINISHING TOUCHES TO THE SAMPLE ROAD BUILT AT HOT SPRINGS, VA., UNDER
THE AUSPICES OF THE OFFICE OF PUBLIC ROAD INQUIRIES OF THE DEPARTMENT OF
AGRICULTURE.

PROGRESS OF ROAD BUILDING. ove

description of part of this journey can be used here to good purpose in
describing the condition of many of the public roads of that day:

At one time we were all flung together in a heap at the bottom of the coach,
and at another we were crushing our heads against the roof. Now, the coach was
lying on the tails of the two wheelers; and now it was rearing up in the air ina
frantic state, with all four horses standing on the top of an unsurmountable emi-
nence. * * * The drivers on these roads, who certainly got over the ground
in a manner which is quite miraculous, so twist and turn the team about in for-
cing a passage, corkscrew fashion, through the bogs and swamps, that it was quite
a common circumstance on looking out of the window to see the coachman with
the ends of a pair of reins in his hands, apparently driving nothing, or playing at
horses, and the leaders staring unexpectedly at one from the back of the coach,
as if they had some idea of getting up behind. A great portion of the way was
over what is called a corduroy road, which is made by throwing trunks of trees
into a marsh and leaving them to setile there. The very slightest of the jolts
with which the ponderous carriage fell from log to log was enough, it seemed, tO
have dislocated all the bones in the human body. It would be impossible to expe-
rience a similar set of sensations in any other circumstances, unless, perhaps, in
attempting to go up to the top of St. Paul’s in an omnibus. Never, never once
that day was the coach in any position, attitude. or kind of motion to which we
are accustomed in coaches. Never did it make the smallest approach to one’s
experience of the proceedings of any sort of vehicle that goes on wheels.

This description also serves to illustrate the condition of the country
roads, except in a few wealthy communities, twenty or twenty-five
years ago. Kentucky was famous for her fine roads a generation ago.
Even before the Eastern States had made any decided progress in this
direction the State of Kentucky aided the construction of turnpikes
by large county and State appropriations. Few States have been
more liberal in promoting the building of better highways than Ken-
tucky. The wretched condition of the country roads as well as the
ever-increasing need for better ones did not, however, begin to attract
widespread attention until something over ten years ago, but, although
the movement is yet young in years, the agitation has already led to
a general crusade which foreshadows thorough reformation.

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE OFFICE OF PUBLIC ROAD INQUIRIES.

Some road reformers think, as thought many of the founders of the
Republic, that the General Government should aid in the building of
the principal roads. This idea, however, has met with little encour-
agement; but out of the agitation has grown a law, passed by Con-
gress in 1893, providing for an office in the Department of Agriculture
to collect and disseminate information on the road subject, to conduct
investigations, inquiries, and experiments regarding road materials
and road construction, and to encourage, by object lessons and other-
wise, the building of betterroads. (Pl. XIV.) Twenty bulletins and
thirty-three circulars containing information of great value to good-
roads reformers as well as to good-roads builders have been published
by the Office of Public Road Inquiries, and the usefulness of such a
good-roads propaganda seems to have been fully demonstrated.

378 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
PROGRESS OF THE MOVEMENT IN THE STATES FOR GOOD ROADS.

More than half the States have passed new and progressive road
laws, and many hundreds of miles of good roads have already been
built under the influence of the new conditions of administration,
finance, and construction. The general trend of legislation enacted
in these States is as follows: More rigid provisions for carrying out
the old systems without radical change in the systems themselves;
more liberal tax levies; substitution of money tax instead of labor;
local assessment, according to benefits, for the construction of new
roads; construction by townships, counties, and districts, with power
to issue bonds; State highway commissions; provisions for werking
convicts; regulations compelling and encouraging the use of wide tires;
State aid to road building; construction of State roads.

New Jersey was the first State to take any radical step toward the
improvement of her public highways. Her State-aid law was passed
in 1891. It provides that on petition of the owners of two-thirds of
the lands bordering any public road, not less than a mile in length,
asking that the road be improved and agreeing to pay 10 per cent of
the cost, the county officials shall improve the road, one-third of the
expenses to be borne by the State, if the road is brought to the stand-
ard fixed by the State commissioner of public roads, and the balance
(66% per cent) by the county. The State’s expenditures for such
improvements in any one year are limited to $150,000, while the county
is limited to one-fourth of 1 per cent‘of its assessed valuation. At
this rate the law makes possible the expenditure of $450,000 a year,
and at $3,000 per mile this builds 150 miles of road. Ten miles of
road were built in 1892, 25 miles in 1893, 60 miles in 1894, and since
1895 the applications for new roads have been far in exeess of the
limit prescribed by law. (PI. XV.)

Under this law about 450 miles of improved road have already been
built in New Jersey, the State’s portion of the expense being about
$715,800. The counties and towns have built out of their own treas-
uries 450 more miles, which brings the total mileage of improved roads
for the State up to 900. These roads cost at first about $6,000 per
mile, but on account of the reduction in the price of materials and the
increase of labor-saving machinery the cost has been reduced to about
half this amount. The farmers, who at first strongly opposed the
law, are now equally enthusiastic for it, and more roads are being
petitioned for than can possibly be built in many years out of the
limited State appropriation. The system seems to be popular with all
classes, and it is being carefully considered by the legislatures of
other States. Its principles have been adopted by Massachusetts,
Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, and California. These laws,
of which State aid is the principle feature, are regarded by the active
advocates of road reform as affording a satisfactory solution of the
problem.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899. PLATE XV.

Fic. 1.—TYPE OF ROAD IN NEW JERSEY BEFORE IMPROVEMENT.

Fig. 2.—TYPE OF ROAD IN NEW JERSEY AFTER IMPROVEMENT.

*

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Yearbook U S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899. PLATE XVI.

Fic. 1.—TYPE OF ROAD IN MASSACHUSETTS BEFORE IMPROVEMENT.

FiG. 2.—TYPE OF ROAD IN MASSACHUSETTS AFTER IMPROVEMENT.

PROGRESS OF ROAD BUILDING. 379

Massachusetts, like New Jersey, also has adopted a system of road
improvement which, it is believed, will result ina few years in securing
to that State highways that will be seeond in exeellence to none in the
United States and equal to some of the best in the Old World. The
State has a permanent highway commission, consisting of three per-
sons. Each year this commission is allowed to spend $600,000 for
building and maintaining roads, which are called State roads. The
law provides that not more than 10 miles of road ean be built in any
one county in a year and that within six years after the construction
of any State road the county in which the road is situated must pay
to the State one-fourth of the money expended. Nearly 300 miles of
excellent roads have been built in Massachusetts under this new sys-
tem, the average cost per mile of which was about $9,000. (Pl. XVI.)

Connecticut has made rapid progress in building highways during
the last five years. It now has a highway commission, which was pro-
vided in 1895-96 with $450,000 and in 1897-98 with $400,000 for road
improvement. In 1895-96 the State paid one-third the expense of con-
structing the roads, the town one-third, and the county the remainder,
but in 1897-98 the State increased its part of the expense to one-half,
the other half being borne by the towns. The amount of work aceom-
plished is shown by the fact that in the two years last named the
entire State appropriation was applied for by the towns, and this was
done without any county assistance.

Although the Rhode Island commissioner of highways does not
favor State aid, as adopted in the adjacent States, the legislature has
at his suggestion passed a law which enables him to build a half-mile
sample of good macadamized highway in each town. These perma-
nent object lessons are of great benefit to the towns where good high-
ways have not been built, and are conducive to more liberal appro-
priations for new roads, as well as more thorough construction, when
the local authorities choose to carry the work forward. Out of 2,240
miles of highways in Rhode Island, about 500 miles have been
improved by the use of gravel or stone. ;

The legislature of New York passed a bill last year which provides
that the State’s share in the improvement of highways shall be 50 per
cent of the cost, the county’s share 35 per cent, and the town’s share
the remainder. The boards of supervisors are given the right to decide
what roads, if any, are to be improved, thus making the matter of
road improvement entirely optional. No new offices were created,
the State engineer being placed in charge of all road work. The law
seems to give satisfaction; several miles of new roads have been built,
and work is still in progress, under its provisions.

The legislature and people of California have not been idle in the
work for good roads nor blind to the needs of the State in this respect.
Up to a few years ago some of the convicts had been supported in
comparative idleness at the expense of the State, while others had

3880 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

been utilized in direct competition with free labor. In 1895 the legis-
lature decided, at the suggestion of Gen. Roy Stone, to utilize convict
labor in preparing road materials; a bill was passed “providing fora
highway commission and for the construction of a rock-crushing plant
on one of the State prison grounds. Since that time the convicts
have been turning out upward of 100,000 tons of crushed trap rock
annually. Much of this material has been given to the counties
as the State’s contribution toward the improvement of the leading
thoroughfares.

North Carolina, Delaware, lowa, New Jersey, New York, Tennessee,
and other States also have laws providing for the use of convict labor
in improving the highways. North Carolina has made greater prog-
ress and has built more miles of roads under this system than any
other State. Thus, one might, if space permitted, go through the
whole list of States and find evidences of great progress in road im-
provement. Governor Mount, of Indiana, for instance, says that his
Commonwealth is provided with 58,000 miles of graded, graveled, and
piked highways, over 8,000 miles of which are comparable with the
best roads of France. The public is now more thoroughly aroused to
the importance of the movement for better roads than ever before,
and more roads and better roads have been built in the United States
in 1899 than in any previous year in its history.

The agitation which has become'so universal will surely result ina
well-defined public sentiment that will soon overcome all obstacles.
With the new century, the good-roads movement is likely to receive
valuable aid from the owners of horseless vehicles, already not un-
common on our thoroughfares. The aid of these new allies, added
to that of the farmer, with his great pecuniary interest in the ques-
tion, to say nothing of the army of wheelmen already enlisted in the
cause, promises well for a rapid spread of the movement throughout
the country.

DAIRY DEVELOPMENT IN THE UNITED STATES.

By Henry E. ALVoRD,
Chief of Dairy Division, Bureau of Animal Industry.

THE PRESENT FIELD OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY.

No branch cf agriculture in the United States has made greater
progress than dairying during the nineteenth century. No other has
received more direct benefit from the art of invention, the teachings
of modern science, and the intelligent practice of skilled operators.
Cooperative and commercial organizations have been formed to con-
duct the business locally and to guard its general interests. State
laws’and appropriations of money have been made to foster and pro-
mote this industry. Dairying has become the specialty of districts
of wide area in different parts of the country. It is now regarded as
among the most progressive and highly developed forms of farming
in the United States.

The greater part of this country has been found so well adapted to
dairying that its extension has more than kept pace with the opening
and settlement of new territory. <A belief was long entertained that
successful dairying in America must be restricted to narrow geo-
graphical limits, constituting a ‘‘ dairy belt” lying between the fortieth
and forty-fifth parallels of latitude and extending from the Atlantic
Ocean to the Missouri River; the true dairying districts were thought
to be in separated sections, occupying not more than one-third of the
area of this belt. These ideas have been exploded. It has been
proved that good butter and cheese can be made, by proper manage-
ment, in almost all parts of North America. Generaily speaking,
good butter can be made wherever good beef can be produced.
Advantages unquestionably exist in the climate, soil, water, and
herbage of certain sections, but these factors are largely under con-
trol, and what is lacking in natural conditions can be supplied by
tact and-skill. So that, while dairying is intensified, and constitutes
the leading agricultural interest over large areas where the natural
advantages are greatest, the industry is found well established in
spots in almost all parts of the country and developing in unexpected
places and under what might be considered as very unfavorable

conditions.
381

382 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

DAIRYING DURING THE COLONIAL PERIOD AND AT THE PRESENT TIME.

Dairying was practiced in this country in colonial times, and butter
and cheese are mentioned among the early exports from the settle-
ments along the Atlantic coast; but this production was only a feature
of general and pioneer farming. Dairying as a specialty did not
appear in the United States to any extent until well along in the nine-
teenth century. The dairy history of the country is therefore iden-
tical with its progressin the present century. This progress has been
truly remarkable. The wide territorial extension; the immense in-
vestment in lands, buildings, animals, and equipment; the great
improvement in dairy cattle; the aequisition and diffusion of knowl-
edge as to economy of production; the revolution in methods and sys-
tems of manufacture; the general advance in quality of products; the
wonderful increase in quantity; the industrial and commercial im-
portance of dairying, all constitute a prominent feature in the material
progress of the nation.

DATRYING DURING THE EARLY PART OF TFHE CENTURY.

During the early part of the century the keeping of cows on Amer-
ican farms was incident to the general work. The care of milk,and
the making of butter and cheese were in the hands of the women of
the household, and the methodsand utensils were crude. Theaverage
quality of the products was inferior. The supply of domestic mar-
kets*was unorganized and irregular. The milch cows in use belonged
to the mixed and indescribable race of ‘‘ native” cattle, with occasion-
ally a really good dairy animal appearing singly, almost by accident,
or, at the best, as one of a family developed by some uncommonly
discriminating yet unscientific breeder. The cows calved almost
universally in the spring, and were generally allowed to go dry in the
autumn or early winter. Winter dairying was practically unknown.
As a rule, excepting the pasture season, cattle were insufiiciently and
unprofitably fed and poorly housed, if at all. It was a common thing
for cows to die of starvation and exposure, and it was considered no
disgrace to owners to have their cattle ‘‘on the lift”! in the spring.
In the Eastern and Middle States the milk was usually set in small
shallow earthen vessels or tin pans for the cream to rise. Little
attention was paid to cooling the air in which it stood in summer or
to moderating it in winter so long as freezing was prevented. Thefew
who sealded fresh milk had no idea of the true reason for so doing or
why beneficial effects resulted. The pans of milk oftener .stood in
pantries and cellars or on kitchen shelves than in rooms specially con-
structed or adapted to the purpose. In southern Pennsylvania and
the States farther south spring houses were in vogue; milk reeeived

'A common expression in years past in some localities, indicating the actual
necessity of human aid to raise emaciated animals to their feet.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899 PLATE XVII.

Fic. 1.—BUTTER MAKING—THE OLD Way.

FiG. 2.—BUTTER MAKING—THE NEW Way.

a eae eo Dee Soe 2. ald 7 an ‘7 he x -- Ve i a Oe 7

DAIRY DEVELOPMENT. 383

care, and setting it in earthen crocks or pots, standing in cool, flowing
water, was a usual and excellent practice. Churning the entire milk
was very common. This is still done to some extent in the Southern
States, where butter is made every morning and where all the milk
is buttermilk. In seasons of scarcity of milk there was no butter.
In the Northern States there were some instances where families were
supplied with butter weekly during most of the year, and with an
oceasional cheese, directly from the producers. But the general farm
practice was to ‘“‘pack” the butter in firkins, half firkins, tubs, and
jars, and let the cheese accumulate on the farm, taking these prod-
uets to market only onee or twice a year. Not only were there as
many different lots and kinds of butter and cheese as there were pro-
ducing farms, but the product of a single farm varied in character
and quality according to season and other circumstances. Every
package had to be examined, graded, and sold upon its merits. It
was usual for half the butter in market to be strong, if not actually
rancid, and for cheese to be sharp. With the products largely low in
grade, prices were also very low. (Pl. XVII.)

DATIRYING DURING THE MIDDLE OF THE CENTURY.

The above conditions continued without material change up to the
middle of the century. Some improvement was noticeable in cattle
and appliances, and in some sections dairy farming became a specialty,
although not in a marked degree. Herkimer County, N. Y., is proba-
bly the best example of early dairy districts in this country. Of this
county X. A. Willard wrote (in 1870) as follows:

Cheese making began here more than sixty years ago. For upward of twenty
years its progress was slow and the business was deemed hazardous by the major-
ity of farmers, who believed that overproduction was to be the result of making
aventure upon this specialty. The fact, however, gradually became apparent
that the cheese makers were rapidly bettering their condition and outstripping in
Wealth those who were engaged in grain raising and a mixed husbandry. About
the year 1830 da‘rying became general in the towns of Herkimer County north of
the Mohawk, and some years later spread through the southern part of the county,
gradually extending into Oneida and adjoining counties. Up to this period and
for several years later little or no cheese was shipped to Europe. It was not con-
sidered fit for market till fall or winter. It was packed in rough casks and ped-
dled in the home market at 5 to 8 cents a pound.

All the operations of the dairy continued rude and undeveloped
even in these ‘‘dairying distriets.”. The cows were milked in the
open yard, and the curds were worked in homemade tubs and pressed
in log presses. Everything was done by guess; there was no order,
no system, no science in dairy operations. The cheese-making sec-
tion gradually embraced the central and western portions of New
York and the adjacent parts of Pennsylvania and Ohio, and the total
produetion became large. Toward the middle of the century the
gross supply of cheese was in excess of domestic demand, and cheese

384 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

exports from the United States, mainly to Great Britain, ranged from
3,000,000 to 17,000,000 pounds a year. With the growth of cities and
towns the business of milk supply increased and better methods pre-
vailed. Yet, prior to the year 1850 no city had received any part of
its milk supply by railroad transportation; near-by producers met all
existing demands by hauling in their own vehicles. Butter making
for home use and in a small way for local trade was common wher-
ever cows were kept, and in some places there was a surplus sufficient
to be sent to the large markets. Vermont and New York became
particularly noted for butter production. ‘‘ Franklin County butter,”
from counties of this name in those two States and in Massachusetts,
was the favorite in New England markets, and the fame of ‘‘Orange
County” and “Goshen” butter, from southern New York, was still
more extensive.

DAIRYING DURING THE THIRD QUARTER OF THE CENTURY.

The twenty-five years following 1850 was a period of remarkable
activity and progress in the dairy interests of the country. At first
the agricultural exhibitions or ‘‘ cattle shows,” which were compara-
tively new and popular, and the enterprise of importers turned atten-
tion toward the improvement of farm animals; breeds of cattle noted
particularly for dairy qualities were introduced and began to win the
favor of dairy farmers. Then the early efforts at cooperation in dairy-
ing were recognized as successful, and were copied until the cheese
factory became an established institution. Once fairly started in the
heart of the cheese-making district of New York, the factory system
spread with much rapidity. The ‘‘ war period” lent additional impetus
to the forward movement. The price .of cheese, which was 10 cents
per pound and less in 1860, rose to 15 cents in 1863 and to 20 cents
and over in 1865. The foreign demand increased also, and the yearly
cheese exports rose from 10,000,000 pounds in 1850 to 15,000,000 in
1860 and to almost 50,000,000 in 1865. Ten years later over 100,000,000
pounds were exported.

ESTABLISHMENT OF CHEESE AND BUTTER FACTORIES.

Although several earlier instances of associated dairying have been
authenticated, which were locally successful, it is generally conceded
that the credit of establishing the first real cheese factory, which
served as a model and incentive to others (fig. 10), belongs to Jesse
Williams, of Oneida County, N. Y. Mr. Williams lived upon his farm,
near Rome. He was an experienced and skillful cheese maker, and
his dairy had such a good reputation and its product was so eagerly
sought at prices above the average that he increased his output of
cheese by adding to his own supply of milk that from the herd of a
son located upona farm near by, and then from other neighbors. This

DAIRY DEVELOPMENT. 385

-

idea of bringing together daily the milk from several neighboring
farms, to be made into cheese at one place by a skilled operator, was

WW 0
ELE

ARR SI AIEEE
WLLL EEE

ESSA ASE CC
CZ KEZCEEEEEFEEDZEEZZEZEELZ-ELXELEELDE

3

Ground plan.

Fig. 10.—Elevations and plan of one of the first cheese factories
built in the United States.
the germ from which sprang the cheese-factory
system of the United States. Mr. Williams began
working on this plan in 1851. He was so success-
ful that a special building was erected the next
year and fitted up with the best apparatus obtain-
able. The effect of this good example and the
early extension of the factory system is shown by
the following table, which gives the number of
factories built and put into operation in New York annually during
the years stated:

4

ZEQ¢X14I9ZW00Y ONIENLOVINNYN

Number of cheese factories established in the State of New York annually, 1854-1866.

Year. | Factories. Year. Factories.
Sipe oS eee AEM BGO is Sein top nse Se 25
IC SS ee ee 2 | SGS se ete eee ees lll
iV) oe oe eee ee 3 BG tne ne eee 210
UY ieee ae eel Su MIRE Sc as ae 52
ane 4 | Hr seer ee a dale 46
= Sa 4 | otal in 1866__.___... Mba) aso,
i) eee ree penne os 17
SG los es 18 |

Cheese factories were soon started in Pennsylvania and Ohio, and
then in other States, Eastand West. In 1869 the number in the whole
country exceeded 1,000, and from that time the cooperative, or factory,
system practically superseded the making of cheese on farms.

1 A 99——25

386 EARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Making butter in quantity from milk or cream collected from numer-
ous farms soon followed as the next advance in American dairying.
Such establishments are properly butter factories, but the name of
“creamery” has been generally adopted, and is not likely to be
changed. The first creamery was built by Alanson Slaughter, near
Wallkill, Orange County, N. Y., in the year 1861. The milk from
375 cows was received here daily. In Illinois the first cheese factory
was started in 1863 and the first creamery in 1867. In Iowa these
respective dates were 1866 and 1871. During the earlier years of their
operation it was quite common for both butter and cheese to be made
at the creameries at different times, or butter and skim cheese at the
Same time.

SOME FEATURES OF THE FACTORY SYSTEM OF DAIRYING.

The effect of the establishment of cheese and butter factories, com-
yaratively new in kind, is to transfer the making of butter and cheese
from the farm tothe factory. Originating inthis country, although now
extensively adopted in others, the general plan may be rightly called
“The American system of associated dairying.” It constitutes one of
the notable and important landmarks in the progress of dairying during
the present century. The early cheese factories and creameries were
purely cooperative concerns, and it is in this form that the system has
usually extended into new territory, whether for the production of
butter or cheese. The cow owners and producers of milk cooperate
and share, upon any agreed basis, in organizing, building (or renting
and refitting), equipping, and managing the factory and disposing of
its products. The farmers interested as joint owners, and all who
contribute milk or cream, are called the patrons. The operations are
managed by a committee or board of directors chosen by and from the
patrons. If the business is large enough to warrant the expense, the
immediate supervision of the concern and all its interests is intrusted
to a single manager, employed by the board. In a factory of this
kind all expenses are deducted from the gross receipts from sales and
the remainder is divided pro rata among the patrons upon the basis
of the raw material contributed. Another plan is for the plant to be
owned by a joint stock company, composed largely, if not wholly, of
farmers, and milk or cream is received from any satisfactory producer.
In this case interest on the property or capital is usually allowed and
included in the current expenses. The management is otherwise the
same; the stockholders receive a fixed rate of interest on their invest-
ment and the dividends to patrons depend upon their deliveries of
milk or cream and the fluctuations of the market for the factory
products. The proprietary plan is also common, being managed
much like any other factory; the proprietor or company buys the
milk or cream from the producers at prices mutually agreed upon
from time to time and assumes all the expenses, risks, and returns of

DAIRY DEVELOPMENT. 387

~

the business. Another way is for the factory, whether owned and
managed by a company of farmers (probably themselves patrons) or
by outsiders, to bear all expenses, make and sell the butter and cheese
ata fixed charge per pound, and divide the net proceeds of sales as on
the purely cooperative plan. All these plans are varied and modified
in practice. Fig. 11 shows the ground plan of the first creamery in
this country.

PRESSES

~SIl¥d ONIAUO YOd NOVY

Fie in the United States (provisions
tor cheese making, included): 1, water pipe; 2, churns; 3, butter worker; 4, whey cistern.

METHODS OF MANAGEMENT OF CHEESE AND BUTTER FACTORIES.

Independent of the matters of ownership, organization, and control,
the factories and creameries differ much in methods of management
and of settlement with patrons. Great progress in these particulars
has been made since the introduction of the system. The first estab-
lishments received milk from patrons daily and sometimes twice a
day. From near-by farms the milk was often warm from the cow at
time of delivery. The milk was then kept in large vats (for cheese
making) or in immense shallow pans in a cooling and creaming room
until skimmed. Abundant room and expensive receptacles were nec
essary at the creamery. Then, for butter making, deep setting of the
milk in cool water was adopted. The ereameries were provided with
pools or stationary vats below the floor level. Through these, cool
water flowed from springs near at hand, and in them the milk was set

3888 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

in ‘‘shotgun” cans (fig. 12), immediately after arrival, for cooling and
for cream to form. The pools were 18 or 20 inches deep, with racks at
bottom to hold cans. The tin cans were 22 inches deep and 8 inches
in diameter and filled so that when in the pool the top of the milk
was just below the surface of the water. Springs with abundant flow
and having a natural temperature of 48° to 56° F. were regarded as
highly desirable. Afterwards came the method of mechanical cream
separation (to be later described) in place of ‘‘ setting,” or the gravity
system. Another radical change, which began about 1375, was to set
and skim the milk on the farms and haul.only cream to the factories.
Agents from the creameries, with suitable teams and carrying cans,
drove from farm to farm and gathered the cream. Hence, the name
of ‘‘gathered-cream factories” for establishments of this class. This
kind of factory is still the favorite in some good butter districts, and
it has very decided merits. The earliest factories and creameries
. paid for milk by the quart or gallon and at the same price, all lots of
equal bulk being regarded of equal value. The
first step in advance on this line was to buy or
eredit milk by weight, but still all at the same
price. On the gathered-cream plan, equal bulk
measures of cream were long regarded as of
like value, and this is still practiced to some
extent. The most modern and approved plan
is to pay for the milk or cream received by
factory or creamery according to the pounds
of fat it actually contains as experimentally
determined. This will be referred to later.
At first it was considered sufficient to have
200 cows tributary to a factory, and patrons
were expected to be located within a mile or
two, and 4 or 5 miles was the maximum haul. Larger factories were
soon favored as more economical, and very large ones have been lately
put in operation, each receiving the daily product of thousands of cows.
Milk and cream is hauled twice as far as formerly to patronize a fac-
tory, and often by cooperation among the farmers along a ‘‘route.” All
patrons are now expected to cool their milk thoroughly before it leaves
the farm. In the latest form of creamery management, cream is collected
over many square miles of territory and transported long distances by
‘ail to be made into butter at a central factory. (A modern creamery is
shownin Pl. XVIII.)
THE CONDENSED-MILK INDUSTRY.

Fia. 12.—“Shot-gun” setting
can and cream dipper.

The condensed-milk industry had its beginning coincident with the
inauguration of the factory system for making butter and cheese.
Some method of preserving milk had long been sought and numerous
preparations of the article had been offered, but these failed to meet
the requirements and win public favor. In 1846 experiments were

Yearbook U.S Dept. of Agriculture, 1899. PLATE XVIII.

:
So ads

Fic. 1.—A PIONEER CREAMERY IN THE STATE OF SOUTH DAKOTA.

Fic. 2.—A MODERN CREAMERY IN THE STATE OF NEW YORK.

DAIRY DEVELOPMENT. 389

begun in New York by Mr. Gail Borden with a view of securing a pre-
served milk that was pure, wholesome, and palatable, capable of being
transported long distances and kept for long périods in trying climates,
and then serving as a satisfactory substitute for erude, fresh milk;
but if was not until 1856 that he obtained results which have since
popularized the product in every quarter of the globe. The previously
prevailing ideas of a dry form of milk (desiccated, solidified, or pow-
dered) were abandoned, and it was decided that a semiliquid state
was the best form for preservation. The correctness of this decision
is attested by the fact that, extensive as the industry now is and
numerous as are the commercial brands, all condensed milk is still
prepared under substantially the system then originated. This
applies to the unsweetened as well as to the sweetened article, for
‘*plain condensed milk” was first introduced and put upon the mar-
ket about the year 1861. It was then mainly in open vessels and
intended for early use. At that time condensed milk in both forms
had become well known, and four or five factories were in operation,
each producing about 5,000 one-pound cans per day. For the year
1879 the production of condensed milk in the United States was
reported as 13,000,000 pounds and for 1889 as 38,000,000 pounds.

APPLICATION OF MECHANICS TO THE DAIRY.

The third quarter of the century was also a period cf unprecedented
progress in the application of mechanics to the dairy. The factories

—_ —s ——_

ATT

Fic. 13.—Milk room, with small shallow pans.

and creameries required new equipment, adapted to manufacture upon
an enlarged scale, and equal attention was paid to the improvement

390 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of appliances for farm dairies. Shallow pans were changed in shape —
and greatly enlarged; some were made to hold 20 or 30 gallons,
and had bottom and sides double for cooling or warming by the water
jacket. (See figs. 13 and 14.) Then these big pans, and most others,
disappeared in favor of deep setting. This system, in which deep

ie
Mi

i)
vat
{

i
} |
}

Fic. 14.—Large milk pans, open and shallow.

cans were used, set in cold water, preferably iced water, was intro-
duced from Sweden, although the same principles had been in praec-
tice for generations in the spring houses of the South. Numerous
creaming appliances, or creamers, were invented, based upon this

asset

| 7 an Se aT
AUT TT

Fia. 15.—Patterns of hand butter workers.

system. Butter workers of various models, most of them employing
the lever, or a crank and roller, took the place of the bowl and ladle
and the use of the bare hand. Churns appeared of all shapes, sizes,
and kinds, the general plan being to abolish dashers and substitute
the agitation of cream for violent beating. About this time the writer

DAIRY DEVELOPMENT. 391

made a search of the United States Patent Office records, which
revealed the fact that forty or fifty new or improved churns were
claimed annually, and, after about one-fourth were rejected, the pat-
ents actually issued provided a new churn every ten or twelve days
for more than seventy years! This illustrates the activity of inven-
tion in the dairy line. It was admitted by all that at this period the
United States was far in advance of any other country in the variety
and excellence of its mechanical aids to dairying. (Fig. 15.)

ORGANIZATION OF DAIRYMEN’S ASSOCIATIONS.

The same period witnessed the organization of dairymen in volun-
tary associations for mutual benefit, the formation of clubs and
societies of breeders of pure-bred cattle, and the appearance of the
first American dairy literature of consequence in book form. The
American Dairymen’s Association was organized in 1863. Its fiel@l
of activity was east of Indiana, and accordingly the Northwestern
Dairymen’s Association was formed in 1867. Both of these asso-
ciations continued in existence, holding periodical Conventions and
publishing their proceedings for twelve or fifteen years. Then fol-
lowed the formation of State dairy associations in Vermont (1870),
Pennsylvania (1871), Wisconsin (1872), IHinois (1874), Iowa (1876),
New York (1877), and other States, superseding the few pioneer
societies, which, for the time, covered broader fields.

INTRODUCTION OF DAIRY CATTLE AND EFFORTS AT HERD IMPROVEMENT.

The Shorthorn breed led in the introduction of improved cattle to
the United States, and for a long time the representatives of this race,
imported from England, embraced fine dairy animals. Shorthorn
grades formed the foundation, and an excellent one, upon which
many dairy herds were built during the second and third quarters of
the century, and much of this blood is still found in prosperous dairy
districts. The period named was that of greatest activity in import-
ing improved cattle from abroad; but Shorthorns have been so gen-
erally bred for beef qualities that the demand for them is almost
exclusively on that line, and very few of the breed are now classed as
dairy cattle. Ayrshires from Scotland, Holstein-Friesians from North
Holland, and Jerseys and Guernseys from the Channel Islands, are
the breeds recognized as of dairy excellence, and upon animais graded
and improved from these the industry mainly depends. The first
two breeds named are noted for giving large quantities of milk of
medium quality; the other two, both often miscalled ‘‘Alderney,”
give milk of exceeding richness, and theirs is the favorite blood with
butter makers. There are also the Brown Swiss and Simmenthal cattle
from Switzerland, the Normandy breed from France, and Red-Polled
cattle from the south of England which have dairy merit, but belong
rather to what is called the ‘‘ general-purpose” class. Associations of
persons interested in maintaining the purity of the respective breeds

392 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

have been formed since 1850, and they all record pedigrees and publish

registers or herdbooks. Pure-bred herds of some of these different

breeds are owned in nearly every State, and these animals aggregate
200,000 or 300,000. Their blood is so generally diffused that half-
breeds or higher grades are very numerous wherever cows are kept
for dairy purposes. Therefore, although pure-bred animals form less
than 2 per cent of the working dairy herds, their influence is so great
that it is probable the average dairy cow of the United States at the
close of the century will carry nearly 50 per cent of improved biood.
The breeding and quality of this average cow, and consequently her
productiveness and profit, have thus been steadily advanced.

The progress made in this respect in fifty years has been remark-
able. When improvement upon the native stock began, a cow that
would make a pound of butter a day for two or three months was a
local celebrity. Now and then a single animal made a really note-
worthy record, like that of the Oakes cow, famous in Massachusetts
about 1816. This cow gave 44 pounds of milk a day and made 467
pounds of butter during one season, but she was evidently a sport and
failed to reproduce her equal. The first good record of definite herd
improvement was made by Zadock Pratt, of Greene County, N. Y.
By careful selection and culling he increased the average butter
product of his 50 cows from 130 pounds for the year 1852 to 225
pounds in 1863; for seven years the average milk yield was 4,710
pounds per cow. About 1865, when good cows soid for $40 or less, an
enterprising dairyman in New England advertised widely that he
would pay $100 for any cow which would yield 50 pounds of milk a
day on his farm for two or three consecutive days. Not an animal
was Offered under these conditions. The good dairy cow has now
been so long bred to a special purpose that instead of the former short
milking period, almost limited to the pasture season, it yields a com-
paratively even flow of milk during ten or eleven months in every
twelve, and if desired the herd produces as much in winter as in
summer. A cow that does not average 6 or 7 quarts of milk per day
for three hundred days, being 4,000 to 4,500 pounds a year, is not
considered profitable. There are many herds having an average
yearly product of 5,000 pounds per cow, and single animals are numer-
ous which give ten or twelve times their own weight in milk during
ayear. Quality has also been so improved that the milk of many a
cow will make as much butter in a week as did that of three or four
average cows of the mid-century. Whole herds average 300 to 350
pounds of butter a year, occasionally more, and authenticated rec-
ords of cows giving 2 pounds a day are very numerous. Rivals to the
Oakes cow may now be found frequently, often several in one bovine
family, the dairy merit maintained and transmitted by judicious
breeding; and although animals of such excellence are none too com-
mon, they no longer excite astonishment or incredulity. (Pl. XIX.)

Yearbook U_ S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899. PLATE XIX.

\
Yat
Vas

Fig. 2.—Dairy BULL, MODERN TYFE. GUERNSEY.

Fig. 3.—DairRY Cow, MODERN TYPE. JERSEY.

DAIRY DEVELOPMENT. 393

DAIRYING DURING THE CLOSING DECADES OF THE CENTURY.

The development of dairying in the United States during the clos-
ing decades of the nineteenth century has been uninterrupted and
marked by events of the greatest consequence in its entire history.
The importance of two inventions during this period can not be over-
estimated.

MECHANICAL SEPARATION OF CREAM FROM MILK.

The first is the application of centrifugal force to the separation of
cream from milk. This is baSed upon the fact tlrat the specific gravity
of milk serum, or skim milk, is greater than that of the fatty portion, or
eream. The dairy centrifuge, or cream separator (fig. 16), enables the
creaming or ‘‘ skimming” to be done immediately after milking, prefer-

a <A

Fiq. 16.—Centrifugal cream separator (in operation).

ably while the milk has itsnatural warmth. The cream can be churned
at once, while sweet, but the better and usual practice is to cool thor-
oughly and then slowly cure, or ‘“‘ripen,” it for churning. The cream
ean be held at a comparatively high temperature, avoiding the neces-
sity of much ice or cold water. The skim milk is available for use
while still warm, quite sweet, and in its best condition for feeding to
young animals. This mechanical method is more efficient than the
old gravity system, securing more perfect separation and preventing
loss of fat in the skim milk. It also largely reduces the dairy labor.
The handling and care of the milk may be thus wholly removed from
the duties of the household. Separators are made of sizes and patterns
suited to farm use, and to be operated by hand or power—a dog or a
sheep, a bull or a horse, water, electricity, or steam. The foregoing

394 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

conditions apply when the separation is done on the farm where the
milk is produced. In creamery practice the milk is usually aired
and cooled on the patrons’ farms and hauled once a day to the fae-
tory; there it is warmed to facilitate the work, passed through the
separator, and the skim milk may be at once hauled back to the
farms. A creamery uses one or more separators of large capacity,
operated by power. This practice involves the double haul and an
apparent waste of the farmer’s time and labor. A movement toward
economy in this respect is the establishment of “skimming stations”
at convenient points, equipped with one or more power separators; to
these the milk is taken for separation from the farms in the vicinity,
and from these stations the cream
is carried to the central factory for
curing and churning.

Besides its economy and its effeet
upon labor, the mechanical cream
separator almost eliminates the fac-
tor of climate in a large part of
dairy management, and altogether
has worked a revolution in the
industry. The centrifuge is stilla
marvel to those who see it working
for the first time. The whole milk,
naturally warm or warmed artifi-
cially, flows into a strong steel bowl
held in an iron frame; the bowl re-
volves at rates varying from 1,500
to 25,000 times per minute, and
from two projecting tubes the cream and skim milk separately flow
in continuous streams. The machines can be regulated to produce
cream of any desired quality or thickness. These separators of dif-
ferent sizes are capable of thus skimming or separating (more prop-
erly, creaming) from 15 to 500 gallons of milk per hour. <A machine -
of standard factory size has a speed of 6,000 to 7,000 revolutions a
minute and a capacity for creaming 250 gallons of milk an hour.

The world is indebted to Europe for this invention, at least as a
dairy applianee. It is the only instance in which dairy invention
abroad has been notably in advance of the United States. Yet, inves-
tigations were in progress contemporaneously in this country along
the same line, and many of the material improvements in the cream
separator and several novel patterns have since been invented here.
The machine has been vastly improved during its twenty years of
existence. At first the bowl was filled with a ‘‘charge” of milk, the
separation effected, the machine stopped, its compartments emptied
of milk and cream, then refilled and started again. The continuously
acting machine was soon invented, however, and is now universal.

Fic. 17.—Babcock tester (cheap form, with-
out bottles).

DAIRY DEVELOPMENT. 395

Most of the power machines are still operated by pulley, belting, and
intermediate (as shown in fig. 16), but in the latest patterns steam is
applied directly to a turbine wheel in the base of the standard. The
first centrifugal separators were put into practical use in this country
‘and Great Britain in the year 1879. On the continent of Europe they
were used a little earlier. The century closes with more than 40,000
of these machines in operation in the United States.

FAT TEST FOR MILK.
The second great dairy invention of the period is the popular fat
test for milk, being a quick and easy substitute for chemical analysis.

This is one of the public benefactions of the agricultural experiment
stations. In several States these stations have done much creditable

“(=m FY

peer
———_
ul

= SSG
Fra. 18.—Early and cheap form of Babcock tester.

work in dairy investigation, and from them have come several clever
methods for testing the fat content of milk. The one which has been
generally approved and adopted in this and other lands is named for
its originator, Dr. S. M. Babeock, chemist and dairy investigator,
first of the New York experiment station at Geneva and since of the
Wisconsin experiment station. (See figs. 17 to 21.) This test combines
the principle of centrifugal force with simple chemical action. The
machine on the Babcock plan has been made in a great variety of pat-
terns, simple and inexpensive for home use and more elaborate and
substantial for factories. By these machines from two to forty samples
may be tested at once in a few moments, and by the use of bottles spe-
cially provided the percentage of fat may be determined in samples of
milk, cream, skim milk, or buttermilk. Of course, the glassware appur-
tenances of these testers must be mathematically accurate. Besides

396 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the machine and its fittings, the ouly supplies needed are sulphurie
acid of standard strength and warm water. Any person of intelli-
gence can soon learn to make ordinary tests with this appliance, but
care and skill are necessary to absolutely correct results.

LES eHOAE.
Fic, 19.—Hand Babcock tester, with streng drum.

This fat test of milk has wide application, and it may fairly be
questioned whether it is second to the cream separator in advancing
the economies of dairying. The percentage of fat being accepted as
the measure of value for milk for nearly all purposes, the Babeoek

Fig. 20. —Hand Babcock tester, with variety of glassware.

test may be the basis for municipal milk inspection, for fixing ,the
price of milk delivered to city dealers, to cheese factories, creameries,
and condenseries, and for commercial settlements between patrons in
cooperative dairying of any kind. By this test also the dairy farmer

DAIRY DEVELOPMENT. 597

may prove the quality of milk from his different cows and (with
quantity of milk yield recorded) may fix their respective value as
dairy animals. Cows are now frequently bought and sold upon the
basis of the milk scale and the Babeoek test. With perfect appa-
ratus in competent hands the accuracy of the test is beyond question,
and it is of the highest scientific value and practical use. It should
be noted that although clearly patentable, thus offering to the pat-
entee an independent income through a very small royalty, this price-
less invention and boon to dairying was freely given to the public by
Dr. Babeock. Recognition of this publie service has taken the form
of a medal voted by the legislature of Wisconsin, and a handsome
testimonial has been sent by the spontaneous action of appreciative
creamerymen in distant New Zealand.

W. SCHOLL. DEL.

Fa. 21.—Babcock tester for use by direct steam power, or ‘‘ turbine tester.”’

DAIRYING AT THE PRESENT TIME.

The advent of the twentieth century will find the dairy industry
of the United States established upon a plane far above the crude and
variable domestie art of three or four generations ago. The milch
cow itself, upon which the whole business rests, is almost as much a
machine as a natural product, and, as already shown, a very different
creature from the average animal of the olden time. Instead of a few
homely and inconvenient implements for use in the laborious duties
of the dairy, perfected appliances, skillfully devised to accomplish
their object and lighten labor, are provided all along the way. Long
rows of shining tin pans no longer adorn rural dooryards. The fac-
tory system of cooperative or concentrated manufacture has so far

398 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

taken the place of home dairying that in entire States the cheese vat
er press is as rare as the handloom, and in many counties it is as hard
to find a farm churn as a spinning wheel.

A SAMPLE OF THE CHANGES IN DAIRY PRACTICES.

Here isan exampleof the radical change wrought in dairy practices:
Northern Vermont has long been a region of large butter production.
St. Albans is the business center of Franklin County. During the
middle of the century the country-made butter from miles around
came to this market every Tuesday. The average weekly supply was
30 to 40 tons. This butter was very varied in quality, was sampled
and classified with much labor and expense, placed in three grades,
and forwarded to the Boston market, 200 miles distant. During
twenty-five years ending in 1875, some 65,000,000 pounds, valued at
$20,000,000, passed through this little town. All of this was dairy butter
made upon one or two thousand different farms, inas many churns. In
1880 the first creamery was built in this county; ten years later there
were fifteen. Now, a creamery company located at St. Albans has
fifty-odd skimming or separating stations distributed through this and
adjoining counties. (Pl. XX.) To those is carried the milk from more
than 30,000 cows. Farmershaving home separators may deliver cream
which, being inspected and tested, is aceepted and credited at its
actual butter value, just as other raw material is sold to mills and fae-
tories. The separated cream is conveyed by rail and wagon—largely
the former—to the central factory. There, in one room, from 10 to 12
tons of butter are made every working-day. <A single churning place
for a whole county! All of this butter is of standard quality, ‘extra
creamery,” and is sold on its reputation, upon orders from different
points received in advance ef its manufacture. The price is rela-
tively higher than the average for the product of the same farms fifty
years ago. This is mainly because of better average quality and
greater uniformity—two important advantages of the creamery system.

METHOD OF MILKING UNCHANGED.

In one respect dairy labor is the same as a hundred years ago.
Cows still have to be milked by hand. Although numerous attempts
have been made, and patent after patent has been issued, no mechanical
contrivance has yet been a practical success as a substitute for the
human hand in milking. Therefore, twice a day, every day in the
year, the dairy cows must be milked by manual labor. This is one
of the main items of labor in dairying, as well as a most delicate and
important duty. Allowing 10 cows per hour to a milker,which means
lively work, it requires the continuous service of an army of 300,000
men, working ten or twelve hours a day throughout the year, to milk
the cows kept in the United States.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899. PLATE XX.

Fic. 1.—SKIMMING STATION OF A VERMONT CREAMERY.

Fic. 2.—FRANKLIN COUNTY CREAMERY, ST. ALBANS, VT.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899. PLATE XXI.

Fic. 1.—EXHIBIT OF FOREIGN BUTTERS BY THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF
AGRICULTURE, 1899.

Vian Ce a

mY
FOREIGN BUTTER

FiG. 2.—NATIONAL CREAMERY BUTTER MAKERS’ ANNUAL COMPETITION, SIOUX FALLS,
S. Dak., JANUARY, 1899.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 1899 PLATE XX!I.

ts

Fic. 1.—lowaA Dairy SCHOOL AND COLLEGE CREAMERY AT AMES.

Fic. 2.—WISCONSIN DaiRY SCHOOL AT MADISON—MILK TESTING.

rs
or.
pia

é
-

*

»?

ats

—-

if

uy

DAIRY DEVELOPMENT. 399
ORGANIZATION OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY.

The industry is becoming thoroughly organized. Besides local
clubs, societies, and unions, there are dairy associations in thirty
States, most of them incorporated, and receiving financial aid under
State laws. The proceedings of the annual conventions are, in several
instances, reported and published at public expense. In some States
the butter makers and cheese makers are separately organized; in
some States creamery men and dairy farmers hold separate meetings.
Large competitive exhibits of dairy products are also held, and PI.
XXI shows the annual exhibit for 1899 of the National Creamery
Butter Makers at Sioux Falls, 8. Dak., including the exhibit of for-
eign butters by the Department of Agriculture. Eighteen States pro-
vide by law for officials known as dairy commissioners or food and
dairy commissioners. These officers have a national association, and
there are also two national organizations of dairymen. At several
large cities and centers of activity in the commerce of the dairy there
are special boards of trade. The Department of Agriculture has a
Dairy Division, whose purpose is to keep informed upon and to pro-
mote the dairy interests of the country at large. Dairy schools are
maintained in anumber of States, offering special! courses of practical
and scientific instruction in all branches of the business. (Pl. XXII.)
These sehools and the agricultural experiment stations, with which
most of the dairy schools are connected, are doing much original
research, and constantly adding to the store of useful information as
to the application of modern science to this industry. Graduates
from the schools are scattered all over the country as managers of
dairy farms and superintendents of creameries and cheese factories,
and are contributing to the general improvement in dairy methods
and results. Weekly and monthly journals in the interest of dairy
production and trade are published in various parts of the country,
and during the last decade or two a number of noteworthy books on
different aspects of dairying have been published, so that the student
of this subject may fill a good-sized case with substantial volumes,
technical and practical in character.

MILK PRODUCTION.

The business of producing milk for town and city supply, with the
accompanying agencies for transportation and distribution, has grown
to immense proportions. In many piaces the milk trade is regulated
and supervised by excellent municipal ordinances, which have done
much to prevent adulteration and improve the average quality of the
supply. Full as much, however, is being done by private enterprise,
through large milk companies, well organized and equipped, and estab-
lishments which make a specialty of serving milk and cream of fixed
quality and exceptional purity. These efforts to furnish ‘‘ certified”

400 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and ‘‘guaranteed ” milk and general competition for the best class of
trade are doing more to raise the standard of quality and improve
the service than all the legal measures. The buildings and equip-
ment of some of these modern dairies are quite beyond precedent.
This branch of dairying is advancing fast, and upon the substantial
basis of care, cleanliness, and better sanitary conditions. (Pils.
XXIII and XXIV.)

CHEESE MAKING,

Cheese making has beén transferred bodily from the realm of domes-
tie arts to that of manufactures. Farm-made cheeses are hard to find
anywhere; they are used only locally, and make no impression upon
the markets. In the middle of the century about 100,000,000 pounds
of cheese was made yearly in the United States, and all of it in farm
dairies. At the close of the century the annual production of the
country will be about 300,000,000 pounds, and 96 or 97 per cent of this
will be made in factories. Of these establishments, there are nearly
3,000, but they vary greatly in capacity, and many are very small.
New York and Wisconsin each has a thousand. The former State
makes nearly twice as much cheese as the latter, and the two together
produce three-fourths of the entire output of the country. The other
cheese-making States, in the order of quantity produced, are Ohio,
Illinois, Michigan, and Pennsylvania; but these are all comparatively
unimportant. A change observed as taking place in the factory sys-
tem is that of bringing a number of factories previously independent
into a ‘‘combination” or under the same management. This tends to
improve the quality and secure greater uniformity in the product, and
often reduces cost of manufacture, all being decided advantages.
More than nine-tenths of all cheese made is of the familiar standard
variety, copied after the English Cheddar, but new kinds and imita-
tions of foreign varieties are increasing. The cheese made in the
country, with the small importations added, gives a yearly allowance
of less than 4 pounds to every person; but as 30,000,000 to 50,000,000
pounds are still annually exported, the per capita consumption of
cheese in the United States does not exceed 35 pounds per annum.
This is a very low rate, much less than in most European countries.

BUTTER MAKING.

Great as the growth of the associated system of butter making has
been and fast as creameries have multiplied, especially in the newer
and growing agricultural States, such as Minnesota, Nebraska, Kan-
sas, South Dakota, and Washington, there is still much more butter
made on farms in the United States than in creameries. Creamery
butter controls all the large markets, the dairy products making com-
paratively little impression on the trade; but home consumption and
the supply of small customers and local markets make an immense
aggregate, being fully two-thirds of all. Estimating the annual

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899. PLATE XXIII.

=

Fic. 1.—Dairy BARN FOR 250 Cows IN NEW JERSEY.

FiG. 2.—MILKERS READY FOR WORK AT LARGE Dairy FARM IN NEW JERSEY.

Yearbook U, S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899. PLATE XXIV.

Fic. 1.—COOLING AND BOTTLING ROOM ON A DAIRY FARM IN PENNSYLVANIA.

Fic. 2.—BOTTLING ROOM ON A Dairy FARM IN NEw York.

it

\

DAIRY DEVELOPMENT. 401

butter product of the country at 1,400,000,000 pounds, not much over
400,000,000 of this is made in the 7,500 or 8,000 creameries now in
operation. lowa is the greatest butter-producing State and the one
in which the greater proportion is made on the factory plan. This
State has 780 creameries, only two counties being without them; about
two-fifths are cooperative: In these creameries about 88,000,000 pounds
of butter are yearly made from 624,000 cows. It is estimated that in
the same State 50,000,000 pounds of butter in addition are made in
farm dairies. The total butter product of this State is therefore one-
tenth of all made in the Union. Iowa sends over 80,000,000 pounds
of butter every year into other States. New York is next in impor-
tance as a butter-making State, and then come, in order, Pennsylvania,
Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Ohio, and Kansas. Yet, all of these
combined make but little more than one-half of the annual butter crop
of the United States, and in no one of them except Iowa is half of the
butter produced made in creameries. The average quality of butter
in America has materially improved since the introduction of the
creamery system and the use of modern appliances, and the average
continues toimprove. Nevertheless, a vast quantity of poor butter is
made—enough to make a large and profitable business in collecting it
at country stores at grease prices or a little better and rendering or
renovating it by patent processes. This renovated butter has been
fraudulently sold to a considerable extent as the true creamery article,
of which it is a fair imitation while fresh, and several States have
recently made laws to identify the product and prevent buyers from
being deceived. No butter is imported into this ‘country, and the
quantity exported is as yet insignificant, although there is beginning
to be a foreign demand for American butter. The home consumption
must accordingly be at the yearly rate of 20 pounds to the person, or
about 100 pounds annually to the family of average size. If approxi-
mately correct, this shows Americans to be the greatest butter-eating
people in the world.

The people of this country also consume millions of pounds every
year of butter substitutes and imitations, such as oleomargarine and
butterine. Most of this is believed to be butter by those who use it,
and the State dairy commissioners mentioned are largely occupied in
the execution of laws intended to protect consumers from these butter
frauds.

BY-PRODUCTS OF DAIRYING.

Within recent years there has been great development in the eco-
nomical uses of the by-products of dairying. Ten years ago there
were enormous quantities of skim milk and buttermilk from the
creameries and of whey from cheese factories, which were absolutely
wasted. At farm dairies these by-products are generally used to
advantage in feeding animals, but at the factories, especially at
the seasons of greatest milk supply, this most desirable method of

ae 26 ,

402 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

utilization is largely impracticable. In many places new branches
have lately been added to the industry, which make sugar of milk
and some other commercial produets from whey, and utilize skim milk
in various ways. The albumen of the latter is extracted for use with
food preducts and in the arts. The casein is desiccated and prepared
as a baking supply and substitute for eggs, as the basis of an enamel
paint, as a substitute for glue in paper sizing, and it is also solidified
so as to make excellent buttons, combs, brush backs, handles, elec-
trical insulators, and similar articles.
NUMBER OF COWS AND QUANTITY AND VALUE OF DAIRY PRODUCTS.

The cows in the United States were not counted until 1840, but
have been since enumerated for every decennial census. It has
required from 23 to 27 cows to every 100 of the population to keep the:
country supplied with milk, butter, and cheese, and provide for the
export of dairy products. The export trade has fluctuated much,
but has never exceeded the produce of 500,000 cows. With the clos-
ing years of the century it is estimated that there is one milch cowin
the United States for every four persons. This makes the total num-
ber of cows about 17,500,000. They are unevenly distributed over
the country, being largely concentrated in the great dairy States.
Thus, Iowa leads with 1,500,000 cows, followed by New York with
almost asmany; then Illinois and Pennsylvania, with about 1,000,000
each. The States having over 500,000 each are Wisconsin, Ohio,
Kansas, Missouri, Minnesota, Nebraska, and Indiana. Texas is
credited with 700,000 cows, but very few of them are dairy animals.
In the Middle and Eastern States the milk product goes very largely
to the supply of the numerous large towns and cities. In the Cen-
tral West and Northwest butter is the principal dairy product. The
following table gives approximately an exhibit of the quantity and
value of the dairy products of the United States in the year 1899:

Estimated number of cows and quantity and value of dairy products,

Rate of Rate of
Cows. Product. product per Total product. adeno: Total value.
cow. a
Cents.

1000 C00") Buttert-—- = 2s ese oee 130 pounds -} 1, 480,000, C00 pounds - 18 | $257, 400,000
tt 000; 000") ‘Cheese. 5.225 see 300 pounds _| 360,000,000 pounds - 9 27, 000, C00
52500) 000) Malics= oa ee ae eee 380 gallons -| 2,090, 000, 000 gallons - 8 167, 200, 000

+—

This gives the grand total of the dairy products of the country a
value of $451,600,000. If to this be added the skim milk, butter-
milk, and whey, at their proper feeding value, and the calves dropped
yearly, the annual aggregate value of the produce of the dairy cows
exceeds $500,000,000. Accepting these estimates as conservative,
they show that the commercial importance of the dairying of the
United States is such as to conmand attention and justify all reason-
able provisions for guarding its interests.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE NUTRITION INVESTIGATIONS
OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

By A. C. True, Ph. D., Director, and R. D. MILNER, Ph. B., Assistant in
Nutrition Investigations, Office of Experiment Stations.

INTRODUCTION.

The subject of food economy in all its details, always of vital inter-
est, has acquired increased importance in this country in recent years*
from the extensive investigations that have been made and are
still being prosecuted in connection with and as a part of the work of
the Department of Agriculture and the agricultural experiment sta-
tions. There had been a considerable amount of investigation of the
food of man, as well as studies of the food of domestic animals, before
the stations were established. Much of the early experimenting was
earried on in connection with physiological investigations or other
work connected with the study of medicine. Some of the investiga-
tions, however, are directly comparable with more recent work.

The first American investigation on the subject of human nutrition
which has been found by the authors was prosecuted by J. R. Young
in Philadelphia in 1803. It was entitled ‘‘ Experimental inquiry into
the principles of nutrition and the digestive process.” The author
studied the nutritive value and digestibility of such materials as
sugar, gum, beans, and wheat, making experiments with frogs and
other small animals. The article summarizes the ideas on human
nutrition held at that time.

With the rise of the experiment stations inquiries into the compo-
sition of feeding stuffs and their appropriate use in the nutrition
of domestic animals were undertaken, and have since been carried
on quite actively. Later some of the stations undertook similar
investigations of the food and nutrition of man. The science of the.
nutrition of man has so much in common with that of nutrition of
animals that a distinction between the two is not easily made, and
naturally they have been studied together. These researches have
been carried on mainly in the physiological and chemical laboratories
of universities as well as of experiment stations. On the whole, for
the study of foods and the laws of nutrition, much more experimental
inquiry has been made with animals than with men, partly because
of the greater ease and convenience of experimenting with animals
and partly because of the especial activity of the experiment stations

403

.

404 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

in this direction. The attention devoted to the special study of feed-
ing stuffs for animals, up to the present time, is likewise greater than
that devoted to the special study of the food of man, leaving out of
account, of course, the subject of food adulteration, which comprises
a phase of the general investigations not discussed here.

The growth and development of this subject in the United States
has an interesting history. Beginnings were made by physicians and
other scientific investigators. Much of the work with which the nutri-
tion investigations of this Department are directly connected and out
of which-they grew was of this nature, and not a little was made pos-
sible only by the generosity of private individuals; then economie
institutions and Government scientific departments became interested,
and finally the results of the work proved so valuable and useful that
Congress made special appropriation for carrying on investigations in
nutrition in different places throughout the country.

SCOPE OF INVESTIGATIONS ON THE FOOD AND NUTRITION OF MAN.

Investigations on the food,and nutrition of man include the study
of two branches of the subject, which, though quite intimately related
and both valuable, are nevertheless of importance in different ways.
One branch of the subject comprises a study of the chemical compo-
sition of different food materials, an investigation that is purely
analytical, but a necessary preliminary to the investigation in the
other branch of the subject, which comprises researches into the laws
of nutrition and the economic and sociological application of the sub-
ject. The former has to do with simply the chemistry of food, while
the latter has to do with the physiology—the physics and chemistry—
of the nutrition of man, together with its economic and sociological
application to people of different classes in different places and under
different conditions.

From the first many investigations have been made which studied
food ineidentally in connection with some special problem—for
instanee, the effect of some drug. Mention should be made in this
connection of the experiments of Professor Chittenden, of Yale Uni-
versity, on this and similar lines. This work is still carried on; the
earliest results were published, however, some twenty years ago.

Some very interesting experiments have been made by earlier
American investigators on the effect of muscular exertion on the pro-
duction of urea. One of the most noteworthy investigations of this
nature was made by Dr. Flint in 1871 with the professional pedestrian
Weston. The earliest study of dietaries which the authors have
found was made by J. 8. Gould, published in 1852, entitled ‘‘ Report
on the food and diet suited for almshouses, prisons, and hospitals.”
These are only a few of the investigations which might be cited.

A considerable part of the early work in the study of foods in this

DEVELOPMENT OF NUTRITION INVESTIGATIONS. 405

country was analytical, along the line of the chemical composition of
different food materials. A not inconsiderable amount of such work
was done between the years 1840 and 1860, most of which, however,
is of interest to-day chiefly from a historical standpoint. The great-
est accuracy of the work done at that time was in the determination
of the elementary composition and the inorganic compounds of the
food products. A considerable number of analyses were carefully
made in an attempt to learn the proximate composition also; but
accurate and reliable methods of organic and analytical chemistry
had not yet been fully developed, so the results are comparable only
in a general way with those of analyses which have been made accord-
ing to the so-called ‘‘ Weende” methods, which were devised and
came into general use about 1864. Since that time it has been possi-
ble to carry on systematic investigations of food materials from the
standpoint of their nutritive values as determined by their chemical
composition.

A considerable amount of investigation of materials used as food
by man has been for many years and is still being carried on by the
Division of Chemistry of the Department of Agriculture. Mr. Clif-
ford Richardson made a large number of analyses of specimens of
American flour and the bread made from them, and of fresh vege-
tables and other materials. Prof. H. W. Wiley, the present chief of
the Division, and his associates, have also made a great many analy-
ses of cereal grains and their products, canned foods, meats, and other
materials. <A great deal of study of the composition of food materiais
has been made by Professor Wiley in the prosecution of his investi-
gations of adulteration of foods. A considerable number of analyses
of foods, especially dairy products, sugars, fruits, and vegetables,
were made elsewhere in this country prior to the establishment of the
experiment stations. This work has been continued and materially
extended by the stations.

INCEPTION OF THE PRESENT COOPERATIVE INQUIRIES ON THE
NUTRITION OF MAN.

The particular inquiry on the nutrition of man, which has developed
into the cooperative inquiries now being prosecuted in different parts
of the country under the auspices of the Department of Agriculture,
had its inception in the study of the chemical composition and nutri-
tive economy of food fishes and invertebrates that was undertaken by
Prof. W. O. Atwater in 1877, in the chemical laboratory of Wesleyan
University, at the instance of Prof. S. F. Baird, Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution and United States Commissioner of Fish and
Fisheries.

The investigations, begun then and continued until 1882, included
(1) chemical analyses of fishes and invertebrates; (2) experiments
upon the digestibility of fish; and, (3) studies of the chemical con-
stitution of the flesh of fish. In the course of these investigations

406 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

there were studied some two hundred specimens of marine and
fresh-water fishes and invertebrates commonly used for food in
the United States. For the prosecution of this inquiry small sums
were appropriated from time to time, through the ageney of Pro-
fessor Baird, to defray the expense for apparatus and labor of assist-
ants. Several citizens of Middletown, Conn., of New York, and of
other places, feeling personally interested in and recognizing the need
of just such work, contributed generously toward carrying out inves-
tigations much more elaborate and extensive than would have been
possible without such material assistance. Doubtless from the inter-
est of those individuals, manifested in such a manner, the work was
given at once an importance which otherwise it might have been long
in acquiring. The information regarding the food value of fish that
was obtained through these studies emphasized the need of similar
study of other food materials.

In 1884 Professor Atwater was asked to prepare plans for speci-
mens, labels, and other illustrative materials for the food collection
of the United States National Museum. In the development of these
plans it appeared very desirable to illustrate the fundamental princi-
ples of food economy, for which purpose there was need of consider-
able information concerning the chemical composition of some ef the
more common food materials in use in this country. This informa-
tion was not then available, because no extensive investigations of
American food products had ever been made. To make such inves-
tigations was a large undertaking, and the necessity for doing so was
not popularly understood. A beginning was made, however, with the
hope that as the results of the work should appear and their value
should be realized the means for continuing the inquiry would be
found. By 1888 nearly one hundred specimens of food products,
mostly animal, but including some vegetable, had been analyzed in
the laboratory of Wesleyan University, the expense of the work
being met in part by the National Museum and in part by contribu-
tions from private sources. In 1888 the Storrs experiment station
was established and placed under the direction of Professor Atwater.
Provision was made for conducting its chemical investigations in the
Wesleyan University laboratory, and the analysis of animal and
vegetable food products was continued as part of its work, both as
independent inquiries and in connection with dietary studies and
other investigations, which will be mentioned later.

The World’s Columbian Exposition, in 1893, afforded a most favor-
able opportunity for collecting specimens of food materials of par-
ticular interest in the United States. On behalf of the executive
committee on awards for that exposition, Prof. H. W. Wiley, of the
Department of Agriculture, undertook the investigation and analysis
of a large number of specimens of cereal grains and milling products
from them, sugars, and other products. These investigations were

—_-

DEVELOPMENT OF NUTRITION INVESTIGATIONS. 407

earried on at the exposition and were completed later in the labora-
tory at Washington City. On behalf of the same committee, Professor
Atwater undertook similar investigations of prepared foods, and espe-
cially animal foods. Over six hundred specimens of such foods were
collected for this investigation. The work was carried on so far as
possible at Chicago during the exposition. Afterwards it was trans-
ferred to Middletown, Conn., and was continued in the laboratory ef
Wesleyan University as part of the work of the Storrs station. Analy-
ses of over five hundred specimens were completed by 1894. This
was the most extensive investigation of this character undertaken up
to that time in this country. In this work, as well as in other nutri-
tion investigations, Prof. C. D. Woods has been prominently asso-
ciated with Professor Atwater. t

STUDY OF DIETARIES.

Meanwhile the investigations in nutrition had been begun along
another line, namely, the study of dietaries, in an attempt to learn
something concerning the character and quantity of food actually
consumed by people in different circumstances of life in different
localities. The first extensive work of this kind in this country ear-
ried on by the- methods followed at the present time was undertaken
by Hon. Carroll D. Wright, in 1886, while chief of the Massachusetts
bureau of statistics of labor. For the purpose of supplying, in some
measure, information necessary to enable the workingman to regu-
late more intelligently his expenditures for food and to secure with a
given expenditure the maximum amount of nutritive ingredients, the
bureau collected a number of schedules of dietaries, giving quanti-
ties and cost of food used by working people in different cities in
Massachusetts and also in some localities in Canada, from which
some of the working people had come. The data thus collected were
submitted to Professor Atwater, under whose supervision the quanti-
ties of nutritive ingredients in the food purchased were estimated.
The statistics of quantities of food purchased were compiled from
original accounts with tradesmen. No analysis of foods was made in
these studies. The amounts of ingredients contained in the food
were estimated upon the basis of the results of analyses of similar
foods already made. So far as possible, American analyses were used;
for the materials of which no analyses had been made in this coun-
try, however, the results of European analyses were employed.

The results of these studies were only approximately correct. In
order to secure more reliable data, which might be useful in estimat-
ing dietary standards and in more accurate inquiry in food economy,
similar studies were carried on at Middletown, Conn., under the direc-
tion of Professor Atwater. In these studies the errors in collecting
data observed in the preceding studies were eliminated so far as pos-
sible, and analyses of many of the foods used were actually made.

408 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The classes of people studied included not only laborers’ families, but
also students’ boarding clubs and well-to-do persons. The results of
these studies, together with those of the former studies, seemed to
warrant generalizations of considerable interest, and particularly to
indicate the directions in which further inquiry was needed. The
work thus done represented the beginning of an investigation of an
important subject. In 1890 the Storrs experiment station, in ecooper-
ation with the United States Department of Labor, which had been
established with Hon. Carroll D. Wright as Commissioner, under-
took a series of accurate dietary studies, which were continued for
several years. By January, 1895, twenty-one such studies of the actual
food consumption of families of mechanies and professional men had
been made and reported by the station.’ Similar investigations have
since been carried on elsewhere, especially under the auspices of the
Department of Agriculture, as explained in a later paragraph, so
that at the present time the results of about three hundred such
studies are recorded, while the work is still going on.

STUDY OF THE DIGESTIBILITY OF DIFFERENT FOOD MATERIALS.

The value of different foods for nutriment depends not only upon
the kinds-and amounts of nutritive ingredients which they contain,
as determined by chemical analysis, and upon the quantities in which
they are used in the dietaries of different people, but it depends also
upon the proportions of the different nutrients which can be digested
from the foods by persons under normal conditions as to variety and
amounts of food consumed, habits of living, and general health. For
this reason one very important part of the investigations in food and
nutrition of man has been the study of the digestibility of different
food materials, with particular reference to the proportions of nutri-
ents that may be digested from them. This study has been made by
- actual experiments with men in which the coefficients of digestibility
of food materials were determined from the amounts of nutrients in
the food eaten and in the feces excreted.

Previous to the spread of investigations in nutrition in this country
very little research had been made along this line. Even in Europe,
where the study of nutrition had been carried on for many years, the
number of digestion experiments with men was not large. In connec-
tion with the nutrition investigations which are being carried out by
the Department of Agriculture in cooperation with experiment sta-
tions and other institutions more than one hundred and fifty digestion
experiments have already been made, and at the present time some
series of elaborate experiments are still in progress.

STUDY OF THE FUNCTIONS OF FOOD IN THE BODY.

One important function of food is to furnish energy to the body.
For a thorough study of the laws of nutrition, therefore, and of the

DEVELOPMENT OF NUTRITION INVESTIGATIONS. 409

uses and nutritive values of food, there must be a means of determin-
ing the amounts of energy potential in the food consumed and in the
products formed from the food by the body. Since different forms of
energy may be transformed into heat, the energy of a substance may
be expressed in terms of heat, and therefore the potential energy of a
substance may be measured by the heat developed when the substance
is burned in oxygen. A method is employed whereby the amount of
heat thus developed by food materials is determined. The result
obtained in this way is called the ‘‘ heat of combustion” of the mate-
rial burned. The apparatus used for this purpose is called a calorim-
eter, various forms of which have been devised. The early work done
by the Storrs station along this line was by use of a Stohmann calo-
rimeter, a modification of that of Thompson. This apparatus proved
unsatisfactory, and the attempt was made to secure a better one...
The bomb ealorimeter devised by Berthelot was superior, but was
very costly, because of the large amount of platinum used in its con-
struction. With the aid of Professor Hempel, of Dresden, Professor
Atwater and his associates sueceeded in modifying the Berthelot appa-
ratus, especially with regard to the amount of platinum used, so that
a very accurate and satisfactory calorimeter has been obtained at a
much lower cost. Mr. O. 8. Blakeslee, mechanician of Wesleyan
University, devised and elaborated considerable accessory apparatus,
which has contributed largely to the success of the calorimeter. By
the use of this apparatus the heats of combustion of a large number
of different food materials have been determined.

In the study of nutrition of both man and domestic animals at the
present time, considerable attention is paid to the fuel value of foods,
that is, to their actual value to the body as sources of energy. This
net value is taken as the heat of combustion of the total food con-
sumed, minus the sum of the heats of combustion of the unoxidized
material in the feces and in the urine. The values thus determined
are used in the calculation of dietary standards, which serve to indi-
eate in a general way the proportions of the nutritive ingredients of
food that are appropriate for people in different conditions.

* Studies of some of the more fundamental laws of animal nutrition
have been carried on for the purpose of determining what uses the
body makes of its food under different conditions. Special inquiries
of this nature were begun by Professor Atwater and associates in
1892 by means of an apparatus known as a respiration calorimeter, so
arranged that a man may spend a number of days in comparative
comfort within it, and so manipulated that the metabolism of both
matter and energy in his body may be determined. In devising and
perfecting the apparatus and in carrying out the investigations with
relation to the measurements of heat and mechanical work, Professor
Atwater was assisted by Dr. E. B. Rosa professor of physics in Wes-
leyan University. Dr. F. G. Benedict, instructor in chemistry, and

410 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Mr. O. 5. Blakeslee were also important contributors to the develop-
ment of the apparatus, and Dr. Benedict has had a very important
part in the experiments made with it. Several years were spent in
the development of this apparatus and the elaboration of methods of
experimenting with it. By the winter of 1895-96 the apparatus was
considered accurate enough to justify its use in experiments with
men, and several experiments were made in which determinations of
the metabolism of matter were made with considerable accuracy. The
determinations of the metabolism of energy, however, were not con-
sidered sufficiently accurate. As experience in the use of the ealori-
meter was gained several improvements in the apparatus and in
methods of manipulation were made, until the results finally obtained
were as accurate as those seeured in investigations on a.much smaller
scale, in which ordinary laboratory methods are followed. Later
experiments are furnishing definite, accurate information concerning
the action of the fundamental laws of the conservation of matter and
of energy in the living organism. The results already attained show
remarkable agreement in income and outgo of both matter and energy
in the bodies of men at work and at rest, with different kinds and
amounts of food, thus giving very exact indication of the ways in
which food performs its functions in the body. These results are
exceedingly valuable from the standpoint of both pure science and
practical utility.

NUTRITION INVESTIGATIONS UNDER THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICUL-
TURE.

The greater part of the investigations in the food and nutrition of
man above referred to as carried on previous to 1894 were made by
the aid of contributions from private individuals,’ though funds were
supplied by the Storrs experiment station, and more especially by the
Smithsonian Institution and the United States Fish Commission,
through Prof. 8. F. Baird, and by the United States Department of
Labor, through Commissioner Carroll D. Wright.

As early as 1890 the results of the nutrition investigations already
made had aroused so much publie interest that steps were taken t6
induce Congress to appropriate funds for earrying on the work. Noth-
ing definite was accomplished there, however, until1894. In that year
the act of Congress providing appropriations for the experiment sta-
tions and authorizing the inquiries which they were to conduct was
changed so as to inelude the study of the food of man. The experi-
ment stations were called upon to report progress in the work to the
Secretary of Agriculture. At the same time Congress provided a
special appropriation of $10,000 ‘‘ to enable the Secretary of Agriculture

‘Among the contributors may be mentioned Hon. J. W. Alsop, M. D.,I1. E.
Palmer, and A. R. Crittenden, of Middletown, Conn., and Messrs. F. B. Thurber
and E. G. Blackford, of New York.

DEVELOPMENT OF NUTRITION INVESTIGATIONS. Ail

to investigate and report upon the nutritive value of the various
articles and commodities used for human food.” The prosecution
of this inquiry was assigned to the Office of Experiment Stations,
and Professor Atwater was appointed special agent in charge of the
nutrition investigations. In the following year the appropriation
was increased to $15,000, which amount has been provided annually
since then. The State of Connecticut, by act of legislature of 1555,
also makes an annual appropriation of $1,800 to Storrs experiment
station, the larger part of which is to be expended in the study of
nutrition.
THE PRESENT COOPERATIVE NUTRITION INVESTIGATIONS,

The work in charge of the Office of Experiment Stations is carried
out largely in cooperation with scientific and educational institutions
and philanthropie organizations in different parts of the country.
Extended series of investigations have been prosecuted in Maine,
Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Ten-
nessee, Alabama, Missouri, Indiana, Illinois, Minnesota, North Dakota,
California, and New Mexico. The Department of Agriculture has
cooperated in New York City with the Association for the Improve-
ment of the Condition of the Poor and the Industrial Christian Alli-
ance in studying the food and nutrition of the people of the congested
districts. Similar work has been done with Hull House in Chicago.
The Polytechnic Institute and the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama and
the Hampton Institute in Virginia have made investigations in their
regions, particularly among the negrces in the Black Belt of the
South. In other localities experiment stations, colleges, and universi-
ties make investigations among people of various classes and condi-
tions of life, including not only dietary studies but also other phases
of the subject of the nutrition of man.

The method of cooperation adopted in the prosecution of these
studies has some very decided advantages, particularly in the fact
that so many different institutions, representing the varied interests
of people in widely separate regions, unite in a study of prevalent
conditions and an effort for improvement. Besides this, the funds
provided from the Department of Agriculture are used economically
and are often supplemented by means from other sources. By this
extensive cooperation of individuals and institutions with the Depart-
ment, under very favorable conditions, a large amount of valuable
work is being done systematically, the results of which are made
available to the public. In the judgment of competent experts, it is
more thorough in its scientific methods, more extended in the scope
and amount of investigation, and more useful in the distribution and
practical application of its results than any other inquiry of the kind
ever undertaken in this country or in Europe.

The more important topics that have thus far received special atten-
tion are the composition of food materials; the kinds and amounts of

412 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

food consumed by individuals, families, boarding houses, and institu-
tions; the digestibility of food materials, and the fundamental laws
of nutrition. A variety of collateral questions have also received
much attention. The results of these investigations are given in
bulletins both of a popular and technical character, which are issued
through the Office of Experiment Stations. The results of analyses
of food materials made in the United States have been compiled
and printed in a bulletin for popular use. In a revision of this
bulletin, issued during the past year, the compilation was based upon
over four thousand analyses, the larger portion of which were made
in connection with the nutrition investigations. The results and dis-
cussion of dietary studies also appear in bulletins prepared for pop-
ular use. The results of digestion experiments and metabolism
investigations with the calorimeter are given in bulletins which are
more or less technical in character, intended rather for the seientifie
student of the subject.

FEATURES OF THE NUTRITION INVESTIGATIONS.

From the scientific standpoint, the most noteworthy feature of these
inquiries is found in the researches with the Atwater-Rosa respiration
calorimeter, by means of which the study of the application of the
laws of conservation of matter and of energy in the human body are
being carried out with a completeness not previously attained. Indi-
eations of the value of this apparatus and method of inquiry are
apparent in the fact that an apparatus on the same general plan, but
large enough for experiments with domestic animals, is already in
process of construction at the experiment station of the State College
of Pennsylvania, under the direction of Prof. H. P. Armsby, and in
cooperation with the Bureau of Animal Industry of the Department
of Agriculture. The Prussian Government has provided means for
the construction of a similar apparatus for the Institute of Animal
Physiology at Bonn, under Professor Hagemann. An appropriation
under Government authorization has also been made for the construc-
tion of a like apparatus in connection with the Institute of Animal
Physiology at Budapest, under Professor Tangl.

From the practical standpoint, the information gathered in the
nutrition investigations is already being utilized, and the interest of
economists, educators, and housekeepers in the results is constantly
increasing. The results are being utilized in the determination of
rations for the Army and Navy of the United States. Public institu-
tions, in which dietaries are made up for a considerable number of
persons, are likewise taking advantage of them. The New York State
Commission in Lunacy, which has charge of all the public insane hos-
pitals of that State, has employed Professor Atwater as a consulting
expert on nutrition, and special studies of dietaries for these insti-
tutions are being conducted under his direction with a view to the

DEVELOPMENT OF NUTRITION INVESTIGATIONS. 413

improvement of the dietaries for the insane patients as regards both
quality and economy. The usefulness of this work is by no means
confined to the United States, but is extending to other countries as
well.

INTEREST OF SCHOOLS AND OTHER INSTITUTIONS IN NUTRITION
INVESTIGATIONS.

One especially encouraging feature is found in the interest in the
subject that is being continually manifested by progressive educators.
There is much reason to hope that gradually the results of these
inquiries will find place in regular publie school instruction, and thus
become a part of the common knowledge of the community.

In the last report of the Bureau of Education it was stated that 146
cities in the country have introduced into the curricula of the public
schools some form of manual training, many other cities contemplate
it, and it will doubtless soon be a part of our school system. The
form of this training at present offered to girls is in the main cook-
ing, but there is a growing feeling among edueators that it is the
science of nutrition and plain facts about food in its relation to
healthful living that should be taught.

Schools of domestic science and schools of cookery each year pay
more attention to the scientific side of nutrition, and in a number of
instances have undertaken investigations of considerable practical
importance as well as scientific value.

A number of schools and colleges have taken up the study of diet-
aries with a view to impreving the diet of their students or making it
more rational. The same is true of charitable institutions, hospitals
for the insane, prisons, and other institutions where a large number
of people must be fed. In such institutions it is, of course, desirable
to make the diet sufficient in amount and suited to the needs of the
persons consuming it. It is obvious that a small saving per capita is
a matter of considerable importance in the aggregate. In several
instances a study of the kind and amount of food consumed has
shown that such a saving was possible while at the same time the diet
was materially improved. F

An examination of the files of medical journals and _ scientific
periodicals published in this country shows that the earlier volumes
contained few articles on investigations of nutrition, the chemistry of
food, and similar topics; whereas the total number of such articles
published in similar journals within the last few years is quite large.

Requests for bulletins and information received by the Department
of Agriculture from schools, clubs, and individuals show that the
interest in nutrition investigations is not confined to any one region
or to persons following any special line of work, but that it is general
and widespread. Offers of cooperation in food investigations are
frequently made by universities, schools, and individual workers, and

.
.

414 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

it would be quite possible to extend the work and very materially
inerease the total output of American investigations on this line,
provided more funds were available for the purpose.

REACTION OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE NUTRITION INVESTIGA-
TIONS UPON SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH.

The reaction of this inquiry upon scientific research and the scien- _
tific spirit in institutions where investigations are being carried on
deserves special mention. It has been the policy of the Department
of Agriculture to encourage inquiry by investigators and organiza-
tions, and in institutions whose own resources in the form of money
and of labor can be devoted to the purpose, the funds supplied by the
Department being regarded as supplementary. In this way the
appropriation by Congress becomes to a considerable extent a fund
for aid of scientific research. Two important advantages are evident
in such a policy. On the one hand, the amount and value of the
product, and consequently the direct benefit to the community, are
very much larger than could otherwise be obtained from like expendi-
ture of public funds. On the other hand, the aid thus given by the
Government to research in different parts of the country is a very
important stimulus, encouraging professors of institutions to under-
take and trustees to support inquiries which without such aid woutd
not be undertaken, and enabling gifted and aspiring students to enter
fields of original inquiry such as will be useful to both themselves
and the public as well as to the cause of science in general.

=— 3
.

THE PRACTICE OF FORESTRY BY PRIVATE OWNERS.

- By Henry S. GRAVES,
Superintendent of Working Plans of the Division of Forestry.

INTRODUCTION. ‘

The general movement in the United States in faver of conserva-
tive forestry began about twenty-five to thirty years ago. During
this time, through the medium of newspapers and magazines, Gov-
ernment and State publications, and scientific and other associations,
the importance of a stroig federal and State forest policy has been
emphasized, and private owners have been urged to.adopt careful
methods of handling their woodlands. Some of the results of this
agitation are well known, such as the withdrawal from sale of about
47,000,000 aeres of public land to be held as federal forest reserva-
tions, the establishment of State reservations in New York and Penn-
sylvania, the institution of a system of fire patrolin Maine, New York,
New Hampshire, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Pennsylvania, the appoint-
ment of forest commissioners or similar officers in Maine, New Hamp-
shire, New York, Pennsylvania, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Kansas,
the organization of two forest schools in the East and two in the
West, as well as the establishment of courses of lectures on forestry
in many agricultural colleges, and the creation of a lively interest in
the subject throughout the country. What effect the efforts of the
advoeates of forestry have had on the handling of private woodlands
is, however, not known to the general public, many believing thai,
with the exception of a few conspicuous examples, real forestry has
not been practiced at all. As a matter of fact, a large amount of
work has been done along the lines of conservative forest manage-
ment, although it has not been known under the name of forestry.
It is nevertheless a fact that wherever land is managed with the
intention that it shall yield repeated crops of timber, and is so treated
that the producing power is maintained ata high point, there true
forestry is practiced.

A large number of owners in nearly every State have carried on
work which comes entirely within this definition of true forestry, but
their holdings are for the most part comparatively small. The
majority of the large owners, the lumber companies, have not cut
their forests with reference to the future production of timber, except

‘in some of the spruce sections of the Northeast. Throughout the

far West, and in many parts of the East, the danger from fire is so
415

416 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

great that most owners have not aared to leave money invested in
the forest in the form of small growing trees which otherwise might
be utilized with present profit. In other sections, notably the Lake
States, the taxes are so high that many owners could not afford to hold
the land for future crops of timber, even if there were no danger from
fire. In such localities it has been the object of lumbermen to remove
the timber as soon as possible, with no intention of ever cutting over
the land a second time. This system of lumbering, together with the
great destruction of the forests by fire, has given the impression that
there is no careful forestry in this country at all, and the work of the
many small owners and of the few large owners who have managed
their lands conservatively has been overlooked. It is the purpose of
this paper to review briefly the work already done by private owners
along the lines of forestry, much of which, though lacking system and
imperfect in methods and results, shows the intention of true forestry
and marks a great advance in the treatment of our forests.

In order to come in touch with private owners who have carried on
such forest work as has been described, the Division of Forestry
issued a circular letter of inquiry regarding the prevailing methods of
handling woodlands. Answers were received from about 2,000 persons
from forty-six States and Territories, nearly 1,000 of whom stated
that they had done some work which might be classed as forestry.
The material was so voluminous that only a general account of the
work can be given here, with special reference to the more instructive
examples.

EARLY EFFORTS OF PRIVATE OWNERS.

The earliest attempt at conservative forestry of which the writer
has record was made in Connecticut in 1730, when Jared Eliot, of
Guilford, in connection with Governor Bulkley and a Mr. Livingston,
of New York, started a small blast furnace at Old Salisbury. The
wood used in making the charcoal needed in the furnace was cut from
the neighboring woodlands, and instead of ciearing the forests, as was
usually done, a careful system of thinning was adopted. Only the
large trees were cut, while the small specimens were left standing to
shade the ground and to grow to a larger size. Tradition states that
under this system the owners returned for successive crops every
twenty years, and it is reported that timber is still being cut period-
ically from thissameland. <A similar system of careful cutting is said
to have been used by a large number of farmers in New England
early in this century, and the practice was without doubt inaugurated
very soon after the country became thickly settled. Some farmers
went further than simply to select with care the trees which they
wished to use or sell, and made thinnings with the sole view to improve
the remaining trees. Thus, it appears that in 1840 B. F. Cutter intro-
duced on his land in Pelham, N. H., a system of improvement cut-
tings. It seems that an abandoned field had sprung up to white pine

PRACTICE OF FORESTRY BY PRIVATE OWNERS. AIT

and gray birch, and that when the trees were about 20 years old
the birches began to be broken by the wind and to die. Wishing to
save the wood before it decayed, Mr. Cutter cut out all the birch,
leaving the pines untouched for twelve years longer. He then saw
that a considerable number of the latter were being crowded out and
were dying from lack of growing space and light, and accordingly he
thinned out all the weak and unlikely trees, leaving the streng, vig-
orous specimens for the final crop. His labor was repaid by the wood
which he took out and the improvement of the remaining trees, which
grew more rapidly on account of the increased amount of light and
space.

The planting of forest trees on waste lands was begun in Massachu-
setts at a very early date. It is said that between 1740 and 1750 ax
experiment in planting trees for ship timber was made at Pembroke,
Mass. Tradition relates that the plantation was a complete success,
and that timber was cut from if about 1810. Another early planta-
tion was made in Bristol County, Mass., in 1790, where a farmer
stocked a field with young oaks by sowing it with acorns. One of the
first experiments in planting of which there is record was made in
1819 at Chelmsford, Mass., where Rey. J. L. Russell transplanted a
large number of pitch-pine seedlings from a field, which he wished to
cultivate, to a stretch of barren drift sand. He was much laughed at
by his neighbors, but to their astonishment the trees flourished, and
in twenty years he had a fine grove of pines, 6 to 8 inches in diameter.
Of still greater interest and value as an illustration is the plantation
of Zachariah Allen, at Smithfield, R. I., who planted about 40 acres
of waste land in 1820 with chestnut, oak, hickory, and locust. The
seed was sown in plowed furrows on the smooth ground, and in rough
places was dropped in holes made by a hoe or a similar implement.
A eareful account of all expenditures and receipts was kept, and at
the end of fifty-seven years the books showed a profit of 6.92 per cent
on the capital invested. Similar plantations were doubtless made in
the early part of the century, but no definite record of them can be
obtained. ;

Planting on a large scale was begun in eastern Massachusetts in
the present century as early as the forties. The best known of the
plantations are those of Richard Fay, at Lynn, who planted about 200
acres, in 1846-1850, with oak, ash, maple, Norway spruce, Scotch
pine, and larch, and of Joseph 8. Fay, at Woods Hole, who a few years
later stocked about 125 acres with trees. On Cape Cod it has been
the custom of the farmers for many years to sow the seed of pitch pine
on waste lands. The method is to sow the seed with a machine or by
hand in plowed furrows about 4 feet apart. The cost is estimated to
average $3 to $5 per acre. While pitch pine is the tree most com-
monly planted, oak, ash, and other species have also been used. The
plantations in eastern Massachusetts are being investigated by the

1 a 99 27

418 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Massachusetts Forestry Association, and records have already been
obtained of 10,000 acres of land artificially stocked with trees. (PI.
XXV, figs. 1 and 2.)

CAREFUL THINNING.

In many sections of the country planting by owners of small hold-
ings is very important and should be encouraged in every way possi-
ble, but the proper care of the existing woodlands is of much greater
importance. Many observing farmers have already studied this
problem and manage their wood lots with great intelligence. (PL
XXVI, fig. 1.) The extracts which follow were selected from a large
number of letters written by farmers in nearly every section of the
country and are given to illustrate the character of the work done.

A farmer in Rochester, Mass., writes as follows:

Ten years ago i began to cut all trees except white pine. I trim the trees as
high as a man can reach easily, namely, 6 to 8 feet, leaving all limbs on the ground.
Ileave the outside trees. which are exposed to the sun, as a protection to the
trimmed trees. I thinned and pruned the trees when about 20 years old, leaving
about 200 per acre.

The following statement was received from a farmer at Wrentham,
Mass. :

About thirty years ago I began to cut out the dead and unthrifty timber; also
cut inferior kinds to give more room to the better ones. Cut early in winter,
before deep snow interferes with the work of picking up and hauling. Never cut
at the edges of a wood lot, but leave thick growth to act as a wind-break. Do not
cut the same land each year, but cnly so often as dead wood or inferior growth
makes it worth going over with ax and team.

An owner in Granville, N. Y., writes that his grandfather began in
1850 the method of work shewn in the following extract:

I go over each lot and select such trees as I consider to be ripe, including all of
any size with broken or dead tops. These trees I blaze or mark withan ax. I
then send men to cut these trees and instruct them to use care in felling not to
injure any young trees if they can ayoid doing so, The tops I have worked up,
so as to leave the ground clear for the next growth.

This careful work is by no means confined to the Northeast, but
letters were received from men in nearly every State to the effect that
a very large number of farmers endeavor to use conservative methods
in cutting their wood lots. Thus, one farmer writes from Tennessee:
. We use all the timber that blows down.

. We cut any that seems to be diseased or dying.

. Wetake the crooked, knotty, scrubby trees.

. If we need more wood when the above kinds are used, we cut the oldest trees
that seem to do the least growing. ,

Co wo =

Ho

A Virginia correspondent states:

For fuel I cut the old, dead, gnarled, crooked, and unshapely trees, leaving the
straight, vigorous, and more valuable. When cutting for fence material, I take
only one or two here and there, thinning out to give others more room. Tops, |
logs, brush, etc., are burned in winter and ashes spread among growing trees.

PLATE XXV.

ture, 1899

ricu

f Ag

Yearbook U. S. Dept

Fic. 1.—WHITE-PINE GROVE IN WHICH THINNING AND PRUNING

PLYMOUTH, MASS.

PLACE.

HAS TAKEN

, EIGHTEEN YEARS OLD.

Fig. 2.—PLANTATION OF WHITE PINE

Mass.

SOUTH ORLEANS, BARNSTABLE COUNTY

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899. PLATE XXVI.

\

ame ee IR

Ri. Me ks! NES noe i ™ 3
ot YE le ol

ip

vt

Fic. 1.—A PITCH-PINE PLANTATION, ESTABLISHED BY SOWING.
East BREWSTER, MASS.

Fic. 2.—LAND CuT PERIODICALLY FOR SPROUTS, WITH YOUNG GROWTH IN THE
FOREGROUND. BARNSTABLE COUNTY, MASS.

PRACTICE OF FORESTRY BY PRIVATE OWNERS. 419

A Michigan man writes that he marks all the trees he wishes to leave
standing and cuts the remainder, piling and burning the brush.

A California farmer writes as follows:

Tn the winter season, when time will admit from farm work, I cut out all the
poorest growth, leaving only thrifty trees, about 200 to the acre. I draw all brush
to some clear ground and burn it. I burn all chips and trash and obtain a large
amount of ashes, which I throw around my apple trees.

CAREFUL CUTTING OF SPROUT LAND.

It is well known that most hard woods send up sprouts from the
stump, especially if the trees are cut before the sap begins to run in
the spring. (Pl. XXVI, fig. 2.) Many farmers take advantage of
this fact, and cut their woodlands clear, and then wait fifteen to thirty
years for a second crop of sprouts. It iscommon to hear this practice
vigorously condemned, but as a matter of fact, it is one of the estab-
lished systems of forestry used in Europe as well as in this country.
For the production of firewood it has many advantages; and if the
cutting is done carefully, the growth will frequently amount to not less
than 1 cord per acre per annum. Thus, New England farmers caleu-
late that about twenty-five years are required for cleared sprout land
to produce 25 cords of wood per acre. This system has been in prac-
tice since the early settlement of the country, and in many places old
oak stumps may be seen from which repeated crops of sprouts have
been cut and which have become, under the treatment, gnarled, mis-
shapen, and covered with irregular knobs. As a rule, no precautions
are used to assist in the prolongation of the life of the stumps, but the
correspondence of the Division of Forestry shows that a considerable
number of men have taken this point into consideration in cutting
their sprout lands. Thus, a New Jersey farmer writes that he cuts
his stumps slanting from the center like the roof of a house, taking
care not to injure the bark. In this way no rain water is allowed to
collect on the stump and thus hasten its decay. A number of corre-
spondents stated that they are accustomed to cut the stumps close to
the ground, so that independent roots will be formed and the wind
will not break off the sprouts, as would often be the case with high
stumps. Letters were received from many farmers stating that they
always cut the trees in winter, as the stumps are apt to lose their
sprouting power if am during the growing season.

CONSERVATIVE LUMBERING.

The most extensive work in forestry by lumbermen has been done
in the spruce forests of New York and the New England States. The
pioneer of this movement was E. 8. Coe, of Bangor, Me., who saw
very early that if only the large trees were cut and the small ones
left standing, the land could be cut over at repeated intervals. In
letting contracts, therefore, he restricted the cutting to 10, 12, or

420 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

even sometimes to 14 inches on the stump. Asa result he cut over
certain tracts a second time and obtained as large a cut as at first,
using the same diameter limit. A large number of owners have fol-
lowed his example and limited the cutting of spruce to a certain size,
but so far as the writer is informed the cuttings have not been regu-
lated in a systematic way, except on the tracts belonging to Dr. W. 8.
Webb and Hon. W. C. Whitney, in the Adirondacks, where the land
has been lumbered under a system devised by the Division of For-
estry. The usual method of the lumberman is to issue instructions
to the choppers not to cut trees under a certain diameter on the stump,
and later on the stumps in the woods or the butt logs on the landings
are measured in order to see that the regulation has been complied
with. On the two tracts just mentioned, however, not only is there a
diameter limit for the cutting, but all trees are marked which are to be
cut, and seed trees above the specified size are left when necessary.
The lumbering is strictly regulated according to the following rules,
and competent inspectors are employed to see that they are rigidly
carried out:

(1) No trees shall be cut which are not marked.

(2) All trees marked shall be cut.

(3) No trees shall be left lodged in the woods and none shall be
overlooked by the skidders or haulers.

(4) All merchantable logs which are as large as 6 inches in diame-
ter at the small end must be utilized.

(5) No stumps shall be cut more than 6 inches higher than the
stump is wide. :

(6) No spruce shall be used for bridges, corduroy, skids, slides, or
for any purpose except building camps, dams, or booms, unless it is
absolutely necessary on account of lack of other timber.

(7) All merchantable spruce used for skidways must be cut into
logs and hauled out.

(8) Contractors must not do any unnecessary damage to young
growth in lumbering; and if any is done, they must discharge the men
who did it.

The International Paper Company has within a few years adopted
a system of restricting the cutting of spruce on a part of its lands in
Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and New York. The method is to
cut no spruce under 12 inches in diameter on the stump. Fir, how-
ever, is cut clean in order to reproduce the ground to spruce. On
one tract of 120,000 acres, in New Hampshire, an inspector has been
employed to watch the lumbermen to see that they do not cut any.
small spruce for lumbering purposes, except for camps, bridges, dams,
cribs, piers, and corduroy. On a considerable amount of land, how-
ever, this company cuts the spruce clear without regard to the future
production of timber.

An interesting method of forest work is that used in the southern

PRACTICE OF FORESTRY BY PRIVATE OWNERS. 421

part of New Hampshire, near Lake Winnepesaukee, where the lum-
bermen, in a number of cases, have left white pine trees for seeding
purposes. The trees are usually spreading, scrubby specimens, which
are of no great value, but which, nevertheless, would bring a small
price for box boards. The lumbermen calculate that about two to
five good seed trees of pine per acre, evenly distributed, usually
secure an excellent natural reproduction. It is the custom, therefore,
to leave standing not less than two or three spreading trees per acre.

Some of the lumbermen in Maine, in cutting second growth white
pine, leave standing all trees under 12 inches in diameter, and calcu-
late that they can return for a second crop in about twenty years.

In the Allegheny Mountains much of the lumbering does but little
damage to the forest. This is usually not due to a conscious inten-
tion on the part of the lumbermen to protect the forest, but is because
only a limited class of timber can be sold. Thus, one man in West
Virginia writes that he cuts only the white oak, poplar, and walnut,
leaving all trees under 25 inches in diameter. Ie states that he takes
great care not to injure the young growth; that he is now cutting
over a tract of 1,200 acres for the third time in twenty-six years, and
that he expects to remove his fourth crop in five years more.

A noyel plan of forest work has been initiated by the owner of about
4,000 acres at Kendalia, W. Va., who wishes to combine forestry with
stock grazing. He is thinning the entire tract, removing the dying,
overripe, or otherwise unlikely trees, and leaving all thrifty, sound
specimens of all species. He then clears the underbrush and sows
the ground to blue grass. The thinning is to be completed within a
year or two, and the work of clearing and sowing to grass will be done
gradually. It is the owner’s intention to utilize the farm permanently
for stock and to hold the growing timber as an investment for the
future. The owner is making the experiment with the full under-
standing that the future value of his forest lies in the growth attained
by the small trees now standing, and that when these trees-are cut
there will be no provision for natural reproduction. The work was
begun in 1898, and 10 acres were treated in the way described in order
to ascertain the expense and to test the behavior of the grass. It
appears to be an entire success.

As illustrating the kind of forestry practiced by certain lumbermen
in the South, the following letter is of interest:

I have just commenced to cut off 700 acres near Ohatchee, Calhoun County, Ala.
I go over the land, cutting all the trees down to a diameter of 12 inches at the
stump, or 2 feet above the ground. I leave all the oak and pine (longleaf yellow
pine) and cut down all other growths clean, and leave the woods clean with the
exception of the timber I leave to grow larger. ‘These small trees are then thick
enough, or as thick as they should be, to grow fast. I cut from this land about
twenty large trees to the acre. This in log scale makes about 9,000 to 10,000 feet to

the acre. I burn this land off every year, some time when the sap is not up, or any
time between November and February. There are never enough leaves to make

422 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

enough fire to hurt the timber by burning it once a year. Iam very careful in
cutting this large timber to fall it so as not to inflict wounds on the trees to stay on
the ground, as this will leave defects in the timber when it is cut, say twenty years
from now. Ido not leave small trees unless they have straight bodies, so when
they grow up they will be useful timber. Inside of five years I will begin to leave
sprouts that appear, so as to form another growth after this timber, now being left,
is ready to cut. I use this land after it is cleaned up for sheep and hog pasture.

The instanees of conservative lumbering described in the preceding
pages are but examples of work which has been carried on by a large
number of lumbermen. The systems have been devised by the own-
ers themselves, and, while in many cases improvements could be
made, the work shows that much more has been done in the way of
forestry than is generally supposed.

FOREST MANAGEMENT UNDER SYSTEMATIC WORKING PLANS.

It has been said that forestry consists in managing woodlands with
the expectation of obtaining repeated crops of timber. Systematie
forest management requires, first, the determination of the amount of
timber that can be obtained at different periods, and, second, the man-
agement of the forest in accordance with a definite plan which shall
secure the greatest returns in the long run.

In most instances the conservative forest management hitherto prac-
ticed in this country has been without system, and the owners have
not known whether or not the methods used were successful in main-
taining the productive power of the land. The first large forest put
under systematic management with a definite working plan was that
belonging to G. W. Vanderbilt, at Biltmore, N. C. The work was
organized in 1891 by Gifford Pinehot, now the Forester of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, on about 4,000 aeres. Additional tractg have
since been purchased to the extent of about 100,000 aeres, and the whole
area has been brought under systematic treatment. An expert for-
ester is employed to superintend the work, and there is a corps of
trained rangers. <A certain amount of mature poplar has been lum-
bered, and the system of cutting employed has been very successful
in bringing about an exeellent reproduction of that tree. Improve-
ment cuttings of various species, chiefly for cord wood, are made in
the portions of the tract nearest the market, and a certain amount of
planting is done every year. The tract is admirably proteeted from
fire, theft, and stock grazing, and a complete system of roads and trails
is being laid out.

A great deal of the work which is being done at Biltmore would not
be practical on many other large tracts (managed solely for profit) in
other sections or even in the same section of the country. The kind
of systematic forest management practical for lumbermen will be more
‘along the lines practiced on the Webb and Whitney tracts, in the
Adirondacks, already mentioned in the discussion of conservative
lumbering.

PRACTICE OF FORESTRY BY PRIVATE OWNERS, 423

During the past year a considerable amount of systematic forest
work has been organized on private tracts under advice from the
Division of Forestry. This has been the result of an offer made in
October, 1898, by the Secretary of Agriculture for the Division to give
advice and assistance to private owners in handling their woodlands.
Within a year after the offer was made applications were received
from owners in thirty-five States for assistance, the total area covered
by these applications being about 1,600,000 acres. The preparation
of working plans for these tracts and the supervision of their execution
is now one of the important branches of the work of the Division of
Forestry.

FOREST FIRES.

The first condition necessary for suecessful forestry is an adequate,
protection from fire. In sparsely settled countries, where there are
large unbroken stretches of forest, this is the first problem to be solved,
and until the danger is reduced to a minimum owners will not lumber
with reference to the future.

In farming countries, where the holdings are small and interspersed
with fields and roads, the fires can be successfully prevented by care-
ful watching. Hitherto the majority of owners of both large and
small tracts have relied chiefly on careful watching and, in ease of a
fire, on extinguishing it before much damage is done. Further pre-
cautions are, however, now coming into use, such as clearing wood
roads, burning fire lines, piling and burning tops after cutting, ete.
Some of these measures are practical only on small woodlands, but
those who have tried them write enthusiastically of their success.

A farmer in Pennsylvania describes his method of protection as
follows:

I make fire lines 2 perches wide. Just before fall of leaf I cut brush to prevent
return of sap. In spring I sprinkle with water to limit the extremes of fire and
burn the space inside. Each year the growth is less and grass begins to grow.
The cost of cutting brush is $3 to $4 per acre.

An owner of a farm on one of the small islands off the coast of
Maine writes:

We cut two strips across narrow places and cleared all brush, so that the grass
would grow and, if necessary, in case of fire, the land could be plowed. The work
was started five years ago and the wood nearly paid expenses. This method was
adopted because of the danger of fire on the outer ends of the island, where fish-
ermen frequently camp, and we feel that in case of fire'on a point we could fight
it and keep it from the best part of the island.

A Michigan farmer makes a practice of cutting roads through the
forest, harrowing and seeding them to grass, and then allowing svock
to graze on them. The system was initiated in 1885, and in the judg-
ment of the owner the expenditure of about $100 per annum has been
a profitable investment.

The construction of fire lines around and through the wood lot is

424 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

practiced by farmers in many sections of the country. The custom 1s
especially common among Western farmers on the plains, who have
made artificial plantations. In the South the same system is used,
but farmers more often burn over the whole of their land every year.

The most disastrous fires occur on large tracts, where the construe-
tion of fire lines would in many cases be impracticable. The methods
used by lumbermen and other large owners to protect their property
are, therefore, of special interest.. The most common method, where
any attempt at fire protection is made, is an organized fire patrol.
Thus, some companies operating logging roads have men follow every ~
train during the dry season to extinguish any fires that may be set by
the locomotives. Other companies have extra rangers during the dry
times who patrol the woods, watch campers, and in case of fires repair
to them at once.

This system is well illustrated by the following letter from a lum-
berman in Forest County, Pa.:

In dry times we patrol especially exposed parts. In spring and autumn, dur-
ing dry weather, our woodsmen all have orders, no matter what they are doing,
whenever they see smoke arise, to go to it and put out the fire. It is usually done
by back-iiring entirely around and watching it until we are sure the fire 1s out.
By this means we have kept serious fires from our timber when we are working.

It costs us a few hundred to a thousand dollars annually. Usually scccessful,
but not always. The outlay is profitable.

The most perfect system of fire protection in this country known to
the writer is that used by Dr. W. 8. Webb on his tract of 40,000 acres
(Nehasane Park) in the Adirondacks. The park is divided into four
sections, each watched over by an experienced woodsman, who lives
at a point from which all parts of his section can be easily and quickly
reached. The houses of the rangers are connected by telephone, and
there is an admirable system of roads and trails. In ease of fire in
the .park, the superintendent and the rangers are notified by tele-
phone, and all available men are called out to extinguish it. In ease
of a severe fire along the railroad which traverses the park, Dr. Webb
is notified by telegraph, and a locomotive is dispatched to draw the
‘‘fire service” to the scene. This consists of a large tank placed on
a fiat car, to which is attached a box freight car containing a small
engine used to pump the water from the tank, and a complete outfit
of hose, axes, and other tools used in fighting fires.

A lumberman owning 2,000 acres in Huntingdon County, Pa.,
describes his method of fire protection as follows:

I divide into lots say 200 acres, cut roads through, and rake all rubbish and
burn it before the season gets too dry. This makes good fire-breaks. When very
dry I put a watchman on for every 200 acres. The first year’s cost was $400; that
of succeeding years $60,

The owner pronounces the above method entirely suecessful, and is
confident that the outlay has been profitable.

re]

PLATE XXVII.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 189

Fic. 1 —A PLANTATION OF PITCH PINE, ABOUT FIFTY YEARS OLD. SOUTH ORLEANS,
BARNSTABLE COUNTY, MAss.

Fic. 2.—A GROVE OF WHITE OAK ESTABLISHED BY DROPPING THE ACORNS IN HOLES
MADE WITH A CANE. EAST GREENWICH, R. I.

PRACTICE OF FORESTRY BY PRIVATE OWNERS. 425

A Pennsylvania lumber company writes:

In dry times we have men watch exposed places; also have 100-barrel tank on a
car, with 600 feet of 24-inch hose. Twostreams can be thrown from this tank, as
there is a powerful pump attached with two connections for hose. In 1898 we
expended $900 fighting fire before we rigged up the tank. This year, with more
fires, the expense has not exceeded $100, and we have been able to control every
fire. Not over 10 acres have been burned over this season as against 200 last year.

A Michigan man writes that he burns the tops of the felled trees in
wet weather after he has finished logging, and states that the meas-
ure has been suecessful in protecting his timber land. He also says
that after an experience of twelve years he considers the outlay a good
investment.

One owner of 30,000 acres in Clark County, Wis., has for six years
made a practice of clearing up and burning the tops after lumbering,
and considers it a practical and profitable undertaking. -

In the pine belt of the Atlantic coast it has long been the custom
for many owners to let a light fire run through the forest annually, or
once in several years. ‘The fire is set in winter or early spring, when
the ground is damp and it can be kept under control. The measure
is very successfulin protecting the standing timber, but in many eases
it destroys the young seedlings, and the ultimate effect on the forest
is injurious. The method of burning used in the turpentine forests is
shown by the following letter from Louisiana:

We rake the dry straw (needles), grass, and chips from the base of the trees,
about 3 feet all around, and the woods are burnt within the time prescribed by
the Mississippi law, to lessen the growth of grass. The work was begun about
eight to ten years ago, and cost about $120 for 1,600 acres. The custom of raking
the ground at the base of the trees is considered as part of the turpentine busi-
ness. This method is adopted by nearly all turpentine producers. The raking is
done with ordinary garden rakes, and has been the means of preventing many
forest fires. The raking is commenced about one week before Christmas or earlier,
if the straw is done falling, and continues all through January.

The cost of raking and burning is estimated by the crop. About 10,000 boxes
constitute a crop, and the cost of raking and burning is about $12 per crop. I
work about 19 crops every year, and pay on an average $120 to have them raked
and burned properly; and the outlay, in my judgment, has proven both wise and
profitable.

The custom of burning over the forest in winter or early spring is
also common among lumbermen and farmers in California and other
Western States.

FOREST PLANTING.

The great bulk of the forest planting has been done in the States
west of the Mississippi River. In the Eastern States, except in a few
instances, the planting has been on a very small seale and usually as
an experiment. Reference has already been made to the extensive
planting in eastern Massachusetts, where not less than 10,000 acres
have been artificially restocked with forest trees. (Pl. XXVII, fig. 1.)
Nowhere else in the country, so far as the writer is informed, has so
much planting been done on so limited an area. Record has been

426 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

obtained of a large number of farmers who have planted from 1 to 10
acres, and there are a few instances of planting on a more ambitious
scale. The plantations described in the following pages are but a
few of many instances, but they show the kind of work which has
been done.

An interesting plantation is that belonging to Isaac Adams, at
Moultonboro, N. H., covering altogether about 50 acres, and composed
of white pine and Norway pine set out about twenty-five years ago.
The trees have grown admirably, and, so far as showing what planted
pine will produce, the experiment is very valuable. The cost of plant-
ing in the first place was, however, much more than it would be to-day.

The experiments of J. D. Lyman, near Exeter, N. H., who planted
several acres of waste land with pine, are of considerable value,
because he was able to show that the cost of stocking land with trees
can be reduced to about $3 to $5 per acre. His method was to sow
the seed in hills 4 feet apart and to put from three to five seeds in
each hill. :

A very instructive plantation has been established by Mr. H. G. Rus-
sell, at East Greenwich, R. I., covering about 150 acres. (Pl. XX VII,
fig. 2.) Like many American planters, he began with imported trees,
namely, Scotch pine, Austrian pine, and Norway spruce, but later
used native species. ‘The work was begun in 1878, the intention being
to form a wind-break, and in addition to provide an object lesson in
forest planting.

The most extensive planting in Pennsylvania has been done by the
Girard estate, near Pottsville. About 250 acres were set aside in
1881 to be treated under the methods of forestry. This tract was -
fenced and surrounded and crosscut by fire lines wherever there
existed no roads adapted for that purpose. The trees used were
white pine, Scotch pine, European larch, and white oak. The cost of
planting varied from $18 per acre for the pines to $75 for the oaks.
The planting of trees on the barren gravel at the edge of the reser-
voirs is of special value.

Another interesting experiment in planting in Pennsylvania has
been undertaken by the Morrison and Cass Paper Company, at Tyrone.
About 2,000 Carolina poplars were planted in 1898, at an expense of
$534.50. About half the trees were 10 to 16 feet high and the remain-
der somewhat smaller. They were planted 12 feet apart in rocky,
worthless land.

The planting of trees along the banks of streams to prevent erosion
has been undertaken in a number of instances. Thus, in Arkansas a
correspondent states that he has planted red birch, native willows,
and soft maple for 2 miles along a stream to prevent the washing of
the banks. The plants were seedlings about 2 years old and were
taken from the woods. Similar work has been done at Mahwah, N.J.,
on the estate of Theodore Havemeyer.

PLATE XXVIII.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899.

/ =. .
Aw See oo .
AIS PET

A CATALPA PLANTATION.

PRACTICE OF FORESTRY BY PRIVATE OWNERS. 427

In Ohio tree planting was begun very early. In 1850 Ezra Sher-
man, of Preston, planted about 15 acres of locusts, as well as an ave-
nue along the publie highway for about 200 rods. In 1870, 180 trees
were cut down and 1,500 posts were obtained, netting $525. A cer-
tain amount of planting on a small seale is now done by farmers in
Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, but most of it is for the purpose of
forming wind-breaks.

In most sections east of the Mississippi the natural reproduction of
the forest is so abundant that planting has been little resorted to.
Thus, where the loblolly pine flourishes the abandoned fields are
often entirely seeded in a few years to young trees. So prolific is
this regeneration that it has long been the custom in certain sections
of the South to allow worn-out land to spring up to pine, and when,
the trees are 30 to 50 years old to clear and cultivate the land. Thus,
there is a regular rotation of field and forest crops.

Natural reproduction is very prolific throughout the humid regions
of the country, and old fields, if not pastured or continually burned
over, eventually return to forest. Planting is very desirable for small
owners, who, by the expenditure of a small amount of money or labor
each year, can gradually stock the waste portions of their farms, but
for lumbermen and other large owners planting on an extensive seale
will, in the majority of cases, not be profitable.

On the Western plains, where timber is scarce and has a high market
value, tree planting is very important, and it is here that the great
bulk of the work has been done (Pl. XXVIII). Extensive tree plant-
ing on the plains was begun about twenty-five to thirty years ago.
Several States, notably Iowa, Kansas, Wisconsin, Nebraska, Missouri,
Minnesota, Illinois, Nevada, and the Dakotas, passed laws about that
time encouraging, by bounty or exemption from taxation, the plant-
ing of forests. In 1873 the timber-culture act was passed by Congress
providing that a title could be obtained to 160 acres, or a propor-
tionate part thereof, by those who planted 40 acres or a proportionate
area. While the State laws had but little immediate result and the
timber-culture act was frequently a source of fraud, an impulse was
given to tree planting, and the great amount of work which has been
done must be traced largely to the effects of these legislative acts.

The correspondence of the Division of Forestry shows that a large
number of farmers have planted trees for wood lots or wind-breaks
in all the Western States. The greatest amount of work seems, how-
ever, to have been done in Kansas, Nebraska, and Iowa. The esti-
mate given for the total planted area of Kansas in 1898 by the State
board of agriculture was 159,859 acres. The total planted area in the
other States has not been determined, but this question, as well as
the results of the experience obtained in tree planting, is under
investigation by the Department of Agriculture.

Tree planting on the Western plains was taken up not only by

428 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

small private owners, but also by a number of the railroads. In 1870
the Kansas Pacific Railroad experimented with tree planting on a
small scale in Kansas, and in 1875 the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe
Railroad established four stations, planting altogether about 70 acres.
The Northern Pacific Railroad established an experimental station of
40 acres at Casselton, N. Dak., and the Burlington and Missouri and
the St. Paul and Sioux City railroads in the early seventies planted
considerable stretches with trees to act as wind-breaks and snow-
breaks. A certain amount of experimental work was also done by
the St. Paul and Pacific Railroad. The most important plantation
made by railroads was that belonging to the Kansas City, Fort Scott
and Gulf Railroad at Farlington, Kans. The following interesting
letter with reference to the work has recently been received from the
firm that furnished the trees:

We furnished the trees for the Kansas City, Fort Scott and Gulf Railroad (now
the Kansas City, Fort Scott and Memphis Railroad) and for the president of the
above road. This plantation [railroad] is at Farlington, Kans., and the Hunne-
well plantation is 4 miles west of Farlington. At first the railroad bought the
trees and the section men planted them. Possibly 50,000 trees were so planted up
to 1878. Wesold Mr. Nettleton, the general manager of the road, chestnuts, wal-
nuts, and wild black cherry (a total of 12,500), white ash, and Kuropean larch.
In 1878 we grew for them, under contract, 100,000 Catalpa speciosa and 25,000 black
walnuts. In 1879 we took the contract of planting the balance of the section,
they to furnish land for us to grow the seedlings on and to break the prairie sod
and cross plow it when rotted; we to then plant and take care of the trees until
they were from 4 to 6 feet high. They were planted 4 by 4 feet, 2,722 to the acre;
we to get 1} cents per tree when turned over. A large part—at least three-fourths—
of the trees planted was Catalpa speciosa. A large number of Ailanthus glandulosa
were also planted. These two kinds of trees did well. The chestnut, larch, white
ash, and wild black cherry were an almost utter failure. Over 3,000,000 plants
were set out. In 1881, I believe, we sold the Iron Mountain Railroad 200,000
catalpas.

In California the planting of eucaly; ptus has proved very profitable
to a large number of farmers. The tree was introduced in 1856, and
as early as 1874 there were estimated to be about 1,000,000 specimens
of eucalyptus in California. No recent estimate of the acreage of
plantations has been made. -

No mention has been made of the planting of sand dunes at Cape
Cod, Mass.; at the Golden Gate, San Francisco, and Casmalia, Cal.,
nor of the planting at various experiment stations throughout the
country. This is all work of great value, but it is not private for-
estry, and it has, therefore, not been considered in this paper.

GROWTH OF THE TOBACCO INDUSTRY.

By Mitron WHITNEY, Chief, and Marcus L. FLoyp, Tobacco Expert,’
Division of Soils.

TOBACCO GROWING PREVIOUS TO THE PRESENT CENTURY.

Tobacco was grown in this country long before the arrival of the
first settlers. It early attracted the attention of the colonists, and for
nearly two centuries was identified with their social, economic, and
political development, especially in Maryland and Virginia. In Mary-
land it was made legal tender in 1732 (at the rate of 1 penny per
pound) for all debts, including customs dues and the salaries of State
officers and ministers of the gospel. The yield of tobacco in that year
was 30,000 hogsheads for Maryland alone. As late as 1777 the tax
levied for Baltimore County and city was fixed at 172 pounds of
tobacco per poll.

THE INDUSTRY IN MARYLAND AND VIRGINIA.

At the beginning of the present century the dark export types of
Virginia and the light pipe-smoking tobacco of Maryland were the
only classes of tobacco grown in this country. It has been within the
present century that the cigar, the lemon-yellow cigarette, the mahog-
any manufacturing, the Burley, and Perique types of tobacco have
been developed. Samples of Maryland and Virginia tobaccos are
shown in Pls. XXIX and XXX.

In 1812 the demand by foreign countries for colored tobaccos was
so great that artificial heat was employed in curing. In this way the
piebald, or spangled, tobacco of Virginia was developed. Until 1828
wood fires were the only artificial means known of curing tobacco.
About this time flues and charcoal fires began to be used. It was not
until 1865 that flue curing entirely superseded charcoal fires in the
production of the bright yellow varieties, now so popular and used as
cigarette, plug, and twist wrappers.

In 1825 the amount of tobacco produced in Maryland was about
15,000 hogsheads; in 1846 it was 41,000 hogsheads, and in 1860 it was
51,000 hogsheads, this being the largest yield ever produced in that
State. During the civil war the yield decreased, and in 1865 it was
only 25,000 hogsheads. In 1878 the yield again increased to 46,000
-hogsheads, while in 1890 the lowest producticn of the State was

. 429

430 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

recorded, 14,000 hogsheads. In 1892 the yield rose to 27,000 hogs-
heads. The Maryland tobacco is consumed principally in Holland,
France, and Germany.

EXTENSION OF THE INDUSTRY.

Aithough some tobacco was grown during the time of the early set-
tlements in Pennsylvania and New England, the first real extension
of the industry was westward, in Kentucky and Tennessee. In 1785
tobacco production was of considerable importance in northern Ken-
tucky and the adjoining counties of Ohio, while in the central and
southern portions of Kentucky and Tennessee this industry came into
prominence about the year 1810. The tobaceo produced here was the
dark, export type that has always prevailed in these localities. Up
to the year 1853 by far the largest part of the tobacco grown in these
two States was sent by the planters in boats to New Orleans for ship-
ment to foreign countries. In that year, however, warehouses were
established in Clarksville, Tenn., and soon others sprang up in Louis-
ville, Ky., and in the surrounding towns of these States.

The first crop of lemon-yellow tobacco was produced in 1852 ona
sandy ridge in Caswell County, N. C. (See Pl. XXXI.) This tobacco
was received with such special favor that its cultivation spread rapidly
in Caswell County and also in Pittsylvania County, Va. During the
civil war there was almost an entire abandonment of its production,
but after the war attention was again called to this tobacco as being
very desirable for plug fillers and wrappers. As flue curing came into
general use about this time, a much superior article was produced.
The price rapidly rose with the increase in the demand, and the culti-
vation extended into other counties in North Carolina and Virginia
and spread into South Carolina and eastern Tennessee. In 1876 there
were 43,000 acres planted in this tobacco, yielding 20,000,000 pounds;
in 1879 the acreage was 57,000, yielding 26,926,000 pounds. Since
that time this tobacco has continued to grow in popularity and the
increase in acreage still continues. :

The manufacture of cigarettes began about 1864, in which year
19,770,000 were made. These apparently did not take well, as in 1869
the number of cigarettes manufactured was only 1,750,000, but since
that time the annual output has steadily and rapidly increased.

In 1864 the White Burley tobacco was originated through a sport
from the Red Burley in Brown County, Ohio. This tobacco at once
found favor as coming midway between the light smoking varieties
of Maryland and the dark export types of Virginia, Kentucky, and
Tennessee. On account of the absorbent powers of this leaf, it is par-
ticularly well adapted to plug fillers and plug and twist wrappers.
The finer types are used for cigarette cutters and wrappers, while the
light, flimsy, overripe bottom leaves are used for pipe smoking, The
cultivation of this tobacco rapidly extended over the limestone area

‘AVE « AYOT0D,, LHDING + YaXONS AGNVIAYVW

Yearbook U. S. Dept. oi Agriculture, 1899.

PLATE XXIX.

PLATE XXX,

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899,

VIRGINIA ExPoRT TOBACco:

1, ENGLISH OLIVE-GREEN StTaips; 2, OLIVE-GREEN LEAF; 3, AUSTRIAN A.

PLATE XXXI.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899.

CIGARETTE AND MANUFACTURING TOBACCO:

1, DARK MAHOGANY; 2, LIGHT MAHOGANY; 3, BRIGHT LEMON-YELLOW.

GROWTH OF THE TOBACCO INDUSTRY. 431

of southern Ohio and the central and northern sections of Kentucky.
The cultivation of this tobacco is still confined to the limestone soil
of this area. Packages of White Burley tobacco are shown in Pl.
KXXiIi.

CONNECTICUT TOBACCO AND THE CIGAR INDUSTRY.

Tobaeco was grown in the New England colonies during the years
from 1640 to 1650, but from that time up to the early part of the pres-
ent century it was almost abandoned. In 1825 the industry had
been revived and developed to such an extent that the first warehouse
was established at Warehouse Point, Conn., where 3,200 pounds were
packed and shipped to New York. In 1840 tobacco became a general
erop, about 720,000 pounds being produced in the Connecticut Valley.
In 1842 the yield had increased to 2,000,000 pounds, and in 1845 to.
3,450,000 pounds, at which time the cultivation was extended into the’

Housatonic Valley. About 1833 the broad-leaf variety, having a silky,

delicate leaf with regular veins, nearly tasteless and of fine texture
and finish, was originated. (See Pl. XXXIII.) Previous to 1845 the
price ranged from 7 to 4 cents per pound, but in 1847 it rose to 40
cents per pound.

During the first part of the present century the Connecticut tobacco
was recognized as being essentially different from the Virginia types,
and it began to be used in the manufacture of cigars. About 20,000
pounds of tobacco were produced in the Connecticut Valley in 1801,
about which time the making of cigars was begun in a small way, the
first factory being established in 1810. During the early development
of this industry cigars were peddled through the country in wagons.
It was about this time that the first importation of Cuban cigars of
any consequence was made.

The following shows the gradual increase in the number of cigars
manufactured in the United States from 1860 to 1892:

Nunber of cigars manufactured in the United States in 1860, 1875,
1885, and 1892.

Number
SRI ra ee ee Sd es Se Ee 2 199, 000, 000
Lh EUS, ea) SOREN Re oR ROL AES See ie REY NE ot 1, 926, 000, 000
HEAD OSE Vien tN Se A ee en ay eS 3, 358, 000, 000
1S) = Seeing See Re Eee 8 As, Seon Se Oe ee 4, 548, 000, 000

The first tax on cigars, chewing and smoking tobaccos, and snuff
was imposed by act of Congress of July 1, 1862, which took effect
Septemberl of thesame year. The first tax on cigarettes was imposed
in 1864. Licenses for dealers and manufacturers were not required
until 1868.

INTRODUCTION OF TOBACCO IN VARIGUS STATES.

PENNSYLVANIA.—The cultivation of tobacco in Pennsylvania began
in 1689, but little attention was paid to the industry until 1828, when

432 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

it began to be of commercial importance. In 1840 Pennsylvania pro-
duced 325,000 pounds of-tobacco in York, Lancaster, and Dauphin
counties, the present tobacco centers of the State. In 1845, in conse-
quence of the Mexican war and the increased value of wheat, the
cultivation of tobacco declined; but it developed rapidly between 1849
and 1859. In 1859 the yield was over 3,000,000 pounds. ‘There was
littie increase in the yield until 1870; and in 1879, 36,900,000 pounds
were produced, at which time Pennsylvania ranked third among the
tobaceo-growing States of the country.

OHIO.—Cigar tobacco was first grown in Ohio in 1838, seed having
been brought from Connecticut. In 1850 some 800,000 pounds of the
seed-leaf variety were produced. During the years 1863, 1873, and
1880 the yield reached 1,200,000 pounds. The Little Dutch was intro-
duced into Ohio from seed imported from Germany about 1869. In
1879 the total yield of this variety was about 500 cases. The Zimmer

Spanish (Pl. XX XIV), a hybrid of the Cuban variety, was introduced —

about 1878. The Little Dutch and Zimmer Spanish, especially the
latter, found great favor as cigar fillers. This largely increased the
production of these tobaccos, supplanting to a considerable extent the
seed-leaf variety.

NEW YorK.—The introduction of tobaeco into New York State
occurred in the year 1845; in 1855 Onondaga County alone produeed
500,000 pounds, and in 1863 the cultivation had greatly extended and
had reached considerable importanee in several counties. Irom 1862 to
1864 New York tobacco brought a good price, selling for as much as
30 cents per pound. From this time on the price has varied greatly,
ranging from 5d to 25 cents, and at times even to 30 cents per pound.
In 1879 the crop of the entire State was estimated at 6,480,000 pounds.

WISCONSIN.—Tobacco was introduced into Wisconsin in 1850, when
1,260 pounds were produced; in 1860 the yield was 87,000 pounds; in
1879 it was 960,000 pounds, and in 1889 it was 19,125,000 pounds.

FLORIDA.—Tobaceo was introduced into Florida about the year 1829;
ten years later this tobacco had taken a place of considerable impor-
tance as a cigar-wrapper leaf, being especially noted for its broad,
silky, beautifully spotted leaf. This is still remembered as the ** Old
Florida speckled leaf,” the cultivation of which was entirely aban-
doned at the outbreak of the civil war. About the year 1888 attention
was again called to the possibility of producing a desirable cigar leaf
in Florida; but with the importation to this country of the Cuban
tobacco, which began in large quantity in 1860, and of the Sumatra
four years later, the market had changed and the ‘Old Florida” was
no longer aeceptable to the cigar trade. The Cuban and Sumatre
types have formed the basis of the present development of the tobacco
industry in Florida. (Pl. XXXV.)

LOUISIANA.—The culture of tobacco was begun in the State of Louisi-
ana about the time of the settlement of New Orleans. In 1752 the

PLATE XXXII.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899.

WHiTeE BuRLEY TOBACCO: 1, FLYER, OR TRASH; 2, Goop LEAF; 3, RED ToP FILLERS.

—
oT
’
.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899. PLATE XXXIll.

CONNECTICUT CiGAR-WRaAPPER LEAF: 1, BROAD LEAF; 2, HAVANA SEED LEAF.

if

*4V37] YATIS-YVDID HSINVdS HAWWIZ OIHO

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899

PLATE XXXIV.

GROWTH OF THE TOBACCO INDUSTRY. 433

Government of France offered to purchase all of the tobacco raised in
that province ata price equivalent to $7 per hundred pounds. During
1793 and 1794 the production of tobacco was stimulated by the ravages
of insects on the indigo plant, which, previous to this time, had been
astaple crop. In 1802, 2,000 hogsheads of tobacco were exported from
New Orleans, and the culture had extended along the Mississippi River
as far northas Natchez. As this tobacco had no particular excellence,
it was soon supplanted by the Kentucky and Tennessee tobaccos,
which were of a much superior quality. In 1824 the Acadians intro-
duced a new method of curing, by which the tobacco was cured, under
intense pressure, in its own juice. This Perique tobacco, for such is
the name of the Louisiana variety, while very strong, has peculiar
properties which are acceptable to pipe and cigarette smokers, espe-
cially when mixed in small proportions with other tobacco. On
account of the long and laborious method of curing, the cultivation
has never extended beyond two or three parishes in southern Louisi-
ana; nor has it been placed upon a successful commercial basis, except
among the Acadians. The greatest yield of this tobacco in any one
year has not exceeded 100,000 pounds, and, until recently, the average
yield was about 50,000 pounds. The price of the Perique tobacco had
been uniformly $1 per pound, until the extension of the area under
cultivation within the last few years; since then the price has fallen
to about half that amount.

REQUIREMENTS OF THE FOREIGN TOBACCO TRADE.
THE IMPORTANT COUNTRIES FOR THE AMERICAN TRADE,

The most important countries for the American tobacco trade, in the
order of the quantity used, are Great Britain, Germany, Italy, Canada,
Spain, Austria, Switzerland, France, Belgium, Holland, Africa, Mex-
ico, Central America, South America, and the West Indies. Each
eountry differs in its requirements and also in the character of the
leaf used. As all of these countries are supplied from the same sec-
tion, and as the differences in the tobaeccos to a casual observer are
slight, it requires considerable experience on the part of the packer
to assort the various tobaccos into the grades suitable for each country
and to put the goods in the condition required by the particular
eountry for which they are intended.

QUALITIES REQUIRED.

In the matter of quality Great Britain requires the best leaf and
pays the highest price; Austria comes next; while Italy, France, and
Spain follow in the order named. Great Britain demands a large
leaf, olive green in color and so heavily smoked in curing that the
odor of hard wood is apparent in the leaf. (Pl. XXX, figs. 1 and 2.)
The green tint is secured by harvesting the leaf before it is fully ripe.

zy) A. 99 28

434 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

A tobacco that gives promise of being suitable for the English mar-
ket is harvested at an earlier stage of ripeness than for any other
country. On account of the high import duty (about 87 cents per
pound) on tobacco imported into England, itis usually stemmed before
leaving this country and packed very dry.

Austria takes two grades of leaf—the Austrian A (Pl. XXX, fig. 3),
a large leaf, medium to light brown in color, of medium body, and
about 26 inches long; and Austrian B, a leaf of about the same quality,
22 inches long.

Italy takes four grades of tobacco. The Italian A is practically the
same as the Austrian A, except that preference is given to a dark-
brown color, and is used for the same purpose, that of cigar wrapper.
Italian B is the same as Italian A, only shorter; Italian Cl is a dark,
short, heavy-bodied leaf, used for cutting purposes; while Italian C2
is a trashy lug.‘

France requires three grades. The French A is a leaf 20 inches
long, which, in Virginia, is made black by steaming and hard
pressure in the hogsheads while hot; French 5 is the same grade as
French A, 18 inches long, while French C is a smooth lug, 16 inches
in length, used principally for snuff. Formerly the French Govern-
ment took the best heavy-bodied tobacco of Virginia, but since the
Regie contract system” has been introduced the quality of the leaf
used has gradually lowered.

Spain uses very little of the Virginia tobacco, requiring a leafy lug,
which can be obtained to a better advantage in Kentucky and Ten-
nessee. That country uses four grades, differing in length, cleanness,
and soundness of the leaf.

Africa takes a long, narrow leaf of heavy body, which is made very
black by steaming and packing under heavy pressure in the hogshead
while the tobacco is still warm. Oil is applied by means of a sponge
to each layer as it is packed. This same grade of tobacco is also
used in the Canary Islands and West Indies, and is packed in a
similar manner, except that the oil is omitted.

All dark export tobaeeos are cured with open hard-wood fires, the
English trade demanding extra heavy smoking in curing. There is a
slight difference between the export tobacco of Virginia and that of
Kentucky and Tennessee. The Virginia tobacco, generally speaking,
is of better quality than the Kentucky and Tennessee grades, and
more of it is used for the domestic market. On account of the high
import duties of some of the foreign countries and the low prices
paid by the Regie Governments, the better qualities of these tobacecos
are used in this country for manufacturing purposes.

‘Lugs are the second pair of leaves from the bottom of the plant.

*The term appiied to the system under which in certain countries a tobacco
monopoly is maintained by Governmentand all purchases of leaf tobacco are made
by Government agents.

GROWTH OF THE TOBACCO INDUSTRY. 435

The farmer assorts the tobacco roughly into lugs, good leaves, and
to} oY) ’
top leaves; but the final grading and treatment are given by the
p > 5 Ss 5 e
packer, who also decides to which country the various qualities of
tobacco shall be sent. If the tobacco needs darkening, to meet the
demands of any particular trade, the desired shade is obtained through
yarious ways of manipulating and packing the tobacco.

MANUFACTURING AND SMOKING TOBACCOS.

The light tobaccos produced in Maryland are air cured, while a
similar type grown in eastern Ohio is largely cured by woed fires.
These tobaccos are used exclusively for pipe smoking and cigarettes,
the following grades being made by the packers: Fine yellow, medium
bright, good ordinary ‘‘colory,” fine red, fine seconds, medium sec-
onds, and lugs. Nearly all of these goods are exported, the best
markets being found in France, Germany, Holland, Austria, and
Belgium. ;

Almost the entire yield from Maryland and eastern Ohio is sold in
Baltimore, where five large warehouses have been established for the
inspection of these goods by State officers. As soon as these tobaccos
are entered in the warehouse a sworn and bonded inspector draws
four samples from each hogshead, taken from different places and at
equal distances apart, beginning near the bottom of the hogshead.
These four samples, or hands, are tied together, as shown in Pl. XXIX,
and are sealed and labeled with the name of the owner, the number of
the hogshead, its net and gross weight, and the name of the inspector.
The agents of foreign countries buy exclusively from these samples;
when the goods are shipped the samples are also forwarded, so that
the goods on reaching their destination can be compared with the
samples from which they were bought. If there should be more than
10 per cent of tobacco in the hogshead poorer than the sample, the
inspector, who is under bond, becomes liable for such difference.

The White Burley (Pl. XXXII) is entirely air cured, except in
exceedingly damp weather, when wood fires may be used. This
tobacco is assorted by the farmer into the following grades: Flyers,
the first two bottom leaves, which are overripe and very trashy;
common lugs, the next two leaves; good lugs; bright leaves; long
red; short red, and top leaves. This tobacco is packed in hogsheads
by the farmer and inspected in the same manner as the Maryland
tobacco, but, unlike the latter, it is sold at auction in the warehouse.

Not more than 10 per cent of the White Burley is exported, but on
account of its great absorbent powers it is highly prized in this country
for twist and plug chewing tobacecos. The flyers are used for pipe
smoking, the heavy-bodied top ieaves for plug and twist fillers, while
the best leaves are used for cigarette, plug and twist wrappers, and
for cutting purposes.

436 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The bright yellow and mahogany tobaccos (Pl. XX XI) are cured
entirely by flues, a method which cures very quickly, not more than
four days being required in the process. As soon as the tobacco is
put into the barn the fire is started and is kept going night and day
until the tobaeco is thoroughly cured to the desired color. This
tobacco, which is sold at auction in loose piles in the warehouse, is
largely consumed in this country, being used for plug and twist wrap-
pers, cigarettes, and finecut chewing and smoking tobaccos. The
broad scope of this type makes it exceedingly popular and the acre-
age is rapidly increasing. Recently this tobacco has come into favor
with foreign countries, Japan having lately placed a large order for
this grade.

DOMESTIC CIGAR TOBACCOS.

The cigar types are almost entirely consumed in this country, and,
in addition, large quantities of Cuban and Sumatra tobacco are
imported. Domestic cigars are made up of wrappers, binders, and
fillers, which come from different districts. The Connecticut Valley
produces two types of wrapper leaf, the broad leaf and Havana seed
leaf (Pl. XX XIII), both varieties being air cured, packed in eases
holding about 300 pounds, and left to ferment during the winter,
spring, and summer months. This tobacco is sampled and sold at
private sale, the packing usually being done by those who buy the
tobaeco from the farmers.

The broad-leaf variety has a broad silky leaf, very elastic, about
two-thirds of the leaf from the tip possessing rich grain and color.
Small veins are also a characteristic of this leaf. There is only one
small area in the Connecticut Valley adapted to the production of
this type.

The leaf of the Havana seed is smaller than the broad leaf, much
narrower, and is exceedingly thin and silky, but possesses less elas-
ticity and covering quality. It does not possess the rich grain of the
broad leaf; the middle and lower parts are glossy and have large
veins. This portion of the leaf is not desirable for wrapper purposes.
The heavier leaves and those slightly damaged or of uneven color
are used as binders. Badly torn leaves and the trash are not suitable
even for fillers, but are sold at a low price for export tobaccos. Both
the broad leaf and Havana seed are graded into light, medium, and
dark wrappers, and light and dark seconds, all grades being arranged
in four lengths. The Connecticut wrapper competes with the im-
ported Sumatra, being the nearest to it of any of the domestie tobac-
cos except that grown in Florida from the Sumatra seed.

The tobacco produced in Pennsylvania is characterized by a long,
broad leaf. It is air cured and packed in the same way as the Con-
necticut Valley tobacco. The Pennsylvania tobacco has a dark,
heavy-bodied leaf, unsuited for wrappers, but used mainly for fillers
and binders. Some good wrapper leaf is grown on the light alluvial

GROWTH OF THE TOBACCO INDUSTRY. 437

soils near the rivers. <As a filler leaf this tobacco competes with the
Zimmer Spanish, Little Dutch, and Florida-grown Cuban, and it is
used mostly in the production of stogies, cheroots, and other low-priced
cigars. This tobacco is assorted by the packers into the following
grades: 18-inch, 20-inch, 22-inch, and 24-inch light and dark wrap-
pers and binders, the shorter sizes being graded as fillers, and called
Pennsylvania B’s.

The New York tobacco comes between the Pennsylvania and Con-
necticut leaf, and contains a small percentage of desirable wrapper
leaf. It is graded and packed in a manner similar to that employed
in Connecticut.

Wisconsin produces only a binder leaf, which is frequently used
with the Connecticut wrapper and the Pennsylvania or Ohio filler.
It is graded and packed like the Connecticut tobacco. ‘

Ohio produces mainly a filler crop of Zimmer Spanish and Little
Dutch varieties. The Zimmer Spanish is a small leaf, in appearance
closely resembling the imported Cuban tobacco. This type was orig-
inated about twenty years ago, since which time it has rapidly grown
in favor as a filler for domestic cigars, being considered by the trade
the best filler leaf grown in the United States. This tobacco is graded
more carefully than any other tobacco grown in this country, except
that grown in Florida. The Cuban method of fermentation is being
adopted by those who handle the Zimmer Spanish. The Little Duteh
is a close second in popularity to the Zimmer Spanish. It is manipu-
lated in the same manner, but the grading is not so closely or care-
fully made. The leaf is larger than the Zimmer Spanish, and departs
further in appearance from the imported Cuban. <A small quantity
of seed leaf, known as Gebhard, is produced in Ohio as a wrapper
leaf, but as it is inferior to the Connecticut the acreage is rapidly
diminishing. The Florida-grown Cuban tobaeco, which is just com-
ing into prominence, is regarded by some manufacturers as greatly
superior to the Zimmer Spanish, being nearer to the imported Havana
in appearance and quality and selling at a much higher price than
the Zimmer Spanish.

There are two types of tobacco grown in Flordia, one from seed
originally imported from the island of Cuba, the other from the island
of Sumatra. The Cuban seed has retained the characteristie size and
appearance after being planted for seven consecutive crops; but the
Sumatra seed, after two or three seasons, begins to assume the char-
acter of the Cuban plant. For this reason it is customary, in order
to preserve the desired Sumatra characteristics, to save enough seed
from the first or second crop to last for eight or ten years and to plant
each succeeding crop during this period from this seed.

The Florida-grown Cuban tobacco is used especially for filler pur-
poses. Although good wrappers are sometimes obtained, which closely
resemble the best imported Cuban wrappers, there is a prejudice

438 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

against these, owing to the fact that they have considerable body, thus
requiring more pounds to wrap a thousand cigars. In point of use-
fulness and appearance these wrappers do not compare favorably
with the Sumatra type.

The Forida-grown Cuban filler closely resembles the imported Cuban
leaf in size, shape, and general appearance. It has good body and
aroma, although the specific aromatic quality and flavor of the best
Cuban tobacco have not yet been obtained. The tobacco is carefully
fermented, very much as in the Cuban process, and is afterwards eare-
fully sorted and graded according to color, body, and length. Itis then
made into carrots (see Pl. XXXV) and baled in identically the same
way as the Cuban package. This tobacco has taken well with the
domestic trade, as is evidenced by the fact that it brings the highest
price of any domestic filler leaf, a good packing of clean, sound leaves
selling for 40 cents per pound. The Florida-grown Cuban wrapper,
although constituting a very small proportion of the crop, brings from
75 cents to $1.50 per pound.

The Florida-grown Sumatra is essentially a wrapper leaf that has
been highly developed during the past few years. While the first
crops gave in most cases only about 20 per cent of wrappers, the propor-
tion has now been increased to 70 and 80 per cent, under the most care-
ful methods of cultivation. This crop is so valuable that the land is
now shaded with cheese cloth, placed on wood frames 9 feet high, and
irrigation is used in addition by some of the larger planters with most
gratifying suecess. The Filorida-grown Sumatra closely resembles
the imported: leaf in size, shape, texture, grain, and general appear-
anee. it is extremely thin and very elastic. The most desirable
sizes are 14, 16, and 18 inches. The best crops will average about
200 leaves to the pound. Two pounds will cover 1,000 cigars. This
makes it a cheap wrapper for the manufacturer, even at the high
price of $1.50 to $2 per pound. Choice selections have sold by the
bale as high as $3 and $4 per pound, although the proportion of these
very high grades is yet very small, requiring infinite care and great
expense in sorting. This tobacco is all primed, that is, each leaf is
picked when ripe, and great care is exercised in fermenting, grading,
and assorting.

STATISTICS OF MANUFACTURED TOBACCO, SNUFF, CIGARS, AND
CIGARETTES.

The total receipts by the Government, from the internal-revenue tax
on tobacco from all sources during the fiseal year ending June 30, 1899,
amounted to $52,043,859.05. In the fiseal year 1898 there were regis-
tered 3,156 manufacturers of tobacco, including plug, pipe smoking,
and cigarette, and 115 snuff manufacturers. There were 30,856 cigar
manufacturers during the same period.

The following table shows the amount of manufactured tobacco and

‘agaS NVvanNd ‘Y3TINI4 YVdID vaiyold

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899.

PLATE XXXV.

GROWTH OF THE TOBACCO INDUSTRY.

439

the number of cigars and cigarettes made during the past nine years,

the period ending on June 30 of each year:

Statistics of manufactured tobacco, snuff, cigars, and cigarettes, 1890-1898.

Manufactured

Year. Pa Cce: Snuff. | Cigars. Cigarettes.
Pounds. Pounds. Number. Number.
243, 427, 008 9,434,746 | 4,228,528,258 | 2,505, 167,610
259, 855, 085 10, 674,241 | 4,422, 024,212 | 38,137.318,596
264, 412, 767 11, 426,927 | 4,674, 708,260 | 3,282,001, 283
238, 587, 702 11,952,736 | 4,341, 240,981 | 3,666, 755,959
257,050,444 | 11,582,838 | 4,163,641,327 | 3, 620,666, S04
263,404,840 | 10,887,709 | 4,099,137,855 | 4,237, 754, 453
248,708,581 | 12,708,919 | 4,048, 463,306 | 4,967, 444, 232
283,320,857 | 13, 768, 455 | 4, 431,050,509 | 4,631, 820, 620
261,532,298 | 13,607,631 |

4, 915, 663,356 | 4,685, 783, 897
|

For 1899 the figures for manufactured
obtainable separately, but the combined total for the two articles

was 266,661,752 pounds.

4,542,016,570 cigars and 4,590,388,430 cigarettes.

tobacco and snuff are not

During the same year there were made

STATISTICS OF LEAF TOBACCO EXPORTED FROM THE UNITED STATES.

The following table shows the principal countries to which the
American tobacco is exported, but it does not give a correct idea

of the ultimate distribution of the tobacco.

The amount eredited

to Germany undoubtedly embraces much that is sent to Austria-
Hungary, Switzerland, Africa, and several other countries.
tobacco is sent to Bremen or other German ports and is distributed

from there.

The

Unfortunately, there are no reliable statisties as to the

actual amount of American tobacco adapted for consumption by

these different countries.

On the other hand, it is quite likely that

the amount credited to the United Kingdom is largely consumed in

English territory.

In France, Italy, and Spain, where the Regie

system prevails, the tobacco is billed direct, and the estimates given
undoubtedly represent the quantity of American tobacco consumed

in those countries.

The Regie system has lately been introduced

into Japan, but this has been so recently done that the quantity
mentioned in the table has not been in any way affected by the

introduction of the system.

The trade with Japan has increased

very much in the last few years; in 1894 there were 11,084 pounds
exported from the United States to that country, while in 1898 the

exportation had increased to 2,751,246 pounds.

The trade with China

has also increased during the same period, but not to such an extent.
The amounts credited to Austria-Hungary, Switzerland, and Africa
are certainly far below the actual amount of American tobacco used
by those countries, for the reason just stated—their distribution from
German ports rather than their direct importation from this country.

440 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Average yearly export of leaf tobacco, 1894-1898.

[Compiled from Bulletin No. 16, Section of Foreign Markets, Department of Agriculture. ]

Country. | Pounds. [Per cent.| Dollars. |Per cent.
H

United Kingdom@e-—.--.-.-..2- 81, 698, 086 29.21 | 8,181,050 34. 44
Germany-- 2 ee 53, 948, 979 19.29 | 4,062, 990 17.11
IRPance:..42 2. Rese se 30, 553, 565 10.92 | 2,419,595 10.19
Dtalysestcnee eee ca seee ae eae= eee 26, 430, 166 9.45 | 2,495,974 10.51
Beloturas = Ts 3! Ne eee 21,278. 085 7.61 | 1,960,958 8.26
Spaime Jet 3as 22 eo aeeee ones 20, 770, 457 7.43 | 1,033, 192 4.35
Netherlandses:--s2¢-25 =. Sees 19, 404, 179 6.94 | 1,154,040 4.86
Canadas Se See 11, 253, 189 4.02 | 1, 093, 638 _ 4. 60
British Australasia.--....---..-| 1,846, 830 . 66 | 270, 857 1.14
Atriga).de “38st 3 ieee eee 1, 757, 846 63 158, 054 67
Mexico... fet cekt See eee 1, 754, 181 . 63. | 135, 295 57
Gabraltar.49¢ sss ee eee 1,351, 909 48 | 91, 296 38
British West Indies --..--.------ 1,350, 855 . 48 | 123,217 | aoe
1 Sh bey ee eee ee a eres ee eat 907, 785 02 102, 168 43
DaApAR 2 hs esa E encore ee eee 786, 913 28 | 54, 654 | .23
Sweden and Norway. ---------- 721, 4388 . 26 69, 802 .29
Ganaryelslands.-2.sssessees--4) 599, 054 21 | 51,278 22
BritishiGuiand ce eee aay 580, 195 aa | 44,301 .19
French West Indies.--..--.---.-- 478, 558 Au) | 38, 530 .16
Denmark <2... 2 ed 176, 407 08) © 16:806-1\°> 507
Austria-Hungary 2222--2. <s2e=- 120, 778 . 04 10,805 . OF
ATPentina.. osc os- conn eee een 104, 751
China 22) see eee 75, 426
Brazily}: 5-042 - +e Sake ee 2 | 38, 214
Other) countries!s=-.-s-. -2---- =. 1, 707, 730

obec se soswe coe eee eee 279, 675, 076

ADMINISTRATIVE WORK OF THE FEDERAL GOVERN-
MENT IN RELATION TO THE ANIMAL INDUSTRY.

By GEORGE F. THOMPSON,
Editorial Clerk, Bureau of Animal Industry.

PRELIMINARY REMARKS.

Diseases of domestic animals have been the subject of many articles
and letters which have appeared in the Annual Reports for the Depart-«
ment of Agriculture since its organization, and even previous to that
time in the agricultural part of the Patent Office Reports. The first
investigations were undertaken by Department authority in 18638, at
a time when Texas fever and contagious pleuro-pneumonia were ere-
ating considerable alarm among the cattle raisers of the country. In
1882 and 1883 the investigation of Texas fever was taken up with a
view to ascertaining its causes and methods of prevention and estab-
lishing definitely the areas infected by it. However, no administrative
work relative to the animal industry of the country was undertaken
by the Federal Government previous to the establishment of the
Bureau of Animal Industry in the Department of Agriculture in 1884,
except the limited amount done by the Treasury Department at the
quarantine stations at the ports of import. One of the purposes of
the establishment of the Bureau was to inaugurate and supervise the
federal administrative work relative to contagious diseases of animals,
and the history of the work in the United States forms a large portion
of the history of the Bureau.

The work of the State governments relative to animal diseases can
not be given within the limits of this paper, but it is well to say that,
even before the Federal Government took up the work, several States
had enacted laws for the control of contagious diseases of animals.
Such enactments, while they might not have been inefficient, were
found to be inadequate, since the regulation of the movement of
animals from State to State could only be accomplished by the Fed-
eral Government; hence, the necessity was apparent that the latter
should take up the great work and cooperate with the States.

AUTHORITY CONFERRED AND SCOPE OF THE WORK.

The authority possessed by the Department of Agriculture for en-
forcing measures with reference to contagious diseases of domestic
animals is conferred by ‘‘An act for the establishment of a Bureau of
Animal Industry, to prevent the exportation of diseased cattle, and to

441

442 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

provide for the suppression and extirpation of pleuro-pneumonia and
other contagious diseases among domestic animals,’” which was ap-
proved by the President on May 29, 1884. The power thus conferred
is not in all cases sufficient to effect the eradication of a disease, for
the reason that the Federal Government can not enforce measures
within a State without the legislative consent of that State, unless the
animals affected are subjects of or endanger interstate commerce.
lis work, therefore, without the cooperation of the States affected, is
limited to interstate traffic, and quarantine lines are thus made to
follow State lines. It has always been a matter of gratification, how-
ever, that wherever the Bureau of Animal Industry has undertaken
to suppress and eradicate a contagious disease the authorities of the
affected States have readily lent their assistance. A State, on the
other hand, can do nothing more than guard its own territory; and,
while all of the States have laws for the control of live-stock traffie
with a view to the prevention or suppression of disease, it could hardly
be expected that they would under all cireumstances cooperate with
each other effectually. The work of the Federal Government is there-
fore necessary to the State, and the State laws are necessary to the
Federal Government, if success in eradicating disease from the coun
try is to be assured; the federal and State powers are not only sup-
plementary, but interdependent.

CONTAGIOUS PLEURO-PNEUMONIA WORK.

The success of the Bureau of Animal Industry in eradicating con-
tagious pleuro-pneumonia from this country was a triumph that will
never be forgotten by the cattle owners of the United States. This
disease had become established in several States east of the Alle-
gheny Mountains, and later broke out in Ohio, Illinois, and Ken-
tucky, all great cattle-growing States of the Mississippi Valley. From
these States it threatened to spread over the great cattle districts of
the West and completely to ruin the industry. The country was
thoroughly alarmed, and Congress was prevailed upon to enlarge the
powers of the Bureau of Animal Industry to deal with contagious
diseases of domestic animals, contagious pleuro-pneumonia being
especially mentioned.

A thorough study was immediately begun of the history of the dis-
ease in this country and abroad and of the means and methods
employed elsewhere for its eradication. Dr. D. E. Salmon, who became
the chief of this new Bureau, speaking of this disease in 1883, had said
‘‘that the only object kept in view should be its complete extinetion
by the most summary measures at our command,” and further:
‘““We can recommend no temporizing measures with regard to this
affection. The only ones applicable are quarantine, restriction of
movement of cattle, slaughter of affected animals, and disinfection.”
The veterinary profession the world over was agreed as to the efficacy

WORK OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT FOR ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 443

of these measures alone, and the Bureau desired to adopt them at
once in entering upon the pleuro-pneumonia work. In fact, rules
and regulations providing for the destruction by Bureau inspectors of
affected animals and the certification of the assessed value of such
animals tothe Commissioner of Agriculture, who, upon approval, would
order payment for the same, were issued by the Commissioner of
Agriculture on April 22, 1885; but about the same time the Attorney-
General of the United States rendered an opinion, based upon the
organic act creating the Bureau, that there are ‘‘no provisions for
purchasing the diseased and exposed animals,” thus rendering null
and void the rules and regulations of the Commissioner. However,
in the appropriation act for the fiscal year of 1887 the Commissioner
was authorized to expend the appropriation ‘‘in such manner as he
may think best to prevent the spread of pleuro-pneumonia * * *
and to expend any part of this sum in the purchase and destruction
of diseased animals wherever in his judgment it is essential to prevent
the spread of pleuro-pneumonia from one State to another.” From
that time forward the work was pushed vigorously and suceessfully.

In accordance with the organic act creating the Bureau and also
with the appropriation act just quoted, rules and regulations, dated
August 12, 1886, were formulated for prosecuting the work. Pro-
vision was made for the acceptance of these rules and regulations by
the governors of the affected States, which in most instances was
promptly done. In the matter of inspection, the Bureau was to fur-
nish the necessary inspectors, who were to receive from the proper
State officers the authority to make inspections of cattle under the
laws of the State, to receive such protection and assistance as would
be given to State officers engaged in similar work, and be permitted
to examine quarantined herds wherever so directed by the Commis-
sioner of Agriculture or the chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry.
Reports upon inspections were to be made to the Bureau of Animal
Industry and to the proper State authorities. When contagious
pleuro-pneumonia was diseovered in a herd, the owner or person in
charge was at once to notify the inspector, who was to put in force
the quarantine regulations of the State in which the herd was located.
Every animal of an infected herd was distinctively marked with a lock
and chain, which were furnished by the Bureau, but which became
the property of the State when placed upon an animal, in order that
anyone tampering with them would become amenable to the laws of
the State. Quarantine restrictions were for a period of not less than
ninety days, and were not to be removed without the consent of the
Bureau. All affected and exposed animals were to be slaughtered as
soon after discovery as possible, were to be appraised according to the
provisions of the State law, and the representatives of the Bureau
notified of the appraisement. The Department of Agriculture was to
pay to the owner such portion of the appraised value as was provided

444 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

by the laws of the State for cattle condemned and slaughtered by
State authority. All necessary disinfection was to be conducted by
the Bureau. The Bureau did not reeommend inoculation for the dis-
ease, but retained supervision over the herds which were inoculated
under State authority.

These regulations were modified from time to time as necessity arose.
On April 15, 1887, the chief of the Bureau was authorized to inspect
stock yards, cars, boats, and other vehicles of transportation lines,
and to make the necessary regulations for their quarantine and disin-
fection. A few weeks latera notice was sent to the managers of trans-
portation lines, calling their attention to the existence of contagious
pleuro-pneumonia among cattle in Illinois, Maryland, and New York,
requesting their cooperation in preventing the spread of the disease
by means of disinfection and by declining to receive cattle for ship-
ment which were not known to be free from infection. Still later this
notice was modified so as to apply to all States affected.

These measures soon began to give good results, enabling the chief
of the Bureau of Animal Industry to make the following statement in
his report for 1888:

The prompt eradication of pleuro-pneumonia from Chicago and vicinity is worthy
of more than a simple narration of the fact. It may well be considered one of the
most important results ever accomplished by the Department of Agriculture.
History gives few if any cases where the dairies of a city of the size of Chicago
have once been infected with pleuro-pneumonia and where the disease has been
eradicated without years of constant work and the expenditure of vast sums of
money. Paris was infected more than one hundred years ago, and in spite of the
large number of veterinarians in that district, and of the stringent laws and reg-
ulations promulgated for its suppression, the disease still exists, and the ravages
continue from year to year apparently undiminished.

At the same time the disease was eradicated from all affected dis-
tricts in Maryland outside of the city of Baltimore, and in Virginia
it was completely suppressed. In the other affected States the work
had been most satisfactory. In 1889 the progress of the work was
notable, being hampered only by lack of full authority on the part of
the Bureau properly to enforce its regulations. The plague had not
reappeared west of the Allegheny Mountains and no extensions
occurred in the Eastern States. Cattle owners and shippers outside
of the infected districts had gained such confidence in the work that
the presence of the disease in this country no longer interfered with
the traffic to any appreciable extent. In 1890 the chief of the Bureau
reported as follows:

The year has passed without any discovery of contagious pleuro-pneumonia out-
side of the districts which were recognized in the last report as infected. The reg-
ulations of the Department have been enforced without difficulty, and the progress
of the work for the eradication of this plague has been continuous and rapid.

The efficiency of the regulations and of the methods employed under them
is demonstrated by the fact that for two years there has not been a case of the

WORK OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT FOR ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 445

disease outside of the very restricted areas on the Atlantic seaboard which have
from the first been recognized as infected. These regulationsare still in force, and
with the almost complete eradication of the contagion the danger of any infec-
tion extending to other sections has practically disappeared.

In 1891 the disease had disappeared from all of the States that had
been infected except New Jersey, where it was restricted to a very
small area, enabling the Bureau to publish the statement that ‘‘the
United States is now practically free from contagious pleuro-pneu-
monia.” On March 25, 1892, the last ease of the disease disappeared
from the United States, and six months later the following proclama-
tion was issued:

PROCLAMATION—ERADICATION OF PLEURO-PNEUMONIA.,

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY.
To all whom it may concern:

Notice is hereby given that the quarantines heretofore existing in the counties
of Kings and Queens, State of New York, and the counties of Essex and Hudson,
State of New Jersey, for the suppression of contagious pleuro-pneumonia among
cattle, are this day removed.

The removal of the aforesaid quarantines completes the d‘ssolving of all quaran-
tines established by this Department in the several sections of the United States
for the suppression of the above-named disease.

No case of this disease has occurred in the State of Illinois since December 29,
1887, a period of more than four years and eight months.

No case has occurred in the State of Pennsylvania since September 29, 1888, a
period of four years, within a few days.

No case has occurred in the State of Maryland since September 18, 1889, a
period of three years.

No case has occurred in the State of New York since April 30, 1891, a period of
more than one year and four months.

No case has occurred in the State of New Jersey since March 25, 1892, a period ,
of six months, and no case has occurred in any other portion of the United States
within the past five years.

I do therefore hereby officially declare that the United States is free from the
disease known as contagious pleuro-pneumonia.

J. M. Rusk, Sceretary.

Done at the city of Washington, D. C., this 26th day of September, A. D. 1892.

Tt may be that those countries which are still afflicted with the plague
of contagious pleuro-pneumonia are in position better to appreciate
the importance of the work done in this country than we are ourselves.
If the Bureau of Animal Industry, by eradicating this disease from
the country, were to be given credit for the value of all losses which
would have resulted from a continuance of the disease, as well as for
the money which might have been expended ineffectually by the State
authorities toward suppressing it, who can estimate what it would be?

In a summary of the work of the Bureau, published in 1897, the
chief wrote as follows regarding the eradication of contagious pleuro-
pneumonia:

It is almost impossible at this time to give an idea of the danger with which the
cattle industry was menaced by the spread of that fatal and treacherous disease to

446 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

a poinu so far in the interior as Chicago or of the difficulties under our form of
Government of promptly and effectually meeting the emergency. Fortunately,
although the cattle owners in the affected districts were not friendly, the State
authorities cooperated in every case and supplied the power which was lacking in
federal legislation, and although there were many who questioned the existence
of the Huropean lung plague in this country, who did not believe in the success of
the measures that were adopted, who were positive that the disease could not be
eradicated, or who were certain that untold millions of money would be squan-
dered before the end was reached, the result was accomplished with an expenditure
of less than five years of time and of $1,500,000—a sum which is less than 5 per cent
of the value of the beef exported in 1892.

When we consider that the Governments of Great Britain, France, and Germany
all undertook the work of eradicating pleuro-pneumonia long before the establish-
ment of our Bureau of Animal Industry, and that none of them have yet succeeded
in freeing their territory from the plague, we can appreciate the fact that the
completion of our task in a comparatively short time was a notable achievement.

In order to make this review of the pleuro-pneumonia work com-
plete and satisfactory, the following tables, taken from the report of
the Bureau for 1892, are given:

Work done in the eradication of pleuro-pneumonia, by years.

ILLINOIS.
September
Character of work. ge Sid i8ss. Total.
3, 1887.

ierdsinspecteds:— =. . ==. 2 ese ee A eee 7,411 140 7.da1
“Cabtletnspechee 2 225432--seit lc werd eee. ee ee 24, 059 285 24,344

Post-mortem examinations 2. = 2.65229) asces = a ae ee e e ee ee 7, 267 1,712 8, 97
Number diseased on post-mortem.. ~ --=- =--. .--22----!2- 22 2--5-2- 350 4 B54
IPrermises Gisinseche@ es s-<.- 2520 acs oa ee eee ee oe 677 1 678
Dirweqseu cattle spunchased 8" 0. 2 5 ee ee ee oe 172 4 176
Hs posedicattiowpunchased qs - 52 ee 870 129 999

+
MARYLAND.

Character of work. 1887. 1888. 889. 1890. Total.
PTSrOS ANS peCleG!.. 22ers aoe ee oe 5, 7 9, 809 10, 904 4,210 30, 627
Cattloinspected'.. 2. 4-5): =. ee ee ee 57, 868 60, 312 79,606 | 108,376 | 306,162
Cattle: facrad =... =P we ae ee ee ee 17, 749 10, 534 5, 463 33, 746
Post-mortem examingons-)--)--- se seeoe eee 2, 7 5, 820 11, 491 12, 949 33, 048
Number diseased on post-mortem -----..-.------- 1,137 507 16:|2 2 cee 1, 720
Premises: disinfected-s-.-4 22... ee eee 145 145 35 1 226
Diseased cattle purchased _--..------...---------.-] @1,442 459 yD) eee 1, 974
HEpOSeG caADble DUTChAse {oe = seen eee a1, 564 1, 086 310 20 2,930

a Includes all purchases of cattle from July 1, 1886, to December 31, 1886.

WORK OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT FOR ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 447 °

Work done in the eradication of pleuro-pneumonia, by years—Continued.

NEW YORK.
Character of work. | 1887. | 1888. 1889. 1890. | 1891. a 1892. | Total.
een smspecved _----_...-.......- | 1,511 12,333 15, 861 19, 569 13, 381 | 2,537 | 65, 192
Gatule mspected ----..__.....--.-- 25, 122 99,726 | 149,396 | 150,474 | 186,111 49,925 | 610, 754

Cattle 8. ee eee 160, 370 33, 135 33, 732 30, 204 13,558 | 211,109
Post-mortem examinations ------ 1,347 15, 538 15, 375 18, 338 26, 953 18,871 | 96,422
Number diseased on post-mortem 447 2, BT 1,012 544 1S eee 4,321
Premises disinfected _.-....-..-..|-..-..--| 1,339 339 434 7 eee 2, 161
Diseased cattle purchased. .-..-- 268 1,57 1,053 427 spss | ae re =m) 3, 347
Exposed cattle purchased -------- 736 3, 196 2,819 1, 984 284 | Bata 9,019

See eee Eo

NEW JERSEY.

! |

Character of work. 1887. | 1888. | 1889. 1890. 1891. a1892. | Total.
fmercs inspected .----...-.....---.| 1,428 | 8,018 8,455 | 8,492 8, 124 16, 813 51,330
Mapgegnspected --..--..-.-...----- 16, 461 72, 095 76, 001 60, 659 68,262 | 128,017 | 421,495
0 ee ee er el eee ee 13, 318 11, 672 8,817 12,818 22,153 | 68, 77:
Post-mortem examinations..---- 248 6, 846 14, 242 9,419 4,417 5,562 | 40, 734
Number diseased on post-mortem 1{3 | 514 189 43 | 63 | 32 954
Premises disinfected -.---..--- 7 foe 275 208 104 by (el 195 840
Diseased cattle purchased. --...- 94 502 116 44 48 | 40 844
Exposed cattle purchased ---- .--- 17 945 recs 242 227 222 2, 467

Character of work. 1888. 1889. 1890, | 1891. «1892. | Total.
Mmmietraspected)_- -5 02200 82. - che. 522.4552 5, 291 1,311 1,915 1, 096 2,638 | 12,251
Banuiomnspected:, +2. <2. 2..<.-.=-+-==--4-s5 72, 565 24,003 | 24,388 55,533 | 66,487 | 242,976
Cattle tagged ---...----. en ee eee 51, 820 i ENS BS eee cell cs ieee ee ee 53, 333
Post-mortem examinations ._....--.----- 13, 157 13, 412 15, 008 | 55, 260 80, 384 | 177,221
Number diseased on post-mortem. --.-.-- 72 i by (al (eee 5s (ee a ee 89
Premises disinfected -----.-.--=.=------- liz Gu)z2-542 SSeS <a eee et 123
Diseased cattle purchased ---.-...--..--...-. 63 |-=.-25--5 | eee ae tae <a ee 63
Exposed cattle purchased -_-_..---.---.---- 131 ll a Pea Pee ee 142
SUMMARY.
Character of work. Tilinois. Maryland. Now York. rie Pp ‘Somers 1 Total.
4 Total herds inspected -...........-- (ea aye 30, 627 | 65, 192 51,330 12,251 166, 951
Total cattle inspected. _........_.-- 24, 344 308, 152 | 610,754 | 421,495 | 242,976 | 1,605,721
JUS LI DR oi | aes 33, 746 211,109 68, 77. 53,333 | 365,966
J Total post-mortem examinations- - 8,979 33, 048 | 96, 422 40, 734 | 177,221 | 356,404
. Total diseased on post-mortem .--- 354 | 1,720 } 4, 321 954 | 89 7,438
Total premises disinfected ---_-----. 678 26 2,161 840 | 123 4,128
Total diseased cattle purchased-_-- 176 1, 974 3, 347 844 63 b6, 404
Total exposed cattle purchased --- 999 2, 930 9,019 2, 467 142 e15, 557

aThe figures for 1892 are brought down to September 26, the date on which the quarantine
was removed.

b Not including 45 diseased animals purchased in Virginia and District of Columbia.

ec Not including 57 exposed animals purchased in Virginia and District of Columbia.

448 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Expenditures in the eradication of pleuro-pnewnonia from July 1, 1886, to Sep-
tember 1, 1892.

Num- | Num-

, ber of | ber of

State. | Salarion. | THHve! |Miscella A Seeted| Hepsed | otal. |

af- ex-

| fected.| posed

New York.....---- |g385, 672. 70'$58, 013 20) $28, 897. 52 $87, 241. 69\$I98, 669.80) $758,495.00) 3,347] 9,019

New Jersey -.--.--| 185,533.92) 44,018.03) 12,956.79} 20, 477.50| 60,967.70, 328, 953. 94 844-2, 467

Pennsylvania ._...| 40,201.36) 4,462.44) 2,614.66) 1,243. 50) 3, 357. 50) 51, 879. 44 631 142

Maryland _....---.| 124, 948.22) 38, 705.74) 5,667. 42 48, 363, 41) 76,115.85] 288,800.64) 1,974) 2,930

Tinos es ee | 52,170.31) 38,819.29) 4,126.61) 3,260.80) 16,561.64 79, 938. 65) 176 999
Vermont,! Massa-
chusetts,! Vir- |
ginia, and Dis-
trict of Colum-

lori eats SL See oe 3, 342.28] 1,177.72) 19.55 739. 00 754. 50) 6, 033. 05 45 57

Motall.-=9- 2" | 791, 868. 79145, 196.51) 54, 282. 55.161, 325.90, 356, 426.99) 1,509, 100. 72| 6,449) 15, 614

1 Investigating reported outbreaks.
TEXAS FEVER WORK.!

The direct losses to the cattle industry of the country from Texas
fever at the time when the Bureau of Animal Industry was organized
were much heavier than the losses from pleuro-pneumonia. Texas
fever had been known under different names for many years, and had
become thoroughly disseminated and established throughout the
Southern portion of the United States. Although the true nature of
the disease was not known, investigations had developed several
important facts, namely, that Southern cattle, when taken to the
North, though in the best of health, would carry with them the con-
tagion; that Northern cattle, when taken to the South, would contract
the disease; that there was, therefore, an infected and a noninfected
area, between which it was necessary to draw a definite line; and
that ‘‘even a fence was sufficient to arrest the disease.”

If the cattle raisers of the noninfected region were to be protected
from Texas fever, and if those of the infected area were to be per-
mitted to ship their stock out of it, it was necessary that measures
should be first adopted to control the transportation. Such meas-
ures were alike important in the South, where animals were imported
from the North for the purpose of grading up the herds, and in the
North, where Southern cattle were to find feed for fattening and a
market. The noninfected area of the country was rapidly increasing
its production of corn, and needed the feeders from the infected area
to consume it.

When the Bureau of Animal Industry was established, it was ree-
ognized as one of its most important duties that the Texas fever

1 Synonyms: Southern fever, splenetic fever, splenic fever, Spanish fever, accli-
mation fever, acclimatization fever, tick fever.

WORK OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT FOR ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 449

district must be accurately outlined, and that there must be laws
absolutely preventing the driving of cattle from the infected to the
noninfected sections, except during certain winter months. Previous
to this, in 1883, the chief of the Bureau and his assistants had estab-
lished the northern line of this district through Virginia. In 1884 the
Bureau extended the line westward to the Mississippi River, and in the
following year it reached the Rio Grande in Texas. Later it became
necessary to include a part of California.

REGULATIONS REGARDING TEXAS FEVER.

Regulations were issued by Secretary Rusk in 1889, addressed to
the managers and agents of railroad and transportation companies in
the United States, directing their attention to the area infected with
Texas fever and to the quarantine line thereby established. These
regulations have been modified from time to time as necessities have
arisen; and in order toa satisfactory understanding of all the details
of the work the regulations promulgated for the year 1899 are given
below in their entirety. The quarantine line mentioned has since
been amended by special orders, excluding on account of local coop-
eration the noninfected districts of some of the States, but in all essen-
tial points it is the same as originally defined:

To managers and agents of railroads and transportation companies of the United

States, stockmen, and others:

In accordance with section 7 of the act of Congress approved May 29, 1884,
entitled ‘“‘An act for the establishment of a Bureau of Animal Industry, to pre-
yent the exportation of diseased cattle, and to provide means for the suppression
and extirpation of plearo-pneumonia and other contagious diseases among domestic
animals,” and of the act of Congress approved March 22, 1898, making appropri-
ation for the Department of Agriculture for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1899,
you are hereby notified that a contagious and infectious disease known as splen-
etic, or Southern, fever exists among cattle in the following described area:

1. All that country lying south, or below, a line beginning at the northwest cor-
ner of the State of California; thence east, south, and southeasterly along the
boundary line of said State of California to the southeastern corner of said State;
thence southerly along the western boundary line of Arizona to the southwest
corner of Arizona: thence along the southern boundary lines of Arizona and New
Mexico to the southeastern corner of New Mexico: thence northerly along the
eastern boundary of New Mexico to the southern line of the State of Colorado;
thence along the southern boundary lines of Colorado and Kansas to the south-
eastern corner of Kansas; thence southerly along the western boundary line of
Missouri to the southwestern corner of Missouri; thence easterly along the south-
ern boundary line of Missouri to the western boundary line of Dunklin County:
thence southerly along the said western boundary to the southwestern corner of
Dunklin County; thence easterly along the southern boundary line of Missouri to
the Mississippi River; thence northerly along the Mississippi River to the north-
ern boundary line of Tennessee at the northwest corner of Lake County; thence
easterly along said boundary line to the northeast corner of Henry County: thence
in a northerly direction along the boundary of Tennessee to the northwest corner
of Stewart County; thence in an easterly direction along the northern boundiry
of Tennessee to the southwestern corner of Virginia; thence northeaster:y along

A 8S 29

450 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the western boundary line of Virginia to the northernmost point of Virginia;
thence southerly along the eastern boundary line of Virginia to the northeast cor-
ner of Virginia where it joins the southeastern corner of Maryland, at the Atlantic
Ocean.

2. Whenever any State or Territory located above or below ‘said quarantine
line. as above designated, shall duly establish a different quarantine line, and
obtain the necessary legislation to enforee said last-mentioned line strictly and
completely within the boundaries of said State or Territory, and said last above-
mentioned line and the measures taken to enforce it are satisfactory to the Secre-
tary of Agriculture, he may, by a special order, temporarily adopt said State or
Territorial line.

Said adoption will apply only to that portion of said line specified, and may
cease at any time the Secretary may deem it best for the interest involved, and in
mo instance shall said modification exist longer than the period specified in said
special order; and at the expiration of such time-said quarantine line shall revert
without further order to the line first above described.

Whenever. any State or Territory shall establish a quarantine line for above pur-
poses, differently located from the above-described line, and shall obtain by legis-
lation the necessary laws to enforce the same completely and strictly, and shall
desire a modification of the federal quarantine line to agree with such State or
Territorial line, the proper authorities of such State or Territory shall forward to
the Secretary of Agriculture a true map-or description of such line and.a copy. of
the laws for enforcement of same, duly authenticated and certified.

3. From the ist day of January, 1899, no cattle are to be transported from said
area south or below said federal quarantine line above described to any portion
of the United States above, north, east, or west of the above-described line, except
as hereinafter provided.

4, Cattle from said area may be transported, by rail or boat, for immediate
slaughter, and when so transported the following regulations must be observed:

(a) When any cattle in course of transportation from said area are unloaded
above, north, east, or west of this line to be fed or watered, the places where said
cattle.are to be fed or watered shall be set apart, and no other cattle shall be
admitted thereto.

(b) On unloading said cattle at their points of destination, pens, sufficiently
isolated, shall be set apart to receive them, and noother cattle shall be admitted
to said pens; and the regulations relating to the movement of cattle from said
area, prescribed by the cattle sanitary officers of the State where unloaded, shall
be carefully observed. The cars or boats that have carried said stock shall be
cleansed and disinfected as soon as possible after unloading and before they are
again used to transport, -store, or shelter animals or merchandise.

(c) All cars carrying cattle from -said area shall bear placards, to be affixed by
the railroad company hauling the same, stating that said cars contain Southern
cattle, and each of the waybills or bills of lading of said shipment by cars or boats
shall have a note upon its face with a similar statement. Whenever any cattle
have come from saidarea and shall bereshipped from any point at which they have
been unloaded to other points of destination, the cars carrying said animals shall
bear similar placards with like statements, and the waybills or bills of lading be
so stainped. At whatever point these cattle are unloaded they must be placed in
separate pens, to which no other cattle shall be admitted.

(d) No boat having on board cattle from said district shall receive on board
cattle from outside of said district. Cattle from said district shall not be received
on board when destined to points outside of said district where proper facilities
have not been provided for transferring the said cattle from the landing to the
stock yards and slaughterhouses without passing over public highways, unless
permission for such passing is first obtained from the local authorities.

A? a

WORK OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT FOR ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 451

(e) The cars and boats used to transport such animals, the chutes, alleyways,
and pens used during transportation, and at points of destination, shall be disin-
fected in the following manner:

Remove all litter and manure. This litter and manure may be disinfected by
mixing it with lime or saturating it with a 5 per cent solution of 100 per cent car-
bolic acid; or, if not disinfected, it may be stored where no cattle can come into
contact with it during the period from February 1 to November 15 of each year.

Wash the cars and the feeding and watering troughs with water until clean.

Saturate the entire interior surface of the cars and the fencing, troughs, and
chutes of the pens with a mixture made of 1} pounds of lime and one-quarter
pound 100 per cent straw-colored carbolic acid to each gallon of water; or a
solution made by dissolving 4 ounces of chloride of lime to each gallon of water
may be used; or disinfect the cars with a jet of steam under a pressure of not less
than 50 pounds to the square inch.

5. Cattle originating in said area may, after having been properly dipped, under
the supervision of an inspector of this Department, be shipped without further
restriction, 2xcepting such as may be enforced by local authorities at point of desti-
nation: Provided, That application be first made to this Department, and permission
granted to establish the dipping stations, and that after being dipped the cattle
are certified by an inspector of the U. 8. Bureau of Animal Industry, and that the
cattle when dipped be shipped in clean cars, and not be driven through the infected
district or unloaded therein except at such point as may be duly designated by an
order issued by this Department.

6. From November 1 to December 31, inclusive, cattle from said area which are
found free of infection upon inspection by officers of this Department may be
moved north of the quarantine line without restriction other than may be enforced
by local regulations at destination. If evidence of infection is found upon such
inspection, the cattle must be dipped in accordance with the provisions of section
5 before being moved north of the quarantine line.

7. Cattle from the Republic of Mexico may be admitted into the United States,
after inspection according to law, as follows:

(a) Cattle free from splenetic, or Texas, fever, and from contact therewith dur-
ing the three months preceding such inspection, and which have been grazed in
a locality free from infection of such fever, may be admitted into any part of the
United States. If destined to points in the noninfected area, a special permit
must be obtained from an inspector of the Bureau of Animal Industry, said per-
mit being issued according to the regulations of said Bureau; the cattle for which
said permit is issued must not be driven through the infected area, nor be unloaded
in any part thereof except at such point as may be duly designated by an order
issued by this Department; if shipped in infected cars, or unloaded in the infected
area, except as above stated, they will be subject to the regulations concerning
infectious cattle.

(b) Cattle found upon inspection to be infected or to have been exposed to infec-
tion during the preceding three months must be dipped at port of entry under
supervision of an inspector of this Department prior to admittance to the United
States; after dipping said cattle shall be subject to the conditions specified in the
last preceding paragraph.

8. Notice is hereby given that cattle infested with the Boophilus bovis, or South-
ern catile tick, disseminate the contagion of splenetic, or Southern, fever (Texas
fever); therefore cattle originating outside of the district described by this order,
or amendments thereof, and which are infested with the Boophilus bovis ticks
shall be considered as infectious cattle and shall be subject to the rules and regu-
lations governing the movement of Southern cattle.

9. Stock-yard companies receiving cattle infested with said ticks shall placesuch
cattle in the pens set aside for the use of Southern cattle, and transportation

452 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

companies are required to clean and disinfect all cars and boats which have con-
tained the same, according to the requirements of this Department.

10. Inspectors are instructed to see that disinfection is properly done, and to
report instances of improper disinfection. It is expected that transportation and
stock-yard companies will promptly put into operation the above methods.

All prior orders conflicting herewith are hereby revoked.

JAMES WILSON, Secretary.

It will be observed that section 5 of the regulations relates to the
dipping of the cattle for the purpose of killing the tick, which is the
earrier of the contagion. The Bureau has been experimenting along
this line for several years, but, while progress has been made, a mix-
ture has not yet been found which will kill the ticks and at the same
time result in no injury to the animal. The end sought is so desirable
that the Bureau will continue its work in the belief that a substance
will be found which will prove entirely satisfactory.

The beneficial effect of such regulations was apparent from the first.
Export cattle were protected from infection, and consequently losses
from disease in transit were fewer each year. In 1891 such losses of
export cattle from Texas fever amounted to 524 head, but fell to the
number of 131 the following year, and since that there have been but
two or three cases, and these at rare intervals. The result has been
increased prices abroad and a great reduction of insurance on cargoes
of cattle, as will be noted further on.

SHEEP SCAB AND HOG CHOLERA WORK.

In December, 1895, the regulations of the Bureau of Animal Industry
were amended to the extent that ‘‘animals affected with hog cholera,
tuberculosis, or sheep scab shall be considered animals affected with
contagious or infectious diseases, * * * and shall not enter into
interstate trade nor be brought into contact with other animals intended
for such trade.” Such animals are not permitted to enter any stock
yards or other places where animals are handled for interstate trade,
and when so found are condemned, tagged, and placed in quarantine.
Stock-yard companies, transportation companies, and other parties
receiving or handling such diseased animals are required to disinfect
thoroughly such parts of their premises or property as contained such
animals, subject to the approval of the inspectors of the Bureau.
Animals so quarantined can not be removed except upon written
permit of the inspector in charge. General instructions were given
to the inspectors by the chief of the Bureau soon after the above-
mentioned regulations were made, in which it was provided that
sheep affected with scab might be liberated after being dipped one
or more times and the inspectors convinced that the disease was
cured.

Seab is one of the oldest diseases of sheep known to the veterinary
profession, and while it is easily cured and methods for its eradication

WORK OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT FOR ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 453

are well known, it has been permitted to spread among flocks, to the
great damage of the sheep industry of the country. The efforts which
the Bureau had so far been able to make were not sufficient to control
the spread of the disease. It became necessary in 1897 to issue an
order to managers and agents of railroads, transportation companies,
and stockmen, calling their attention to the fact that it was unlawful
to transport diseased sheep from one State to another, and requesting
their cooperation to prevent the further spread of the disease. Inspect-
ors were instructed to see that all cars, boats, or other vehicles of
transportation were properly cleaned and disinfected by their owners.

As the facilities of the Bureau have increased, the sheep traffic has
received more attention and the restrictions have become more rigid.
The question of dips had to receive consideration, as some of the dips
on the market were not satisfactory, in that they did not kill the mite
which is the cause of the scab. In consequence of this faet the fol-
lowing order was issued in July, 1899:

It is ordered, That from and after August 10, 1899, no sheep affected with scabies,
and no sheep which have been in contact with others so affected, shall be allowed
shipment from one State or Territory into another, or from any State into the
District of Columbia, or from the District into any State, unless said sheep shall
have first been dipped in a mixture approved by this Department.

The dips now approved are:

1. The tobacco-and-sulphur dip, made with sufficient extract of tobacco to give
amixture containing not less than five one-hundredths of 1 per cent of nicotine
and 2 per cent flowers of sulphur.

2. The lime-and-sulphur dip, made with 8 pounds of unslaked lime and 24 pounds
of flowers of sulphur to 100 gallons of water. The lime and sulphur should be
boiled together for not less than two hours, and all sediment allowed to subside
before the liquid is placed in the dipping vat.

The owner of the sheep is privileged to choose which one of the above-mentioned
dips shall be used for his animals. The Department will instruct inspectors to
enforce due care in dipping sheep, but it assumes no responsibility for loss or dam-
age to such animals, and persons who wish to avoid any risks that may be incident
to dipping at the stock yards should see that their sheep are free from disease
before they are shipped to market.

In the matter of hog cholera and swine plague, the administrative
work of the Bureau is under the same law as that for sheep scab.
In addition to the methods cf quarantine and disinfection, however,
hogs are being given the serum treatment for these diseases. The
serum for this work is prepared by the Bureau, and at present is
administered for experimental purposes by the Bureau officials.
During the last two years the work has been undertaken on a large
scale in Page County, Iowa, by the legislative consent of that State,
and the results have been very satisfactory. It is estimated that the
Saving in the treated herds has been from 75 to 80 per cent.

The ‘“‘stamping-out” process, the same that was so successfully
employed in the eradication of pleuro-pneumonia, was tried experi-
mentally in eight townships of the same county in 1897. and the

454 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

results indicated that if the method were vigorously pursued for a
few years the disease could thus be greatly reduced or possibly eradi-
eated. A recapitulation of the work in 1897, giving also a compari-
son with the same period for 1896, shows wonderful success, especially
if it be remembered that the disease in Page County was of long
standing, and that therefore most farms were affeeted with the
contagion:

Number of outbreaks in 1896 (six months) _____.___-___.____- 218
Number of outbreaks in 1897 (six months) ____________-______ 80
Difference. 23. 2-. 32 Se oe ee ee, > at eee aie LORS iy 138
Number of head lost in 1896 (six months) _-__.___.-_.____.__- “12, 849
Number of head lost in 1897 (six months) .___..___.______-_-- 1,111
Difference! PRET IRE Se Pentel oie eee 11, 738

These figures show that 158 fewer premises were affected and 11,738
fewer hogs died in the season of 1897, while the ‘‘stamping-out”
methods were enforced, than for the same period in 1896. The total
cost of this work, which included remuneration for slaughtered ani-
mals, was $10,157.12. It is assumed that if the average weight of the
11,738 hogs was 100 pounds, and their value 3 cents per pound, the
saving to the eight townships under consideration was $35,214, a sum
very much greater than the total expenses. It is true that the eradi-
cation of these diseases from a State by the “‘stamping-out” process
would occasion the expenditure of a vast sum of money, and would
cause more or less inconvenience and arouse some opposition. This
plan has not been pursued, because the serum treatment promised
equally good results without the slaughter of all animals in an infected
herd, and consequently at comparatively slight expense, thus avoid_
ing the inconvenienee and irritation which invariably follow the more
arbitrary measures.

BLACKLEG WORK.

When the Bureau of Animal Industry undertook to investigate the
prevalence of blackleg in the United States it was merely known that
the disease existed in certain districts. From its recent investiga-
tions, it is ‘‘apparent that the loss from blackleg in certain por-
tions of several States exceeds that from all other causes combined.”?
While this disease is infectious, it has not been considered necessary
to quarantine it at any time. The results of investigations of the
Bureau indicate very decidedly that the disease may be eradicated by
inoculation and proper disinfection of premises.

At the beginning of this work the Bureau saw the necessity for a
‘‘single” vaccine, that is, a vaccine which when used once would

'Dr. V. A. Norgaard, Fifteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Animal
Industry.

WORK OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT FOR ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 455

produce the same immunity as is produced by two vaccinations, or
with a ‘‘double” vaccine. The use of the double vaccine involved
the treatment of each animal twice, with an interval of ten days
between the two inoculations. This work, when considered in con-
nection with the large herds of the West, where it is necessary to each
operation that the cattle be ‘‘rounded up” from a large section of
country, oftentimes scores of miles in extent, involves much incon-
venience and expense, and it never became popular with the eattle
raisers. In July, 1896, Dr. V. A. Norgaard, then a veterinary inspeetor
for the Bureau, after having made an investigation, and appreci-
ating all the objections to the double vaccine, stated that it was
*‘desirable that some vaccine which will produce immunity after one
inoculation be introduced in this country.” Accordingly, experiments
were begun in the fall of 1896 for the purpose of preparing such a*
vaccine. Hundreds of thousands of doses have been mailed to cattle
owners, who are enabled, by following the directions accompanying
the vaccine, to inject it themselves without the aid of a veterinarian.
Each person who receives the vaccine is requested to answer a series
of questions after the season closes, in order that an estimate of the
results of the work may be made.

In 1898 the total number of reports received from the States and
Territories where the disease was most prevalent (namely, in Texas,
Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, Oklahoma, Indian Territory, North
Dakota, and South Dakota) was 522, covering 127,369 head of cattle.
Previous to 1898 the average annual loss in the same sections was
about 14 per cent. During the same season the loss previous to vae-
cination was 3.65 per cent and after vaccination 0.54 per cent. There
were 700 deaths after vaccination, many of which, as stated by eat-
tlemen themselves, would not have occurred if the vaccine had been
injected properly. These results were so satisfactory that vaccine
has been sent to all applicants since. The number of doses thus
sent out during the fiscal year of 1898 exceeded 500,000.

Thus, in this brief time the Bureau of Animal Industry has made
it possible to reduce the losses of cattle from blaekleg to a minimum,
and it is proposed to continue the manufacture and distribution of
the vaccine until its efficacy is well known to the eattle owners of the
country, when blackleg, it is believed, will cease to be classed among
our more destructive cattle diseases.

BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS WORK.

For some time past some of the States have been making efforts
toward the eradication of bovine tuberculosis by the “‘stamping-out”
method. The work of the Bureau in this connection is confined to the
rejection at stock yards and abattoirs of animals so diseased and to
the manufacture and distribution of tuberculin to State authorities,

456 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

by which it may be ascertained which cattle are diseased and which
are not. During the last year 35,000 doses were sent out for such
official use. It is not furnished for private tests.

INVESTIGATIONS OF OTHER DISEASES.

?

It must not be understood that the work of the Bureau has been
confined to the diseases named above. The act creating the Bureau
provides for the ‘‘extirpation of pleuro-pneumonia and other con-
tagious diseases among domestic animals.” All reports of outbreaks
of such diseases are immediately investigated by an inspector and
such action taken as is warranted in the premises.

INSPECTION OF EXPORT ANIMALS BEFORE SHIPMENT.

While the rigid inspection in connection with contagious pleuro-
pneumonia and Texas fever largely reduced the number of diseased
animals that was offered for export, the officials of Great Britain
still insisted that cattle affected with contagious pleuro-pneumonia
continued to reach their shores from the United States. In conse-
quence of these statements, arrangements were made with the British
officials to permit the presence of inspectors of the Bureau of Animal
Industry at the post-mortem examinations in Great Britain of all
animals supposed to be thus diseased. These inspectors commenced
their work at London, Liverpool, and Glasgow on August 16, 1890,
and on November 8, after post-mortem examination of 104,296 head
of cattle, they reported that not one animal was found affected with
the disease.

This inspection has been continued in Great Britain, but is sup-
plemented by work under the act of August 30, 1890, which provides
for the inspection before shipment of all export cattle, sheep, and
hogs. This inspection at both ends of the line of shipment could not
fail to be efficient. Regulations under the act mentioned were issued
on October 20, 1890. The points where cattle are to be inspected
are named, and the cattle passing the inspection are to be tagged
and inspected again at the ports of export. Cattle arriving at the
ports of export from other parts of the United States are to be
inspected and tagged there. Animals are to be carried, after tagging,
in thoroughly cleaned and disinfected cars. Proper notification by
inspectors and shippers is required. The thoroughness of this work
is such that the history of any animal tagged for export may be
traced back to the farm whence it came.

Very few hogs have been exported alive. The numbers of cattle
which have been inspected, tagged, and rejected in connection with
this work are shown in the following table, also the inspections and
exports of sheep. The number of inspections does not mean an equal
number of animals, for most cattle and sheep for export are inspected
twice, and so appear twice in the totals in the table.

Payers +

WORK OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT FOR ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 457

Inspections of cattle and sheep for export, 1893-1899,

| Cattle. Sheep.
| . :
Fiscal year. ee | Namber| Naber Nemes | Number
4 ro. ~ e re-
inspec- | ; tagged. | inspec- | -.
tions. jected. are jected.
Se 611,542 ie | PR BO ba oc
(Olu eee | 725,243 | 184 860,580] 135,780) |-----.=252
(Ds ee snes Re eS i ne | 657,756 | 1,080 | 324,330 | 704, O44 179
UD) a | 815, 882 1,303 | 377,639 | 733,657 893
i noo 2 Sree ee ee ee 845, 116 1,565 | 410,379 | . 348,108 189
NR ee Se te em enews | 859, 346 1,438 | 418,694 | 297,719 180
oo ce. 8 eee | 643,301 1,593 | 327,741 | 174,717 118

INSPECTION AND QUARANTINE OF IMPORT ANIMALS.

One of the first steps taken for the control of contagious diseases
among animals was the establishment of quarantine stations at the
principal Atlantic ports, where imported animals might be detained
until there was no longer any danger of the development of disease
from exposure to contagion in other countries. This system has been
extended so as to include the frontiers bordering upon both Canada
and Mexico. The stations were at first under the Treasury Depart-
ment, but soon after the organization of the Bureau of Animal Industry
they were transferred to its control. The wisdom of maintaining them
has been attested very often. When pleuro-pneumonia was eradi-
eated it was not permitted to enter again from Europe, where it was
prevalent, and rinderpest, which almost annihilated the herds of
South Africa, was not allowed to gain a foothold here. Toot-and-
mouth disease had appeared several times, but was turned back
through the vigilance of the Bureau inspectors.

The records kept at these quarantine stations give the date of arriv-
als of animals, port of shipment, name of breed, number received,
and name and address of importer. Large numbers of cattle and
sheep come in from Mexico and also from Canada for feeding pur-
poses, but those landed at the Eastern seaboard are principally for
breeding, and are not in large numbers.

INSPECTION OF VESSELS THAT CARRY EXPORT CATTLE.

Reference has already been made to the fact that the Texas fever
regulations governing interstate transportation of live stock were so
efficient as to operate to reduce the losses usually occurring among
export cattle. The reduction was so marked that the chief of the
Bureau was enabled to say in his report for 1890 that—

On the who’e the effect of these regulations has been extremely beneficial. As
compared with former years, but a small amount of the disease has been reported
either in the United States or among cattle abroad. The losses during the ocean
voyage have been so much less than usual that insurance is said by shippers to
have been reduced over 50 percent. If this statement is correct, ii means a saving
of over a million of dollars to our shippers by this reduction of insurance alone.

458 ‘YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

There continued to be losses at sea, however, that seemed to be
unnecessary, and which were due in most eases to the improper con-
struction of the ships engaging in the trade. The ventilation was
very bad, proper facilities for feeding and watering were wanting,
space was badly overcrowded, the ships were sometimes unseaworthy,
and the attendants were often inexperienced and worthless. While
all this was bad enough, there never were such cruelties practiced as
were charged in English papers and documents, inspired partly by
sensationalism and partly by commercial interests. However, the
defects mentioned and many other similar ones in connection with the
ocean transportation of cattle were such as might easily be avoided
under proper supervision. This power of supervision was given by
the act of March 3, 1891, by which the Secretary of Agriculture was
authorized to examine all vessels which are to carry export cattle from
the ports of the United States to foreign countries, and to prescribe
by rules and regulations or orders the accommodations which said
vessels shall provide for export cattle “as to space, ventilation, fit-
tings, food, and water supply, and such other requirements as he may
decide to be necessary for the safe and proper transportation and
humane treatment of such animals.” Regulations were formulated
in accordance with this act which were acceptable to the British Goy-
ernment. They were modified from time to time as necessities arose,
until now they appear to be all that can be desired. ‘The first result
of their rigid enforcement was to drive the poorer class of ships out of
the trade. Magnificent steel ships were construeted for the cattle
traffic, having every convenience, with permanent fittings built into
the vessels, and all the comforts and safety which ingenuity could
provide. The number of inspections of vessels have averaged about
900 a year.

These regulations, supplemented by the inspection of animals in
the interior of the country and their reinspection at ports of export,
insure the landing of animals in Great Britain in the best possible
condition. It is stated upon authority that, as a direct result of these
improved conditions, the insurance rates on cattle have been reduced
from $8 to less than $1 per head. A saving of $7 per head on the
397,879 exported in 1898 amounts to $2,785,153, while the expense was
less than $50,000. The work should, in addition, be credited with the
improved condition of live animals delivered.

It is interesting in this connection to note the percentage of losses
at sea of cattle and sheep since this work was undertaken by the
Bureau. The table on the next page gives the figures.

=.
‘

WORK OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT FOR ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 459

Percentages of losses of cattle and sheep at sea, 1891-1899.

Fiscal year. Cattle. | Sheep.
ls nonce ees e ee tiem sa epee senna dh rine ae aetled k Oa 1.6 | tor
hppa edhe at) Ha Ae LO EE Rees ia d 875 |. u
eng Bh AE wes te 2028 Bons so eh te) 2) Se vs ie if [peas ah
ES een eee ares ener meet See Gee olla 37 1.29
a a we cp a ee 62 | =
reir ee ON Leh ein’ ORT DUES eieied oe AM hes
1897 b “ES O20 es ws, GA Net urs. Siew. d. cepehlae epee 57 | 1.29
1898 c Ey 5 ta Fn ES > ee See ee ee 2 .8
lll ee Seas ene yy. .31 | 1.54

aincludes four and one-half months of 18990.

6 With animals shipped from Canada the losses were: Cattle, 1.88 per cent; sheep, 2.17 per cent.

ec With animals shipped from Canada the losses were: Cattle, 0.32 per cent; sheep, 1.39 per cent-

dThe loss on horses shipped was 1.11 per cent. .
On account of variation in conditions and weather, a uniformly low

percentage can not be maintained.
GENERAL INSPECTION OF ANIMALS AND THEIR PRODUCTS.

An act of Congress approved August 30, 1890, provided for the
inspection of meats for exportation, but this was supplemented on
March 3, 1891, by an act ‘‘ for the inspection of live cattle, hogs, and
the carcasses and products thereof which are the subjects of inter-
state commerce, and for other purposes.” It is doubtful if Congress,
in passing this law, contemplated the magnitude of the work and
expense thus placed upon the Bureau of Animal Industry. The
organization of a force competent to conduct a work so extensive
required years of training. It was not, therefore, until 1897 that the
chief of the Bureau was able to say that ‘‘ during the past year all
of the beef exported to Europe, and the greater part of the pork and
other meat products exported, have been inspected in accordance
with law.”

The regulations for this inspection are most rigid, and laxity in
enforcement is never permitted. The proprietors of slaughterhouses
and packing houses which prepare meat for interstate or foreign com-
merce must apply to the Secretary of Agriculture for inspection,
whereupon there is given to the establishment a number which is
used by the owners of the establishment and the inspectors to mark
all products issuing therefrom. An inspector of the Bureau is sta-
tioned at each establishment, and among his duties is the ante-mortem
examination of all animals arriving at the stock yards which are
intended for slaughter at abattoirs where the Department has estab-
lished inspection. When the inspector finds an animal unfit for
human food he fastens in his ear a metal tag stamped ‘‘ U. S., con-
demned,” and a serial number. These condemned animals are at
once removed by the owners and disposed of in accordance with State
law or municipal ordinance. Animals are condemned when found

460 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

upon ante-mortem or post-mortem examination to be affected as fol-
lows: Hog cholera; swine plague; charbon, or anthrax; rabies; malig-
nant epizootic catarrh; pyzmia and septicemia; mange or scab in
advanced stages; advanced stages of actinomycosis, or lumpy jaw;
inflammation of the lungs, the intestines, or the peritoneum; Texas
fever; extensive or generalized tuberculosis; advanced state of preg-
naney or recent parturition; any disease or injury causing elevation
of temperature or affecting the system to a degree which would make
the flesh unfit for human food; immaturity, or too young to produce
wholesome meat; emaciation and anemia sufficient to render meat
unwholesome; distemper, glanders, and farey, and other malignant
disorders; acute inflammatory lameness, and extensive fistula. Any
organ or part of a careass of an animal which is badly bruised or
affected with tuberculosis, actinomycosis, cancer, abscess, suppurating
sores, or tapeworm cyst must also be condemned.

The carcasses of animals condemned upon post-mortem examina-
tion are properly marked and then placed in a room, which is in charge
of the inspector, to remain until they can be ‘‘tanked” or removed
under supervision to a rendering establishment. If the owners
of the carcasses do not consent to such disposition the carcasses are
marked with the condemnation tag, and all express companies and
common earriers are notified of the particulars and warned not to
transport them out of the State. To remove a condemnation tag
renders one liable to prosecution.

All carcasses leaving such establishments for local, interstate, or
export trade are marked with a numbered tag or branding stamp, and
a record kept in detail. Carcasses or parts of carcasses which are to
be used for canning purposes are not to be tagged, but when shipped
from one abattoir to another the cars carrying them are sealed and
tagged on both sides. Each article of food product made from in-
spected carcasses, whether in cans, barrels, firkins, kits, boxes, or
canvas, must bear a label giving the official number of the establish-
ment from which the product came, and also containing the statement
that it has been inspected under the law. All such packages to be
shipped to any foreign country or to another State must have printed
or stenciled on the side or the top the information that it is for export
or for interstate trade, giving the official number of the establishment,
the number of pieces or pounds, the shipping marks, and the date of
the act under which inspected. The inspector then affixes the stamp
of the Department of Agriculture. Certificates are issued by the
inspector for all carcasses examined and for every consignment of
canned meats.

The appropriation acts since 1898 carry a provision ‘‘ that live horses
and the carcasses and products thereof be entitled to the same inspec-
tion as other animals, carcasses, and products thereof” that are named
in the acts. Only one abattoir for the slaughter of horses was in

WORK OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT FOR ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 461

operation during the year that regulations under this provision of law
have been in force. The number of horses inspected was 3,252, of
which number 181 were condemned on post-mortem examination. It
is required that all packages containing horse meat be so marked as
to indicate the fact, and no other animals may be slaughtered at abat-
toirs where horses are slaughtered.

The work of general meat inspection has had a wonderful growth
during thenine years of its existence. Thenumberof animals inspected
before slaughter was 3,809,459 during the fiscal year of 1892, whereas
the number for the fiscal year of 1899 was 34,405,973. The number of
abattoirs and packing houses in operation in 1891, when inspections
were begun, was 22. It increased in 1892 to 38, and in 1899 to 138.
The latter are located in forty-one cities. The following table shows
the number of animals of all kinds which have been inspected before
slaughter for abattoirs since the beginning of the work:

Number of animals inspected before slaughter for abattoirs having inspection,
1891-1899.

Fiscal year. Cattle. Calves. | Sheep. | Hogs Horses. Total.

= tees tes pee _

Sia 2 BSNS) Alpe ee | peer ee ne eee peers |e 83, 891
(ih re 3, 167,009 | 59,089 BOS, O60 fe. < 222 deen poe ee
IRC) See | 3,922,174) 92,947 BOSD c eel has) | ee 4, 885, 633
[NG A 2 ie eee | 8,862,111) 96,33 1,020,764 | 7,964,850 |..........] 12,944, 056
I 93,752, 1d | 108,940") 15.844 081! | 1B 576"Ol7 |e See 18, 783, 000
Ol oot 4,050, 011 | 213,575 | 4,710,190 | 14,801,963 |_.-.--.--- 23, 275, 739
oy tS Ade ees | 4,289,058 | 259,980 | 5,179,643 | 16,813,181 2 26, 541, 812
io! re 4,552,919 | 241,092 | 5,706,092 | 20,713, 863 |... ._.... 31, 213, 966
LT re | 4,654,842 | 245,859 | 5,718,464 | 23, 783, 576 3,232 | 34, 405, 973

While the above table shows an enormous increase in the number
of animals inspected from year to year, the number of animals rejected
has not increased in like proportion. This indicates that the farmers
of the United States are placing upon the market a healthier lot of
animals than formerly. <A table showing the different species of ani-
mals rejected upon ante-mortem and post-mortem inspections for the
period of 1896 to 1899, inclusive, is given herewith; the figures for
previous years are not considered accurate:

Nwmnber of animals rejected upon ante-mortem and post-mortem inspections,
1IS96-1899,

Fiscal year. Cattle. | Sheep. | Calves. Hogs.
CEEEUS 5 oe ye a a Ot ee 31, 113 17,550 3, 874 97,170
DVT ot ca ae eo ee ee eee as 39, 489 15, 998 3, 202 104, 393
LM) Doane eee ee Se ee ee eee 37,613 12, 902 2, 850 132, 741
Liddle .dad jciee scien ee pe eee aero een Je 86, 396 23,471 3,473 162, 953

462 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The preceding statements do not show all of the work in connection
with general meatinspection. Besides animals inspected for immediate
slaughter, many thousands are inspected for shipment to other cities
and for miscellaneous buyers. The following table shows the mag-
nitude of this work:

Number of animals inspected for shipment to other cities and for miscellaneous
buyers, 1895-1899,

Fiscal year. | Cattle. Sheep. Calves. Hogs.
Hale sen eet Pe segice dak ST ae eae | 1,083,013 | 648, 358 10,708 | 3,360, 642
TSN Sn a a lyse er a i | 3,479,512 | 1,608, 094 101, 271 7, 452, 863
LSS ees SN See eS ee ee NE 5 Pee Oe | 3, 960, 967 | 2,864, 712 189, 053 8, 753, 563
wy, dnc teoh Sites A ORE OS Canine | 4,675,318 | 4,322,195} 227,107 | 10,896,812
ASO ee es eye ee 2 ee es ee ee eet ee | 4,288,562 | 3,119,920 253, 404 10, 455, 317

MICROSCOPIC INSPECTION OF PORK.

In 1881 the importation of American pork into Germany, France,
and the principal countries of the continent of Europe was prohibited
on the assumption that it was infested with trichine, and was there-
fore injurious to health. Although it could not be shown that Ameri-
ean pork had caused disease, it being manifestly more wholesome than
European pork, and notwithstanding the most vigorous protests by
this Government, the trade was crushed and destroyed. The year
before the prohibition went into effect the United States sold to France
70,000,000 pounds of pork, and to Germany 45,000,000 pounds. For
ten years thereafter American pork was shut out of nearly every
market of continental Europe, and the prohibition was not raised
until the Bureau of Animal Industry began the microscopic inspection
and certification of pork destined for those markets. The trade had
to be built up anew over the prejudices that had been so firmly rooted,
and it has been a slow and difficult process. Vexatious and burden-
some restrictions have constantly to be met, but the trade has con-
tinued to grow notwithstanding. During the fiscal year 1892 there
were 38,152,874 pounds inspected for export, 22,025,693 pounds going
to countries requiring inspection and 16,127,176 to countries not.
requiring it, while in 1899 the total shipment was 108,928,195, of
which 108,858,149 went to countries requiring inspection and 70,046
to countries not requiring it.

The regulations for this work provide that a microscopic examina-
tion be made of all hog products which are for export to countries
requiring such examination. The following extract from the regula-
tions shows the method of operation:

When the slaughtered hog is passed into the cooling room of said establishment,
the inspector in charge, or his assistants, will take from each carcass three sam-

ples of muscle—one from the ‘‘pillar of the diaphragm,” one from the psoas
muscle, and the other from the inner aspect of the shoulder, and also from the

WORK OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT FOR ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 463

base of the tongue when that organ is retained for exportation; and said samples
will be placed in small tin boxes, and anumbered tag will be placed upon the car-
cass from which said samples have been taken, and a duplicate of said tag will be
placed in the box with said samples. The small boxes will be placed in a large
tin box provided with a lock. The'boxes containing the samples from the hogs in
the cooling room so tagged will be taken to the microscopist for such establish-
ment, who shall thereupon cause a microscopic examination of the contents of
each box containing samples to be made, and shall furnish a written report to the
inspector, giving the result of said microscopic examination, together with the
numbers of all carcasses affected with trichine. The samples of pork micre-
scopically examined shall be classified as follows:

Class A.—Samples in which there are no signs of trichine, living or dead, calci-
fied cysts, or other bodies or substances having any resemblance to trichine or
trichine cysts.

Class B.—Samples in which there are disintegrated trichine or trichine cysts,
calcified trichinze or trichinsz cysts, or bodies having any resemblance thereto.

Class C.—Samples in which there are living or dead trichinz bodies not disin-
tegrated.

All careasses coming within Class Care removed from the cooling
room and disposed of by tanking, or they may be rendered into edible
lard at .a temperature of 150° F., or made into cooked meat products
if the temperature is raised to the boiling point a sufficient time to
cook thoroughly the interior of the pieces. Carcasses belonging to
Class B are rejected for shipment to countries requiring inspection
and certification. In all this work (the microscopic examination, the
cutting up of careasses, the marking of parts, and the keeping of
records) the most careful and painstaking efforts are maintained.
The result is that the pork exported to countries which require inspec-
tion is not only absolutely free from trichine, but has never been
affected by these parasites. The amount of affected pork under
Class B and Class C is less than 2 per cent of the whole amount exam-
ined microscopieally.

The following table shows the amount of pork examined microseop-
ieally for export to countries requiring the inspection and to eountrics
not requiring it for the fiseal years 1892 to 1899, inclusive:

Pork inspected microscopically for export, 1892-1899.

..|To countries
TFiscal year. gp aa ae Sones: Total.
inspection. Tian

Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.
(spo SE a ee EES a See See epee eer ne bee 3) 16, 127,176 38, 152, 874
Lov ol eee ee Sek sod Foie ce eae i eee ene Oe 8, 059, 756 12, 617, 652 20, 677, 410
rere ere RE 8 et Bs asc l seeccdcecass| WS S59 16, 592, 818 35, 427, 937
Ob Sn ae Se eR nen eee see 39, 355, 230 5, 739, 368 45,094, 598
ener er oe ee ee ae ee ee, SE SN) | Re. 1, 403, 559 22,900, 880
Orne eee ol py at ig 952 8 eS Oe all, A ee 1,001, 783 43, 572, 855
TOONS Loe. ce cole eS Oe ae ares 120, 110, 356 161, 303 120,271, 659

Lub. 2-2. dte SB ees ee 5 Sn Se ae cop 108,858, 149 70, 046 108, 928, 195

464 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Before this work was undertaken, it was estimated that it would cost
from 15 to 50 cents per careass, but in fact the cost has been only
about 6 cents per careass. The cost per pound of the pork experted
was 0.248 cent in 1894, 0.2 cent in 1895, 0.264 cent in 1896, 0.256 cent
in 1897, 0.142 cent in 1898, and 0.182 cent in 1899. There were many
and strong objections to the work of microscopic inspection when it
was begun, but the results have been so gratifying, especially from a
commercial point of view, that not only is there little criticism, but
the applications for inspection are numerous. While there is room
for discussion of the proposition as to whether the packer or the Govy-
ernment should pay the cost of the microscopie inspection, there is no
longer any doubt of the wisdom of having the inspection made under
the supervision of the Government.

EXPERIMENTAL EXPORTS OF DAIRY PRODUCTS.

Early in the year 1897 a series of experimental exports was begun,
under the supervision of the dairy division of the Bureau of Animal
Industry, by which choice butter and cheese made in the United
States have been offered for sale in various foreign markets in ecom-
petition with the best products of like kind from other countries.
The object was to obtain information which might be of use to those
wishing hereafter to sell such products in foreign markets. By
practical operations under usual commercial conditions, although
upon a small seale, it was possible to determine the wants of different
markets, the peculiarities desirable in the products themselves or in
their form of preparation, the incidental expenses, the facilities for
transportation, the effects of long journeys, and the comparative
merits of the dairy products of this and other countries. These
experiments have been continued during the years 1897, 1898, and
1899, the shipments being made weekly most of the time and at
greater intervals for a part of it.

Special agents for the Bureau of Animal Industry have visited
foreign countries to investigate markets and determine where sales
agencies should be established. Exports have accordingly been made
to England, Germany, China, Japan, the Hawaiian Islands, Cuha,
and Puerto Rico.

These trials have resulted in showing that the markets of Great Brit-
ain are by far the best for butter and cheese from the United States, if
these productsare to beexported. They offer the most active and con-
tinuous demand, the most discriminating judgment, and the best prices.

American cheese is the equal of any found in British markets, when
it is carefully made and cured, and some lots sell at highest prices;
but collectively, it now occupies a position secondary to the Canadian
product, because of the patronage of the dairy industry by that Govy-
ernment and the official guaranty which it offers as to the purity and
uniform high quality of all cheese exported from the Dominion.

PROGRESS OF PLANT BREEDING IN THE UNITED
STATES.

By HERBERT J. WEBBER and Ernst A. BESSEY,
Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology.

INTRODUCTION.

At the beginning of the nineteenth century a few of the most
advanced scientific horticulturists were commencing to recognize that
plants, like animals, are capable of being improved by breeding.
During the century the knowledge of the factors involved in plant
breeding gradually increased and became disseminated,among prac-
tical American growers. As a natural consequence of this there
came to be a better understanding of the methods of plant breeding
and a greater appreciation of the necessity of securing varieties
adapted to loeal conditions, and therefore improved sorts of American
origin have been gradually but surely supplanting foreign varieties.

While at the beginning of this period almost all of our cultivated
fruits, cereals, vegetables, and flowers were of foreign origin, an inspee-
tion of the present trade lists shows a marked increase of native sorts
and a corresponding decrease of foreign sorts. In the case of flowers,
for the production of which artificial conditions largely are main-
tained, home-produced sorts vie in numbers with those from abroad.
In cereals and vegetables a majority of the most extensively grown
sorts are of American origin, and in fruits, upon which probably the
most attention and skill have been brought to bear and the greatest
stimulus given by well-organized societies, the native sorts have
almost entirely taken the place of the foreign ones. ‘‘In the begin-
ning of the colonization of this country,” writes Bailey, ‘‘all the
varieties of apples were of European origin. But in 1817, over 60 per
cent of the apples recommended for cultivation here were of American
origin, that is, American-grown seedlings from the original stock.
At the present time [1895], fully 90 per cent of the popular apples of
the Atlantic States are American productions.”

The same increase of American sorts has taken place in the case of
pears. As early as 1853 Hovey wrote: ‘It is certainly somewhat
remarkable, as it is surprising, that, in the course of twenty-four
years, a larger number of really fine pears have been brought to
notice, of American origin, than have been introduced from Europe in
the same time, or we think we might safely add, in the last fifty years.”
While in plums the American seedlings of the European and Japanese

pea OG 30 465

466 © YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

species rival the sorts of foreign production, the improved sorts of .
our native species and hybrids of these with the Japan and apricot
plums are rapidly increasing and will probably soon predominate in
this industry. In the cultivation of grapes, raspberries, blackberries,
etc., little advance was made until our native species were taken up
and improved. All of these have been profoundly modified and
improved as the result of merely half a century of cultivation and
breeding.

It is interesting to note that the present century has witnessed the
first introduction and wonderful amelioration of some of our now
most important plants. A striking instance of such a plant is the
tomato, which is said to have been first brought from Santo Dominge
to Philadelphia in 1798, but was not sold in the markets of that city,
according to Manning, until 1829, and did not come into general use
in the North until some years later. Tomatoes were introduced inte
Salem, Mass., by an Italian painter, Michelo Corne, in 1802; but he was
said to have had difficulty in persuading the people to eat them.
They were, however, used as an article of food in New Orleans in
1812. The wonderfui amelioration of the tomato has thus taken
place wholly within the memory of men now living, and it is not an
uncommon thing to find aged people, particularly among the pioneers
of the West, who remember when the tomato was cultivated as an
ornamental plant, but not thought to be valuable for food. The
tomato is therefore an excellent illustration of what a century of
plant breeding may accomplish.

The flowers now so extensively grown were hardly known a century
ago, when different varieties were just beginning to appear. The mod-
est chrysanthemum or the carnation of that day would hardly create
a sensation in our modern flower markets. The immense eut-flower
trade and the hosts of elegant varieties adapted thereto are the
results of less than a eentury of plant breeding. The greenhouse
has exerted a marked influence on the plants which are thus grown,
as special varieties are demanded, and the skillful cultivator breeds
and selects till he secures what is desired. In all forcing-house
industries special varieties adapted to this sort of culture have
sprung up. The changes which have already been wrought are the
wonder of naturalists and laymen alike, but the end has not yet been
reached. Everything indicates increased activity in the near future.
Recent developments, obtained by a few independent experimenters,
have forcibly called attention to the great improvements which skill
and patience may achieve in this field, and a renewed interest in such
matters is very evident throughout the country.

EARLY AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL CONDITIONS.

In the early settlement of America agriculture was limited mainly
to the cultivation of such plants as were known to the settlers in their

PROGRESS OF PLANT BREEDING. ~* £67

Old World homes. Each expedition brought seeds and plants to use
in starting agricultural industries, and subsequent importations of
desirable varieties continued to be made; hence, the attention of the
settlers was largely given to testing these experimentally to determine
their usefulness. The different conditions obtaining in America from
those found in Europe, from which latter place most of the introduced
sorts came, rendered the outcome of the early attempts very uneer-
tain. No exact record of the agricultural development during this
period exists, but it is probable that the early introduced varieties of
the various annual crops (cereals, vegetables, etc.) went through a
gradual evolution and adaptation to conditions by seed selection from
those plants and strains found to do the best. This selection, which
the settlers almost certainly exercised, probably did not have any
definite improvement or change in view other than to secure the best
and most vigorous seeds. Some of our now most important agricul-
tural crops, like corn and tobaeco, are native American plants, and
their main improvement consequently dates from the discovery of
America. In some places, however, the Indians had developed a
comparatively high state of agriculture, and many sorts of such
native cultivated plants were obtained from them, as, for example,
the Golden Sioux, King Philip, and Tuscarora races of field corn.
An early sweet corn is also recorded as having been obtained from the
Indians. According to one account it was found and introduced into
Connecticut by an officer in General Sullivan’s expedition against the
Indians in the Genesee country in 1779. According to another account
it was introduced into Massachusetts by Capt. Richard Bagnol, of
Plymouth, who obtained it from the country of the Susquehanna on
his return from the Sullivan expedition. The Six Nations, against
which the Sullivan expedition was sent, had made considerable prog-
ress in agriculture, and are known to have cultivated large fields of
corn. Besides this, they are said to have had ‘“‘ gardens of beans, peas,
turnips, cabbages, melons, carrots, parsnips, and potatoes.”

The earliest attempts at fruit growing in America were mostly
failures. The varieties grown in early days were nearly all of Euro-
pean origin. The recorded history of American horticulture may be
said not to have begun until the publication of Bernard M’Mahon’s
American Gardener’s Calendar in 1806. At this comparatively late
date native varieties had already become prominent, about 66 per
cent of the 59 varieties of apples catalogued being of American origin.
Even at this time, however, very great efforts were still being made
to extend the range of cultivated produets by introductions, the only
very definite method by which the securing of new sorts was
attempted. It was a costly experiment, however, and to a great
extent disappointing. William Kenrick, in a letter to General Dear-
born (quoted from Robert Manning), says: ‘‘From among 150 varie-
ties imported into Boston by Eben Preble, about 1805, the only

468 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

additions to the list of desirable kinds were two cherries—the Black
Tartarian and White Tartarian, and a single pear.”

If we had to-day only the apples and pears known at the beginning
of the century, the present extensive apple culture of the prairie States
and the Northwest and the pear culture of the South would be wholly
impossible. American varieties, the result both of chance discoveries
and of the most careful and complex methods of plant breeding, have
almost entirely supplanted the introduced varieties, and are destined
to become even more important. To-day we lock upon plant intro-
duction as being to a large extent a means toanend. Russian apples
are being extensively introduced, not wholly with the idea that they
may become important commercial sorts themselves, but that select
seedlings from them and hybrids between them and native varieties
may be obtained, and through these the desired hardy, cold-resistant
sorts of good quality.

In the culture of strawberries, raspberries, gooseberries, grapes, ete.,
no material progress was made until the improvement of the native
species was begun. All these fruits went through an initial stage of
depending upon foreign varieties, and following this an era of im-
provement, during which, by careful breeding of the native species
and infusion into them of the improved European blood by hybridiza-
tion, strains better adapted to American conditions were obtained.
This change from an almost total reliance upon introduced varieties
toa marked supremacy of sorts originated here has taken place almost
wholly within the past century.

EARLY METHODS OF PLANT BREEDING.

The early settlers probably practiced crude selection in growing
their plants, as anyone, whatever his degree of intelligence, will un-
consciously do. It is this unconscious selection of individual plants
through centuries that has led to the important changes whieh have
taken place in our principal cultivated plants. So marked has been
this amelioration that in very many instances the wild forms can not
now be recognized and are unknown, the most careful study of mod-
ern scientists having failed to reveal the original types.

The necessity of having varieties adapted to existing conditions
was early understood, as was also the necessity of selecting the best
seed. Manning, in the History of the Massachusetts Horticultural
Society, says: ‘‘And in 1621 the governor requested Massasoit to
exchange some of their corn, for seed, with ours, that we might judge

which best agreed with the soil where we lived. The natives were —

acquainted with the advantage of selecting the finest ears of corn for
seed, and taught the settlers to do the same. They possessed varieties
adapted to the warmer or colder parts of the country.”

We are inclined to think of plant breeding as based on old and
well-established laws. The fact is, however, that the fundamental

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899. PLATE XXXVI,

C16! aH RAIM But one
TOR oF THE 69

TWO PROMINENT EARLY PLANT BREEDERS.

principles of intelligent plant breeding were not made known until
the latter part of the eighteenth century. The sexuality of plants
was not established until proved experimentally by Camerarius in
1691, and the first hybrid of which we have any record was not made
until 1719, when Thomas Fairchild, an English gardener, crossed the
earnation with the sweet william.

Our first exact knowledge of hybrids dates from about 1761, when
Koelreuter began publishing the results of his observations. His
work was entirely scientific, however, and had but little bearing on
practical plant breeding, though it served to pave the way for the
valuable work, soon to follow, of Thomas Andrew Knight (Pl. XXX VJ),
the eminent English plant physiologist. The systematic breeding of
plants may be said to have begun with the work of Knight and Van
Mons about the beginning of the nineteenth century. Knight was the
first to show the practical value of crossing and hybridizing in the
production of plant varieties. In 1806 Knight said: ‘‘ New varieties
of every species of fruit will generally be better obtained by intro-
*ucing the farina of one variety of fruit into the blossoms of another,
inan by propagating any from a single kind.”

Another important idea emphasized by Knight, and now quite gen-
erally accepted, is that one of the principal factors causing or inducing
variation in plants is an increase of food supply or a modification
thereof.

In one sense Knight may be recognized as the father of plant breed-
ing, no other experimenter having contributed so much toward the
development of the present system. Of almost equal importance,
however, was the work of a contemporaneous Belgian horticulturist,
Jean Baptiste Van Mons, who emphasized mainly the principle of
selection. His theories were published in various papers, but mostly
in his Arbres Fruitiers in 1855. His method of obtaining new varie-
ties of fruit was to gather seeds from young trees in a state of varia-
tion, taking the fruits before they were fully ripe and allowing them
to rot, with the idea that this would tend to ‘‘subdue or enfeeble”
the tree, a factor which he thought to be of primary importance.
These seedlings were then grown in a seed bed until they were large
enough to enable him to judge of their character. He then selected
the promising ones and planted them in nursery form a few feet apart,
where they could be fruited on their own roots. When these selected
seedlings fruited, seeds were taken from the first fruits of the most
promising and sown, the same process of selection being exercised in
this second generation, and so on through several or many genera-
tions of selection till success was attained. The whole process is
expressed in his own words as follows: ‘‘To sow, to re-sow, to sow
again, to sow perpetually, in short to do nothing but sow, is the prac-
tice to be pursued, and which can not be departed from; and in short
this is the whole secret of the art I have employed.”

PROGRESS OF PLANT BREEDING. 469

470 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

As to the theory of selection, time has justified Van Mons’s conelu-
sions, with some modifications, but some of the ideas he advanced
have been abandoned. He claimed that the older varieties of good
fruit generally yield inferior seedling sorts, while new inferior varie-
ties reproduced uninterruptedly for several generations would cer-
tainly yield good fruit. In these claims the results of recent years
have shown him to have been somewhat in error. The general theory
now advanced and used is to select seed for planting from the best
fruits of the best tree of the best variety.

The importance of selection in improving varieties was well recog-
nized before the publieation of Van Mons’s great work above referred
to, and while the main credit of establishing the principle of selee-
tion is due to Van Mons, yet other independent workers accomplished
nearly as important results. Bailey, in his Survival of the Unlike,
called attention to the work done by Joseph Cooper, of New Jersey,
in the closing years of the last century. Cooper’s observations, re-
eorded in a letter written in 1799 and published in the first volume of
the Memoirs of the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture,
show that he thoroughly understood the action of selection in produe-
ing changes in varieties. As an illustration, he says: “A striking
instance of plants being naturalized happened by Colonel Matlaek
sending some watermelon seed from Georgia, which, he informed me
by letter, were of superior quality. MKnowing that seed from vegeta-
bles which had grown in more southern climates, required a longer
summer than what grew here, I gave them the most favorable situa-
tion, and used glasses to bring them forward, yet very few ripened to
_ perfection; but finding them to be as excellent in quality as described,
I saved seed from those first ripe; and by continuing that practice four
or five years, they became as early watermelons as I ever had.”

It is probable that many other advanced horticulturists of that
period understood and used seleetion in an intelligent manner. The
directions given in 1822 by James Thatcher, in his American Orehard-
ist, for the selection of seeds in attempting to produce improved
sorts, would be regarded to-day as better than the recommendations
given by Van Mons. ‘‘The seeds for planting,” Thatcher wrote,
*‘should always be selected from the most highly cultivated fruit, and
the fairest and ripest specimen of such variety.” Thatcher also
described Knight’s method of forcing seedlings into fruit by grafting
them, and the use of hybridization in the production of varieties. It
will thus be seen that even at this early date (1822) the fundamental
principles of plant breeding had apparently become the common prop-
erty of American agriculturists and horticulturists.

EVOLUTION OF METHODS OF PLANT BREEDING DURING THE
NINETEENTH CENTURY.

It has been seen that the fundamental laws of plant breeding were
fairly well understood at the beginning of the century and had come

PROGRESS OF PLANT BREEDING. A471

to be expounded in horticultural text-books and papers. It must be
borne in mind, however, that it requires years for scientific principles
to become thoroughly understood and widely disseminated, so that
they form a part of common practice. The early native varieties
were largely chance seedlings, and there now seem to be very many
choice fruits—pears, apples, grapes, ete.—which originated in this way.
However, thousands and even millions of worthless wiid seedlings, of
which we have no record, have grown and perished, and in reality
only one here and there excels and survives.

During the first fifty years of the century almost the sole method
of breeding was to select seeds from the best fruits and raise numer-
ous seedlings, which, when they fruited, were carefully examined, and
those selected for further propagation which produced desirable fruits,
of better quality than the parent sorts. One of the earliest syste-
matic attempts of this sort known to the writers is thus deseribed in
the Magazine of Horticulture of 1847: ‘‘In the fall of 1817, and in the
following spring, Governor Edwards planted the seeds of pears, with
the design of obtaining new and superior varieties of this fruit. In
doing so, he selected the seeds of the best which could be procured,
including many sorts, but the number was then very limited compared
with our day.” This being one of the first systematic attempts in
this country to secure improved sorts, it was largely ridiculed. The
results obtained, however, were of great value, as from some forty
trees thus produced several fairly good sorts were secured, among
them being the Calhoun, Elizabeth, Dallas, Henrietta, and Citron.

In early days, furthermore, up to the fifties, orchards were to some
extent made up of ungrafted seedlings. When a particularly good
fruit was produced its seeds were carefully preserved and planted,
and some varieties were reproduced in the main true to seed. Immense
numbers of seedling apples were thus grown, and furnished exeellent
opportunity for selection, but only a few produced superior fruit or
new varieties. In 1845 Rev. Henry Ward Beecher wrote from Indiana
to the Magazine of Horticulture: ‘‘An immense number of seedling
trees are found in our State. Since the Indiana Horticultural Society
began to collect specimens of these, more than 150 varieties have been
sent up for inspection. * * * Of all the number presented, not
six have vindicated their claims to a name or place—and not more
than three will probably be known ten years hence.”

Improvement by selection, in the strictest sense of the term, has
been employed mostly with annual plants, such as wheat, corn, cotton,
ete., and the methods used have been gradually perfected in different
industries, until in some, as in the sea-island cotton, all growers make
annual selections with the utmost care to maintain and perfect the
strain they grow. Very careful methods of selection have also been
devised to develop and improve corn, and many of the most produc-
tive and valuable races are the result of continuous selection through

472 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

numerous generations. In such selection the greatest care is taken
to secure impregnation with pollen from vigorous, productive plants.
To insure this the field in which selections are being made is carefully
gone over when the first silks and tassels begin to appear, and all stalks
are cut out which are not vigorous and well formed and which do not
show indications of being productive. By this practice it is brought
about that fertilization is effected by pollen from vigorous, productive
stalks only. The final selections are made in the field when the corn
ripens, the seed ears being taken from the most productive and vigor-
ous stalks that are true to the type that the breeder is selecting to
establish.

In selecting wheat to improve the strain the early attempts were
mainly confined to simply taking the largest grains—a practice which
is now recognized as failing in the primary factor of considering the
productivity and vigor of the individual plant. Many experimenters
in this country have worked on the improvement of wheat by selec-
tion, but in general with rather indifferent success. Recently, how-
ever, Professor Hays, of the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion, has used a very careful method of selecting wheat, grown in
nursery form, which has given valuable results.

Hybridization and cross-fertilization in improving plants were very
little utilized in the first half of the century. Knight had started
the leaven, however, and in some directions it had shown results:
The idea gradually became current that there was too much chance
in raising seedlings of unknown parentage. Still, as late as 1857, we
find the Rural New Yorker giving the following directions in regard
to raising new fruits: ‘‘Eminent pomologists disagree on this subject.
Our advice, however, is to plant the best seeds of the finest varieties,
take good care of the plants, and trust to Providence for the result.”
Considerably before this time, however, the most advanced plant
breeders had given rather different directions. In 1836 A. J. Down-
ing, one of America’s best-known pomologists, wrote: ‘‘Assuming Pro-
fessor Van Mons to be strictly correct, we would suggest that a great
saving of time and a considerable improvement in quality and vigor,
might be gained by calling in cross fertilization to the aid of the eulti-
vator, as soon as the fruit of the trees (say the second generation)
begins to show symptoms of amelioration. By impregnating them
with the pollen of the finest varieties, we conceive that the next gen-
eration would produce excellent fruit, and at a saving of twenty or
thirty: years.” In 1844 C. M. Hovey, one of the most successful of
all American horticulturists in the production of improved sorts,
said with regard to the grape: ‘‘ Without stopping to institute an
inquiry into the merits of his [Van Mons] theory, compared with that
of artificial impregnation, as practiced by Mr. Knight and others, we
shall recommend to those who would raise seedlings, the importance
of commencing with the Isabella or Catawba, for one of the parents,

PROGRESS OF. PLANT BREEDING. 473

and impregnating them with the Sweet Water, Chasselas, or some other
early foreign variety. The results will be obtained in a shorter
period, and, we believe, equally as favorable as by the method of suc-
cessive generations alone.” In 1860 Marshall P. Wilder, in his presi-
dential address before the American Pomological Society, gave advice
regarding the origination of varieties in almost exactly the same
words that might be used to-day: ‘‘It was my first, so it shall be my
- eontinual and last advice ;—Plant the most mature and perfect seed of
the most hardy, vigorous, and valuable varieties, and, as a shorter
process, ensuring more certain and happy results, cross or hybridize
your best fruits.”

The first record which we have been able to find of the production
of a hybrid variety in America is given by Manning, in the History of
the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, as follows: ‘‘ Probably the
first attempt in this country to produce a new fruit by cross-fertiliza-
tion was by William Prince, who raised the Prince’s St. Germain [ pear]
from seed of the old St. Germain impregnated by the White Doyenne,
about 1806.” One of the most successful early attempts in using
hybridization was by C. M. Hovey, in the improvement of the straw-
berry, his first hybrid seedlings having been brought to notice in
1838. He was eminently successful in obtaining good varieties by
this method, and his success led to the extensive use of hybridization
in the improvement of this fruit.

In this connection, it is interesting to note that a striking success
achieved by any intelligent cultivator in producing valuable varieties
of any plant has often led to the general adoption of his particular
methods by other breeders of the same plant. Van Mons’s success in
originating pears by selection led to this method being mainly used in
breeding this fruit. Allen’s success, in 1854, in producing a good
hybrid grape doubtless stimulated the adoption of this method in
preference to other methods in improving the grape.

Since the middle of the century the advance in methods of improy-
ing plants has been altogether in minor factors. The early hybridizers
often used a mixture of pollen, believing that it was possible for the
same seed to be influenced by pollen from several varieties, or species.
The details of the process of fecundation were not well worked out at
that time, and it is not surprising that early experimenters frequently
erred in their conclusions and were thus led to pursue false methods.
With the gradual increase in knowledge of the methods of fecundation
the idea of the effectiveness of using two kinds of pollen at the same
time was abandoned, and in casting about for other methods of secur-
ing the results sought growers evidently began the practical use of
compound hybrids, as the method came into practice about this time.
Numerous hybrid rhododendrons, begonias, ete., contain the blood of
several species, mingled with the definite idea of securing in the off-
spring certain characteristics from each parent. Compound hybrids

474 ‘YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

have been particularly valuable in grapes, among the numerous excel-
lent sorts of such hybrids being Lady Washington, Brighton, and
Brilliant.

Another important factor in the application of hybridization to
securing improved strains, and one which has but very recently become
prominent, is the securing of what have been termed dilute hybrids,
that is, hybrids containing more blood of cne variety than of the other.
If in any hybrid the character of one of the parents is found to be too
pronounced to give a successful combination, it is crossed with the
other parent, the result being a three-fourths hybrid, that is, a hybrid
deriving three-fourths of its characters from one of the original parents
and one-fourth from the other.

The value of selecting distinct parents and introducing new species
into combination with old ones was early recognized, but mainly
among florists, where a change of color was desired. In 1836 Hovey
called attention to the change in color produced in calceolarias by the
introduction of a different-colored species. ‘‘It was not until the
introduction of a purple species, C. purpurea, in 1827,” writes Hovey,
“‘that any variation took place in the color of the flowers; the pre-
viously introduced ones being yellow, of course no other shade was
produced until the impregnation of the former with the latter. At
the present time, however, plants are to be found of almost every tint,
from the palest yellow to deep orange, and from light red to bright
scarlet, as also, two or three of these shades distinct in the same
flower.” The results of more recent work have emphasized the
importanee of using very distinet parents when marked changes or
new creations are desired. The improved strains of begonias and
roses resulting from the introduction of Begonia socotrana, Rosa
rugosa, and R. wichuraiana, and Burbank’s walnut hybrids (crosses
of Juglans californica, J. regia, and J. nigra) illustrate the impor-
tance of this practice. This has led in recent years to the extensive
introduction of and experiments with various wild species of common
cultivated plants, and the field here opened to the horticulturists and
florists is one of promise.

The importance of growing hybrids through several or at least twe
generations, in order to secure greater Variation, particularly where
the hybrid is from widely distinct parents, was scientifically demon-
strated by Naudin and Nigeli in 1865. The practical importance of
this discovery, however, has come to be thoroughly understood and
appreciated by American plant breeders only in the closing years of
the century.

In very recent years there has been much discussion of the ques-
tion of the improvement of certain cultivated plants by selection of
the vegetative parts used in propagation. It seems to have been
proved beyond question that certain plants can be greatly modified in
this way, particularly as to vigor and productiveness. This method

Se

PROGRESS OF PLANT BREEDING. 475

of improvement seems likely to play a very important part in the

future by aiding to secure strains of standard sorts suitable for

growth in special localities and varying but slightly from the original
varieties.

IMPROVEMENTS EFFECTED DURING THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

In the present paper it is possible to call attention to only a few of
the most important improvements illustrative of the advances made
in certain fields of agriculture and hortieulture. In early days, as
previously indicated, the majority of the native varieties introduced
were merely chance seedlings, which grew uneared for until their
good qualities were discovered, when they were brought into cultiva-
tion. The sorts obtained in this way are not primarily due to plant
breeding, being simply the result of intelligent choice of chance-sown
plants, yet some of these varieties have had a marked influence on
the development of certain industries. Of far greater importance,
however, has been the introduction of varieties which have been pro-
duced by careful methods of selection, carried through from one to
many generations.

Hybridization also has already had a very marked effect in the
development of many cultivated plants, and in the future it will
doubtless be extensively utilized in securing desired modifications.

™
IMPROVEMENT IN GRAPES.

The grape has been very much improved by American cultivators
and furnishes an excellent illustration of the great amelioration which
may be obtained in a comparatively short period. For many years
after the settlement of America the only grapes cultivated were of
European origin. Numerous trials, however, proved that these were
not hardy in Eastern America, and that they soon succumbed to
attacks of Phylloxera and other diseases. Curiously enough the
native American grapes, which were found in great abundance
throughout the eastern part of the country and attracted consider-
able attention, were for years neglected, and it was only after the
failure of the European sorts had been demonstrated that the native
sorts were brought into cultivation. The first of these to attain
prominence was the now famous Catawba, which was found wild in
North Carolina in 1802, and was brought into general notice by Maj.
John Adlum, of Georgetown, D. C. <A few years later the Isabella,
another wild grape, was introduced, and after the suecess of these
two sorts had been demonstrated many other wild forms were brought
into cultivation.

Apparently very little systematic effort was made to improve the
grape until the appearance of Pond’s Seedling in 1835. The time of
its introduction is worthy of notice as being the beginning of a period
of planting seeds of the native species for the purpose of making
selections.

476 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The greatest advance in grape culture in this country is without
doubt due to the famous Concord, which was also produced by selee-
tion. About the year 1840, Mr. Ephraim Bull, of Concord, Mass.
(Pl. XXXVI), found growing on his grounds a wild grapevine, which
Was apparently a seedling from some wild grapes that had been
scattered about his place by boys the preceding year. He took up the
vine and moved it to his garden, giving it good care until it fruited
in 1848, the fruit, which was of good quality, ripening as early as the
latter part of August. He was so impressed with the superior quality
of this fruit and the lack of foxy flavor that ‘‘ the idea at once oceurred
to him that another generation would be a still greater improvement.”
Following this out, he planted seeds of this grape, obtaining a num-
ber of seedlings. One of these, which fruited first in 1849, was so
markedly superior to the others that it alone was preserved, later being
named the Coneord. This grape, because of its vigor, produetiveness,
and fine quality, at once became very popular. -Notonly has the variety
proved of great value itself, but it has been the parent of a great num-
ber of varieties, many of them of considerable merit. Probably the
best known of these are the Worden and Moore’s Early. Mr. Bull con-
tinued to plant seeds of the Concord year after year until he had pro-
duced over twenty-two thousand seedlings, but of these there were
only twenty-one which he recommended for cultivation, and none of
them have become as popular as the parent variety.

In the last twenty years very many varieties of the grape have
been produced, but no select seedlings of striking importance have
appeared, the good new varieties being mainly hybrids. In this con-
nection it is worthy of notice that the grape owes more to hybridiza-
tion than does any other fruit. The Delaware grape, which is even
yet a standard of excellence, is probably a natural hybrid, containing
some blood of the fine European grape. This was found in a garden
of foreign grapes in New Jersey about the year 1850, but received its
name from Delaware, the Ohio town in which it was first brought to
general notice. It is undoubtedly the best of our chance seedlings,
and was the last introduced that proved of much merit.

Many of our most widely cultivated varieties of grapes, such as the
Salem, Niagara, Brilliant, ete., which are common sorts in the mar-
kets, are the results of careful hybridization. The first hybrid grape
produced in this country, known as Allen’s Hybrid, was introduced in
1854, and was a cross of the Isabella with a European variety, sup-
posedly Golden Chasselas. This is the epoch-making grape as far as
hybrids are concerned. It was regarded with much interest because
of its fine quality and appearance, and while the bright hopes regard-
ing it were never realized, it was of the greatest importance, as it
served to stimulate the improvement of grapes by hybridization.
Shortly after this E. 8. Rogers, of Roxbury, Mass., began introducing
his new hybrid varieties, the first being sent out in 1856. His Salem

PROGRESS OF PLANT BREEDING. ATT

is an excellent chestnut-colored sort, and is probably the most exten-
sively grown of any hybrid grape. Rogers was closely followed by
Ricketts, Burr, Caywood, Moore, Rommel, Stayman, and several
others, who were very active in the production of new sorts, mainly
hybrids, and more recently still, by T. V. Munsen, of Denison, Tex.,
who has probably conducted the work on a more extensive seale eal
any other experimenter in this field. Munson has already sent out
thirty-six new varieties, for the most part hybrids, and is still actively
engaged in the work.

A tabulation of the grapes deseribed in Bush & Son & Meissner’s
Grape Grower’s Manual shows that, of 554 varieties described, 287 are
hybrids, 141 select seedlings, 57 chance seedlings, 68 of unknown ori-
gin, and 1 a sport. Considering those of known parentage, 59 per
cent are hybrids, 29 per cent select seedlings, and 12 per cent chance
seedlings. These figures show the marvelous extent to which hybrid-
ization has affected the improvement of the grape.

IMPROVEMENT IN PEARS.

One of the first native yarieties of pears to be introduced was the
Seckel, which has remained to the present time our standard of excel-
lence. It was found near Philadelphia during the eighteenth cen-
tury, apparently being a chance seedling. Many other early native
varieties introduced were obtained in this way, among them Tyson,
Andrews, and the Columbia Virgoulouse, the last named remaining
a popular pear for a considerable time. It was not long, however,
before the practice of planting seeds of the best fruits and selecting
from the resulting seedlings came to he adopted in the improvement
of the pear. One of the first attempts of this kind to attract attention
was that of Governor Edwards, of Connecticut, as mentioned elsewhere.
Probably the most systematic and successful attempt at growing seed-
lings for selection was that made by Mr. Dana, of Massachusetts. He
planted seeds of the best varieties and raised five or six thousand
seedlings, from which he obtained many good varieties, the best being
Dana’s Hovey, introduced about 1860. It is worthy of note that Dana
always planted the seeds of the best varieties, a practice directly oppo-
site to Van Mons’s theory, and yet succeeded in producing many good
sorts.

The pear owes but little of its development to artificially produced
hybrids, and yet in no other fruit have hybrids played such an impor-
tant role. The Kieffer, Le Conte, and Garber, all widely-grown com-
mercial pears, through which this industry has been greatly extended,
are naturally-produced hybrids of the European pear and the Chinese
sand pear.

The European pear, noted for its excellent quality, sueceeds admir-
ably on the Pacific coast, but has never proved wholly satisfactory in
the Eastern States, and can not be successfully grown on a commercial

478 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

seale south of Virginia. The Chinese sand pear comes from a region
having climatie conditions very similar to those of the Eastern and
Southern States, and thus finds here a congenial home. The fruit
is of poor quality, however, and the variety is grown only as an orna-
mental tree and for stocks on which to bud other sorts. The Kieffer
and Le Conte are both seedlings of the Chinese sand pear, and from
their characters show that the seeds from which they grew must have
been accidentally crossed with the pollen of some good variety of the
European pear. It is probably to the father parent, the European
pear, that is due the improved quality of the fruit, while the vigor and
adaptability to growth in warm climates evidently come from the
mother parent, the sand pear. These hybrid sorts practically reyolu-
ticnized pear culture in the Eastern United States, extending the limit
of profitable commercial pear growing several hundred miles south-
avard. From Virginia to Florida these varieties grow luxuriantly and
have practically driven out all other sorts. Even as far north as
Philadelphia the Kieffer is by far the most important commercial
yariety.
IMPROVEMENT IN APPLES,

Among apples, as in the case of pears, the variety that is consid-
ered to be a standard of excellence, the famous Newtown Pippin, was
obtained as a chance seedling. It was introduced to notice about
two hundred years ago. The Baldwin apple, which has exercised
such an important influence on the apple industry, was also a chance
seedling, which sprang up about 1742 on the farm of Mr. John Ball,
in eastern Massachusetts, and was brought into general notice by a
Colonel Baldwin, from whom it took its name. This apple proved to
be of such importance that its origin has recently been commemo-
rated by the erection of a monument on the spot where the original
tree stood.

Many other chance seedlings have proved to be of great value, but
a large proportion of the varieties of most importance, obtained dur-
ing the nineteenth century, are the results of selection either of
seedlings grown for the purpose or from seedling orchards. Of these
may be mentioned the Northern Spy, originated in New York about
1800; the Jonathan, introduced in 1829; the Summer Bellflower, and
many others.

One of the important problems which has recently taxed the skill
of apple breeders has been to secure varieties suitable for growth in
the northwest prairie region. The Wealthy apple, the first variety
to meet this condition, furnishes one of the most striking examples of
improvement in apples effected by planting numerous seeds and
selecting from the seedlings. About the year 1855 Mr. Peter M.
Gideon, of Minnesota, began fruit culture, planting fruit trees of
various kinds, among them thirty named varieties of apples, and also
a bushel of apple seeds. Each succeeding year for nine years he

PROGRESS OF PLANT BREEDING. 479

planted more trees and also enough seeds to produce about a thou-
sand trees each year, but the cold winters kept killing them off until
at the end of the ten years there was left only one small seedling crab.

All of Mr. Gideon’s neighbors gave up the attempt to grow fruit,

eharacterizing it as an impossibility, and urged him to do the same,
but he persisted and sent to Bangor, Me., for scions and seeds. From
the seeds of the Cherry Crab thus obtained one seedling proved hardy
and was named the ‘‘ Wealthy.” Upon these varieties the apple cul-
ture of the northern Mississippi River region has been built. Within
very recent years there has been great activity in hybridizing our
different varieties of the apple with the varieties of Russian apples
recently introduced and with the native wild crab, the objeet being
to obtain hardier varieties. This line of experiment, started in the
closing years of the century, will probably in a few years yield results
of the greatest practical value.

IMPROVEMENT IN PLUMS.

For many years plum culture in America was almost entirely limited
to the cultivation of introduced varieties of the European plum, but

Fic. 22.—Plums showing difference between hybrid and parent: Hybrid plum Golden at right
and mother parent Robinson at left, natural size (after Burbank).

little attention being given to the origination of native sorts, as, in the
main, the finer foreign sorts succeed fairly well in the limited area in

_ which the European plum can be grown. Nevertheless, some attempts

were made, and in Canada Henry Corse grew thousands of seedlings

480 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

for several years previous to 1840 with the hope of procuring something
which would excel existing varieties. From this great number he
selected several which promised well, and to four, of whose excellent
quality there was no doubt, he gave the names Dictator, Victoria,
Colonel Wetherell, and Nota Bena. About the middle of the century
the value of our native species came to be recognized. Many selected
chance seedlings were brought into cultivation, and it is to these that
we owe the development of our native species of plums, nearly all the
best-known varieties of which were obtained in this manner,

It is only recently that any attempt has been made to improve our
plums by artificial hybridization, and this attempt has been brought
about mainly by the introduction of the Japan plum (Prunus tri-
flora), which has entered into most of the valuable combinations
thus far produced. The first Japan plum grown in this country, the
Kelsey, was not introduced until 1870. The great activity in intro-
ducing the Japanese varieties and crossing them with American sorts
did not begin, however, until several years later, but, according to
Professor Waugh, the Japan plum already constitutes one parent of
twenty-seven hybrids which have been found valuable and named.
The introduction of this plum and its use in hybridization bids fair to
be of the greatest importance to the plum industry. Luther Burbank,
of California, was the pioneer in plum hybridization, and has pro-
duced very many valuable sorts, such as the Golden (fig. 22), Juicy,
and America (crosses of Robinson with Botan). The apricot plum,
another species, has also been used a number of times by American
experimenters in crossing with the Japan plum, and has yielded such
fine combinations as the Climax, Chaleo, Late Conical, and probably
the Wickson, all of which were produced by Burbank. Some valu-
able hybrids of our native species have also been produced, but they
are not so promising as hybrids with the Japan plums.

IMPROVEMENT IN RASPBERRIES,

The varieties of raspberries cultivated in this country are almost
entirely of the native species, it having been found difficult to grow
the European varieties. Accordingly, we find that our first varieties
are derived mostly from wild plants picked up in the woods and the
fields and brought into cultivation. Among those thus cultivated,
probably the first to be named and generally distributed was the
so-called English Red, which was really a native American variety.
Among other chance seedlings are the Ohio Everbearing, Catawissa,
and Cuthbert. The last named was found growing in a garden in
Riverdale, N. Y., in the latter part of the seventies, and soon became
a popular sort.

The systematic improvement of the raspberry by growing seedlings
for selection was much retarded by the earlier growers of this fruit
attempting to make use of the European instead of the native species.

7

PROGRESS OF PLANT BREEDING. 481

In the meantime, however, many wild plants of the American species
were domesticated on farms and in gardens. Among the early experi-
menters with this fruit was Dr. Brincklé, of Philadelphia, who pro-
duced a great many varieties, but only one which proved important.
This was the Brincklé’s Orange, produced in 1844, from an English sort
known as Dyark’s Seedling. It has proved to bea very popular berry,
and has been widely grown, being one of the very few varieties of the
European species to prove hardy in America. Soon there appeared
other varieties, many of them being seedlings of foreign sorts, but prob-
ably in many cases accidentally crossed with the native species. Most
of the varieties now grown, however, are improved varieties of the
American species.

In the last quarter of the century several valuable hybrids have been
introduced which have become popular sorts. Among these may be
mentioned the Dictator (Gregg crossed with Schaffer) and the Caroline
(Brineklé’s Orange crossed with Black Cap).

IMPROVEMENT IN BLACKBERRIES,

The blackberry, as a cultivated plant, is entirely an American pro-
duction, and we owe nothing to the European plant breeders so far as
it is concerned. All the earlier varieties were merely wild plants
taken up and set out in the garden. One of the first attempts to
improve the blackberry was that by Mr. Lovett, of Massachusetts, who
for many years attempted to find good plants and bring them into cul-
tivation. It was not until 1850, however, that the Dorchester, the first
variety to be named, was introduced. In 1854 a berry was introduced
that marked an epoch in blackberry culture, and showed what the
fruit was capable of becoming. This was the Lawton, or New Rochelle,
as it isoften called. It was found by the roadside near New Rochelle,
N. Y., and was introduced by Mr. Lawton. This berry long remained.
popular, but its place was finally taken by Wilson’s Early, also found
as a wild plant.

The culture of the blackberry is still in its infaney, and compara-
tively little attention has been given to its improvement. Quite a
number of hybrid varieties, such as Iceberg, Autumn King, Minne-
waska, ete., have been introduced, but none have as yet become very
well known.

The raspberry and blackberry have been repeatedly hybridized by
experimenters like Burbank and Carman, and some suggestive results
obtained. Burbank’s series of raspberry-blackberry hybrids are in
many respects the most remarkable ever produced between distinct
species. The most noteworthy of these hybrids are Primus (Western
dewberry crossed with Siberian raspberry), Paradox (Crystal White
blackberry crossed with Schaffer raspberry), and Humboldt (Improved
California Wild dewberry crossed with Cuthbert raspberry). Bur-
bank, in speaking of the Primus, says: ‘‘It is also remarkable that

tA 99 31

482 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the hybrid should ripen its fruit several weeks before either of the
parents, and excel them much in productiveness and size of fruit,
though retaining the general appearance and combined flavors of
both.” The Paradox was the only one retained out of some forty
thousand hybrid seedlings.

IMPROVEMENT IN STRAWBERRIES.

Strawberry culture in this country was conducted on a small seale
at first because no varieties well suited to the climatic conditions
were known. Many were tried without success, especially the Keen’s
Seedling, which was represented as very promising; but while it was
an exceedingly valuable berry in England, its place of origin, it failed
to fulfill the expectations of those who imported it into this country.
After eultivating this and many other sorts of more or less note, Mr.
C. M. Hovey, an eminent American pomologist, became satisfied that
there existed in this country at that time no variety possessing the
qualities necessary to make its
cultivation profitable. ‘‘ There
seemed to be wanting,” says
Hovey, ‘‘a variety combining the
qualities of two or more of these,
and we set out upon the experi-
ment of attaining this desirable
result, determined, if time would
allow, to pursue it until our ob-
ject was accomplished.” He pre-
pared plants of seven distinct va-
rieties, and in 1853 made six series
of crosses, having first carefully
removed the stamens from the
flowers to be pollinated, so as to prevent self-fertilization. The fol-
lowing year the resulting seeds were planted and produced plants of
very varied appearance and characteristics. Only a few of these sur-
passed the best of the parent varieties, but one in the size and num-
ber of its berries, as well as in fine flavor, excelled anything known in
this country. This plant was kept under observation six years, at the
end of which period, having fulfilled the expectations of its producer,
it was put on the market under the name of Hovey’s Seedling (fig. 23).

The effect of the production of this berry was truly wonderful, and
resulted in making strawberry culture popular and profitable. Other
experimenters began to make crosses and to grow new sorts, but in
spite of the almost innumerable varieties thus produced Hovey’s Seed-
ling remained the leading berry for almost thirty years. It is worthy
of note that although it was probably the most famous variety ever
produced, it is now extinct, it being impossible to obtain typical plants.

Fic. 23.—Hovey’s Seedling strawberry, half natu-
ral size (from the Magazine of Horticulture).

PLaTE XXXVII.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899

IMPROVEMENT OF THE NATIVE GOOSEBERRY: 1, RIBES OXYACANTHOIDES, WILD FORM:
2, HOUGHTON GOOSEBERRY, SEEDLING OF THE WILD Form; 3, DOWNING GOOSEBERRY,
SEEDLING OF THE HOUGHTON. (ALL NATURAL SIZE, ADAPTED FROM BAILEY.)

PROGRESS OF PLANT BREEDING. 483

The Wilson, which supplanted it, is itself being gradually supplanted
by other sorts, and will probably eventually disappear. Among the
varieties produced from Hovey’s Seedling may be mentioned Moya-
mensing Pine, which in 1849 was awarded the prize offered by the
Philadelphia Horticultural Society for the best new berry. This was
in turn the parent of many other varieties, some of which were of
considerable merit.

Hybridization has been the favorite method of producing new
varieties of strawberries, perhaps because the first successful variety
was obtained in this way. Among the recent hybrids may be men-
tioned the Hunn, which also illustrates the difficulty of systematic
breeding, it being the only one deemed worthy of preservation out of
about seventeen hundred hybrid seedlings tested.

IMPROVEMENT IN GOOSEBERRIES.

As in the case of most other fruits, the first varieties of gooseberries
grown in this country were of foreign origin. However, these mil-
dewed very badly, especially when their cultivation became more gen-
eral; hence, in the course of time the growing of this fruit was almost
totally abandoned. Soon the native species began to attract atten-
tion, however, and one of the first varieties to be described was
Houghton’s Seedling, produced near Lynn, Mass., about 1845, from
the wild gooseberry. A few years later Mr. Downing, of New York,
produced from this already popular variety the Downing, a seedling
which has since become extremely popular. The Houghton and Down-
ing, compared with the wild type from which they sprang, furnish an
interesting illustration of the evolution of a native wild plant. (PIL.
XXXVII.) Since then a number of seedling varieties of good quality
have been produced, and have come to be quite extensively culti-
vated. However, now that the use of fungicides has become general,
the English varieties are again coming into cultivation, and it is
still a question whether the advantage gained by the American varie-
ties, owing to the exclusion of the former by mildew for so many years,
willenable the American sorts to retain their supremacy.

IMPROVEMENT IN VEGETABLES.

THE TOMATO.—The tomato illustrates well what can be accom-
plished by careful breeding. In the early part of the century the
races of tomatoes had mostly small and lobed fruits, but in the course
of fifty years or more of selection the type has changed until the fruit
is now large and smooth and the habit of the plant very different.
As in the ease of the strawberry, the first great advance in the devel-
opment of the tomato in this country was made by hybridization.
The Trophy tomato, introduced by the late Colonel Waring, was the
first of our modern, smooth, round tomatoes,.and its production and

484 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

advertising, probably more than anything else, served to make the
tomato a popular garden vegetable. ‘‘The Trophy tomato,” in the
words of Colonel Waring, ‘‘is a product of crossing and careful eul-
tivation by Dr. Hand, of Baltimore County, Md., who began his
work in connection with it about 1850. He crossed the small, smooth
‘Love Apple,’ which was filled with juice and seeds, with the com-
pound, convoluted tomato of that period. This latter was practically
four or five separate fruits packed together in one, with the skin
running far into the convolutions. He succeeded in putting the
solid mass of this compound growth into the smooth skin of the Love
Apple, and then, by careful selection, year after year, increased its
size and the solidity of its contents until it became a mass of flesh
interspersed with small seed cells.” The Trophy remained for a
number of years the principal race on the market, but was finally
superseded by others bearing larger and better fruits, in the produce-
tion of which hybridization played an important part. The effect of
selection in recent years is illustrated in the production of the Para-
gon by A. W. Livingston. In passing through a field of tomatoes,
he selected one plant because of the uniformly smooth fruits and
because of its being very prolific. The seeds from this plant were
sown the next year, and the stock of seeds for planting was saved
from the earliest and best specimens. By continuing this process for
five years the Paragon was produced. The Acme, Perfection, and
many other races were originated in a similar manner.

THE POTATO.—The potato has long been the subject of more or less
systematic improvement in this country. According to Bailey, even
as early as the end of the last century, Joseph Cooper made ‘‘suecess-
ful experiments in keeping and improving strains of the potato.”
There isa record in 1835 of the production of a new variety called Per-
kin’s Seedling, originated by planting a seed ball a year or two before.
In 1841 the Pollard, a seedling of the Chenango, was introduced, but
the most popular potato originated during this period was the Mercer,
which was also a select seedling. For a good many years after this it
was a general practice to plant potato seeds to produce new varieties,
but these for the most part remained known only locally.

The introduction.of new wild strains from South America marked
the beginning of a very distinct epoch in the culture of the potato.
About 1850, or possibly two or three years earlier, a Mr. Goodrich
began experiments with a view of improving the potato, using the

varieties known as the Wild Peruvian and the Rough Purple Chili,
which were either direct importations from South America or but
slightly improved. He grew seedlings of these varieties for fifteen
years, obtaining over sixteen thousand, but considered only ten of
this number worthy of cultivation. The best two of these were the
Cuzco, a seedling of the Wild Peruvian, and the Garnet Chili, from the
Rough Purple Chili. Later the Cuzco gave rise to several fairly

PROGRESS OF PLANT BREEDING. 485

valuable varieties, but it was surpassed by the Garnet Chili, from
which several of our best-known varieties have been produced.

In 1860 or 1861 a grower of the Garnet Chili preserved a seed ball
of this variety, pinning it up against his window until it was old and
dry, when, fortunately for the potato industry of the United States,
he gave it to Mr. Albert Breese, of Vermont. Mr. Breese planted the
seeds and obtained widely varying plants, some producing many
tubers and others but few, while there was no uniformity in their size
or shape, some being large and others small, some round and others
elongated. Seven of the plants proved to be of exceedingly good
quality, but one of these, an early sort, far surpassed the others and
was named the Early Rose. When this potato was put on the market
a few years later, it commanded almost fabulous prices, and in a few
years became the leading variety in America, a position which it still
retains over a considerable part of the country. The other varieties
of similar origin also became quite popular, and soon the old sorts
were completely abandoned. In fact, there can be found in the cata-
logues of varieties grown at the present time scarcely a single variety

‘popular forty years ago.

In the production of many sorts, such as the White Elephant, Snow-
flake, Nebula, ete., hybridization has been used, but so far none of
the varieties thus produced have proved as valuable as the Early
Rose.

The potato has been also somewhat improved by the selection of its
tubers. Thus, when the Early Ohio was introduced, a careful seleec-
tion was made of the ‘‘ medium-sized, well-ripened tubers of a desired
shape,” with the result, according to C. L. Allen, of ‘‘fully a week’s
gain in earliness; a great increase in productiveness, with a marked
decrease in the quantity of vines.” A few of our well-known varie-
ties originated as bud sports from the tubers; for example, Thor-
burn’s Late Rose from tubers of the Early Rose.

THE GARDEN PEA.—The garden pea furnishes an example of great
improvement produced largely by hybridization, the most marked
result obtained in this country being the production of the dwarf pea
American Wonder about the year 1880, up to which time the varieties
grown were almost all of foreign origin. This variety was the result
of a combination of MecLean’s Little Gem and the Champion of Eng-
land. The former long stood at the head of the dwarf peas, but was
unproductive; the latter at the time the cross was made was consid-
ered the best in quality and the most productive of the tall peas. The
American Agriculturist says: ‘‘We look upon the production of this
pea as one of the most important steps made of late in its department
of horticulture.”

THE SQUASH.—It is interesting to note that among squashes, which
hybridize so readily, the Butman, originated by Mr. Clarendon But-
man, of Maine, about 1875, was the result of crossing the Hubbard

486 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

with a Japanese race and of several years of careful selection. This,
according to Mr. James J. H. Gregory, was the first instance of a race of
squashes produced in America, all of our standard races previous to
the production of this one having been originated abroad.

IMPROVEMENT IN CEREALS.

Corn.—Corn has probably been more or less the subject of improve-
ment by selection ever since it was first cultivated, and it is a general
practice among farmers who grow their own seed to select the best
ears for the next year’s planting. There have been some experiment-
ers, however, who have given special attention to its improvement,
among the earliest being Mr. J. S. Leaming, who began in the early
fifties by going through his fields—then producing an ordinary, not
very prolific, yellow corn—and selecting seed from the best-formed
plants bearing two or three well-formed ears. ‘In this way,. by a con-
tinuous selection extending over thirty years, the famous Leaming
corn was produced and kept up to its standard. About fifteen years
later Mr. James Riley, of Indiana, also began the careful selection of
corn, taking a fine white sort as the original. He used essentially the
method followed by Leaming, but in addition went through the fields
just as the tassels were appearing and cut out all imperfect and bar-
ren stalks. He selected seed for the next year’s planting from the
finest stalks and the best and most evenly developed ears. By con-
tinuing this selection for several years he produced the Boone County
White (Pl. XX XVIII, fig. 1), which has given noteworthy yields at
the Illinois experiment station.

Corn has been greatly modified and improved by hybridization,
but no improvement stands out as marking a distinct epoch. The
earliest account of a new race being originated by hybridization
which has come under the notice of the writers is that of the Smith’s
Early White, described in a letter by Dr. Gideon B. Smith, in the
Albany Cultivator for 1838, the experiments being said to have been
started some ten or twelve years earlier. It was the result of a cross
between the Tuscarora and the Sioux. Dr. Smith’s discussion shows
that the results to be expected from crossing different races of corn
were thoroughly understood even then. The original Old Colony
sweet corn, a race originated about 1849, and extensively cultivated
for years, was one of the first and best of the sweet-corn hybrids.

The ease with which corn hybridizes naturally in the field has led
to great mixing, and doubtless many forms now cultivated are selected
types of such accidental crosses. Very many of the best races, how-
ever, were originated as carefully produced hybrids.

WHEAT.—The early races of wheat grown in this country were, as
was the case with almost all our cultivated plants, of foreign origin,
and even now a great many sorts are being imported, especially from
Russia. <A large number, however, have had their origin in America,

PLATE XXXVIII.

1899

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BOONE COUNTY WHITE CORN ON LEFT

—IMPROVEMENT OF CORN BY SELECTION:
TYPE FROM WHICH IT WAS DEVELOPED BY SELECTION ON RIGHT.

Fic. 1.

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PROGRESS OF PLANT BREEDING. 487

the first of these being mainly such as originated in fields of wheat or
from chance-sown seeds, which, owing to their differences from other
wheat, were preserved and perpetuated. Such, for example, were the
Tappahannock, found in Virginia in 1854, and the famous Fultz wheat,
found in a field of Lancaster Red wheat in Pennsylvania in 1862 by
a Mr. Abraham Fultz. Mr. Fultz was attracted by some beautiful
heads of smooth wheat, which he saved and planted by themselves, and
from these the new race was developed.

But little attention has been given to the systematic growing of
wheat for selection until quite recently. The most important experi-
ments of this kind in the United States are those by Prof. W. M.
Hays, of the Minnesota experiment station, which are still in prog-
ress. From the year 1888 up to the present year 552 different races
have been tested, from which eight were finally selected as worthy of
preservation. From these eight, selection experiments were started
in 1892, and as a result, even at the end of the first year, four of the
best eight new strains surpassed in yield and in some other qualities
the best four of the old varieties. Though it is too early yet to give
more definite results, it is evident that the use of selection is very
promising as regards the improvement of even the best races.

Within recent years considerable attention has also been given to
hybridization, and many valuable hybrids have found places in our
lists of important races. Attention has been directed mainly to in-
creasing the yield by crossing different strains and to securing earlier
and hardier sorts. Among the earlier experimenters in this field
Arnold and Pringle were eminently successful. Arnold’s Hybrid No.
9, a cross of Michigan Amber with White Soules, has in some places
given good results. Pringle’s Defiance, said to be ‘‘a hybrid of a
white wheat common in California upon an Eastern club variety,”
has proved very valuable in California, Colorado, and other places.
Prof. A. E. Blount, while at the Colorado experiment station, made
many wheat hybrids and obtained severalimproved varieties. Blount’s
Hybrid No. 15, a cross of Lost Nation with Sonora, has become a well-
known race, giving excellent results in some States. Probably the
most valuable work in wheat hybridization in this country has been
done by A. N. Jones, of New York. Mr. Jones writes: ‘‘ Most of
my crossbreeds are from Russian and American varieties, with some
bleod from Mediterranean Longberry or offspring from these combi-
nations.” Of the sixteen or more hybrid wheat races introduced by
Jones, several have become standard sorts. Winter Fife, which is
extensively grown in Indiana, Ohio, and other places, is probably his
best-known race. His Early Red Clawson, Early Genesee Giant, etc.,
are among our widely grown races.

From 1888 to the present time Prof. William Saunders, director of
the experimental farm, Ottawa, Canada, has been hybridizing wheats
particularly to secure early ripening races. To accomplish this he

488 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

has sought to secure earliness and hardiness in the best American
races by hybridizing them with various Russian sorts. Preston and
Stanley, derived from Ladoga, a Russian sort, crossed with Red Fife,
and Alpha, Perey, and Advance, derived from Ladoga crossed with
White Fife, are proving valuable additions. Tests of Preston and
Advance at the Minnesota experiment station have given good results.
Professor Hays, of that station, says: ‘‘ Preston is the most inter-
esting and promising variety of wheat procured outside of the State,
and it bids fair to be a strong rival of our best Fife and Blue Stem
wheats.” Besides his important work on selection mentioned above,
Professor Hays has been in recent years conducting experiments in
hybridization and has obtained results of the greatest promise. It is
noteworthy that in this country the wheat hybrids thus far produced
which have given valuable results are racial hybrids, in many cases
very complex, including several different races.

Oats.—No oat hybrids produced in this country have as yet become
very important so far as the writers are informed, although some are
of exceptional interest, as, for instance, Pringle’s Excelsior, a so-called
hull-less oat produced by crossing the common Chinese Hull-less (Avena
nuda) with the Excelsior, a race of the common oat. This remark-
able hybrid is said to possess the strength and robust character of the
common oat and to retain the peculiarity of the naked seed derived
from the Chinese Hull-less. It was introduced about the year 1881,
but does not appear to have proved satisfactory for general culture.
Recently Garton Bros., of England, have introduced a similar ‘‘ naked
oat,” which gives great promise of proving a valuable sort, particu-
larly for the preparation of oatmeal and similar foods. Apparently
hybridization in this line promises important results.

IMPROVEMENT IN FLOWERS AND ORNAMENTAL PLANTS.

In no plants has scientific plant breeding been carried further than
in those grown for their flowers or for ornamental purposes. Growers
of such plants are compelled to produce new and striking varieties
and races, and so must take advantage of all available methods.

An interesting example of the result of continuous selection is the
Blanche Ferry sweet pea, which resulted from over twenty-five years
of selection from the old Painted Lady, in northern New York. In
successive years the plants gradually became more stocky and com-
pact, until after ten or twelve years they needed no outside support.
From the Blanche Ferry there have arisen independently at least two
of the dwarf varieties known as ‘‘Cupids.” These arose as seedling
sports and soon became very widely diffused.

Probably in no other plants has hybridization given such marked
results as in those cultivated for their flowers. This is due largely to
the fact that in such plants variation of form and color of flowers are
the greatest desiderata, and such modifications are most easily obtained

PROGRESS OF PLANT BREEDING. 489

by hybridizing different-colored species, varieties, ete. Orchids,
roses, begonias, chrysanthemums, cannas, and many other of our
common flowers have been crossed and recrossed until it is frequently
impossible to determine their origin. In this country probably the
most attention has been given to roses, carnations, and chrysanthe-
mums. It is to hybridization, directly or indirectly, that we are
indebted for almost all the beautiful forms of these flowers. By the
introduction of foreign species and their utilization in hybridization
with those already in cultivation, new and almost totally different
strains are frequently produced. As an illustration of this may be
mentioned the important results that have been produced by the
recent introduction of the hardy roses Rosa rugosa and R. wichuraiana
and their hybridization with our common varieties of roses. Manda
says: ‘‘ By crossing Rosa wichuraiana with greenhouse teas the result »,
is astonishing, as the plants are not only hardy, but retain their foli-
age during the winter. Thus a new race of evergreen roses has been
added to our collection, and promises to be the beginning of a new
and useful class.”

Advantage has been taken of still another principle in growing
plants of this class. It sometimes occurs that certain buds give rise
to branches that vary abnormally and produce flowers or leaves of a
different color or shape from those borne on the rest of the plant.
These so-called bud sports can often be perpetuated, and thus give
rise to new varieties. In this way many of the cut-leaved forms of
various ornamental plants have originated. Perhaps the most strik-
ing examples of the production of new sorts by bud sporting are found
in certain plants, such as the chrysanthemum, rose, carnation, ete.
Many of these are sports merely in color, but in some cases even the
form of the flowers and of the leaves is different. Itis said that within
the last ten years there have been over fifty cases of new varieties of
chrysanthemums originated as bud sports.

IMPROVEMENT IN NUTS.

Among the native nuts, probably the chestnut and the peean are the
only ones that have received much attention from plant breeders,
though Burbank has given some care to improving the walnut. A few
varieties of chestnuts have been obtained by the selection of wild trees
of desirable quality, though but little more than this has been done.
The pecan, however, has received more attention. In its wild state, it
varies very greatly in its characteristics, and this has led to the selection
of a number of varieties from wild trees because of some special quality,
as thinness of shell, small amount of corky substance between the
halves of the kernel, productiveness, size, or other good qualities.
One of the best known of such selected pecans is the Frotscher, the
original tree of which is still standing in Louisiana, and is probably
over two hundred years old. Within the last fifty years many growers

490 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

have been planting the nuts of this and other varieties and selecting
from among the seedlings thus produced those with the best quali-
ties. Pi. XX XVIII, fig. 2, shows the variations and the possibilities
of improvement when careful selection is exercised. The systematic
improvement of the pecan, however, has just begun.

IMPROVEMENT IN COTTON.

The history of sea-island cotton is extremely interesting, as it
serves as an example of the possibility of adapting a tropical plant to
the conditions of culture in temperate regions. About 1785 seeds of
this cotton were brought to Georgia from the Bahamas. Notwith-
standing the good care they received and the mild winter, the plants
were killed down, but they came up again from the roots, and with this
start succeeded in ripening a few seeds before the first frost in the fall.
The earliest of these seeds were sown in turn, and by continuing this
process of selection the flowering period became earlier and earlier,
until now the plants ripen a large proportion of their seeds before
frost, even along the coasts of the Carolinas. Besides striving to
obtain earlier maturing sorts, very careful selection has for years been
made with a view of inereasing the length, fineness, and strength of
the staple. This selection is regularly practiced by all intelligent
growers and to-day it may be regarded as one of the necessary cultural
methods. Every year a special patch of cotton is grown from selected
seed; the plants in this patch are examined very carefully and the
seed of the best individuals retained for planting a similar pateh
the next year, the seed of the remaining plants being used to plant
the general crop. Under such continuous and vigorous selection the
length and fineness of the fiber have gradually increased, until it is now
recognized as superior to that grown anywhere else in the world and
commands the highest price in the market.

DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL LIBRARIES.

By CHARLES H, GREATHOUSE, M. A.,
Editorial Clerk, Division of Publications.

A NEW FIELD FOR AGRICULTURAL LIBRARIES.

To furnish the right book to the right man at the right time is a
problem that faces every student of agricultural affairs who would
help men to better ways of farming. The need of offering the book
at the right time presents a new opportunity for the agricultural
library.

THE FARMER’S SPECIAL NEED OF BOOKS.

The production of fit books for the advancement of agriculture has
long engaged the attention of promoters of scientific farming, but it
is only during the last century that these books, or the information
in them, have been supplied directly to the farmer. Furthermore,
this supply has been thus far chiefly by books singly at home, and
through the agricultural papers; and because the newspaper and the
single book can not cover the whole great field of agriculture, the
farmer has constantly found himself wanting information on one sub-
ject and his book or his paper offering him information on another.
When cholera suddenly breaks out among his hogs, his paper has an
article on sheep scab and his book deals with the diseases of the
horse. His need is a library within reach that will furnish in con-
cise form the entire body of thoroughly proved agricultural science.

Libraries have multiplied and have grown in numbers of volumes
and in activity wonderfully during the past twenty-five years, and of
late they have begun to come to the farmer. Granges, farmers’ clubs,
farmers’ institutes, and farmers’ reading circles have all helped to
create a demand for books, and to some extent have helped to meet it.
During the past ten years the traveling library movement has devel-
oped. As a result many small libraries are sent out to rural commu-
nities and are constantly exchanged among them. But these libraries
are made up chiefly of ‘‘light reading,” and even such as are agricul-
tural can not be depended on to meet cases of urgent demand, because
they are at one place only a few months. The establishment of per-
manent libraries of standard agricultural works near the farm home
is a suggested need. In this direction seems to lie another step, both

in library development and in the progress of scientific farming.
491

492 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

SCIENCE UNAVAILABLE TO FARMERS IN MOST COUNTRIES.

For centuries agricultural investigators have gathered facts by
observation and experiment, and have wrought out in library and lab-
oratory improvements in farm practice. The learning and advances
of one age have been preserved in libraries for the students of the
next. Libraries have had a large share in making a science of farming
possible. But the great total of agricultural operatives in the world
have hardly been effected by science. The facilities for producing the
books necessary to teach better ways are ample; but the problem of
making them available to the masses has not been solved; in most
countries it has not even been approached. The bulk of agricultural
products are still wrung from the soil by main strength and awkward-
ness. Indian ryots, Chinese coolies, and Egyptian fellaheen, compris-
ing more than half of the agricultural Jabor of the world, continue to
farm by traditional methods; and the peasants of Europe are little
better off. The clog to their progress has not been a lack of books;
it has been the lack of anelementary education; the lack not merely of
a habit of reading, but of knowing how to read at all. -

AMERICAN FARMERS READY FOR LIBRARIES,

But in this country the first great step has been taken; most farm-
ers are readers. They have proved themselves capable of under-
standing and applying improvements in farm practice. They are the
right men. It remains to put the tested and approved results of
agricultural science within easy reach at the right time. In doing
this, it is believed agricultural libraries may find a wide field for use-
fulness. An attempt will be made at the close of this paper to suggest
how they may occupy it. ‘

BEGINNINGS OF AGRICULTURAL LIBRARIES.

5

The founding of agricultural libraries in this country was first
undertaken by the agricultural societies established in several of the
States just after the close of the Revolutionary war. These organi-
zations made part of their first work the collection of papers on farm-
ing and the publication of them first in newspapers and then in books.
These papers and publications, with exchanges, and gifts of similar
material from learned societies and persons, both in this country and
abroad, formed the beginning of agricultural libraries. Two of these
societies, the Philadelphia and the New York, besides the provision
of agricultural books for themselves, projected the establishment of
numerous branch libraries, and a third, the Massachusetts society,
systematically promoted the founding of kindred societies similarly
supplied with libraries.

WORK OF THE PHILADELPHIA SOCIETY.

The Philadelphia Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, estab-
lished in 1785 at the seat of government, with Washington and

DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL LIBRARIES. 493

Franklin as members, in 1794 considered the founding of libraries
throughout the State of Pennsylvania. This was in connection with
the movement to organize a Pennsylvania agricultural society, to be
made up of farmers to a much larger extent than the Philadelphia
society was ever likely to be. The constitution and rules for the new
society were prepared by a committee consisting of George Clymer,
Timothy Pickering, then Secretary of State, John R. Bordley, and
Richard Peters. One of the paragraphs was as follows:

It will also be the business of the society to recommend the collection of useful
books on agriculture and rural affairs in every county. The citizens of the county
should be drawn into a spirit of inquiry by the establishment of a small but well-
chosen library on various subjects. This would not cnly promote the interes‘s of
agriculture, but it would diffuse knowledge among the people and assist good
government, which is never in danger while a free people are well informed.

The country schoolmasters were to be the secretaries of the pro-
posed branch organizations and the schoolhouses were to be the repos-
itories of the ‘‘ transactions, models, ete.” But the country was not
ready even for an attempt to carry out this proposal. It was years
before the Pennsylvania agricultural society was established, and the
schoolhouse libraries of agricultural books are still to come.

PLAN OF THE NEW YORK SOCIETY.

The New York Society for the Promotion of Agriculture and Manu-
factures in 1793 considered a plan, presented by Amasa Dingley, for
the establishment of branch societies throughout the State. This pro-
vided for the formation of an agricultural library in connection with
each society, as follows:

And also that each county society should be furnished with all the publications
on agriculture in America as well as the most approved European pubiications.
This will lay the foundation of county libraries for the promotion of information
in every town and neighborhood in the whole State. and will doubtless in a few
years be the means of disseminating much useful knowledge. But it is intended
that each county society shall always defray its own expenses.

This plan was never realized, and there is no evidence that the
parent society ever had a very large library of its own as compared
with present collections. Some idea of the character of its library may
be gained from the writings of Dr. Samuel Mitchill and others, as
published in the society report for 1791. Among other authorities
referred to are Count Ginanni of Ravenna on diseases of wheat
(Delle malattie del grano in Erba in Pesaro, 1759), given by Sir Joseph
Banks, president of the Royal Society of England; Chateauvieux, who
describes a wheat parasite; Headrick’s Essay on Manures; Summer-
ville on Manures; Home’s Principles of Agriculture and Essay on
Bleaching; Swinburne’s Travels into the Two Sicilies; Foureroy’s
Chymistry; also, Tissot, Reaumur, Count Rumford, Lowthorp, Van
Mons, Pliny, and Columella.

In closing his address to the society on January 10, 1791, Dr. Mitchill

494 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

said: ‘‘ My hearers have numerous volumes written within a few years
on economical subjects in the different modern tongues displayed
before them; or, if their classical taste should lead them to turn over
the pages of the Latin authors whose works are extant, Columella and
Cawley will afford them abundant pleasure, while the Georgica of
Virgil and the Predium Rusticum of Vanier shall convey most solid
instruction to their minds.”

LIBRARY OF THE MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY.

The Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture had something
of a library in 1797. The society began the publication of agricul-
tural notes and extracts from agricultural discussions in the Boston
journals in 1793, and in 1795 printed a pamphlet containing, among
other things, two premium essays on the cankerworm, a history and
description of ‘‘forward wheat,” a premium essay on compost, an
account of maple-sugar making, and selections from foreign publi-
eations, including some account of Robert Bakewell’s breeding of
sheep and cattle and of the methods of making Stilton and Cheshire
cheeses. Similar publications were afterwards made from year to_
year and distributed to societies and persons interested in agricul-
ture. To these and the books received in return were added ‘‘the
most reputable books and authoritative works on agriculture, pur-
chased as issued.” In 1815 there was published in the society quar-
terly, which had then been established, a list of the standard works on
agriculture of that day, about 125 volumes, and it may be presumed
that nearly all of them were in the society library.

THE INDIGO SOCIETY IN SOUTH CAROLINA,

In the South the only agricultural society library of this period of
which notice has been found is that of the Winyah Indigo Society at
Georgetown, 8S. C. This society was founded about the middle of the
eighteenth century by well-to-do planters of that section, whose staple
product was indigo. Their original purpose was discussion of public
affairs and of their business interests, and in this way they probably
gathered a considerable number of publications, including books on
indigo culture. In 1755 they secured a charter, and in succeeding
years they gathered a library of such an extent that it became well

known.
AGRICULTURAL BOOKS IN COLLEGE LIBRARIES.

In the collection of agricultural works the colleges early took a lead-
ing part. Bowdoin, Harvard, Yale, Williams, Columbia, Dickinson,
Princeton, the University of Pennsylvania, Brown (then the Uni-
versity of Rhode Island), Rutgers, William and Mary, the University
of Virginia, and other schools of less prominence gathered libraries.
Among the books of each of these institutions there were undoubtedly
some volumes bearing on agriculture, though in some instances no
record has been found to show the fact.

DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL LIBRARIES. A495

COLLECTION IN HARVARD LIBRARY.

The following list of books on agriculture in the Harvard library
eatalogue of 1790 indicates what these agricultural departments of
college libraries probably amounted to. The catalogue form and
punctuation are retained.

Books on agriculture, Harvard College catalogue, 1790.

Blith (Walter) English improver, or a new survey of husbandry, 4to,, London.
1649.

Certain ancient tracts concerning the management of landed property. 8vo.
Lond. 1767.

Columella(L. Junius Moderatus): Of husbandry, trans. into Eng., 4to, Lond. 1745,

Dossie (Rob) Memoirs of agriculture, and other economical arts. Svo. Lond,
1768.

Du Hamel (Mons) Traité des arbres et arbustes, qui se cultivent en France,2 tom,
4to, Paris. 1755.

Elements of agriculture, 2 vol. 8vo, Lond. 1764.

Farmers’ Letters to the people of England, 8vo,2d ed. Lond. 1768,

Georgical Essays, 12mo, Lond. 1769.

Harte (Walter) Essays on husbandry, Svo, Lond. 1764.

2ded. Lond. 1770.

Home (Francis) Principles of agriculture and vegetation, 8vo,3d ed. Lond. 1762,

Hunter (A.) Georgical Essays, Svo., York, 1773.

Memoires concernants l’ceconomie rurale, par une societé a Berne, 6 tom. 8vo.,
Zuric, 1760, 61, 62.

Miller (Philip) Gardner's Dictionary, fol. Tthed. Lond. 1759.

Scriptores rei rustic‘e veteres latini, a Gesnero, 4to,2 tom. Lipsizw. 1735.

Switzer (Stephen) Ichnographia rustica, or system of agriculture and gardening,
38 vol, 8vo,2ded. Lond. 1741.

Whately (Thomas) Observations on modern gardening, 8vo, Lond. 1770.

W orlidge’'s two treatises on husbandry, cyder and the cyder mill,8vo,Lond. 1694,

Of 550 pages in this catalogue, 200 were devoted to theological books
and pamphlets, and a large portion to law and the classic languages.
li is not to be inferred, however, that this list represents all the books
in Harvard library at that time that would to-day be put in the agri-
cultural class. There were undoubtedly in the total of 12,000 volumes
many treatises on botany, chemistry, entomology, and geology which
were valuable to the occasional student of farm problems. They were
not written, however, with any special reference to agriculture, and it
was not yet common for even progressive farmers to pay much atten-
tion to any of these sciences.

AGRICULTURE IN GENERAL LIBRARIES.

In those early days agricultural books were no more numerous in
general libraries than at the colleges, and were probably not as much
used. Everywhere theology first by far, then law, medicine, history,
travels made up the great body of the books in the libraries outside
of such as were devoted to mere amusement. The volumes on agri-
culture in the classic tongues were about as numerous as those in
modern languages, and were generally better known.

496 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

FRANKLIN’S INFLUENCE,

There was something of an exception to the theological and elas-
sical character of the early libraries in that founded by Benjamin
Franklin in Philadelphia; there most of the books were devoted to
the useful arts, comparatively few to the professions. One of the
two volumes sent over as a present to the society by Peter Collinson,
the London mercer through whom the first purchase of books was
made, was Philip Miller’s Gardener’s Dictionary. But even in Frank-
lin’s library the books on agriculture must have been very few.
One reason for this was that comparatively few of such works were
in existence. In the list of approved agricultural books given by the
Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture in 1815 about 125
volumes were noted. This list probably included nearly all the
valuable books on agriculture known in this country at that date.
Now there are more printed in almost any year than the whole num-
ber then extant. Ina list made up in the Offige of Experiment Stations
for the years 1896 to 1898, inclusive, there are 451 titles.

BOOKS ON FARMING IN THE NEW YORK SOCIETY LIBRARY,

The agricultural books in the library of the Society of New York,
established in 1754, numbered about 100 at the beginning of the cen-
tury. This is shown by the early catalogues. Among the titles are
the following: New System of Husbandry, Varlo; Agricultural Chem-
istry, Davy; Husbandry of the Ancients, A. Dickson; Phytologia, E.
Darwin; Horse-hoeing Husbandry, Jethro Tull; Letters to Arthur
Young, Washington; American Gardener, Cobbett. There were also
a full set of the Annals, Rural Economy, and other writings of Arthur
Young.

AGRICULTURAL WORKS IN PRIVATE LIBRARIES.

A‘feature of this early period was the fact that a larger proportion
of public men lived in the country and managed farms than has been
the case for the past fifty years. These men often had libraries in
their homes about as extensive as the college and society libraries,
and they spent much time in study. The details of public affairs
were not then so numerous nor the complications so intricate, and
more opportunity was afforded them for reading and investigation.
The greater part of library work for agriculture in those early years
was undoubtedly done in the private collections of such men.

SOME OF JEFFERSON’S BOOKS,

Among the notable private libraries of the beginning of the century
were those of Washington, Jefferson, Pickering, Livingston, and
Mitchill. <A part of Jefferson’s books, including many of those which
he used in his agricultural investigations, are in the Library of Con-
gress. (Pl. XX XIX, fig. 1.) Among these are the following: Cazalet’s

arbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899 PLATE XXXIX.

Motus

im: Pree HH ili valle il xt

RA, Lal fs { :
Hann) oj iil

Hl

Fic. 1.—Books OF JEFFERSON’S LIBRARY NOW IN THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.

Fic. 2.—LIBRARY BUILDING, AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND EXPERIMENT STATION,
AMHERST, MASS.

DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL LIBRARIES. 497

Théorie de la Nature; Chaptal’s Elements of Chemistry; Fourcroy’s
Elements. d’Histoire Naturelle et de Chimie, four volumes; Ingen-
housz’s Expériences et Observations sur Divers Objets Physiques,
and his Expériences sur les Vegetaux; Lavoisier’s Traité de Chimie;
Arthur Young’s Six Months’ Tour Through the North of England,
and his Travels in France; Bibliothéque Physico-Economique, four-
teen volumes; Watson’s Chemical Essays, five volumes; Scheele’s
Memoire de Chimie; Traité Chimique de Air et du Feu; also a vol-
ume of agricultural essays in English and French. One of the latter
is dedicated to ‘‘ John Jefferson,” President of the United States.

Jefferson’s interest in agriculture is best known perhaps from his
improvement of the plow; but, like Washington, he directed practical
‘operations on his own estate, and his books were a constant aid to
him for the purpose.

SLOW GROWTH OF AGRICULTURAL LIBRARIES.

Agricultural societies continued to be established with the develop-
ment of the States, and usually gathered libraries, but none of these
were of much importance. Indeed, the really efficient agricultural
libraries made their appearance only when the agricultural colleges
and experiment stations had attained such a growth as to make such
libraries a necessity.

A good library is said to have been gathered, along with collections
of material illustrative of agricultural instruction, at the Gardner
Institute, founded in Maine in 1823, but Jewett’s account of American
libraries, written for the Smithsonian Institution in 1850, makes no
mention of it. In 1839 the establishment of the division in the Patent
Office for the collection and publication of agricultural statisties and
the promotion of agricultural interests generally, was accompanied
with the collection of agricultural works; but even here growth of the
library was slow, for this Patent Office collection was turned over to
the Department of Agriculture when it was founded in 1862, and with
all the impetus of this new mevement to promote its increase, the total
number of its books in 1875, after thirty-six years of existence, was
only 7,000 volumes.

AN AGRICULTURAL LIBRARY SOCIETY.

The only agricultural library society of which any record has been
found was established at Amherst, Mass., about the middle of the
eentury. A-.meeting of persons interested was held in Agricultural
Hall in that town on January 9, 1858, and the Amherst Agricultural
Library Association was organized, with a membership of eighty.
Luke Sweetser was made president and Henry Holtz librarian. The
books were kept in a store in Amherst. The membership fee was
$3 a year, and on February 15, 1859, an assessment of 20 cents on
each member had to be made to pay the debts of the association.
After a few years of struggling existence the society disbanded and

Pina 99 32

498 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the books were scattered. Two volumes, Ure’s Dictionary of Arts,

Manufactures, and Mines, are still shown as part of the Amherst pub-

lie library. /
SIZE OF EARLY AGRICULTURAL LIBRARIES.

Perhaps the best evidence of the slow progress of agricultural
libraries in early years is to be found in the small numbers of volumes
gathered, but it must be remembered in making comparisons that no
libraries were large in that day. The following list of agricultural
libraries, with the numbers of volumes in each, is from the Manual
of American Libraries, published by William J. Rhees in 1859:
Massachusetts Board of Agriculture, including 125 books belonging
to the Society for Promoting Agriculture, Boston, 1,000 volumes; Essex
County Agricultural Society, Salem, Mass., 650; Michigan State Agri-
cultural Society, Detroit, 253; Michigan State Agricultural College,
Lansing, 300; Mississippi Agricultural Society, Washington, Miss.,
1,000; New York Agricultural Society, Albany, 2,300; Philadelphia
Horticultural Society, 1,050; Cincinnati Horticultural Society, 500;
Wisconsin Agricultural Society, Madison, 300; United States Agri-
cultural Society, Washington, D. C., 200. It is true that there are
occasional omissions in this list, such as the Massachusetts Hortieul-
tural Society at Boston, with 900 volumes, but they are not sufficient
to materially affect the fact that such libraries were few and small.

Even the founding of the agricultural colleges under the Morrill
Act did not at onee hasten the growth of agricultural libraries. This
is shown by the fact that the report of the Bureau of Education on
libraries, made for the Centennial Exposition in 1876, though it has a
chapter on college libraries, hardly mentions one of them in its text.
In its tabular statement, however, it notes libraries at agricultural
colleges at the following places: Auburn, Ala., 1,720 volumes; Fay-
etteville, Ark., 300; Oakland, Cal., 12,000 (entire library of Univer-
sity of California); Irvington, Ill., 500; Urbana, Ill., 10,600 (entire
library of Illinois Industrial University); Ames, Iowa, 3,540; Man-
hattan, Kans., 3,000; New Orleans, La., 300; Orono, Me., 2,200;
College Station, Md., 1,500; Amherst, Mass., 1,500; Boston, Mass.
(Bussey Institution, Harvard), 1,500; Agricultural College, Lansing,
Mich., 3,700; Columbus, Ohio, 1,000; State College, Pa., 1,800; Knox-
ville, Tenn., 3,039; Blacksburg, Va., 600.

Agricultural libraries in this Centennial table, in addition to those
just named, are as follows: Department of Agriculture, Washington,
D. C., 7,000 volumes; Illinois Board of Agriculture, Springfield,
801; Massachusetts Horticultural Society, Boston, 2,800; Cambridge
Horticultural Society, Cambridge, Mass., 350; Botanical Gardens,
Cambridge, Mass., 2,500; Worcester County Horticultural Society,
Worcester, Mass., 1,100; Sherwood Hollow Farmers’ Club, Bingham-
ton, N. Y., 1,200; Board of Agriculture, Columbus, Ohio, 1,456;

DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL LIBRARIES. 499

Pennsylvania Agricultural Society, Harrisburg, 2,000; Pennsylvania
Horticultural Society, Philadelphia, 800; Winyah Indigo Club, George-
town, 8. C., 2,000; Agricultural Library, Montpelier, Vt., 300; Agri-
eultural Library Association, Royalton, Vt., 350; State Agricultural
Society, Madison, Wis., 1,000.

At the time of the Centennial report above referred to, general
libraries had grown rapidly, keeping step with the progress of the
nation. Thousands of new libraries had been founded since the
beginning of the century, and marked improvement had been made
in library management.

AGRICULTUBAL LIBRARIES OF THE PRESENT TIME.

Agricultural libraries have now been established in connection with
the agricultural colleges and experiment stations in every State and
Territory in the Union. In addition to their use by students in the
colleges and stations, most of these libraries are free to all who are
likely to be helped. In States in which the agricultural college and
the experiment station are separated there are two sueh libraries, one
at the college and one at the station. In a majority of them the
shelves are open to all readers. Farmers are especially weleome.

TYPICAL AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE LIBRARIES,

Of these college libraries, three or four will serve as typical. They
show management in three ways, namely, by the principal executive
officer of the school, by a board of the faculty, and by a university
library board of control. In the last case the agricultural college is
a department of the State university and the agricultural library a
division of-the university library.

Massachusetts College Library.

One of the largest of such collections is at Amherst, Mass. It has
had the advantage since its establishment in 1886 of personal manage-
ment by President H. H. Goodell, of the Massachusetts college and
experiment station, who was at one time offered the position of
librarian of Amherst College. He has, as a rule, selected the books
for the agricultural library, has superintended their cataloguing and
location on the shelves, and can in a few moments place his hand on
almost any book in the whole collection.

This is probably the only agricultural library in the country having a
house devoted exclusively toitsuse. The library building (Pl. XX XIX,
fig. 2) is located on a low elevation near the main college building and
faces east. It is of granite, and has large, handsome windows, afford-
ing ample light all through the aleoves. The minimum of space is
given up to office work, and the maximum to shelving for the books
and space in the alcoves for reading. The shelves are open, and any
person who is allowed the privileges of the place is free to select the

500 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

volume he wants, examine it on the spot and read as much as he
wishes or as time will permit, and then return the book to the shelf,
or take it to the assistant librarian and have a proper record made,
leaving him free to take it home. The purpose has been to make as
perfect a working library for agricultural students as possible with
the means at command, but some agricultural books that are literary
treasures have also been gathered. The chief of these are unique
at once in their usefulness for study and in their position among
books by reason of completeness and thoroughness of the text or
by unusual illustrations.

The principal agricultural periodicals are on the table in the read-
ing room, and files, complete and nearly complete, of the more notable
of these, present and past, are on the shelves. Of the total of 19,980
volumes in this library, 3,664 titles of books, embracing 9,192 volumes,
are on subjects distinetly agricultural. They are divided as follows:
Agriculture, agricultural chemistry, horticulture, the domestic ani-
mals, and the dairy, 1,911 titles, 5,753 volumes; botany, 946 titles,
1,736 volumes; entomology, 564 titles, 1,211 volumes; veterinary, 243
titles, 492 volumes. Books scientific, with agricultural bearing, num-
ber 774 titles, 1,737 volumes, divided as follows: Chemistry, 326 titles,
861 volumes; geology, 110 titles, 350 volumes; meteorology, 164 titles,
251 volumes; biology, embryology, bacteriology, miscroseopy, 174
titles, 295 volumes.

Michigan College Library.

At the Michigan Agricultural College, one of the oldest of these
schools in the country, and with a large number of alumni holding
responsible positions in scientific agricultural work, the library appro-
priation was at first distributed in equal amounts to the several pro-
fessors, but the library is now under the supervision of a committee
composed of five members of the faculty appointed by the president
of the college. All recommendations for purchases of books must be
approved by this committee. The general policy tends toward a gener-
ous supply of agricultural periodicals, and from $200 to $400 a year is
spent in that way. Purchases of books for the departments, as of
botany, entomology, etc., are made rather cautiously, though not in
a niggardly manner, with the purpose of maintaining a reserve fund
from which important and expensive works can be bought when
oceasion offers. The library is considered especially strong in gen-
eral works on agriculture and on cultivation of the soil. In this line,
including horticulture, pretty much everything that is asked for is
bought, though not many books in foreign languages are approved.
Since 1884 a good many books on mechanical engineering have been
added, and with the establishment of the woman’s department, house-
hold economy has received much attention. Duplicate volumes of
expensive books are sometimes bought so as to supply ali members of
a class.

- DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL LIBRARIES. 501

The library now occupies the main portion of a large building, in
the front of which are President Snyder’s office rooms. The books
belonging most closely to each branch are kept at the rooms where
that study is taught, so as to be convenient as possible for students,
but 2 report of them is made annually to the librarian. The students _
have access to the library aleoves duringwork hours, and two or three -
of the older students act as assistants to the librarian. The adminis-
tration is thorough and businesslike. The accession book and shelf
list, together with the orders for purchases and receipted bills, form
a complete account of the handling of the books as they come in,
and show where the volumes are to be found. These accounts are
kept separately for the college and experiment station. The main
floor contains the books of the college, while the station collection is
in the galleries. The total number of volumes in October, 1899, was .*
19,380, of which about half were strictly agricultural.

Agricultural Library at Cornell.

Tho New York Agricultural College is a part of Cornell University
at Ithaea, and the beoks on agriculture in the main are kept in the

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Fic. 24.—Horticultural Library at Cornell (owned by Prof. L. H. Bailey).

general library. Besides those in the general library, however, the
teachers of the various branches have private libraries, which are
generally quite as free for proper use as the volumes belonging to
the school. Since 1883 the agricultural library as part of the general
library has been under the supervision of a council consisting of the
president of the university, the librarian, one member of the board
of trustees, and four members of the faculty.

502 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The volumes in the library relating directly to agriculture, horti-
culture, and dairy husbandry number about 5,000. Aside from these
there about 500 volumes on forestry, 1,200 on entomology, 1,200 on
veterinary science, and a very large collection of related chemical,
botanieal, and other scientific literature, making in all from 15,000
to 20,000. The library is rich in serial publications. In addition to
these, of special importance is the library (fig. 24) of L. H. Bailey,
professor of horticulture. It is the largest collection extant of
American horticultural writings, and is open to all special or advanced
students in the eollege of agriculture. It is the general purpose to
make the university library rieh in foreign horticultural publications,
while Professor Bailey’s library provides American books of that
kind.

In the teaching at this school it is the custom to take one book as
the general guide in any subject, and then refer the students to many
other books for special topies. In that way something like 200 vol-
umes are much used by students in the college of agriculture. It is
the purpose to give the student a thorough training in the literature
of scientific farming.

Wisconsin College Library.

At the University of Wisconsin the agricultural library is in Agri-
cultural Hall under the general library control, and numbers nearly
5,000 volumes. It is open to students and visitors between 8 a. m.
and 5p.m. Everybody has access to the books on the shelves, and
anyone may take out books by obtaining a deposit card from the
secretary of the board of regents. The library is used almost exclu-
sively by the students and the faculty, but occasionally farmers and
others make use of it, especially of the collection of herd and stud
books, which now number 700 volumes.'

SOCIETY AND STATE BOARD LIBRARIES.

Agricultural libraries now found in many States consist of the col-
lection of books belonging to agricultural and horticultural societies,
breeders’ associations, etc., and to State boards of agriculture. Prom-
inent among these, are the libraries of the Massachusetts Horticultural
Society and of the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture at Boston; of
the Philadelphia Horticultural Society; of the New York Agricultural
Society at Albany; and of the Illinois Board of Agriculture at Spring-
field. :

Massachusetts Horticultural Society Library.

The library of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, founded in
1829, has about 10,000 volumes. It is one of the most notable collee-
tions on horticulture in the world. It has been gathered largely by

1'The numbers of volumes in agricultural libraries, including those of other
agricultural colleges, will be found in the Appendix to this Yearbook.—Eb,

DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL LIBRARIES. 503

the efforts of Robert Manning, the present secretary of the society,
who is also librarian. Many works in this library probably can not
be found elsewhere in America. Among its treasures are the fol-
lowing: Martius’s Flora Brasiliensis, begun in 1840 and not yet com-
pleted; Host’s Gramina Austriaca, 4 volumes, with plates; Tussac’s
Flore des Antilles, 1808-1827; Basilius Beslerus Philiatri, 1613, the
oldest edition de luxe of any botanical work in existence; The Flowers
of Japan and the Art of Floral Arrangement, by Josiah Conder, pro-
fessor of architecture and architect of the imperial Japanese Govern-
ment; The American Grove, the earliest botanical work published in
America; Pinetum Woburnensis, published in 1839 by the Duke of
Bedford, only 100 copies being printed, and the copy here costing the
society about$100; Old Trees of New England, a series of photographs,
with typewritten text, including pictures of the first Seckel and
Bartlett pear trees in New England; Elms and Other Trees of New
England, by Brooks and Dame, containing a picture of the Clark Elm,
at the house where Adams and Hancock were sleeping when aroused
by Paul Revere; Flora Danica, published by the Danish Government
in numbers from time to time between 1764 and 1883; Pomona Italiana,
by Gallesio, with illustrations unusually true to nature, cost 960
marks; Duhamel’s Traité des Arbres Fruitiérs, 7 volumes, cost $500;
Brooke’s Gardens of England, with vignettes of palaces and colored
plates of surrounding grounds. There are also very complete files of
the leading horticultural periodicals of the past century and a half,
ineluding all publications edited by William Robinson, of London,
and the most expensive work in the collection, Curtis’s Botanical
Magazine, begun in 1793, 125 volumes, with 7,691 colored plates.

The library is now crowded into the front room at the Horticultural
Hall, 101 Tremont street, in the heart of the business district of Bos-
ton, but it is to have ample space in a fireproof building to be erected
by the society near the Public Library and other notable public edi-
fices at Copley Square.

The Pennsylvania Horticultural Society Library.

The Pennsylvania Horticultural Society Library, located at Horti-
cultural Hall, Broad street, above Spruce, Philadelphia, was founded
in 1827. It now has over 3,500 volumes, consisting of works on horti-
culture and agriculture, including all reports of the leading societies
of this country. On its tables are kept regularly the leading horti-
cultural and agricultural publications of this country, as well as some
from abroad. The library is open to the public for research, but books
are loaned only to members.

New York Agricultural Society Library.

The New York Agricultural Society Library was founded in 1832.
In 1857 it had 2,097 volumes, and was reported as ‘‘much used.” It
had on its tables 76 agricultural journals, including nearly all of this

504 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

country and 13 from abroad. It now has about 3,000 volumes. Tt is
open to the public, but is ‘‘more especially for the benefit of life
members of the society.”

Library of the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture.

The library of the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture began to
accumulate soon after the board was established in 1852. In 1857 its
secretary stated in his report that it was probably ‘‘ the most extensive
in the United States;” in 1860 he added, ‘‘ The collection of works on
the honey bee is believed to be the best and most extensive in the
ecountry;” and, in 1865, “‘It is of great service to the public, more
especially during the sessions of the legislature.” The catalogue which
classifies and describes the books was published in 1899. It was pre-
pared by the librarian, Mr. F. HW. Fowler. There are 3,200 volumes,
many of them rare and valuable. A card catalogue és in course of
preparation.

Library of the Illinois Board of Agriculture.

The library of the Illinois State Board of Agriculture was started
in 1853, and there were 801 volumes in 1875. Since that date the
growth has been much more rapid, and there are now 5,000 books and
pamphlets, 75 per cent of which relate to agriculture and kindred
industries. The library is open to the publie; the live stock records
are most frequently consulted.}

AGRICULTURAL LIBRARIES OF THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT.

The most important agricultural libraries of this country, both from
the number of books and the use made of them, are the collections of
the Government, namely, the Library of the Department of Agriecul-
ture, at Washington, the library of the Weather Bureau, at the
central office in Washington City and at the stations throughout the
country, and the agricultural books in the Library of Congress.

Library of the Department of Agriculture.

The library of the Department of Agriculture (PI. XL) now contains
é volumes, in charge . P. Cutter, librarian, and ¢ rps
68,000 vol harge of W. P. Cutter, libra , and a corps of
assistants. Of these books fully 75 per cent are strictly agricultural.
Most of the remaining are historical, biographical, or such docume
Most of tl g hist 1, biographical, ch documents
eonnected with the work of Congress or the other Departments as are
likely to be frequently in demand. The purpose is to have a com-
plete working library for the use of the various Divisions of the
Department. ‘The books are received and placed according to the

methods most generally approved by leading librarians, with such

modifications as adapt them to evident needs. The shelves are open
to the employees of the Department, but books are to be left at the
desk, to be returned to their places by the librarian’s assistants.

see the Appendix to this Yearbook.—Eb.

PLATE XL.

Yearbook U S. Dept of Agriculture, 1899.

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DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL LIBRARIES. 505

Under proper regulations the books are also free for reference to the
public generally. Volumes needed in researches which are being
prosecuted in the several Divisions of the Department are taken to
the Division rooms, and there remain until the work in which they
are needed is completed or until an urgent call comes from some
other direction. Each Division has some books which are kept con-
Stantly in its rooms. In the Bureau of Animal Industry and the
Division of Statistics the numbers run into the thousands. These
books are in use every day by the Department scientists and other
workers, and the results of their investigations are continually issuing
from the Government Printing Office in publications which are sent
to investigators and libraries throughout the world and to public men
and farmers in all parts of the Union. Probably nowhere in the
world is an equal use made of books on agriculture.

The growth of the library on the whole has been gradual, Houee
much accelerated in recent years and with much improved library
methods. The beginning was made in 1840 with the appointment of
a clerk in the Patent Office to gather agricultural statistics. When
the Department of Agriculture was established in 1862 the library
which had been collected in the agricultural section of the Patent
Office was given to it, but some time elapsed before all the books were
removed to their new quarters. Indeed, as late as1877 the first report
of the New York Society for the Promotion of Agriculture was received
at the Department library from the Patent Office.

Purchases of books are made by the librarian with the approval of
the Secretary. Very generally such books as are recommended by
the head of a Division are procured, especially when wanted for an
investigation actually in progress. Aeccessions in 1899 numbered
about 4,000 volumes. Lists of accessions are published quarterly.

Library of the Weather Burear.

The Weather Bureati has about 20,000 volumes. Of these 12,000
are upon meteorology and climatology, constituting one of the largest
collections of the kind in the world. Possibly that of the National
Library at Paris is larger. But, certainly, no cther similar colleetion is
used so directly and constantly for the advancement of agriculture. The
remaining 8,000 books are chiefly upon physics, including a special
collection on electricity and magnetism. ‘There are also groups on
mathematics, astronomy, and other related subjects. A few old and
rare volumes are kept, but entirely for their scientific value. Sueh
are La Place’s Mécanique Céleste and Boyle’s works, in handsome
quarto editions. The leading pericdicals on meteorology and phys-
ics are on the shelves. The accessions are about 1,000 annually,
being largely exchanges from meteorological institutions through-
out the world. The books are constantly in use by the scientifie
corps of the Bureau and are issued to employees generally, subject

506 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

to recall when needed. They are free to the public for reference.
The Bureau stations are all supplied with small technical libraries,
while in several of the large cities, as Boston and New York, consid-
erable collections have been made.

Agriculture in the Library of Congress.

The books on agriculture in the Library of Congress occupy a
unique position. Their chief use is by Congressmen when consider-
ing legislation concerning the farming interests, and thorough work
among these books for the information of a committee may lead to
far-reaching and most important results. In addition to this they
are free for use in the reading room. The collection fills six book
stacks and numbers 10,000 volumes. It includes sets of United States
and State reports of the earlier periodicals, of herdbooks and stud-
books, and under the copyright law all American publications on
agriculture that are protected by copyright. There are also a few
notable old books on agriculture, including some in foreign languages.
Besides the books classed together as agricultural there are many rare
and valuable volumes in the special collections, such as the Jefferson
library previously mentioned.

AGRICULTURAL BOOKS IN PUBLIC LIBRARIES.

In addition to agricultural libraries there are several hundred pub-
lic libraries in the United States which have considerable collections
of agricultural books. Some of these devote a dozen alcoves to this
class, furnishing to the intelligent and industrious student a good |
opportunity to fit himself either to write upon agricultural topics or
to engage actively in farming, so far at least as reading can accomplish
that result.

The shelves in such libraries are not, as a rule, open to the reader.
In some of them it would be of little use to him if they were; for the
books are not carefully arranged according to classification. For
example, in one of the great city libraries it puzzled one of the most
experienced attendants to point out even the main portion of the
books on agriculture. But the card catalogue affords a ready key and
supplies the student in some respects more satisfactorily than he
could supply himself in a thoroughly well-arranged library. ‘There
is always, of course, the drawback that it is impossible to judge of
the availability of a book by reading the catalogue entry anything
like as well as by a glance at it upon the shelf or by a moment’s run-
ning through its pages. Among the most important of these collee-
tions in publie libraries are those in Boston, New York, Chicago, and
Philadelphia.

Boston Public Library.

At Copley Square, near Boylston street, in Boston, the public library
offers to readers for twelve hours daily each week day and for a part

DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL LIBRARIES. 507

of Sunday nearly 750,000 books and a very large number of news-
papers and periodicals. Of these, some 20,000 are useful for reading
in one branch of agriculture or another.

The reading room, thoroughly well lighted, will accommodate 310
persons, and the force of attendants is at all times sufficient to secure
delivery of books in eight or ten minutes. The reader consults the
ecard catalogue, which is kept in a separate room in a semicireular
ease 8 fect high, with a subtending diameter 40 feet long. The
classification and cross references are so complete that hardly any-
thing on agriculture would be overlooked.

After determining what books he wishes to consult, the reader fills
out the call blanks and drops them into one of the small boxes which
stand at the end of each table in the reading room. The attend-
ants, who constantly pass along the aisle for the purpose, collect the
eards and bring the books. For home use, books may be drawn, and
they will be delivered at numerous branch stations.

Two New York public libraries.

The public library in New York, for which a magnificent building is
under construction at Forty-second street and Fifth avenue, has
about 8,000 volumes on agriculture grouped in one of the galleries and
easily accessible for reference through the card catalogue. It has also
an index kept up to date for its periodicals, so that anything on
agriculture in current literature is at once accessible.

The Cooper Union Library has only a few hundred agricultural
books, but they are recent; and probably no collection in the country
is as much used by persons engaged in agriculture. The publications
of the Department are received regularly and lists of them are posted.

Philadelphia Public Library.

The Philadelphia public library has some 2,500 volumes on agri-
culture. These are in the great Ridgway Building at Christian and
Broad streets and in the main library building on the corner of
Juniper and Locust streets. While the work is in the hands of a
private organization, the books are practically free for reference, as
in any public library. The library is well supplied with books of the
earlier decades of the closing century, but little effort is made to keep
up with current publications, except in landscape gardening.

Chicago Public Library.

The public library of Chicago has 7,000 volumes on agriculture and
science bearing upon agriculture. These books are free to the public
either for use at the library reading room or may be taken home.
There are fifty-nine branch stations throughout the city at which a
request may be left, and the book will be delivered at the station
free. The printed finding lists issued by the library contain, in
classified form, short author and title entries of all the books in the
library. There is also a card catalogue giving fuller author, title,

508 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and subject entries than the finding lists. The John Crerar library

also has a considerabie collection of agricultural books, and, under a

division of labor agreed upon with the Public and the Newberry

libraries, will eventually have the agricultural library of Chicago.
COLLEGE AND SOCIETY AGRICULTURAL BOOKS.

In addition to the agricultural collections in the public libraries
are the books on agriculture in society libraries and in public schools,
colleges, and universities. Of these, may be mentioned several thou-
sand volumes at Columbia University in New York, which inelude the
most important of recent publications; also collections at Harvard,
Yale, Princeton, University of Pennsylvania, University of Chicago,
University of Michigan, University of Wisconsin, and the University
of Indiana. In Harvard and Yale books of recent date are not found
in the main library. At Harvard work on agriculture has been given
over to the Bussey Institution, while at Yale the agricultural teaching
has been transferred to the agricultural college at Storrs. Neverthe-
less, the agricultural books in the Yale collections are among the
most interesting and important from the librarian’s standpoint of any
in the country. Most notable are books on horse breeding and horse-
manship, collected by Prof. W. H. Brewer, and a complete set of the
agriculturalessays of Jared Eliot, published from 1748 to1760, Among
these latter is a volume of the essays published in 1760, which bears
on the fly leaf Roger Sherman’s autograph as a mark of ownership.

AGRICULTURAL LIBRARIES FOR FARMERS.

Farming wisely followed affords large opportunities for reading
and investigation. The long winter nights by the fireside are pro-
verbial as offering time for study. Strong inducements are now pre-
sented by granges, farmers’ clubs, reading circles, and traveling
libraries to spend these quiet hours in the satisfying mental exercise
of reading upon the daily problems of farm life. Books for this
purpose are supplied mainly by the Department of Agriculture, the
agricultural colleges, and State libraries, by granges and farmers’
clubs.

.

Reading courses with libraries.

The establishment of farmers’ reading courses in Pennsylvania,
New York, Connecticut, Michigan, and other States has been accom-
panied by the supplying of books to farmers, but in most cases these
books have not been sufficient in numbers to-be ealied libraries. In
Connecticut, however, a library of fifty to one hundred volumes is
furnished to clubs of ten or more farmers who have completed a pre-
seribed two years’ reading course and receiveda diploma. The library
is kept one year by such a elub and then forwarded to another
recently formed club of the same kind. This plan gives a sort of
post-graduate course, which promises to be very attractive to farmers
actually engaged in the business, who want to farm according to

been

DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL LIBRARIES. 509

scientific principles. Prof. L. H. Bailey, who started the reading
eourses in New York and has made a study of those of other States,
said recently of this feature in Connecticut: ‘‘The reader often
receives more benefit from these libraries than from the two years’
preliminary reading.”

In New York gome of the books have been supplied for the farmers’
reading clubs by writing and printing them expressly for the time
and purpose. The plan of work was made with the intention of
reaching farmers who were not already studying their business in
books. Simple, short, and easily digested treatises were, therefore,
desired, and it was found best to prepare them from the beginning.
With the same purpose of spreading an interest in scientific agricul-
ture to the most remote farming districts, societies of children called
Junior Naturalist Clubs were organized. It was felt that in this, as
in all instruction, the most hopeful efforts would be with the young.
If the most important facts and the fundamental principles of agricul-
tural science could be imparted to the children in rural communities
generally, a wide advance in farming would be made when these
children come to work the land. Here, again, leaflets and bulletins
were specially prepared, and during the season of 1899-1900 great
progress has been made. At the close of 1900 nearly 20,000 children
were studying in this way. One of these clubs is shown by fig. 1,
Pix LI.

Traveling libraries of agricultural books.

The traveling library movement originated in 1892 by Melvil Dewey,
librarian of the New York State Library at Albany, has from the
start been an especial boon to rural communities, and an effort has
usually been made by the organizers in the various States where the
System exists to encourage farmers to read books on farming and
domestic science. But in some of the early libraries sent out to farm
neighborhoods in Wisconsin, and probably in other States, there was
not a single book dealing with agricultural topics. The reason was
that the managers of the work believed the bocks must be entertain-
ing and attractive, and this opinion was founded on experience. Now,
however, in several States it is made a point to send at least one book
on agriculture with every library, and many traveling libraries are
made up entirely of works on farming, horticulture, and home mak-
ing and keeping.

New York, through the home-edueation department of the Univer-
sity of the State of New York, offers, among fifty lists of traveling
libraries, two that are made up entirely of agricultural books. One
of these lists contains thirty-four volumes and the other sixty. With
the smaller, some volumes on other subjects may be secured if asked
for. The agricultural lists are specially recommended to farming
communities. They are loaned under proper regulations to existing
libraries, to granges, farmers’ clubs, and similar organizations.

510 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In Wisconsin a list of ‘‘good books for the farmer” is now sent
by the State library commission to rural applicants, and offers are
nade to encourage the use of these books by farmers and their fam-
iles. Small pamphlets and leaflets from the Department of Agriecul-
ture and the Wisconsin bulletins have been well received, but longer
and more difficult works have gone slowly. ‘

In Connecticut a special list of works on agriculture is sent out by
the State library commission and are strongly commended to libraries
in rural neighborhoods.

In Illinois the traveling libraries (Pl. XLI, fig. 2) are made an
adjunct of farmers’ institutes. There are two branches of the library
work as organized. One in charge of A. B. Hostetter, superintendent
of the farmers’ institutes, who has general supervision of the other
branch also, provides books on crops, stock, soils, fertilizers, ete.,
while the other, under the management of Mrs. Joseph Carter, Mrs.
Emma T. Davenport, and other women interested in farm progress,
furnishes works on domestie science. The legislature in 1898-99
appropriated $15,000 for the farmers’ institute, and a share of this has
been set aside for the traveling libraries. The lists of books have
been made up during the winter of 1899-1900, and the libraries are
sent out as fast as proper attention can be given to the applications.

The Indiana traveling libraries which are sent out by the State
commission offers one book on agriculture in each of the first twenty
lists made up by the commissioners for general reading. There has
been considerable demand from Indiana, as from other States, for pub-
lications of the Department of Agriculture to add to the agricultural
books furnished by the traveling libraries.

In Iowa a movement is on foot for the creation of a library commis-
sion. In the meantime the State librarian is sending out 73 traveling
libraries, mostly to rural communities. In the first 23 are 41 books on
agriculture. The number will be increased as the demand warrants.

The Pennsylvania library commission, established under a law
passed in 1899, will give careful attention to the claims of agricultural
books to a place in its lists.

Under the Michigan law passed in 1895 the State librarian sends
traveling libraries to every library in the State having over 1,000
volumes which chooses to associate itself with the State library for
the purpose, and some of the books furnished are agricultural; but
the chief opportunity for farmers to obtain libraries of agricultural
works is in connection with the farmers’ institutes, reading courses,
and similar work conducted by Clinton D. Smith, director of the
State experiment station.

In addition to these State-aid agricultural libraries, there is one
system of traveling libraries under private management that sup-
plies mainly agricultural reading. It is maintained by the Seaboard
Air Line Railway in Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia, and

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899 PLATE XLI.

Fic. 1.—JUNIOR NATURALISTS’ CLUB AT BERNHaARDS Bay, ONEIDA LAKE, CENTRAL
NEw YORK.

FiG. 2.—TRAVELING AGRICULTURAL LIBRARY USED IN CONNECTION
WITH FARMERS?’ INSTITUTES IN ILLINOIS.

PLaTte XLII.

Yearbook U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899.

emit | |
j ‘) TTT

HEADQUARTERS OF TRAVELING AGRICULTURAL LIBRARIES ON THE SEAB

OARD RAILROAD IN VIRGINIA, THE CAROLINAS, AND GEORGIA.

a
DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL LIBRARIES. " HLT

managed by Mr. John T. Patrick and Mrs. E. B. Heard. Mrs. Heard’s
work is entirely philanthropic. The libraries (Pl. XLII) contain
from 40 to 60 volumes, largely publications of the Department of
Agriculture, and are sent to all important stations along the line of
the railroad. After remaining thirty days at a place they are usually
exchanged.

Grange libraries.

The Patrons of Husbandry throughout the United States have
always, since their organization thirty years ago, systematically
encouraged the establishment of libraries by the granges, as the sub-
ordinate lodges of the order are called. In all there are undoubtedly
several hundred such grange libraries, but many of them have given
more attention to general reading than to agricultural books. But
most of them have received Yearbooks, Farmers’ Bulletins, and other
popular publications of the Department of Agriculture, and also the
bulletins of the State experiment stations and the reports of State
agricultural and horticultural societies and breeders and dairy asso-
ciations. In this way they have proved effective in the promotion of
scientifie farming.

SUGGESTION FOR PERMANENT LIBRARIES FOR FARMERS.

The Department of Agriculture promotes and stimulates reading
on agricultural topics by farmers themselves to a greater extent than
any other single agency in the world. It has printed and circulated
annually for the past five years on an average 6,000,000 copies of its
publications. Nearly all of these have been sent to farmers directly,
many of them through the instrumentality of Congressmen, to whom,
under the law, two-thirds of the Farmers’ Bulletins and 94 per
cent of the Yearbooks are supplied for distribution among their
constituents. In addition, the experiment stations in all of the States
publish bulletins on their work which are valuable to the farmer
directly, and these are distributed to applicants. These publications
are believed to be well prepared and reliable, and can be furnished
at alow cost. Thissuggests that permanent libraries, largely of State
and United States publications, and under the joint management of
the State and federal authorities, with a system of lectures on agri-
culture, might be made a very effective means of agricultural progress.

Such a movement would be received in a different spirit from that
which met the efforts of the agricultural societies a hundred years
ago. The scientific farmer is no longer ridiculed. He is observed,
sometimes envied, often imitated. The problem of furnishing all
farmers with the means of becoming scientific in their methods is
largely the problem already suggested, of bringing the right book to
the right man at the right time. A large percentage of farmers have
come to know that it is possible to get help from books. The diffi-
culty is to put the instructions that will help where the farmer can

512 ~ YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

get them on the day that a puzzling question, whether of breeding or
cultivation, presents itself. It does the farmer little good to receive a
pamphlet covering certain information months before or after the
subject has ferced itself upon him. Pamphlets are to him much like
newspapers—good for a day only. Also it does not meet the need for
him to know that a book can be had by application to the State agri-
cultural college or the Department of Agriculture at Washington. It
will be too late when it comes, and he can not keep it till another
oceasion arises, a month, a year, or ten years later. He must have
all the information he can carry in his head. The reading cirele,
farmers’ institute, and traveling library willhelp inthis. But also he
must have a permanent agricultural library at the nearest practicable
point. The State and national authorities may combine to furnish
this, using a recent suggestion of Mr. F. A. Hutchins, of the Wiscon-
sin library commission, that town and village libraries should be open
to the support and the use of the surrounding farming communities.
They might go further, and establish in every district school, under
the control of the directors (trustees) and the teacher, a thoroughly
good library of standard agricultural books. It would be an impor-
tant part of the work of the National Government toe keep these collee-
tions supplied with the results of recent discoveries, so far as available
for practical application to farm operations.

Another suggestion for the location and care of sueh agricultural
libraries is that they be put in the post office under the supervision of
the postmaster. The books would then be in the hands of a federal
official. The convenience of such an arrangement is manifest when
it is considered that farmers could send for mail and books at the
same time, and that some one capable of attending to calls would
always be at hand.

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS IN THE
UNITED STATES.

By A. C. TRrubn; Ph.Ds;
Director of the Office of Experiment Stations.

HISTORICAL.

When the first agricuitural societies were formed in this country,
near the close of the eighteenth century, we find the beginnings of a
recognition of the desirability of experimental inquiries for the
advancement of agriculture. The society organized in South Caro-
lina in 1785 had among its objects the establishment of an experiment
farm. President Washington, who was a member of the first society
for promoting agriculture organized in the United States, which was
formed March 1, 1785, at Philadelphia, then the seat of the General
Government, in pleading for the establishment of a national board
of agriculture in his annual message to Congress in 1796, says that
one of the functions of such a board is ‘“‘to encourage and assist a
spirit of discovery and improvement = by stimulating to
enterprise and experiment.” The distribution of seeds and plants,
begun in 1839 through a Congressional appropriation secured by Hon.
Henry L. Ellsworth, Commissioner of Patents, which afterwards
resulted in the establishment of the Department of Agriculture,
was primarily an experimental enterprise with a view to testing the
adaptation of new varieties of agricultural plants to different parts of
the country.

in 1849 the New York Agricultural Society established at Albany a
chemical laboratory for the analysis of soils, manures, ete., and an
elaborate examination of maize was made there by Dr. Salisbury. In
1855 a special agent was employed by the Patent Office ‘‘to investi-
gate and report upon the habits of insects injurious and beneficial to
vegetation, especially those infesting the cotton plant.” The same
office also employed a chemist and botanist, began a propagating
garden, and arranged with the Smithsonian Institution for procuring
and publishing records of meteorological observations. After the
establishment of the Department of Agriculture in 1862, as a braneh
of the Government distinct from the Patent Office, the land on which
its buildings now stand was for several years chiefly used as an experi-
ment farm. As soon as agricultural colleges were established in this
country experimental investigations in field and laboratory were
undertaken, but for a number of years these were carried on with
small means and for the most part by the voluntary labor of pro-
fessors outside of their regular duties as instructors.

1 A 99——33 013

514 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ESTABLISHMENT OF AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES.

The act establishing an agricultural college which was passed by
the legislature of Maryland in 1856 made it a duty of the board of
trustees of the institution to conduct on the college farm ‘‘a series of
experiments upon the cultivation of cereal and other plants adapted
to the latitude and climate of the State.”

The records of the college show that in 1858, immediately after the
college was located and before building began, field experiments with
corn, oats, and potatoes, ‘‘to test the relative value of the different
manures offered for sale in the cities of Baltimore and Washington,”
were commenced on the college farm. This work continued for two
or three years, but was interrupted by the financial distress which
soon affected the whole country and by the disturbed condition of the
State and nation.

In 1870 a school of agriculture and horticulture was established in
connection with Harvard College in accordance with the provisions of
the will of Mr. Benjamin Bussey, of Roxbury, Mass. This school was
named ‘‘The Bussey Institution.” The same year Harvard College
received from the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture a
considerable sum ‘‘for the support of a laboratory and for experi-
ments in agricultural chemistry to be conducted on the Bussey estate.”
Investigations were begun in this laboratory in 1871 by F. H. Storer,
the professor of agricultural chemistry in the Bussey Institution, and
his assistants, and the first report of their work was made December 3,
1871. The earliest experiments consisted of field tests of fertilizers
upon the farm of the institution and chemical analyses of commercial
fertilizers. A number of builetins were published, including reports
of field experiments and investigations on hybridizing plants, the
composition of feeding stuffs and fertilizers, injurious fungi, and
physiology. The great fire in Boston in 1872 and the commercial
crisis of 1873 combined to cripple the institution financially, and for
a number of years little was done in the way of original investigations.
Recently, however, the financial status of the institution has improved,
and investigations have been undertaken in several lines. Several
bulletins have been published within the past three years, among
which are those on the white pine (Pinus strobus), basket willow, sys-
tematie destruction of marmots and other vermin, and chemical sub-
stances in the trunks of trees. An extensive arboretum of indigenous
and exotie trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants has been developed
on the grounds of the institution through a bequest made to Harvard
University in 1872 by James Arnold, of New Bedford, Mass.

When the College of Agriculture of the University of California
was organized it was understood that a part of its work would consist
of experimental inquiries. In 1870 Prof. E. 8. Carr, in an address at
the State fair, stated that ‘‘the University proposes to furnish the
facilities for all needful experiments; to be the station where tests can

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 515

be made of whatever claims attention.” The university grounds at
Berkeley were developed with reference to their use for experimental
purposes, and in 1874 a considerable number of varieties of grapes
and orchard and small fruits were planted, and a barn and two prop-
agating houses were built. The same year E. W. Hilgard was chosen
professor of agriculture. Professor Hilgard had previously been
engaged for a number of years in conducting an agricultural and
geological survey in Mississippi, in connection with which chemical
examinations of soils, field experiments, and other agricultural investi-
gations had been incidentally carried on in accordance with a plan
inaugurated as early as 1857 and afterwards made the basis for the
highly successful work of the California experiment station, which
has been continued under his direction for a quarter of a century.
‘<Tn the winter of 1875-76 the first field experiments were undertaken
to determine the effects of deep culture and of the application of vari-
ous fertilizers. In 1875 the laboratory branch of the experiment-
station work was inaugurated, the regents making provision for the
expenses thereof for the first two years, and at the end of this time
the legislature opened the way for the continuation and extension of
the work by liberal special appropriations from year to year.”

After the fund which had been established by the sale of the land
serip donated to Connecticut under the act of Congress of July 2, 1862,
had been given to the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale College in
1863, a professor of agriculture was added to the working force of
that institution. Samuel W. Johnson, M. A., professor of theoretical
and agricultural chemistry, and William H. Brewer, Ph. D., the pro-
fessor of agriculture, have for many years taken an active interest in
all work for the promotion of agricultural science in Connecticut and
elsewhere in the United States. Under their direction experimental
work for the benefit of agriculture was carried on to a limited extent
at New Haven more than thirty years ago, and it is doubtless safe to
say that ‘‘ through the influence of the professors and pupils trained
in this school, more than to any other single cause, is due the
recognition of the importance of the establishment of agricultural
experiment stations, first in Connecticut and subsequently throughout
the whole country.”

THE FIRST STATE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,

In 1872 at a convention of representatives of agricultural colleges
held in Washington, D. C., in response to a call issued by the United
States Commissioner of Agriculture, the question of the establishment
of experiment stations was discussed, and the report of a committee
in favor of such institutions was adopted by the convention. On
December 17, 1873, at the winter meeting of the State board of agri-
culture at Meriden, Conn., Professor Johnson, of the Sheffield Scien-
tifie School, and Professor Atwater, of Wesleyan University, urged

516 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the establishment of an agricultural experiment station in that State
after the European pattern. A committee was appointed to consider
the expediency of such a movement, and reported two days later that
it was their ‘‘ unanimous opinion that the State of Connecticut ought
to have an experiment station as good as can be found anywhere, and
that the legislature of the State ought to furnish the means for its
establishment.” A permanent committee was then appointed by the
board to bring this matter to the attention of the publie and the legis-
lature. This committee held meetings in different parts of the State,
and the following winter secured the introduction of a bill for an
experiment station, which, however, was laid over until the next ses-
sion of the legislature. Another year of agitation of the matter
ensued. The project had many warm and enthusiastic friends, but
the great mass of the farmers took little interest in the enterprise.
When it had become apparent that it could not otherwise succeed,
Mr. Orange Judd offered on his own part $1,000 to begin the under-
taking, and on the part of the trustees of Wesleyan University, at
Middletown, the free use of the chemical laboratory in the Orange
Judd Hall of Natural Science.

These offers were made on condition that the legislature should
appropriate $2,800 per annum for two years for the work of the sta-
tion. It was thought that if by these means the work of agricultural
experimentation could actually be begun the usefulness of the enter-
prise would be so clearly demonstrated that it would speedily receive
more generous and permanent support. An act making the appropri-
ation thus proposed was unanimously passed, and approved July 2,
1875. Early in October of the same year a chemist was on the ground,
and as soon as practicable two assistants were secured. Professor
Atwater was made director, and thus the first State agricultural
experiment station in America was an accomplished fact. At the
end of the two years provided for in the original bill the station was
reorganized under the direct control of the State and permanently
located in New Haven, where it has since been in successful opera-
tion, until 1882 in the chemical laboratory of the Sheffield Scientifie
School, and thereafter in buildings and on grounds provided by the
State in the suburbs of the city.

ESTABLISHMENT OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS BY STATES AND COLLEGES.

The success which attended this first attempt to establish an experi-
ment station in the United States was sufficient to attract the atten-
tion of advanced agriculturists throughout the country, and the
example set by Connecticut was soon followed in other States. March
12, 1877, the State of North Carolina established an agricultural
experiment and fertilizer control station at Chapel Hill in connection
with the State University in accordance with an act of the legislature
creating a department of agriculture, immigration, and statistics.

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. Sy

The Cornell University experiment station was organized in February,
1879, by the faculty of agriculture of the university, as a voluntary
organization. From that time until the passage of the act of Con-
gress of March 2, 1887, the work-was earried on by the different pro-
fessors in such time as could be spared from other studies. For a
part of that time the trustees of the university appropriated money
from the university funds to pay for the services of an analyst and
for the purchase of supplies. All the other work was done without
compensation.

The New Jersey State experiment station at New Brunswick, N. J.,
was established March 18, 1880, by an act of the State legislature and
connected with the scientific school of Rutgers College.

The movement grew in favor with the people with each succeeding
year, and in 1886 the Committee on Agriculture in reporting the
Hatch bill to the House of Representatives was able to make the fol-
lowing statements:

Since 1881 the legislatures of several States have either recognized or reorgan-
ized the departments of agriculture in the land-grant colleges as ‘‘ experiment
stations,” thus following substantially the course adopted by New Jersey. Such
stations have been established in Maine, Massachusetts, Ohio, Tennessee, and
Wisconsin. In three other States (possibly more), without legislative action, the
college authorities have organized their agricultural work as experiment stations.
This has been done in California, Missouri, and New York. But in addition to
the twelve experiment stations specifically designated by that name a very large
number of the colleges established under the act of 1862 are doing important work
of a precisely similar kind. Many of them began such work immediately upon
their establishment, and have since maintained it continuously; others have
entered upon it more recently. The colleges in Colorado, Indiana, Kansas, Michi-
gan, and Pennsylvania are carrying on what is strictly experiment-station work
as a part of their ordinary duty.

ATTEMPT TO ESTABLISH AN EXPERIMENT STATION THROUGH PRIVATE MUNIFICENCE,

The only attempt in America to establish an agricultural experiment
station through the munificence of one man, deserves recognition in
this article, although it was short lived. In the year 1876, Mr. Law-
son Valentine, a philanthropic and public-spirited native of Massa-
chusetts, conducting a prosperous business in New York City, pur-
chased a tract of several hundred acres in the township of Cornwall, .
Orange County, N. Y., to which he gave the name of Houghton
Farm. Soon after, he conceived the idea of establishing at this place
a series of systematic agricultural experiments. Mr. Valentine natu-
‘ally took for his model the work of Lawes and Gilbert at Rothamsted,
England, but with modifications suited to American conditions.

In the summer of 1879 Dr. Manly Miles, of Michigan, was engaged
as director of experiments, and during the next eighteen months he
laid out suitable fields, constructed a system of drainage, and vis-
ited the principal stations of Europe fer the purpose of studying
plans and methods of investigation. Early in 1881 the scheme was

518 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

reorganized, and Maj. Henry E. Alvord, of Massachusettis, was placed
in charge as general manager, with these instructions from the pro-
prietor:

First, conduct the farming operations in accordance with the best known methods
and under the best possible organization and management, with a view of edu-
cating and enlightening others by furnishing valuable examples and results in
practical agriculture. Second, organize and operate a scientific department,
devoted to agricultural investigation and experiment, to be of the highest order,
and such as to command the respect, interest, and cooperation of leading scientists
of this and other countries.

Upon this basis Houghton Farm was conducted for about five years.
The experiment department, with its own organization, assignment of
real estate, and equipment, was maintained at an expense to the pro-

‘prietor approaching $20,000 per annum. The experimental work
inaugurated was grouped under four heads: (1) Agricultural physies;
(2) plant growth; (3) diseases of plants; and, (4) animal growth and
production. The scheme included four corresponding series of pub-
lications, issued at irregular intervals. Papers were published and
distributed during 1882, 1885, and 1884 in the three series first named.
The main work consisted of field experiments in growing maize.
Thirty-six plats of an area of one-fifth acre each were continuously
cultivated for several years, and the records were partly published.
Extensive provisions were made for work in breeding and feeding
dairy cattle and mutton sheep and in dairy products, but no pamphlet
publications were issued on this line. The death of Mr. Valentine in
1888 put an end to this enterprise.

ESTABLISHMENT OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS BY CONGRESS.

The convention of delegates of agricultural colleges which met at
Washington, D. C., in 1883 discussed and indorsed the project for the
establishment of stations in connection with the colleges by appro-
priations from the National Treasury, in accordance with the terms
of a bill already introduced into the House of Representatives by C. C.
Carpenter, of Iowa. Congress, however, was not yet. quite ready to
undertake so large a scientific enterprise in this direction, and the
bill was not put upon its passage. Meanwhile the number of stations
was steadily increasing, and the interest of practical farmers as well
as men of science was more and more excited by the reports of the
results of the experiments which the stations had completed. On
July 8, 1885, a convention of agricultural colleges and experiment
stations met at the Department of Agriculture at Washington City,
in response to a call issued by Hon. Norman J. Colman, the Commis-
sioner of Agriculture. Almost the first thing which this convention
did was to pass a resolution ‘‘that the condition and progress of
American agriculture require national aid for investigation and experi-
mentation in the several States and Territories; and that therefore
this convention approves the principle and general provisions of what

— ee

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 519

is known as the Cullen bill of the last Congress, and urges upon the
next Congress the passage of this or a similar act.” (The Cullen bill
was in its general provisions similar to the bill afterwards passed by
Congress and now popularly known as the Hatch Act.) So earnest
was the convention in this matter that it appointed a committee on
legislation, which was very efficient in securing the passage of the
amended bill.

In a later session the convention passed resolutions urging the cre-
ation of a branch of the Department of Agriculture at Washington
City, which should be a special medium of intercommunication and
exchange between the colleges and stations, and which should publish
a periodical bulletin of agricultural progress, containing in a popular
form the latest results in the progress of agricultural education, inves-
tigation, and experimentation in this and in all other countries. Pro-
vision was also made for a permanent organization by the appointment
of a committee to cooperate with the United States Commissioner of
Agriculture in determining the time of meeting and the business of the
next convention, and in forming a plan for a permanent organization.

-At the next session of Congress the experiment-station enterprise
was again called to the attention of the House of Representatives by
the bill which was introduced by William H. Hatch, of Missouri, and
referred to the Committee on Agriculture. This committee made a
favorable report March 3, 1886, and nearly a year later the bill was
passed by Congress, and was approved by the President March 2,
1887.

The Hatch Act provides that $15,000 a year shall be given out of
the funds proceeding from the sale of public lands to each State and
Territory for the establishment of an agricultural experiment station,
which must be a department of the land-grant college, except in the
ease of those States which had established experiment stations as
separate institutions prior to the passage of the act.

The duties of the stations are thus defined:

Sec. 2. That it shall be the object and duty of said experiment stations to con-
duct original researches or verify experiments on the physiology of plants and
animals; the diseases to which they are severally subject, with the remedies for
the same; the chemical composition of useful plants at their different stages of
growth; the comparative advantages of rotative cropping as pursued under a
varying series of crops; the capacity of new plants or trees for acclimation; the
analysis of soils and water; the chemical composition of manures, natural or arti-
ficial, with experiments designed to test their comparative effects on crops of
different kinds; the adaptation and value of grasses and forage plants; the compo-
sition and digestibility of the different kinds of food for domestic animals; the
scientific and economic questions involved in the production of butter and cheese;
and such other researches or experiments bearing directly on the agricultural
industry of the United States as may in each case be deemed advisable, having due
regard to the varying conditions and needs of the respective States or Territories,

In order that the funds from the National Treasury might be for
the most part devoted to agricultural investigations, enly $3,000 of

520 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the first year’s appropriation for each station was to be expended for
buildings, and thereafter only $750 a year could be so expended.

That the farmers of the country may receive prompt information
regarding the work of the stations, it is provided that in addition to
‘full and detailed” annual reports of their operations and expendi-
tures ‘‘ bulletins or reports of progress shall be published at said sta-
tions at least once in three months, one copy of which shall be sent
to each newspaper in the States or Territories in which they are
respectively located, and to such individuals actually engaged in
farming as may request the same and as far as the means of the sta-
tion will permit.” The franking privilege is also given for the station
publications. Financial and other reports of the stations are to be
sent to the Secretary of Agriculture and the Seerctary of the Treasury,
but no provision is made for auditing the accounts by officers of the
United States or for any supervision of their work by the federal
authorities. It is, however, made the duty of the Secretary of Agri-
eulture ‘‘to furnish forms, as far as practicable, for the tabulation of
results of investigation or experiments; to indicate from time to time
such lines of inquiry as to him shall seem most important; and, in
general, to furnish such advice and assistance as will best promote
the purpose of this act.”

Owing to the failure of Congress to make a specific appropriation
to meet expenditures under the Hatch Act during the fiscal year in
which it was passed, the Treasury Department ruled that no money
could be paid to the stations during that year. It was therefore
necessary to wait until the following session of Congress before active
operations could be begun under the act. Meanwhile the State legis-
latures, one after another, gave their assent to the provisions of the
act and designated the institutions which were to receive its benefits.
Boards of management were organized, working staffs were appointed,
buildings were located and planned, land was selected for field experi-
ments, and in general the equipment of the stations was provided for.
When the appropriation was made by Congress in 1888, it was included
in the general appropriation act of the Department of Agriculture,
though the head of that Department was at that time in no way
responsible for the expenditure of this fund, and this precedent has
uniformly been followed in succeeding years.

In 1894 Congress adopted the recommendation of the Seeretary of
Agriculture and gave this Department authority to examine the
expenditures of the stations under the Hatch Act and report on their
legality. This led to much closer relations between the Department
and the stations than had hitherto existed. As soon as practicable
after the passage of this act the required schedules were prepared on
the basis of those already in use at the stations and distributed. In
order that the Department might have accurate and complete infor-
mation regarding the work and expenditures of the stations as the

eS lll

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. Hat

basis for the required reports to Congress, it was decided that the sta-
tions should be regularly visited by representatives of the Office of
Experiment Stations, and this has been done each year since. In
connection with these visits inquiries are made regarding the man-
agement and work of the stations and their relations to the land-grant
colleges. Their methods of keeping accounts are also examined.
Conferences are held with the station officers and members of the gov-
erning boards, in which not only financial policy, but also lines and
methods of work are discussed. On the basis of this visitation of the
stations, together with their financial statements and published reports
and bulletins, a report on the work and expenditures of the stations
is annually made to Congress.

In connection with the examination of the expenditures of the sta-
tions it became necessary for the Department of Agriculture to define
its views regarding the limitations of the Hatch Act, and this was
accordingly done in a series of rulings issued Mareh 10, 1896. The
most important of these were to the effect: (1) That permanent sub-
* stations were contrary to the spirit and intent of that act; (2) that
land could not be purchased or rented with the Hatch fund; (3) that
farm operations were permissible only so far as they definitely con-
stituted a part of agricultural investigations or experiments; (4) that
funds arising from the sale of farm products or other property in the
possession of a station, as the result of expenditures of the Hatch
fund, rightfully belonged to the station, and therefore should be
expended for station purposes.

GROWTH OF THE EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

In 1893 the stations for the first time united in making a collective
exhibit of the methods and results of their work. This exhibit was
made in connection with the World’s Columbian Exposition at Chi-
cago. The Office of Experiment Stations and the Association of
American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations acted in
cooperation in the general management of the exhibit. The then
Director of the Office of Experiment Stations, Prof. A. W. Harris,
represented the Office, and the association was represented by a com-
mittee, of which Dr. H. P. Armsby, director of the Pennsylvania State
College Experiment Station, was chairman. The station work was
exhibited in nine sections—botany, soils, fertilizers, crops, horticulture,
entomology, feeding stuffs, animal nutrition, and dairying. There
were also botanical, biological, and chemical laboratories, in which
some of the simpler station operations were carried on by way of
illustration. The publications of the stations and of the Office of
Experiment Stations were shown, together witha large number of pho-
tographs and charts illustrating the buildings, equipment, and work
of the stations. The exhibit was in general of a popular character,
and was installed in the Agricultural Building. In connection with

522 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

this exhibit a popular digest of the publications of the stations was
made by this Office and published as Bulletin No. 15, entitled ‘‘ Hand-
book of experiment-station work.” At the same exposition a very
extensive test of the different breeds of dairy cows was made under
direction of a committee of station officers. In this test a daily record
was kept of the food, milk, fat in the milk, and butter or cheese yield
of each cow. <A copy of this record, which comprises about 1,000
large sheets of tabulated matter, has been filed at the Department of
Agriculture, where it is accessible to students and investigators. —
The growth of the stations as regards their number, resources, per-
sonnel, and publications is shown by the following general statisties
for the earlier years of their operations under the Hateh Act as com-
pared with those for the year 1899. In 1888 the 46 stations in 38
States and one Territory received the national funds, making a total
appropriation of $585,000, to which must be added about $125,000
derived from State appropriations, fees for fertilizer analyses, sales of
farm products, ete., and $10,000 appropriated by Congress for the

Office of Experiment Stations. The whole amount used for experi- ~

ment-station purposes in the United States in 1888 was therefore about
$720,000. In 1889 these stations published 45 annual reports and 237
bulletins.

In 1890, when more complete statistics of the stations were pub-
lished by the Office of Experiment Stations for the first time, it was
stated that the ‘‘stations employ 429 persons in the work of adminis-
tration and inquiry. The number of officers engaged in the different
lines of work is as follows: Directors, 66; chemists, 101; agriculturists,
63; horticulturists, 47; botanists, 42; entomologists, 33; veterina-
rians, 19; meteorologists, 11; biologists, 4; viticulturists, 2; physicists,
3; geologist, 1; mycologists, 2; microscopists, 4; irrigation engineer,
1; in charge of substations, 16; secretaries and treasurers, 21; libra-
rians, 5; clerks, 18. ,There are also 42 persons classified under the
head of miscellaneous, including superintendents of gardens, grounds,
and buildings; foremen of farms and gardens; apiarists; herdsmen,
ete. During 1890 the stations have published 36 annual reports and
225 bulletins. The mailing list of the stations now aggregates about
340,000 names.”

In 1899 agricultural experiment stations were in operation in all the
States and Territories and in Alaska and Hawaii. In each of the
States of Alabama, Connecticut, New Jersey, and New York a sepa-
rate station was maintained wholly or in part by State funds, and in
Louisiana there were three stations receiving joint support from
national and State funds. Excluding the branch stations established
in several States, the total number of stations in the United States in
1899 was 56. Of these, 52 received the appropriation provided for in
the act of Congress above mentioned. The total income of thestations
during 1899 was $1,143,334.93, of which $720,000 was received from

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. | 523

the National Government, the remainder, $423,334.93, coming from the
following sources: State governments, $240,300.20; individuals and
communities, $12,100; fees for analyses of fertilizers, ete., $75,294.42;
sales of farm products, $69,312.60; miscellaneous, $26,327.71. In
addition to this the Office of Experiment Stations had an appropria-
tion of $40,000, including $10,000 for the Alaskan investigation. The
value of additions to equipment of the stations in 1899 is estimated
as follows: Buildings, $27,218.64; libraries, $10,796.15; apparatus,
$16,917.07; farm implements, $10,784.88; live stock, $16,265.95;*mis-
cellaneous, $22,521.93. Total, $104,504.62. The stations employed
678 persons in the work of administration and inquiry The number of
officers engaged in the different lines of work was as follows: Directors,
71; chemists, 148; agriculturists, 68; experts in animal husbandry, 9;
horticulturists, 77; farm foremen, 21; dairymen, 23; botanists, 52; en-
tomologists, 48; veterinarians, 26; meteorologists, 17; biologists, 7;
physicists, 7; geologists, 5; mycologists and bacteriologists, 20; irri-
gation engineers, 5; in charge of substations, 16; secretaries and
treasurers, 24; librarians, 9; and clerks, 43. There were also 48
persons classified under the head of ‘‘ miscellaneous,” including
superintendents of gardens, grounds, and buildings; apiarists; herds-
men, ete. Three hundred and eight station officers do more or less
teaching in the colleges with which the stations are connected.

During 1899 the stations published 445 annual reports and bul-
letins. Besides regular reports and bulletins, a number of the stations
issued press bulletins, which were widely reproduced in the agricul-
tural and county papers. The mailing list of the stations now aggre-
gates 523,970 names. Correspondence with farmers and calls upon
station officers for public addresses at institutes and other meetings
of farmers are more numerous than ever. The station officers con-
tinue to contribute many articles on special topics to agricultural and
scientific journals.

The number of stations has increased from 46 in 1888 to 56 in 1899.
The annual income of the stations, including the appropriation for
the Office of Experiment Stations, has risen from about $720,000 in 1888
to $1,183,000 in 1899. Of this amount, about $125,000 was derived
from State appropriations, fees for fertilizer analyses, sales of farm
products, ete., in 1888, and $423,000 in 1899. In 1889, 393 officers
were employed at the stations, while in 1899 their number had
increased to 678. The stations published 282 annual reports and
bulletins in 1889, and 445 in 1899.

The stations are at present conducting a wide range of scientifie
research in the laboratory and plant house and an equally large
amount of practical experimenting in the field, the orchard, stable,
and dairy. Practically all the stations are keeping a record of
meteorological data, while 10 are making special studies of prob-
lems relating to meteorological phenomena and climatic conditions.

524 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Thirty-six stations are at work investigating soils, their geology,
physics, and chemistry, or conducting soil tests with fertilizers or in
other ways. ‘Twenty-one stations are studying questions relating to
drainage and seepage or to irrigation in the field or greenhouse, and
with orchard, garden, or farm crops. Thirty-three stations are making
analyses of commercial and homemade fertilizers or are conducting
field experiments with fertilizers. At least fifteen stations either
exercise a fertilizer control in their respective States or make analyses
on which the control is based. All the stations are studying the more
important crops, either with regard to their composition, nutritive
value, methods of manuring and cultivation, and the best varieties
adapted to individual localities, or with reference to systems of
rotation.

Forty-seven stations are investigating the composition of feeding
stuffs, making digestion experiments, conducting feeding experiments
formilk, beef, mutton,or pork, or studying different methods of feeding.
Twenty-nine stations are investigating subjects relating to dairying,
including the chemistry and bacteriology of milk, creaming, butter
making, or the construction and management of creameries. Studies
on the food and nutrition of man, including the composition and
digestibility of foods and metabolism, are being conducted at 14 sta-
tions. Fifty-two stations are doing chemical work and often are
studying methods of analysis. Botanical studies occupy more or less
of the attention of 47 stations, including investigations in systematic
and physiological botany, with special reference to the diseases of
plants, testing of seeds with reference to their vitality and purity,
classification of weeds, and methods for their eradication. Fifty-three
stations work to a greater or less extent in horticulture, testing varie-
ties of vegetables, and large and small fruits, and making studies in
varietal improvement and synonomy. Several stations have under-
taken operations in forestry. Thirty-six stations investigate injurious
insects with reference to their restriction or destruction. Twenty-four
stations study animal diseases and the methods for their prevention
or cure. At least 5 stations are engaged in bee culture and 8 in
experiments with poultry. One or more stations have made investi-
gations on miscellaneous subjects, such as the following: Technology
of wine, Olive oil, and vinegar, preservation of fruits and vegetables,
the draft of farm implements, road making, the manufacture of beet,
2ane, sorghum, and maple sugar, oyster culture, ete.

At first there was a disposition, especially in the region west of the
Mississippi River, where the area of the States and Territories is large
and the population seattered, to divide the Hateh fund and maintain
substations in different localities. This greatly weakened the effect-
iveness of the station work and in some cases prevented the establish-
ment of the stations on a firm basis. During the past few years,
largely through the efforts of the Office of Experiment Stations, these

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 525

substations have been generally abolished. In California, Minnesota,
Texas, Michigan, Ohio, and New Mexico one or more substations are
maintained with the aid of State funds, which are used to supplement
the national fund, and thus make the extension of the station work
feasible and successful.

RELATION OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT TO THE STATIONS.

The agricultural experiment stations inthe United States are State
- institutions, supported in part by funds given by the National Goy-
ernment to the States to be used for their maintenance. They have
also received the franking privilege under federal authority. The
direct management of the stations is wholly in the hands of State
officers. The stations, however, sustain certain definite relations to
different branches of the Federal Government. The appropriations
called for by the Hatch Act are made by Congress from year to year.
They come under the head of annual, rather than permanent, appro-
priations, Congress having the right to refuse to make them at any
time. The Congressional appropriations for the stations have thus
far been included in the appropriation acts for the Department of
Agriculture. After a State or Territory has given its assent to the
provisions of the Hatch Act and designated the college which is to
receive its benefits, the money is paid directly from the United States
Treasury to the treasurer or other officer of the institution with which
the station is connected, who has been certified to the Treasury as the
proper person to receive this fund. The payments are made quar-
terly in advance, as provided by law.

Regulations governing the use of the franking privilege by the sta-
tions are made by the Post-Office Department.

As departments of the colleges receiving the benefits of the land-
grant act of 1862, reports of the stations are annually sent to the See-
retary of the Interior, who is represented in his relations with these
institutions by the Bureau of Education.

The stations have much more intimate relations with the Depart-
ment of Agriculture than with any other branch of the Federal Goy-
ernment. In its general relations with the stations, as well as in the
supervision of their expenditures under the Hatch Act, the Depart-
ment is represented by the Office of Experiment Stations, an account
of which is given below.

From time to time Congress has given the Department of Agricul-
ture funds for special investigations, with the provision that the
Department shall, as far as practicable, cooperate with the experiment
stations in carrying on these investigations. Notable instances of
such appropriations are those for nutrition and irrigation investi-
gations, which have been in charge of the Office of Experiment Sta-
tions, the inquiries conducted by the Office of Public Road Inquiries,
and investigations with forage plants, in charge of the Division of

526 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Agrostology. There has been an increasing amount of cooperation |

beween the Department and the stations in other ways, including
all the general lines of work in which the scientific Divisions of the
Department are engaged. The Department has also afforded to sta-
tion officers the privileges of its laboratories, collections, and Library
to an inereasing extent from year to year.

THE OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

The Office of Experiment Stations was established as a branch of
the Department to represent the Secretary of Agriculture in his rela-
tions with the experiment stations ‘as provided for by the Hatch Act.
After the passage of the Morrill Act of 1890 for the further endow-
ment of the agricultural colleges, this Office was made the depository
of the financial and statistical reports of these institutions, which are

annually sent to the Secretary of Agriculture. The Office was thus -

furnished with considerable material upon which to base publications
regarding the development of education in agriculture in this country.
This work has since been broadened to include a survey of the insti-
tutions for agricultural education in foreign countries. More recently
the Office has been charged with the supervision of experimental
investigations in agriculture in Alaska and of special investigations
on human nutrition and on irrigation, which are carried on largely
in cooperation with the agricultural eolleges and experiment stations.

RELATIONS OF THE OFFICE WITH EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

In its general advisory relations with the experiment stations in the
different States and Territories, the Office of Experiment Stations
endeavors to help the stations in a variety of ways. This work is
performed partly by personal conferences with station officers and
partly by correspondence. It includes such things as advice regard-
ing the organization and management of the stations, the choice of
officers, the lines of work to be undertaken, the planning, recording,
and execution of special lines of work, the nature and form of publi-
eations, the plans for station buildings, the materials, apparatus, and
literature required for use in connection with different kinds of agri-
eultural investigation. By its work in this direction, the Office has
been enabled to offset, to a certain extent, the difficulties in station
management and work, especially those arising from frequent changes
in the governing boards and staffs of the stations, and has secured an
increasing amount of uniformity in the general policy of station man-
agement throughout the country. It has, at the same time, been
clearly recognized that each station is an independent State institu-
tion, for the conduct of which the United States does not assume
responsibility further than is involved in the requirements of the
national law under which the stations are organized and the terms

_-.

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 527

on which appropriations toward their maintenance are made by Con-
gress year by year,

The Office has endeavored to maintain a broad and consistent pol-
icy regarding the general principles on which experiment-station
management and work should be based, and to aid the individual
stations in their attempts to adjust these principles to the varying
needs and conditions of the different States and Territories. It has
also sought to promote their cooperation with each other, with the
different branches of the Department of Agriculture, and with the
farmers; and as a central agency established for their benefit, it has
helped to bring them into relations with similar institutions abroad
and to promote their interests in matters involving transactions with
different branches of the United States Government.

As previously stated, the Office also has supervision of the expendi-
tures of the stations under the Hatch Act, and annually prepares a
report of the work and expenditures of the stations, which is made to
the Secretary of Agriculture for transmission to Congress. This
report briefly describes the work, income, and expenditures of each
station, with such criticisms as are deemed desirable, and also
includes a general statement regarding the condition and progress of
the station enterprise as a whole during the year.

The Office collects and catalogues all the publications of the sta-
tions. This is done partly that it may have the material for its own
publications and partly to make a permanent library of the station
publications.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE OFFICE,

The Office of Experiment Stations prepares a large number of pub-
lications which are largely based on those of the experiment stations
in this country and abroad, or are reports of the special investigations
in charge of the Office. One of the most important of these publica-
tions is the Experiment Station Record, which is issued in volumes
of twelve numbers each, and is now in its eleventh volume. It com-
prises abstracts of the bulletins and annual reports of the stations,
the publications of the Department of Agriculture, books, journals,
and miscellaneous publications containing reports of investigations in
agricultural science in different countries of the world; special articles
by American and foreign experts in agricultural science; editorials
on important matters regarding the progress of agricultural educa-
tion and science, with suggestions of lines of inquiry for the stations,
and notes on the organization, equipment, and development of institu-
tions for agricultural education and research at home and abroad.

Detailed author and subject indexes accompany each volume. This
journal is sent without charge to institutions for agricultural educa-
tion and research in this country and the officers of such institutions,
te similar institutions in foreign countries, important libraries, and

528 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

to a select list of scientists and specialists who cooperate with the
Department by furnishing information, by exchanging publications,
or otherwise. It is also sold by the Superintendent of Documents
at 10 cents a number, or $1 per volume.

The technical bulletins of the Office include special reports to Con-
gress as required by law, reports of the investigations in charge of
this Office on the nutrition of man and on irrigation, monographs on
special subjects based on the work of the experiment stations, bulle-
tins containing statistics and general information regarding institu-
tions for agricultural education and research, and the proceedings of
the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment
Stations.

In 1889 a series of Farmers’ Bulletins was begun in this Office with
a view to making a popular record of the results of work at the
experiment stations for general distribution among the farmers of
the country. After the scope of this series was enlarged and it was
made a general series for the Department, the Office continued to
prepare, or to obtain from officers of the experiment stations, articles.
of a popular character on different subjects which might properly be
included in this series. Latterly the Office has restricted these articles
to subjects connected with the special investigations in its charge and
résumés of the publications of the experiment stations. The latter are
grouped together in a subseries entitled ‘‘ Experiment station work.”
This title has been given to Farmers’ Bulletins prepared in this Office,
in which a number of short articles on different subjects based on the
publications of the experiment stations are grouped together to form
single bulletins. As stated in a note inserted in each number of this
series, ‘‘The chief object of these publications is to disseminate
throughout the country information regarding experiments at the
different experiment stations, and thus to acquaint our farmers in a
general way with the progress of agricultural investigation on its
practical side.”

Kach article included in the ‘*‘ Experiment station work” is signed by
the person who prepares it. The meaning of technical terms neces-
sarily used in these articles is explained in an appendix. Ilustra-
tions are used as far as seems desirable. Whenever the number of
these bulletins is sufficiently large to make a volume of convenient
size an index will be prepared covering the numbers to be included in
the volume. In this way, as time goes on, it is expected that there
will be in libraries and in the homes of many farmers a series of
volumes containing a popular record of the practical results of the
work of the stations. Through this series the farmer in any part of
the country is enabled to ascertain the most important practical
things the stations are accomplishing wherever they may be located.

The Office also publishes a ‘‘ Card index of experiment-station liter-
ature.” This is a subject index arranged on a decimal system. Each

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 529

eard contains the title of the article, the name of the author, a biblio-
graphical reference to the experiment-station publication containing
the article, and also to the Experiment Station Reeord, and a brief
abstract showing the nature and scope of the article. The number of
eards thus far prepared is 19,000, covering the publications of the sta-
tions from 1888 to 1897. <A set of the index is furnished to each agri-
cultural college and experiment station in this country and to the
boards or commissioners of agriculture in the several States. The
index is also sold to subscribers at the rate of $2 per thousand cards,
and $1.25 for a set of divisionecards. Three hundred sets are printed.

The Office also prepares a variety of brief documents in the form of
circulars, schedules, articles for the Yearbook of the Department, ete.

From its organization in 1888 up to January 1, 1900, this Office issued
311 documents, which may be classified as follows: Experiment Sta-
tion Record, 115 volumes, 119 numbers; technical bulletins, 72; Farm-
ers’ Bulletins, 46; circulars, 45; schedules, separates, ete., 51. In
1899 the total number of copies of publications of this Office printed
was 1,200,000, of whieh 1,000,000 were Farmers’ Bulletins.

ALASKA EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

Beginning with 1897, agricultural investigations have been carried
on in Alaska under the direction of the Office of Experiment Stations.
These investigations have thus far consisted very largely of an agri-
cultural survey, with a view to determining the agricultural capabili-
ties of this region. Definite experiments in growing cereals, flax,
and vegetables have been conducted at several points along the coast.
During the past year this work has been organized on a more perma-
nent basis with a view to the establishment of regular experiment
stations in Alaska. The erection of a headquarters building to con-
tain offices and laboratories has been begun at Sitka, and land has
been cleared for experimental purposes at Sitka and Kenai in Cook
Inlet. Oats, barley, and wheat have been successfully grown to matu-
rity at both these places, and rye and flax have also been matured at
Sitka. Definite information has been collated showing that a consid-
erable variety of vegetables, such as potatoes, cabbages, cauliflower,
turnips, lettuce, and spinach may be successfully grown in different
parts of Alaska, including interior localities. Grasses and forage
plants grow luxuriantly over large areas in Alaska, and live stock
has already been kept there to a sufficient extent to warrant the
belief that a large animal industry may be developed. Three reports
on the investigations in Alaska have been published. The work in
Alaska is in immediate charge of Prof. C. C. Georgeson.

teed 99 B+

530 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

NUTRITION INVESTIGATIONS.!

In 1894 Congress made a special appropriation of $10,000 ‘‘ to enable
the Secretary of Agriculture to investigate and report upon the nutri-
tive value of the various articles and commodities used for human
food.” General supervision of this inquiry was assigned to the Office
of Experiment Stations, and Prof. W. O. Atwater was appointed special
agent in charge of nutrition investigations, with headquarters at Mid-
dletown, Conn. At the same time Congress authorized the experiment
stations to conduct investigations on the food of man, and they were
directed to report progress in their work in this line to the Secretary
of Agriculture. The investigations, in charge of this Office, have been
carried on in connection with colleges, experiment stations, and phil-
anthropie organizations in different parts of the country. Technical
bulletins containing accounts of investigations on food and nutrition
of man have been published, as well as Farmers’ Bulletins based on
such investigations.

IRRIGATION INVESTIGATIONS. !

In the appropriation act for the Department of Agriculture for the
fiscal year ending June 30, 1899, $10,000 was appropriated by Congress
for irrigation investigations by the Department of Agriculture, and
this was increased to $35,000 for the current fiscal year. By order of
the Secretary of Agriculture supervision of this work was assigned to
the Director of the Office of Experiment Stations. It was decided
to undertake work in two general lines: (1) The collation and publi-
cation of information regarding the laws and institutions of the irri-
gated region in their relation to agriculture, and (2) the publication
of information regarding the use of irrigation waters in agriculture
as determined by actual experience of farmers and experimental
investigations. A headquarters for these investigations has been
established at Cheyenne, Wyo. They are carried on under the im-
mediate direction of Prof. Elwood Mead, and as far as practicable
are made in cooperation with the experiment stations in different
States. Work in this line has now been undertaken in fifteen States
and Territories.

RELATIONS OF THE STATIONS WITH ASSOCIATIONS.

The experiment stations, as well as the colleges with which they are
connected, are brought together so as to form a national system of
agricultural education and research through the Association of
American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations. The work
of this association is carried on by means of conventions composed
of one delegate appointed by each of the land-grant colleges and
agricultural experiment stations in the United States, together with

1 More detailed account of these investigations are given in a separate article in
this Yearbook.—EbD.

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 531

delegates representing the Department of Agriculture, the Office of
Experiment Stations, and the Bureau of Education of the Depart-
ment of the Interior. Annual meetings are held in different parts of
the country, at which questions relating to the management and work
of the stations, as well as of the colleges, are discussed in the general
assembly and in a number of sections.

The proceedings of the association are edited by the chairman of
its executive committee and the Director of the Office of Experiment
Stations and are published by the Department of Agriculture as bul-
letins of this Office. In the interval between meetings of the associa-
tion much useful work for the promotion of the general interests of
the agricultural colleges and experiment stations is performed by the
executive committee and standing and special committees of the asso-
ciation. The association has done much to establish and strengthen
the stations and to aid in their administration on a permanent and
substantial basis.

The stations are also largely represented in the associations of Offi-
cial Agricultural Chemists, Economic Entomologists, and Experiment
Station Veterinarians, through which the uniformity and efficieney of
the station work in chemistry, entomology, and veterinary science,
with special reference to the methods employed, are greatly promoted.

ORGANIZATION OF THE STATIONS.

The stations organized under the Hatch Act are by law departments
of the colleges receiving the benefit of the land-grant act of July 2,
1862, and of supplementary acts relating to similar colleges established
in the States which have been admitted to the Union since the passage
of that act, as well as to those in the Territories. The Hatch Act,
however, made an exception in favor of State agricultural experiment
stations which had been established separate from the land-grant eol-
leges prior to the passage of the act. In this way State stations are
maintained in Connecticut, New York, and Ohio, which are not con-
nected with colleges and yet receive, in whole or in part, the benefits
of the Hatch Act. In New Jersey there is a station which is sup-
ported by State funds as distinct from the station which receives the
Hatch funds, but both stations are located at the land-grant college
and have the same director.

The stations, which are departments of the colleges, are, as a rule,
under the general management of the governing boards of these insti-
tutions. The separate State stations have their own governing boards.
The governing boards of the stations are quite commonly appointed
by the governor of the State, but in a few cases are elected by the
people. Ina few instances the State board of agriculture is the govern-
ing board of the college and station. The more immediate super-
vision of station affairs is often intrusted to a standing committee of
the governing board.

os,

532 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

As a rule, the duties of the governing board are confined to deter-
mining in a general way the policy and lines of work, appointing the
members of the staff and fixing their terms of office and compensa-
tion, deciding on the character and extent of expenditures, and
approving and auditing the accounts. In some cases, however, the
governing boards determine and supervise the work and expenditures
of the station in considerable detail. This was more generally true
in former years than at present. As the stations have developed, it
has been found desirable to intrust the planning and execution of
their work more fully to the director and other expert officers.

The president of the college with which the station is connected, as
a rule, holds the same relation to the station that he does to other
departments of the college, that is, he is the chief executive officer of
the institution, including the experiment station, and represents the
institution before the governing board, of which he is often an ex-
officio member. In a few instances the president has been relievea
of all responsibility for the station, its director reporting directly to
the governing board. In fourteen States and Territories the president
of the college is at present also director of the station.

Elsewhere the director is a separate officer, who, in addition to gen-
eral executive duties connected with the station, carries on investiga-
tions in some special lines, or combines teaching in the college with
his work for the station. Thus, the station director may at the same
time be the chemist or agriculturist of the station and the professor
of chemistry or agriculture in the college. In some stations the direc-
tor has large powers and responsibilities in the management of the
station. In other States the planning of the work and even details of
administration are largely committed to a council composed of the
heads of the different divisions of the station, or these officers and
some members of the governing board.

Besides the president of the college and the director, the station
staff usually comprises several scientific experts in charge of special
lines of work (as dairying, horticulture, chemistry, entomology, or dis-
eases of plants and animals) and scientific assistants. The members
of the staff niay be employed exclusively for experiment-station work,
butin alarge number of instances they combine this with instruction in
the college. In addition to the scientific force there are usually per-
sons of practical experience employed as foremen of farms, dairymen,
feeders of cattle, ete., and clerical assistants, including accountants,
stenographers, and typewriters. Women are often employed in these
clerical positions. Laborers are employed regularly by the year or
month, or work as occasion may demand by the day or hour.

A considerable number of students of the colleges are employed as
assistants and laborers at the stations. Special experts, scientific
assistants, and other workers are from time to time employed by the
stations for the conduct of particular investigations.

Wie
seat

ere

Yearbook U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899. PLATE XLIII.

Fic. 1.—ADMINISTRATION AND LABORATORY BUILDING OF OHIO STATION.

Fig. 2.—DaiRY AND BIOLOGICAL BUILDING OF NEW YORK STATE STATION.

Te 4 | ;

' this : =

Es i at in
; fy .

PLATE XLIV.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899.

Fic. 1.—CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY OF KENTUCKY STATION

:
Sey q +
gy) ete

kes 7 a

Fic. 2.—DairRyY BUILDING OF WISCONSIN STATION.

Yearbook U S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899 PLATE XLV.

Fic. 1.—BaARN OF MINNESOTA STATION.

Fic. 2.—EXPERIMENT PLATS OF PENNSYLVANIA STATION.

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 533

In cooperative experiments with farmers, the station usually fur-
nishes the plans of work and the seeds, fertilizers, fungicides, or other
materials required by the experiment, and makes the chemical or other
examinations of the soils, fertilizers, or crops necessary to determine
the data or results sought in the experiment. The farmer on his part
furnishes the land, orchards, labor, ete., most commonly without
charge to the station.

EQUIPMENT OF THE STATIONS.

The stations very generally make use of buildings and land supplied
by the colleges or by the States. Many of these buildings and farms
are used jointly by the college and station. The buildings include
administration buildings (Pl. XLII, fig. 1), libraries, chemical, botan-
ical, bacteriological, and other laboratories (Pl. XIII, fig. 2, and
Pl. XLIV, fig. 1); vegetation houses, insectaries, dairy buildings
(Pl. XLIV, fig. 2), barns (Pl. XLV, fig. 1), silos, piggeries, and poultry
houses, together with special buildings for particular experiments,
such as those in sugar making, tobacco curing, and the treatment of
animal diseases. The stations are generally well equipped with sci-
entific apparatus, farm implements, and live stock. A portion of the
station land is commonly laid out in permanent plats for experimental
purposes (Pl. XLV, fig. 2).

LINES OF WORK OF THE STATIONS.

Speaking broadly, the work of the experiment stations in the United
States corresponds in scope and extent with the complexity of their
organization. It is therefore difficult to make general statements
regarding their work which will apply to the actual operations of any
one of the stations. <A strict interpretation of the Hatch Act would
require that the funds received from the National Government under
this act should be devoted solely to original investigations and dem-
onstration experiments and the publication of their results. In many
States, however, the stations have funds, derived from the State gov-
ernment or other sources, which may be used for inspection work in
various lines, the compiling of information useful to farmers, and
miscellaneous purposes connected with the promotion of agriculture.

In a general way the work of the stations in the United States may
be grouped under the following heads: (1) Scientific and practical
investigations involving original features; (2) experiments for the
verification or demonstration of the results of original investigations
made at the stations or elsewhere; (3) studies of natural agricultural
resources and conditions; (4) inspection and other control duties per-
formed on behalf of agriculture; (5) the dissemination of original and
compiled information.

It will, however, readily be understood that most of the enterprises
of the stations are of a mixed character. Originality will, as a rule,

534 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

be found only in some particular features of an investigation or in
the adaptation of well-known facts or principles to special conditions.
In the following outline the investigations of the stations which on
the whole have most generally contained original features are grouped
together, though in many cases they might with equal propriety be
classified as demonstration experiments.

INVESTIGATIONS INVOLVING ORIGINAL FEATURES.

The investigations of the stations may be classified in a general way
on the basis of the different divisions found in their organization.
Thus, it may be said that the investigations of the stations comprise
studies in physics, chemistry, botany, zoology and especially ento-
mology, geology, meteorology, agronomy (plant production), horticul-
ture, forestry, physiology (of man and domestic animals), zootechny
(animal industry), veterinary science, agrotechny (agricultural tech-
nology), including especially dairying, and rural engineering.

In most of these lines the investigations have included studies with
reference to the improvement of methods of research, devising of new
apparatus and appliances, the relation of scientific principles to the
science and practice of agriculture, the working out of new practical
applications on the basis of well-known facts and principles, or the
solution of special problems. The statements following may serve
to indicate in what directions the investigations have chiefly been
pursued.

Under the head of physics, considerable attention has been given
in recent years to studies on soils, especially as regards the methods
for the physical examination of soils, the movement of soil water, and
the apparatus required for such investigations.

In chemistry, studies with a view to the improvement of methods of
analysis have occupied the attention of a considerable number of sta-
tions. This work has been done quite largely in connection with the
Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. It has related chiefly
to methods of analysis of soils, fertilizers, plants, foods, and feeding
stuffs. They have also cooperated with this association in determin-
ing food standards es a basis for the determination of adulteration.
A number of pieces of special chemical apparatus have been devised
at the stations. These have included apparatus adapted to particular
kinds of investigations or intended to increase the speed or multiply
the operations of laboratory processes for scientific or practical pur-
poses and devices for making the chemical examinations required in
agricultural industries. A very large number of analyses of economic
plants, foods and feeding stuffs, dairy products, fertilizers, and other
agricultural materials, especially those distinctively American, have
been made for the first time in the chemical laboratories of the sta-
tions. A considerable number of purely chemical investigations have

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 535

been conducted. Chemistry has usually been an adjunct to the inves-
tigations in the fertilizer requirements of plants, human and animal
nutrition, and dairying.

In botany, considerable systematic work has been done, especially
in the newer States. New species of useful and injurious plants have
been discovered and described. Herbaria, showing with more or less
completeness the economic flora of individual States, have been col-
lected. New light has been thrown on the botanical relations of
species of economic plants. The botanical work of the stations has,
however, been most largely along the lines of vegetable physiology
and pathology and bacteriology. The studies in vegetable physiology
have included investigations of special problems and the devising of
methods and apparatus for such studies. In vegetable pathology
much has been done in working out the life histories of fungi inju-
rious to cultivated plants and in devising methods and apparatus for
the repression of diseases of plants. The bacteriological work of the
stations has included the isolation, culture, and deseription of many
species of useful and pathogenic bacteria in air, soil, fertilizers, plants,
foods, feeding stuffs, and other agricultural products, and those
affecting useful and injurious animals. Methods and apparatus for
bacteriological investigations have been devised and means for the
repression of pathogenic bacteria have been worked out. The dis-
tribution and repression of weeds have been studied by numerous
station botanists.

In zoology, by far the most important work of the stations has been
along the lines of economic entomology. This has included the col-
lection of large numbers of specimens of inseets with a view to the
determination of their economic importance in different regions; the
description of many new species and the working out of their life
histories in whole or in part; additions to our knowledge of many
beneficial and injurious insects, including in many eases the comple-
tion of their life histories; studies in the breeding of insects, espe-
cially as a means for their investigation; the discovery or invention
of methods and appliances for the repression of injurious insects;
and the devising of methods and appliances for the study of insects.

In other lines of zoological investigation systematic and other
studies have been made of injurious mammals (especially gophers
and rabbits) and useful and injurious birds. There have also been
special investigations relating to the life history and culture of
oysters and the life history of nematodes.

Under the head of agronomy (plant production) a large amount of
work has been done in the introduction of new varieties of crops
adapted to special regions or particular economic purposes. Investi-
gations in the improvement of varieties by selection and by plant
breeding have been undertaken. Fertilizer and tillage experiments
have been conducted, drainage and irrigation problems investigated,

536 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and methods of harvesting and storage studied. Some work has also
been done in studying methods of investigation.

In horticulture, the stations have given most attention to testing the
adaptability of varieties to different regions. In addition to this there
have been studies of the selection and breeding of horticultural plants
and the methods of culture, grafting, and pruning. Considerable
attention has been given to questions relating to the growing of hor-
ticultural plants under glass. Valuable introductions of new and
hardy fruits have been made. Native fruits have been studied and
improved and wild species brought under cultivation.

Combinations of forcing-house and field methods of culture of a
number of American garden crops have been introduced. Irrigation
asa feature of truck gardening and fruit growing in regions of econ-
siderable rainfall has formed a feature of-horticultural work at several
of the experiment stations, and the value of subirrigation in green-
houses with certain forcing crops thoroughly demonstrated. Fertilizer
experiments with numerous horticultural crops have thrown much
new light on the subject of intensive manuring. The utilization of
fruits (more especially the unmerchantable fruits) in the making of
jelly, preserves, fruit sirups, and cider has been investigated. Some
of the stations have given considerable attention to the beautifying
of home and school grounds by the introduction of ornamental trees,
shrubs, flowers, ete., not previously grown in their localities.

In forestry, the work of the stations has been principally confined
to the testing of different varieties of trees with reference to their
adaptability to particular regions and problems connected with the
reforesting of treeless regions.

In the physiology of man and the domestic animals, the work of
the stations has been largely along the line of nutrition. The most
important piece of work in this line has been the devising of a spe-
cial form of respiration calorimeter at the Storrs experiment station,
in Connecticut, as described elsewhere. The experiments with this
respiration calorimeter already made with men have added important
data to the knowledge of the laws of nutrition.

Other studies have had to do with the substituting value of different
nutrients and the proper combination of nutrients in the diet. Many
dietary studies have been made with menand animals under different
conditions and performing different amounts of work in various
regions of the United States. A number of stations have made diges-
tion experiments with men and animals, and the coefficients of diges-
tibility for a considerable number of American foods and feeding
stuffs have been worked outas the result of theseexperiments. Studies
of the effeet of different feeding stuffs on production of lean and fat
meat have been made. In connection with nutrition investigations
the composition of many American foods and feeding stuffs has been
learned. The effect of cooking on different foods and the losses

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 5o7

during cooking have also received attention. Much time has been
devoted to the elaboration of experimental methods, the testing of
methods already known, and the devising of new methods.

In zootechny (in the restricted sense of animal production), the work
of the American stations has principally consisted of feeding experi-
ments with different kinds of farm animals, in which various com-
binations of feeding stuffs have been tested with reference to the
maintenance, growth, or the production of meat or milk. In this way
the nutritive value of a large number of different kinds of American
feeding stuffs has been worked out, largely on a practical basis.
Important studies have been made on the nutritive value of crops of
recent introduction, or crops which have recently assumed importance.

Digestion experiments have been conducted with horses, cattle, :
sheep, goats, and pigs. Attempts have been made at several of the
stations to formulate feeding standards more suitable for American
conditions than the German standards commonly in use. Tests of
breeds of different kinds of animals have also been made, sometimes
on a relatively large seale, and studies of types of animals’ best
adapted to particular purposes have in some cases been made. The
studies in zootechny have, to a considerable extent, been connected
with the investigations in animal physiology.

In veterinary science, besides studies in bacteriology above referred
to, investigations regarding the causes, nature, and treatment of
various diseases of domestic animals have been made at the stations.

In agrotechny (agricultural technology), the most important work of
the American stations has related to dairying. Besides the chemical
and bacteriological studies of milk and dairy products referred to under
the head of chemistry and bacteriology, the stations have made many
studies relating to the methods of manufacture of dairy products.

Various kinds of dairy and creamery apparatus have been tested
to a considerable extent, and in some cases demonstrations have been
made of the method of conducting a hygienic dairy and milk route.
Nearly every step in the handling of milk and in the manufacture of
butter and different kinds of cheese has been investigated. In this
connection they have done considerable work in studying methods of
investigation and devising special apparatus and appliances for such
work.

Other important investigations in agricultural technology have been
those in sugar making by the Louisiana station, in the manufacture
of wine and olive oil by the California station, and of vinegar and
fruit sirups by the Virginia station. In these investigations the
devising of new methods of manufacture and special apparatus and
appliances have received large attention.

The American stations have as yet given comparatively little atten-
tion to problems in rural engineering. Studies of the form and con-
struction of barns, silos, and other farm buildings have been made, as

538 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

well as of the construction and heating of greenhouses and the con-
struction of cheese-curing rooms cooled by natural means. Questions
relating to methods of drainage and irrigation have been studied. The
draft of farm vehicles, especially as related to the comparative merits
of broad and narrow tires, has been tested. A considerable number
of practical tests of implements and machinery used on farms or in
dairying have been made.

VERIFICATION AND DEMONSTRATION INVESTIGATIONS.

A considerable share of the work of the American stations has thus
far consisted of the verification of the results obtained at the stations
or elsewhere and the demonstration of the practical usefulness of
these results. This work has been partly carried on at the stations,
more especially on the farms under their control, and partly by experi-
ments in different localities, largely with the cooperation of farmers.
This demonstration work has ineluded a wide range of subjects along
most of the lines in which the stations have attempted more original
investigations. Attention can be called in this general statement only
to some of the larger enterprises of this kind in which the stations
have engaged. Of this character, have been very many of the experi-
ments with fertilizers, thousands of which have been carried on in the
States east of the Mississippi River.

A very large number of practical tests of different field crops and
horticultural plants have also been made by the stations in coopera-
tion with the farmers after the stations had determined on a small
seale the adaptability of these varieties to the regions in which they
are located. Many of the experiments in the feeding of animals and
in dairying have been made by the stations for the purpose of con-
firming the results obtained through previous investigations in this
country or abroad. Often the chief purpose of these investigations
has been to convince the farmers that the results which have been
obtained elsewhere were equally applicable to their local require-
ments. In a similar way, many investigations along the lines of
chemistry, botany, entomology, and veterinary science have been
repeated at the stations, either for the purpose of more firmly estab-
lishing the correctness of the results previously obtained or of show-
ing the farmers that these results could be successfully applied in
practice. Thus, many means for the repression of insect pests and
the diseases of plants or animals have been tried over and over again
by the stations and among the farmers until they have become a part
of regular agricultural practice, at least among the more progressive
portion of the agricultural community. For purposes of verification
or demonstration, thousands of cooperative experiments are now
annually carried on in the United States, in which the farmers take
part under the direction of the stations.

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 539

STUDIES OF NATURAL AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS AND RESOURCES,

Closely united with the demonstration experiments of the stations
have been those studies which have primarily had for their object the
gaining of definite information regarding the natural agricultural
conditions and resources of the different States. While the stations
were not established for the making of agricultural surveys or the
collection of agricultural statistics, yet in many cases, especially in
the newer States and Territories, in the absence of accurate informa-
tion acquired through other agencies, it has been necessary for the
stations to do more or less work of this character as a preliminary
to the scientific investigations and practical experiments which it is
their real business to make.

In this way the stations have in the past done considerable work
in the collection of general meteorological data, sometimes in cooper-
ation with State weather services and the United States Weather
Bureau. This work has, however, now been given up for the most
part, and the stations are confining their meteorological observations
to those taken on their own grounds. In a number of States data
regarding the geologic formations and soils in different localities have
been obtained, and in a few States this has been done with sufficient
thoroughness to enable the station to make a soil map of the whole
State, or of particular agricultural regions. Studies of the nature of
the water supply available for household use, for live stoek, or for
irrigation, have engaged the attention of a number of stations. There
has been a considerable number of botanical surveys for the pur-
pose of obtaining information regarding the native forage plants
and fruits of different States, which might be utilized for economie
purposes.

Several stations have done some work on the study of life zones of
their States and the suitability of varieties of crops to these zones.
The largest enterprise of the stations which may be said to have
been essentially a study of the natural agricultural conditions has
been the determination of the regions in which sugar beets may be
grown witha sufficiently high percentage of sugar to make it probable
that they might be utilized in sugar making, provided the economie
conditions were favorable. This investigation was carried on by the
stations very largely in cooperation with the Department of Agriculture
and farmers. Thousands of experiments were made for several years,
covering the entire country, and in this way the capabilities of the
United States with reference to the growing of sugar beets were quite
definitely established.

The marl and phosphate deposits have been investigated in a
number of States, with reference to their use for fertilizers where
conveniently located.

In several States, legislatures have made special appropriations to

540 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the stations for studies of the agricultural resources of particular
sections as yet undeveloped or for overcoming natural obstacles to
eultivation.

INSPECTION WORK OF THE STATIONS,

The experiment stations in thirty-six States and Territories are
doing more or less work of inspection, either under special State
laws or as a voluntary enterprise. The nature and amount of this
service varies very greatly in different States. Sometimes the station
conducts a complete inspection and control, sometimes it makes the
chemical or other examinations on which control is based, and some-
times it simply makes the examinations and publishes the results for
the information of the public, no system of control being provided
by law. ‘The fertilizer inspection and control was the first established
in this country, is most extensively and thoroughly organized, and is
most intimately connected with the work of the stations. More
recently inspection of dairy products and other foods for man has
been undertaken in a number of States, and the stations have been
2alled upon in various ways to promote this work. In some of the
Eastern States where concentrated feeding stuffs are largely used,
laws for their inspection by the stations have been enacted within the
past few years. Inspection for the prevention of diseases of animals
and plants and the repression of injurious insects (especially the
diseases and insect pests affecting nursery stock) and weeds has been
begun in a number of States. Dairy apparatus and Paris green are
required to be inspected in a few States, and there has been consider-
able voluntary inspection of seeds by the stations in different parts
of the country.

The Hatch Act makes no provision for regular inspection work by
the stations. The stations supported exelusively by this fund have
therefore undertaken such work only ineidentally with a view to show-
ing its usefulness. Wherever it has assumed importance and the
necessity for its regular performance has been made apparent, the
States have made provision for its maintenance. Naturally the laws
and regulations regarding this kind of inspection have varied with
local requirements and opinions. In recent years there has been an
increasing tendency toward greater uniformity in the general features
of inspection laws and regulations.

DISSEMINATION OF INFORMATION BY THE STATIONS,

The Hateh Act requires that each station shall publish bulletins or
reports of progress at least once in three months, and a full and de-
tailed report of its operations, including a statement of receipts and
expenditures, once a year. Most of the publications of the stations
may therefore be divided into two general classes—annual reports
and bulletins.

The annual reports of the stations vary greatly as regards the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 541

character of their contents, their size, and the number of copies
printed. In a number of States the annual report is a large document
containing a detailed account of the investigations of the station, as
well as statements regarding its administration and finances. In some
States it is a brief document containing only short statements regard-
ing administrative matters, finances, investigations, and publications.

The bulletins of the stations are of different descriptions and can not
be definitely separated into classes. Each of the stations has, how-
ever, a regular series of bulletins, usually numbered consecutively,
which comprises the greatest part of its publications. These bulle-
tins contain a great variety of information. Some of them consist
wholly of compiled matter, some are popular accounts of station inves-
tigations, and others contain quite technical and elaborate descrip-
tions of their investigations. Some stations have attempted to sepa-
rate their technical and popular bulletins into different series and in
some cases new series have been begun after the station has been in
operation a number of years. As a rule, however, the stations issue
their regular bulletins in a single series. Illustrations are quite gen-
erally used in bulletins, and more attention has been given from year
to year to improving the general appearance of the bulletins.

Many of the stations annually issue more than the four bulletins
required by the Hatch Act. The bulletins are sent out to mailing
lists containing from 3,000 to 35,000 addresses in different States,
the aggregate number of addresses being about half a million. The
stations endeavor to send their bulletins to all applicants within
their own States and to satisfy outside demands for them as far as
their means will allow. This outside demand has, however, grown to
be so large as already to cause embarrassment. Each station has a
considerable number of foreign correspondents to whom the bulletins
are regularly sent.

In anumber of the States the stations prepare press bulletins, which
are either résumés regarding the station work or contain information of
more general character. In cases in which the station receives a large
number of requests for information on any topic it has been often
found convenient to have answers distributed through the press rather
than by correspondence.

Some of the stations have issued charts and posters illustrating spe-
cial features of their work.

Station officers participate to a considerable extent in the meetings
of farmers known as farmers’ institutes, which are now regularly held
in forty-three States and Territories, principally during the winter
months. It is estimated that there are now annually held in the
United States some two thousand institutes, which are attended by
about half a million farmers. Through the institutes the stations are
therefore able to largely supplement their publications by oral expla-
nation of their work to large numbers of farmers. Station officers

542 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

also make a large number of addresses each year before State and
local agricultural, horticultural, and dairy associations and. miscel-
laneous meetings of farmers. The correspondence carried en by sta-
tion officers is very large, aggregating hundreds of thousands of letters
annually. <A large part of these are replies to inquiries by farmers,
which cover almost every topic relating to the theory and practice of
agriculture. A considerable number of stations make exhibits of
their work at State and other agricultural fairs.

GENERAL RESULTS OF THE WORK OF THE STATIONS.

During the past ten years more than $10,000,000 have been expended
for the maintenance of agricultural experiment stations in the United
States. Of this sum, about $7,000,000 came from the Federal Goy-
ernment and $35,000,000 from State sources. During that time the
United States produced agricultural products valued at thirty thou-
sand million dollars. The maintenance of the stations therefore
involved the expenditure of $1 for every $5,000 worth of agricultural
products. Considered in this light the funds used to improve the
quality and increase the yield of our agricultural products do not
seem disproportionately large. They are, however, sufficiently large
to make it very important that the results shall clearly justify the
continued expenditure of such great sums for the support of the
stations.

Many of the results obtained in experimental inquiries in agriculture
are of course of such a character that it is difficult, if not impossible,
to give any exact measure of their value, especially on a financial
basis. A large share of the work must necessarily give negative
results, the practical value of which consists in showing the farmer
the things which he ought not to do. Obviously many of the results
which have a limited or local value, and which in the aggregate would
go far toward justifying the maintenance of the stations, can not even
be referred to in a summary statement like this. We shall, however,
attempt to call attention very briefly to some of the more prominent
results which the stations have obtained and on which their claims of
usefulness to our agriculture must depend.

INTRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL METHODS, CROPS, OR
INDUSTRIES.

Beginning with the work of the stations in which the attempt has
been made to introduce or develop new methods, crops, or industries,
we may with good reason assert that the most important general
result of experiment-station work has been along the line of dairying.
The working out of practical methods and apparatus for the rapid
determination of the fat content of milk, most perfectly accomplished
by the Wisconsin station; the researches regarding the chemistry and
bacteriology of milk and dairy products, the elaborate investigations
on cheese making at the New York station, and on the ripening of

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 543

cheese at the Wisconsin station; the more practical experiments in
butter making at the Iowa station—these and other investigations at
the stations, combined with the dissemination of information regard-
ing the results of work in similar lines abroad, have brought about a
widespread revolution in the business of dairying in this country.

Closely connected with the improvement of dairying have been the
investigations on nutrition, many of which have been directly made
with dairy cattle. These have had to do with the effects of feeding
stuffs on the quality of milk and the character of butter or have dealt
with the econdmical production of dairy products. The highest point
in the work on nutrition has been reached in the perfecting of meth-
ods and apparatus by the Connecticut Storrs station in cooperation
with this Department. The respiration calorimeter devised at that
station, having proved its usefulness in investigations on some of the
fundamental problems of the nutrition of man, is now being adopted
by the Pennsylvania station and the Department to use in similar
investigations with farm animals. Two European governments have
made liberal appropriations for the construction of respiration calo-
rimeters after the plan of the Connecticut apparatus.

The Iowa, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, New York,
Pennsylvania, Vermont, Wisconsin, and other stations have also made
important investigations on the nutrition of dairy and other farm
animals, which have widely changed the practice of feeding such
animals. Among such investigations are those relating to the effect
of the character of the food on the quality of the product and on the
proportion of fat and lean meat in steers and pigs; the suitability of
breeds of animals of different conformation to various purposes; effect
of shelter and treatment on growth and gain, and the economy of a
large number of different feeding stuffs, representing those generally
at the disposal of the farmers; the effect of cooking and other meth-
ods of preparation. One very important result, on account of the
enormous supply, has been the demonstration of the feeding value of |
corn stover when properly cared for, and the intrinsic feeding value
of different by-products of wheat.

Notable instances of the successful introduction of new crops are
the Manshury barley by the Wisconsin station, which has materially
increased the yield of barley over a wide region, with results worth
millions of dollars, and the Kafir corn brought in by this Department,
but introduced to practical use on a large seale by the stations in
California, Kansas, and Oklahoma, the crop being valued at about
$6,000,000 in Kansas alone in 1898. The Minnesota and Wisconsin
stations were instrumental in the introduction of rape as a forage
plant for sheep, and it is now grown on thousands of farms in the
Northwest to the great advantage of the farmer. The hairy vetch,
introduced by the Mississippi station, has proved of great value to
that State.

544 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Important studies on the nutritive value and practical usefulness
of alfalfa (lucern) by the Colorado, Utah, and other Western stations
have done much to extend the area and enhance the value of that
crop in the irrigated region, while recent experiments by the New
York and New Jersey stations and a number of stations in the Gulf
States seem to indicate that it has a wider usefulness in the East than
has hitherto been supposed. The value of crimson clover as a crop
for forage and green manuring over a considerable area has been
shown by the Delaware and other stations. The investigations on
sugar beets conducted throughout the country by the stations and
this Department have already had a practical outcome in the suecess-
ful establishment of sugar factories in several States, and have shown
in a very definite way in what regions this industry has the best
chance of suecess. The work of the Louisiana station on methods
and apparatus for making cane sugar and on the culture of the sugar
cane have been so far successful as to secure for the station the finan-
cial support of the State Sugar Planters’ Association.

The staple crops of the country, as maize, wheat, cotton, and
tobacco, have been the subject of an immense amount of investigation
touching nearly every phase of their chemical composition, improve-
ment by breeding and selection, culture, manuring, harvesting and
curing or storage. Many of the results have been of direct practical
value and have materially influenced the methods followed by farmers.
These investigations have also led to a greater diversification of agri-
culture in many regions.

The investigations which a number of our stations have made
regarding the storage of forage crops in silos and the use of silage for
feeding purposes have been of great importance in connection with
the development of dairying in this country. These have related to
the methods of constructing and filling silos, the best time for cutting
the crops to secure the maximum amount of nutrients, increasing the
richness of the silage by adding leguminous crops, and the feeding of
the product. The results of the investigations on silage have done
much to promote economy of production in dairying. The investi-
gations of the Illinois, Ohio, Indiana, and other stations, which dem-
onstrated the superiority of shallow over deep cultivation of maize,
have produced widespread changes in the culture of that crop.

The stations have performed a very extensive and useful work
relating to the use of commercial fertilizers. This is a subject of great
economic importance in almost all the States east of the Mississippi
River. The investigations of the stations have shown the fertilizer
requirements of different soils and crops and have led farmers quite
generally to recognize the desirability of a discriminating use of fer-
tilizers. More recently the stations have shown the feasibility and
general advantages of the home mixing of fertilizers by the farmers
themselves.

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 545

In the States west of the Mississippi River the conservation of
moisture in the soil is an important factor in successful agriculture,
and the stations in that region have done valuable work in showing
the conditions under which the moisture is largely conserved, and by
introducing methods of tillage especially adapted to this purpose.

The investigations which the California station has made regarding
alkali lands have led to the reclamation of large tracts of land in that
State, which before were thought to contain alkali in such amounts as
to make them useless for agricultural purposes.

Among the horticultural investigations of the stations which have
given the most important practical results are those relating to the
introduction of new kinds and varieties of fruits in different localities;
the increase of hardness and resistance to disease by grafting; the
eulture and management of orchards; the storage of fruits, and the
heating and subirrigation of greenhouses. Those investigations which
have related especially to the forcing of vegetables in the field and
under glass have been a considerable factor in the rapid development
of the business of supplying markets in the United States with a large
amount of green food at all seasons of the year, even in the States
farthest North.

The work of the California station with reference to the culture of
grapes and olives and the manufacture of wine and olive oil have
proved a great aid to the development of the wine and olive-oil indus-
tries in that State.

REMOVAL OF OBSTACLES TO AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES.

The American stations have done a great work in aiding the farm-
ers in their contest with the natural enemies to successful agriculture
and in removing, in whole or in part, obstacles which hinder the prog-
ress of various agricultural industries. Under this head, the most
important investigations of the stations have been those relating to
insect pests and diseases of plants and animals.

The‘ following examples of work in entomology conducted by the
stations, which have been of great economie importance, may be
cited. Much has been done in the development of effective means
for the repression of such insects as the codling moth, plum ecurculio,
chineh bug, Rocky Mountain locust, woolly aphis, cottonworm, cotton
boll weevil, San Jose scale, forest insects, and insects affecting stored
grain. Experiments with such insecticides as bisulphid of carbon,
hydrocyanic-acid gas, petroleum, kerosene emulsion, Paris green,
London purple, pyrethrum, and hellebore have brought out many
useful facts regarding the best ways in which to use these materials
in combating injurious insects. Much attention has been devoted to
the study of spraying apparatus, and various improvements in spray-
ing devices have been suggested by the stations, which have eome
into general use. Among the most successful investigations of the

eas 3O

546 YEARBOOK OF THE’ DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

stations on plant diseases and their treatment have been those relating
to diseases of potatoes, cotton, cereals, sweet in aii beans, aspara-
gus, celery, pears, and grapes.

ued animal diseases, the work of numerous stations on tubereu-
losis has had widespread practical results. The methods of appliea-
tion and the limitations of the tuberculin test have been thoroughly
and widely studied. Much attention has been given to the prevention
of hog cholera, using the serum made by the Department of Agrieul-
ture, and also a somewhat different one worked out at the Nebraska
station, which is believed to reduce the percentage of infection very
materially.

Many experiments have been made in rendering animals immune to
Texas fever when taken into the region where it prevails, for breed-
ing purposes or for grazing, and in preventing the spread of the dis-
ease to new regions through the movement of cattle. The source of
infection of anthrax in Delaware has been traced to the pollution of
streams with the wash water from morocco tanneries, and much effee-
tive work has been done in the repression of this disease in that
State.

DEFENSE OF THE FARMER AGAINST FRAUD.

As stated elsewhere, the stations east of the Mississippi River have
been largely engaged in the control of commercial fertilizers. The
fertilizer business in this country involves millions of dollars, and
the stations have largely prevented the sale of fraudulent goods. The
stations have also done much to expose extravagant claims made for
commercial fertilizers as compared with farm manures. More recently
the stations in a number of States have been engaged in the inspec-
tion of feeding stuffs, dairy products, and nursery stock for fungous
diseases and insect pests. Besides the prevention of fraud by a regu-
lar system of inspection, the stations have also done much useful work
in this line in other directions. For example, their tests of varieties
of grain, vegetables, fruits, etc., have often shown farmers how
extravagant were the claims made for new varieties of plants. Their
tests of the purity and vitality of seeds, while not systematically con-
ducted, have yet done much toward making the farmer more careful
in his purehases of seeds. From time to time the stations have
exposed frauds relating to the sale of quack medicine for stock,
creamery construction and equipment, dairy products, butter inereas-
ers and preservatives, adulterated foods and feedings stuffs, ete.

AID TO THE PASSAGE OR ADMINISTRATION OF LAWS FOR THE BENEFIT OF
AGRICULTURE,

The experiment stations, as well as the agricultural colleges, have
been largely instrumental in securing and administering State laws
for the inspection of fertilizers, nursery stock, dairy produets, foods

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 547

and feeding stuffs, creamery glassware, and Paris green; and for the
suppression of plant diseases and injurious insects. They have also
aided in the passage of laws establishing farmers’ institutes, organiz-
ing associations for the promotion of agriculture, fixing a milk stand-
ard, quarantining animals for contagious diseases, regulating the sale
of cleomargarine and kindred products, determining the apportion-
ment and measurement of water for irrigation, securing the improve-
ment of roads, ete.

EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF STATION WORK.

broadly speaking, the most important results of the work of the
American stations during the past quarter of a century, and especially
during the past decade, have been educational. As we have seen,
they have distributed very widely in their own publications a vast
amount of accurate and valuable information regarding the theory
and practice of agriculture, and have thus directly contributed on a
large scale to the technical education of farmers. As the result of the
investigations and publications of the stations, the agricultural books
and the agricultural journals published in this country have been
largely revolutionized. Instead of depending as formerly almost
entirely on foreign agricultural literature as the standard for agricul-
tural theory and practice, we have now a considerable body of dis-
tinetively American agricultural literature. If we contrast the mea-
ger amount of up-to-date information on matters connected with his
art which was available to the American farmer ten years ago with
what we now possess, we will without doubt be convinced that as edu-
cating agencies the experiment stations have been a great success.
No nation has ever attempted the free dissemination of agricultural
information in so wide and thorough a way as has the United States,
and it is believed that the results have justified the large expenditures
which have been made for this purpose.

One large result of the educational work of the stations has been
the general breaking down of the popular conception that agriculture
is not capable of improvement through systematic and progressive
researches in its behalf conducted on scientific principles. A wide-
spread belief has been awakened that with the aid of science agricul-
ture may be so lifted out of the ruts of a dead past that it will be able
to hold its own amid the growing competitions and complexities of
modern civilization. Some of the consequences of this new belief are
likely to be very important and far-reaching. Already the farmer in
this country is much inclined to demand that theories and assertions
regarding the practice of his art shall be brought to the test of rigid
and accurate investigation. Those who have in recent years followed
up the agricultural press or the farmers’ institutes, testify that articles
or speeches which simply declare individual opinions or individual
experience no longer satisfy the farmer.

548 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Whenever new ideas or theories are brought to the attention of
the farmer he is very apt to inquire if the experiment stations have
looked into this matter, or he will at least demand that some sort of
positive proof shall be presented that it is wise for him to accept the
new proposition. While there has been at times widespread discon-
tent among the farmers with regard to their economic conditien, it
may also be said that the experiment stations have done much toward
inspiring a feeling of hopefulness. The stations are not only giving
the farmer much information which will enable him to improve his
practice of agriculture, but they are also leading him to a more intelli-
gent conception of the problems with which he has to deal and of the
methods he must pursue to successfully perform his share in the work
of the community and hold his rightful place in the Commonwealth.

As regards the stations themselves, we may confidently assert that
their past history gives great assurance of increasing strength and
efficiency in the future. While they have encountered many diffieul-
ties in their development, and there has necessarily been much eru-
dity in their work thus far, they have every year secured a better
equipment and more thoroughly trained officers. With increasing
resources they have been able to specialize their work more thoroughly
and to inerease its scope. They have succeeded in securing to a
remarkable extent the confidence of the people for whose benefit they
were primarily established, and have thus had no difficulty in obtain-
ing financial support from Congress and the State legislatures. The
people generally have come to regard the stations as permanent insti-
tutions and are convinced of the usefulness of their work. They will
therefore enter upon the twentieth century with bright prospects for
the development of their researches in scientific thoroughness and
accuracy and for the securing of larger practical results.

SEED SELLING, SEED GROWING, AND SEED TESTING.

By A. J. PIETERS,

In Charge of Pure Seed Investigations, Division of Botany.
INTRODUCTION.

The history of the development of the seed business of the country
is one of the most interesting chapters in American horticulture.
From small beginnings in the later colonial period the business has
grown so that to-day its value is measured by the tens of millions.
Carried on at first in small shops, where a few boxes of seeds shared
a corner with codfish or a shelf with calicoes or books, it has come to
claim for itself immense warehouses and business establishments
whose interests extend to every portion of the globe. The trade has
grown with the growth of the country; and its leaders have influenced
popular taste for good vegetables and fine flowers, creating and stim-
ulating a demand which only their enterprise could suffice to meet.

When the Pilgrims landed on the rocky shores of Massachusetts
they brought with them seeds of the plants they had cultivated in their
English and Dutch homes. Their first care was to secure the neces-
saries of life; corn, barley, and peas were planted and fruit trees set
out. The early records of horticulture are almost entirely devoted to
the discussion of fruits, the introduction of improved varieties of
apples, pears, and plums occupying a much larger share of attention
than the improvement of vegetables. The latter were, however, only
second in importance to indian corn. William Wood gives a list of
vegetables grown in New England before 1633, and adds ‘‘ whatever
vrows well in England grows as well there, many things being better
and larger.” A century later there is a distinct reference to saving
garden seeds. Justice Dudley, of Massachusetts, writing in 1733,
says ‘‘an onion set out for seed would rise to 4 feet 9 inches, and a
parsnip would reach 8 feet.” Some agricultural seeds were certainly
raised, and they formed an article of commerce as early as 1747. In
his interesting book on ‘‘ Farm husbandry” the Rev. Jared Eliot has
much to say about clover, and in the first essay published, 1748, he
urges the liberal use of seed because an acre of clover will produce 2
bushels of seed worth 35 pounds, ‘‘Old Tenor.”! That clover seed was

1The colonial currency was of three values, and was known as ‘‘Old Tenor,”
“Middle Tenor,” and ‘*New Tenor;” the ‘‘Old Tenor” was below par, but the

rates varied in different colonies.
549

550 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

not abundant, however, is shown by the high price and the fact that
in 1773 James Vaux, of Pennsylvania, imported some from England,
because it was difficult to get in America. In 1787 Vaux, in a paper
before the Philadelphia Society for the Promotion of Agriculture,
advocated a bounty on clover seed in order to encourage its use by
reducing the price.

SEED SELLING.

DEALERS PREVIOUS TO THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE PRESENT CENTURY.

The first record of seeds for sale that the writer has been able to
find is in the Newport, R. I., Mereury of 1763, where Nathaniel
Bird, a book dealer, advertised garden seeds just arrived from Lon-
don. Connecticut-grown onion seeds early acquired more than a
local reputation. In 1764 Gideon Welles, ‘‘on the Point,” announced
in the Newport Mercury that he had some choice Connecticut onion
seed for sale. Other advertisements ran through the following years,
among them one by Charles Dunbar, gardener. We get some idea of
the prices of seeds from Dunbar’s advertisement of 1767, where the
following are given: Peas and beans, 30 shillings! per quart; Stras-
burgh onions and orange carrots, 25 shillings per ounce; early cab-
bage, 40 shillings per ounce, and ‘‘colliflower,” 6 pounds per ounce.
An N. B. informs us that ‘‘said Dunbar has to sell a great variety of
flower seeds.”

In New York City hemp and flax seeds were advertised for sale at
least as early as 1765 and garden seeds in 1776. In that year Samuel
Deall, a dealer in general merchandise on Broad street, opposite the
end of Weaver street, kept ‘‘a general assortment of seeds,” many of
which he names, including red clover, grass, and ‘‘Saintfoine” for
improvement of land.

In the New Hampshire Gazette field seeds were advertised as early
as 1766 and garden seeds in 1770. But Boston was the chief city for
the sale of garden seeds, as it was the commercial center of the time.
In the Boston Gazette of 1767 six out of twenty-six advertisers were
dealers in seeds. Some of these did not advertise other goods, but it
is doubtful whether they were seed dealers exclusively. In the spring,
when these advertisements appeared, the trade in seeds was probably
more important than any other branch of their business. Some of
these dropped out and others appeared in later years, but several
advertised regularly each year until 1773. William Dayidson, the
gardener in Seven Star Lane, offered in 1768 seeds of 56 varieties
of vegetables and herbs, and of one flower, the carnation. Some of

in currency to equal 100 pounds sterling; these conditions were only beginning to
improve in 1767. 4

°In the file accessible to the writer there is a break here, the next number being
in 1777.

SEED SELLING, SEED GROWING, AND SEED TESTING. 551

his prices were as follows: Lettuce, 5 to 4 pence per ounce; cabbage,
9 pence to a shilling per ounce; cauliflower, 3 shillings per ounce;
carnation, 4 shillings per ounce. Most of the other vegetable and
herb seeds ranged from 2 pence to a shilling per ounce; peas, Early
Golden Hotspur and Early Charlton, were worth 24 shillings the
bushel or 10 pence per quart. Davidson dealt in seeds wholesale
and retail for cash.

The war of independence, interrupting as it did the regular chan-
nels of trade, interfered with the importation of seeds, and the few
garden seeds offered during this time were either imported from Hol-
land or were taken from prize ships. Immediately after the war there
was a revival of the trade in seeds, and in 1784 John Adams, Susanna
Renkin, and Susanna Martin all advertised seeds just imported from
London. These advertisements, however, soon after ceased, and in
1790 John Adams advertised for the last time in the Boston Gazette.
It is not to be supposed that the absence of advertisements indicates
the total cessation of the trade in seeds. This either flowed in other
channels or the traders lost enterprise. But with the advertising
habit well formed as it was prior to 1770, the total absence of adver-
tisements of seeds for sale certainly indicates an unhealthy condition
of the trade.

In Philadelphia and New York seeds were but little advertised,
whatever the trade may have been. In Philadelphia in 1772 Peteliah
Webster sold clover and duck grass seed, and in 1775 James Long-
head made known to the public that he kept ‘‘a quantity of the
largest kind of colly-flower seed, found on trial to be extraordinary
good.” In 1775 David Reid, who styled himself ‘‘ Gardener and seeds-
man,” advertised seeds for sale at his stall at the courthouse, and in
1781 purchasers were advised that flower seeds and seeds for the
kitchen garden, ‘‘imported from Holland, can be procured next door
to General Philip de Haas, in Third street, near Race street.”

During the remaining years of the eighteenth century the papers
contained few advertisements of seeds, and we can trace no connection
between dealers of pre-Revolutionary times and those of the opening
years of the nineteenth century. It is not probable, however, that
there was a time when seeds could not be bought in any of the large
towns. The people were fond of gardening, the population was rap-
idly increasing, and there is no reason to suppose that the demand for
garden seeds was less than beforethe war. This demand was doubtless
partly supplied by the market gardeners, one of whom, David Lan-
dreth, established himself in Philadelphia in 1784, and engaged in
the market gardening, nursery, and seed-growing business. The last
was at first of small importance, and for many years the nursery
occupied most of his attention. Seeds were almost entirely imported,
and American gardeners had yet to learn that seeds could be as well
grown here asin England. Inspite of this, however, the seed business

552 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

seems to have increased in importance until, in 1848, David Lan-
dreth, jr., sold the nursery and became exclusively a seed grower and
merchant.

THE TRADE DURING THE FIRST HALF OF THE CENTURY.

One of the first seedsmen of the present century was Bernard
M’Mahon, gardener, seedsman, and author, who in 1800 opened a
seed store in Philadelphia. Fortunately, we have a description of his
store, which throws light on the condition of the trade at that time:

His store was in Second street, below Market, on the east side. Many must still
be alive who recollect its bulk window, ornamented with tulip-glasses, a large
pumpkin, and a basket or two of bulbous roots. Behind the counter officiated
Mrs. M’Mahon, with some considerable Irish accent, but a most amiable and
excellent disposition, and withal an able saleswoman.

Mr. M’Mahon was also much in the store, putting up seeds for transmission to
all parts of this country and Europe, writing his book, or attending to his corre-
spondence, and in one corner was a shelf containing a few botanical or gardening
books, for which there was then a very small demand; another contained a few
garden implements, such as knives and trimming scissors. a barrel of pease, and a
bag of seedling potatoes, an onion receptacle, and a few chairs, and the room partly
lined with drawers containing seeds, constituted the apparent stock in trade of
what was one of the greatest seed stores then known in the Union, and where was
transacted a considerable business for that day.!

In the fall of 1805, Grant Thorburn began to sell seeds in New York,
and subsequently built up a substantial business. During the next
quarter century seed stores were opened in Baltimore, Boston, and
Charleston, 8. C., as well as in Philadelphia and New York, and there
was a considerable trade in Shakers’ seeds. These Shakers’ seeds were
popular as early as 1818. They were sold by regular dealers, and were
peddled about the country in the Shakers’ wagons. The population
of the United States had increased from a little more than three mil-
lions of whites in 1790 to tenand a half millions in 1830. In 1790 this
population was practically confined to a narrow strip along the Atlan-
tic seaboard. Forty years later it had overflowed into the rich val-
leys beyond the mountains.

To meet the growing demand for vegetables and flowers, these ten
and a half millions required more than three and a half times as many
seeds as were used in 1790. Dealers established themselves in the
principal cities and crossed the Alleghenies in the rear of the wave
of settlement that swept into the Ohio Valley. The large cities became
centers of distribution for the surrounding country, but the trade
remained essentially local, though the larger houses did a wholesale
business and supplied country dealers with their stocks, put up in
packets for the retail trade. But transportation was slow and expen-
sive, and the modern development of the postal service was as yet
undreamed of. The amount of seed sold in Ohio at this time was
insignificant. Mr. Parsons Gorham, a grocer and seed dealer in

1The Aerienal Gardener sC ere e! pereneh edition.

SEED SELLING, SEED GROWING, AND SEED TESTING. 553

Cincinnati between 1827 and 1831, seldom earried a stock of more than
50 bushels of grass seed; and when, in 1831, 8. C. Parkhurst opened
a seed store, he sold in one year net more than 600 bushels of timothy
and clover seed, while before the end of ten years his trade had
increased to 6,000 bushels. Seed houses were opened in Mobile and
New Orleans, and in 1844 William W. Plant began the sale of farm
tools and seeds in St. Louis.

While most of the trade between 1520 and 1550 was local or whole-
sale to country dealers, a change took place with the advent of the
locomotive. The larger houses reached out for wider fields, made
accessible by the railways, and new firms sprang up in every city of
considerable size. Locomotives were unknown in the United States
before 1829 and were scarcely used before 1832. At the end of 1835
there were 1,098 miles of railway in the United States; in 1850 the
total mileage was 9,021, and in 1860 it was 30,635.

This rapid increase in the railways not only opened up a vast and
flourishing country, but facilitated transportation in the East and
made possible the immense development of the mail trade. The mails
brought the seedsman to every door; a letter-brought a catalogue, and
a few cents paid the postage on an order of seeds. The changes in
the rates of postage and the regulations of the post office have at times
helped or embarrassed the trade; but, though cheap postage has
stimulated, higher rates have never checked the growth of the business.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE SEED CATALOGTE.

Along with the reaching out for trade beyond the limits of the home
city came first the increasing size and prominence of the catalogue,
and soon after a more attractive method of advertising. Seed cata-
logues were offered at least as early as 1805, but these were mere lists
and were not intended for general distribution. For forty years most
of them remained essentially price lists, and were offered only as an
afterthought in an advertisement. Grant Thorburn’s catalogue is,
so far as the writer knows, the only one issued in pamphlet form as
early as 1823. In 1825 his little book of about 4 by 7 inches in size
contained 87 pages. Besides the usual retail price list, there was a
wholesale list, and catalogues of bulbs, of flowering plants, and of
tools. Brief directions for planting were given, and there were some
longer articles on the culture of special grasses.

Shortly before the civil war the catalogue became more prominent.
It was increased in size and issued in pamphlet form. The varieties
offered were more or less carefully described, cultural directions were
given, and an almanac and calendar of gardening operations was a
frequent and prominent feature. <A few illustrations appeared before
1867, but after that date their number steadily increased, and before
1870 colored plates were introduced.

There have been changes in the advertisements in some respects

554 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

similar to and in others quite different from those which have taken
place in the catalogue. The old advertisements contained iong lists
of varieties, with prices, and differed little in type and style from the
body of the paper, though sometimes more striking headlines were
used. Gradually the advertisement was decreased in size, but was
made more striking to the eye, and the announcement of the new
catalogue occupied a prominent place. About 1870 the advertise-
ments began to be more fully illustrated with cuts of those vegetables
and flowers to which special attention was called. From this time
on the style of advertising changed rapidly, always tending toward
larger headlines, more illustrations, and such devices of the printer’s
art as would most surely catch and hold the reader’s attention.

The early garden calendars were designed largely for distribution
by the country dealers, who bought the seeds at wholesale. There
was as yet but little direct contact with the distant consumer, as the
mail trade was in its infaney. But with the increase of the postal
facilities dealers began to depend more upon their catalogues. The
offer to send catalogues free became a prominent pari of a seed adver-
tisement, and every effort was made to render the catalogue attractive.
Year by year the illustrations increased in number and quality, and
pages of useful information gave it some title to rank as a garden
guide.

Novelties were not so numerous twenty years ago, and they did
not receive the prominence the modern catalogue accords them.
Before 1880 a special place in the seed catalogue was not generally
given to novelties. Some firms gave prominence to new varieties,
but many of the leading houses either ignored them or simply added
to their regular list such as they found worthy. To-day, however,
there is not an important catalogue but gives more or less space to
novelties, and the descriptions of these are frequently printed on
tinted paper or made attractive by devices of the printer’s art. Some
varieties remain in the novelty pages of one catalogue or another for
years, and not infrequently a novelty will reach the age of two or
three years in the catalogue of the same firm. Seedsmen are on the
alert for novelties; they are the money makers, and, besides, every
really good introduction extends the reputation of the introducers.
Many of the new varieties drop out after a year or two, being found
wanting in some important particular and unable to make head
against the old favorites; but others have intrinsic merit, and it is by
the addition of these that our horticulture is enriched. The success
of a novelty may be said to depend largely upon the introducers, sinee
reputable firms endeavor to place only approved sorts in their novelty
list; and, although even they are sometimes mistaken, the varieties
thus introduced are more likely to possess merit than those heralded
as possessing all sorts of impossible qualities and overburdened with
a profusion of adjectives.

SEED SELLING, SEED GROWING, AND SEED TESTING. 559

The modern catalogue is the seedsman’s agent. It tells the pro-
spective customer of the business it represents, setting forth in an
attractive manner the superior merits of the seeds it offers. It must
not only attract the eye, but must appeal to the judgment and to the
imagination of the buyer. But the catalogue is more than the seeds-
man’s agent—it is a text-book of horticulture. Millions of these illus-
trated catalogues find their way every year into rural homes. They
are studied and compared, and much of the amateur gardener’s knowl-
edge of varieties is obtained from the seed catalogues. It is highly
important, therefore, that the catalogue should be honest; itis perhaps
too much to ask that it be conservative. The pictures should be as hon-
est as the text, since the good effects of an accurate description may be
ruined by an exaggerated illustration. Nor would honesty in text and
figure exclude the proper praise of meritorious varieties; on the con-
trary, figures that are clearly not overdrawn and descriptions at once
terse and complete will do more than the extravagant use of adjectives
to inspire confidence, both in the qualities of the variety and in the
seedsman’s knowledge of them. Fortunately, most of our large houses
do not seriously transgress in this matter; but there are some that do,
and many irresponsible firms seem to think that they can make up in
printer’s ink what they lack in experience and reliability.

It would doubtless be difficult to say how many well-edited cata-
logues are published in the United States. Seedsmen would naturally
differ in their judgment. In good catalogues two things are aecom-
plished—the varieties are carefully described and so arranged that
the purchaser can readily find what he wants. These catalogues
deseribe in a few words the essential characteristics of the varieties,
and in many cases these are grouped, as with cabbages, into first or
early, second or summer, and late or autumn sorts; or with lettuce, as
heading or not heading, and Cos varieties, for forcing or outdoor cul-
ture, and spring and summer varieties. This grouping is of great
assistance to purchasers unfamiliar with the varieties described, help-
ing them to select the sorts best suited to their location and needs.

Naturally, many more varieties are offered than are desirable in one
garden. Some of these would be better left out, but they are popular
in certain places and must be offered to hold that trade. Others, again,
do better in one section of the country than in another, while a third
class are merely synonyms of other varieties also catalogued. It is
the aim of every careful seedsman to weed the synonyms out of his
catalogue as much as may be; but with the present total lack of sys-
tem in horticultural nomenclature it is difficult to arrive at perfection
in this matter. So long as anyone can change a name and thus make
new varieties from old ones, or can add his name to that of an estab-
lished variety, a large number of synonyms must be expected, nor can
the student of horticulture ever be sure that varieties of the same
name are alike. It is also true that seedsmen often feel compelled to

556 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

list names they know to be synonyms because the variety is known
and called for under that name. It would be better, however, to tist
the variety under its proper name and add the synonyin if necessary.

A tendency in modern catalogue making that promises well for the
future is the increase in the use of half-tone illustrations. Many of
the leading catalogues are adopting this method of illustrating, and
in some it has become a feature. The older woodcuts, as well as many
of the exaggerated illustrations of to-day, have lost their power to
charm and to deceive. The public wishes to know as nearly as possi-
ble what the seed will produce under favorable conditions; it is the
real, not the ideal, that is wanted. The seedsman may strive for the
latter in breeding up his variety, but while this ideal is still unreal-
ized he should hold his imagination in check when deciding on the
illustrations for his catalogue.

Summing up catalogue making, a writer a few years ago said:

The work of compilation on the modern catalogue is thorough and exhaustive,
calling for vast knowledge of every branch of trade and an intimate acquaintance
with a fluctuating market. The arrangement for a thorough supply of the stock
to be advertised, the ability called into play to gauge what all his rivals are going
to push and the prices they will charge, marshaling order out of chaos. writing
and telegraphing tc every corner of the globe, watching the work on the illustra-
tions, and scores of minor matters to be regulated, call into play faculties of supe-
rior order, and make many a man old before his time from the tension on the
system in the getting out of the great annual catalogue.!

THE GROWTH OF SEED HOUSES.

The seed trade has changed quite as much as has the catalogue.
The barrel of peas has grown to hundreds of bags, and the few thou-
sand of packets to millions. The large modern seed stores, whether
devoted to the local or to the mail trade, are models of convenience
and of system. In most of them fanning mills of the monitor or elip-
per type are constantly employed in cleaning and grading seeds, and
from the cellar to the mailing room everything is so arranged that
orders may be filled with accuracy and dispatch. During the late
summer and early fall the force is employed in addressing envelopes
for catalogues and in packeting seeds in readiness for the busy
months. In the order books there is an entry for every post office in
every State, no matter whether an order has ever been received from
that office or not.

Thirty years ago one hundred letters a day was considered a large
business; to-day some houses receive over six thousand letters a day
during the busy season. Firms thattwenty years ago employed only
one or two clerks now employ a hundred during the winter months.
Throughout the West the seed business has flourished; a Wisconsin
firm writes that its business has inereased 500 per cent in the last
fifteen years; a single warehouse of a Western firm now has between
7 and 8 acres of floor space.

Florists’ Exchange, March, 1895,

SEED SELLING, SEED GROWING, AND SEED TESTING. 557

THE EXPORT TRADE,

That the growth of the trade during the century has been great
scarcely needs emphasizing, but it is difficult to secure figures show-
ing the rate of increase. Only a few seed houses antedate the civil
war, and the great majority are of recent origin; the statistics of
exports date from 1855 and no separate records of imports of seeds
were kept before 1873. Clover and grass seeds, especially timothy,
have always taken the lead in the seed export trade, and until recent
years garden seeds have not been a considerable factor in the total
values. In 1825 some 10,000 bushels of clover seed were exported to
England within a few months. How long this trade had existed we
do not know. From 1855 to 1864 there is no record of any seeds
exported except clover, but the value of exports increased from
$13,570 in 1855 to $2,185,706 in 1863, the war apparently having no
effect on the trade. The total value of the clover seed exported dur-
ing this period aggregated $5,595,663. During the decade ending
with 1880 clover seed was not separately entered except in the last
year, but the total exports of seeds amounted during that period to
$20,739,277. The aggregate was increased by more than $3,000,600
before the end of 1890. From 1591 to 1898 there has been a slight
reduction in the average annual value of seed exports and also in the
amount of clover and timothy seed sent abroad.

SEED GROWING.

Before the beginning of the century only three seed farms had been
established in the United States, though for many years seeds were
grown by farmers and market gardeners. Tome-grown clover and
grass seeds, flax, hemp, and Connecticut onion seeds were on the
market during colonial times, but the impression prevailed that gar-
den seeds could not be successfully grown in America, and for the
first sixty years of this century almost all the vegetable and flower
seeds were imported. It was natural that clover and grass seeds of
American origin should be offered earlier than garden seeds. The
former grew freely throughout the colonies and produced seed in
abundanee, while it required special skill and care to raise good gar-
den seeds. Eliot, in 1747, and Spurrier, in 1793, both refer to clover-
seed and grass-seed crops, and describe methods of harvesting and
eleaning. Nicholson, in the Farmers’ Assistant, 1814, describes most
of the grasses used to-day, and says that they seed freely. Flaxseed
was an article of export at an early day, and a considerable quantity
of clover seed was sent to England in the early years of the century.

ESTABLISHMENT OF SEED FARMS.

The present develcpment of garden-seed growing began when David
Landreth established a small seed farm at Philadelphia in 1784. At
first but a few acres were cultivated, and these were mostly occupied

558 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

by the nursery. As the business grew, more land was added, until in
1860, some 600 acres were under cultivation near Philadelphia alone.
The Shakers, who came to America in 1774, began growing seeds at
Mount Lebanon, N. Y., twenty years later. During the first quarter of
the nineteenth century their seeds were more popular than any others,
and outside of the large towns they supplied almost the entire demand.
The well-known probity of these people and the excellent culture of
their farms gave their seeds a wide reputation. Their wagons went
from village to village, and they also sold on commission at 25 per
cent, taking back the seeds that remained unsold. In 1839 the
Shaker colony at Tyringham, Mass., devoted 4 or 5 acres to the eulti-
vation of garden, medicinal, and herb seeds, and their annual sales
sometimes amounted to more than $3,000. A seed farm was established
at Enfield, N. H., in 1795, one in Connecticut between 1810 and 1820,
and three more before 1830. Other seed farms existed for a short
time, but were abandoned. The Clairmont seed gardens near Balti-
more, Md., supplied some of the dealers of that city about 1851 and
probably earlier. Ata still earlier day there was a seed garden in
New Jersey, on which Grant Thorburn spent his fortune between 1808
and 1815. Thorburn failed and temporarily retired from the seed
business. Of the other seed farms in existence in 1890, thirteen were
established between 1850 and 1840; fifteen between 1840 and 1850, and
nineteen during the following decade.
RAPID INCREASE IN SEED GROWING DURING THE LAST FORTY YEARS.

The opening of the civil war found the country still largely depend-
ent upon imported garden seeds. The heavy taxes and the premium
on gold raised the prices of all imported seeds to such an extent that
the dealers began to look anxiously fora home supply. During the
first year of the war the trade in seeds fell off, prices were high, and
seeds searce. This condition stimulated home production, and as
many seed farms were established between 1860 and 1870 as during
the thirty years before the war. It was found that many vegetable
seeds could be grown as well in this country as abroad, and that all
kinds, for which the climate and soil were suitable, were much more
safely grown under the eye of the dealer. Growers also became more
expert, and market gardeners found that they could get as good seeds
from the seedsman as they could save themselves, and at less than
one-half the cost. The seed grower secured a critical and profitable
trade, and the market gardener found a reliable source of supply for
his seeds. This critical trade and the constant demand for better
varieties stimulated the seed grower to do his best work. Seeds of
the standard varieties were more carefully grown and new sorts, ear-
lier, larger, or of better quality made their appearance every year.
But it was by demanding reliable seeds rather than new varieties
that the market-garden trade exercised the best influence upon the

SEED SELLING, SEED GROWING, AND SEED TESTING. 559

seedsman. To a man who expended annually $100 to $300 per acre
for labor and fertilizers, it was of the utmost importance that his seed
should produce exactly what he expected, and he well knew that it
was not economy to buy cheap seeds. His valuable trade, when
secured, was retained only by supplying seeds of the highest quality
regardless of cost.

Sinee the close of the war the business of seed growing has rapidly
increased. Notwithstanding some importers of seeds declared in
1867 that American seed growing was a myth, there were at that time
more than 2,000 acres devoted to raising vegetable and flower seeds.
In 1878, Mr. J. J. Hi. Gregory estimated the total area devoted to
growing garden seeds at about 7,000 acres. Of these, 3,000 in the
State of New York produced peas and beans; 250 aeres, other vege-
table seeds; and 50 acres, flower seeds. The remainder was distrib-
uted as follows: Michigan and northern Illinois, 1,600 acres; Penn-
sylvania and New Jersey, 1,000 acres; Massachusetts, Rhode Island,
and Connecticut, 1,000 acres. Theacreage for California is not given,
but seed growing in that State was then practically confined to lettuce
and onion seed, and the industry had been established for only about
three years. Of the kinds of seeds which were sold in the United
States, Mr. Gregory said:

More or less of half the varieties are imported. Of mangel-wurzel, about all;
ruta-baga, about nine-tenths; spinach, about nine-tenths; cauliflower, nearly all;
lettuce, about half; carrots, about half; eggplant, about half; parsnip, about
one-third; radish, about all. * * * It isthe general belief of American seeds-
men that foreign-grown radish seed is larger and better than home-grown. Pars-
ley seed is largely imported. Brussels sprouts, broccoli, chicory, endive, kohl-
‘rabi, and Swiss chard are almost wholly imported, as is salsify, to a large extent.
Of celery, the finest varieties are grown in this country in the vicinity of ourlarge
cities. Of cucumbers, but a few, and those of the fancy-frame sorts, are imported.
Of peas, most-of the hard sorts are home-grown, and probably rather more than
half of what are called the softer or wrinkled varieties. The Dutch or rough-leaved
turnip seeds areall home-grown. Of cabbage seed, but few varieties are imported,
and these are confined almost wholly to a few early sorts. Onion seed is almost
entirely an American crop.!

Besides the above, the seeds of beans, corn, squashes, tomatoes,
and melons of all kinds were home-grown.

In 1878 seed growing was in its infancy in California. Seeds had
been raised here and there since 1851, but the systematic development
of the industry began in 1875, when R. W. Wilson planted 50 acres
to beets, onions, lettuce, and carrots for seed purposes. From this
beginning the business has grown to enormous proportions. A single
firm of growers devotes annually some 2,000 acres to seed crops, and
many other growers in California, Oregon, and Washington have
built up a creditable business. ‘‘ Onion and lettuce are staple seed

1 Gregory, J. J. H.: Culture of Vegetable Seeds, in the Report of the Connecticut
Board of Agriculture, 1878, p. 110.

560 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

crops, While carrot, celery, leek, endive, kale, kohl-rabi, parsnip, and
parsley are all grown by California seed growers.” In Washington
cabbage and cauliflower seed is grown, and, although Puget Sound
eaulifiower seed does not yet enjoy the reputation of the Danish, fur-
ther work may demonstrate that good seed can be produced in that
region. Pl. XLVI shows a field of onions in California, and the
method of thrashing the seed.

The census of 1890 showed that there were in the United States 596
seed farms, containing 169,850 acres, of which 96,567} were actually
producing seed crops. Of these farms, 200 were established between
1880 and 1890, and it is safe to say that a large proportion of the 189
farms unaccounted for were also established during that decade. If
this is true, about one-half of the seed farms existing in 1890 had
originated since Mr. Gregory estimated, twelve years before, that in
the United States 7,000 acres were devoted to garden seeds. But the
census returns do not show the total number of acres actually devoted
to growing seeds. .

Seedsmen have for years grown most of their seeds on the contract
system, contracting with farmers in different parts of the country to
grow the seeds to which their soil and climate are best suited. Many
of these men grow only one or two varieties, and in 1890 they made
no returns to the Census Office. It is impossible to say how many
acres are thus used for seed production, but many firms secure almost
their entire supply in this way. In 1892 a grower stated that one firm
had that year contracted for the product of 13,000 aeres of vegetable
seeds.

It is probable that Gregory’s estimate in 1878 is too low; but even if
it is doubled, it is still evident that during the ten years following 1880
seed growing increased out of all proportion to the increase in popu-
lation. This overproduction was severely felt by growers everywhere.
Before 1883 seed growing was very profitable, but since that date com-
petition has been so keen and the demand for cheap seed so great that
the profits have been much reduced. The financial panic of 1893 was
felt by seedsmen as well as by those in other lines of business, but the
trade is now rapidly recovering from that crisis.

The production of seed is, however, still increasing. Mr. C. L.
Allen, a good authority, estimates that 100,000 acres are now annually
devoted to peas and half as many to beans. In 1878 we imported
half our wrinkled sorts; now we supply shortages abroad and import
only in ease of failure of the crop.

THE GROWING OF FLOWER SEEDS.

Flower seeds are extensively grown in California Edward J.
Wickson in 1897 said:

Various flowers have been grown for seed; in fact, a great assortment of varieties,

and while nearly all kinds flourish, there is so much hand work and close applica-
tion necessary that we have not been able to successfully compete with Europe

PLATE XLVI.

1899.

culture,

or

Yearbook U.S. Dept. of A

Fic. 1.—Fl—ELD OF RED WETHERSFIELD ONIONS IN CALIFORNIA.

FIG. 2.—THRASHING ONION SEED IN CALIFORNIA.

ok

2) AN

Yearbook U.S, Dept. of Agriculture, 1899. PLATE XLVII.

as

I:
q
,

ls

Fic. 1.—FliELD OF TULIP-FLOWERED POPPIES IN CALIFORNIA.

FiG. 2.—FIELD OF PRIMA DONNA SWEET PEAS IN CALIFORNIA.

Tat

SEED SELLING, SEED GROWING, AND SEED TESTING. 561

on most things. Sweet peas, nasturtiums, cosmos, verbenas, petunias, and asters
are quite successfully grown, and the seed trade now looks to California for most
of the sweet peas and a great many nasturtiums.

Southern California has several very prominent growers of fine double petunias
and other plants. The rapid advance of the California sweet-pea seed in popu-
larity is most marvelous. A beginning was made in this line in a moderate way
about 1885, when there were not over a dozen varieties iisted. At first abouta
quarter of an acre was grown; now one grower alone has grown from 159 to 200
acres of them each year for the past five years, and there are no less than 125
varieties in his complete list. This grower has introduced more than 20 varieties -
of great merit in the last three years, among them the famous race of ‘‘Cupids.”
So important a factor have the California sweet-pea growers become to the seed
trade that some dealers come from the East annually to inspect the growing
crops and to hunt for novelties in the sweet-pea line.!

Some flower-seed growers devote themselves largely to the produc-
tion of new varieties. The seeds of these bring a better profit than
those of the common sorts, which can be more cheaply grown in
Europe.

In the Eastern United States flower seeds have been grown to some
extent for at least fifty years. In 1849 James Vick began to grow
flower seeds in New York State, and during the sixties flower seeds
were grown in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, New York, and in New
England. The amount raised was, however, never more than a small
portion of that needed for the trade, and the greater part of the
flower seeds sold was imported from Europe. This condition exists
to-day. Flower seeds are grown in a number of places throughout
the United States, but only a small portion of the trade is supplied
with home-grown seed. Outside of California, limited amounts of
flower seeds are grown, the principal kinds being asters, phlox,
petunia, verbena, portulaca, zinnia, balsam, hollyhock, pansies, sweet
peas, begonias, coleus, and some greenhouse plants. Pl. XLVII
shows fields of poppies and sweet peas grown for seed in Santa Clara
County, Cal.

SECTIONS AND CONDITIONS FOR PROFITABLE SEED GROWING.

The United States raises practically all its beans, and most of
its cabbage, the best being grown on Long Island, while the cheaper
trade is supplied from abroad, or from sections of this country where
the seed can be grown cheaply. Carrot seed is largely grown, some of
it in California, but the best is imported or grown in New England.
The latter costs the most, though many dealers claim there is no dif-
ference in quality; but Mr. Allen thinks otherwise. He says: ‘‘ Tests
frequently made show conclusively that a larger yield of carrots can
be obtained from Rhode Island and Connecticut grown seed than from
the best imported.” All corn, celery, lettuce, onion, melon, tomato,
pepper, squash, and pumpkin seeds used in the United States are
home-grown. All the cucumber seed except that of the French

1California Vegetables, 1897.

i ax 99 36

562 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

varieties is produced here, as is nearly all the eggplant and kale and a
great deal of the beet seed. Sugar-beet seed is grown to a limited
extent, and, with the further development of the manufacture of beet
sugar, it will become an important industry. The best Brussels
sprouts seed is grown here, most of the okra, and a great deal of the
parsley, mustard, andspinach. Radish is grown to some extent, espe-
cially about Philadelphia, but many dealers do not consider American
seed, atleast of the small early sorts, equal to the bestimported. Many
other kinds are raised in a small way, but growers can not compete with
the cheaper imported seed. There is, unfortunately, a great demand
for cheap seeds, and low grades of many sorts can be imported more prof-
itably than they can be produced by the American grower. Garden
seeds are grown in most of the Northern and Western States and a
few in the South. Many kinds are largely produced in certain favor-
‘able sections, as beans in New York State; cabbage on Long Island;
peas in Canada, Michigan, and Wisconsin; vine seeds in Nebraska;
and onion, lettuce, and sweet peas in California.

' The value of a locality for seed growing depends upon fayerable
soil and climatie conditions and upon the supply of cheap labor at
harvest time. Lack of labor often prevents the profitable culture of
seed in places where conditions of soil and climate are favorable. The
best onion seed is produced in Michigan and Connecticut, but for the
general trade these seeds can not compete in price with the California
product. .

In general it is the practice of the seed trade to grow plants for seed
purposes where the product attains the greatest degree of perfection.
Seedsmen know where to look for their best seed as well as for the
cheap grades, and when they have a discriminating trade they do not
handle seed of questionable pedigree. Certain localities are specially
adapted to certain varieties; onion seed grown in Southport, Conn.,
tends to produce round bulbs, while that grown at Wethersfield, in the
same State, produces flat ones. A seedsman, besides being a thorough
agriculturist, must know the character and wants of every variety.

Fifty years ago there were few seedsmen who understood varieties.
Y'o-day the seedsmen are variety experts, and note with accuracy
differences so minute as to escape those not trained in their school.
A shade of color in a sweet pea, the crumpling of a lettuce leaf, a
slight difference in the shape of a bean or pea pod, all these are noted
in the field and the plants saved or discarded as they conform to or
depart from the type.

If anything is wanted, it is a greater fixedness of type. The tend-
‘ency is toward the production of new varieties rather than the fixa-
tion and improvement of existing types. This results in unstable
characters and in the speedy ‘‘running out” of varieties, whether by
improvement or deterioration.

1899

of Agriculture

S. Dept

Yearbook U

PLATE XLVIII.

PHILADELPHIA, PA.

Fig. 1.—FiELD OF SILVERSKIN ONIONS ON BLOOMSDALE FARM,

Fic. 2.—PrizE HEAD LETTUCE, GROWN ON DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE TRIAL

GROUNDS: THE PLANT AT THE LEFT FROM CARELESSLY GROWN SEED, THE ONE AT

THE RIGHT FROM PROPERLY GROWN SEED.

SEED SELLING, SEED GROWING, AND SEED TESTING. 563

GROUPS OF SEED PLANTS.

To the seed grower plants fall into two groups—annuals and bien-
nials; the former being such as produce a seed crop the same season
that the seed is planted, while the biennials must be kept over winter
and produce a crop about fifteen months after sowing. To the latter
class belong cabbage, onion, turnip, carrot, parsnip, beet, winter
radish, ete. In many respects these present greater difficulty to
the grower, because the chances of failure are much increased. The -
crop may succumb the first season to any of the dangers always
besetting plants; the plants or roots may spoil in the trenches or cel-
lars during the winter, while if these dangers are safely passed it is
still possible for the seed crop to be blighted at the eleventh hour.
Onions may promise a bountiful crop tul within a few days of harvest
and then suddenly fail. Cabbage may be carried safely through the
winter only to be finally ruined by an insect attack. Even in annuals
the chance of loss is greater than any the market gardener encounters,
the plants being longer on the ground and exposed to attack from
more points than when the crop is marketed in the green state.

An additional source of loss is the destruction of plants not true to
type. When seeds are carefully grown the fields are rogued so that
only plants showing the characteristics of the variety are left;. the
remainder, no matter how good they may otherwise be, are disearded.
This is a source of loss, and when seeds are grown cheaply it is
avoided by permitting every plant to produce seed. The poorest
plants, as they come nearest the wild type, will usually yield the
most seed, but these seeds will in turn produce plants that will dis-
appoint the most careless gardener. Plate XLVIII, fig. 2, shows at
the left a lettuce plant raised from carelessly grown seed, and at the
right the same variety, Prize Head, from properly grown seed. Such
illustrations could be shown for nearly all vegetables, and the finer
the strain the greater the deterioration when the seed is improperly
grown.

All good seedsmen grow a special grade called ‘‘stock seed.” This
is kept solely for their own use and is sent out to their different grow-
ers to plant for the regular crop. This-‘‘stock seed” is grown and
saved with unusual care. Every precaution is taken to keep the
variety pure, and the selections are made with extreme rigidity.
Only the best plants are used and the destruction of so large a por-
‘tion of the crop makes the stock seed too expensive for general sale.
To absolutely prevent mixture the plants for steck seed are often
grown in the middle of a large field of the same variety intended for
crop purposes. This prevents the bees from bringing foreign pollen
to the selected plants, and insures purity of stock. The mixing of
varieties is something the seed grower has ‘always to guard against.
To prevent this only one variety is commonly grown on a farm, and
care is taken to see that a near neighbor is not growing another

564 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. |

variety of the same species. When only small quantities of seed are
raised, a block of the variety is frequently planted in the midst of a

eornfield.
HARVESTING.

Harvesting operations must be carriea on with great skill and
care. Seed crops are usually cut when about two-thirds of the seed
isripe. If left longer there is great loss from the rattling out of the
ripest seed. The seed stalks are cut with a sickle and laid on large
canvas sheets. The four corners of these are then drawn together
and the bundles carted to the barns. Here the seed stalks are laid
on scaffolds to dry, after which the seed is thrashed out. The flail is
the implement still most largely used in this work, though there are
various special machines in use. On the large farms of one Califor-
nia firm all seeds except onion are thrashed with a flail. Seeds sur-
rounded with pulpy flesh need special treatment. Tomatoes, cucum-
bers, and melons are first crushed in a press, or the seeds and pulp
removed with a scraper. The entire mass, consisting of seeds and
pulp, is then allowed to ferment until the pulp is rotten. The mass
is then washed, the pulp rises, and is thrown out, while the seeds
sink and are drawn off and the light seeds removed with a fan. The
casks of fermenting pulp must be carefully watched, for if the proc-
ess goes too far serious injury to the seed may result.

AGRICULTURAL SEEDS.

Many years before the growing of garden seeds had become impor-
tant the farmers of this country had ceased to depend upon Europe
for their supply of farm seeds. Some of the staples even became
articles of export at an early day, and enough was grown of nearly all
sorts to meet the home demand. As agriculture advanced the use of
clover and grasses became more common, and the home supply of seed
from being unequal to the home demand, not only met the increase,
but began to be exported to England, and in 1841 a few bushels of
clover seed were sent from Cleveland, Ohio, to Canada.

For many years the United States has produced enormous quanti-
ties of clover and grass seeds, and exports have in some years amounted
to millions of dollars. The imports of grass seeds are confined to the
so-called fancy grasses, which can be more cheaply gathered in Europe
than here, and to cheap clover and grass-seed screenings. The latter
are imported to mix with higher grades, and thus lower the cost to the
seller. During the last few years a great deal of awnless brome-grass
seed has also been imported, but this is now grown in the Northwest,
and before long we shall be independent of the foreign supply. There
is searcely a region in the United States in which some of our agri-
cultural seeds can not be grown, but their profitable production is
generally confined to more or less well-defined localities, depending
upon favorable climatic and soil conditions.

"|. a

SEED SELLING, SEED GROWING, AND SEED TESTING. 565

Red clover is grown throughout the Northern and Central States,
but mainly in the country tributary to Toledo, Ohio, which is the
great clover-seed market. The culture of the seed is, however,
extending westward, and the time may be not far distant when Chi-
cago will take first rank as a clover-seed center. Timothy seed can
be grown wherever red clover flourishes, but its principal area lies
farther west, some counties in Iowa being the largest timothy-producing
sections in the world. Orchard grass, redtop, Kentucky blue grass,
meadow fescue, and the millets are grown in several of the Middle
and Western States, but the areas of production frequently shift.
Hundreds of tons of alfalfa seed are raised in Utah, and the teosinte
grown in Florida more than supplies the home demand. With few
exceptions these seeds are raised by the general farmer as a part of his
regular crop. Their production on regular seed farms has been
attempted, but did not prove profitable, the prices that were satisfac-
tory when the seed was raised as a secondary crop not proving suffi-
cient to meet the expenses of special production.

Unfortunately, clover and the standard grass seeds have become
objects of speculation on the produce exchanges of the great cities.
This causes fluctuations in price entirely independent of the legiti-
mate supply and demand and frequently interferes with sales abroad,
buyers not being willing to invest while the market remains unsteady.

IMPROVEMENT IN HARVESTING AND CLEANING GRASS AND CLOVER SEEDS,

In harvesting and cleaning grass and clover seeds there has been
great improvement. Not only have the harvester and the horserake
taken the place of hand labor, but the machinery for cleaning the seed
has attained a much greater degree of perfection than was thought
possible even twenty-five years ago. The evolution of the clover huller
has been gradual, and has progressed step by step toward its pres-
ent condition. In the early years of the century the seed was sepa-
rated from the heads with a flail or by treading the straw with horses.
Later, milling machines were invented or sometimes regular flour mills
were slightly modified and used for hulling the clover seed. In the
American Farmer of 1821 Caleb Kirk described a mill for cleaning
elover seed. This was made somewhat like a flour mill, but the stones
were not allowed to touch. The miller received a toll of one-tenth
for his work, and the mills could turn out under the most favorable
conditions about 10 or 12 bushels of seed ina day. Several of these
mills were established about the country, but many farmers still pre-
ferred to tread out the seed with horses, partly to save the toll and
partly because the milled seed, not being so clean, brought a slightly
lower price.

Another machine, invented by John Bolton, of Warren, Herkimer
County, N. Y., would clean 1 bushel per hour when run by water
power. It could be built for $30 or $40. Some time before 1831

566 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Thomas D. Burrall, of Geneva, N. Y., invented a machine that was
a long step toward the present huller. It was constructed with a
eylinder armed with thin triangular iron teeth, revolving over a bed
of perforated sheet tin. Below the cylinder was a.fan, which blew
out the chaff and light seed. The clover heads were first freed from
the straw and were then fed on to the cylinder. This machine when
run by water power cleaned from 2 to 3 bushels of seed per hour. A
full deseription was published in the American Farmer of 1831.

Other machines were also in use up to 1855, but they did not have
huller and fan combined. In 1855 a combined clover huller was exhib-
ited at the New York State fairin Buffalo. The present combined
clover thrasher, huller, and cleaner is too well known to need any
description. There has been a steady advance toward perfection,
until to-day the clover is put in at one end of the machine and clean
seed runs out at the other. There are several makes differing more
in detail than in principle, and all aiming at the same result—to clean
the most seed in the shortest time and at the least expense.

The mills in use during the twenties hulled from 10 to 12 bushels
a day under the most favorable conditions, and the seed had to be
recleaned before marketing. To-day a good machine will clean as
many bushels in an hour.

There has been even a greater change in the methods of cleaning
Kentucky blue-grass seed than in the case of clover. In 1814 John
Nicolson, in the Farmers’ Assistant, said of this grass: ‘‘It yields
plenty of seed, but this is difficult to sow on account of their filaments
causing them to adhere to each other. To remedy this, it is recom-
mended to put them in newly slacked lime, to separate them, and then
to berubbed in dry sand.” In antebellum days slaves were employed
to rub the grass between their hands, which were protected with old
boot legs, and as late as twenty-five years ago the seed was rubbed
by hand through wire cloth. It was possible by this means for one
man to clean from 15 to 20 bushels per day. Now, with the improved
patented machinery, one man can clean 100 bushels a day, and the
' machinery when run by a 60-horse power engine has a capacity of 600
bushels per day.

THE PROGRESS IN VARIETIES.
Vegetable seeds,

Anyone studying the modern seed catalogue with its bewildering
number of varieties may almost wish for the simplicity of the early
days of this century, when a dozen varieties of any one kind was a long
list. Davidson in 1768 offered 57 varieties of vegetable and herb
seeds. Thorburn in 1805 had a list of 70 varieties, all vegetable seeds,
and among these were neither squash, tomatoes, nor sweet corn. As
the years went by the number of varieties increased, at first slowly,
since only those markedly distinet were noted, but with the great

SEED SELLING, SEED GROWING, AND SEED TESTING. 567

development of the seed trade after 1860 the number of varieties cata-
logued increased with almost incredible rapidity. Every year wit-
nesses the advent of novelties, real and imaginary, many of them
without permanent value, but a few are genuine additions to our hor-
ticulture. Professor Bailey said in 1892:

This increase is in part simply an accumulation of the varieties of many years,
so that our manuals are apt to contain descriptions of more varieties than are
actually cultivated atthetime. But much of this increase is a natural multiplica-
tion of varieties, that is, there are more varieties of nearly all plants in cultivation
now than at any previous time. M’Mahon mentioned 6 beets as grown at his time;
in 1889 there were 42 kinds. Then there were 14 cabbages, now there are over
100. Then there were 16 lettuces against about 120 now. !

It may be added that last year more than 300 varieties of lettuce
were catalogued, of which 292 were grown on the trial grounds of the
Department of Agriculture and 82 of them were considered distinct.

Twenty years ago the large and small lima beans were the only rep-
resentatives of that class; to-day there are several better pole limas,
besides the whole race of dwarf limas that were entirely unknown to
our grandmothers. These acquisitions to the vegetable garden all
arose as chance sports, and some of them were cultivated for several
years before they were given to the trade. The story of the produc-
tion of these purely American types is thus told by Professor Bailey:

They appeared in the same way that nearly all new varieties of plants origi-
nate; they were found growing amongst plants of common and well-known varie-
ties. A single plant, a ‘‘sport,” was first observed in some cases and in others
several original plants were discovered. The Kumerle, or Thorburn, Dwarf Lima
originated from occasional dwarf ‘forms of the Challenger Pole Lima, which
J. W. Kumerle, of Newark, N. J., found growing in his field. The Henderson,
as we have seen, was a chance dwarf picked up in Virginia. The Burpee came
from a single plant of the large whitelima. Mr. Palmer, with whom it originated,
had his entire crop of limas destroyed by cutworms in 1883. He went over his
field to remove the poles before fitting the land for other uses, but he found one —
little plant, about 10 inches high, which had been cut off an inch above the ground, |
but which had rerooted. It bore three pods, each containing one seed. These
three seeds were planted in 1884, and two of the plants were dwarf, like the parent.
By discarding all plants which had a tendency to climb in succeeding crops the
Burpee Bush Lima, as we now have it, was developed. ?

Besides the above, Wood’s Prolific Bush Lima and Burpee’s bush
form of the willow-leaved lima have been more recently introduced.

Of bush beans, there were half a score in 1854 and about the same
number in 1860. There are now 370 varieties catalogued, only a few
of which were known thirty years ago, and of these probably one-
fourth are distinct. The best varieties of cauliflower grown in the
United States to-day have been introduced by American seedsmen.
Sweet corn was not catalogued in the early days of the century, and

1 Bailey, L. H.: Survival of the Unlike, p. 205.
* Bailey, L. H.: The Dwarf Lima Bean, in Bulletin No. 87, Cornell experiment
station, p. 86.

568 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

there were only 4 varieties in 1869; now there are more than four times
asmany. Twenty yearsago there were no distinctively forcing varie-
ties of lettuce in general use, while to-day we have several that can
not be fairly tested out of doors. Out of the 40 varieties of peas
known in 1879, only 6 were of American origin. The next year the
American Wonder appeared, and since then American seedsmen have
introduced many of the best varieties. Our valuable squashes are
all of American origin, and of the long list of large tomatoes there
is not one that was known thirty years ago.

It is interesting to note the history of the tomato, its gradual rise in
popularity, and the rapidity with which new varieties appeared when
once its position was assured. Originally an American contribution
to horticulture, it was first used as food by the Latin races of Europe.
Philip Miller in his Gardener’s Dictionary, 1731, says: ‘‘The Ital-
ians and Spaniards eat these Apples (Love Apples) as we do Cucum-
bers—with Pepper, Oil, and Salt—and Some eat them stewed in Sauces,
ete., but, considering their great moisture and Coldness, the Nourish-
ment they afford must be bad.” In New Orleans they were used in
catsup as early as 1779, but in the English colonies tomatoes were
planted only as ornaments, under the name of ‘‘Loveapples.” In 1836,
however, they had begun to be popular as food. Thomas Bridgman, in
the Kitchen Gardener’s Instructor, tells us that at this time the tomato
was used in sauces, as dessert, as a substitute for peaches, and that it ©
also made excellent pies and tarts. There were only two varieties,
however, the large red and the cherry. Their use gradually increased,
and in 1841 they had ‘‘ become almost an indispensable dish through
the summer months on every table.” In 1847 there were six or seven
varieties, but there was not much difference among them. By 1860
hundreds of aeres were planted with this fruit in the vicinity of Phila-
delphia alone, and some efforts had been made to secure improved
sorts, a smooth kind being especially desired. Shortly before 1860 a
large, smooth red variety became popular. At this time there were,
besides the yellow and the cherry kinds, but four varieties, and only
two of these were widely known.

In 1865 the tomato was a universal favorite. It had become a com-
mercial staple, and 1,000 acres are said to have been devoted to its eul-
tivation in the neighborhood of Philadelphia. During that year the
Tilden appeared, and at once took first rank. In the next five years
the Maupay, Foard, Eureka, Cook’s Favorite, Boston Market, Dixey,
Crimson Cluster, and General Grant were introduced, the General
Grant being the best of the number and a really good tomato. In
these five years more varieties were brought forward than had been
known during the preceding fifty. The canning industry consumed
thousands of bushels, and the interest in the tomato was widespread.
For many years lovers of the tomato had been selecting seed in order
to improve the existing sorts, and the new varieties were the outcome

SEED SELLING, SEED GROWING, AND SEED TESTING. 569

of this work. The best of these varieties was the Trophy, introduced
in 1870 by George Waring, farmer and sanitary engineer. ‘‘ The time
was ripe for a tomato of a new type, one which should be large and
early, and, above all, with a regular, apple-like form, or ‘smooth.’
The Trophy came at the right time, and it was the right thing. Its
success was unbounded. It was almost the making of modern tomato
culture. It marks an epoch in tomato growing in this country which
has yet scarcely been reached in any other country.”! The Trophy
was the result of twenty-three years’ careful selection, and was a great
success. In spite of the high price ($5 for twenty seeds) it was soon
widely distributed, and if sometimes it received a word of condemna-
tion, its increase in popularity was a guaranty of its value. New
varieties, some of them selections from the Trophy, now appeared in
rapid succession, and were eagerly taken up, introduced, and adver="
tised by the seedsmen. From 6 varieties in 1860 the number increased
to 30 in 1880, and in 1899 American seedsmen catalogued 242 varieties
of tomato. Of these, possibly 50 may be distinct and better than the
Trophy.

Flowers.

The development in the varieties of flowers grown from seed, if not
so conspicuous, has been not less remarkable. Indeed, it may be said
that in the entire history of the seed trade there has been nothing to
equal the phenomenal improvement in the sweet pea. The old Painted
Lady was a favorite in our grandmothers’ gardens, and until the begin-
ning of the eighties was easily first among the half dozen known
varieties. In 1882 one of the first retail seed firms to take up the
sweet pea catalogued eight varieties; last year its list numbered
258. Although the modern sweet pea owes more to Mr. Eckford, of
England, than to anyone else, there is probably no country where it
has attained greater popularity than in America. American seeds-
men have also introduced many valuable varieties, beginning in 1891
with the introduction of the Blanche Ferry, a descendant of the
Painted Lady. The Blanche Ferry was found in a garden in northern
New York, where it made a rapid growth, took on a dwarf habit and
“became a ‘cropper,’ that is, all the flowers, which in other climates
would have a much longer period in which to develop, here appeared
nearly all at the same time if not cut.” Since then 35 varieties,
mostly of the grandifiora class, have been introduced by our seeds-
men. Two distinct types—the dwarf, or Cupid, and the Bush sweet
pea—have also been developed on American soil.

The White Cupid was first discovered as a chance sport on the seed
farms of C. C. Morse & Co., in California, in 1894. Since then they
‘have developed nearly 100 different tints and colors” in Cupids

' Bailey, L. H.: Survival of the Unlike, p. 480.
*Allen, C. L.: American Agriculturist, September 7, 1895.

570 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

alone. Most of these have not yet been introduced, but every year
adds to the number of established varieties. Burpee’s Bush sweet
pea, also a chance seedling, was first introduced in a limited way in
1899, and already a new variety, the New Monarch Bush, has appeared
in the list for 1900. There has been a great improvement in the varie-
ties of flowers all along the line, and although most of the new varie-

Fra. 25.—Sweet peas, old and new: a,from Vick'’s Magazine, 1886: b, the Aurora sweet pea.

ties are of European origin, we owe not a few of them to our own
growers. (For old and new sweet peas, see fig. 25.)
Mr. Darlington writes of the asters as follows:

Asters, twenty years ago, were nearly all of a similar type of flowers, and the
range of coloring was much less varied than at present. Now we have the beauti-
ful flowers of the late branching varieties, which rival the chrysanthemums as a
fine florist’s flower. This year a strain of tall branching comets is introduced,
which will be of great value as cut flowers during the early fall, combining size
and graceful feathery form with stems of good length. In the late branching
varieties we have a distinct type of purely American origin; these now exist in
pure white, lavender, flesh pink, and deep pink, with ample promise of other
shades to come.!

SEED TESTING.

Since the days of tradition there have been various and sundry ways
of finding out the quality of seeds. They have been floated or have

‘Darlington, E.: Growth and Development of the Business in Flower Seeds
During the Past Twenty Years, in Seventeenth Annual Report American Seed
Trade Association, 1899, p. 49. .

SEED SELLING, SEED GROWING, AND SEED TESTING. 571

been heated until they popped; they have been broken and the frac-
ture noted; they have been cut and judged by the appearance of the
inside. Besides these superficial and inaccurate methods, germination
tests have been resorted to more or less commonly for overa hundred
years.

Our own agricultural literature is full of advice about this matter,
and the older seedsmen not only urged customers to test their seeds,
but set them the example by sprouting a few in pots of soil which
they kept in their seed stores. Unfortunately, this good advice was
not generally followed; seeds were planted, and if disappointment
came the seedsman was blamed, often unjustly. In 1827 Grant Thor-
burn wrote, ‘‘ besides good seeds, good gardeners are necessary in mak-
ing a garden flourish.” While many of the failures with seeds have,
been caused by improper planting, due either to ignorance or careless-
ness, farmers and gardeners have often been deceived by unserupu-
lous dealers. They have bought seeds in good faith and have found
them worthless; they have thought they were sowing clover, but have
reaped thistles.

SEED TESTING WORK IN EUROPE.

Fortunately for American agriculture, the poor-seed evil never
attained the proportions here that it did in Europe. There matters
became so bad that factories were openly established to crush and
color quartz to mix with clover. In England a large capital was
invested in the business of killing weed seéds to adulterate valuable
kinds, but the practice was finally prohibited by Parliament. In 1869
Dr. F. Nobbe began testing seeds at his laboratory in Tharand, Sax-
ony; this was the beginning of the extensive seed-control work in
European countries. Naturally, Dr. Nobbe met with much opposition
at first from both dealers and consumers, but he made out his case so
clearly that the German farmers were convinced of the value of seed
testing. To-day there are many stations in Europe, and some of them
have control contracts with the leading seed merchants. The work is
appreciated, and the workers take an honored place among the prac-
tical and scientific men of the day.

SEED TESTING IN THE UNITED STATES.

In the United States reputable seedsmen have tested their seeds for
germination, probably sinee the first seed firm was started. The State
experiment stations have for a long time done something in practical
seed testing. In Connecticut Prof. E. H. Jenkins began testing seeds
in 1877, and this station has done some of the best work in this coun-
try. In the same year Dr. Beal, of Michigan, tested some seeds, and
two years later Professor Ledoux began seed testing at the North
Carolina station. At the Geneva station Professor Goff first used
what is now known as the ‘‘Geneva tester.” Among other stations
that have contributed to the work are Arkansas, Cornell, N. Y.,

=

572 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Maine, Massachusetts, Minnesota,
North Dakota, New Mexico, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Car-
olina, South Dakota, Vermont, and Wisconsin. In 1893 the Botanist
of the Department of Agriculture recommended that seed testing be
undertaken systematically and scientifically, and in 1894 Gilbert H. —
Hicks was appointed and placed in charge of the laboratory. Mr.
Hicks’s untimely death in December, 1898, deprived American seed
testing of one of its ablest and most devoted exponents.

During the last few years there has been an increase of interest in
seed testing; several stations have published the results of tests and
others are preparing to begin this work.

The Association of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations,
at its meeting in Washington City in 1897, appointed a committee
consisting of Professors Jenkins, Card, Lazenby, McCarthy, and Mr.
Hicks to draw up rules and regulations for seed testing. The report
of this committee was adopted, and the stations are now working
under uniform rules, several stations having procured the official
apparatus.

Methods of testing by seedsinen.

Most reputable seedsmen make germination tests, and by some
these tests are conducted with great care. There is no uniform
method of testing, however. In 1887 the American Seed Trade Asso-
ciation appointed a committee to adopt some uniform system, but the
writer has been unable to learn that a report was ever made.

To the seed tester all seeds belong to one of two classes—those of
which the botanical purity can be determined from the seed and
those of whose purity one can judge only by the plants they produce.
Roughly speaking, the first class includes most agricultural seeds,
especially those of grasses and forage plants; while to the second
class belong the garden seeds, more particularly those of vegetables
and flowers, the varieties of which can not be distinguished by the
seed. The seeds of the first class are much more vasily tested than
those of the second, and their value for seed can be accurately deter-
mined long before planting. Not so with garden seeds. The thing
of most importance with them is that they be true to name and of
good stock. It is, of course, essential that the seeds germinate, but
a gardener would rather have cabbage seed of low vitality and of
good stock than of poor stock and good vitality. In the first case he
may not get more than 25 per cent of plants, but almost every one of
these will make a head, while of the other seed he may get 90 per
cent of plants and but few marketable heads. So important is this
matter of genuineness that most good seedsmen conduct trial grounds
where the different stocks are grown and observed.

The trial ground is the seedsman’s testing station, and its importance
can not be overestimated. Here he plants not only samples from his

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899. PLATE XLIX.

Fic. 1.—PORTION OF THE TRIAL GROUNDS OF FORDHOOK FARM, PHILADELPHIA, PA.

Fic. 2.—PART OF THE ASTER TRIALS ON FORDHOOK FARM, PHILADELPHIA, PA.

Sara
? i.
%

cs
is

2

PLATE L.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899

FIG. 1.—PORTION OF TRIAL GROUNDS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, SHOWING
LETTUCE TRIALS IN FOREGROUND.

Fic. 2.—PoORTION OF THE PEA TRIALS ON THE GROUNDS OF THE DEPARTMENT

OF AGRICULTURE.

SEED SELLING, SEED GROWING, AND SEED TESTING. 573

own stocks, but also from those of his competitors. As the season
advances he reads the field like an open book. He may be surprised
to find that one stock has proved untrue and must be discarded next
year. Of course, the knowledge comes too late to prevent trouble that
year, but the same mistake can be avoided in the future. Without
the trial grounds a seedsman might sell poor stocks for several years
without learning, except from the complaints of his customers, that
they were unfit to use.

The tests on a well-regulated trial ground are made in good but not
highly enriched loam. - The seeds are planted in rows from 5 to 60
feet long, according to the kind and variety, and a white label bearing
a number is placed at the head of the row. This number refers to a
record book in which is kept a careful entry of everything relating to
that seed, where and by whom grown, in what year, the date planted,
when the sprouts first appeared, and the vigor of germination. As
the plants grow they are carefully observed, notes being made of growth
and character. These notes are continued throughout the season,
and from this record the experts decide on the value of the stock.
A vast amount of detail work is necessary in caring for these trial
grounds, but they are essential to a thorough knowledge of varieties.
Pl. XLIX shows portions of the trial grounds on Fordhook farms
near Philadelphia, Pa.

So far as the writer knows, but one commercial seed-testing labora-
tory exists in the United States. This was established by Mr. Frank
Sempers at Blythedale, Md., in 1897, and is known as the Blythedale
Seed Laboratory. The work is confined to germination tests, and the
laboratory represents the trade only. The number of tests made has
increased rapidly since its establishment, and at present it has a
capacity of 56,000 continuous tests.

Seed testing by the Department of Agriculture.

The Department of Agriculture has conducted a small trial ground
for the last three years in connection with the seed laboratory. Here
studies of varieties are made, all the obtainable varieties of one kind
being grown for one or more seasons and careful notes and photo-
graphs taken. When completed these records make up accurate
descriptions of all the standard sorts, with the synonomy. Experi-
ments in growing special crops are carried on, and many new or little-
known economic plants are cultivated. Undetermined weed seeds
found in imported grasses and forage plants are also planted and the
plants grown to maturity. Many of these prove to be weeds unknown
in the United States, and the Department can thus to some extent
keep informed of the character of the weeds now being introduced
into this country. Samples are also planted of all seeds sent out for
Congressional distribution. Portions of the trial grounds of the
Department of Agriculture at Kensington, Md., are shown in Pl. L.

574 YEARBOCK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

For the testing of grass, clover, and other forage-plant seeds the
trial grounds are not as much used as the laboratory and greenhouse.
In both of these respects the Department of Agriculture is well pro-
vided. The laboratory is equipped with balances, lenses, reading
glasses, a seed collection, and all the other apparatus necessary for
making purity tests. There are also germinating chambers, with all
the necessary accessories, and abundant greenhouse facilities.

The method of making tests is essentially similar to that in use in
all seed-testing stations. When a purity test is to be made, the sam-
ple is first poured into a bowl and thoroughly mixed. Asmall sample,
varying in weight from 1 to 25 grams, according to the size of the seed,
is then weighed and spread upon a sheet of white paper. Here it is
examined with a hand glass, if necessary, and all foreign matter
removed. The inert matter, as sticks, stones, dirt, broken seeds, and
chaff, is placed on one side and weighed; also, all seeds not of the
kind under examination are removed and weighed. The percentage

f each kind of impurity is then determined and recorded. The weed
seeds are identified, and their names are recorded with the number
found in the weighed sample.

Sieves, mirror boxes, and other special pieces of apparatus are con-
stantly used in the course of the test, which is completed as expedi-
tiously as is consistent with absolute accuracy. The germination tests
are made either in the chamber or greenhouse, or both, as is best
suited to the particular variety. The chambers used are of the kind
approved by the Association of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment
Stations. Blue blotters and canton-flannel folds are used to hold the
seeds, and the moisture and temperature are regulated according to
the needs of the variety. Many grass seeds are tested in sand in the
greenhouse, experience showing that such a test is most reliable.
Special methods have also been found advantageous for some seeds.
These methods have already been described in the publications of the
Department, and need not be dwelt upon here. Nor is testing the only
work undertaken by the laboratory. Studies are being constantly
made with a view to devising better apparatus, such as will aid in
facilitating tests, and experiments are conducted in order to clear up
difficult points in the germination or preservation of seeds.

INDICATIONS OF GROWING INTEREST IN SEED TESTING,

Seed testing is still but little developed in America, and there is a
wide field for faithful and persistent effort. To a certain extent, the
work is hampered by the apathy of the buyers—more by this than by
the hostility of the sellers of seeds; but there are indications of a
growing interest in better seeds and a clearer understanding of the
value of having seeds tested before planting. This interest and this
understanding it is the duty of the station to foster and increase,
and its work will grow with the growth of a sentiment in favor of high
grade, guaranteed, and tested seeds.

PROGRESS OF COMMERCIAL GROWING OF PLANTS
UNDER GLASS.

By B. T. GALLoway,
Chief of Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology.

EARLY HISTORY.

The special branch of horticulture which has for its object the pro-
duction of plants under more or less artificial conditions of light, heat,
and moisture has come to be generally known as the growing of plants
under glass. In this country the business includes all plants grown
in specially constructed glasshouses and in hotbeds and cold frames.
The growing of plants under bell jars, as practiced in Europe, is not
followed here.

Probably nowhere in the world has the growing of plants in green-
houses attained such importance as in the United States. Other
countries may have more imposing structures and larger individual
areas of glass, but, taking the business as a whole, it may be fairly
claimed that in up-to-date methods in almost everything pertaining
to this special field of horticulture this country leads.

It is difficult to say when and where the practice of forcing plants
originated, but it is certain that the Romans were able to supply the
tables of the wealthy with choice vegetables at almost any time of the
year. The gardeners of the Roman Emperor Tiberius were familiar
with this kind of work, and forced cucumbers and other vegetables
during the winter and early spring months. The crops were foreed
in pits heated with manure and protected from cold by thin sheets of
mica and in various other ways. The manure was put into the pits
very much as is done in making hotbeds at the present time. Baskets
containing fermenting manure were also used in which to force plants.
These baskets were moved about to meet the requirements of the
weather, and by being properly protected during cold days and at
night vegetables were brought to perfection in them. It is even
claimed that hot water was used by the Romans for the purpose of
heating the pits, and from what we know of practices followed by
them this does not seem unlikely.

With the decline of the Roman Empire and the gradual dissipation
of wealth and culture which followed, the higher branches of horti-
culture were neglected and soon passed out of memory. From this
period down to the sixteenth century there are few records which

indicate any advanced ideas on the subject. The work that was
578

576 YEARBOOK OF THE. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

undertaken was confined for the most part to the gardens of rulers
and others who had means to carry out elaborate plans in landscape
gardening. It is doubtful, however, if anything of consequence was
done at this time in the way of forcing plants, as such a practice
would require a knowledge which the gardeners of the time did not
possess.

Passing over this long period and coming down to modern times,
we find that even at the beginning of the present century but little
was being done in this country in the special field of horticulture
treated of inthis paper. It must be remembered, however, that in the
year 1800 the United States was young and every available man was
needed in the work of conquering the wilderness and overcoming the
great natural obstacles that are always found in a new country.

_ Astudy of history shows that countries, like individuals, are busied

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Fig. 26.—First greenhouse in America, constructed in 1764 (American Florist).

first with a mere struggle for existence, and that so long as it is nec-
essary to put forth every effort to live little attention is given to lux-
uries like flowers. Here and there men are led aside by pure love for
this kind of work, but they resemble the pioneers in literature and
art, in whom sheer devotion overcomes all obstacles.

With the exception of some establishments of a semiprivate nature,
there was little, so far as can be determined from the records, in the
way of commercial plant growing under glass up to 1810. Green-
houses were searce, and those in existence were not designed for
much in the way of commercial work. The greenhouse generally
believed to be the first erected in America (fig. 26) was built in New
York in the year 1764. During the sueceeding twenty-five or thirty
years comparatively little was done in greenhouse construction. The
house referred to was for many years a landmark, but was finally torn
down to give place to advancing business. It is interesting to notice

COMMERCIAL GROWING OF PLANTS UNDER GLASS. 571

the construction of this greenhouse, as showing from what a small
beginning the immense business of the present time sprang. |
The early structures were crude affairs (fig. 27) when looked at
from the present view point. The roofs were for the most part of
wood, glass’ being used only for the sides and ends. In one of the
books on gardening of that period the greenhouse was described as
being built preferably 16 feet wide and of any length desired. The
front, it was said, should be of sash 12 to 15 feet high, and should be
provided with outside
wooden shutters so as
to protect the glass in
extreme cold weather.
The roof, the book goes
on to state, should be
of shingles, and the
back wall of brick, 6 to
9 feet high, with flues
through it, and there
should be a shed toshel- ——_—-—L. z
12, 24 FE,

ter this wall and a fur- bo

nace under the shed Fic. 27.—Plan of early form of greenhouse, 1836 (Hovey’s
the Magazine).

connecting with
flues in the wall for the purpose of heating the house in co!d weather.
In many instances these houses were constructed in such a way that
the gardener lived in the second story, the lower part being given up
to the growing of plants.

BEGINNING OF AN ERA OF PROGRESS.

It was not until about 1825 that real progress in growing plants
under glass began. The reason for this may be assigned to a number
of causes. The country had been through several wars and had now
settled down to growth and prosperity. The Eastern States were
rapidly inereasing in population and wealth, this being especially the
ease in the vicinity of the cities of Boston, New York, and Philadel-
phia. It was natural, therefore, that with the accumulation of wealth
in such places and the relaxing of the strain necessary in the struggle
for existence, money should be turned into other channels than those
of necessity.

In these early days Philadelphia took the lead as a market for plants,
flowers, and vegetables. The wealth and culture of the times were
centered here, and besides much had been accomplished in the way
of creating a taste for such things by the active work of a few indi-
viduals in whom there was an inherent love for all that is beautiful
in the plant world. It was to Philadelphia, therefore, that gardeners
from the Old World were attracted, and it was not long before several
societies were organized that had a marked influence in developing
an interest in the business. Philadelphia, furthermore, possessed

1 A 99——37

578 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

advantages in other ways over her more northern sister cities. The
mild winters there made it possible to carry on many lines of work with
greater ease than in New York or Boston. The latter city, however,
was not content to remain long in the second place in such work, and
for a time in these early days her gardens and greenhouses were sec-
ond to none in the country. New York was behind in this respect,
forthe time of her people at this period was so fully occupied with com-
mercial interests that little attention could be given to anything else.
Baltimore, Washington, Charleston, and other cities soon became cen-
ters of wealth and culture, and thus the demand for both plants and
flowers rapidly increased. Horticultural societies were formed in all
the cities named and did a great deal toward awakening an interest
in their fields of labor. The work at this time, however, was of the
most general nature. In fact, ail commercial establishments were
compelled to grow trees, shrubs, and many other things which would
now -be locked upon as foreign to a gardener’s establishment.

With the increasing demand for plants, flowers, and vegetables at
this time (1830) came the necessity for better methods of growing
them; hence, there was a marked improvement in greenhouse con-
struction, especially in heating. The method of heating by means of
hot-air fiues, then generally prevalent, practically confined the work
within certain bounds, but with the advent of hot-water heating the
possibilities of the gardener were greatly increased, as he was thereby
enabled to keep his plants in better health and could therefore greatly
increase their productiveness. He was furthermore enabled to heat
his house with far less attention to this particular item than ever
before, and this left him freer to pay more attention to other phases
of the work.

Although water had been used in heating buildings for many years
prior to this time, its application to greenhouses was limited. The
systems first in use here were borrowed mainly from England, and
were expensive, owing to the fact that both the boilers and the pipes
were made of copper. Americans, however, soon commenced to
improve the systems and to put forth efforts which would bring them
into greater harmony with the conditions existing in this country.
One of the pioneers in this work was Mr. Thomas Hogg,-of New York,
who devised a system which represents the important principles in
use to-day (fig. 28). Mr. Hogg made the heater in such a way that
the fire was completely surrounded by water, the latter circulating
through the boiler and thence through cast-iron pipes to an expansion
tank, and thence back to the boiler. The part of the boiler econtain-
ing the water was a wooden vessel, and inside of this was placed an
iren shell containing a grate, in which the fire was made. Fuel was
added through a hole in the top of this iron shell, the shell projecting
above the water in the vessel. Soon other heaters, made on the same
plan, but more perfect, were devised, most of them consisting of tin

COMMERCIAL GROWING OF PLANTS UNDER GLASS. Wie

or copper boilers made in the shape of a double cone. The inside
cone was used as a furnace, while the space between the conés was
filed with water. Openings for outflow and inflow were arranged at
the top and bottem, in much the same way as is done at the present
time in some of the conical boilers.

The introduction of hot water marked an epoch in greenhouse work,
and for the next ten or fifteen years progress was rapid. In 1835 there
were extensive greenhouses in the vicinity of New York, Boston,
Philadelphia, and other cities, the houses of one establishment on.
Long Island aggregating over 400 feet in length. According to one
of the prominent writers of the period, there were similar establish-
ments which devoted much of their space to the growing of flowers for
winter bouquets, camellias, roses, peonies, ete., being generally used
for this purpose. Considerable attention was also given to the fore-
ing of vegetables in hotbeds, especially lettuce. In this period the
latter crop was quoted during midwinter at from 6 to 10 cents per
head, practically the same price as is received for it at the present
time. Vegetables were grown exclusively in hotbeds at that time,
lettuce, radishes, and cucumbers being the principal crops.

Fic. 28.—Hogg’s hot-water heating apparatus, 1832 (Hogg’s Magazine).

It is unnecessary to dwell at length on the changes wrought during
the period between 1840 and 1850. Suffice it to say that with the rapid
growth of the country the industry developed in a most remarkable
way. Many improvements were introduced into greenhouse construc-
tion, and these, with the introduction of new plants and the improve-
ment of others by selection and breeding, broadened the scope of the
work. It was at this time that roses began to attract general atten-
tion, and a great deal of space was devoted to their culture, espe-
cially to the hybrid perpetuals and teas. Important advances were
made in the introduction of fuchsias, gladioluses, and many other
planis of this kind. Japan lilies also began to attract attention, and
as soon asit was found that they were in a measure hardy the demand
for them rapidly increased.

An important change in the construction of greenhouses was the
abolishment of the sash roof and the substitution of the fixed roof.
The great majority of greenhouses were of sash, and a fixed roof
offered opportunities for diminishing the cost of construction and
making marked improvements in ventilation and light, as weil as in
other particulars. Bedding the glass in putty instead of placing the

580 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

putty on the outside was another innovation introduced quite gener-
ally about this time. This simple change added years to the life of
the house aad made it much better for the work in every way.

It is difficult to say when and where these improved methods of
construction were first introduced. Fixed roofs were used in England
as early as 1818, and there are descriptions of curvilinear grape houses
erected on this plan during the same year. The method of bedding»
glass in putty was certainly in use in England as early as 1838, for it
was thus described in 1843: ‘A good bed of prepared putty is laid on
the rabbet and the glass is placed upon it, * * * after while
little white paint is run, with a small brush, almost a quarter of an
inch wide, down each side of the Square of glass.”! The same writer
says that he constructed a house on this plan in 1838. The method
is described in this country in the Magazine of Horticulture for 1845.
The gardener who erected the houses for the English writer says, in
deseribing them, that the glass was not only bedded in putty, but was
butted, the edges being dipped in copal varnish to prevent leaks
between the panes.

F1g. 29.—Conservatory made of sash, style of 1858 (Hovey’s Magazine).

Much attention was attracted to these methods of construction by
the animated discussion in various magazines as to whether they were
of American or English origin. The editor of the Magazine of Horti-
culture, Mr. C. M. Hovey, stated that he had been using the system
for twelve years prior to 1850, but it is evident from his writings that
he was not aware of the publications referred to. Unquestionably, the
methods did not originate with any one man or set cf men, but were
the direct outcome of the progress of the times. Largely through the
efforts of Mr. Hovey and Mr. William Saunders, however, they were
brought into prominenee and soon came to be generally adopted.
(See fig. 29.)

‘Gardeners’ Chronicle, 1843, Vol. I, p. 53.

COMMERCIAL GROWING OF PLANTS UNDER GLASS. 581

At this time there seems to have been a marked sentiment toward
the purely architectural in greenhouse construction, and it is there-
fore not surprising to find some houses in which utility was sacrificed .
to architectural effect. Such things, however, were more common
among private individuals than in the case of commercial growers.

By 1860 commercial floriculture and the forcing of vegetables had
assumed important proportions, the latter as yet being confined almost
entirely to hotbeds. The breaking out of the civil war checked the
work, however, and but little progress was made for the next six or
eight years.

AN ERA OF PLANT GROWING.
When business had assumed something of its normal condition after

the close of the civil war there was a marked interest in plants both
for bedding and decorative purposes. Many establishments were

Fia. 30.—Basket of flowers in fashion in 1857 (Henderson’s Practical Floriculture).

therefore started for the purpose of growing such plants, and there
was a revival of interest all along the line. It was at about this
period (1865-1868), furthermore, that vegetable growing under glass
began to attract more widespread attention. Boston had long been
the center of this important industry, but, as already pointed out, it
was confined almost entirely to hotbeds and frames; Recognizing the
inadequacy of their methods, however, a few of the more progressive
growers in the vicinity of Boston took the sashes used for hotbeds and
made houses of them.

It had long been the belief among gardeners that to properly grow
lettuce it must be near the glass; hence, the first houses built for this
crop were low, flat affairs, with barely sufficient head room to permit
aman to walk erect. Another crop which had long been grown in
frames was violets, the belief being that they had to be near the glass.
The rigor of the climate made this method impracticable in many

582 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

sections, and pits or low-roofed houses made of sash came into use
about the year 1864 or 1865.

The demand for plants in preference to flowers was not lasting;
hence, we find many changes, made necessary by the advances of the
times. Retail dealers were becoming more numerous, but at this time
no one dreamed of the remarkable influence they were to have on the
future of the industry. The taste of the time in the matter of flowers
ran mostly to bouquets and set pieces of the most formal types (figs. 30
and 31). A collection of the various styles of bouquets in use in 1868
to 1870 if exhibited to-day would probably attract more attention on
account of their oddity of form and formal construction than any of
the artistic decorations now seen in our florists’ show windows. There
was a mathematical exactness about the arrangement of each row of
flowers which is seen nowhere at the present time in horticultural
work, except possibly in the ribbon
beds where foliage plants are grown.

Jamellias were the principal flow-
ers used, and what with wiring,
toothpicking, and trussing up gen-
erally the making of bouquets was
a very formal business. Notwith-
standing this fad, which of necessity
had to be eatered to by the trade,
there were- true artists who under-
Fic. 5!1—Hand bouquet in fashion in 1867 stood and appreciated the beauty of

(Henderson’s Practical Floriculture). the flowers themselves and the pos-
sibilities in arranging them more in harmony with nature’s teach-
ings. Thetrue lovers of flowers have always been the ones to improve
the public taste in the matter of arrangement, and we now find every-
where that those who sueceed best in the business are people of this
kind.

It was at this time (1866) that the first important beok on florieul-
ture! appeared, and being thoroughly practical, it awakened wide-
spread interest in the growing of plants under glass.

AWAKENING DEMAND FOR CUT FLOWERS AND WINTER VEGETABLES.

By 1870 there were several thousand commercial establishments in
the United States devoting their entire attention to the growth of
plants for decorative purposes, for bedding, and for flowers, and to the
growth of vegetables for winter use. The growing of vegetables was
as yet a comparatively small industry, embracing probably less than
one-tenth of the amount of glass devoted to plants and flowers. Thé
increased demand for flowers was marked at this time. Camellias,
tuberoses, and such flowers had seen their day, and roses, carnations,
violets, and chrysanthemums were superseding them. The rose,

1 Peter Henderson: Practical Floriculture.

COMMERCIAL GROWING OF PLANTS UNDER GLASS. 583

X
however, was the principal flower, and much attention was given to
improved forms and the methods of growing them.

With the ever-increasing demand for better stock, more improved
methods of constructing houses naturally followed. The cambersome
structures of heavy timber and small glass gave way to houses better
lighted, better heated, and better constructed in every way. Steam,
which had its advocates years before, began to attract widespread
attention in heating commercial establishments, and it was not long
before it commenced to take the place of hot water in many sections.

With the great increase in the demand for eut flowers, growers who
had been devoting their glass to miscellaneous stock made haste
to transform their establishments into veritable factories for turning
out roses and other flowers. The keenness of competition in this kind
of work quickly led to the necessity of concentrating energy upon a .*
few crops, and thus was evolved the specialist.

AN ERA OF SPECIALIZATION.

Specialization assumed considerable importance as early as 1875,
and from that date to the present time its development has been phe-
nomenal. The change from the old methods was, of course, gradual,
as has been shown, and can be brought out sharply only by a com-
parison of the work in different epochs. Roses were still the leading
crop, but carnations, violets, and chrysanthemums were coming into
prominent notice. The varieties of roses were constantly changing,
the popular demand for any one lasting scarcely more than a few sea-
sons, and the number of varieties grown commercially was greater
than at present. With the demand for long stems and the necessity
of being able to control growth at all times came the evolution of the
present methods of growing roses on shallow benches.

Between 1875 and 1880 Southern-grown vegetables began to have a
marked effect on Northern markets. In order to compete with the
Southern growers better facilities in the way of forcing houses were
necessary; hence, wide and high steam-heated houses came into use.
Most of these houses were erected in the vicinity of Boston, and were
at first of the lean-to type. They were from 20 to 25 feet wide and 10
to i2 feet high at the back, with the slope to the south side, where
there was a 5-foot wall, the upper half of which was of ventilating
sash. Many houses of this type were erected around Boston and
Providence and some were put up near New York.

Owing to the increased demand for greenhouses and the fact that
it was no longer possible for ordinary carpenters and builders to keep
pace with the times, companies were organized which devoted special
attention to greenhouse construction, some of them having been
engaged in the manufacture of boilers and other apparatus used in
connection with greenhouse work. Competition in such lines was

584 YEARBOOK OF THE. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

developed early, and in all cases this had a tendency to greatly advance
the work.

What proved to be a jateoet impetus to horticultural work was the
organization at this time of the Society of American Florists, which
held its first meeting in 1885. In looking back over the history of plant
growing under glass it is not difficult to trace the marked influence of
well-organized societies in advancing the interests of those engaged
in any line of work. In the earlier days, as already pointed out, it
was the societies near Philadelphia that gave that city preeminence
in horticultural lines, and it is surprising that there should have been
at that period, and even now, such apathy on the part of many florists
toward society work. Association is essential to the advancement of
business, and every effort put forth toward increasing membership
and keeping the members interested is so much toward increasing
trade and advancing business generally.

At the first meeting of the Society of American Florists the presi-
dent, Mr. John Thorpe, gave some authentic facts, of a statistical
nature, relating to the work of growing plants under glass. He
states that the actual number of flowers produced at this time (1885)
was almost incredible. To his personal knowledge nine growers of
roses sent to New York 4,000,000 flowers, and yet this was not 50 per
cent of the roses sent to that market alone. He estimates that the
aggregate number of roses grown around boston, Philadelphia
Cleveland, Chicago, Washington, and in all other places could not
have been less than 24,000,000. The number of carnations grown
was at least five times greater, or about 120,000,000. He estimated,
furthermore, that at least one-fourth as many roses and carnations
were grown by private establishments and represented as much value
as if they were thrown on the market. The amount of space occupied
by flowering plants and bulbs in the open air was estimated to aggre-
gate at least 12,000 acres, in addition to several thousand acres used
for seeds.

In 1885 the American Florist, a journal devoted to floriculture,
appeared, and shortly after the Florists’ Exchange, a trade paper.

in 1888 ancther innovation in greenhouse construction was Inaugu-
rated, that is, the use of iron framework. This is the latest and
unquestional phy the best form of construction, and it eame rapidly
into use. Although the first cost of construction is higher for an
iron house, its durability is so much greater that it is the cheapest in
the end.

According to Mr. W. A. Burnham, an experienced greenhouse con-
structor, the first iron greenhouse was erected in 1881, but such houses
did not begin to attract general attention on the anh of commercial
growers until 1888, as already stated. Rapid improvements had also
been made as regards the glass used, the small sizes having been
abandoned and glass 16 by 24 inches and even 16 by 30 inches being

PLaTe LI.

Yearbook U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899.

Fic. 1.—MODERN ROSE HOUSE.

Fic. 2.—RETAIL FLOWER STORE.

” i ‘i
v
ne ,
;
Py
* 1
;
MS
RS
fF
{
~
:
‘

'
>
£
a
a
:

Yearbook U.S Dept of Agriculture, 1899.

PLATE LIl.

Fic. 1.—TOMATO HOUSE.

nese a ete yt te

Fic. 2.—LETTUCE HOUSE.

e

Yearbook U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899. : PLATE LIII.

Fic. 1.—CARNATION HOUSE (INTERIOR VIEW).

Fic. 2.—CARNATION HOUSES (EXTERIOR VIEW) AND CARNATIONS IN THE FIELD.

COMMERCIAL GROWING OF PLANTS UNDER GLASS. 585

generally adopted. Allthese improvements tended to the production
of higher grades of plants and flowers by increasing the amount of light
and greatly multiplying the possibilities of the grower. (PI. LI, fig. 1.)

The growers of vegetables under glass also found it necessary to
increase the size of their houses, thus relatively cheapening them and
at the same time changing the form to better meet the requirements
suggested by experience. The plain lean-to type was in a measure
abandoned and a modified three-quarter span began to come into
general use. Houses 35 and 40 feet wide were found to have advan-
tages over narrower ones, and in many cases they were made 300 to
400 feet long. (PI. LII.)

There was a rapid inerease in the number of retail florists’ estab-
lishments, especially in cities, and many of the retailers had given up
growing flowers, having found it to their advantage to devote their
entire time to the management of retail business. The carnation
was coming into more prominent notice, and it was given a great
impetus in 1891 by the formation of the American Carnation Society,
an organization which has done much to cultivate a taste for one of
our most beautiful flowers. (PI. LIIL.)

PRESENT STATUS OF THE INDUSTRY.

The growth of the industry for the past few years has been remark-
able. As a rule, the improvements in methods of preducing and >
handling the crops have kept pace with the improvement of the crops
themselves Competition is so keen that specialization has been
earried into details which a few years ago were not thought of. In
the handling of cut flowers and plants retail dealers play an impor-
tant part. Many of these men, as already pointed out, are not pro-
ducers at all, but depend wholly on producers and wholesale dealers
for their stock. The retail steres in the large cities are models of
artistic elegance (Pl. LI, fig. 2) and do much toward developing a
taste for the highest ideals in floricultural effects; hence, it is not

urprising to find the business as a whole divided into many special
fields. Houses, frames, boilers, and other accessories are now made
by specialists, and cut flowers are grown by specialists and handled
by wholesalers and retailers who are specialists. What is true of cut
flowers is also true, with ecrtain exceptions, of both ornamental and
bedding plants.

A number of special works on floriculture and vegetable culture
have appeared, and a third journal, the Florists’ Review, is published
to meet the wants of growers, wholesalers, and retailers cf flowers and
plants.

It is a difficult matter to reach even approximate conclusions as to
the amount of capital invested in the work, the value of the prod-
ucts, ete. A careful investigation of the question has been made by
means of a special circular of inquiry, and also through representative

536 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

men in various parts of the country. More than 12,000 copies of the
circular referred to were sent out, but for one reason or another the
returns were not very satisfactory. From all the data at hand, how-
ever, we are led to believe that there are now in the United States
not less than 10,000 commercial establishments devoted to growing
plants under glass. Of this number, probably 1,000 are engaged
exclusively, or nearly so, in the forcing of winter vegetables, such as
lettuce, cucumbers, tomatoes, and some minor crops. Within 15
miles of Boston there are probably not less than 40 acres of glass,
or 1,742,400 square feet, devoted to yegetables alone. ‘Two-thirds of
this is in houses, the rest being in hotbeds and frames. Around
Providence, R. I., there are probably not less than 10 acres of glass,
while the amount devoted to vegetable growing about New York,
Chicago, and other cities will bring the total up to 100 acres, or about
4,500,000 square feet. Ineluding all equipments, such as boilers and
other accessories used in connection with the industry, this glass
represents an average value of not less than 50 cents per square foot,
or $2,250,000 in all, and this will bring to the grower 50 cents per
square foot annimayliy or $2,250,000 from the producers’ standpoint.
Nine-tenths of the products are sold at retail, either by the grower
himself, or by the retailer, who may not be a grower. The valuation
from this standpoint represents double what it is from the standpoint
of the wholesaler, or $4,500,000 for forced vegetables.

Summarizing the forcing of vegetables under glass in the United
States, therefore, we have the following

Number of square feet devoted to the industry ...___.___- 4, 500, 000
Value ofestablishiments 4. 4.0. 22: .58 soe OS 2 ee pai 000
Wholesale value of annual product _..--. -.-......_...22 52, 250, 000
Reta value of annual product... =... sae = 2 _ $4,500, 009
Number cE menventployed= see -- ps = a eee rn ee 2, 250

There are probably not less than 9,000 commercial florists’ estab-
lishments in the United States. Some of these contain areas of glass
which cover acres, while others contain only a few hundred square
feet. Taking the country as a whole, it is estimated that there is an
average of 2,500square feet of glass for each establishment, or 22,500,000
square feet in all. New York has the largest number of establish-
ments, there being not less than 1,100 or 1,200, with glass amounting
to nearly 4,500,000 square feet; ier ah 600 to 800 establish-
ments and over 4,250,000 square feet of glass, is second; while Penn-
sylvania, with 800 or 960 establishments and about 4,000,000 square
feet of glass, is third. The estimated value of the establishments in
this country, including houses, ee and all fixtures, is placed at
50 cents for each square foot of glass, or $11,250,000 in all. The
income to the producer wiil average “BO cents per square foot annually,
or $11,250,000, and double that amount when viewed from the stand-
point of the retailer. Considering the matter from the retailer’s

- COMMERCIAL GROWING OF PLANTS UNDER GLASS. 587

standpoint, therefore, the total value of the annual output is
$22,500,000, or $1 for each square foot of glass.

It is estimated that the retail value of cut flowers sold annually is
$12,500,000, the estimated apportionment of this sum being, for—

ET eee Sn i ayes oe ee ee ee $5, 000, 006
Meernaonsrse. (oe IO I eee 4, 000, 000
Ee tr ob RAS Se ee eee 750, 000
PIBURRIT OTE TIS: 8 oo er es 2 | ys Pe Si See 500, 000
Miscellaneous flowers, including lilies, ete_.___._________- ~ 1, 250, 000

Estimating the average retail value of roses, carnations, and violets
at $6, $4, and $1 per hundred, respectively, the total number of each
sold annually, based on the above values, would be, of—

eee ee eee 100, 000, 000
eeremneriiacsesee ee oo Si Le ee ee eee 100. 000, 000
OURS LES, 5 Oh ey ne EL hte Be Fes ate . 75,000, 000

CODES 2 2 ae en ee eee ete Ps 275, 000, 000

The retail value of the plants sold is placed at $10,000,000. Taking
the plant trade as a whole and the country in the aggregate, the
average-sized pot used is estimated to be 3 inches, and the average
retail price 10 cents per pot. This means that there are no less than
100,000,000 plants sold every year.

To handle this business in its entirety requires probably an aver-
age of not less than one man for every 1,500 square feet of glass, or
15,000 men in all. Fifteen hundred square feet of glass per man
may seem like a low estimate, and such is the fact when considering
commercial! establishments of any size. The larger the area of glass,
other things being equal, the more square feet one man ean handle.
Asa matter of fact,some of the large rose-growing establishments
do not use more than one man for each 10,000 square feet. Large
carnation establishments will run about the same as roses, while
violets, owing to the great amount of work involved in cleaning the
plants and picking the fiowers, average higher. It is the many thou-
sand small establishments that increase the amouni of labor required.

CONCLUDING REMARKS.

It is fitting in conclusion to call attention to some of the modern
methods of handling and disposing of the vast amount of material
produced by the establishments in question. Some references have
already been made to this matter, but they are of a general nature
only.

Many of the crops grown pass through several hands before reach-
ing theconsumer. Some of the larger establishments, especially these
devoted to vegetable growing, dispose of their products through spe-
cial agents, who receive a salary for this work, and are expected to
keep in close touch with the markets and look after every detail, so

588 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

as to obtain the highest price for the material handled. That sucha
method pays and pays well is evident from the fact that some of
these agents receive salaries exceeding any paid by ordinary business
establishments except in very special lines.

Auction sales are another important innovation which enables the
plant grower to dispose of much of his stock. Within the past few
years these sales have become quite popular, and have done much
toward broadening the opportunities for work, especially in plant
growing.

A vast amount of stock, especially cut flowers, is now handled by
wholesale commission houses, which are to be found in nearly all the
large cities. These houses have every facility for the rapid handling of
flowers, and afford to the growers an opportunity of disposing of stock
which afew years ago was not possible. Some of these wholesale
men are already finding it necessary to specialize, and for this reason
are making reputations for having on hand the best in the market in
the way of roses, violets, or whatever their specialty may be.

In addition to wholesale commission houses, there are in some larger
cities cut-flower exchanges, which handle a great deal of stock. These
exchanges are controlled and managed largely by growers themselves,
and are conducted as nearly as possible on an equitable basis. The
New York Cut Flower Exchange has been in existence for five or
six years, and its success has been quite marked. It has for its
supporters some of the best growers in the Eastern United States, and
the prices received through this cooperative plan are said to be very
satisfactory.

In close touch with the commission houses and exchanges are the
retail stores, which are by far the most important factors in connec-
tion with this business in the matter of handling and disposing of
stock. The amount of flowers and plants handled by these establish-
ments in some of the large cities is almost incredible. Undoubtedly,
the annual sales of some of the best establishments of this kind in
New York City will net fall short of three or four hundred thousand
dollars. The stores themselves are looked after with the greatest
sare, every attention being given to the satisfying of artistic desires
on the part of the customers. As already pointed out, the successful
men in this business are those having sufficient artistic ability not
only to cater to the demands of the customers, but to create new fads.
The arrangement and handling of the flowers, the boxes, ribbons,
delivery wagons, messenger boys, and every detail must be of the
most artistic kind in order to attract attention and draw trade.

it frequently happens that, owing to circumstances, quantities of
flowers are left on the hands of wholesalers, commission men, and
others. Most of this material is now disposed of to a class of men
known as street fakers, who often play an important part in relieving

COMMERCIAL GROWING OF PLANTS UNDER GLASS. 589

the pressure on an already full market. These fakers are to be
found everywhere in large cities, and, with their push carts and
other facilities for locomotion, they are doubtless able to supply a
class of trade that could not be reached in any other way.

Through the trade journals growers, wholesalers, and retailers are
kept in close touch with each other. These journals are published
weekly, and each has its staff of special correspondents, who watch
the markets and call attention to every detail worth noting. A
review of the market reports in them for the past ten years brings
out some interesting points. For instance, by averaging their weekly
quotations from January, 1890, to December, 1899, it is seen that
while there has been an enormous increase in the production of cut
flowers, prices have not decreased as much as would naturally be
expected. The following table shows the average prices received for
roses, carnations, and violets in four of the principal markets during
the period named: .

Average wholesale price per 100 of roses, carnations, and violets, from 1890 to 1899,
inclusive, in the four principal cut-flower markets.

Market. Roses.a@ ae Violets
(CUT OTE Ce, SS ee ee ae $5. 65 $1.63
Looe a Se ee ee eee 6.55 1.61
PONIES CLEC) 00 th ei Pee 6. 29 1.48
LUN UAC sage ee ee eee ge 4 32 1 |
5.70 May |

a The American Beauty rose is excluded from this estimate on account of the
high price it commands in comparison with other varieties.

It will be seen by this table that Chicago leads in the prices of
carnations and violets and that Boston stands at the head in the prices
quoted on roses. The change in prices for the past ten years is shown
in the following table, the averages being given for two periods of
five years each:

Average wholesale price per 109 of roses, carnations, and violets, in five-year periods
J A ? y ’
from 1890 to 1899, inclusive, tn the four principal cut-flower markets.

Phila-

delphia. New York.

Flowers. + Chicago. | Boston.

| Roses:
ASSO 1B94 ae Soke oe eee sees $6.77 $7.11 £6. £
1895-1899. a see- 2-2 oa 2s sees 4.52 6.00 6
Carnations: |
Tyett US Shy Nee ee ee eee 1.85 1.73 1.61 1.65
Sat SU0 Ee eee ne oe eee: 1.49
Violets:
Ube EES eae Se eee aaa 1.17
| LRG NGO hee eo Rk oo ee he 1.01

590 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The following table shows the percentage of decrease in prices dur-
ing the past five years as compared with the previous five:

Percentage of decrease in wholesale prices of roses, carnations, and violets, from
1895-1899, as compared with those received from 1890-1894.

Cc
Nawica . arna- c
Market. Roses. Pavel Violets.

Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.

Gbicago: e275 2 oe ee a ee ee 33 19 9
IB OSU OR saeco ae eee ee eee ee 16 12 20
Philadelphia s2.- occ as2 se ee ano ee eee 8 13 a22z
New Mork. .<:023 5... se ee eee 30 29 34

a Increase.

Viewing the work as a whole and considering its marvelous develop-
ment, it stands out as one of the most striking examples of the advance
of wealth and culture. The increasing love for flowers denotes a
growing refinement and a higher appreciation of all things artistie,
which promises well both for the individual and the nation.

RISE AND FUTURE OF IRRIGATION IN THE UNITED
STATES.

By ELwoop MEap,

Expert in Charge of Irrigation Investigations, Office of Experiment Stations.
REMAINS OF ANCIENT IRRIGATION WORKS.

The earliest pathway of civilization on the American continent led
along the banks of the streams. In various parts of the Southwest,
notably in the Salt River Valley of Arizona, in northern New Mexico,
and along the southern borders of Colorado and Utah are well-defined
remains of irrigation works which have outlived by many centuries
the civilization to which they belonged. In at least one instance the
bank of an ancient canal has been utilized as a part of modern works.

Riding up the valley of the Rio Grande, in the first half of the six-
teenth century, Spanish explorers found in the midst of arid sur-
roundings beds of beautiful roses, ‘‘not unlike those in the gardens
of Castile,” as they noted in their diaries. They also found Pueblo
Indians irrigating the thirsty soil, as their forefathers had done for
centuries before them and as their descendants are still doing to-day.
In this valley and along the tributary streams, and at other places in
the desert wastes of the Southwest, Spanish settlements sprung up
and maintained themselves by means of these life-giving waters. The
ditches at Lascruces, N. Mex., have an unbroken record of three
hundred years of service, the history of which is written in the banks
of the canals and in the fields irrigated. This is due to the sediment
with which the waters ofthe RioGrandeareladen. Yearafter year this
has slowly added layer on layer te the sides and bottoms of these ditches,
until from being channels cut below the surface of the soil they are
now raised 2 or 3 feet above. It is here that one can yet find agricul-
ture almost as primitive as that of the days of Pharaoh, where grain
is reaped with the sickle and thrashed by the trampling of goats.

EARLY IRRIGATION IN CALIFORNIA.

From these settlements and from the conquered cities of Mexico
adventurous missionaries pushed their way still farther westward
until they came in sight of the Pacific, teaching the Indians the crude
art of irrigation, which they had learned either in Spain or of the sim-
ple inhabitants of the interior, and making oases of bloom and fruit-
age among the hills and deserts of the coast. So came the early

591

592 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

churches and gardens of California and the first small impulse toward
the conquest of its fertile soil, which must always be gratefully asso-
ciated with the memory of the Mission fathers.

Measured by their cost or the skill required to construct them, the
small, rude furrows which watered these gardens are now of little
importance. Compared to the monumental engineering works which
have sueceeded them, they possess to-day but little interest. The best
preserved of these Mission gardens is now an insignificant feature in a
landscape which includes miles on miles of cement-lined aqueducts,
scores of pumping stations, and acres on acres of orange and lemon
orchards, cultivated with thoroughness and skill not surpassed in any
section of the Old World.or the New. It was far different at the end
of the eighteenth century, when the thirty or more of these gardens
which were seattered along the coast between the Mexican border and
San Francisco were the sole resting places of weary travelers and their
fruit and foliage the only relief insummer from the monotonous land-
scape presented by the brown and arid hills which surrounded them
on every side. They were under those conditions not only successful
centers of influence from whiéh to carry on the Christianizing of the
Indian tribes, but forces tending to break up the migratory impulse by
the establishing of homes among the early Spanish explorers.

BEGINNINGS OF MODERN IRRIGATION.

For the beginnings of Anglo-Saxon irrigation in this country we
must go to the Salt Lake Valley of Utah, where, in July, 1849, the
Mormon pioneers turned the clear waters of City Creek upon the sun-
baked and alkaline soil in order that they might plant the very last
of their stock of potatoes in the hope of bringing forth a crop to save
the little company from starvation.

Utah is interesting not merely because it is the cradle of our modern
irrigation industry, but even more so as showing how important are
organizations and public control in the diversion and use of rivers.
Throughout the pioneer period of their history the settlers of Utah
were under the direction of exceptionally able and resourceful leaders,
who were aided by the fact that their followers were knit together by
a dominating religious impulse. These leaders had the wisdom to
adapt their methods and shape their institutions to conform to the
peculiar conditions and environment of a land strange and new to
men of English speech. They found that irrigation was necessary to
their existence in the home that they had chosen, and that the irriga-
tion canal must therefore be the basis of their industrial organization,
which was largely cooperative; hence, the size of their farms, which
are less than 30 acres upon the average, the nature of their social
relations, which are close and neighborly. (Pls. LIV and LV show
some methods of irrigation and the improvement following the irriga-
tion canal.)

PLATE LIV.

Yearbook U. S. Dept of Agriculture, 1899.

Fic. 1.—THE FIRST IRRIGATION.

Fig. 2.—A LATER IRRIGATION.

PLATE LV.

Yearbook U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899.

Fic. 1.—APPEARANCE OF IRRIGATION CANAL WHEN FIRST COMPLETED.

Fic. 2.—APPEARANCE OF IRRIGATION CANAL TEN YEARS AFTER COMPLETION.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899. PLATE LVI.

Fic. 1.—ViIEW AT THE HEAD OF ONE OF THE EARLY IRRIGATION CANALS IN UTAH.

Fic. 2.—MOUNT UNION, FROM UNION PAss.

RISE AND FUTURE OF IRRIGATION. 593

That the great material results which quickly followed could have
been realized without the cohesion which came from an association
dominated by religious discipline and controlled by the superior intel-
ligence of the head of the Mormon Church, is doubtful; but that the
character of institutions in the valleys of Utah, both industrial and
social, was chiefiy due to the environments in which they were placed
is beyond dispute. Cooperation became the dominant principle sim-
ply because the settlers were in a land without capital, and it was
beyond the power of the individual to turn the mountain current from
its course and spread it upon hislands. Only the labor of many indi-
viduals, working under organization and discipline, could make the
canals or distribute the waters. A small farm unit was chosen, not
because men were less greedy for land than in all other new countries,
but because it was quickly seen that the extent of the water supply
was the measure of production, and their ability to provide this was
small. Diversified farming, which is one of the leading causes of the
remarkably even prosperity of Mormon agriculture, was resorted to
because the Territory was so far removed from other settlements that
it was compelled to become absolutely self-sustaining. The small
farm unit made near neighbors, and this advantage was still more
enhanced by assembling the farmers’ homes in convenient village
centers. One reason for adopting this plan, in the first place, was
doubtless for protection against the Indians, but it has become a per-
manent feature, which is still adhered to in making new settlements
because most satisfactory to the social instinet. (A view at the head
of one of the early irrigation canals in Utah is shown in Pl. LVI, fig. 1.)

COOPERATIVE COLONIES IN COLORADO AND CALIFORNIA,

The discovery of gold in California created the Overland Trail, which
wound its tortuous course across the hitherto trackless wastes of the
arid domain. Itsstations were usually along the banks of the streams.
In the neighborhood of these, settlers had established themselves, and
by means of simple furrows turned the waters of the streams upon the
bottom land. This was the extent of irrigation throughout the vast
region it traversed, outside of Utah, before the Union Colony at Gree-
ley, Colo., became the second historic instance of the beginnings of
the present system, and one which furnished a different standpoint
for a study of the subject.

As Utah is the result of a religious emigration, so Greeley is the
creation of the town meeting. Its founding marked the beginning of
anew and different industrial development in Colorado. before this
it was the wealth of the mines or the migratory and adventurous
experiences of the range live-stock business which had attracted set-
tlement. Greeley, on the contrary, represented an effort of home-
making people, both to enjoy landed independence and social and
intellectual privileges equal to those of the towns and cities they had.

ie A199 38

594 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

left. Among its first buildings was Colony Hall, and among its first
organizations the Lyceum, in which all the affairs of the community
were debated with a fervor and fearlessness quite worthy of Horace
Greeley’s following. Cooperation was adopted in the construction
and management of public utilities, of which the irrigation canal was
the first and most important. The wisdom and justice of making
common property of the town site, the beauty and value of which
could only be created by the enterprise and public spirit of all, was
recognized and put into practice with satisfactory results. The only
deliberate extravagance was the erection at an early day of a school
building worthy of the oldest and richest New England community.
The highest methods both of irrigation and cultivation were sought
out through numberless experiments, until Greeley and its potatoes
grew famous together. The home and civic institutions of the colony
became the pride of the State, and the hard-won success of the eom-
munity inspired numerous similar undertakings and furnished an
impulse which resulted in the reclamation and settlement of northern
Colorado. Boulder, Longmont, Loveland, and Fort Collins were the
outgrowth of success at Greeley, and each adopted many of the ideas
and tendencies of the parent colony.

Twenty years subsequent to the beginning of Utah, and contempo-
raneously with the settlement of Colorado, similar influences began
to make themselves felt in California, especially in its southern part.
Anaheim is called the mother colony. This was cooperative in its
inception, and its principal irrigation system has ever remained such.
Riverside followed a few years later and represented a higher ideal;
but the spirit of speculation in which California civilization was born
soon fastened itself upon irrigation, as it had done in the case of min-
ing, and ran a mad race through southern California. Irrigation in
this State became corporate and speculative. Where Utah and Col-
orado had depended only upon their hands and teams for the building
of irrigation works, California issued stocks and bonds, and so mort-
gaged its future. Men began to dream of a new race of millionaires,
created by making merchandise of the melting snows, by selling
‘‘ri¢hts” to the ‘‘renting” of water, and collecting annual toll from
a new class of society, to be known as ‘‘ water tenants.”

CORPORATE CANAL BUILDING.

The investment of corporate capital in canals to distribute and
control water used in irrigation began in California, but spread like
a contagion throughout the West. For a quarter of a century it has
been the leading factor in promoting agricultural growth of the west-
ern two-fifths of the United States. It has been the agency through
which many millions of dollars have been raised and expended,
hundreds of miles of canals econstrueted, and hundreds of thousands
of acres of land reclaimed. It has built the largest overfall dam ever

Yearbook U S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899 PLATE LVII.

Fic. 1.—CANAL Waste GATE CLOSED.

Fic. 2.—CANAL WASTE GATE OPEN.

RISE AND FUTURE OF IRRIGATION. 5a

placed in a large river. It has been the chief agency in replacing
temporary wooden struetures by massive headworks of steel and
masonry, and has, by the employment of the highest engineering
talent available and the introduetion of better metheds of construc-
tion, promoted the economy and suecess with which water is now
distributed and used. The question which is now to be considered is
how the vast fabric created through its agency is to be directed and
controlled in order that it may not crumble of its own weight. (PI.
LVII.)

The construction of irrigation works by corporate capital came as
a natural if not inevitable evolution. There came a time in the dis-
tricts first settled when the opportunities to divert water cheaply had
largely been utilized, and when the expenditure required was beyond
the means of either the individual or the cooperation of many indi-
viduals. The preliminary outlay was too great. In older European
countries experience has shown that-no agency ean be so wisely
imtrusted with these larger expenditures as the State. Large irriga-
tion canals have been considered as being, in their nature, as much
public improvements as are works to supply water to cities and towns.”
Being for the service of the public, those in older European countries
have largely passed under public ownership.

In this country corporations have, so far as construetion is eon-
cerned, taken the place of governmental agencies in other lands.
Practically all of the larger and costlier works built within the last
two decades have been of this character. The High Line Canal, which
waters the land surrounding Denver, Colo., with its tunnel through the
mountains and its aqueduct carried along the rocky cliffs below; the
eanals of the Wyoming Development Company, with its tunnel alone
eosting more than all the Greeley Colony canals combined, and its
reservoir for storing the entire year’s discharge of the Laramie River;
the Sunnyside Canal of Washington, which when built traversed 60
miles of sagebrush solitude, are illustrations in three States of the
nature of corporate contributions to irrigation development. Evenin
Utah, cooperation was not sufficient to reclaim allof Salt Lake Val-
ley. For forty years the table-land north of the lake, one of the
largest and best tracts of irrigable land in the valley, remained unoc-
eupied, while the sons of the pioneers were compelled to seek homes
in the surrounding States. To reclaim this land, a canal had to be
earried for 3 miles along the precipitous sides of Bear River Canyon.
The flow of the river had to be controlled by an extensive dam and
the Malad River twice bridged by long and high aqueducts, and the
million-doliar outlay required was more than home seekers could
provide.

The ereation of water-right complications came with the building
of corporate canals. Previous to this it had been the rule for those
who built ditches to own the land they watered, and there was little

596 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

difference as to whether the right to water went with the ditch or with
the land, because the ownership of both was united in the same person.
But when companies were organized to distribute water for others to
irrigate with and to derive a revenue from water rentals, there arose
the question as to who was the owner of the right to the water
diverted—the company transporting the water orthe farmer who used
it. The laws of nearly all the Western States make the ditch owner
the appropriator. This has created a divided ownership of land and
water, and many canal companies have framed water-right contracts
on the theory of absolute ownership. These have proven a source of
constant irritation to farmers. Some of these contracts require the
farmer to pay, at the outset, a royalty or bonus for the ‘‘right” to
receive water, the charge for this right varying from $5 to $500 per
acre, depending on the scarcity of the water supply or the value of
land and its products. There is a very prevalent feeling among
farmers that as they are the actual ‘beneficial users” of the stream,
they should be considered the appropriators, or at least that the owner
of the land should share with the owner of the ditch in the right to
water.
OBJECTIONS TO CORPORATE CANALS.

Having dealt with the benefits derived from corporate investments
in irrigation works, it is now proper to point out their defects. The
most serious one is that nearly all large canals have been losing invest-
ments. The record of these losses is so stupendous that it is relue-
tantly referred to. A single enterprise in one of the Territories repre-
sents to its projectors a loss of over $2,000,000. The Bear River Canal,
in Utah, which cost over a million dollars, was recently sold under a
judgment for about one-tenth of this sum. A single canal in Cali-
fornia represents a loss to its builders of over $800,000. These are
not isolated cases. Similar instances might be multiplied indefi-
nitely. They are not due to bad management, to dishonesty, or faulty
engineering. Some of the worst failures in a financial sense have been
handled by the brightest and most experienced men in the West, but
they were not able to make their enterprises pay, that is, they have
not paid their builders. Nearly all have been a success so far as the
section interested was concerned, but the benefits have gone to the
publie and not to the investors. The reasons for this should be more
generally understood. The following are the most important:

(1) The necessarily long delay in securing settlers for the land to
be irrigated and in obtaining paying customers for the water to be
furnished.

(2) The large outlay and several years of unprofitable labor required,
as a rule, to put wild land in condition for cultivation. Settlers of
limited means can not meet this outlay and in addition pay water
rentals. Nearly all of the settlers on arid public land are men of

RISE AND FUTURE OF IRRIGATION. 597

limited means; hence, canal companies have at the outset to furnish
water at small cost, or furnish to a small number of consumers.

(3) The unsuitability of the public-land laws to irrigation develop-
ment.

(4) The acquirement of the lands to be reclaimed, in many instances,
before canals are completed by nonresident or speculative holders, who
_ would do nothing for their improvement.

(5) Expenses of litigation. Experience has shown that in the esti-
mates of cost of a large canal provision should be made for a large
and long-continued outlay for litigation. It begins with the adjudi-
cation of the stream and is protracted through the controversies over
water rights.

WATER-RIGHT PROBLEMS OF THE ARID REGIONS.

After this brief sketch of the beginnings of American irrigation,
some of the lessons of which will be considered at a later point in this
article, we may appropriately turn to the great arid region as a whole
and the complex legal, economic, and social problems with which its
agriculture will vex the future.

Mount Union (Pl. LVI, fig. 2) rises in solemn grandeur in the Wind
River Mountains of Wyoming south of Yellowstone Park. From this
peak flow three streams, which, with their tributaries, control the
industrial future of a region greater than any European country save
Russia, and capable of supporting a larger population than now dwells
east of the Mississippi River. These streams are the Missouri, the
Columbia, and the Colorado. The first waters the mountain valleys
on the eastern slope of the Rockies and the semiarid region of the
Great Plains; the second, the Pacific northwest, including part of
Montana, all of Idaho, and the major portions of Oregon and Wash-
ington; the third, the Southwest, embracing much of Utah and west-
ern Colorado, parts of New Mexico and California, and all of Arizona.

In this vast district, when reclaimed, homes may be made for many
millions of people. To effect this result is a task inferior to no other
in the realm of statesmanship or social economies. It is the nation’s
farm. It contains practically all that is left of the public domain,
and is the chief hope of a free home for those who dream of enjoying
landed independence, but who have but little besides industry and
self-denial with which to secure it. As it is now, this land has but
little value. In many places a township would not support a settler
and his family, and a section of land does not yield enough to keep a
light-footed and laborious sheep from starving to death. This is not
because the land lacks fertility, but because it lacks moisture. Where
rivers have been turned from their course, the products which have
resulted equal in excellence and amount those of the most favored
district of ample rainfall.

598 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

There are only 6,000,000 acres of cultivated land along the Nile. It
is all irrigated. Where there is no irrigation there is desert. This
little patch of ground has made Egypt a landmark in the world’s his-
tory. It supports over 5,000,000 people and pays the interest on a
national debt half as large as our own. The Missouri and its tribu-
taries can be made to irrigate three times the land now cultivated
along the Nile.

The essence of the problem to be met at the outset is the control
and distribution of the water supply, since not only the enduring
prosperity but the very existence of the homes created will be con-
ditioned upon the ability to use these rivers for irrigation. The
diverse interest of individuals and communities, and even of different
States, will all be dependent on streams flowing from a common
source. Toreclaim all the land possible will involve the spreading of
water over a surface as large as New England with New York added.
Standing now at the birth of things and looking down the vista of
the future, we can see in the course of these rivers the dim outline of
a mighty civilization, blest with peace and crowned with a remarkable
degree of prosperity, in case wise laws and just policies shall prevail
in the years of the immediate future while institutions are forming.
But if it be otherwise, if greed and ignorance are allowed to govern,
and we ignore the experience of older countries than ours, there will
remain to us only a gloomy forecast of legal, economic, and, possibly,
even civil strife.

THE APPEARANCE AND RESOURCES OF THE ARID REGION.

In discussing this phase of the subject, let us follow the Missouri,
Columbia, and Colorado rivers in their lonesome courses through
mountains, plain, and desert to the place where one joins the Missis-
Sippi, where another mingles its waters with the Pacific, and where a
third flows into the Gulf of California. For it is not only interesting
but important to see in the midst of what surroundings so large a
future population must dwell, and upon what other resources than
water and land it will rear its economic edifice.

The climate of the western half of the United States takes its chief
characteristic from its aridity, or dryness. The heat of its Southern
summers and the cold of its Northern winters are alike tempered and
mitigated by lack of humidity. Neither the humid heat which pros-
trates nor the humid cold whieh penetrates to the marrow is known
in the arid region. The Western mountains and valleys are a recog-
nized natural sanitarium where thousands of invalids are sent each
year by physicians to regain their health.

The dominant feature in the physical appearance of the arid regions
is its mountain topography. On every hand a rugged horizon meets
the view. From North to South, from Canada to Mexico, the Rocky
Mountain Range makes the backbone of the continent. Along the

RISE AND FUTURE OF IRRIGATION. 599

Pacific coast the Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges lift their barriers
to intercept the moisture and condense it into snow. Between these
two principal chains, with their connecting ranges and outlying spurs,
are many minor systems, so that the whole country is a succession of
mountains and valleys, of forests and deserts, of raging torrents and
sinuous rivers winding to their sinks upon the plains or making their
difficult way to the distant ocean. The far West is thus a land of the
greatest scenic beauties, and widely celebrated as such.

The cultivable lands lie in the valleys, rising with gradual slope on
either side of the streams to meet the foothills. Narrowing to the
mountains, these valleys widen as the river loses grade and approaches
the sea or its confluence with a larger stream. There are valleys
which will accommodate hundreds, others, thousands or tens of thou-
sands, and a few, like the Sacramento, in California, where millions
may dwell.

In the eastern portion of the arid region, sit in high altitudes
farther west, the land is covered with nutritious natural grasses, which
furnish ideal range for live stock. But the characteristic badge of
the region is the sagebrush. This brave plant of the desert is com-
monly held in derision by those who behold it for the first time, and
until they learn to know it as the shelter and dependence of range
live stock when the terrible blizzard sweeps from the north and as the
sure indication of good soil and the humble prophet of the field,
orchard, and garden. Thus, it happens that to the casual traveler
the appearance of the region is forbidding. It is only in localities
where the work of reclamation has been in progress long enough to
permit the growth of trees, with farms and homes, that the value of
the soil and climate can be appreciated. There are such instances in
all the seventeen States and Territories of the far West. One of the
most striking is the Salt River Valley of Arizona. Here the traveler,
after a long and tiresome journey through waste places, finds himself
suddenly confronted with homes rivaling in taste and luxury those of
Eastern States, and with orchards and gardens which resemble more
the century-old gardens of France and Italy vue a creation of the
last twenty years

Similar iene are the San Bernardino Valley of southern Cali-
fornia, the Salt Lake Valley of Utah, and the Boise Valley of Idaho.

MINERAL WEALTH OF THE ARID REGION,

Another fact which contributes to the breadth of the economic
foundation of Western agriculture is the variety and value of its min-
eral wealth. In this it is richly endowed, not only with the precious
metals, but with the baser ones used in arts and industries, and with
unusual quantities of coal, ore, and building stone, the latter of which
includes many rare and valuable kinds, such as marble, onyx, and
agate.

600 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

While the annual value of these products runs into the tens of mil-
lions of dollars, it is literally true that their development is yet in its
infaney. With the extension of railroad facilities, the improvement
and cheapening of mining processes, the extension of agriculture, and
consequent increase in the volume and decrease in the cost of the home
food supply, the gain in annual production will assume in the future
dimensions which would now be considered beyond belief.

SOURCES OF FUTURE PERMANENT PROSPERITY IN THE ARID REGION,

To the mines must be added the forests which clothe the mountain
sides, especially those of the northern part of this region. To a large
extent this is still virgin ground, where only the foot of the hunter
and explorer has trodden. It is a region unrivaled in its opportuni-
ties for the development of water power. The Shoshone Falls in Idaho
are scarcely inferior to those of Niagara. The hundreds of streams
which fall from the 10,000-foot level of the Rocky Mountain Range to
the 4,000-feot to 5,000-foot level of the plain at their base are destined
to turn more wheels of industry than have yet been harnessed west of
the Mississippi River. Back of the irrigated lands are the grazing
lands, of which there are probably not less than 400,000,000 acres.
These lands have been the dominant factor of the pioneer life of many
of the arid Commonwealths, and they are destined, under proper man-
agement, to always constitute the great nursery of cattle, sheep, and
horses. The irrigated farm has back of it the mine, the furnace,
and factory, and the civilization of Western America can not fail
to have a prosperous and varied industrial life. Here there can
be no one-sided development, no community exclusively devoted to
the production of corn, wheat, or cotton, to manufactures, or to com-
merce. The farm, the stock ranch, the lumber camp, the mine, the
factory, and the store are destined to grow up and flourish side by
side, each drawing support from and furnishing sustenance to the

others.
PRESENT AND FUTURE OF IRRIGATION.

The present situation, the results secured, and the tasks ahead in
securing a wise disposal of the arid lands and in preventing the rivers
from becoming an instrument of monopoly and extortion, will now be
considered.

We are met at the outset by an entire absence of definite informa-
tion. We do not know, nor is there any ready means of determining,
how many irrigation works have been built. In many States no pro-
vision is made for their record. In only two States is this record
even measurably accurate or complete. There may be 75,000 com-
pleted ditches, or there may be double the number, but either as to
their number or as to the number of acres of land reclaimed thereby
there is only surmise and conjecture. This, however, is known, that’

RISE AND FUTURE OF IRRIGATION. 601

the highest priced and most productive farm lands on this continent
are in the arid region; that the largest yield of nearly every staple
erop has been obtained by the aid of irrigation; that not only has the
growth of agriculture furnished a market for the factories of the
East and supported the railroads which unite the two extremes of
the country, but it is the chief resource of nearly every one of the
arid States. Colorado leads all the States of the Union in her output
of precious metals, but the value of the product of her farms is nearly
double that of her mines.

In California it is the grain fields and orange orchards which sup-
port the majority of her industrial population and furnish the basis
for her future material growth and prosperity. The beginnings of
Utah were wholly agricultural, and without the irrigated farms the
cities of that interior Commonwealth would as yet be only a dream.
In a less striking degree the same condition prevails in Idaho, Wyo-
ming, Montana, New Mexico, and Arizona. This is the situation,
while irrigation is as yet in its infancy. The reclaimed areas, though
making a large aggregate, look very insignificant relatively to the rest
of the country when delineated upon a map of the arid region. The
possibilities of reclamation have but begun to be realized, yet when
every available drop of water shall have been applied to the soil the
irrigated lands will constitute a comparatively small proportion of the
entire country. The possibilities of irrigation are, however, to be
measured not alone by the possible extent of the agricultural industry,
put by the development of other resources which it will make feasible.
The best and largest use of the grazing lands, the utilization of the
forests, the development of mines and quarries, and the maintenance
of railroads and commerce in the western half of the United States,
all hinge upon the control and use of streams ia connection with the
fundamental industry of agriculture. Since irrigation is essential to
agriculture in the arid States, the extent and character of its develop-
ment must surely measure the superstructure to be built upon that
foundation.

GROWTH OF IRRIGATION AND NEED OF BETTER LAWS.

Some of the beginnings of irrigation have been referred to. The
details of its growth can not be dealt with. It has been erude in
many ways. ‘There has been no attempt to provide for the diversion
of rivers according to some prearranged plan having for its object the
selection of the best land and the largest use of the water supply.
Instead, each appropriator of water has consulted simply his ability
and inclination in the location of his head gate. There has been an.
almost complete failure to realize that the time was coming when on
many streams the demand would exceed the supply, and that a stable
water right would be as important as a valid land title. The laws
passed for recording claims are, as a rule, so loosely drawn and

602 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

imperfect that they would be a source of amusement if the evil results
of their operation were not so disastrous. More than half of the State
laws provide for inaugurating a title to water by posting a notice on
the banks of the stream. They have not aided the proposed appro-
priator, because the right to post other appropriations was unre-
stricted. They are of no use as a warning to others, because not one
in ten thousand of the parties concerned ever see them. A search
for these notices along the cottonwood borders of the Missouri and its
tributaries would be the unending labor of a lifetime; hence, the
requirement was and is ignored; itis another of the many influences
tending to unsettle irrigators’ just rights and bringing the attempts to -
frame laws for their protection into disrepute.

Looking over the field at the close of the century, we find that the
United States stands practically alone among irrigation countries in
having left all the work of reclamation to the unaided efforts of
private capital, and in the prodigality of the surrender of public con-
trol of streams. In one respect the policy pursued has been sue-
cessful. It has resulted in an enormous investment (not less than
$100,000,000, and some estimates make it twice that sum) and the crea-
tion of taxable and productive wealth of many times the amount
invested. We have now about reached the limit of this sort of growth.
There will be few large private investments in canals hereafter until
we have better and more liberal irrigation laws. Entrance on the
coming century is confronted by larger problems; the storage of flood
waters, the interstate division of streams, and the inauguration of an
adequate system of public control, which will insure to the humblest
handler of a shovel his share of the snows falling on mountains above
his farm, no matter how far removed therefrom he may be.

NEED OF REFORM IN THE MANAGEMENT OF ARID PUBLIC LAND,

Along with better water laws should come a corresponding reform
in the management of the remaining arid public land. At the outset
of its settlement these problems were entirely new to English-speaking
men.

Early settlers came from the humid portions of Europe and settled
along the humid coast line of the Atlantic and, later, in the humid
valleys of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. The land laws which they
applied to the public domain of their day produced excellent results,
making homes for millions of people and effecting a wonderful devel-
opment of material resources.

When settlement had proceeded under these laws to the Missouri
River and beyond, it was not strange that their principles were
extended to the remaining public domain, for the vast majority of the
American people had no conception whatever of the conditions exist-
ing in the far West. Not only the national lawmakers, drawn mostly
from regions of abundant rainfall, but the legislators in the arid States

RISE AND FUTURE OF IRRIGATION. 603

themselves were blind to the necessities of the situation. The value
of gold they knew, but the value of that other element of national
wealth, which will continue to sustain vast populations long after the
last ounce of gold shall have been taken from the mine, they did not
even dimly appreciate. So, to a large extent, they merely reenacted
upon their statute books the common law of rainy and foggy England.

HOMESTEAD LAW NOT ADAPTED TO THE ARID REGION.

The homestead law may have served a useful, even a beneficent,
purpose throughout large sections of the Republic, but itis not adapted
to the settlement of a region where practically nothing can be grown
except by artificial application of water. This fact has been learned
at last through many years of hardship and disappointment, at the
cost of many million dollars. One of the most pitiful pages in the
history of the West is that which records the story of the settlement
of the semiarid belt lying between the ninety-seventh meridian and
the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. This is a territory 500 miles
wide, extending from Canada to Mexico, including the western por-
tions of the two Dakotas, Nebraska, Kansas, and Texas, and also
eastern Colorado. In the absence of scientific demonstration to the
contrary, tens of thousands of people rushed into this territory under
the delusion that it was a land of reliable rainfall, or would soon
become such as the result of settlement and cultivation.

New settlements sprung up in every direction, and important towns
arose almost in a night. Men hastened from all parts of the country
to claim their rights under the homestead law. Remembering the
prosperity which similar armies of settlers had wrung from the virgin
soil of the West, unlimited capital lent willing support to this new
outward surge of growing population. The capital was largely lost,
but the pathetic side of the picture was seen in the bitter disappoint-
ment of the settlers themselves. Many of them wasted the most use-
ful and pregnant years of their lives in their brave persistence in the
belief that the climate would change as the land came under cultiva-
tion, and that there was some magic potency in the homestead law to
overcome the processes of nature. Itis recognized at last that where
water sufficient for purposes of irrigation can not be had the land is
useful only for grazing. It isa mistake for the Government to offer
to citizens land of that character on condition that they will settle
upon 160 acres of it and make a living. There can be but one of two
results—either the settler must fail or he must become practically the
tenant of the person or corporation furnishing water for his dry land.

OPERATIONS OF THE DESERT-LAND LAW.

The desert-land law was devised to promote the investment of cap-
ital rather than to encourage settlement. For this reason it did not
require actual residence on the land reclaimed. Originally, whoever

604 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

would irrigate 640 acres of land was given title thereto on the pay-
ment of the Government’s price. Later thisacreage has been reduced
to one-half the original area. The operation of this law has been
both useful and injurious. To give so large an area to men of small
means is a mistake, because it is more than is needed to make a home
and more than they can cultivate. It is not suited to corporate enter-
prise, or to reclaim large valleys which can be watered from a single
canal, because it makes no provision for concerted or effective man-
agement of the entire area. Its field of effective usefulness has
therefore been limited. While it has added somewhat to the taxable
and productive wealth of Western States, it has also operated to trans-
fer to single owners miles of water fronts which without this law
would have been divided up into smaller farms with better social and

agricultural conditions.
THE CAREY ACT.

What is popularly known as the Carey Act, from the name of its
author, Senator Carey, gives to each State the right to segregate
1,000,000 acres of land and to control both its reclamation and dis-
posal tosettlers. The limitations of the operations of this act confine
its benefits simply to the opportunity to secure better management
during the time of canal building and settlement. Five States have
accepted the trust, but in only one, Wyoming, have any canals been
completed. These canals have been built by companies operating
under a contract with the State. In Montana it is proposed to con-
struct State canals from money obtained by selling bonds secured by
the land to be irrigated. Enough progress has not as yet been made
to determine whether or not this innovation on past irrigation meth-
ods is to meet with success; if it does, the third step in the evolution
of canal building, which is the construction of State works, will haye
been inaugurated.

INFLUENCE OF THE RANGE INDUSTRIES,

To a certain extent there is an inevitable conflict. between those
who wish to use the public domain for homes and those who prefer to
have it reserved for pasture, and, again, between those who wish to
use the pasture for cattle and those who want it for sheep.

The range industries obtained possession of the field long before
the higher utility of the lands for irrigation and settlement was gen-
erally appreciated. When irrigators did come, they worked more or
less injury to the range stockmen, for each settler occupied a part of
the water front and added to the number desiring to use the free
erazing land. It is for the interest of the range-stock industry that
access to streams be made as free as possible and that nothing be
done to reduce their volume or prevent the overflow of natural mead-
ows, while the higher interest of irrigation and settlement demands
that the stream be diverted and its waters distributed over the widest

RISE AND FUTURE OF IRRIGATION. 605

possible area. The conflict is between the wasteful use of water on
the one hand and its economical use on the other, and, in a sense,
between a primitive and a more highly organized civilization.

This statement should not be construed as denying that the range-
stock industry is of vast importance nor that it will continue to be a
great source of wealth to the country. Throughout the West there
are very large areas suited to nothing else. The point is that the
higher interest of society lies in the most economical and profitable
use of water to the end that homes may be made for the largest pos-
sible number. Neither water nor land laws have favored this result,
but precisely the contrary. The object of reform should be to pre-
serve and develop all interests, to adapt laws and institutions to the
petuliar conditions and environment of the region. This can be
done with far greater security to the pastoral industries than they
enjoy under the present system, and at the same time land and water
available for making homes and farms utilized to the best advantage.

UNCERTAINTY AS TO STATE AND FEDERAL JURISDICTION.

The pioneers of irrigation are menaced by the uncertainty which
exists as to the limits of State and federal jurisdiction in the control
of streams. It has heretofore been assumed that the authority of
each State within its borders was unquestioned, and two of the States
contain constitutional provisions asserting absolute ownership and
control of all the waters within their bounds. A recent decision of
the United States circuit court in Montana holds this view to be erro-
neous, and that the snows which fall on public land and the streams
which cross it are both under the control of Congress. A similar
complication has arisen in litigation over areservoir on the Rio Grande,
in which both interstate and international rights are involved. In
this case the United States Supreme Court has asserted the right of
the General Government to protect the interests of navigation regard-
less of State statutes respecting the use of water in irrigation. The
assertion of the paramount importance of riparian rights and of the
protection of navigation, regardless of the use of water in irrigation,
will add greatly to the uncertainty regarding water rights from the
tributaries of the Missouri or any other of the rivers navigable in any
portion of their course. The reclamation of the arid region involves
the absorption of streams, and it can not be settled too soon whether
or not such absorption is to be permitted.

COMPLICATIONS FROM LACK OF UNIFORM WATER LAWS.

On the other hand, serious complications have arisen from the absence
of any general or national regulations governing the division of water
across State lines. There are many instances where one stream is a
common source of supply to irrigators in two or more States. It has
sometimes happened that the perennial flow of such streams has been

606 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

first appropriated in a State along its lower course and utilized ata
later period by other States near its source. Neither of the States
concerned possesses power to remedy the evil, and each makes claim
to all the water flowing upon its soil.

The conditions which govern irrigation throughout much of the
arid region are practically uniform, and where this is true there is no
question that a uniform irrigation law would operate with equal jus-
tice and efficiency; but, owing to the absence of such general super-
vision, water rights in States adjacent to each other are often as
different in character as if these Commonwealths were on opposite
sides of the globe. Failure to correct or regard these complications
aggravates the evils to which they give rise and renders the ultimate

,adoption of a uniform system of laws far more difficult. There is but
one thing the States have shared in common, and that: is endless liti-
gation over water rights. There is no uniformity of laws or decisions.
The same issues are tried over and over again, and the precedent
established in one case is overturned in another. The construction
of costly works, and even the long use of water, has not always been
sufficient to secure parties in their rights. Where rights have been
successfully maintained, it has been done only at the price of constant
lawsuits.

Usually the amount of water claimed is many times in excess of
what the projected canal can utilize; frequently in excess of the entire
volume of water in the stream. There is no one to protect the public
interest as to the eharacter of works to be built or to say whether
they conform to good public peliey. The courts confirm these loose
appropriations, and the foundation for endless litigation is thus
securely laid. The question soon arises as to who first appropriated .
the waters which do not suffice for all. There is then nothing to fall
back upon except the faulty filings which were originally posted on
the banks of the stream and the testimony of interested citizens. It
frequently happens that old claims for very large amounts of water
have not been utilized to their full extent until later comers have
appropriated the unused surplus. The old claim is then enforeed at
the expense of the later one. The result is confusion, loss, and bit-
terness among neighbors.

The difficuity lies, first of all, in popular misconception regarding
the nature of water rights and of property in water. This isenhanced
by lack of scientific information concerning the character and extent
of water supplies and of the amount required for beneficial irrigation.
Still further, there is a great need for a different system of appropri-
ating waters and of distributing a common supply among consumers.
These delicate and complex issues can not be fought out among pri-
vate parties without producing a condition of virtual anarchy, in which
the weak must go down and the strong survive, regardless of their
merits or necessities. The failure of the irrigation industry from the

RISE AND FUTURE OF IRRIGATION. 607

financial standpoint is almost wholly due to the illogical land and
water laws which have been described.

METHODS AND MEASURES NEEDED TO DEVELOP THE ARID REGION.

It is well to consider now by what methods and by what measures
of legislation the splendid resources of the arid region may be opened
to development.

The first step is to determine the proper control and just distribu-
tion of the water supply. The problem varies with different portions
of the arid region. In the South, streams are generally torrential in
character, furnishing the bulk of their waters in heavy floods, which
must be stored in the many natural sites available in the mountains
at a distance from the places where the water is to be applied to the
soil. In the North, on the other hand, the problem is not that of
storage, but of the diversion of great rivers like the Yellowstone, the
Snake, the Columbia, and the Missouri. Here works adequate to the
reclamation of the areas of arid land which remain can only be built
at great cost, rivaling those along the Ganges and the Nile.

Before such development proceeds further it is desirable that some
common agreement should be reached concerning the true character
of water rights. The idea of private ownership in water apart from
the land can not prevail without creating institutions essentially feudal
in character. A water lord is even more undesirable than a landlord
as the dominant element in society. It is indisputable, as has already
been said, that the man who owns the water practically owns the land.
A proposition which contemplates the turning over of all the land toa
private monopoly, thus making a tenantry of those who may have their
homes upon it in the future, could not hope to command popular sup-
port. But the idea of a private ownership of water, amounting toa
virtual monopoly of this vital element, has been permitted to grow
up in the West. Toa certain extent it has obtained recognition in
legislation and protection in judicial decrees and decisions. In other
countries the doctrine has largely disappeared, and in our country it
should give place to a more enlightened conception, and to the only
principle that can safely be adopted as the foundation of the agricul-
tural industry in the West.

The right to water which should be recognized in an arid land is the
right of use, and even this must be restricted to beneficial and eco-
nomical use in order that the water supply may serve the needs of the
largest possible number. Ownership of water should be vested, not
in companies or individuals, but in the land itself. When this prin-
ciple is adopted, the control of the water is divided precisely like the
land, among a multitude of proprietors. Reservoirs and canals are
then like the streets of the town, serving a public purpose and per-
mitting ready access to private property on every hand. Water
monopoly is impossible under this method, and no other abuse is

608 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

encouraged by it. Years of painful experience have: abundantly
proven that peaceful and orderly development can not be realized
except as water and land are forever united in one ewnership and
canals treated merely as public or semipublic utilities rather than as
a means of fastening a monopoly upon the community. In Wyoming
and Nebraska the true principle has already been adopted by the
State boards of control and put into practice with the best results. If
it can be maintained and speedily extended to the other States, as it
surely must be in time, it would mark an economic reform of the
highest significance in the life of the West.

APPROPRIATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE WATER SUPPLY.

Next in importance to the correct solution of the question of water
ownership are the great problems of appropriation and of distribu-
tion. As soon as possible all ditches used in irrigation should be
earefully measured by some public authority and the results of this
measurement be given the widest publicity, in order that irrigators
may know approximately how much is taken and how much remains
to be taken by new canals. The need of this information is so obvious
that it will perhaps be difficult for readers unfamiliar with the sub-
ject to eredit the assertion that in all but four of the Western States
the matter has been wholly neglected. This fact is largely respon-
sible for the disheartening litigation which prevails so widely.

It is of almost equal importance to have a scientific determination
of the practical duty of water, showing the amount required for differ-
ent soils and crops. Still further, there must be some form of publie
control in the distribution of water. Trouble always results when
this is left to rival users to determine how much they need, espe-
cially in years of partial drought, when the supply may be insufficient
for all, and it is consequently necessary to recognize appropriations
in the order of their priority.

(Check gates on main canal and a measuring weir are shown in
Pl. LVIII.)

PUBLIC SUPERVISION AND CONTROL OF IRRIGATION,

The entire discussion leads up to one inevitable conclusion: This is
that irrigation, over and above all other industries, is a matter demand-
ing public supervision and control. Every drop of water entering the
head gate, and every drop escaping at the end of the canal, is a matter
of public concern. The public must determine, through constitutions
and statutes, the nature of water ownership. The public must estab-
lish means for the measurement of streams and for ascertaining how
much water may be taken for each acre of land under the principle
of beneficial use. The public must see that justice is done in the
distribution of water among those who have properly established
their rightful claims to it. We have thoroughly tried the method of

Yearbook U S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899. PLaTe LVIII.

Fic. 1.—A CHECK AND LATERAL GATE ON MAIN CANAL.

Fic. 2.—A CIPPOLETTI MEASURING WEIR.

j
:

— se

RISE AND FUTURE OF IRRIGATION. 609

leaving all this to private initiative and management, and, along with
magnificent material progress, we have reaped a large crop of deplor-
able financial results.

While much must be left to the action of States and communities,

‘there is still a wide field for national effort. Only the nation can leg-

islate as to the public lands and reform the abuses which have been
referred to in connection with the present system of land laws. There
is a strong popular demand in the West for legislation providing pub-
lic aid in the construction of works of too great magnitude and cost
for private enterprise and a growing belief that one of two things

- should be done: Either the arid States should be placed in a position

to extend this aid, or the General Government should extend the work
it is now doing in the reclamation of certain Indian reservations to
the reclamation of the unoccupied public lands. One policy much
discussed and widely favored is legislation which will permit of the
leasing of the public grazing lands for a-term of years at a small
annual rental, the proceeds to be given to the several arid States and
applied by them to irrigation development. If this is carried out, the
settlers owning the contiguous irrigated land should be favored; the
object being to unite with the lands reclaimed a certain portion of
the public pasture.

The National Government alone can make the best and broadest
study of the various economic questions related to the development
of agriculture on arid lands. This includes not only the measure-
ment of streams and survey of reservoir sites, but also a consideration
of practical methods of applying water to the soil and of social and
industrial institutions adapted to the environment of the arid region.
The nation alone can deal with the conflicting rights in interstate and
international streams and with the construction of great reservoirs at
their head waters, with a view to benefiting the several States lying
along their course. The National Government is already active along
all these lines, and the field for the expansion of its efforts is wide
and inviting.

INFLUENCE OF IRRIGATION UPON PEOPLE AND COUNTRY.

While a description of existing conditions in the far West neces-
sarily incindes references to many evils and disappointments, there is
a brighter side to the picture, and the future is luminous with new
hopes for humanity. A vast population will make its homes in val-
leys now vacant and voiceless, yet potentially the best part of our
national heritage. They will create institutions which will realize
higher ideals of society than the world has yet seen. Irrigation is
much more than an affair of ditches and acres. It not only makes
civilization possible where men could not live without it, but it shapes
that civilization after its own peculiar design. Its underlying influ-
ence is that which makes for democracy and individual independence.

1 A 99——39

610 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
IRRIGATION PRODUCTIVE OF SMALL PROPRIETORS.

Where land can only be cultivated by means of the artificial appli-
tion of water, and where that water is not under speculative control,
it is owned in small holdings. This is so because irrigation intensi-
fies the product of the land and so demands much labor. It isa kind
of labor which can not profitably be left to hired hands. The result
is a multitude of small proprietors working for themselves. This
fact is strikingly illustrated in southern California. Here the farms
are small and almost exclusively occupied by their owners. But the
great wheat ranches in other parts of the State, notably in the Sacra-
mento Valley, depend chiefly upon hired laborers, who make no
homes of theirown. The Sacramento Valley has less population now
than it had twenty-five years ago. Of the increase of the rural pop-
ulation of the State between 1880 and 1890, 77 per cent went to the
irrigated counties, and largely consisted of families who bought small
farms and proceeded to do their own work. The influence of a great
mass of Small proprietors tilling their own land can not fail to have a
very marked effect upon the character of the institutions.

DIVERSIFIED FARMING A FEATURE OF IRRIGATION,

Irrigation lends itself naturally to diversified farming and tends to
make population self-sufficient within itself. Although in certain
localities, especially those where the climate is favorable to raisins
and oranges, the contrary has sometimes been true, the tendency of
irrigation as a whole has been to discourage the production of single
crops and make families independent by producing the variety of
things they consume. This tendency is steadily gaining ground.
The diversified farming which irrigation both permits and encourages
will be an important element in contributing to the independence of
the people who shall inhabit the arid region of the future.

IRRIGATION AS A TRAINING IN SELF-GOVERNMENT.

Another interesting feature of irrigation is the training it gives in
self-government. A farmer under irrigation can not remain ignorant
and indifferent of public questions. He has to consider his interest
in the river which feeds his canal and the nature of his relation te
other users along its course. Itisa training school in self-government
and gives the first impetus to civilization in rainless regions. The
capacity of the American farmer has already been demonstrated. He
is the author of the best of our irrigation laws. Colorado was the
first State to enact a law providing for the public control of streams
and some sort of systematic procedure for the establishment of rights,
but the credit of that is not due to her statesmen, but to the diseus-
sions of the Greeley Lyceum and the publie spirit and independence of
the irrigators under the Colony Canal. Opposed by the conservatism

RISE AND FUTURE OF IRRIGATION. 611

of the legal profession and the prejudices of those not practically
familiar with the subject, they had a long and doubtful struggle to
secure the adoption of a statute which for a time made the State the
lawgiver of the arid region.

In Utah the practices of water users are a hundred years in advance
of the State laws. This is due to the fact that irrigators recognize
insensibly the community nature of their interest in the streams.
The old feudal idea of private ownership in water has never made an
irrigated district prosperous, and it never will.

IRRIGATION AND~ COOPERATION,

Another feature is the tendency toward cooperation. Under the
Wyoming law accepting the Carey grant this cooperation is made
obligatory. Every settler under a canal becomes a shareholder
therein. Not only does the right to water attach to the land, but a
share in the canal sufficient to carry the water also goes with it. In
fact, the need of watering many farms from a common source and of
organizing a community under rules and discipline for the distribu-
tion of the supply make a nursery of cooperation. Its most conspic-
nous manifestation is in the widespread and successful fruit exchanges
of California. There are many instances of smaller and more local
organizations of a cooperative industrial character, and they are mul-
tiplying rapidly. They seem likely to deal with yet larger affairs in
the future as communities gain in age, numbers, and wealth.

EFFECT OF IRRIGATION ON SOCIAL LIFE,

Heretofore one of the evils of the irrigated home has been its isola-
tion. The valleys of many streams are narrow. The broad areas
which lie between these valleys are the home of cattle and sheep, but
not of men. The Anglo-Saxon thirst for land, and the opportunity
which the desert-land act gave to gratify it, resulted at first in a wide
separation between homes, and in a loss to the pioneer of the advan-
tages of schools, churches, and social life. Under the larger and
later canals the tendency has been in the other direction. The Euro-
pean custom of making homes in village centers has been adopted in
parts of Utah, Wyoming, Idaho, and California, and steadily gains
in public favor. Where farmers live in villages, their families enjoy
ready access to schools, churches, libraries, and entertainments. The
agricultural society of the future in the Western valleys will realize a
happy combination of town and country life—the independence which
springs from the proprietorship of the soil and the satisfaction of the
social instinct which comes only with community association. Such
conditions are favorable to the growth of the best forms of civiliza-
tion and the noblest institutions. This is the hope which lies fallow
in the arid valleys of the West. Its realization is well worth the

612 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

struggle which is impending for the reform of our land and water
laws, and which will impose high demands upon our statesmanship
and call for the exercise of the best order of patriotism.

THE COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE OF IRRIGATION.

The commercial importanee of the development of irrigation re-
sources is being realized in the West at the present time as never
before. Especially in California there is a new awakening, and an
effort on the part of the best elements of citizenship to remove the
obstacles which have formerly hampered both publie and private
enterprise. The East, as a whole, is beginning to realize the great part
which the West is to have in the events of the twentieth century.
World-wide forces are working to hasten the day of its complete
development and of the utilization of all its rich resources. The
Orient is awake and offering its markets to the trade of the Pacifie
coast. With the development of this trade there will come an impulse
for the completion of the material conquest of arid America by the
enlistment of public as well as private means in the storage and
diversion of its streams for the irrigation of its hundred million acres
of irrigable soil; the harnessing of its water powers to mill and fae-
tory wheels; the crowding of its pastures with new millions of live
stock; the opening up of its mines and quarries; the conversion of
its forests into human habitations; the coming of a vast population,
and the growth of institutions worthy of the time and the place.

SUCCULENT FORAGE FOR THE FARM AND DAIRY.

By THomas A. WILLIAMS,
Assistant Agrostologist.

EARLY FORAGE CONDITIONS.

In the early years of the settlement of this country the farmers
found no difficulty in securing plenty of forage from the native
grasses for the few live stock they possessed. The supply was abun-
dant for their every need (in fact, seemed unlimited), and little
thought was given to the cultivation of crops designed especially for
forage purposes. If anything was needed in addition to the native
grasses, the lack was more than supplied by the waste or roughage
from the various garden and field crops, such as beans, peas, turnips,
and cabbage.

As the country became more thickly populated, and a greater pro-
portion of the land was brought under cultivation, the native forage
‘supply was reduced. Furthermore, with the advance of agricultural
industries came better methods of caring for stock, and gradually it
became necessary to devote some of the cultivated land to the pro-
duction of forage crops. At first these crops were grown for pastur-
age or for hay, but with the development of the dairying industry
came the demand for succulent feed to keep up the flow of milk in
cows during the season of drought in summer and autuiin, when
pasturage became reduced, and during the winter, when the fresh
pasturage was cut off entirely. The supplying of succulent feed for
these two seasons presented very different problems.

On the one hand, it was necessary to provide crops on the approach
of the droughty season and to arrange for a succession of these while
it lasted, the feeding being done from the field or by pasturing off
directly; on the other hand, it was not only necessary to grow and
harvest the supply of forage for winter, but it must be preserved in
such a manner as to be ready for use at the propertime. In the South
the problem was less difficult than in the North, since, owing to the
climatic conditions, it was possible to secure fresh feed for at least a
large portion of the late fall and winter by the use of winter rye, oats,
and other so-called winter annuals. Naturally, root crops were among
the earliest grown for the purpose of supplying succulent feed for the
fall and winter, since they were already extensively grown for this
purpose in the Old World. Although these crops have received con-
siderable attention from farmers in different parts of the country,

613

614 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

oo i

and their cultivation for forage has been at times quite general in cer-
tain sections, they have never assumed the place in American agri-
culture that they occupy in England and other parts of Europe, and
it is doubtful if they ever will do so. The reason for this may be
found in part in the different conditions under which agriculture hag
developed in this country, but principally in the fact that corn, one
of our standard crops, so readily takes the place of root crops in the
farm rotations and is adaptable to use in so many ways as a food for
stock. Then, too, the advent of the silo gave the American farmer
a means of preserving this crop for an indefinite period in a most sat-
isfactory condition for feeding to all kinds of live stock.

PRESENT METHODS OF PRODUCING SUCCULENT FORAGE.

In the United States succulent food is in the main at the present
time provided by means of soiling crops, temporary or annual pas-
tures, and silage.

The crops that are most valuable for the production of succulent
forage comprise coarse, quick-growing plants that draw their nour-
ishment largely from the atmosphere and produce relatively large
amounts of foliage. They are much less exhausting to the soil than
grain and other so-called money crops, and include most of the best
soil renovators.

THE PLACE OF SUCCULENT FORAGE CROPS ON THE FARM.

Just as it must be generally admitted that a system of diversified
farming is preferable for the country at large, so it must be agreed
that succulent forage crops may be made to form a very important
part in the rotations to be followed in practicing such a system.
These crops can usually be grown in such a manner as not only not
to interfere in any way with the regular yields of grain or other pri-
mary crops, but even to the great advantage of the latter on account
of the direct beneficial effect which they may exert on the fertility of
the soil. This is especially true of such leguminous crops as vetches,
cowpeas, and crimson clover.

A strong point in the favor of growing crops for succulent forage
lies in the fact that an increased number of stock may be maintained
on a given amount of land and that the dairy products may be very
materially augmented, both on account of the possibility of handling
relatively larger numbers of milch cows and also of the greater returns
that may be secured from each animal. This is of special significance
in the older, more thickly settled portions of the country, as is also
the fact that the keeping of this increased number of stock insures
more manure for the land. This last is in itself an item of great
importance in the maintenance of the fertility of the farm, and, taken
in connection with the direct beneficial effects upon the soil of many

SUCCULENT FORAGE FOR THE FARM AND DAIRY, 615

of the crops grown for soiling and ensiling, is a most substantial
argument in favor of giving these crops a regular place in plans of
crop rotations.

Another point in favor of the growing of these supplementary for-
age crops is the fact that the general health of farm stock may be
kept in better condition, especially in winter, by the judicious use of
succulent forage, which serves as an appetizer and promotes the
digestion generally.

GROWTH OF THE PRACTICE OF SOILING IN THE UNITED STATES.

In 1821 Thomas Massey, of Delaware, advocated soiling for the
dairy, and urged the great value of corn as a forage crop.’ In the
same year a system of soiling was recommended by a prominent agri-
eulturist, with the following crops in the order mentioned: (1) Grass,
including clover; (2) oats; (3) indian corn; (4) cabbage, with the
addition of turnip tops and trimmings from other root crops.” Other
writers of this period speak of the value of corn for this purpose, and
from the time that the Government first began to issue reports on the
various crops grown in this country it has been regarded as the most
important fodder crop. The reports for the early forties contain
many references to its use for soiling as well as for cured fodder.
Soiling seems to have been quite general about this time in the East-
ern and Southern States, but in the then Western States of Ohio,
Indiana, and Michigan it was said that ‘‘the pastures were too exten-
sive for much to be done in soiling,” although ‘‘ corn was regarded as
the best crop for this purpose.” In Massachusetts and New York,
where the dairying industry was largely followed, soiling was quite
favorably regarded and its practice urged by the more advanced
dairymen. In addition to corn, other crops, such as peas and oats,
were grown, especially in Maine, where, according to the reports for
the late forties and early fifties, the production of live stock and for-
age crops were matters of great commercial importance.

There has been but very little complete soiling practiced in the
United States. Occasionally, where the acreage of land is limited, as
may be the case in the immediate vicinity of the larger cities and
towns, it has been found expedient to keep the animals confined in
summer as well as winter and to supply green feed in the form of
soiling crops. The general practice has been, however, to combine
soiling with pasturing, using the former in a supplementary way only,
the animals being allowed to run on the pasture a part of the time
and receiving in addition a sufficient amount of freshly cut forage to
keep them in proper condition.

One objection early urged against soiling was that the animals were
not allowed sufficient exercise when complete soiling was practiced

1 American Farmer, May 25, 1821.
* Ibid., July 20, 1821.

616 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and that their health was injuriously affected to a greater or less
extent. On this account the system followed most generally in the
United States is to be preferred. Complete soiling has been urged
by some on the ground that under partial soiling stock is likely to
become restless in the pasture in attempts to get at the soiling crops.
This difficulty may be avoided, as a rule, by growing the crops ata
distance from the pasture and feeding only in the barn or yard.

TEMPORARY PASTURES.

Too little place is given to temporary pastures on the average Amer-
ican farm, but one effect of the recent periods of drought has been
to turn attention more strongly to this method of producing forage.
Often it is much more profitable to furnish stock with succulent food
in this way than by soiling, the extra labor and expense of cutting the
crop and hauling or carrying it to the feeding place being saved. It
is not always possible to keep sufficient help on the farm to attend to
the work of soiling properly, but by the use of the temporary or
annual pasture the stock may be supplied with the desired feed and
the permanent pastures brought safely through a droughty season,
because of the lessened drain on their resources. ‘True, this may not
be the most economical manner of feeding succulent forage, owing to
the waste from the trampling of the animals, but it is much better
than keeping the stock on overgrazed pastures, both as regards the con-
dition of the animals and the future productiveness of the pastures.

In certain parts of the country, notably in the Middle West and
some sections of the South, this practice of sowing supplementary
pastures has become much more common than formerly, partly because
of the effect of drought on the yields of forage from the permanent
meadows and pastures and partly through the increased demand for
succulent feed arising from the growing interest in dairying and the
increase of stock on farms heretofore largely devoted to the raising of
eotton and grain.

In the main, the crops that are grown for soiling can be also used in
these supplementary pastures, but there are certain varieties which
are best adapted for this purpose. Among such may be mentioned
rye, turf oats, sorghum, rape, vetches, field peas, millet, beggar weed,
and bur clover.

HISTORY OF THE PRACTICE OF ENSILAGE.

PIONEER ATTEMPTS AT PRESERVING FORAGE IN SILOS.

The first recorded American silo for the storage of fodder was built
in 1875 by Dr. Manly Miles, who says he was led to make the experi-
ment through the favorable reports made by farmers practicing this
method of preserving corn and other forage crops in France. He
used four small silos, two of which were filled with corn and two with

SUCCULENT FORAGE FOR THE FARM AND DAIRY. 617

the heads of broom corn. The results were most satisfactory, and
Dr. Miles published an account of his experiments the following
year.!

In 1876 attempts at preserving forage in silos were made by Messrs.
Francis Morris, of Maryland, and C. W. Mills, of New Jersey.
The results of Mr. Morris’s trial were published the following year,
and those of Mr. Mills in the Journal of the American Agricultural
Association for 1881. Others followed in the footsteps of these pio-
neers, some with success and others with failure, and the subject was
much discussed in the various farm journals. Occasional notices
regarding this method of preserving forage had appeared in American
journals as early as 1873, but all related to European practices. <A
great deal was added to the interest exhibited by American farmers
through the translation of a French book on the subject, in which
M. August Goffart described the method of ensilage followed by him-
self and others in France. It is interesting to note that while the
work of M. Goffart undoubtedly had much to do with the spread of
this practice in the United States, it was a German, Herr Adolph
Reihlen, who first demonstrated the great value of corn as an ensilage
crop. His experiments were carried on in the early sixties, and as a
result the ensilage of corn was soon practiced in both Germany and
France.

One of the most effective agents in advancing the claims of the silo
was the ensilage congress first held in New York City in 1882, in
which two days were devoted to the discussion of this method of pre-
serving forage. The consensus of opinion at that time was expressed
in the resolution, unanimously adopted by the congress, ‘‘that it has
become a well-established fact by six years’ successful use in this
country, and by the concurrent testimony of many intelligent farmers,
that the ensilage system is of great advantage to the farming interest
and to all mankind.”

The progress of this system of preserving forage was no doubt much
hindered by the extravagant statements made by some of its early advo-
cates. Practical farmers hesitated to adopt it because of the visionary
character of these claims. However, the advocacy of Dr. Miles, Goy-
ernors Price and Smith, and Messrs. Morris, Mills, Sprague, Brown,
and other men prominent as scientific and practical farmers was
proof conclusive that there were advantages to be gained by the ensi-
lage of certain forage crops. Here and there enterprising farmers and
dairymen began to build silos, and gradually the practice was accorded
a permanent place in American agriculture. Seven years after Dr.
Miles made his first experiments a report was published by the Com-
missioner of Agriculture giving the results of the experience of ninety-
one farmers and stockmen in different sections of the country, and
while these included by no means all the silos that were built at that

1 Country Gentleman, October 6, 1876.

618 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

time, the report is undoubtedly fairly representative of the practice
of ensilage throughout the country as a whole. More than half the
reports came from Massachusetts and New York, and only a dozen
from the States west of New York and south of New Jersey. Some
idea of the rapid development of the use of the silo may be gained
from the fact that in the report of 1882 but three were recorded from
Wisconsin, while in 1896, according to Mr. C. P. Goodrich, ‘‘in the |
town of Lake Mills, Jefferson County, Wis., which contains but thirty-
four sections of land, there are not far from seventy silos, and the use
of not one of them has been discontinued, but more are going up.”
It is noticeable that from the first the silo has been most generally
used in sections where the dairying industry is paramount.

CONSTRUCTION OF SILOS AND TREATMENT OF CONTENTS,

& is interesting to note that in the United States the development,
both as to the construction of the silo and the treatment of the con-
tents, has been along lines of greater simplicity. The expensive
structures of masonry, built by most of the earlier advocates of this
nethod and patterned after the silos of M. Goffart and other European
farmers, have given place to those of wood, which are at once cheaper
and more easily built, while wooden walls are less conductive of heat
and cold.

The early practice of placing heavy weights on the material in the
silo in order to press it down and exclude the air, and which was
thought to be very necessary to the preservation of the forage, was
pretty generally abandoned some years ago, as it was found that the
forage kept quite as well without such pressure. It was also thought
to be of the greatest importance that the filling of the silo should be
rapidly done. Dr. Miles was the first to combat this idea, arguing
that ‘‘ with slow filling, without treading down the fodder, the tem-
perature of the mass would rise to a point that is fatal to the bacteria
that cause acid fermentation and that sweet ensilage” would result.
This view was soon found to be upheld by experiment, and for ten
years or more it has been generally accepted that rapid filling is
unnecessary, many farmers maintaining that the best quality of sweet
ensilage is made by slow filling. Another early idea was that the
fodder should be firmly packed as it was put into the silo, but it has
been found by experience that all that is really necessary is to keep
the surface leveled off and perhaps to tramp the fodder down a little
along the edges near the walls of the silo.

In order that the temperature of the whole mass may be kept as
uniform as possible, it is a common practice to delay the leveling off
of the fodder put in one day until the temperature has risen to the
proper degree when the hot material is leveled off, being well packed

1 Report Kansas State Board of Agriculture, third quarter, 1896, p. 116.

Yearbook U.S Dept. of Agriculture, 1899. PLATE LIX.

FIG. 1.—A ROUND SILO ATTACHED TO Dairy BARN ON FARM OF SOUTH DAKOTA AGRI-
CULTURAL COLLEGE, SHOWING METHOD OF FILLING.

FiG. 2.—AMERICA’S BEST FODDER Crop (FIELD OF CORN GROWN NEAR
WASHINGTON, D. C.).

ay

SUCCULENT FORAGE FOR THE FARM AND DAIRY. 619

at the edges, and fresh fodder is added at once. This maintains a
higher temperature in the outer portions of the mass and results in
silage of a more uniform quality. The former practice was to cover
the fodder with planks or boards, which were deemed necessary to
keep the silage from spoiling at the top. This covering of boards was
discarded, however, soon after it was learned that heavy weighting
was unnecessary, and a covering of straw, chaff, grass, or uncut corn-
stalks was substituted. Nowadays the covering is often omitted
entirely, but it is generally considered the best practice to cover with
straw, chaff, or grass, since a few inches on top will mold and spoil
anyway, forming a practically air-tight covering, and the addition of
the straw or other material saves this loss in silage.

At first silos were either square or rectangular, but more or less
difficulty was experienced from the spoiling of the silage at the corners,
and it was also difficult to make the high wooden silo strong enough
to'resist the lateral pressure of the mass of silage. This led to the
building of the circular silo (Pl. LIX, fig. 1), which form is generally
preferred at the present time. There are no corners in such a silo,
and a much stronger structure can be made with less building mate-
rial than in the square or rectangular type. Moreover, the capacity
of the round silo is greater in proportion to the wall space. It is the
present practice when building a square or rectangular silo to board
up or otherwise cut off the corners, thus lessening the danger of loss
of silage. Metal linings for the inside of wooden silos have been
tried, but with poor success, usually proving less durable than wood.
Recently steel siding has been used in place of wood for the outer
part of the wall of the silo, and it is said to compare favorably with
lumber as to cost.

The first silos built in the United States were “‘ pit silos,” and these
are still sometimes made, but aside from their cheapness they have
no advantage of consequence over those built on top of the ground.
A serious objection to them lies in the difficulty in feeding the silage
fromthem. On side-hill situations they can sometimes be used advan-
tageously. It is often possible to build the silo partly below and
partly above ground, materially lessening the cost, but retaining the
advantages of the above-ground silo.

-The desirability of silage as a food for farm animals during the
winter and also in times of drought has led to many attempts to con-
struct cheap silos, especially in sections where building materials are
high. One of the most satisfactory of these cheap structures is known
as the ‘‘stave silo.” It is built much as a round tank, but is without
top or bottom other than the soil, and is composed of 2-inch lumber
of varying width held together by hoops of one-half inch iron, with
suitable blocks for tightening. When filled a temporary roof may be
placed on the silo, or straw or grass may be spread over the silage.

A still simpler and more inexpensive method of preserving fodder

620 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

fresh from the fieid is practiced in some sections, notably in Texas
and elsewhere in the Southwest. This is by means of the ‘‘ stack
silo.” The freshly cut forage (sorghum is usually used) is drawn
into compactly built stacks, generally topped with grass, and carefully
raked down and heavily weighted. The forage undergoes fermenta-
tion and is said to be of good quality, while the loss from molding is
seldom very great, being confined to the surface.

VALUE OF ENSILAGE AS A FOOD FOR STOCK.

The value of silage as a food for all kinds of farm stock is now
pretty generally recognized. It is seldom fed entirely alone, but usu-
ally in connection with a small amount of hay and grain. In the case
of horses, it is generally conceded that silage should form but a part
of the ration, especially when the animals are doing hard work. On
dairy farms silage holds a particularly important place, but even here
it has had to win its way against strong opposition. Although it was
early admitted that this forage when properly fed materially increased
the flow of milk and exerted a beneficial influence on the health of
dairy cattle, many dairymen refrained from using it because it was
said to taint the milk and butter. This has been shown to be largely
erroneous, at least so far as silage of good quality is concerned, and
in any event may be avoided by feeding the cows only after milking.
It has been shown by experience that the cost of milk and butter can
be materially reduced by the judicious use of good silage.

In summing up the advantages of silage under the system of agri-
culture prevailing throughout the greater part of the United States at
the present time, it may be confidently maintained that with no other
method can so much forage that is so palatable and of such feeding
value be secured, be so safely harvested, stored so economically, and
fed with so little waste. The silo is certainly a most valuable adjunct
of intensive farming, may almost be regarded as a necessity on any
well-ordered stock or dairy farm, is a safeguard in times of drought
as well as in excessively wet seasons; its use is by no means neces-
sarily confined to the wealthier farmers, but is spreading rapidly in
all sections of the country where the acreage of land is limited or
where succulent forage is needed during the winter months. :

THE BEST CROPS FOR SUCCULENT FORAGE.
CORN.

Corn (Pl. LIX, fig. 2), the most valuable crop of our forefathers,
early assumed an important place as a forage crop, not without some
opposition, however, for it is said that the idea of sowing it for fodder
was at first ridiculed.!. As early as the second decade of the century

1Flint: Grasses and Forage Crops, p. 154, fifth edition.

SUCCULENT FORAGE FOR THE FARM AND DAIRY. 621

this crop is mentioned as a most valuable one for soiling, and from
the first introduction of the practice it has been regarded as the best
to grow for this purpose.

It was early observed that certain varieties of corn were more
adapted to use for soiling and fodder than others. These have been
improved and increased by selection and crossing until at the present
time there is a long list of varieties, some of which are suitable for
soiling and ensiling in any part of the United States.

Two points have been kept in mind by those endeavoring to develop
the varieties of fodder corn, namely, the desirability of varieties with
a long season of utility and producing heavy yields of foliage rather
thanof grain. Thus, we have the various ‘‘ evergreen” varieties, which
remain in condition suitable for feeding for a relatively long period,
and other varieties, which give exceptionally large amounts of forage.
These last are especially valuable for ensilage. By the use of a judi-
cious selection of early and late varieties, and planting at proper sea-
sons, it is now possible to have plenty of green corn for soiling for a
large part of the summer and autumn in most parts of the United
States.

CLOVER AND OTHER LEGUMES.

As the need of succulent forage became more generally recognized,
it was found desirable to grow several crops for use each season in
order that a succession of fresh forage would be assured. It was also
found that a better quality of forage might be secured by selecting a
suitable variety of crops to be grown in this way. Among the more
important crops used for this purpose, in addition to corn in the early
part of the century, were field peas, usually grown with oats or other
small grain, clover, cowpeas, rye; and, a little later, millet, sorghum
and other crops came into use.

CLOVER.—Red clover was grown in Rhode Island as early as 1750.
John Bartram is said to have grown it on his place near Philadelphia,
Pa., prior to Revolutionary times, and, according to Darlington, it
was introduced into general cultivation in Chester County, Pa.,
during the last decade of the eighteenth century. Suffolk County,
N. Y., was an early center for the cultivation of this crop, and con-
siderable seed is said to have been exported from there. Red clover
was included in nearly all lists of crops desirable for meadows, and
its use for soiling seems to have been quite general in the North
during the early part of the present century. It did not win its way
unchallenged, however. <A writer from Indiana, in the United States
Patent Office Report for 1849, speaks of the strong prejudice against
clover prevailing in his section on account of frequent deaths among
eattle when first turned on it, and because worms destroyed corn
following the clover. Its value asa soiling crop was early recognized,
however, and it is still to be regarded as one of the best perennial
crops available for this purpose, as well as for use in the silo.

622 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Mammoth, or sapling, clover is frequently grown and used in the
same way as red clover, and in some sections, especially where the
soil is wet and heavy, alsike replaces both of these.

CowPEA.—In the South the cowpea early assumed the place oceu-
pied by clover in the North. <A writer in 1821 recommended the cul-
tivation of this crop for forage and soil renovation,! and there are
references to its use for these purposes at least as early as 1815.
Many writers for the United States Patent Office reports and farm
journals during the second quarter of the century speak of the great
value of the cowpea (several varieties of which were grown chiefly
under the name of black-eyed peas) in the South. <A writer from
Louisiana says, in the United States Patent Office Report for 1849,
that the cowpea ranks next to corn in importance to the sugar
planter, both for its value for forage and as a soil renovator,
while another from Tennessee calls it ‘‘ perhaps the most valuable
crop in the South.” Although it was more often made into hay or
the crop fed off on the ground, it was also often used for soiling, and
in recent years is frequently made into silage, being generally regarded
as next in value to corn and sorghum for this purpose in the South.
It is used to best advantage in connection with corn as a mixed silage.
During recent years many new varieties of cowpeas have been devel-
oped, some of them, because of their season of maturity and upright
habit of growth, admirably adapted for soiling and ensilage.

FIELD PEA.—One of the first leguminous crops to be grown in the
United States for succulent forage was the field pea. For many years
the cultivation of this crop was confined largely to the New England
States, but of recent years it has received more attention and is now
quite generally grown in the Northern United States, where it is
deservedly popular not only as a succulent forage but also as a hay
crop. There are a great many varieties now on the market, varying
widely as to hardiness, date of maturity, and yield. The seed is
usually sown with some of the small grains, chiefly oats, the mixture
containing about equal quantities of peas and grain. The crop is,
perhaps, most commonly used for soiling, but is equally valuable for
pasturage and silage. The combination makes a forage of high feed-
ing value and palatability, and the yield is usually good.

ALFALFA.—Another legume of great importance as a soiling crop
is alfalfa, or lucerne. A writer in 1821 regards it as a most valuable
crop for South Carolina, and claims to have grown it for seven years,
with the best of results, securing from six to eight cuttings per year.?
A New Jersey farmer, writing a few years later (1823), says: ‘°Of all
grasses, it is the most profitable for soiling;” and Judge L. Buel, of
Albany, N. Y., an authority on such matters, also speaks highly of it

1American Farmer, 1821.

SUCCULENT FORAGE FOR THE FARM AND DAIRY. 623

for this purpose. In fact, in the earlier years of its cultivation in the
United States it seems to have been grown almost exclusively for
soiling. The seed was brought from France, and the French name
“lucerne” was generally used. It was much less widely grown than
red clover, however, until after the introduction, in the early fifties,
of the Chilian variety, on the Pacific coast, from whence its cultiva-
tion has spread over the whole United States. Although largely
grown as a hay crop at the present time, it is also much used for soil-
ing. The early season at which it is ready for use in the spring, the
fact that several cuttings may be made each year, and the high feed-
ing value of the forage make it a very desirable crop to grow for this
purpose. The recent introduction of the hardy Turkestan alfalfa by
the Department of Agriculture promises to make this desirable forage
crop available to sections where it could not be grown heretofore on
account of unfavorable climatic conditions.

SOY BEAN.—The soy bean was introduced from Japan in the early
part of the century, but was grown in a desultory way for a long time,
only coming into prominence as a forage crop within comparatively
recent years. It was apparently first grown in the botanie garden at
Cambridge, Mass. In 1829 Thomas Nuttall! wrote regarding its pos-
sible value for cultivation in the United States, and another writer
tells of its having been grown at Cambridge in 1829 and at Milton,
Mass., two years later.” It is now regarded as one of the most valu-
able crops for soiling and ensilage. Careful selection on the part of
those engaged in growing seed for the market has resulted in the
development of early, medium, and late varieties, so that it is now
possible to’get a good supply of fresh soy-bean forage for a large part
of the summer and autumn. Although probably less valuable in the
South than the cowpea, it has a more extended northern range, and
hence serves as an intermediate between that crop and clover.

VETCHES.—Of the vetches, common and sand (or hairy vetch) are
the only sorts that have been grown to any extent in this country, and
these, while grown and used in essentially the same way, have been
by no means as commonly cultivated as field peas. Common vetch
seems to have been first introduced, and both spring and winter varie-
ties were grown as early as 1820, principally under the name of tares.
Several writers in the farm journals published in the early twenties
speak of their value for soiling and supplementary pasturage, and in
some sections large fields were devoted to the cultivation of these
legumes. One farmer speaks of growing 30 acres of tares annually.
Sand, or hairy vetch, is of much more recent introduction, and is, if
anything, better adapted to general culture throughout the United
States than the common vetch.

1 New England Farmer, October 22, 1829.
* Farmers’ Cabinet, October 15, 1847.

. 624 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

CRIMSON CLOVER.—Crimson clover is one of the most valuable leg-
umes grown in the Middle Atlantic States. It was introduced from
Italy in 1818 by Bedingfield Hands, of Chestertown, Md., and first
grown by him and others to whom he gave seeds. In the first notes
regarding it that appeared in the agricultural journals it is called
Italian clover, but this name was soon supplanted by the one now in
most common use. In 1820 Mr. Hands gave an account of the intro-
duction of this clover and his experiments with it,’ and still earlier a
Dr. Anderson, to whom Mr. Hands had given seeds, recorded the
results of his trials, speaking enthusiastically regarding the value of
the crop, particularly for green forage. Aside from being one of the
most valuable cover crops and soil fertilizers grown in the Eastern
United States to-day, crimson clover ranks high as a forage crop,
especially where the climatic conditions are such that it can be sown
in the autumn for an early crop the next season. Affording an excel-
lent hay when cut in the right season and properly cured, it is also
extensively used in soiling and for filling the silo, as well as in annual
pastures.

JAPAN CLOVER.—Japan clover was an accidental introduction from
Japan, as it name indicates, first coming into notice in this country
about 1830. It now oeeurs quite abundantly in the naturalized state
throughout the greater part of the region south of the Ohio River. It
is, perhaps, most valuable as an annual pasture crop, but is also used
in dther ways. Its ability to endure heat and drought and to thrive
on a great variety of soils renders it of much importance as a forage
as well as a soil renovator. It is available as a pasture plant from
May until heavy frost.

FLORIDA BEGGAR WEED.—Florida beggar weed has only recently
become of importance as a cultivated crop. It is a native of the West
Indies and quite likely, also, of southern Florida, where it was first
cultivated. The plant is an annual and is well adapted to the light,
sandy soils of portions of the South. Its cultivation is spreading
rapidly, and although it has thus far been most commonly grown for
hay, it is also valuable for soiling, pasturage, and ensilage.

VELVET BEAN.—Another succulent forage crop which has recently
attracted much attention is velvet bean. Its first introduction into
the United States seems to have been through the Department of
Agriculture some thirty years ago. Until within a few years it was
grown solely as an ornamental plant, but proving adapted to the
light, sandy soils of the South, it was taken up as a soil renovator
and forage crop, and is now being grown and used in essentially the
same ways as the cowpea.

1 American Farmer, May 19, 1820.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899. PLATE LX.

Fic. 1.—JAPANESE BARNYARD MILLET, GROWN AT THE UNITED STATES GRASS EXPERI-
MENT STATION, WALLA WALLA, WASH.

Fig. 2 —KAFiIR CORN, GROWN IN SOUTH DAKOTA.

ae é

SUCCULENT FORAGE FOR THE FARM AND DAIRY. 625

MILLETS.

Millet was recommended for soiling by various writers in the early
twenties, and its use for this purpose was urged in the United States
Patent Office Report for 1847. Varieties of both foxtail and broom-
eorn millets seem to have been included in these early discussions,
although it is difficult, often impossible, to tell just what kind of mil-
let the writer had in mind. At one time Hungarian millet attracted
some attention, but it soon gave way to common millet and German.
millet. During recent years several varieties of broom-corn millet
have come into prominence, notably certain sorts introduced from
Japan and Russia. Another millet which has been highly recom-
mended by prominent agriculturists is Japanese barnyard millet
(Pl. LX, fig. 1), a recent introduction from Japan. Pearl millet can
also be uséd to advantage as a soiling crop, and is perhaps more yalu-
able for this purpose than for any other.

SORGHUMS.

In some parts of the United States, especially in the South, sorghum
has, since its first introduction, been regarded as a valuable soiling
erop. Under the name of Guinea corn its cultivation for this purpose
was urged by John Lorain in the Memoirs of the Philadelphia Agri-
eultural Sociéty as early as 1810, and frequent references to it oecur
in farm journals during the succeeding decades. <A writer in 1822
speaks of the great value of ‘‘Guinea corn”?! in South Carolina, and
its use as a forage seems to have early become quite general in the
South. Fresh impetus was given to the growing of sorghum by the
importation of new and valuable varieties (especially of the saccha-
rine sorghums) from South Africa, China, and other countries, dur-
ing the early fifties. The value of the saccharine varieties for soiling
was soon recognized, particularly in the South, and this use of them
has spread until it is now quite general wherever soiling is practiced
to any extent. The more recently introduced Kafir corn (Pl. LX,
fig. 2) and Jerusalem corn, nonsaccharine varieties, are also much
used in Kansas and neighboring States, and the growing of these
erops is spreading rapidly, particularly in sections where the dry
weather is liable to interfere with the raising of indian corn. The
sorghums are valuable to grow for ensilage, but are not generally
regarded as equal to corn for this purpose. They may also be used
to advantage in temporary pastures. _

OTHER CROPS FOR SOILING, PASTURAGE, OR SILAGE.
Many other crops are available either for soiling, pasturage, or

silage, but their use has not become general, and in many cases their
value is only local on account of their cultivation being limited by

1 American Farmer.

1 A 99——40

; es mY Ap,

a Bes YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT © OF LTT

soil or climatic conditions. Among such crops may be 1

Wa ne

. i "
a fi J

\ = o hy Sain mh i 5
ra if ’ ~~
Yaa Sie til |

>

for the South and Southwest; Guinea grass, grown in the
South and regarded as valuable for soiling; sweet mks ana

soils in ihe Southwest.

|

WORK OF THE BREEDER IN IMPROVING LIVE STOCK.

By JouHn Cuay, Jr.,
Chicago, Til.

INTRODUCTION.

The work of the breeder in improving eattle, sheep, and hogs is @
subjeet that can be best considered in detail. Looking back, one sees
a wide trail, with numerous bypaths deviating from the main track;
and then looking forward, one sees the fields that are yet unbroken,
and wonders where will the end be. The work assigned to the writer
is to endeavor to trace and comment on the work of the improving
breeders, the men who by choice or by chance have made our cattle,
sheep, and hogs such as they are to-day.

EXTENSION OF THE CATTLE INDUSTRY.

Behind us lies the New England shore, beautiful as to seenery, but
with rocky hills and narrow glades sparsely grassed. Southward is
New York State, with widening valleys and deeper soil, while still far-
ther south lie Pennsylvania and the Virginias—all the home of serub
cattle for many generations. In these sections and in Texas and in
the California valleys was the mother lode of the present cattle busi-
ness, and following it came sheep and hogs. But it was not until the
arrival of the era when our agriculture crossed from the original States
of the Union to the great valleys of Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky that
the searchlight of improvement was flashed upon the live-stock indus-
try, which has been developing new fields year by year.’ When the
industry reached the prairie a plain of unrivaled richness was exposed.
As blue grass supplanted blue stem, and golden corn supplied winter
food and gave fattening power, then the breeder felt the pulsation of
the coming strife. Look over this land to-day. Illinois, the great
central State of the West, produces a perfect hog, with sheep still
waiting for the improver’s hand, and cattle rapidly climbing the golden
stairs of perfection—by no means at the top as yet, but with aspira-
tions to be there by and by. The great wave of improvement which
began in the thirties and covered pretty thoroughly the Central West,
was arrested with the war, but swept on again with widening scope
when hostilities had ceased. Down in Texas, the ‘‘ Longhorns” had
accumulated, and there was a market North, but the quality of the
stock was undesirable. Westward, under the shadows of the Rockies,
searcely bigger than a man’s hand, was a bovine cloud silver lined.
During war times Hiff was in Colorado, Kohrs had tested Montana.

27

628 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

There was a glamor in free grass, and, at a time when our beef and
mutton supply needed great extension, the ranchman sprang up with
his herds and flocks on every creek. His advent had a vast influence
and gave a great stimulus to the breeding of fine stock. The cattle
man wanted bulls and the sheep man wanted rams, by the wholesale.
True it is, that the demand was erratic, but when it came it was a
perfect flood. We had it in the early eighties, and now it is with us
again. Geographically speaking, the wave of improvement has been
westward. To-day it is working strongly in the Southwest and inter-
mountain regions. Texas is drawing heavily on our best cattle blood.
The valleys of the Rockies are importing bulls and raising alfalfa,
while the Northwestern States are taking both rams and bulls by the
ear load. But the cattle man is more aggressive in this line than his
brother stockman. On the Pacific coast much has been done in the
vay of improvement, but there progress is often retarded by droughts,
distance from market, and low prices. Some of the California herds
show wonderful breeding. For many years past, with all the herds
in pastures, the opportunities for development have been excellent,
and as a consequence the cattle in that State are of high grade, most
of them strong in Shorthorn blood, which has been freely imported
in years past and industriously nursed and multiplied.

SOME OF THE DIFFICULTIES OF EARLY CATTLE BREEDERS.

The United States and Canada (for the latter is so intimately
related to this country in the way of improving live stock that it
must be included in the forward movement) are countries of mag-
nificent distances, and while, of course, we have had the railroads,
still the foundation of the work of improvement was laid so long before
the iron horse came into action that it is almost impossible to estimate
the geographical difficulties of our earlier breeders. In England a
good day’s journey on horseback took Bates or Booth or Bakewell to
almost any point he had to reach, but the men of Ohio, when they
went forth to search for blue blood, had to cover vast territory, cross
great rivers and lofty mountain ranges, and ferry an ocean that knew
not the whirr of the screw and was but hearing the echo of the side-
wheeler. Only great faith and indomitable perseverance surmounted
these geographical obstacles, and the knowledge that the country was
far behind the times in meat and milk producing was an incentive to
action, for in those men’s minds there was undoubtedly a glimmering
of the future.

REVIEW OF CONDITIONS.

NEED OF MORE AND BETTER MEAT.

However congenial the work of the breeders may be to them per-
sonally, collectively there has been an enormous influence behind
them in the incentive for improvement. The cry of the country has

a a Ser

WORK OF THE BREEDER IN IMPROVING LIVE STOCK. 629

been for more meat and better meat. We need more and better hams
and bacon; we still lack in both quantity and quality in our mutton,
while in beef there seems to be a tremendous pressure for the better
qualities. While our cattle statistics may show a decline in numbers
of some classes of cattle, still much is made up by the system of early
maturity. The two-year-old has taken the place of the three-year-old
on the block. To estimate the actual difference in production would
be a perpetual-motion problem and one that could only be approxi-
mated, but it is patent to everyone that decrease in numbers has
been largely offset by forcing methods. We havea fair number of
medium cattle. It is the prime bullock that is being called for. The
unfortunate lethargy of the ordinary breeder during the decade pre-
vious to 1896 in refusing to use better blood is reflected in both eattle
and sheep.
CATTLE AND SHEEP INDUSTRIES COMPARED.

After the boom in eattle prices, from 1882 to 1884, we underwent a
period of depression that drove the average breeder of fine stock
almost out of the market. The depletion of our pure-bred herds was
heartbreaking. Once before, during the civil war, we experienced a
similar condition, but with good reason. Here we were in the piping
times of peace, with the country prosperous, with a spirited demand
for our meats, and yet in some years the great bulk of the well-bred
bulls had to be steered. In a similar but far less extravagant degree
the breeder of fine sheep suffered. The sheep business is always more
uncertain than the cattle trade; more subject to sharp fluctuations;
more susceptible to political and commercial conditions; it depends
upon wool and mutton, the former an uncertain quantity in the
world’s markets, and a political football. The life of the sheep raiser
isa sort of seesaw; now he has the high-growing plum of success and
profit within his grasp and now he is down; down on the hard ground
of failure and loss. One year he is Sisyphus, striving hard to push
his great stone up hill; the next a veritable Jason, who has found the
golden fleece. Wool goes up, then follows the sacrifice of mutton.
W ool declines, but it is not certain that mutton will improve in quality
or price, nor have we kad in this branch of the trade that steady for-
eign demand that has characterized our beef, bacon, and cheese trade.
Then there are enigmas in the sheep trade past all understanding,
and disheartening to the improving breeder. When a New Mexico
lamb, hairy, half goat in form, but with a clean-cut, fine face, that
equals the profile of the Cheviot, sells as high as the best Southdown
or Shropshire, our ideas of breeding get a shock. But withal there is
a tendency to push vigorously the development of our flocks. There
is a disposition to follow the middle course, to cultivate wool, but not
sacrifice mutton, and vice versa. Unlike the cattle trade, our great
source of sheep supply is the open range. Gradually the days of
cattle grazing on free grass are being numbered. The lights that

630 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

were kindled in early days in Texas and burned brightly in Colo-
rado, Wyoming, Montana, and other Western States from 1865 to
1895 are getting dim and will soon be but a reflection in the bovine
sky. Against this come increasing flocks on the cattle ranges. We
are, so to speak, in a transition state, so far as our flocks are con-
cerned. With low prices for wool, and our sheep unable to compete
in a mutton line against our beef and hog produets, the small raiser of
sheep in such States as Ohio and Indiana was driven out of the field.

On free grass they could be produced cheaply, and the fed Western
wether—raised, say, in Wyoming and finished on Nebraska corn—
eould be placed on the market at a figure far below the cost of the
same animal in the granger States. In a milder form we had a similar
experience in cattle. When the ranchman found out the value of the
grass on the arid regions, and was not overstocked, he raised a steer
for a comparative trifle, and the men on the high-priced lands of the
Eastern and Central States found a new competitor, who cut into their
profits. But that era is coming toa close. The free grazing lands,
or, at least, the watered portions, are being preempted in one way and
another, so that the cost of producing a steer in the West varies but
little from that of growing one in the East, when the cost of transpor-
tation to market and other incidentals are considered. The breeding
of cattle on free grass is practically a thing of the past. A few large
herds remain, but in another decade they will have gone. The free
grass of the West will be cropped by cattle that are fed in fields in the
winter, by steers imported from other parts of the country, but the
lion’s share will go to our vast flocks of sheep that have found a nat-_
ural home in the valleys and divides of the Western and intermountain
States. But the day is coming to sheep, as well as to cattle, when free
grass will not beenough. As theirnumbers augment, and they crowd
one upon another, cropping the wild grass more closely and killing its
productive power, winter feed will have to be supplied, and the cost
of production will be materially increased. Then will come with them,
as it has with cattle, more attention to breeding.

SECTIONS WHERE GREATEST IMPROVEMENT IS SEEN,

There is no place where demand stimulating supply has had greater
effect than among the pasture herds of the West and Texas, especially
the latter State at present. If you want a supply of good feeders in
large numbers, where do you go? To the Panhandle of Texas, the
valleys of Colorado, or the wind-swept divides of Wyoming, and you
find there the material that tops the market. Of course, there are
solitary lots of native-bred steers that are better, but if any large
number of first-class young feeders is needed you must look beyond
the Missouri. Why? Because those cattle men neither slumbered
nor slept. They were buying blood, and that blood crossed on the
already improved Texan or Western cow gave us the steer that fitted

A

a‘)

WORK OF THE BREEDER IN IMPROVING LIVE stock. 631

the feed lot. When the farmer of the East and Central West could
have secured the means in the shape of a good bull at no greater cost
than $50, he used a scrub, and the result is seen in our central mar-
kets. Native steers have deteriorated, Westerns improved. Not the
ranchman who breeds by hundreds has led the van, but it is the small
breeder in the valleys or by the streams in the West who has made
the most rapid progress. Asin cattle,soin sheep. The writer expects
to see smaller flocks in the West, more attention to winter feeding,
and consequently less loss. Then will come the day when the flocks
of the pure-blood breeder will be drawn upon heavily and undoubtedly
suecessfully, although, from the peculiarities of this trade, it is by ne
means so certain that the results will be as far-reaching in this branch
of our live-stock trade as in the beef-making line, and incidentally,
of course, in our dairy products.

INFLUENCE OF FOREIGN DEMAND.

Undoubtedly, the foreign demand has been the greatest incentive
to improvement. It developed years ago in the inquiry for our hog
products, an issue we were able successfully to meet. In our sheep
exports we are still away below the European standard. True, we
send large numbers of sheep to Great Britain, but they fill a third-
rate place. Thus far blood has not been used effectively in this line,
but it will come. It is with cattle that we are at present reaping the
best results of well-sown seed. Wego to the parent country; buy in
Aberdeen their best Shorthorns and Angus eattle; from Hereford and
other parts of England we import the best White-faced blood. Stream-
ing through our native pure-bred herds it reaches in diluted form our
feed-yard steers, and then it returns across the ocean, giving that
reciprocity of trade which England cultivates so generously.

Twenty-five years ago I rode across an Illinois farm. The original
owner had ‘‘ trekked” from Kentucky. He built wisely and well, and
his sons were reaping the benefit. There was blue grass in profusion
divided into generous inclosures by osage-orange fences, and the fine
buildings were shaded by oaks and black walnuts—a heritage for any
prince. On the pastures were 1,000 cattle, not extra in quality, but
rough beef. They needed still the varnish that comes from corn.
““ We want these in England and we must have them,” was my remark.

Think of it; a quarter of a century ago we had not, commercially

speaking, sent a live bullock across the Atlantic, but since then end-

less numbers, both dead and alive, have found their way to Europe.
The Europeans do not get our best cattle because New York and
Boston still claim these, but the exporter buys a grade close to the
top. He wants nothing else. This influence on the market has been
far-reaching and all-powerful when we come to gauge quality. Our
foreign demand is here to stay, and it is a most important factor in
our commerce. It can be helped mightily by the breeders of both

632 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

classes—those who raise the bulls and those who raise the steers. It
is a fertile field, boundless in its size, and it is ready to be cultivated.
It is a mine from which we can dig more gold than from all the real
mines put together. It gives labor and means of support to hundreds
of thousands of our farmers, and that means happiness, individual
and national. One of the wellsprings of our prosperity rises in our
export trade, and among its various branches our live-stock products
form no mean proportion, for in our annual shipments across the
Atlantic we estimate our cattle and sheep in the hundreds of thou-
sands, and our dressed products in millions of pounds. Our live-
cattle exports alone last year exceeded in value $30,000,000, while our
meats and dairy products had an aggregate value of $180,000,000,
a seventh of the total value placed upon our exports of domestie
merchandise in the calendar year 1899.

IMPORTATIONS.

THE THREE LEADING BEEF BREEDS.

It will not be a serious digression to give here a bit of historical
matter as leading up to present conditions and showing some of the
efforts exerted to improve our live-stock blood. The bovine aborigi-
nes of this country were of Spanish origin. Early in the seventeenth
century Dutch settlers in New York introduced cattle from their
mother country. A little later Sweden sent over a consignment to
some of her sons and daughters. Several importations from Denmark
were made about the same time, and the British Isles furnished their
quota also. These cattle were imported for practical purposes (food
and work), and the questions of breed or race did not enter very
largely intothe consideration. -~From such mixed ancestry our so-called
“native” cattle sprang into existence. As immigration increased
and as our pioneers forced their way through the ‘‘forests primeval”
toward the Allegheny, toward the Ohio, and toward the Mississippi,
our bovine stocks increased materially in numbers, but became essen-
tially of more and more mixed breeding. Importations were largest
from Great Britain, and the predominating strain in the conglomera-
tion was British. Not until the dawn of the nineteenth century, in
fact not until the century was sixteen or seventeen years old, were
there any notable importations of ‘‘improving cattle.” The years
1816 and 1817 are notable for the importation of numerous Shorthorns,
Hereford, and Devon individuals, Kentucky getting the choicest
specimens of the two former breeds. Lewis Sanders and Henry Clay
were the first importers of Shorthorns and Herefords, respectively,
into the blue-grass regions of that State. It was in 18354 that Short-
horn importations began in right good earnest, with the formation of
the Scioto Valley Association in Ohio. Purchases were made almost
regardless of prices asked, but the animals and their progeny found

a a ae ae

WORK OF THE BREEDER IN IMPROVING LIVE STOCK. 633

ready sale among the then extensive breeders and graziers of Ohio.
The Clays and others made important importations into Kentucky in
the years 1837, 1838, and 1839. In the last-named year Bates blood
found its way from Kirklevington to New York. In 1853, at the
Lord Ducie’s dispersion sales of Bates and other strains, Americans
purchased freely, particularly of Oxfords and Duchesses. Ohio and
Kentucky received very notable importations, and in these States
were established some of our now most historical herds. American
investments in connection with Shorthorns exceeded those in con-
nection with all other breeds combined. Famous in our Hereford
history is the importation of 1840, the bulk of which became the
property of Mr. Corning, of Albany, N. Y. It was not until many
years later, however, that importations were on any large scale. The
last few years have seen decreased importations of White-faces as of
other breeds, because of the era of comparatively low prices and
unprofitable breeding operations through which we have just passed.

The remarkable demand from the range country for Hereford breed-
ing stock has given an immense stimulus to the Hereford industry.
Their adaptability to range conditions has established their reputa-
tion as ‘‘incomparables ” in that respect, and the most notable pur-
chases of the past few years have gone to Texas and the northern
ranges. Angus cattle came in the seventies, and their preeminence
in the feed lot and upon the butcher’s bloek is the result of careful
breeding and good management. Their character fits them for the
climate of Illinois or Iowa, but they do not, as a rule, possess enongh
hardiness or ‘‘rustling” qualifications to be a suecess on the open
range. This brief résumé of our three leading beef breeds may con-
vey some idea of the efforts put forth to better our bovine stocks. The
general effects have already been noted.

SHEEP.

Our earliest ovine stocks were, as with cattle, of Spanish blood.
Wool was the primal consideration, and the Merino filled the bill eom-
pletely. When mutton became more of a factor we got the South-
down and the Shropshire, the Cotswoid and the Lincoln, combining
both these most important commercial items.

IMPROVEMENT IN BOTH CATTLE AND SHEEP.

In both cattle and sheep we have had the material for foundations
secure enough to support any superstructure, but in too many cases
we have builded unwisely, or have suffered from adverse causes that
could not apparently be combated. To-day, however, we may mark
improvement, and two of the strongest reasons for this are the won-
derful demand among our ranchmen for good bulls and good rams
and the excellent demand from abroad for our products, bovine,
ovine, and porcine, reference to which has already been made.

634 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

PEDIGREE. ‘

What is pedigree? A mass of hieroglyphies to the ordinary mortal,
a sweet morsel for the expert to roll off his tongue when walking
through a herd. ‘Full of Duchess,” ‘‘fuli of Anxiety or Wilton,”
“full of Blackbird blood,” is the too often repeated song of the cham-
pions of the Shorthorn, Hereford, and Angus breeds. Pedigree, in
the language of the poet, is the ‘‘claims of long descent.” The die-
tionary adds “‘ lineage,” but in the animal world it means the way to
uniformity. How long pedigree has been practiced we know not, but
undoubtedly it was in vogue long before we heard of it in print.
Certain it is that on the borders of England and Scotland, among the
Cheviot hiils, it was unwittingly resorted to generations ago, but se
far as practical and general purposes are concerned its historie
exponents were in sheep, Bakewell; in cattle, Bates and Booth. These
men built a strong foundation. They grafted stock on hardy roots.
Another question often arises in our minds, Would they have followed
their system to the disasters that overwhelmed their successors? It
is scarcely worth discussing except from the sentimental side. My
own idea is that these masters in the art of blending blood would
have seen the rocks ahead and veered the ship.

NEW ERA‘IN BREEDING,

With the use of pedigree in its conservative and carefully considered
way we entered a new era in the history of breeding. The soil had
long been ready, but the plow and the guiding hand were wanting.
They came, they saw, they conquered. In groping about and testing
the new fad, as it was called, individual merit was never forgotten.
It was the keystone of the arch on which the paper pedigree was
built. Bakewell’s instinct, Bates’s keen scent for the good animal, laid
the great fabrie of line breeding more strictly than pedigree on a wise
and, to them, seemingly impregnable foundation.

The American breeders, casting around for better blood than was at
hand, were not slow to recognize and utilize this new invention, if we
may so callit. Importations were made, the history of which in detail
if is not within our province to recount. Their influence was wonder-
ful, but much of the good blood while coursing through the veins of
the common cattle in the districts where good luck had taken it, was
lost in hopeless contamination in the backwoods serub. But much
also remained, and was eventually concentrated in Kentucky, the beau
ideal spot of the States, so far as the bovine race is concerned. The
vicissitudes of the breeder of fine stock were many. Commerce ebbed
and flowed; panics came, and war spread over the land, but amid all,
-pure blood was cared for, nursed, and nurtured.

SPECULATION IN PEDIGREE,

Dee

It was not until some years after the war that speculation in pedi- _

gree, which had been inoculating the system of the American breeder

WORK OF THE BREEDER IN IMPROVING LIVE STOCK. 635

of Shorthorns for many years, reached flood tide. Its zenith was
attamed at the New York Mills sale in 1873. Nothing in the history
of Sherthorns (and sympathetically in other beef breeds) ever did
more harm than the above sale. It is often referred to with pride,
but it was the culmination of a vicious system, the exploding of the
balloon, whose inflation had been a gaseous mixture of pedigree sans
individual merit and ‘‘no surrender” of ideas onee fixed. By some
people this would probably be named fashion. Fashion has its votaries,
and it takes a superhuman effort to stem the tide. You wenttoasale
(and we speak now almost exclusively of Shorthorns, the other beef
breeds not appearing at that time in any large number), and what
was the result? <A good cow, heifer, or bull, excellent in individual
merit, and with a stainless pedigree, so far as pure blood went, sold
for a song, while some puny, delicate, consumptive-looking beast with
a fashionable lineage was bid up to fabulous prices. * Then the bubble
burst, and into the whirlpool went many a staunch breeder who, car-
ried along with the current, could not escape the vortex. The rebound
from such a blow was detrimental to all breeders, but more especially
to those in the Shorthorn trade, and from which they have but slowly

. (though we hope surely) recovered.
4

The damage done was more indirect than direct. Individual breed-
ers suffered heavily, but nothing in proportion to the raisers of cattle.
Pedigreed cattle were at a discount, and there being little or no demand,
well-bred calves were made into steers and heifers were sent to the
butcher. In my own case, fora half dozen years every male was steered,
and that in a region where blood was almost priceless. To-day we
are suffering in our markets for this neglect of pedigree. The breeders
sowed the wind and the raisers reaped the whirlwind.

ABUSE OF PEDIGREE.

But the abuse of pedigree went further. From line breeding it
went on to incestuous breeding. Bates sinned here and intensified
the heresy. Hundreds fell into the rut. Then came tuberculosis, or
to put it more plainly, consumption. The cry of pure Bates or Booth
was a fearful shadow hanging over the premier tribe of cattle. The
master hands were gone and their disciples failed to carry on the
work. Our American breeders pursued the above course with a deter-
mination worthy of a nobler cause. It spread all over, and, though
Kentucky probably suffered worst, we saw it in every other State and
Canada. Shorthorns have been specially spoken of in this respect,
as the writer’s acquaintance with them has been most intimate, but
we know enough of the dairy breeds, more particularly the Jerseys,
to speak of the extraordinary ravages tuberculosis has made in their
ranks. To get impressive power that would supply the block or pail,
sacrifices were made that eventually led to disaster. Tuberculosis
eame, and is to-day existent in many of our best herds of cattle, plain

636 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

or pedigreed. Nature exacts the penalty for reversion or disobedience
of her laws. This is the reef our improving breeders must guard
against. We see intensity of blood used with grand effect in sheep,
among our Lincolns in England, with Border Leicesters in Scotland,
and notably with Cheviots in their native hills; but in cattle we have
had signal failures in Shorthorns and Jerseys. Let our Hereford and
Aberdeen-Angus brethren take warning from the past.

THE BATTLES OF THE BREEDS.

In diseussing the work of the breeder and his forward movements
we must refer to thre so-called ‘‘ Battles of the breeds.” These have
been fought over and over again and so repeatedly that the subject is
almost threadbare, so far as the press is concerned. But instead of
deprecating them, we think they should be encouraged. People will
lose their temper both on field and farm, in stall and show yard. The
class of personal argument that we have listened to around a show
ring, often running into abuse and sometimes growing almost into
fisticuffs, should not be encouraged, nor should the jockeying indulged
in by the professional showmen be allowed; but the honest, fair dis-
cussion of merit, either on paper or by practical illustration, should
certainly be given a fair field and no favor. Nothing in our bovine
history can equal the struggle made for place and position by our
Hereford breeders. ‘Their enterprise, their perseverance, and the
magnificence of their methods call forth the highest praise. I would
not like to aver that it equals the individual. efforts of the early
improvers of our cattle in their importation of Shorthorns, but it is
so much more recent and the movement so much larger and so intense
in its results that the history of sixty years ago is dwarfed in our minds.
In the dairy breeds we have had the same experience as with our beef
breeds. The Jerseys were boomed, were advertised, were carried up
to the zenith of their powers, and then came the natural results of
inbreeding and incest. And yet I would be the last to say that great
good was not done in these booms of the past or will not be done in
further eruptions which the future will produce. The world would
be nowhere if we had not the man of progress. You may gallop too
fast, but that is certainly better than never to reach your goal. Let
us survey the subject a little closer, not so much in a spirit of eriti-
cism as to show forth, if possible, in bold relief from the pages of the
past some of the mistakes we have made in our live-stock methods of
improvement. Sixty or seventy years ago there was no necessity for
any argument as to the different breeds of cattle or sheep we imported.
Then the only object was to get blue blood. The breeders of the old
country had shown the way—had blazed a path through the serub
forest and undergrowth. Every drop of blood was gold to our farmers
and stockmen and eventually to our commerce. Nobody can detract
from the efforts of our early pioneers who imported Shorthorns, the
premier tribe of beef cattle, then and now.

WORK OF THE BREEDER IN IMPROVING LIVE STOCK. 637

No man loves the Shorthorn more than does the writer. Take them
all round, both in the stall and at the pail, and they fill the bill
for the general-purpose animal better than anything else in our
bovine world. Traverse America, traverse Great Britain and Ive-
land, traverse Australia, traverse Argentina, and everywhere you see
Shorthorn eyes peering at you—ten head at least to one of any other
breed. Trace the history of the Shorthorn in America, and you will
find its pages largely made up of fads. It is the same thing with the
Jersey in our milk breeds, but the writer takes up the other side of
the question, because he knows it better. The original importer was
looking to improve our scrub eattle, for the end is beef and butter,
and so the early efforts were in this line. Soon there developed a
spirit that ran to fashion, and fashion meant ‘‘Pure Bates” and
*““No surrender.” This fad worked untold harm. Then came the
red craze, which further intensified the misfortunes attending line
breeding and fashionable pedigrees. The virgin fires of ‘‘red and
nothing but red” are still kept burning. You might write and work
forever, but your efforts to extinguish these foolish fires would still
be unavailing. There is nothing of the chameleon in our Shorthorn
breeders. They prefer a paper skinned, hairless red to the sappy
mellow touch of the roan, and to-day the ery is all ‘‘ Cruickshanks,
Cruickshanks”—a beefy beast, but wanting in activity and hardihood
for our Western world. The breeders of our White-faces and Blacks
have followed a different course. To use an expression from one of
our light operas, they have worked ‘‘to make the punishment fit the
erime.” Of course, we have our pedigree men among the above
breeders, because they can not be dispensed with, but forms have not
been sacrificed. The type needed or bred by some master hand in
England is not necessarily the animal wanted on our Western farms,
where semitropical suns pour down their relentless rays, nor does it
follow that a bull fitted for an English meadow ean be transplanted
with good effect to the prairie or the valleys of the Platte River.
What I say, and I say it without fear of contradiction, is that our
Hereford and Aberdeen-Angus men have tried to meet the require-
ments of our ordinary breeders better than have the Shorthorn men.
They have improved the type to meet the demands of our climate, of
our feed, and the vast distances_thousands of our cattle have to travel
for water. They have met the conditions, not retreated from them.
In the moments of success, which are the lot of our Hereford and
Aberdeen-Angus breeders, it will take steady heads to keep the ship
on a level keel.

The White-faces have taken the range country. The Blacks are
breaking into the breeding districts of the West, slowly, it is true,
on account of the laziness and want of energy of the males; but still
so steady is the improvement (see stock yards records) of these beef
cattle that their onward march can not be stopped. Our dressed

638 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

beef men take these cattle in preference to all others, and my lessen
in life makes me follow the practical in preference to the theoretical.
I have more faith in Armour’s seales than in Coate’s Herdbook, and
the Blacks on the bloek are the ideal of the buteher. Isaw it in
Scotland in early days; at Smithfield later, and nearly every day at
the Chicago stock yards since. These facts teach us that the improv-
ing breeder must take lessons from his daily teachers, and in this

fight. of the feeder for recognition in the final court of appeal in our

eentral stock yards will he find much that is useful and absolutely
necessary to his existence in this age of competition. For the above
reasons, stated frankly, the writer believes in the ‘‘ Battle of the
breeds” being earried on good naturedly at home and abroad.

PEP K.

Type is a wide word in the way it is used by our breeders of live
stock. It has been used and abused, discussed and argued, until one
is almost tired of it, and still no word is to be more used in the days:
that are coming. Types of eattle and sheep are going to be loeated
in America just as they are in Great Britain. As you find the Short-
horn and the Ayrshire, the Hereford and the Aberdeen-Angus in their
own peeuliar localities, as you find the beautiful, graceful Cheviot on
its native hills only, and the Cotswold on the downs that guard the
Severn Vale, so the days are coming when, along with improvement,
we are going to have ‘“‘ types” in different places and localities. See
what a hold the Hereford has taken of the range. He is an ideal
grazer. Some men will tell you solemnly that it is a mere boom that
has sent the producer of the West crazy after the White-faces. On
the surface mueh has been done in this line, but to find the real rea-
son you must go to the root of the matter. You must impartially
inquire into the whys and wherefores. We see in this movement @
beginning of types in American eattle at least. The range is appro-
priating the Hereford beeause he suits the conditions and climate.
He is naturally a grazer, with courage and perseverance, a fine trav-
eler, and in many respects more indifferent to climate than any other
beef breed.

But I go a step further, and say the breeders of pure-blood Here-
fords have improved their eattle so as to meet the views of the men
who use their bulls. Twenty-five years ago what was the Hereford in
Ameriea? A coarse-boned, heavy-horned, narrow-hipped beast, with
no twist, deficient in his loin and rough in his forequarters. At that
time the Shorthorn was leading the van in every direction. The Aber-
deen-Angus and Galloways were not in numbers sufficient te compete
with the other tribes. The progress of the Hereford has been for-
ward, surely and not slowly. The breeders have met the issué. They
saw the faults of their breed and started to remedy them. They have
adopted the Shorthorn qualities of fine bones, good ribs and loins,

WORK OF THE BREEDER IN IMPROVING LIVE STOCK. 639

fining down the shoulders, grasping at early maturity, and yet pre-
serving all the good characteristics of the breed. Have our Short-
horns (still, and I think always to be, the premier breed of both
America and Great Britain) made equal progress? The answer is cer-
tainly in the negative. From Bates we have run wildly to Cruick-
shanks—from roans to reds, and reds with no surrender, no room for
argument, no listening to the voice of warning. If our breeders had
retained the courage of Bates, the milking power of Knightley, the
beauty of the Rose of Sharons, the sea-otter touch of the roans, with
a dash of the Booth and Cruickshank early maturity and beef-making
powers, then we would have had an animal that suited our Western
country, and there is where we need bulls. I utter this criticism in
no partial spirit. My experience is with beef, mutton, and pork, the
ultima thule of all our live stock, and it is merely written to show
forth from one point of view, and, as I think, the right one. What
we need in cattle is to make beef and butter. In the struggle for
existence we must meet issues, and during the past quarter of a cen-
tury in our beef breeds the Herefords and Aberdeen-Angus have made
wonderful strides, while our Shorthorns have actually stood still, or at
least have made but little advance. The breeders of the latter have
neglected type, the type, at least, which is needed in our Western: coun-
try. Wemay, however, look for better things. The improved demand
will bring forth better results, and then, too, different countries need
different types. As we grow older we have more time to think and
study the situation. The bull that suits the rich pastures of Illinois
will not meet the requirements of the Colorado ranchman. We have
reached the stage where type is not confined to the different classes
of beef cattle, but goes further, reaching the localities and meeting
distinct issues in all parts of the States.

So it is with sheep, but, as said above, this is an industry more vari-
ous, needing more elasticity in its movements and ends than the beef,
butter, or bacon business. There are two sources of income from the
flock—mutton and wool. These produets are as different as the poles.
The one appeals to man’s interior, the other to his exterior, and it
does not follow when one is in demand the other follows suit. Con-
sequently, the flock master has conditions to meet widely different
from his brother breeder. The pendulum of his business tends some-
times toward wool. It is seldom that the best-wooled sheep meet the
demand of the butcher. There isa continual wavering in the mind of
the sheep man as to what course to pursue. Then there is the declin-
ing taste for large joints (more apparent now than ever before in our
beef business). Still much is being done, and eventually we believe
that the sheep of the American continent will find the spots where
type is as necessary as in Great Britain. As the Cotswolds and the
Cheviots are products of their native hills, firmly established, impreg-
nable as Gibraltar from assaults of other breeds, it is certain that in

640 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ©

the years to come we wiil have in Wyoming a general-purpose sheep
widely different from that of Ohio or Ontario. It would be useless to
prophesy what will be the leading breed. In a long stock-yard expe-
rience I have failed tomake up my mind even vaguely on the subject.
Certainly, we are drifting on to some more defined, stable foundation
_in our sheep business. As the Western flock master, at present the
great producer, acquires land (as he is rapidly doing), and conse-
quently increases his expense of production, he will need to look more
narrowly to breeding only the best, or at least producing the type of
sheep most suitable and profitable for his conditions. In this indus-
try we are still in a transition stage, through which in our eattle busi-
ness we have almost passed. Free range still serves the sheep man,
but it will pass away also, and the men of the East will meet their
brothers of the West on more equal terms.

THE AMERICAN BREEDER AS A PERSONALITY.

As a personality, the American breeder of fine stock is a wonderful
study. In the pioneer days it was not the rich merchant, the great
landed magnate, traveled and educated, but it was the farseeing
farmer, with modest means, who did the real work. Such men as the
Renicks, the Smiths, and the Browns, men of mark and shrewdness
and with an intense love of animals, were the pioneers, and continue
to be practically the leaders to-day. Sometimes a rich man drops into
breeding, but his efforts are apt to be desultory, often faddish, and
rarely successful. In Great Britain the leaders have been noblemen
and large landed proprietors, who took up breeding not only for
profit, but as an incentive to their tenants. It was a sort of patri-
archal system that flavors ef the best in feudal days. It is true, of
course, that Bakewell, Bates, and Booth, and latterly Cruickshank,
were not rich men. It was their brains that evolved their different
types. They had more than brains; they had genius. Their work,
however, has been carried forward in a large degree by the rich land-
owners for reasons stated above, while in the States and Canada the
rank and file of our breeders are farmers who have fought and are
still fighting their way, having to make ends meet often in the face
of countless difficulties. There is a dash and enterprise among our
breeders that savors of success, which, if not a financial, is at least a
national benefit. The tussles that take place in the show yard; the
personalities, reprehensible in themselves, are but indications of that
spirit of emulation which eventually leads on to bloodless battles won
and new fields conquered. With all this collective vitality and won-
derful energy there is no single case in our knowledge or remem-
branee at all comparable with the above British breeders. Maybe
Abram Renick is of the same class. He approached them in his
methods and foresight. His Rose of Sharons were a beautiful lot of
cattle. The adjective beautiful is used advisedly, because his herd

WORK OF THE BREEDER IN IMPROVING LIVE srock. 641

could not be called the perfection of bovine structure. But his life
work was a great one. He had one ideal, and he attained it. He
wanted a neat, small, rather effeminate animal, pleasant to the eye,
with its mild expression and mellow hide, low-legged, active, a grazer
with rapid maturing power; but to my idea there was a want of scale,
and his bulls wanted that masculine power, the impress of head and
neck, which you must have in a male animal, whether it be a bull, a
ram, ora boar. ‘Treating this great breeder with all due respect, we
ean not place him on the same pedestal with the great lights that
illuminated the first days of Shorthorns in Britain or the climax of
Cruickshank’s career; but he stands far and away ahead of all other
American breeders of any class of live stock, and the world, not only
the continent, is richer for his efforts.

The criticism passed upon our breeders of all classes of live stock is
that their methods are spasmodic. The nervous energy of our people
leads on to thisstate of affairs. The writer has seen many herds of eat-
tle and flocks of sheep, but scarce in one was there that remarkable
uniformity or family likeness, that concentration of good points, that
at once attracts the eye and gives character to the herd. The answer
to the criticism is that we have not had the time, but we must endeavor
to reach more uniformity. Whata charm uniformity has tothe buyer
in our stock yards! From the intense practical ideas of our dressed
beef men and Eastern buyers, the improving breeder can draw many
a lesson.

In the stock yards of late years we have had remarkable instances
of uniformity from the feed lots of some of our breeders of Aberdeen-
Angus, perfect marvels, many of the lots of the best type of the beef
animal, an Illinois herd marketing in December a lot of wonderful
black beeves that on the hoof realized 84+ cents per pound, the highest
figure of the past fifteen years. The credit lies with our best breeders
of this class for having advertised their products by practical illus-
tration; no paper warfare, but by concentrating the facts in the beast
before you. Probably the best work, relatively, of our breeders of
late years has been with this class of cattle. They have shown us by
their sacrifice in feeding steers that, as bulls, would have been a credit
to any pasture, the wonderful powers of the Aberdeen-Angus as a beef
animal; in fact, they have given us the living pictures, and remark-
able ones they have been. The Aberdeen-Angus breed, transplanted
from its native home to our shores, owes much to the personality of
the men who have handled these cattle. In truth, they have been
improving breeders, men of earnest devotion and single-mindedness,
the image of the bovine Black ever in their eye, devotees to art in the
realms of agriculture, just as keen as were the Greeks in pursuing
the paths of Parnassus.

hye 0-99 41

642 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

CONCLUSION.

For over twenty-five years the writer has been intimately connected
with American live-stock affairs. Whata transformation has taken
place! The general advance has been by leaps and bounds. True it
is, that some classes of stock have forged ahead of others, but as a
great collective forward movement nothing, so far as known, equals it.
West of the Missouri most has been done. It was a virgin soil after
the war, and the pioneers and ranchmen drew on the stocks of the
older States for blood, in the use of which the source of supply has
been outpaced; at least the general quality of the cattle is better than
in the older States. There is still room for improvement. The ordi-
nary breeder of cattle and sheep in the Central States has been care-
less during the past decade. He has allowed the Western pasture
man and small ranchman to eclipse him.in quality. He neglected his
opportunities when bulls were cheap and plentiful. The improving
breeder can only be kept going by selling his wares to the raiser of
stock for market. The impulse of higher prices is remedying this evil
and balancing to a great degree the different sections of the continent
in blood and quality.

DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION IN THE UNITED
STATES.

By ANGUS SINCLAIR,
Editor Locomotive Engineering.

MECHANICAL AND BUSINESS PROBLEMS.

Lord Bacon truly says that there are three things which make a
nation great and prosperous—a fertile soil, busy workshops, and easy
conveyance of men and commodities from place to place. The history’
of the world has proved Bacon’s words to be true, but there have been
nations blessed with a fertile country and busy workshops which
have tried to get along without easy means of transportation, because
of sectional differences concerning the defraying of the expense of
constructing artificial arteries of intercommunication. The regions
served by water transport were opposed to building roads for the con-
venience of localities remote from sea, lake, or river, and thus con-
flicting interests retarded the progress of some countries for the time
being and left great spaces of fertile regions undeveloped.

In the course of two-thirds of a century a vast wilderness on the
American Continent has been changed from gloomy, untrodden
forests, dismal swamps, and pathless prairies into the abode of a
high civilization. Prosperous States, teeming with populous towns,
fertile farms, blooming gardens, and comfortable homes have arisen
from regions where formerly savage men and wild animals were the
sole tenants. A powerful factor in effecting this beneficent change
has been the building of railroads.

EARLY PRESSURE OF PRODUCTION UPON TRANSPORTATION.

Projects for providing facilities of transportation by rail originated
almost simultaneously in the British Isles and the United States.
Both countries were badly supplied with highways on which wheeled
vehicles could convey heavy loads; both had tried canals and found
them unsatisfactory in some respects. The increase of production of
commodities faster than the means of moving them led enterprising
men in both countries to look in the same direction for relief.

The conditions of urgent necessity which led to the inventing of
the steam engine were repeated as the volume of produce and mer-
chandise to be carried went beyond the capacity of water carriage and
inferior roads. The steam engine came when great properties were

643

644 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

deteriorating because horse power was incompetent to concentrate
great effort in limited space. It was a foregone conclusion that the
steam engine would be applied to locomotive purposes as soon as the
horse proved unequal to the work of supplying the motive power for
roads and canals.

The application of steam to water transportation delayed for a time
the advent of the locomotive, but thoughtful men had glimpses of
what the steam engine might do in moving loads on land almost as
early as attempts were made to use steam in propelling boats.

THE RAILROAD TRACK.

The railroad structure provided a way for the wheels of a vehicle
to run upona smooth, hard surface, where obstacles to progress, such
as sinking of the wheels into soft places and mounting over stones
or other projecting obstructions, would not be encountered. Such
roads were to be found in various localities hundreds of years before
the steam engine was invented. There are many traces of what were
really stone railroads to be found in parts of Asia and Africa, where
an advanced civilization flourished thousands of years ago. The
rows of huge stone blocks, worn with myriads of wheels, are in many
places the most substantial traces of an enterprising people long
passed away. The writer has seen in the streets of Italian cities
stone blocks laid down parallel, with a depression to keep the wheels
of vehicles in place, and these make as smooth a roadbed as the inside
surface of car-track rails provide for the truckmen of our large cities.

For hundreds of years stone ways were used in Germany and other
countries in connection with quarries and coal pits. They were
introduced into Great Britain in the eighteenth century. This kind
of crude railroad was known by the name of ‘‘ tramway,” and English-
men say it originated from the name of Outram, a noted individual,
who took some interest in pushing these friction-reducing roads. As
the word ‘‘tram” is German and has been used by all northern nations
for a thousand years, the claim of Outram to the word is not accept-
able. His name probably originated from the word, which was given
to the man who drove the oxen outside of the trams of the plow.
Outram was the outside man.

Burns, who wrote before Outram’s time, in his ‘‘ Inventory,” says:

An auld wheelbarrow more for token ‘
Ae tram and baith the legs are broken.

In the days anterior to railways the intercommunication between
the people of different districts in Great Britain was not at all inti-
mate, but those with the same interests seemed to find out what the
others were doing. The British Isles are inflicted with rain, and rain
is not good for dirt-made roads. It is, then, easy to imagine how
well the invention of some coal miner was regarded who introduced

DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION. 645

tram rails to carry the wagons from the mine to the staith, or wharf,
where the coal was dumped into ships.

One could not tell the coal-mining world of Great Britain at the
beginning of this century much that was new about trams. The
tramway began with long blocks of stone, that gave place to parallel
wooden stringers for the wheels to run upon. The hand of progress
covered the stringers with iron strips. Then some one found out that
a cast-iron rail simplified matters, and a flange was put upon the
wheels to prevent them from jumping the track. This was the con-
dition of the world’s ‘‘ permanent way” when people of advanced
ideas proposed to use it for steam-driven locomotives.

NEED OF THE LOCOMOTIVE.

The nineteenth century had not advanced many years when people.
in the United States began to realize that something better than
canals was necessary as a means of intercommunication if a great
part of the nation’s territory were to be opened up to settlement and
civilization. There are numerous navigable rivers and long-reaching
lakes on this continent, but geographically they are far apart, and
there is no means of reaching vast regions except by land transpor-
tation. To the ordinary thinker a system of substantial macadam
roads would have solved the difficulty as far as draft animals could
have aided, but these roads were not tried to any extent.

The pinch of necessity wonderfully quickens the inventive faculties.
Long before a mile of tramway was built in the United States in con-
nection with coal mines, engineers and farseeing public men were dis-
cussing the possibilities of the steam engine as a means of accelerat-
ing land travel, and projects began to be agitated in different States
to construct railways, or tramways, on which the steam engine could
do the work of hauling the ears.

Those who looked favorably upon steam engines as motive power
on railroads were a small minority, and they were considered by the
majority as cranks and visionaries. Those regarded as sensible, pro-
gressive men, a little ahead of their time, favored horses for motive
power.

The problem that public men were interested in was, How are we
going to move our merchandise, and coal, and ore to the nearest point
of water navigation? The transportation of passengers received little
consideration from the early railroad schemers.

It might here be mentioned that had James Watt never lived, the
use of the steam engine for transportation purposes would have been
given to the American people just as soon as it was. Oliver Evans,
a native of Delaware, invented the high-pressure, high-speed engine
as an improvement on the Newcomen atmospheric engine when Watt
was working out his ponderous slow-moving improvement on the

646 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

same engine. The United States has been the land of high-speed,
high-pressure engines, the type most suitable for locomotive purposes,
and Oliver Evans was the originator.

The need for the locomotive was much more urgent in the United
States than it was in any other country. There were long stretches
between Western rivers and Eastern estuaries that needed to be con-
nected. There were no well-constructed roads of any consequence,
and such roads, had they existed, could not have offered rapid trans-
portation, so the railway was the chief hope of connecting the remote
territory with markets and the seaboard.

FIRST AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVE.

The first locomotive that was tried on the American Continent to
run on rails was imported from England by the Delaware and Hudson
Canal Company. It was selected and brought here by Horatio
Allen, a pioneer engineer, who was interested in railroad enterprises.
The engine was taken to Honesdale, Pa., and tried there in August,
1829. Mr. Allen reported that it was too heavy for the railroad strue-
ture, and its use was given up. The engine weighed only 7 tons, and
there was some diversity of opinion about its being too heavy for the
railroad, but Mr. Allen’s decision was final. Several engines of the
same type worked for years successfully on English railways. From
what is known about the structure of the road, engineers now agree
that it was sufficiently strong to support twice the weight of Allen’s
engine, known as the ‘“‘Stourbridge Lion.”

The first thirty years of the nineteenth century were for Americans
the period of speculation about the probable success of railroad build-
ing and the utility of the locomctive. Then the people set to work to
build railroads, and within ten years (1840) the country had 2,755 miles
of railroads and tramways.' Forafew years there was decided uncer-
tainty that the locomotive would be a practical form of motive power,
and Allen’s fiasco with the ‘‘Stourbridge Lion” helped to make the
capitalists who were investing their money in railroad building timid
about ordering locomotives while they could operate their cars with
horses.

EARLY RAILROADS AND LOCOMOTIVE BUILDING.

The South Carolina Railroad Company was one of the earliest in
the world to decide that its railroad should be operated by locomo-
tives, and the operation began in 1827, very soon after the beginning
in England.

People of Baltimore, who have always shown much zeal in support-
ing enterprises likely to bring trade and commerce to the city,
obtained in 1827 a charter from the legislature of Maryland to construct

1Report on Transportation by Land, Eleventh Census, by Henry C. Adams,
special agent, p. 6.

DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION. 647

arailroad from Baltimore to a point on the Ohio River. The building
of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was begun without loss of time
with imposing ceremonies. In the early part of 1830 the road had
been finished from Baltimore to Ellicott Mills, a distance of 15 miles,
and the company began operating that part by horses. There were
several sharp curves on the route, and a belief was general that a rail-
road having curves could not be operated by locomotives. Peter
Cooper, whose fame as a philanthropist is well known, was a resident
of Baltimore at that time, and he did not share the popular belief
that locomotives would not be capable of working around curves, so,
to demonstrate the faith that was in him, he built a small locomotive
in the Mount Clare shops, Baltimore, and tried it on the road. It was
avery tiny affair of about 1} horsepower, but it proved that a locomo-
tive could haul a load on a curved road. :

Cooper’s experiment increased public confidence in the efficiency of
locomotives, and the demand for this kind of engine increased as
steadily as pieces of railroad were finished.

Machine shops capable of building locomotives were not very
numerous, but a few shops undertook the work and succeeded very
well under the circumstances. The first practical engine intended
for everyday work was built by the West Point foundry, New York,
for the South Carolina Railroad. It was a small engine, with a ver-
tical boiler, but it worked as satisfactorily as the English locomotives
built at the same time (1830). The West Point foundry continued
to build locomotives for a time, and improved on the design and
capacity of the first engine. Among their most celebrated produe-
tions was the ‘‘De Witt Clinton,” built for the Mohawk and Hudson
Railroad.

Shortly after the experiment with Peter Cooper’s model locomotive
on the Baltimore and Ohio the management of the company adver-
tised for locomotives of American manufacture, offering to pay lib-
erally for them. In due time this brought five engines, all built at
different places, all different in design, and none of them imitating
English models. The preference was given to an engine built by
Davis & Gartner, of York, Pa. This engine had a vertical boiler and
was for a time the type of locomotive used by the Baltimore and Ohio
Railroad.

After this there were locomotive-building shops to be found in sey-
eral towns. Mathias Baldwin had entered the business the year pre-
vious, and his ‘‘ Ironsides,” the second locomotive built in the United
States, was running on the Germantown road, where it was doing
good work, although the company published a standing notice that
the locomotive would start daily with a train of passenger ears if the
weather was fair, but that on rainy days horses would pull the train.

By 1840 there were about two hundred and seventy locomotives
working on fifty-six railroads that were partly finished; but the greater

648 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

part of the mileage was still operated by horses. It may seem sur-
prising that so many locomotives should be employed on such a short
mileage when horses were doing most of the work, but a locomotive
during the first railroad decade was very little larger than the fire
engine of to-day, and great care was taken to prevent it from working
hard. The weight of the first Baltimore and Ohio regular locomotive
was 3% tons.
EARLY FREIGHT RATES.

The greater parts of early railroads were projected to join two or
three towns by easy communication or to provide the means of earry-
ing freight from the interior to harbor towns that were not well
provided with water transport. Complaints were made in the interior,
where farm products were raised, that the cost of transportation to a
market often exceeded the value of the shipment. When we examn-
ine the railroad rates charged in 1840, we are not surprised at the
complaints made by agricultural communities. A good many of
the railroads were chartered as turnpikes, and any person could haul
ears over them on paying the legal toll charges. This plan, which
caused great confusion, did not have the effect of cheapening trans-
portation. For years after steam motive power was generally intro-
duced private cars were hauled, both freight and passenger, payment
being exacted on a tonnage basis.

In 1840 Mr. W. H. Wilson, engineer of the Columbia and Philadel-
phia Railroad, reported that the rates of toll for the use of the road
varied from 6 mills to 4 cents per ton-mile. There were twelve dif-
ferent rates, the average being 2 cents per ton-mile. It was said
that in the first nine months of the operation of the Baltimore and
Ohio the cost per ton-mile was 6 cents. In 1857 the charges for car-
rying freight on a few leading railroads were as follows, in cents, per
ton-mile: Baltimore and Ohio, 43; Baltimore and Washington, 4;
Winchester and Potomac, 7; Portsmouth and Roanoke, 8; Boston
and Providence, 10; Boston and Lowell, 7; Mohawk and Hudson, 8.
At that time passengers were charged between 2 and 3 cents per mile
on the roads that carried them.

Although the rates were high from our present standpoint, the rail-
roads did not obtain much profit from the work done. ‘This arose
from a variety of causes. The railroads had nearly all been built in
an inferior fashion, with material that was too light for trains,
although engines and ears were also very light and poorly built. On
most of the lines the business offered was very small, but the trains
had to be run, no matter what the extra expense was.

As late as 1873 Gen. Herman Haupt, general manager of the
Atlanta and Richmond Railroad, testified to a Senate committee that
local rates were 33 to 4 cents per ton-mile, and that local passengers
were charged from 4 to 5 cents per mile. These rates, he acknowl-
edged, were about twice as high as those charged on Northern

DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION. 649

railroads. He justified the high charges on the ground that business
was small. He was dealing with conditions that existed on nearly
all railroads up to 1860.

The men in charge of the operating and of the machinery of rail-
roads had to learn their business by hard and often expensive experi-
ence. But they made steady progress, and every succeeding year, up
to a certain point, saw the railway transportation done at reduced
expense.

RAILS AND ROADBED.

It was soon found out that strap rails and other forms of weak
permanent way, laid on a soft, yielding roadbed, made the worst kind
of a foundation upon which to build up a prosperous business.
Railroad operators were not long in finding out that locomotives
weighing under 10 tons were too weak for hauling paying loads, and
that the small cars used had too much dead weight for the paying
load. From 1840 to 1860 the improving of the weak points named
occupied the attention of the most progressive railroad officials.

When there are good prospects for obtaining plenty of goods to
transport by railway the most important preparation for doing the
work at low cost is to have a good roadbed and a substantial track
properly laid upon it. The engineers who supervised the building of
early railroads believed that the first requirement of a good track was
to have it as unyielding as possible. The first part built by the Bal-
timore and Ohio served for several years as a model for other
railroad builders. A roadbed was first graded as nearly level as pos-
sible. A small trench was then made for each track and filled with
rubblestone. On this were laid blocks of granite or other rock, about
a foot square and as long as possible. The upper face and inner sur-
face of these blocks were dressed perfectly smooth. Bars of iron,
about an inch thick, were then laid on them close to the inner edge
and fastened there.

In some sections granite or other rock blocks were laid at intervals
with wooden stringers, to which the iron rails were fastened.

As late as 1841, in the building of the Erie Railroad, one of the
presidents had piles driven for 100 miles on dry land, to make a sub-
stantial support for the stringers that were to carry the rails.

A few years’ experience proved that the unyielding support to the
rails turned the structure into a long anvil, on which the rolling stock
was hammered to destruction. All who could afford the expense lost
no time in putting in cross-ties to support the track.

Great varieties of rail sections were tried during the first twenty
years of railroad building. First there was the plain strap noted for
its ‘‘snakeheads,” which was a form the rail sometimes took at a loose
joint. Frequently these snakeheads forced their way up through the
ear floor. Contemporaneous with the strap was the fish-bellied rail,
which was deeper in the middle than at the ends. This rail had to

650 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

be kept in position by cast-iron chairs, secured to the stringers or
cross-ties. Next came the U, or bridge, rail, laid with the flanges
spiked to the supports. Eventually the T-rail came and gradually
sent the others to serap dealers.

IMPROVEMENTS IN THE ENGINE.

The first direction that the improvement of rolling stock took was
the extension of the wheel base of the engine so that the weight
should be distributed over as much rail length as practicable with the
lightest possible weight on any one spot. This movement was really
begun in the United States, when, in 1831, John B. Jervis, chief
engineer of the Mohawk and Hudson Railroad, put a four-wheel truck
under the front end of an engine that was built under his supervision,
This worked so well on weak, uneven track that it was gradually
adopted by nearly all American railroads.

The coal railroads of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and New York,
which frequently had more business than their motive power could
handle, began using engines about the middle of the century which
were extraordinarily heavy and powerful for that time. The com-
panies using those engines could afford to build and maintain very
substantial permanent way, which was not the case with the aver-
age railroad company. At the same time the engine for ordinary
train service was working into an established form. By 1860 engines
weighing about 20 tons were becoming common, and most of them
were carried on two pairs of coupled driving wheels and a four-wheel
truck in front. That form came to be known as the ‘‘ American”
engine, and it held almost exclusive control of the motive-power field
with regular enlargements until about 1880. These engines were suit-
abie for any service, passenger or freight, when used on fairly level
roads, and are to-day the most popular motor ever put in front ofa train.

The locomotive of 1900 is an example of steady evolution, and its
leading features are survivals of the fittest. Vast improvements
have been made in quality and finish of material. Certain important
changes have been effected, among which these may be mentioned:
The putting of iron and steel into frames and driving wheels that
formerly were partly of wood; counterbalancing the driving wheels;
making the fire box suitable for burning coal instead of wood; using
equalizing levers between the wheels; placing the cylinders horizon-
tally instead of vertically or inclined; using steel tires instead of
iron; using steel for boilers instead of iron and for fire boxes instead
of iron or copper; using iron or steel for tubes instead of brass.
All these improvements have helped to increase the durability of the
engine, to make it more efficient, and therefore to enable it to reduce
the cost of hauling mile-tons of freight or passengers. Other changes
made in the interests of economy are extremely high boiler pressure,
increase in size, and using the steam on the compound system.

DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION. 651

STEEL RAILS.

Steel rails began to be introduced about 1867, and they steadily
forced iron rails out of use, except for places where the traffic was
very light. Engineers who have made the subject a special study
say that a steel rail is from 8 to 15 times more durable than iron and
is much less liable to breakage throughout the wholeof its use. The
invention of cheap methods of making steel rails has had a stupendous
effect upon transportation. It brought the cereals of regions west
of the Missouri River and of the remote Northwest into competition
with the grain-raising districts of the Eastern States and of Europe
and Asia; it caused a semirevolution in farming business in the Brit-
ish Isles, and strongly affected the condition and fortunes of millions
of people. While inflicting injury on the interests of the few, the ;
invention exercised a distinct beneficent influence on the many.

The iron rail and the 25-ton locomotive had pushed settlement and
civilization far beyond the limits possible when the mule-hauled
wagon formed the means of transport to waterways. Steel rails and
huge locomotives make the railroad a close competitor with waterways
in the cost of transportation; these have also made the capacity for
reaching remote places almost unlimited. :

It was only after the introduction of steel rails that railroad men
began to grasp the conditions necessary to move a unit of passengers
or freight at the least possible expense. The principal conditions are
powerful locomotives, loaded to their utmost capacity with large cars
carrying heavy loads and run over a fairly straight and level road.
For the last ten years all competent railroad managers have been
working in this direction.

Improvement in permanent way and in motive power greatly
reduced the cost of transportation, but a great change in the methods
of railroad operating and management preceded the physical improve-
ments referred to.

CONSOLIDATION AND EXTENSION OF RAILROADS.

2

It has already been mentioned that most of the early railroads were
built to connect towns or waterways. They were mostly short roads
that did not attempt to cooperate with one another in moving freight
or passengers beyond their own limits. This led to very annoying
delays and extra handling of freight. The line, for instance, between
Albany and Niagara was in the hands of many separate companies
that seldom worked in harmony, and nearly all other lines that were
links in through routes were managed in a similar manner. By 1850
the people had become tired enough of the unnecessary discomforts
endured on long journeys, and they began to demand radical reform.
This gave personages who became known as “‘railroad kings” their
opportunity.

652 YEARBOOK OF THE. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ECONOMICS OF THE GAUGE.

In connecting disjointed lines the consolidators lost an opportunity
which may cause much inconvenience in coming years. They found
a great variety of track gauges and chose the narrowest, 4 feet 84
inches, now known as the standard. That gauge is too narrow for
admitting of a properly designed boiler upon a large locomotive.
Many locomotives are already at work that have reached the limit of
their capacity, because the limited gauge prevents the boiler from
being made larger. To obtain a large boiler it has been raised as
high as bridges and tunnels will admit, and it can not be made any
longer with economy, so that the question has been raised whether
this country has not already nearly reached its limit of cheapness in
railroad transportation. If the gauge had been made 6 feet, the Erie
standard, or 5 feet 6 inches, which was the gauge of many Southern
roads and that of Canada, the possibilities of making railroads com-
pete successfully with water carriage would have been greatly in-
ereased. When all the leading railroads use locomotives of the
greatest possible capacity for the gauge, and cars are made to
carry the maximum load that can be safely conveyed on two four-
wheel trucks, the cost of transportation will be reduced, but not toa
radical extent. It is believed in some quarters that the bottom cost
has nearly been reached unless some revolutionary change is made
in the track and motive power.

One of the most curious facts met with in railroad history is the
influences by which certain track gauges were established. The set-
tling of the gauge likely to prove most convenient for the business to
be done is an engineering problem which ought to have received
careful study and profound calculation. Instead of that, the gauge
was generally decided by some whim. In 1840 there were thirty-
three separate railway companies in Great Britain, with 1,552 miles
of track, and they had five different gauges, ranging from 4 feet 84
inches to 7 feet—the narrowest gauge having more mileage than all
the others. The former was George Stephenson’s gauge, and it was
established in a curious way. The gate openings of the first tram-
road Stephenson was connected with were just sufficiently wide to
permit wheels extending 5 feet to pass. At that time the flange of the
wheel was on the outside. When the Stockton and Darlington Rail-
way was built Stephenson put the wheel flanges inside. The width
of the rail head was about 2 inches, so the inside gauge was 4 feet 8
inches. When the Liverpool and Manchester Railway was under
construction the engineers concluded that it was better to give the
wheels plenty of side play to make fast running easy, and they
widened the gauge one-half inch, making it 4 feet 84 inches.

The suecess of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway made George
Stephenson a great man, and others were ready to imitate what he
had done, so his gauge was adopted by most of the British railways.

DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION.” 653

He had locomotive building works that supplied many of our early
railroads with engines, and the track gauge was generally established
to fit the wheels of the engine. The South Carolina track was laid
to 5-foot gauge, and the tendency in the South was to follow that
width, but toward the Ohio River and some other Southern districts
5 feet 6 inches was the favorite gauge.

There was more confusion in the North. The roads that began
with Stephenson engines had mostly 4 feet 85 inches gauge; but there
were to be found gauges of 4 feet 9 inches, 4 feet 10 inches, 4 feet 11
inches, and 5 feet. Canada had 5 feet 6 inches, and the Erie road 6
feet. The wide gauge was adopted for the Erie because the chief
engineer said that the grades would be so heavy that enormously
large locomotives would be needed to haul the trains and that the
narrow gauge could not accommodate the size of engines necessary.
The president favored the wide gauge because he did not wish the
road to have facilities for interchange with other roads that might be
the means of carrying trade away from New York City.

RATES IN RECENT YEARS.

For the last thirty years the rates for the transportation of freight
have been steadily reduced. In 1854 a leading trunk line with ter-
minal in New York received an average 2.58 cents per ton per mile;
in 1899 the rate had fallen to 0.517 of a cent. In 1870 twelve leading
railroads received an average of 2 cents per ton-mile for freight, and
in 1898 it had fallen to 7.53 mills. The average rate for passengers
in the latter year was 1.973 cents per mile.

The rates for carrying passengers have not decreased in proportion
to freight charges, but it is doubtful if the railroad companies earn
more in proportion, for the cost of hauling trains has been greatly
enhanced by the introduction of heavy, luxurious cars and accelerated

speed.
EXPANSION AND PROGRESS.

In the foregoing pages much space has been devoted to a considera-
tion of the mechanical difficulties that were encountered by railroad
engineers and constructors in the extension of the railway system
of this country, for the reason that these difficulties were of a
fundamental character and needed to be overcome before distant
agricultural regions could be placed in practical and economical
communication with their markets. In previous treatments of this
subject, the dependence of agriculture upon these technical and
fundamental features of transportation has not received due impor-
tance; hence, the present attempt to explain the indebtedness that
agriculture and its extension in the United States owe to the mechanic,
the engineer, the railroad constructor, the inventor, and the railroad
manager. In the remainder of this paper attention will be given to
industrial and economic features.

654 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ROADS AND CANALS.

When the nineteenth century began the inhabitants of the States
forming the Union were settled within easy reach of navigable
streams or estuaries of the ocean, which provided indifferent means
of transportation. The most fertile land was often to be found
farther from the waterways, but the expense of carrying produce to
the market was in such cases greater than the value of the goods.

A glance at the map of the United States will show how bountifully
nature has provided the Atlantic coast with inland waterways that
extend far into the interior of the country. By the aid of these the
nucleus of a great nation was established with practically no aid
from artificial means of transportation. During the colonial period
there was not enough State or national feeling to induce the people to
join their energies in pushing enterprises, such as roads and improved
waterways, for the public good. The long struggle of the Revolu-
‘tionary conflict impoverished the people, never rich in the world’s
goods, and the close of the eighteenth century found the Government
too poor to undertake the execution of public works greatly needed
to aid the country in a progressive career.

Sentiment in favor of making better means of inland transit was,
however, kindled, and it gradually but surely warmed up public
opinion to engage in united efforts to carry out public works for
the good of the country at large. The first useful manifestation of
this sentiment was the building of good roads between important
trade centers. Then came agitation in favor of the construction of
canals. That the making of roads and canals did not achieve much
progress in the early years of this century was due more to the poy-
erty of the people than to their want of inclination.

The war of 1812 delayed to a great extent the construction of roads
and canals, but peace was searcely established when these publie
improvements were pushed with renewed vigor. By this time the
invention of the steamboat was imprinting its mark upon the country
and opening up prospects of extended inland commerce which never
had been dreamed of when the century began.

IMMIGRATION.

The nineteenth century has seen a mighty emigration, more stupen-
dous than anything that happened in ancient times, and it has gone
on so quietly that few people realize its vast proportions. This has
been the emigration of peoplefrom Europe to the United States. The
principal part of this immigration, which in itself has been sufficient
to form a great nation, has happened since the beginning of the rail-
read era, and the extending of new railroads has constanily opened
new worlds, where industry and thrift made possible conquests of
wealth and comfort, such as no other movement of the human race
has brought to the enterprising seekers after fortune.

‘

DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION. 655

THE STREAM OF TOILERS FROM EUROPE.

With road building, canal construction, and the sending of steam-
boats farther and farther inland, the United States was becoming the
greatest center of commercial activity and enterprise in the whole world.
The fame of this land of liberty extended beyond the Atlantic, and
thousands of people, destitute of land or starving in forced idleness,
looked to the United States as a land of promise, where industry
would reap the reward of food, raiment, and comfort.

That started a stream of emigration which rose like a rippling
brook, and increased as it advanced until if became a mighty river.

It is estimated that in the years from 1789 and 1820 about 250,000
immigrants came to the United States, a large proportion of them
having arrived in the latest decade. Although the disturbance of
the war of 1812 had prostrated enterprise, the last few years of the
second decade of the century witnessed the inauguration of industrial
activity, and were the beginning of the nation’s irresistible march on
the crusade of peaceful triumphs.

In the decennial period from 1821 to 1850 the immigrants num-
bered 143,439, and this brought the country to the beginning of the
railroad-building period. The flood of immigrants then increased
very rapidly, for the people in Europe found out that thousands of
hands would be needed in the construction of railroad works, while
others learned that the railroads were opening up new territory for
settlement, where land could be bought cheaply, while a market
would be open for the produce raised. In the decade 1831 to 1840
the Government records show that 599,125 immigrants arrived.

The stream of emigration was now becoming a flood. From 1841
to 1850 the population was increased by 1,715,251 people who came
from beyond the seas. It went on increasing from this source till, in
the decade from 1881 to 1890, it reached the immense proportions of
5,246,613. That was the high tide. From 1821 to 1899 immigrants
to the number of 18,823,668 came to find homes in the United States.
In the year 1882, which was the flood of the tide, the country received
almost 800,000 immigrants.

The world never before saw anything comparable with this tremen-
dous movement of people in so short a space of time. The population
that Europe has thus lost in a hundred years is about equal to two-
thirds of the population of Great Britain and Ireland in 1861, and
is a little less than this fraction of the number of inhabitants in
the United Statesin the same year. It represents five-sixths as many
people as Great Britain and Ireland gained in population in the first
ninety years of this century. If the ships on which these emigrants
embarked carried, on an average, 500 passengers, more than 38,000
round trips have been made in ferrying them to their new homes.

No probability can be discerned that any later century will see the
equal of this migration. The fairest parts of the world that were

656 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

wildernesses in 1800 now teem with industry and population. There
are no more virgin lands in abundance to occupy in this country; no
more such enticements to draw millions from the homes of their
fathers.

Much of this vast concourse of people rested not in towns upon
their arrival, but marched out bravely to lands that had never felt
the plow and to forests unmarked by the ax, and there by patient
toil proceeded to enrich themselves and the nation under whose
industrial fiag they had enlisted.

INCREASE OF POPULATION, AGRICULTURE, AND RAILROAD MILEAGE.

The means of railroad transportation advanced steadily with the
growth of population. Although early in the century a movement
had been started for the construction of good roads, the work done
searcely made a mark on the map of the United States, and the people
who settled more than a day’s journey from navigable water or canals
depended on railroads as almost their sole means of transporting their
produce to markets. To them the railroad was looked upon to per-
form the functions done by turnpikes in other countries. On this
account the people have given extraordinary encouragement to the
building of railroads.

In 1840 the population of the country was 17,069,453, and there were
2,755! miles of railroads in operation, or 0.16 of 1 mile, about one-
sixth of a mile for every 1,000 people. In the census year 1840 Ohio,
Pennsylvania, New York, Virginia, and Kentucky raised 57 million
bushels of wheat. During the same year Tennessee, Kentucky, Vir-
ginia, Ohio, and Indiana raised 181 million bushels of corn. The
total volume of agricultural exports that year was worth $92,548,067.

The next decade, ending in 1850, found the population increased
to 23,191,876 people, and the railroad mileage to 8,571,' or 0.37 of 1
mile for every 1,000 of the population. Pennsylvania, Ohio, New
York, Virginia, and Illinois in 1850 raised 634 million bushels of
wheat, and Ohio, Kentucky, Illinois, Indiana, and Tennessee raised
281 million bushels of corn; Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, South
Carolina, and Tennessee raised 2.04 million bales of cotton; New York,
Ohio, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Tennessee had $222,900,000 worth
of farm live stock on hand. The exports amounted to $108,605,715
in agricultural produce.

In 1860 there were 31,443,321 people, and 28,920! miles of railroad,
or 0.92 of 1 mile to every 1,000 of the people. During 1860 Illinois,
Indiana, Wisconsin, Ohio, and Virginia raised 843 million bushels of
wheat, while Illinois, Ohio, Missouri, Indiana, and Kentucky raised
397 million bushels of corn; Mississippi, Alabama, Louisiana, Georgia,
and Texas raised 4.1 million bales of cotton; and the farms of New

!Report on Transportation by Land, Eleventh Census, by Henry C. Adams,
special agent, p. 6.

DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION, 657

York, Ohio, Illinois, Pennsylvania, and Kentueky had on hand 388
million dollars’ worth of live stock. The value of agricultural exports
was $256,560,972.

In 1870 the population had risen to 38,558,371, and the railroad
mileage was 49,168,’ or 1.28 miles to each 1,000 of the population.
During that year Illinois, Iowa, Ohio, Indiana, and Wisconsin raised
141 million bushels of wheat; Illinois, Iowa, Ohio, Missouri, and
Indiana raised 3833 million bushels of corn; Mississippi, Georgia,
Alabama, Louisiana, and Texas raised 2.17 million bales of cotton;
New York, Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Missouri had on their
farms 646 millions of dollars’ worth of live stock. The export of
agricultural produce was worth $361,188,483.

During the decade ended in 1880 the population increased to
50,155,783, and there were 87,724! miles of railroad, or 1.75 miles for
each 1,000 inhabitants. Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Michigan, and Minne-
sota raised 2143 million bushels of wheat in 1880, while Illinois, Iowa,
Missouri, Indiana, and Ohio raised 1,030} million bushels of corn,
Mississippi, Georgia, Texas, Alabama, and Arkansas raised 3.89 million
bales of cotton, and Illinois, Iowa, New York, Ohio, and Missouri
had 5743 million dollars’ worth of live stock. The value of agricul-
tural produce exported that year was $685,961,091.

In the 1890 decade the population was 62,622,250; there were
163,597? miles of railroads, 2.61 miles for every 1,000 of the popu-
lation. Minnesota, California, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio in 1890
raised 2033 million bushels of wheat; Iowa, Illinois, Kansas, Missouri,
and Ohio raised 1,173 million bushels of corn; Texas, Georgia, Mis-
sissippi, Alabama, and South Carolina raised 5.48 million bales of
cotton, while the farmers in Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, and New
York had on hand 778 millicn dollars’ worth of live stock. The
export of agricultural products aggregated $629,820,808.

In 1900 the estimated population is 75,000,000; the miles of railroad,
190,000,° or 2.53 miles per 1,000 of population.

In 1899 Minnesota, North Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota, and Kansas
produced 234 million bushels of wheat; Illinois, Iowa, Kansas,
Nebraska, and Missouri raised 1,114 million bushels of corn; Texas,
Georgia, Mississippi, Alabama, and South Carolina raised 8.2 million

ales of cotton, and the farms in Iowa, Texas, Illinois, Kansas, and
New York contained about 621 million dollars’ worth of live stock. 4
The value of agricultural products exported was about $784,999,009. >

1Report on Transportation by Land, Eleventh Census, by Henry C. Adams,
special agent, p. 6.

* Report of Statistician of Interstate Commerce Commission, 1898.

’ Estimates of the Department of Agriculture, based on reports of the Statis-
tician of the Interstate Commerce Commission.

4In 1900, without swine, $784,989 ,087.

‘Bureau of Statistics, Treasury Department (subject to revision).

1 A 99——42

658 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

LONG-DISTANCE TRANSPORTATION.

While the United States for many years continued to be almost exelu-
sively an agricultural country, the center of population has remained
near the middle of the settled portion. A century ago there were
very few settlers west of the Appalachian Mountains except in Ken-
tucky, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. The people were mostly settled on
a strip about 1,600 miles long, extending along the coast from Maine
to Aiabama, the width depending upon the number and character of
the rivers that provided means of transportation into the interior.
Up to 1840 the center of population moved within a radius of 200
miles from Washington, D. C.; then it moved slowly westward. In
1850 it was near Parkersburg, W. Va.; in 1860 it was near Chillicothe,
Ohio; in 1870 it was 48 miles east by north of Cincinnati, Ohio; in
1880 it was 8 miles west by south of Cincinnati and in 1890 it was
20 miles east of Columbus, Ind.

The center of population after 1840 began to be more and more
influenced by the increasing population of the manufacturing and
mining districts, and the greater part of the agricultural products
came to be raised in States that were a long distance away from the
center of population. It will be noticed that in 1840 and 1850 New
York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia were among the best wheat-raising
States, but after that the raising of cereals moved gradually to the
Western States. This movement became very rapid after the intro-
duction of steel rails enabled railroad companies to make material
reduction in freight charges.

After railway construction began a partof the westward movement
of population was surging in advance of railroad building, the enter-
prising people being contented to go forward and wait for the rail-
roads that would give them easy communication with the commercial
world by the time they had produce to sell and were ready to purchase
the commodities that the outer world would supply. They went by
rail, by boats on lakes and other waterways, and then by prairie
schooner found their way to the more fertile regions open for settle-
ment.

It was not safe, however, to settle far from a point of shipment by
rail or water, because produce could be carried by wagons but a short
distance before the cost of transportation would equal the value of
the load.

The desired reduction of freight rates has not yet been accomplished ;
but the movement toward cheapness has been so pronounced that it
is safe to predict that when railroads are using locomotives and ears
of maximum power and capacity, a day’s wages of a common laborer
in New York may be sufficient to pay the charges on a year’s food sent
from St. Paul, Omaha, or Kansas City to New York. In 1887 the aver-
age charge for transporting a bushel of wheat from Chicago to New
York by railwas15.75 cents; in 1899 the charge was11.6cents. During

DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION, 659

the year 1887 the average rate per100 poundsof meat from Cincinnati
“to New York by rail was 27.12 cents; during 1899 it was 24.83 cents.

Anterior to the steel-rail period, when wood-burning locomotives
hauled cars loaded with from 500 to 600 bushels of wheat or from
15,000 to 20,000 pounds of other products, the rail freight charges for
long distances were practically prohibitory. In 1858 the rate per
bushel of wheat from Chicago to New York was 38.61 cents, and there
was a very small margin of profit forthe carriers. The introduction
of more powerful locomotives and cars of greater capacity, together
with water competition, pushed the all-rail rate downward till in 1870
it was 26.11 cents. At this time the lake and rail rate was 19.58 cents
per bushel of wheat.

DEVELOPMENT WEST AND SOUTHWEST.

There were now prospects that land in districts remote from water
carriage would be cultivated with profit to the farmer, and the tide
of immigration flowed rapidly into States that previously had a
meager population. In the decade from 1860 to 1870 twelve States
and Territories in the West, Northwest, and Southwest added the fol-
lowing approximate increase of population:

Increase of population from 1860 to 1870.

Increase of

Increase of

State or Territory. eee State or Territory. populate:
to 1870. to 1870.
LDA ot 9,000 || Minnesota -....-.--- 268, 000
MIEHOW =~ 23 tea, Guo if Missourl -- <2 -6..- 539, 000
MediIANA).. ~-A..0272_- 830, 000 |} Nebraska --...._---- 94, 000
WOW = oar a2 oh 519, 000 || Texas --.----- oeeeeee 214, 000
ARRAS eS. oo scce 5
Wentnelkoy= 5. 3. =
Michigan .......---

This movement of immigration must have been greatly obstructed
by the civil war, which covered nearly half of the decade. After peace
and order were restored, the stream of immigration increased rapidly.

The increase of agricultural products was closely related to the
increase of population. Cheap railroad rates enabled the more remote
farmers to compete with farmers raising farm produce on the sea-
coast, and their dressed meat and grain were sent to consumers
thousands of miles away. The subject of ocean transportation as
relating to the distribution of the agricultural products in this
country and the creation of a world market for them has been treated of
fully in another publication issued by the Department. The subject

1Statistics of Freight Charges for Ocean Transportation of the Products of
Agriculture, October 1, 1895, to October 1, 1896, prepared by Mr. H. T. New-
comb, formerly chief of the section of freight rates, Division of Statistics, Depart-
ment of Agriculture, now chief of the division of agriculture, Twelfth Census.

660 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of canal transportation is a large one, and will only be mentioned in
this paper, especially since the subject has been exhaustively treated ~
of in other publications.

FREIGHT AND PASSENGER RATES.

FREIGHT RATES.”

The following table shows the freight rates, in cents, per bushel for
wheat and corn from Chicago to New York:

Rates, in cents, per bushel for wheat and corn from Chicago to New York,
1870, 1880, 1890, and 1899.

Wheat. Corn.
Year. _ | By rail By rail
By rail. and By rail. and
water. water.

Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents.

TY (Rees eset as mer Sma ren aaa 26.11 19. 58 24. 37 19. 32
12) 1 Sea eet er tas ee ee eee 19.8 15.8 17.48 14. 48
1SO0EE > a6. Soe eee ere See ee 14.3 8. 52 11. 36 7.32

TRO ks ek eee aes eke sae eee 11.6 6. 63 10. 08 5. 83

The tendency of rates for live stock and dressed meat has been
steadily downward, but not in the same proportion as the rates for .
cereals.

The following are the rates; in cents, per 100 pounds of live stock
from Chicago to New York by rail:

Rates, in cents, per 100 pounds of live stock from Chicago to New York by rail,

1872, 1880, 1890, 1895, and 1899.

. Horses
ze Dressed | Dressed
eae! : rs. | Sheep. d
Yeai Cattle Hogs SS) eep pnd beef. hogs.

Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents.

ye ee || 81
55 43 65 60 88
23 28 30 60 39
28 30 30 60 45
25 25 25 60 40

The distanee from St. Louis to New Orleans by rail is about 754
miles. By water it is considerably greater. The river rates, how-
ever, compare favorably with the charges by rail. In 1866 corn and
rye per bushel cost 9.05 cents during high water and 10.93 during low ©
water. In 1877 these rates were 7.63 and 8.59 cents, respectively, and

1See Publications of the American Economic Association, Vol. V, 1890, Nos, 3
and 4, two papers on the canal question, by Edmund J. James, Ph. D., and by
Lewis M. Haupt, C. E.; also Quarterly Journal of Economics, February, 1900,
‘““The New York canals,” by John A. Fairlie.

* All rates are expressed in gold.

———

DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION. 661

grain in sacks of 100 pounds cost 20.04 cents for freight, while wheat
in bulk was charged only 8.11 cents per bushel. In 1899 these latter
rates had dropped to 10 and 4.50 cents, respectively. The rates for
eorn and rye were quoted in 1892 as 5cents per bushel for high water
and 7 cents for low water.

The distance from Cincinnati to New York is about 200 miles shorter
than the distance from Chicago, but the rates for dressed meats are
not materially lower. In 1868 the average rate per 100 pounds was
48.8 cents. In 1880 the rate was 33.41 cents; in 1890 it was 23.89
cents, and in 1899 it was 24.83 cents.

For bulky, fragile, and perishable articles higher rates are charged
by railroad companies than for those heavy articles with which a ear
ean be loaded to its full carrying capacity as measured by weight, and
which are not likely to sustain damage in transit. The following
table shows the rates, in cents, for 100 pounds of a variety of merchan-*
dise from New York to Chicago:

Rates, in cents. per 100 pounds of merchandise from New York to Chicago
by rail,1867, 1870, 1880, 1890, and 1899.

Less than car load. Regardless of quantity.

|
|
|
| |
|
|

Year. fe a Dry | Cotton; Boots
= ee | Lead. Sugar. | =e) piece | and Tea. Drugs.!
= oat | | is *| goods. | shoes. | | |
zl
| | | |
Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. Cents.
137 eo; 6o| is7| 137} 187| 135] 187
113 Le pace 13} 1s; U3} 13; 13 |
Biacitet set 40} 40 75 | 75 7%} 6| %
50 35 35 %| sO} % 75| 7%
50) 35 | 35 75 50 | 75 75 | 75
| | =A

Car loads naturally come cheaper than small quantities, but it was
only the later generations of railroad officials who recognized this dis-
tinction. They have also treated shippers of different classes of
freight more equitably than their predecessors. The following are
the rates, in cents, per 100 pounds of a variety of commodities from
New York to Chicago by rail, in car loads:

Rates, in cents, per 100 pounds of articles from New York to Chicago by rail,
1867, 1870, 1880, 1890, and 1899.
| Agricul- ea.

Furni-| tural | and
ture. | imple- | earth-

Soap.

ape ea) Mo-
Coffee. Starch.) jase

Year. |
Cas- | Com-

| ments. | tay | tile. | mon. |
|
Cents. } Cents. Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. Cents.
jan) tar Paar aa’ | sar. |? ao | ae 93
Spas 10 eee wares as 98 60
75 | | 49
65 | | 30

662 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The following are the average freight rates, in cents, per ton per
mile charged by different railroad companies:

Average rates, in cents, per ton per mile by different railroads, 1867, 1870,
1880, 1890, and 1898.

Be

Lake

Boston| New Sena. | Penn. | CBese- SEO Ilinois| +. | Allin
Year. jand Al- oe Erie. | Michi-| syl- acer aS Cen- woe United
bany. eel gan | vania. Ohio Hil tral. ‘| States.
. South- ; .
aie Pacific.

Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents.
1867_-| 2.201} 1.98 T4654) 2.745 |" 240% |) Si 7b8) 250850) 2108beheae meee 1. 925
1870__| 1.851 | 1.590 | 1.125] 1.269] 1.268] 4.101 | 2.316] 1.9538) 3.596) 1.889
1880_.] 1.207 . 879 . 836 . 750 . 918 .866 | 1.209] 1.543

1890__| 1.105 . 730 . 685 . 644 - 661 - 061 . 995 -942 | 1.138 - 941
1898._| .839 . 606 575 530 O21 . 069 . 966 - 695 95 - 753

PASSENGER RATES.

The following table shows the average rates, in cents, per passenger-
mile charged by different railroad companies:

Average rates, tr cents, per passenger-mile, 1867, 1870, 1880, 1890, and 1898.

Lake : m7

hor Chi-
meee york . “and. Penn- peake | Rock Tiinois Union All in
Year. | Atba-| Gen- | Erie. | Michi-| sylva-| *sn@ | itslana| C®® |Pacific.| United

ny. | tral. goath- nla. | Ohio. < and | tral. ‘| States.
ern. a .

Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents.

LSGveey Wesson es ss ae G40) 222282 2.074 |2--- 25-5 3. 1522) 2. 198) oan 1. 994
1870_-| 2.342 | 1.77 2.47 2.204 | 2.167 | 3.979 | 3.426) 3.29 4.301 | 2.392
1880..| 2.096 | 1.999 | 2.041 | 2.185} 2.222 | 2.959) 2.806) 2.514 |.-._--_- 3. 442

1890_-| 1.858 | 1.91 1.584 | 2.253 | 2.094] 2.056) 2.149) 2.022 | 2.045 | 2.167
1898_-| 1.75 1.806 | 1.548] 2.082} 1.953] 1.943] 2.092 | 1.938 | 1.945] 1.973

It will be seen from the above figures that the downward trend of
passenger rates has not been conspicuous. Indeed, the above table
shows that passenger rates were about as high in 1898 as they were
in 1867. There is so much suburban business, which is carried
at reduced rates, mixed up with the figures quoted that the real rates
for through travel are higher than the table shows. As the rates on
American passenger trains for first-class cars have been for forty
years as low as were to be found in any country, it is not surprising
that they have undergone little reduction.!

1For a detailed statement of railway transportation rates, see Bulletin No. 15,
miscellaneous series, Division of Statistics, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Changes in the Rates of Charge for Railway and other Transportation Services,
prepared under the direction of Mr. John Hyde, Statistician, by Mr. H. T. New-
comb, formerly chief of the section of freight rates.

DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION. 663

The Midland Railway of England, which may be taken as a repre-
sentative road, some years ago abolished second-class passenger rates,
and now runs only first-class and third-class carriages. The rate
for first class is 34 cents per mile, and for third class 2 cents per mile.
Other railways charge from 44 cents to 5 cents per mile for first class,
3to 34 cents for second class, and 2 cents per mile for third class, the
latter rate being regulated by law.

Mr. George H. Daniels, general passenger agent of the New York
Central Railroad, a high authority on railroad matters, in an address
delivered before the Utica Chamber of Commerce on February 19,
1900, said :

It is beyond question that American railroads to-day furnish the best service in
the world, at the lowest rates of fare,at the same time paying their employees
very much higher wages than are paid for similar service in any other country
on the globe. :

In the United States the first-class passenger fares last year averaged 1.98 cents
per mile, although on some large railways the average was several mills less than
2 cents per mile; in England the first-class fare is 4 cents per mile; third-class
fare, for vastly inferior service, is 2 cents per mile, but only on certain parliamen-
tary trains.

In Prussia the first-class fare is 3cents per mile; in Austria 3.05 cents per mile;
in France 3.36 cents per mile.

Our passenger cars excel those of foreign countries in all that goes to make up
the comfort and convenience of a journey.

Our sleeping and parlor car system is vastly superior to theirs; our baggage
system is infinitely better than theirs, and arranged upon a much more liberal
basis. American railroads carry 150 pounds of baggage free, while the German
roads carry only 55 pounds free.

The tighting of our trainsis superb, while the lighting of trains on most foreign
lines is wretched.

The annual reports of British railway companies do not show the
charges of freight per mile, but Mr. E. G. Dorsey, a well-known civil
engineer, investigated the subject several years ago, and his conelu-
sion was that the rates averaged 23 cents per ton per mile. That is
nearly three times the average rate charged by American railroads.
Mr. J. S. Jeans, secretary of the Iron and Steel Institute of Great
Britain, estimates the average rate for mineral to be 1.5 cents per ton
per mile. The rates on railways on the Continent of Europe area
little higher than those of England for both freight and passengers.

APPENDIX.

a .. a re eS
a SUMMARY OF INFORMATION ON VARIOUS SUBJECTS

OF INTEREST TO THE FARMER.

» Dx

CONTIN TS:

Page
Organization of the Department of Agriculture, December 81, 1899_____._- 667
Appropriations for the Department of Agriculture for the fiscal years ending
June 30,1898, 1899, and 1900 .. 2. one ee ee 670
Agricultural colleges and other institutions in the United eaten having
courses. apriculture ste... 22 28 82a eee eee 671
Agricultural experiment stations of the United States, their locations,
direetors, and principal lines of work.:.:..../..2.2... 2022 672
Notes regarding Department publications....._.......-..--.-.------c-deee 676
Publications issued January 1 to December 31, 1899 ____.._______-__.<__.__- 676
tate officials in charge of agriculture ..-..2:.-2---....- 22212... 686
wecretaries of State agricultural societies ..._...._._...._.2.._-.-_-- eee 687
Officials in charge of farmers’ institutes...--2.-..2-..s05-.25 55.00 687
Warny Olicials - 2... tenes nse oceee wn Bae oa ee ee 688
Protection against contagion from foreign cattle._......__...-.---.-..--_- 691
ieceders associations. 2... YE Renee es ee ge eee ee 691, 693, 694, 696
Poultry associations ....2-..145 2-292 2. 2 Ae ee 697
State veterinarians and secretaries of sanitary boards._.__....._.__-_.-_-__- 698
Central committee, National Road Parliament.__.....2.-.....---.2- 2a 701
states. haying officers for forest work _..2....-_--..1__L-..2:_._) ee 702
mlorestry ASs0CiahiONS < 28 ney js aes eek al eee oe 702
pengols of forestry =. ..2- 2 us. ano se ect eee ee ee 703
Officers of horticultural and kindred societies.__... 2... --2-t.2-. 22 225eee 704
National, sectional, and State bee keepers’ associations____.__._..-.---_-_- 708
State officials concerned with the protection of birds and game.__________- 710
Organizations for protection of birds and game __________..__.....-.-----. 713
Audubon societies... .2..-2_aJ23.26..04 soe ee ee ce eee eee 71
Barmers’ reading COWrSseS.. 2-2-2 2a. Jac eee eee eee 717
armers’ National Congress : 2. 242c.2..2.-- 4. 86454220) Bee rally
Papcons Of Musbandry 2028... Sei eedece bee eee ee i
Officials charged with agricultural interests in several countries -____.-.-- 720
Review of weather and crop conditions, season of 1899 _____..._..._._-_.-- 720
Progress in agricultural chemistry in 1899 ...-.. 2-2 oe 742
The principal injurious insects of the year 1899 _._.._..---.....-----_--oee 745
Progress in fruit growing in 1899 .-2.........:...... 42.2 er 748
Recent progress in road building... ......--..2.-22-5- 224.05 ee 749
Plant diseases in the United States in 1899__._._/._.....-..--..-.__-2enee 750
state standards for dairy products, 1900__.__.....5.2.._-._..... eee 752
Progress in forestry during 1899 2... 22.2.2 bl ee 752
Agricultural libraries of the United States.................-.----._-o-ueun a7
Boards of trade that publish commercial news ._..-.-----.-. -------------- 758
Cotton exéhanges .....22 25.322 doosh ee eee 758
Statistics of the principal crops and farm animals__._.______._..-._-_--_-- 759
Imports and exports of agricultural products -..............-.------------ 822
Average prices for imports and exports.............---2--.....0) 50 836
murar statistics... scic2. cae ee a eee 839
Pipnsportation Labtes ..osc0cceuucelacccde ooeocc el eee eee 841

666

APPENDIX.

ORGANIZATION OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
DECEMBER $i, 1899.

OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY.

SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE, James Wilson.

The Secretary of Agriculture is charged with the supervision of all public busi-
ness relating to the agricultural industry. He appoints all the officers and
employees of the Department, with the exception of the Assistant Secretary and
the Chief of the Weather Bureau, who are appointed by the President, and directs
the management of all the divisions, offices, and bureaus embraced in the Depart-
ment. He exercises advisory supervision over the agricultural experiment sta-
tions deriving support from the National Treasury, and has control of the quaran-
tine stations for imported catile and of interstate quarantine rendered necessary
by contagious cattle diseases.

ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE, Joseph H. Brigham.

The Assistant Secretary performs such duties as may be required by law or
prescribed by the Secretary. He also becomes Acting Secretary of Agriculture
in the absence of the Secretary.

CHIEF CLERK, Andrew Geddes.

The Chief Clerk has the general supervision of the clerks and employees; of
the order of business, records, and correspondence of the Secretary’s office; of all
expenditures from appropriations for contingent expenses, stationery, etc.; of the
enforcement of the general regulations of the Department, and of the buildings
occupied by the Department of Agriculture.

APPOINTMENT CLERK, Joseph B. Bennett.

The Appointment Clerk is charged by the Secretary with the preparation of all
papers involved in making appointments, transfers, promotions, reductions, fur
loughs, or dismissals, and has charge of all correspondence of the Department
with the United States Civil Service Commission. He deals with all questions as
to positions in the Department which are under civil-service rules.

CHIEF OF SUPPLY DIVISION, Cyrus B. Lower.

The Supply Division has charge of purchases of supplies and materials paid for
from the general funds of the Department.

BUREAUS, DIVISIONS, AND OFFICES.

WEATHER BuREAU (corner Twenty-fourth and M streets NW).—Chief, Willis
L. Moore; Chief Clerk, Henry E. Williams; Professors of Meteorology, Cleve-
“ee Abbe, F. H. Bigelow, Alfred J. Henry, Charles F. Marvin, Edward B.

arriott.

The Weather Bureau has charge of the forecasting of weather; the issue of
storm warnings; the display of weather and flood signals for the benefit of agri-
culture, commerce, and navigation; the gauging and reporting of rivers; the
maintenance and operation of seacoast telegraph lines, and the collection and
transmission of marine intelligence for the benefit of commerce and navigation;
the reporting of temperature and rainfall conditions for the cotton, rice, sugar,
and other interests; the display of frost and cold-wave signals; the distribution of
meteorological information in the interests of agriculture and commerce; and the
taking of such meteorological observations as may be necessary to establish and
record the climatic conditions of the United States or as are essential for the
proper execution of the foregoing duties.

667

668 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BurREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.—Chief, D. E. Salmon; Assistant Chief, A. D.
Melvin; Chief Clerk, 8. R. Burch; Chief of Inspection Division, A. M. Farring-
ton; Chief of Miscellaneous Division, Tooie A. Geddes; Chief of Pathological
Division, Victor A. Norgaard; Chief of Biochemic Division, E. A. de Schweinitz;
Chief of Dairy Division, Henry E. Alvord; Zoologist, Ch. Wardell Stiles; In
charge of Experiment Station, BE. C. Schroeder.

The Bureau of Animal Industry makes investigations as to the existence of con-
tagious pleuro-pneumonia and other dangerous communicable diseases of live
stock, superintends the measures for their extirpation, makes original investiga-
tions as to the nature and prevention of such diseases, and reports on the condition
and means of improving the animal industries of the country. It also has charge
of the inspection of import and export animals, of the inspection of vessels for the
transportation of export cattle, and of the quarantine stations for imported neat
cattie: supervises the interstate movement of cattle, and inspects live’ stock and
their products slaughtered for food consumption.

DIvIsion oF Sratistics.—Statistician and Chief, John Hyde; Assistant Statis-
tician, George K. Holmes.

The Division of Statistics collects information as to the condition, prospects, and
harvests of the principal crops, and of the numbers, condition, and values of farm
animals, through separate corps of county, township, and cotton correspondents,
and individual farmers; and through State agents, each of whom is assisted
by a corps of local reporters throughout the State. It obtams similar information
from European countries monthly through consular, agricultural, and commercial
authorities. It collects, tabulates, and publishes statistics of agricultural produc-
tion, distribution, and consumption, the authorized data of governments, insti-
tutes, societies, boards of trade, and individual experts. It issues a monthly
crop report and occasional bulletins for the information of the producers and
consumers, and for their protection against combination and extortion in the
handling of the products of agriculture.

SECTION OF FOREIGN MARKETS.—Chief, Frank H. Hitchcock.

The Section of Foreign Markets makes investigations and disseminates infor-
mation ‘‘ concerning the feasibility of extending the demands of foreign markets
for the agricultural products of the United States.”

OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS.—Director, A. C. True; Assistant Director,
EK. W. Allen.

The Office of Experiment Stations represents the Department in its relations to
the experiment stations which are now in operation in all the States and Territo-
ries. It seeks to promote the interests of agricultural education and investigation
throughout the United States. It collects and disseminates general information
regarding the colleges and stations, and publishes accounts of agricultural investi-
gations at home and abroad. Italso indicates lines of inquiry of the stations, aids
in the conduct of cooperative experiments, reports upon their expenditures and
work, and in general furnishes them with such advice and assistance as will best
promote the purposes for which they were established. It is also charged with
investigations on the nutritive value and economy of human foods. The collection
of valuable matter on irrigation from agricultural colleges and other sources, as
provided in the appropriation bill, is conducted by this office.

DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY.— Chemist and Chief, Harvey W. Wiley; Assistant Chem-
ist, Ervin EK. Ewell.

The Division of Chemistry makes investigations of the methods proposed for the
analyses of soils, fertilizers, and agricultural products, and such analyses as per-
tain in general to the interests of agriculture. It can not undertake the analyses
of sampies of the above articles of a miscellaneous nature, but application for such
analyses should be made to the directors of the agricultural experiment stations
of the different States. The division does not make assays of ores nor analyses
of minerals except when related to general agricultural interests, nor analyses of
water.

DivIsIOn OF ENTOMOLOGY.—Hntomologist and Chief, L. O. Howard; Assistant

Entomologist, C. L. Marlatt.

The Division of Entomology obtains and disseminates information regarding
injurious insects; investigates insects sent to the division in order to suggest
appropriate remedies; conducts investigations in economic entomology in dif-
ferent parts of the country, and mounts and arranges specimens for illustrative
and museum purposes.

Ee

ORGANIZATION OF THE DEPARTMENT. 669

Division OF BIOLOGICAL SuRVEY.—Biologist and Chief, C. Hart Merriam;
Assistant Chief, T. S. Palmer.

The Division of Biological Survey studies the geographic distribution of animals
and plants, and maps the natural life zones of the country; it also investigates
the economic relations of birds and mammals, and recommends measures for the
preservation of beneficial and the destruction of injurious species.

Division oF Forestry.—Forester and Chief, Gifford Pinchot; Superintendent of

Working Plans, Henry 8. Graves.

The Division of Forestry investigates methods and trees for planting in the
treeless West, gives practical assistance to tree planters, and also to farmers,
lumbermen, and others, in handling forest lands. It studies commercial trees to
determine their special values in forestry, and also studies forest fires and other
forest problems.

Division OF Botany.—Botanist and Chief, Frederick V. Coville; Assistant
Chief, Lyster H. Dewey; Special Agent in Charge of Section of Seed and Plant
Introduction, O. F. Cook.

The Division of Botany investigates botanical agricultural problems, including
the purity and value of agricultural seeds; methods of controlling the spread of
weeds or preventing their introduction into this country; the dangers, effects, and
antidotes for poisonous plants, the native plant resources of the country, and other
subjects of economic botany. It introduces, tests, and distributes valuabie seeds
and plants from foreign countries.

DIVISION OF VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY AND PaTHOLOGY.—Pathologist and Chief,
B. T. Galloway; Assistant Pathologist, Albert F. Woods.

The Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology has for its object a study
of the normal and abnormal life processes of plants. It seeks by investigations in
the field and experiments in the laboratory to determine the causes of disease and
the best means of preventing the same. It studies plant physiology in its bearing
on pathology.

DIivIsIon OF AGROSTOLOGY.—Agrostologist and Chief, F. Lamson-Scribner;

Assistant Chief, Thomas A. Williams.

The Division of Agrostology is charged with the investigation of the natural
history, geographical distribution, and uses of grasses and forage plants, their
adaptation to special soils and climates, the introduction into cultivation of
promising native and foreign kinds, and the preparation of publications and
correspondence relative to these plants.

Division OF PomoLoaGy.—Pomologist and Chief, Gustavus B. Brackett; Assistant

Pomologist, W. A. Taylor.

The Division of Pomology collects and distributes information in regard to the
fruit interests of the United States; investigates the habits and peculiar qualities
of fruits, their adaptability to various soils and climates, and conditions of cul-
ture; and introduces new and untried fruits from foreign countries.

Division oF Sorts.—Chief, Milton Whitney; Assistant Chief, Lyman J. Briggs.

The Division of Soils is intrusted with the investigation, survey, and mapping
of soils; the investigation of the cause and prevention of the rise of alkali in the

soil, and the drainage of soils; and the investigation of the methods of curing
and fermentation of tobacco in the different tobacco districts.

OFFICE OF PuBLIC Roap InQuinies.—Acting Director, Maurice O. Eldridge.

The Office of Public Road Inquiries collects information concerning the systems
of road management throughout the United States, conducts investigations and
experiments regarding the best method of road making, and prepares publications
on this subject.

DIVISION OF GARDENS AND GrRouNDS.—AHorticulturist and Superintendent of
Gardens and Grounds, William Saunders.

_ The Division of Gardens and Grounds ischarged with the care and ornamenta-
tion of the park surrounding the Department buildings, and with the duties con-
po with the conservatories and gardens for testing and propagating economic
plants.

Division oF PUBLICATIONS.—Editor and Chief, Geo. Wm. Hill; Assistant Chief,
Joseph A. Arnold: Assistant in Charge of Document Section, R. B. Handy.
The Division of Publications exercises general supervision of the Department

printing and illustrations, edits all publications of the Department (with the

exception of those of the Weather Bureau), has charge of the printing and

670 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Farmers’ Bulletin funds, and distributes all Department publications with the
exception of those turned over by law to the Superintendent of Documents for
sale at the price affixed by him; it issues, in the form of press notices, official
information of interest to agriculturists, and distributes, to agricultural publica-
tions and writers, notices and synopses of Department publications.

DIVISION OF ACCOUNTS AND DISBURSEMENTS.—Chief and Disbursing Clerk, Frank
L. Evans; Assistant Chief (in charge of Weather Bureau disbursements), A.
Zappone; Cashier, Everett D. Yerby.

The Division of Accounts and Disbursements is charged with the adjustment of
all claims against the Department; decides questions involving the expenditure
of public funds; prepares estimates of appropriations needed; contracts for annual
supplies, leases, and agreements; issues requisitions for the purchase of supplies,
requests for passenger and freight transportations; and attends to all business
relating to the financial interests of the Department including payments of
every description.

Division OF SEEDS.—Chief, Robert J. Whittleton.

The Division of Seeds is charged with the purchase and distribution of valuable
seeds. They are distributed in allotments to Senators, Representatives, Dele-
gates in Congress, agricultural experiment stations, and by the Secretary of
Agriculture, as provided by law.

Lisprary.—Librarian, W. P. Cutter.

The Librarian has charge of the Library and supervises the arrangement and
cataloguing of books, the preparation of bibliographies and similar publications,
and the purchases of new books.

APPROPRIATIONS FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
FOR THE FISCAL YEARS ENDING JUNE 30, 1898, 1699, AND 1900.

Object of appropriation. 1898. 1899. 1909.

Salaries, Department of Agriculture -_....___..-.-----_---.---- $319, 300 $319, 300 $336, 340
Furniture, cases, and repairs, Department of Agriculture____- 9, 000 9, 000 10, 000
Library, Department of Agriculture -_--..----.-.-.------------- 7, 000 6, 000 5, 000
Museum, Department of Agriculture. --.._...--.--.-------.---- 3, 000 1,500 1,500
Postage, Department of Agriculture -_..-.........----2-._---- 3, 000 2, 000 2, 000
Contingent expenses, Department of Agriculture -___.____---- 25, 000 25, 000 25, 008
ARIMA Giaranbhine Stations =: se o<cus6e ie lee i oe 12, 900 12, 000 12, 608
Collecime aoricultural stauisties. te ee ee 110, 000 105, 000 110, 606
Botanical investigations and experiments__-...._.____....------ 15, 090 20, 000 20, 000
Entomoloricalvinvestivations 9c ok we ay a ee 20, 000 20, 000 20, 006
Vegetable pathological investigations__.____.._.._.__.._-._----- 20, 000 20, 000 26, 000
IBrOlOmIcaliIinVvestiPablONS 7. -0)22--c-32c se ee So eee 17,500 17,500 17,503
Pomological INVESHIPALLONS cos eae 5 ae pee Pe eee eee een 8, 000 9, 500 9,500
Laboratory, Department of Agriculture---...--.-.-----.------ 12, 400 12, 400 17, 700
Horesiry anvestigations: .2< 22... 23222 ee ee ee 20, 000 20, 000 40, 600
Experimental gardens and grounds, Department of Agricul-

‘Das pt te I OS Oe ha ae ee 3 Se be 25, 000 20, 000 28, 000
Soillinvesticationsl--0- o.- ee eer ee ee ee 10, 000 10, 000 20, 006
Grass and forage plant investigations __._...2_.-..-..---------- 10, 000 10, 000 12, 000
IDET VeSbIC A GIONS, a8 652 fot se ace 5 og eee eres ae ee ee 5,000: |. =... 23)
Agricultural experiment stations [$755,000, 1898; $760,000, 1899;

ACD EET OOD TT m2 cot 3 Nk ee ae ac ees a eee 35, 000 40, 000 45, 000
INGtERIonIn vestigations. ¢ +) <2". meee ee oe ee Bae ee 15, 000 15, 000 15, 0
RGF OAC TIE FOS coe ene eee ee a ee ee 8, 000 8, G00 8, 600
Publications, Department of Agriculture.-.....-..-.--....---- 65, 000 65, 000 80, 000
MHCREAN CEN ISAGHONG oe he aca eae = een eae teen 5, 009 7, 000 7, 000
Purchase and distribution of valuable seeds_...._______.__-.-- 130, 000 130, 000 130, 006
Salaries and expenses, Bureau of Animal Industry--_-_-_------ 675, 000 $00, 000 950, 000
Price a pOO MN LONMahlON = 5-2 boo es oan eon oe ee ee ee ee eee eee 10, 000 35, 000
Lea-cultEre inyest' rations...) 25220 Veet ee a ee eee 1, 000

BLO GOI =a ns ec at eRe eee pee a ae are mr Re 1,584,200 | 1,814, 2 1, 983, 540
Weather Bureau.
Salaries. Weather Bureatlc..--. oo: ee eens ne eae ee 150, 540 155, 340 153, 320
Fuel, lights, and repairs, Weather Bureau. --_-.......----.------ 8, 000 8, 000 8, 000
Contingent expenses, Weather Bureau...._...-...----.-------- $, 000 8, 000 8, 000
General expenses, Weather Bureau-..._-....--.---------------- 717, 162 765, 162 768, 162
Meteorological observation stations --.......-. 00.2222 cule cece 75, 000 60, 008
Erection of building at Sault Ste. Marie, Mich-__._...._..2i___].-.-..--...- 3, 000''|. 2.22 eo Seee
Repairs to buildings and grounds, Bismarck, N. Dak------ po S| eee ese 8,000 |...2- Soe
Building addition to Western Bureau building, Washington--|--....--.-.-|.--.-.------ 25, 000
Total for Weather ‘Bureate.22 eee ee eee 883,702 | 1,015, 502 1, 022, 482
Grand total co 2228 y ee a Pe 2,467,902 | 2,829, 702 3, 005, 022

10f these amounts $720,000 is annually paid directly to the experiment stations ky the United
States Treasury.

INSTITUTIONS HAVING COURSES IN AGRICULTURE. 671

AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND OTHER INSTITUTIONS IN THE
UNITED STATES HAVING COURSES IN AGRICULTURE!

State cr Territory. Name of institution. Location. President.
Noo ————ed | State Agricultural and Me-} Auburn-_----..-_-- W.L. Broun, M. A., LL.D.
chanical College (Alabama
Polytechnic Institute).
Se oe and Industrial | Normal __-------- W.H. Councill, Ph. D.
chool.
Ln University of Arizona-_-----_-- 7PACSON= 2 Sa- eee M.M. Parker, M. A.
Arkansas -.......- a Industrial Univer- | Fayetteville ----- J oe Eero = MCAS,
sity. mE
Branch Norma! College - ------ Pine Biait== =.= J.C. Corbin. :
Galifornia._....-.- University of California ------ Berkeley _-.------ os 4 EM ane Ph. BS
Colorado...-.-----. The State Agricultural Col- | Fort Collins --_-_-- B. O. Aylesworth, M. A.,
lege of Colorado. LL.D.
Connecticut ----.-| Storrs Agricultural College --| Storrs_.....------| G@. W.F lint, M. A.
Delaware -.------- | Delaware College---.-.....---- Newark.----=--=2 G. A. Harter, M. A., Ph. D.
im —— for Colored Stu- | Dover.-.-.-------- W.C. Jason, M. A.,B.D.
ents.
MIGEGR +5. .22=>-- Florida Agricultural College_| Lake City---.---- W.F. Yocum, M.A.,D.D.
Florida State Normal and In- | Tallahassee --_---- T.DeS. Tucker, M.A.
dustrial College.
foot i | Georgia State College of Agri- | Athens_.___---..-- H.C. White, Ph. D.
culture and Mechanic Arts.
~ State Industrial Col- | College-_.__.------ R.R. Wright.
| lege.
RRR eee ek a University of Idaho-_-...--...-. 1 Moscow.=--..--=.-.- J.P. Blanton, M. A.,LL.D-
to: ae University of Illinois --------- meiearisa ae 2 A.S. Draper, LL. D.
TAGIGN 2. .25----s- Purdue University ---.-..----- | Lafayette ---..--
Lo ee Iowa State College of Agri- | Ames -..__......- W. M. Beardshear, M. A.,
culture and Mechanic Arts. LL. D.
Ia — State Agricultural | Manhattan --..-- E. R. Nichols, M. A.
Sollege.
Kentucky - ....-.-- Agricultural and Mechanical | Lexington-_-.....-| J. K. Patterson, Ph. D.,
College of Kentucky. pO Bia
State Normal School for Col- | Frankfort ----.-.-- J.E.Givens, B. A.
ored Persons. : j
ouisians —...2.... Louisiana State University Baton Rouge -..-| T.D. Boyd, M.A., LL.D.
and Agricultural and Me-
chanical College.
Southern University and Ag- | New Orleans ____| H. A. Hill.
ricultural and Mechanical
College. |
Le The University of Maine --..-/ Orono--.--------- A.W. Harris, D.Sc.
Maryland... Maryland Agricultural Col- | College Park -...| R. W. Silvester.
ge.
Massachusetts ---- ee Agricultural | Amherst--------- H.H. Goodell, LL. D.
Sollege.
Massachusetts Institute of | Boston _.-........] Henry S. Pritchett.
Technology.
Michigan. ......... gop ies State Agricultural | Agricultural Col-| J.L.Snyder,M. A., Ph.D.
Sollege. ege.
Minnesota ---.---- The University cf Minnesota_| Minneapolis ----- C. Northrop, LL. D.
Mississippi -----.-- Mississippi Agricultural and | Agricultural Col-
Mechanical College. ege.
Alcorn Agricultural and Me- | Wesfside _____--- W. H. Lanier, B. A.
’ chanical College.
WAssouri...=-..--+=- School of Agriculture and | Columbia _____-_-- R. H. Jesse, LL. D.

Engineering of the Univer-
sity of Missouri.

School of Mines and Metal- | Rolla___...._.....| R. H. Jesse, LL. D.
lurgy of the University of
Missouri. —
Lincoln Institute-_--........- _--| Jefferson City-_--| J. H. Jackson, B. A., M.A.
WMontana.=.-...... The Montana College of Agri- | Bozeman-_.----..-- J. Reid, A. B.
culture and Mechanic Arts.
Webrasica _._-____. The University of Nebraska_-_| Lincoln ----..---- C. E. Bessey, Ph. D., LL. D.
Nevada _...___...- Nevada State University--...- Reno see 5 ae Ss Me AH De De
New Hampshire_-| The New Hampshire College | Durham _-_------- C.S. Murkland,M.A.,Ph.D.

of Agriculture and the Me-
chanic Arts.
New Jersey _-....- Rutgers Scientific School(The | New Brunswick _| Austin Scott, Ph. D.,LL. D.
New Jersey State College
for the Benefit of Agricul-
tureand the MechanicArts).

New Mexico--...- The New Mexico College of ! Mesilla Park_-___- F. W. Sanders, Ph. D.
oo? and Mechanic
rts.
New York ______.- Cornell University _.-....-..-- Puhaea = eee J. @. Schurman, M. A.,,
DrSes LEED:

\ Including only institutions established under the land-grant act of July 2, 1862.

672

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND OTHER INSTITUTIONS, ETC.—
Continued.

State or Territory Name of institution.

The North Carolina College of
Agriculture and Mechanic
Arts.

The Agricultural and Me-
chanical Coliege for the
Colored Race.

North Dakota Agricultural
College.

North Carolina---

North Dakota ----

Ohio .....---------| Ohio State University _------

Oklahama ---.----- Oklahoma Agricultural and
Mechanical College.

Oregons ees 2-225 Oregon State Agricultural

College.
The Pennsylvania State Col-

lege.

Rhode Island College of Agri-
culture and Mechanic Arts.

Clemson Agricultural College.

The Colored Normal Indus-
trial, Agricultural, and Me-
chanical College of South
Carolina.

South Dakota Agricultural
College.
University of Tennessee-----
State Agricultural and Me-
chanical College of Texas.
Prairie View State Normal
School.

The Agricultural College of
Utah.

University of Vermont and
State Agricultural College.

Virginia Polytechnic Insti-
tute (State Agricultural
and Mechanical College}.

The Hampton Normal and
Agricultural Institute.

Washington Agricultural Col-
lege and School of Science.

West Virginia University ----

The West Virginia Colored
Institute.

University of Wisconsin__-__-

University of Wyoming------

Pennsylvania---.-
Rhode Isiand -__--

South Carolina ---

IPOX AG. tte eee

Washington

West Virginia ___-

Wisconsin -_------
Wyoming. --------

| West Raleigh___-

Location. President.

G. T. Winston, LL. D.

Greensboro ------ J. B. Dudley, M. A.
Agricultural Col-| J. H. Worst.

ege.
Columbus ------- W. O. Thompson, D. D.
Stillwater ------- A.C. Scott, M. A., LL. M.
Corvallis. ..-2.-== T. M. Gatch, M. A., Ph. D.

State College ---.| G. W. Atherton, LL. D.

Kingston_._...-..| J. H. Washburn, Ph. D.
Clemson College_| H. S. Hartzog, LL. D.
Orangeburg ----- T. E. Miller, LL. D.
Brookings --.-_-_..-| J. W. Heston, Ph. D.,LL.D.
Knoxville__-___.-- | C.W. Dabney,Ph. D..LL.D.

College Station__, L. L. Foster.

Prairieview ----- L. C. Anderson, M. A.
hOgan>-£- a Sse
Burlington ___--- M. H. Buckham, D. D.
Blacksburg ------ J. M. McBryde, Ph. D.,
LL. D.
Hampton: 2=-— H. B. Frissell, D. D.
Pullman p-=25s2"2 E. A. Bryan, M. A.
Morgantown --_..| J. H. Raymond, Ph. D.
Institute ---.- - .---. J. McH. Jones.
Madison ===" C. K. Adams, LL. D.
Haramic. =: 223 E. E. Smiley, D. D.

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES,
THEIR LOCATIONS, DIRECTORS, AND PRINCIPAL LINES OF

WORK.

| Num-

Num- | ber of

Stations, locations, and directors.| ber on | teach-
staff. | ers on

staff.

Alabama (College), Auburn: |

JPL fags Wal d Pens eerie be ae ee 13

Alabama (Canebrake), Union-
own:

ES Benton es sen eae ee yy Se ee aah
Arizona, Tuscon:

Fun OPDGS sorone Soeec at copes 9
Arkansas, Fayetteville:

Bela Bennetts. o-- sacs ee eee 8

3 | Chemistry; field

Principal lines of work.

8 | Botany; soils; analyses of fertilizers and food

materials: field and pot experiments; horti-
culture; diseases of plants; feeding experi-
ments; diseases of animals.

Soil improvement; field experiments; horti-
culture; floriculture; diseases of plants; dis-
eases of animals.

experiments; meteorology;
diseases of plants; horticulture (including
date-palm orchard).

4 | Chemistry of foods; field experiments; horti-

culture; diseases of plants; feeding experi-
ments; diseases of animals.

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

673

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS OCF THE UNITED
STATES, ETC.—Continued.

Num- |

Stations, locations, and directors.) ber on |

staff.

California, Berkeley: |
ow rloard =. ..-..-....2.- 30

Colorado, Fort Collins:
fate Oarpenter .....-2:.=.-...

Connecticut (State). New Haven:
E.H. Jenkins

Connecticut (Storrs), Storrs:
Mer ALWHtor. 2 .2-5.-.-.---

Delaware, Newark:
30D

Florida, Lake City:
Nweewocum= = 20. = 22...

Georgia, Experiment:

meaning... .__........

Idaho, Moscow:
U) EAC

Nlinois, Urbana:
PemaVenDOrG —<- 2.55. ....-..

Indiana, Lafayette:
espshlnumb is. .-:. .2---------:

Towa, Ames: |
PHP ASHTNISS caches =. Se

Kansas, Manhattan:
J.T. Willard

Kentucky, Lexington:
M. A. Scovell

Louisiana (Sugar). New Orleans:
Waltham C.Stubbs...---.-:.--

Louisiana (State), Baton Rouge:
William C. Stubbs------....--

Louisiana (North), Calhoun:
iWalliam C. Stubbs-_....._=....

Maine. Orono:
meee ViOOUS = =~ a). =< oS2-0. =

d, College Park:

aay
RA PAtLeTSON =e. os = oe oe

-

1 a 99——43

11

10

|

13

Num-
ber of
teach-

Principal lines of work.

co |

_
- i—)

«

—
~

i=)

oO

Physics: chemistry and geographical distribu-
tion of soils; fertilizers: field crops: horti-
eulture; botany; meteorology; technology
of wine and olive oil,including zymology;
chemistry of foods and feeding stuffs; ento-
mology; drainage and irrigation: reclama-
tion of alkali lands; plant introduction.

Chemistry: botany; meteorology; field exper-
iments; horticulture; entomology; irriga-
tion.

St Os and inspection of fertilizers, foods,

and feeding stuiis; chemistry; diseases of
plants; horticuiture; field experiments: en-
tomology.

| Food and nutrition of man and animals: bac-

teriology of dairy products; field experi-
ments; dairying.

Chemistry; field WO epee ae horticulture;
diseases of plants; feeding experiments; dis-
eases of animals; entomology; dairying.

Chemistry; field experiments; horticulture;

entomology.

Field experiments; horticulture; entomology;
mycology: pig feeding; dairying.

Physics; chemistry: botany; field experi-
ments; horticulture; entomology; feeding
experiments.

Chemistry; bacteriology; field experiments;

horticulture: forestry; diseases of plants;
feeding experiments; entomology; dairying.

Chemistry; pot and field experiments; horti-
culture; feeding experiments; diseases of
plants and animals.

Chemistry; bacteriology; field experiments;
horticulture; diseases of plants; feeding ex-
periments; entomology; dairying.

Soils; horticulture; seed breeding; field exper-
iments; feeding and digestion experiments;
diseases of animals; entomology.

| Chemistry: soils; fertilizer analysis; field ex-

periments; horticulture; diseases of plants;
entomology; dairying.

Chemistry: bacteriology: soilsand soil phys-
ics; field experiments; horticulture; sugar
making; drainage; irrigation.

Chemistry: geology: botany; bacteriology;
soils; ficid experiments; horticulture; feed-
ing experiments: entomology.

Chemistry; soils; fertilizers; field_ experi-
ments; horticulture; stock raising; dairying.

Chemistry: botany; analysis and inspection
of fertilizers and concentrated commercial
feeding stuffs; horticulture; diseases of
plants; seed tests: foodand nutrition of man
and animals; poultry raising; diseases of
animals; entomology; dairying.

Chemistry; soils; field expcriments; horticul-
ture; diseases of plants; feeding experi-
ments; entomology.

674

,

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS OCF THE UNITED
STATES, ETC.—Continued.

Num-
Num- | ber of
Stations, locations, and directors.| ber on | teach- Principal lines of work.
staff. | ers on
staff. “
Massachusetts, Amherst: :

EVEN oodells 5-236 2s22 22 9 | Chemistry; meteorology; analysis and inspec-
tion of fertilizers and concentrated commer-
cial feeding stuffs; field experiments; horti-
culture; diseases of plants; digestion and
feeding experiments; diseases of animals;
entomology.

Michigan, Agricultural College:

CL DVSmith.) 22a of See 16 9 | Botany and bacteriology; field experiments;
horticulture; forestry; diseases of plants;
feeding experiments; diseases of animals;

Sea a St. Anthony Park, entomology; dairying.
st. Paul:

AW) AE biesett..22h. Ls ees 14 % | Chemistry; field experiments; horticulture;
forestry; diseases of plants; food and nutri-
tion of man; plant and animal breeding;
feeding experiments; diseases of animals;
entomology; dairying. ~

Mississippi,A gricultural College:
WW). His Bratchintsome -..22 2822 2 4 | Chemistry; soils; field experiments; horticul-
ture; feeding experiments; dairying.
Missouri, Columbia:
ity Watensnccnuaceosaee oes 13 5 | Chemistry; field experiments; horticulture;
diseases of plants; feeding experiments; dis-
eases of animals; entomology; drainage.
Mortana, Bozeman:

SM, Emeny: 2-222 24sccscccos 7 6] Field experiments; horticulture; diseases of
plants; feeding experiments; diseases of ani-
mals; irrigation.

Nebraska, Lincoln:

Isviomes fh Spee ease ae 19 10 | Chemistry; botany; meteorology; field experi- —
ments; horticulture; forestry; feeding and
breeding experiments; diseases of animals;
entomology; irrigation. :

Nevada, Reno: .

Jig Joy Sab SS) Be a eee 8 4] Chemistry; botany; soils; field experiments;

poshenluEes forestry; entomology; irriga-
ion.
New Hampshire, Durham: ;

Gyo Murkland San eee 14 8 | Chemistry; soil physics; field experiments;
horticulture; diseases of plants; feeding ex-
periments; entomology; dairying; road ex-

New ah ersey (State), New Bruns- periments.
wick:
BOBS Vioonbees 22220.0- 25.22! 8 1| Chemistry; biclogy; botany; analysis of fer-
New Jersey (College), New tilizers and foods; potand field experiments;
Brunswick: horticulture; diseases of plants; food and

HB yiVOOPNDEGS® 2. 2222 se se 2228 8 4 nutrition of man; diseases of animals; ento-
inology; dairy husbandry; bacteria of milk;
irrigation.

New Mexico, Mesilla Park:

VV Ia TICON Se. seen eee nee 14 8 | Chemistry; botany; field experiments; horti-
culture; diseases of plants; entomology; ir-
gation.

New York (State), Geneva:

Wirtkly JOrdanes sess Sseeren ner Pine Soe es Chemistry; bacteriology; meteorology; analy-
sis and control of fertilizers; field experi-
ments; horticulture; diseases of plants; feed-
ing experiments; poultry experiments;
dairying.

New York (Cornell), Ithaca:

DPS Robertsus 2s eee Se 21 8 | Chemistry of soils; feeding stuffs and dairy
products; soils; fertilizers; field experi-
ments; horticulture; diseases of plants; feed-
ing sheep and swine; diseases of animals;
poultry experiments; entomology; dairying.

North Carolina, Raleigh:
Cau Wainstoniccssseehencacees 12 8 | Chemistry; field experiments; horticulture;
; analysis of feeding stuffs; digestion experi-
Mort Dakota, Agricultural Col- ments; poultry experiments.
ege:

gE ORBEA eae oe ee 12 6 | Field experiments; horticulture; diseases of
plants; feeding experiments; diseases of ani-
mals; dairying.

Ohio, Wooster:
CNR hore. 220. ee sscaceeess Te Soe eee ge Soils; field experiments; horticulture; diseases

of plants; breeding and feeding experiments};
entomology.

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

675

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS OF THE UNITED

STATES, ETC.—Continued.

Num-
Num- | ber of are! :
Stations, locations, and directors.) ber on| teach- Principal lines of work.
staff. | ers on
staff.
Oklahoma, Stillwater:

anne, Held) .....-----..----- 10 5 | Botany; field experiments; horticulture; dis-
eases of plants; digestion and feeding ex-
periments; diseases of animals; entomology.

Oregon, Corvallis:

iS?) 2 12 | Chemistry; soils; field erops; horticulture; .
diseases of plants; digestion ‘: and feeding ex-
periments; entomology; dair ‘ying.

gel State College:

SMITN ES Ne oc 18 7 | Chemistry; meteorology; fertilizer analysis;
field experiments; feeding experiments;
dairying.

Rhode Island, Kingston:

AAR ERISNAM ...-..-----..--- 12 4 | Chemistry; meteorology; soils; field and pot
experiments; horticulture; diseases of plants;
poultry experiments; oyster culture.

South Carolina, Clemson College:

i RAT GLO 8. tn eo 13 8 | Soils: analysis and control of fertilizers; field
exper iments; horticulture; plant breeding;
diseases of plants; feeding experiments; vet-

; erinary science; entomolog gy; dairying.
South Dakota, Brookings:
Bt MNODAEC <= oe csnee ne ll 6 | Bacteriology; chemistry of soils and soil phys-
ics; field experiments; forestry; diseases of
lants; feeding experiments; entomology;
irrigation.
Tennessee, Knoxville:

Ve UIRDNOY.. —.- —----menenss- 12 3 | Chemistry; botany; fertilizers; field experi-
ments; hor ticulture; animal production;
entomology; dairying.

Texas, College Station: 42

UMS) 15 7 | Chemistry;. soils; fertilizers; field experi-
ments; horticulture; feeding dairy cows;
sheep husbandry; diseases of animals; irri-
gation.

Utah, Logan: ;

Loe LAS 2 oe li 8 | Chemistry of soils and feeding stuffs; alkali
soil investigations; meteorology; field ex-
periments; horticulture; forestry; diseases
of plants; cattle and sheep breeding; feed-
ing experiments; dairying; poultry experi-
ments.

Vermont, Burlington:

i 12 5 | Chemistry; analysis and control of fertilizers
and feeding stuffs; field experiments; horti-
culture; disease of plants; feeding experi-
ments; diseases of animals; dairying.

pas. E Blacksburg:

LOM Ba) os a 10 6 | Chemistry; fertilizers; diseases of plants;
feeding experiments; diseases of animals;
entomology.

Washington, Pullman:

EREVAN . 8-8 5 anac Gacewnews li 9 | Chemistry; soils; bacteriology; field experi-
ments; hor ticulture; diseases of plants; feed-
ing experiments; entomology.

West Virginia, Morgantown:

os, SLOWArG.—---.2--c-ecsen- 2 4 | Chemistry; analysisand control of fer tilizers;
field experiments; horticulture; feeding ex-
periments; poultry experiments; entomol-
ogy.

Wisconsin, Madison:
PeretGury. => °=. --= occ wcn ce rd ee Chemistry; soils; field experiments; horticul-
ture; feeding experiments; diseases of ani-
’ mals; dairying; drainage and irrigation.
Wyoming, Laramie:
Ds dete Ce 8 6 | Geology; botany; meteorology; waters; soils;

fertilizers; field experiments; food analysis;
feeding experiments; entomology.

676 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

NOTES REGARDING DEPARTMENT PUBLICATIONS.

The publications of the U.S. Department of Agriculture are mainly of three
general classes:

i. Publicationsissued annually, comprising the Yearbooks, the Annual Reports
of the Department, the Annual Reports of the Bureau of Animal Industry, and
the Annual Reports of the Weather Bureau.

Ii. Other Departmental reports, divisional bulletins, ete. Of these, each bureau,
division, and office has its separate series in which the publications are numbered
consecutively as issued. They comprise reports and discussions of a scientific
or technical character.

Tif. Farmers’ bulletins, divisional circulars, reprinted Yearbook articles, and
other popular papers.

The publications in Class I are distributed by the Department and by Senators
and Representatives in Congress. For instance, of the 500,000 copies of the Year-
book usually issued, the Department is only allotted 30,000, while the remaining
470,000 copies are distributed by Members of Congress. The Department’s sup-
ply of the publications of this class is, therefore, limited and consequently has to
be reserved almost exclusively for distribution to its own special correspondents,
and in return for services rendered.

The publications of Class IL are not for distribution by Members of Congress,
and they are not issued in editions large enough to warrant free general distribu-
tion by the Department. The supply is used mainly for distribution to those who
cooperate with the Department or render it some service, and to educational and
other public institutions. A sample copy of this class of publications can usually
be sent on application, but aside from this, the Department generally finds it
necessary to refer applicants to the Superintendent of Documents, of whom
further mention is made below.

The publications of Class III treat in a practical way of subjects of particular
interest to farmers. They are usually issued in large editions, and are for free
general distribution by the Department. The farmers’ bulletins are also for dis-
tribution by Senators and Representatives in Congress, to each of whom is
furnished annually, according to law, a quota of several thousand copies for dis-
tribution among his constituents.

A limited supply of nearly all the publications in Classes I and II is, in com-
pliance with the law, placed in the hands of the Superintendent of Documents for
sale at cost of printing. Application for these should be addressed to the Super-
intendent of Documents, Union Building, Washington, D. C., and should be
accompanied by postal money order payable to him for the amount of the price.
No postage stamps or private checks should be sent. The Superintendent of
Documents is not permitted to sell more than one copy of any public document
to the same person. The Public Printer may sell to one person any number not
to exceed 250 copies if ordered before the publication goes to press.

The Secretary of Agriculture has no voice in designating the public libraries
which shall be depositories of public documents. Of the distribution of docu-
ments to such depositories, including the publications of this and all other
Departments of the Government, the Superintendent of Documents has full
charge.

For publications of the Weather Bureau requests and remittances should be
directed to the Chief of the Weather Bureau.

The Department has no list of persons to whom all publications are sent. A
monthly list is issued on the first day of each month giving the titles of all publi-
cations issued during the previous month with all the explanations necessary to
enable applicants to order intelligently. This list will be mailed regularly to all
who apply for it. The Department also issues and sends out to all who apply for
them a complete list of all publications of which the Department has a supply for
free distribution, and a similar list of all the Departiment’s publications for sale
by the Superintendent of Documents.

PUBLICATIONS ISSUED JANUARY 1,1899, TO DECEMBER 31, 1899.

The following publications were issued by the United States Department of
Agriculture during the year January 1, 1899, to December 31, i899. Those to
which a price is attached, with the exception of publications of the Weather
Bureau, must be obtained of the Superintendent of Documents, Union Building,
Washington, D. C., to whom are turned over all copies not needed for official use,
in compliance with section 67 of the act providing for the public printing and
binding and the distribution of public documents. Remittances should be made

— DEPARTMENT PUBLICATIONS ISSUED IN 1899. . 677

to him by postal money order. Weather Bureau publications to which a price is
attached must be obtained from the Chief of that Bureau. Applications for those
that are for free distribution should be made to the Secretary of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C.

OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY.

Copies.
Sere ane. secretary for-1809 ._. - .. 2-222 ete eek Rete eee ile 30, 000
mamrnetrunare. Warm. Bul.40: ~Reprintss....2222...< 22.22... s2222 15, 000
Marketing Farm Produce. Farm. Bul. 62. Reprints __.-.......___..-_- 20, 000
Sewage Disposal on the Farm and the Protection of Drinking Water.

REGRIMEBEST cry ROUTING oe 8 a9 = * kaa 30, 000
Washed Soils: How to Prevent and Reclaim Them. Farm. Bul. 20.—

UREA 252 Pn a Se SE Te ee ee in oh ee 15, 000
Curing and Fermentation of Cigar-Leaf Tobacco. Rept. 59_.._________- 3,500
Tobacco: Instructions for Its Cultivation and Curing. Farm. Bul. 6.

I eae eS ts see ae) 8 ee 500
Spraying Fruits for Insect Pests and Fungous Diseases, with a Special

Consideration of the subject in Relation to the Public Health. Farm.

NEMS TANT betray 2 eR, eee 2 te sh 500
The Rape Plant: Its History, Culture, and Uses. Farm. Bul. 11.

Po) SEAR 230) 8 Le eee eee cers A een ee en 500
The Hawaiian Islands. Reprinted from Yearbook for 1898_._____._____- 2,000
The Present Condition of Grape Culture in California. Reprinted from

0. TL” SE ee nn ee a eC ER ESP TAs A pe 500
Temperature Changes in Fermenting Piles of Cigar-Leaf Tobacco.

Pen MLE PURE Tee ERTS Siok oe oe ee ee Bh. es ee 5, 000
Tea culture. The Experiment in South Carolina. Report 61. 10 cents. 5,000
Cultivation of Cigar-Leaf Tobacco in Florida. Report 62. 10 cents_...° 6,000

CONGRESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS.
Fifteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Animal Industry, for the Fis-

SePPECI aL mf) CONUS! aL) 2 A= ose ee SR Eee ee ee 30,500
Annual Reports of the Department of Agriculture for the Fiscal Year

Snel een eee rere 5 pee Seren mers Bay | 3, 000
Letter from the Secretary of Agriculture, transmitting a detailed state-

ment of the expenditures of all the appropriations in the Department

of Agriculture for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1898, including sup-

plemental accounts to date. House Doc. No. 23, 55th Cong..3d sess... 1, 722

Operations of the Bureau of Animal Industry for the Fiscal Year ended

June 30,1898. Senate Doc. No. 55, 55th Cong., 3d sess____ ..._._...._--- 1, 722
Special Report on the Market for American Horsesin Foreign Countries. 20,000
A Report on the Work and Expenditures of the Agricultural Experiment

Stations for the Year ended June 30, 1898____..._...__...- eS tt ities
A second Report to Congress on Agriculture in Alaska, Including Reports

by C.C. Georgeson and. Walter H. Evans, prepared under the direction

of A.C. True, Director of the Office of Experiment Stations__________- 1, 722
Usefulness of Reservoirs to Agriculture in the Irrigated Regions.

Response of Secretary of Agriculture to Senate Resolution of February

8,1899. Senate Doc. No. 124, 55th Cong., 3d sess _____<___.._-._-._----- 3. 000
Report of the Chief of the Weather Bureau, 1897-98. In 7 parts. Part I,

Administrative report. Parts Il, 111, 1V, V,and VI, Climatology of the

Year. Part VII, Climate of Cuba and Miscellaneous Papers____.____- 4,
Yearbook of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1898. 60 cents _______ 500, 000
Progress of the Beet-Sugar Industry in the United States in 1898. Part

I, by Charles F. Saylor, Special Agent. Part II, by H. W. Wiley, Chem-

inot the U.S. Department of. Agriculture... .. 2... 25.2 2222s 50, COO
Report upon the Forestry Investigations of the U. 8S. Department of

Agriculture, 1877-1898. House Doc. No. 181, 55th Cong.,3d sess_______- 1, 734
DIVISION OF AGROSTOLOGY.

Sorghum as a Forage Crop. Farm.Bul.50. Reprint -............_.._-- 25, 000
Meadows and Pastures: Formation and Cultivation in the middle Eastern

Pee eerie he. Moprimt ° 6 oo ie ee So 40, 000
Experiments in Range Improvement. Cir.8, with reprint -__-___-_____- 8, 000
Division of Agrostology. Reprinted from Yearbook for 1897 _______.___ 2,000
Lawns and Lawn Making. Reprinted from Yearbook for 1897_._______- 5, 000

New Species of North American Grasses. Cir.9...........-..---------- 1, 200

678 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Alfalfa,.or bucern.: ‘Harn. Bul. 3th ) Repmniis| (5200 5 eee
The Soy Bean as a Forage Crop. Farm. Bul.58. Revised edition_______
Cattle Ranges of the Southwest: A History of the Exhaustion of the
Pasturage and Suggestions for Its Restoration. Farm. Bul. 72. Re-
PETG. Soo SOs Se ee i ot Se
Cowpeass. Harm. Bol.\8o, with reprimh_2 0. See eee eee
Grazing Problems in the Southwest and How to Meet Them. Bul. 16.
DHEONTS Eos 2 oo eee cae ee OE Ne sh ie ae ee
Poa Fendteriang and Tis:Athes? (Cir 0... v.29 ae ee a eee
fbermiat Pea. “Crp. th’. 2. ewok test dens been eee ee
Rape as.a Forage Plant. ©ir.12, with reprimt 22.222 _ 2
Millets. Eeprinted from. Yearbook for 1898 _...._-..-.. —- 5 2 > ae
Recent Additions to Systematic Agrostology. Cir. 15____..._.__._-_____-
New Species.of North American Grasses. Cir: 16__..__--_22.22-222222 2
Sand-binding Grasses. Reprinted from Yearbook, 1898 __-_.___________-
Mallets. Bhar: Sells O 1) seers aee ots ae ee eee el Oe ae
Southern Forage.Plants.) Farm. Bul.-102____..-......9._21- 32 3
Czimsom Clover: “Cir, Iie a ea ee eee
Smooth Brome-erass. Gir vke 2) 2. 2 lo. eee eee
arege Plants for Cultivation on Alkali Soils. Reprinted from Yearbook
OPUS US 4c. ot Se a ee SES Se
American Grasses—Il.- Balll%.. (20\centsc_. 2 oo) 2 eee
Studies on American Grasses: A Synopsisof the Genus Sitanion. Bul. 18.
DIGeNtS= ee ols 22 Lea ks ey Ses Oe ee ee
The Structure of the Caryopsis of Grasses with Reference to their
Morphology and Classification. Bul. 19. . 10 cents______.._-_.-_-____-
Florida Beggar Weed (Desmodium tortuosum). Cir. 18__..-_._-______..
The Velvet) Bean (Mfucuna utilis). \Cinj4=. 02 2 eee

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.

Hog Cholera and Swine Plague. Farm. Bul. 24. Reprint........_____-
The Dairy Herd: Its Formation and Management. Reprints. Farm.

1341 1 i ane he eee Ae kr erie Se ok n
Butter Making on the Farm. Farm. Bul. 5 Reprints 2.2. 3)
Ducks and Geese: Standard Breeds and price Farm. Bul. 64.

ie pris: = ..¢! ata ele ee gs see Re ee ee

Utilization of By-Products of the Dairy. Reprinted from Yearbook for
TBO sf sf oe ee ee ee Se Rae: es tere eee
Directions for the Pasteurization of Milk. Cir.1. Revised edition. Re-
PROG 2 one Fio eee Se te i es i
Standard Varieties of Chickens. Farm. Bul.d1. Revised edition. Re-
PrimMbscco. ois ges 2 es) ee ee ee ee eee
The Serum Treatment of Swine.Plague and Hog Cholera. Bul. 23. 5
CONG. Benet 3S eee Ses eee Reh ok ge ee ee
Factory Cheese and How It is Made. Cir. 19. Reprint____.._-...___.__
Facts about Maik, Harm. Bul: 42. ‘Reprints: 2. 2-22 ee eee
Preliminary Catalogue of Plants Poisonous to Stock. Reprint from Fif-
teenth Annual: Report'< 22: 222 oe. Se ee ee eee
Experimental Exports of Butter,1897. Reprinted from Fifteenth Annual
Report, with reprinh,.6 2. 22). Sic. 2 9 bie dee te eee
Care of Milkonthe Farm. Farm. Bul. 63. Reprints_.._.._.-.....-__--
Asthenia (Going Light) in Fowls. Laboratory Methods for the Diagnosis
of certain Micro-organismal Diseases. Vitality and Retention of Viru-
lence by Certain Pathogenic Bacteria in Milk and Its Products. Re-
printed from Fifteenth Annual, Report ..-.22 52), = 3 eee
Breeds of Dairy Cattle. Reprinted from Fifteenth Annual Report -_---
Breeds of Dairy Cattle. Farm. Bul. 1062__..<2 .2.02_. 2322 2eee eee
Blackleg in the United States and the Distribution of Vaccine by the
Bureau of Animal Industry. Reprinted from Fifteenth Annual Report
Seales of Points in Use i in the United States for Judging the Dairy Breeds
of Cattle. Cir. 27. oj. OE Ee Pe 4
National and State Dairy Laws. Reprinted from Fourteenth Annual
Report. Reprint. 2c. «4.204 ce ee
Blackleg: Its Nature, Cause, and Prevention. Cir. 23. Revised edition
and reprint... ......--s2.e4 Se ee eee
Officials Associations and Educational Institutions connected with the
Dairy Interests of the United States for the year 1899, Cir, 26.....---

7

DEPARTMENT PUBLICATIONS ISSUED IN 1899.

Results of Experiments with Inoculation for the Prevention of Hog
monica et arm. ssc. 8), KReprmgfo = -02 2s) os ec ga
The ae and Use of Tuberculin. Reprinted from Yearbook for
ye ee CED a oe ed ee eee ath cdon Le eee
aa Dipping: Experimental and Practical. Reprinted from Yearbook
eRe here rine Pere Fe cS et hee 2 hee ee ee ee Se

DIVISION OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY.

So Common Birds in Their Relation to Agriculture. Farm. Bul. 54.
SaSR EE UN er oe Sy ne A Le ie OL Se EI oe pee ee ee
Life Zones and Crop Zones of the United States. Bul.10. 10 cents ___--
North American Fauna No. 14. Natural History of the Tres Marias
Islands, Mexico. General Account of the Islands, with Reports on
Mammals and Birds. By E. W. Nelson.—Reptiles of the Tres Marias.
By Leonhard Stejneger.—Notes on Crustacea of the Tres Marias. By
Mary J. R. Rathbun.—Plants of the Tres Marias. By J. N. Rose.—Bib-
liography of the Tres Marias. By E.W. Nelson. 10 cents__-._-_--_--
North American Fauna No. 16. Results of a Biological Survey of Mt.
Ea onlioriige. C0 Cente: 2-2. 25-0 s 2 ts des oo ee we ee
Geographic Distribution of Cerealsin North America. Bul.11. 10cents_
North American Fauna No. 15. Revision of the Jumping Mice of the
Beef ais CONUS - = =~. 2! sees sore sane sees pak abe a
Reptiles of the Tres Marias and Isabel Islands. Reprinted from North
EN: TO APTD TEGO), S40 «es Oe ee ee
Notes on the Crustacea of the Tres Marias Islands. Reprinted from
MMR erIrOTICON AUN INOS 22st oes ee a
Plants of the Tres Marias Islands. Reprinted from North American
es al ES a een eee ie ree 6 irate ee Se
The Danger of Introducing Noxious Animals and Birds. Reprinted
SPEIER BOOK LOT COU Se ee
Birds as Weed Destroyers. Reprinted from Yearbook for 1898___....---
North American Fauna No. 10. Revision of the Shrews of the American
Genera Blarina and Notiosorex. By C. Hart Merriam.—The Long-
tailed Shrews of the Eastern United States. By Gerritt 5S. Miller, jr.—
Synopsis of the American Shrews of the Genus Sorex. Reprint.
DoDD TSS) shel Sere SSE ea aa Ee ere ane een Uh
North American Fauna No. 12. Genera and Subgenera of Voles and
Lemmings. By Gerritt S. Miller,jr. Reprint. 10 cents ___._..------
North American Fauna No.13. Revision of the North American Bats of
the Family Vespertilionide. Reprint. 10 cents._._.__-.2_..-..------
The Blue Jay and Its Food. Reprinted from Yearbook for 1896___-____-
The Meadow Lark and Baltimore Oriole. Reprinted from Yearbook for
LL Re ee ee ee ee eS

DIVISION OF BOTANY.

Weeds: And How to Kill Them. Farm. Bul. 28. Reprints, 1899 _____--
Legislation Against Weeds. Bul. 17. Reprint. 5 cents___.------------
Vanilla Culture as Practiced in the Seychelles Islands. Bul. 21. 5 cents_
Meet boa Git 4s Reprimg eo... 2-5 S28. 52 gen a ee ee ek ee
Thirty Poisonous Plants of the United States. Farm. Bul. 86, with re-

TEESE Sea a a a a oe ie ee ee ee ee

ENE ESS Dee pe Oe tes 58 a Pe ee eae | Ce a ee
Additional Notes on Seed Testing. Reprinted from Yearbook for 1897 _-
The Water Hyacinth and Its Relation to Navigation in Florida. Bul.18.

eoriet tem CESS S. &. uve ook 2 Nah Te. SES ene ee ae Bes oe ee
The Section of Seed. and Plant Introduction. Cir. 16.___...--.----------
SEEMS AT ONOwer SEC i Carts fan 8 So) Bs ee ee oe ee ee
Contributions tothe United States National Herbarium. Vol. V, No.4.

CS DST See ee ee ge See eee re ae BRS ee 6 ee El eae ap
aepculnevaiion im Bohemia. Cir. 19. -...-..-2- 2 2.2.2 2 so52 eek a
The Present Status of Rice Culture in the United States. Bul.22. 10

TASS ce aE Sa ee a TN Nn ee

679
Copies.
500

5, 000
5, 000

680 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT. OF AGRICULTURE.

Contributions from the U.S. National Herbarium. Vol. III. Reports on
Collections, Revisions of Groups, and Miscellaneous Papers. Revisions
of North American Gramine and Cactacea, Studies of Special Groups
and Catalogues of Plants collected in Nebraska, Idaho,South Dakota,
Kansas, Wyoming, Alaska, and Mexico, with Geogr aphic Reports and
Descriptions of New Genera and Species. OL A Dy See eres tone te

Weeds in Cities and Towns. Reprinted from Yearbook for 1898 ______--

Can Perfumery Farming Succeed in the United States? Reprinted from
Wearbook for: 1898... 3. le. Se Nes ven toc

Grass Seed and ItsImpurities. Reprinted from Yearbook for 1898_____.

Observations on Cases of Mushroom Poisoning in the District of Colum-
bias) Cird30 ebbindieditions wheprinte ss: 0h eh a een

Notes on the Plant Products of the Philippine Islands. Cir.17 ________-

The Russian Thistle and Other Troublesome Weeds in the Wheat Region
of Minnesota and North and South Dakota. Farm. Bul. 10. Reprint_

DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY.

The Sugar Beet: Culture, Seed Development, Manufacture, and Statistics.
Farm. Bul. 52. Revised edition with reprints. __..__-_2--21-_ 2 22.
Food and Food Adulterants. Bul.13. Part IX. Reprint. 15 cents-_
Methods of Analysis Adopted by the Association of Official Agricultural
Chemists, Nov. 11, 12,and 14,1898. Bul.46. Revised edition. Reprints.
LOGemis ss 2 S05 es ee ee ee ae eee ote eet The rr a
Proceedings of the Fifteenth Annual Convention of the Association of
Official Agricultural Chemists, held at Washington, D. C., Nov. 11, 12
and 14, 1898. Bul. 56, with reprint. WOcents-_-.
Chemical Examination of Canned Meats. Cir.5.......______.____......
Potash and Its Function in Agriculture. Reprinted from Yearbook for
1896... Reprint: a2 55 9 ik ae ee ee
Every Farm an Experiment Station. Reprinted from Yearbook for 1897
Experiments with Sugar Beets,i897. Bul.52. Revised edition. 20cents
Culture of the Sugar ‘Beet. Farm. Bul. 3. Reprint]. 0. See
Nostrums for Incr easing the Yield of Butter. Farm. Bul.12. Reprint_-
The Manufacture of Sor, ghum ‘Sirup. (Farm, Buli90-..- 3 2
Utilization of Residues from Beet-Sugar Manufacture in Cattle Feeding.
Reprinted from Yearbook for ’1898_- 2+... se ee eee

DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY.

Insects Affecting the Cotton Plant. Farm.Bul.47. Reprint____...____-
The Peach Twig Borer: An Important Enemy of Stone Fruits. Farm.
Bul (80's 22 22 Be Pe ae ers EO
The True Clothes Moths (Tinea pellionella et al.). Cir. 36, second series.
Reprint: 2.522 ieee tee eee ee
Preliminary Report on the Insect Enemies of Forests in the Northwest.
Bul. 21. new series. 0 CONUS 22.45 40GR 2 Ge toe oe oe
The Laisser-Faire Philosophy Applied to the Insect Problem. Reprinted
from Bul: 20, new sertes,-cz ._ 3. S20... ee ec ak ee ee
Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Meeting of the Association of Eco-
nomic Entomologists. Bul.20,new series. 10 cents ________....--_--.
The Principal Insect Enemies of the Grape. Farm. Bul.70. Reprint-__-
Insect Enemies of the White Pine. Reprint from Bul. 22, new series__.-
The Hop-Plant Louse and the Remedies to be Used Against It. Cir. 2,
second series. Reprint. o_ set.-. feeds 2s thee ee
The Honey Bee: A Manual of Instruction in Apiculture. Bul. 1, new
series. Third edition. ..Reprint.15.cents.... 2.20. 2-se-ese eee
Insects Affecting Domestic Animals. An Account of the Species of
Importance in North Ameri ica, with Mention of Related Forms Occur-
ring on Other Animals. Bul.5,newseries. Reprint. 20 cents_-____.
Important Insecticides: Directions for their Pr eparation and Use. Farm.
Bul.19. Fourth revised edition, ‘Reprint. ..2525 24... 4 44a0e eee
Bee Keeping. Farm.Bul,59. Reprint, June, 1699... .25.-2.. 50a
Proceedings of the Tenth Annual Meeting of the Association of Eco-
nomic Entomologists, held at Boston, Mass., August 19 and 20, 1898.
‘Bul. 17,new series. 10) cents: ,-..5 62. ul oeee poe ee. oe
The Hessian Fly in the United States. Bul.16,mew series. 10 cents___-

Copies.

500
2, 000

2,500
2, 500

2, 000
8, 500

25, 000
2, 000
2, 500

100

2, 500
10, 000
500

2, 000
1, 000

1, 000
15, 000
20, 000

2,500
5, 000

DEPARTMENT PUBLICATIONS ISSUED IN 1899. G81

Copies.

Some Miscellaneous Results of the Work of the Division of Entomology.
Pareenewisericgs 10) Cents ins OF) ae eS ee ae ee 5, 000

The Use of Hydrocyanic Acid Gas for Fumigating Greenhouses and Cold
eames. VCAr- 57, Second. series; with reprint +S 2.2.3 f.. Ss kes ee 8, 500
Mieioan Jose Scale. From Bul. 18,new series_.......2--.-..2.2-2-----.- 500
A New Coccid on Birch. Reprinted from Bul. 18, new series-. --_----.-- 590

A Destructive Borer Enemy of Birch Trees, with notes on Related Species.
Reprinted from Bul. 18, new series, with yeprint ES eat OAs oe pe Reis 700
Some Insects Injurious to Stored Grain. Farm.Bul.45. Reprint------- 15, 000

The Principal Insect Enemies of the Grape. Farm. Bul.70. Reprint --- 15,000
Some Insects Injurious to Garden and Orchard Crops. Bul. 19, new

Renmark. ok ois oe Bee ee 2 ee 5, 000
The Squash-Vine Borer (Melittia satyriniformis Hbn.). Cir. 38, second
ss as 2 ee ae ei Re ERE rh Aap eee 3, 000

The Common Squash Bug (Anasa tristis De G.). Cir.39,second series__ 10,000
The Principal Insects Affecting the Tobacco Plant. Reprinted from Year-

Oo UTR TIGHTS oS eRe pS Sets Cee ee ee 2 ee ea 590
Insects Injurious to Beans and Peas. Reprinted from Yearbook for 1898. — 2,500
The Principal Household Insects of the United States, with a Chapter on

Insects Affecting Dry Vegetable Foods. Bul. 4, new series. - Reprint.

SPICER Ope Sera 2 ree EYE Pe SS A ee Se eee eee 1, 000
The Army Worm (Leucania unipuncta Haw.). Cir.4,second series. Re-
SRI PEE Pee oo ne ee tn ee See 2, C00
The Ox Warble (Hypoderma lineata Villers). Cir. 25, second series. Re-
. ION 2.221 oe, ee a ee ee ee ee en - 2,000
Three Insect Enemies of Shade Trees. Farm. Bul. 99 _____..__.-_--.--- 20, 000

OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

Experiment Station Record. A condensed record of the contents of the
bulletins and reports issued by the Agricultural Experiment Stations of
the United States, and also a brief review of agr icultur al science of the
world. 10 cents pernumber. Vol. X, Nos. 4-12: Vol. XI, Nos. 1-3- 55, 000

Barnyard Manure. Farm. Bul. 21. Reprints _. .2..-.-22.2-2--+-=-.--- 39, 000
Foods: Nutritive Value and Cost. Farm. Bul. 23. Reprint ------...--- 10, 000
Sweet Potatoes: Culture and Uses. Farm. Bul. 26. Reprints ~--------- 30, 000
Peemand siiace, Harm: Bul. 32. Reprint 2..- 22.2 22.2.2. (seb 2 eet 25, 000
Meats: Composition and Cooking. Farm. Bul. 34. Reprint__----.----- 10, 000
Fowls: Care and Feeding. Farm. Bul. 41. Reprint-------.------------- 30, 000
fhe Manurine of Cotton. Farm. Bul. 48. Reprint_....-.-.-..--..-.--= 20, 000
Experiment Station Work—I. Farm Bul. 56. Reprint__--_..---------- 15, 000
Experiment Station Work—III. Farm. Bul. 69. Reprint -------------- 25, 000
Experiment Station Work—VI. Farm Bul.79. Reprint -__--...------- 20, 000
iaracaltiare in the South. Farm. Bul:81.. Reprint)22-- ....-..2.5-<-- 25,000
The Feeding of Farm Animals. Farm. Bul. 22. Reprints °_-_-_.-.----- 40, 000
Peanuts: Culture and Uses. Farm. Bul. 25. Reprint -..._...-.-..----- 10, 000
Papaocotbure. harm.,buleso, Reprints 214-5 922 ee 50, 000
Commercial Fertilizers: Composition and Use. Farm. Bul. 44. Reprint- 30, 000
ener ood. . Warm. Bol 74. Reprints... 2.54 segeensGeensece-docs 10, 000
Experiment Station Work—II. Farm. Bul.65. Reprint -_--_..-------- 25, 000
Experiment Station Work—IV. Farm. Bul. 73. Reprints _..__-------- 20,000
Experiment Station Work—V. Farm Bul. 78. Reprint __.______------- 15, 000

Souring and Other Changes in Milk Products. Farm. Bul.29. Reprint- 10,000
Losses in Boiling Vegetables, and the Composition and Digestibility of

Potatoes and Eggs. Bul. 43. Reprint. 5 cents _.._.-.-.-------.----+ 2.000
Experiment Station Work—VII. Farm. Bul.84. Reprint ____-_-___---- 25, 000
mesensood, Harm: Bul: .8>. Reprint =2ss25-. ==. 52-22 4520-222 22:8: - 20,000
feegert of bbe Director for. 1898: Reprintic. 2... 22... 4e #22) 2 ahs 2, 250
Dietary Studies in Chicago in 1895 and 1896. Bul.55. 5 cents -__.__.--- 3,500

Organization Lists of the Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations
of the United States, with a List of Agricultural Experiment Stations

mebereien Countries. Gual:.59. 1lO.centsi2.. = 52-62-22 oe 3, 500
Land Grant and Other Colleges and the National Defense. Cir. 40_-___- 2, 000
eertacmaire,. Warm: Bul. 39. Reprints..<2..22. -a2=-2-2-- eps. a eee 20, 000
meee ecodine. Farm, Bul 40. “Reprints: ..-..-..2<-.02- <2 422-2 25, 000
tomato Growing. Farm. Bul. 76... Reprints ._.-....._-2-2-...-----<2-- 35, 000

Experiment Station Work—VIII. Farm. Bul. 87_____-_----__----------- 45, 000

682 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

History and Present Status of Instruction in Cooking in the Public
Schools.of New York City. Bull o6: 10:cents 5-32 ee
Water Rights on the Mississippi River and Its Tributaries. With papers
on the Water Laws of Colorado and of Nebraska. Bul. 58. With
seprint.. 10. eents..... 200) S22 Cee See res eee
Leguminous Plants for Green Manuring and for Feeding. Farm. Bul. 16.
Reprinkscw.. Dye hese ee ee See ee eee
Guitan Seed and Its Products. Harm. Buli36. Reprint __----.22._-2222
Irrigation in Humid Climates. Farm Bul. 46. Reprint -_-...----.--_--
The Liming of Soils. Farm. Bul. 77. Revised edition, with reprint-:-._
Methods and Results-of Investigations on the Chemistry and Economy of
ood. Bull2i. Reprint. Sb) centsit¢. 2. 2... ee
Varieties of Corn. Bul. 57. 10cents_-_-_-- at Ses [eS ee eee ee
Abstracts of Laws for Acquiring Titles to Water from the Missouri River
and its Tributaries with the Legal Formsin Use. Bul. 60, with reprint.
LO\Gemiisis: S202) 22) Le So et SSS eh ee eee
Statistics of the Land-Grant Colleges and Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tions of the United States for the Year ending June 30,1898. Bul. 64.
DiCeNbS.. fob ce ole abe ee eet Se Bee See ee
Experiment Station Work—IX. Farm. Bul. 92.____.---..-------- 7
Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Convention of the Association of
American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, at Wash-
ington, D. C., November 15-17, 1898, and reprint. Bul.65. 10 cents____
The What and Why of Agricultural Experiment Stations. Farm. Bul. 1.
FRG DEI «omc ete ee oe ae eee
The Work of the Agricultural Experiment Stations. Farm. Bul.2. Re-

PlMMb 6 cee 8 ae sae eis Se ee Sie re
Milk Fermentations and their Relation to Dairying. Farm. Bul. 9. Re-
PEIN are a Saye a es Se a ny

Forage Plants for the South. Farm. Bul. 18.. Reprint-_--.....--.~.-...-
Sugar as Pood. Farm Bal 9a 2) oe ee eee
Some Types of American Agricultural Colleges. Reprinted from Year-
book for 1898-9 so Seo a ee en eee
Some Results of Dietary Studies in the United States. Reprinted from
Yearbook for ts08: .2-- 4 2s---- <2 oe ee ee ee
Agricultural Experiments in Alaska. Reprinted from Yearbook for 1898_
Investigations on the Metabolism of Milch Cows. Reprinted from
Experiment Station Record, Vol. X, Nos. 9 and 10__.-_.-.---.-_--.-_--
A Compilation of Analyses of American Feeding Stuffs. Bul. 11.
Reprints. 16-cente- 2-2. = Joe le ee ee ee eee eee ie
The Chemical Composition of American Food Materials. Bul. 28.
Revisededition. S:cents!. 22:2.) 2442 3 eee
Nutrition Investigations at the University of Tennessee in 1896 and 1897.
Bal 53. Reprint: 5 cents! --.-_- .22 5-20 + a ee ee
Description of a New Respiration Calorimeter and Experiments on the
Conservation of Energy in the Human Body. Bul. 63. 10 cents--_--_--
Selection and Its Effect on Cultivated Plants. Reprinted from Experi-
ment Statiom Record; Wol. Xi Nov 1.22 es Ss 2 See ee ees
Studies on Bread and Bread Making. Bul. 67. 10:cents____-.-.-.------
Experiment Station Work—XI. Farm. Bul. 103-.......-.---..--.------
Experiments on the Metabolism of Matter and Energy m the Human
Body. Bul: 69. 10-cents 22522 Si Ae. i ee
Water-right Problems of Bear River. Bul. 70. 15 cents_...-.----..-----
Fourth Report of Committee on Methods of Teaching Agriculture.
ir, 4b ols. scceccnsodasd SSE ee a
A Description of Some Chinese Food Materials and their Nutritive and
Economic Value: Baly68, ~10:centis:. .. 2-0 Saas ee
Food—Nutrients—Food Economy. Cir.43__.......-..------.---22=<=---
A Report to Congress on Agriculture in Alaska, Including Reports by
Walter H. Evans, Benton Killin, and Sheldon Jackson. Bul. 48. Re-
print. ‘WOcevits: 2 oe eS Es eee eee Soe ee
Experiment Station Work—XH. Farm: Bul. 105_.--.....-.-_-_--2oaaee
Katir Corn: Characteristics, Culture, and Uses. Farm. Bul. 38. Reprint-
Farmers’ Reading Courses. Bul: %2.. 5: ¢entsl a2. 5-2 2022 eee
A German Common School with a Garden. Cir. 42..........----------
Dietary Studies at the University of Tennessee in 1895. Bul. 29. Re-
print, 10 cents ....-c2ssic cen tee eee Coe men ee ee ee ee a eee ee

Copies.

4,000

11, 000
20, 000
30, 000
10,000
20, 000
500

8, 000
4,000

3,000
30, 000

2,000
500

DEPARTMENT PUBLICATIONS ISSUED IN 1899.

Dietary Studies at University of Missouri in 1895, and Data Relating to
Bread and Meat Consumption in Missouri. Bul. 31. Reprint. 5 cents_
Food and Nutrition Investigations in New Jersey in 1895 and 1896. Bul.
PERRET RET 6 ONGCORES) ee Ae a Oe ie Renee he ls A DS ee
Dietary Studies in New Mexico in 1895. Bul. 40. Reprint. 5 cents___-
A Report on the Work and Expenditures of the Agricultural Experiment
Stations for the Year Ended June 30,1898. Bul. 61. 15 cents________
A Second Report to Congress on Agriculture in Alaska. Bul. 62. 10
| MO eoeteE ee ee ee ee ees Se ee
The Physiological Effect of Creatin and Creatinin and Their Value as
Pini Bak G6) teenta f° ey ES
feasing Sheep for Mutton. Farm. Bul. 96 __..._......-...-----.---.2.- 2
Experiment Station Work—X. Farm. Bul. 97____..__.._....---_---_--.
ep haising inthe South. Farm. Bul. 100 ___2.__-__..-...--..---- 2.2.

OFFICE OF FIBER INVESTIGATIONS.

A Report on Flax Culture for Seed and Fiber in Europe and America.
7 LGR Ta ig ne ene o: Ae
A Descriptiv e Catalogue of Useful Fiber Plants of the World, including
the Structural and Economic Classification of Fibers. Report 9.
IO ne en 1 ee
Flax for Seed and Fiber in the United States. Farm. Bul, 27. Reprint.

SECTION OF FOREIGN MARKETS.

mradeio: Puerto Rico, Bul..13. Reprint. 5 cents......._-...22-...-2_-
The World's Markets for American Products, Sweden. Bul. 8. Revised
IRIE RE es 6 oe oe eed ee Be See
Report of the Chief of the Section of Foreign Markets for 1898. Reprinted
from the Annual Reports of the Department of Agriculture. Reprint_
Trade of the Philippine Islands. Bul.14, with reprint. 10 cents_._____-
Our Foreign Trade in Agricultural Products, 1884-1898. Bul. 15.
USES co peel = ee eee 0 ae er ely
Agricultural Imports and Exports, 1894-1898. Cir. 21, with reprint--_--

DIVISION OF FORESTRY.

Progress in Timber Physics: Bald Cypress (Taxodium distichum). Cir.
LE ATES apt i A SS ete ge a ee RE an ee ee ee
Forestry for Farmers. Farm. Bul. 67. Reprint _---.-...--....---------
/reeress in Timber Physics. Cir. 18. Reprint. -_-_-.._-.:-.-25.2-222---
The Timber Pines of the Southern United States. Bul. 13. Revised
Reine SepEiny: So CONES 22:22! 2 2 2 oo. 22 Ree ee
Notes on Some Forest Problems. Reprinted from Yearbook for 1898. ___
Work of the Division of Forestry for the Farmer. Reprinted from Year-
MNMRPRET Sel Oe 2 ee te sb ee Se eS LE se de
A Primer of Forestry. Part I—The Forest. Bul. 24. 35 cents _______- ed
Notes on the Forest Conditions of Porto Rico. Bul. 25. 10 cents ___-_- =
The White Pine (Pinus Strobus Linn.). Bul.22. 40 cents_-------.-----
Practical Forestry in the Adirondacks. Bul. 26. 15 cents _____...-.__..
Practical Assistance to Tree Planters. Cir. 22 _------..... -...----..---

DIVISION OF EXPERIMENTAL GARDENS AND GROUNDS.

ewanpercy Cutiure. . Farm. Bul. 18. Reprint. -_-_--:........--.-.-----.-.
Pruning of Trees and Other Plants. Reprinted from Yearbook for 1898_

LIBRARY.

Accessions to the Department Library, October-December, 1898. Bul.
oS BEET Lape Se er ee ee ee oe ee
Accessions to the Department Library, January-March, 1899. Bul. 27.
BRD 2 5 oh UES 0 eee Senn ey ee eee epee ae eee See
Accessions to Department Library, April-June, 1899. Bul. 28. 5 cents_
List of Publications Relating to Forestry in the Department Library.
TETELL, Bik. TANS, er eee ee ee eee te ee eee ye eee
Accessions to the Department Library, July-September, with reprint.
REM NECN le hoes. 8. was oacmae se anenee HaSeee tact aa ace eeeneeeee

683
Copies.
1,000

1,000
1,000

2, 200
2,000
30,000
20, 000
80, 000

1,000

1,000
10, 000

5, 000
4,000

1,500
15, 000

3.000
37, 000

684 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

DIVISION OF POMCLOGY.

Utilizing Surplus Fruits. Reprinted from Yearbook for 1898 ____.____.-
Nut Culture in the United States, Embracing Native and Introduced
Species. Special Report.. Reprint. 30:cents .2._...2 2 eS
Revised Catalogue of Fruits Recommended for Cultivation in the Vari-
ous Sections “of the United States and the British Provinces by the
American Pomological Society. Buli8.) Sicentss: = 2. Se ee eee

DIVISION OF PUBLICATIONS.

Publications of the U. 8. Department of Agriculture for sale by the
Superintendent of Documents, Union Building, Washington, D. C.
Corrected to February 1, 1899: No. 179, fifth edition _2____-_- 22522

The Vegetable Garden. Farm. Bul.042 o.oo eee

Notes on Some English Farms and Farmers. Reprinted from Yearbook
for 1898. 5.525 2. . -§ ARLHS See 2 se ee re

A Directory for Farmers. Reprinted from Yearbook for 1898 .....-.-2.--

Index to the Annual Reports of the U. S. Department of Agriculture for
the years 1837 to 1893, inclusive. Figs. 1... 1bi\cents( 2: 22. =e ee

List of Bulletins and Circulars issued by the U.S. Department of Agri-
culture and available for Free Distribution. Corrected to June, 1899.
INO. 247, third edition, «<2 -22 2208 428i) wee eee

Suggestions to Southern Farmers. - Farm. Bul.98 _____________._--_-___-

Asparagus Culture: Farm. Bols6l ¢>..2:) es. Mens eee eee

Monthly List of Publications. January 1899, to December, 1899 ____.___-

OFFICE OF PUBLIC ROAD INQUIRIES.

An Act to Provide for the Construction of Roads by Local Assessment,
County and State Aid. Cirs1b:, “Reprint. ee
The Forces Which Operate to Destroy Roads, with Notes on Road Stones
and Problems Therewith Connected. Cir.29. Reprint ._.____._.__---
Improvement of Public Roads in North Carolina. Reprinted from Year-
bool: for. 1894." Reprint). -§...-. 2. 255 Se eee
Information Regarding Road Materials and Transportation Rates in Cer-
tain States West of the Mississippi River. Bul.5. Reprint. 5 cents _
Progress of Road Construction in the United States. Bul.19. Reprint.
5 cents Bje ek eee CSS Hse EO Ee se i © og
Report of Committee on Legislation, Adopted by the State Good Roads
Convention, Richmond, Va., October 10 and 11, 1895. Cir. 18. pe
Highway Maintenance and Repairs. Cir:24.. Reprint.2322 ee
Steel-Track Wagon Roads. Reprinted from Year See for 189822:2" saa
Consiruction of Good Country Roads. Reprinted from Yearbook for 1898.
Agriculture in Puerto Rico. Reprinted from Yearbook for 1898~_-_.___-
Road Improvement in Governors’ Messages. Cir. 83____......---___-_-.
Good Roads for Farmers. Farm. Bul. 95, with reprint______.____.-__---

DIVISION OF SOILS.

An Electrical Method of Determining the Moisture Content of Avable
Soils. Bul.6.. Reprint. 5 Gents. 24s. -c22 25 eee
An Electrical Method of Determining the Temperature of Soils. Bul. 7.
Reprint. 0. cents: < 22222 23562 Gh ee ee
An Electrical Method of Determining the Soluble Salt Content of Soils,
with Some Results of Investigations on the Effect of Water and Soluble
_ Salts on the Electrical Resistance of Soils. Bul. 8. Reprint. 5 cents_
Soil Moisture: A Record of the Amount of Water Contained in Soils dur-
~ _ ing the Crop Season of 1896. Bul. 9. Reprint. 5 cents._...--=..--__-
The Mechanics of Soil Moisture. Bul. 10. Reprint. 5 cents _...._____-
The Soils of the Pecos Valley, New Mexico. Cir. 8 _.._.-.:_._._.220 0
Tobacco Soils of the United States: A Preliminary Report Upon the Soils
of the Principal Tobacco Districts. Bul.11. 10 cents _......._..-..--
The Culture of Tobacco. Farm. Bul. 82. Reprints........-....-.----_1
Methods of Curing Tobacco. Farm. Bul. 60. Reprint............---.--
Tobacco Soils. Farm. Bul. 83. Reprints: ta... 2. ee
Methods of Mechanical Analysis of Soils and the Determination of the
Amount of Moisture in Soils of the Field. Bul. 4. Reprint. 5cents-

20, 000
20, 000
20, 600
26, 000

10, 069
10, 000
1, 000
1,090
1, 000

10, 000
10, 000
3, 000
3,000
2, 000
10, 000
50, 000

800
800
11, 000

1, 500
30, 000
25, 000
20, 000

500

DEPARTMENT PUBLICATIONS ISSUED IN 1899.

The Alkali Soils of the Yellowstone Valley, from a Preliminary Investi-
gation of the Soils near Billings, Mont. Bul. 14. 15 cents.__.__..-_--
Texture of Some Important Soil Formations. Bul.5. Reprint. 15 cents-
Alkali Lands. Farm. Bul.88. With Reprint_--_-_--- i
The Movement and Retention of Water in Soils. Repri inted from Year-
TG a eS pee res a
The Soluble Mineral Matter of Soils. Reprinted from Yearbook for 1898 _
Electrical Instruments for Determining the Moisture, Temperature, and
Bolle salt ‘Content of Solis. Bul. 15. 5 cents._..2. ---22.4-+22.-.---

DIVISION OF STATISTICS.

Changes in the Rate of Charge for Railway and Other Transportation
peed ee sth: tty. eprint. 5 Cenigs 2224.) 75. Ne eee Se ee
Agricultural Production and Prices. Reprinted from Yearbook, 1897 ---
The Brazos River (Texas) Flood of June-July, 1899. and Its Effect upon
the Agriculture of the Submerged Region. Cir.10____-.------.-------
Maemworid aGrain ©rops in-1899) Cir. 2 22222 2 eS
The Cost of Cotton Production. (Mise. ) Bulk d6. db centsseeeene see ee
Report on the Condition of Winter Grain on April 1, 1899, and the Losses
of Farm Animals During the Year Ending March 31, 1899, with Statis-
tics of Foreign Crops. Report 1HGSaew Series’ os Ll eee ee
Agricultural Statistics Relating to Grain, Cotton, Sugar, Animals, etc.,i
the United States. Reprinted from Yearbook for 1898 ...__.._._ ___-.
Monthly Crop Circulars. May to November, inclusive_-_--....-.-.----

rs

Public Domain of the United States. Reprinted from Year book for 1898_

Keeping Goats for Profit. By Almont Barnes, of the Division of Statis-
tics. Reprinted from Yearbook for 1898__.._._............-----------
Maratea rropoOruer, Vol. 1; Nos. 110 S's-32. 5-2 4282 Se eee

DIVISION OF VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY.

Legal Enactments for Restriction of Plant Diseases. A Compilation of

the Laws of United States and Canada. Bul.1t1. Reprint. icents_---
Peach-Growing for Market. Farm. Bul.33. Reprints .._...-..-----.---
Spraying for Fruit Diseases. Farm. Bul.38. Reprints -_....-...-----
The Pineapple Industry of the United States. Reprinted from Yearbook

Senter reONTING.: 5 =o sts SU) Ag pe ee ee eee 8
How to Grow Mushrooms. Farm. Bul.53. Reprint ---..-.-.-.----.----
The Black Rot of the Cabbage. Farm. Bul.68. Reprint......----.__.-.
Cereal Rusts oi the United States. A Physiological Investigation. Bul.

cha TES SC Sea Ro) Ss ene, ae ey a eee ere ene oS Si Stke che 2s 2 te ee ee
MeaEspravine Devices, Cir l7~ Reprint 2225-4 22-4 es 3 ts ee
Wilt Disease of Cotton, Watermelon, and Cowpea. Bul.17. 15 cents _-
Bomeonrayne Devices. Cire (7) 5202-2 2 ee ee
Fungous Diseases of the Grape and Treatment. Farm. Bul.4. Reprint-
Potato Diseases and Their Treatment. Farm. Bul.91_-_..._.._.....--+-
Pollination of Pomaceous Fruits. Reprinted from Yearbook for 1898 __-
Work in Vegetable Physiology and Pathology. Reprinted from Year-

Sree OTRO Oe ueye = ee Fee Nad eS IM Pe eee: ee
Improvement of Plants by Selection. From Yearbook for 1898 ___.____-
Treatment of Smuts of Oats and Wheat. Farm. Bul.5. Reprint

WEATHER BUREAU.

Monthly Weather Review. A summary, by months, of weather condi-
tions throughout the United States, based upon reports of nearly 3,000
regular and volunteer observers. Vol. XXVI, No.13; Vol. XX VII, Nos.
BN cements et A et
The Probable State of the Sky Along the Path of the Total Eclipse of the
RaeeI ee Get OO) emer) = Mes OE oe he Eee a
Instructions for Voluntary Observers__..________-. De a OD
LE iD LEC SUT) aS hie ie ee Sel sive) Dal eke ent,
Frost: When to Expect it and How to Lessen the Injury Therefrom.
Weather Bureau Bul. 13
Report of the Chief of Weather Bureau, 1897-98: Parts Ii to VII, Cli-
PERI E LCL Ony Peay ee Me AA ies 2 PT ee | eA 2 ee ty ee eee) eee
_ Proceedings of the Convention of Weather Bureau Officials held at
Omaha, Nebr., October. 13-14, 1898... Bul..24 2.20 fo boss .b oe. oo

685

Copies.

30, 000

300
300

2,500

3,500
1,000
9,000

58, 000
27, 000

80, 000
25, 000
, 049, 000
10, 000

10, 000
362, 500

686 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Copies.
Climate and Crop Report of 1898, Alaska Section .............--____-__- 300
Measurement by Precipitation. Circular EK, Instrument Division_-_-___- 750
Property Loss by Lightning, 1898, with Some General Directions as to the

Erection of Lightning Rods. Weather Bureau Bul. 26 .._-______..__. 1,000
Climatology of the Isthmus of Panama__....__......_-..-._.-_......... 600.
An Advance in Measuring and Photographing Sounds. 202___.________.- 600
Variations in Lake Levels and Atmospheric Precipitation ..._-_________- 500
Brazos River Flood Bulletin’. 2! == _ Si See eee 2,000
Beport of the Chief for 189905 ...058 955.52 2k eee 2 eee 5, 000
The Probable State of the Sky Along the Path of the Total Eclipse of the

Sun, May 28, 1900, Observations of 1899______________2__.----- 2222... - 5,000
Vertical Gradients of Temperature, Humidity, and Wind Direction. A

Preliminary Report on the Kite Observations of 1898 ____._....._..__- 2, 000
The West Indian Hurricane of August 7-14, 1899. Storm Bul 1________- 2,500
Woteson: Brost» -Harm. ‘Bull, d04: 2 2.232237 2e5 SS ee 60, 000
Hydrology of the Lake Minnetonka Watershed ___..____.....-.---_--.-- 750
The use of Kites in the Exploration of the Upper Air. Reprinted from

Wearbook:for 1898)... See ele 26. kee ee ee eee 1,000
Cyclones, Hurricanes,and Tornadoes. Reprinted from Yearbookfori898_ 1,000
Meteorological Chart of the Great Lakes__-_._..-.-.-.--....------------- 2,500
Weather Forecasting: Some Facts, Historical, Practical, and Theoretical

et 2s ae cai Sh jee nies 4 el eh dane aren ee 5, 000
Lightning and Electricity of the Air. In Two Parts. Bul. 26___.__._-_- 5, 000
Meteorological Chart of the Great Lakes. January, June-October,

Daceraben. 4. |. aCe sel wees s Soca ne Re = san ned ee er 18, 000
Climate and Crop Bulletin No. 31, December, 1898, and No. 1, January,

#899, to No. 30, November, 1809). -.52. s283ba2 casts eee ee 124, 000
Snow and Ice Chart weekly, January 2 to Mar ch 27,and December 5-26 -_ 28.050
Daily weather map, January to December, 1899,_____ 2: deeded 476, 150

STATE OFFICIALS IN CHARGE OF AGRICULTURE.

Secretury of Agriculture.
Pennsylvania -------- John Ebamiltone ==. 223.2 _.__Harrisburg.
Commissioners of Agriculture.}
PAN ob his oe ee em Isaac HS Culverts 22 2h et Sete oe Montgomery.
Arkansas ...0 1 sis Birannike Tis 232 5. et ere Little Rock.
PMOPIO Die ak 35 oS he cs i..B; Wiomlbwellch in. 5s ees Tallahassee.
Geontre 2.05 oc vee ene ©.5; Stephens -1-4 jae) Vist ee ae Atlanta.
enn C cy eee kee eS BSB Nia oe st eee. meat apenas Frankfort.
Ronisiana -.- 2 5 eon Jastrempka <2 2-2) =e bea Baton Rouge.
MISSISSIpMiiE ssa. ee GR Wis @rer isle woes pap oven ee De Jackson,
Mionitan a. .2s2.22252< J. W.. Calderheads. = acc ben ears Helena.
Nien ¥ ork’ .eotb ooo ee Chas. A. “Wietingo24.. 212224 2e8 Albany.
North Carolina. _-_-_._- Si EcPatbersoni af ofp sets ee Raleigh.
Worth Dakota .---.--- HU Phomas 2... eee eee Bismarck.
south Carolina: =: AvP: Butler. o.22 5. 2 eee eee Columbia.
Tennessee __....-_---- Thos: ER¢Paines .cj-- 2 a9. Dead eee Nashville.
HOR AS a. Rca a Bee iD Jet JOHNSON rote. 5 oe ee ee Austin
War oiniag=525 = Sse Geol Wi. Aone 2 Te 6 ee Richmond
Washington. ...- 222. Wiad 0) Aud as yo 2 os ee ee ot Olympia
State Engineer.
GAO) eg aoe een We; MOUS ee. 22 4 ee Boise.
Secretaries of State Boards of Agriculture.

Selitornia.2e 22.0. Peter dD. Shields so. eet ee Sacramento.
MOLDTAGO 2c. hoe Ay: IE, Tanglegi. 2. fee ee Fort Collins.
Gonnecticut...._..--- TS Goldie. ot. 62: Pee es ae West Cornwall.
eee are aad LPNS Manlove Hayes’. <2 icc sdc ede sens ee Dover.

n Th: sever al States the duties of the Commissioner ide Agr ee are joined with

the care of other interests also, as of mining and labor.

OFFICIALS OF AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES. «687

ss ck WE: Or: Gena s oe te ee Springfield,
Pesan - =. ------ ChasGikt) Kenn cthyee a se= o.8 2 toe Indianapolis.
aRAAS) = = =. Ree CODULN Ta. 1 a ears ees er See Topeka.

Lo JoeB Walker MeWKeent eo oa: Augusta.
Massachusetts - ------- J. 2 ag Stociswetl= ) ¥s_So= Sn. eoee se Boston.
| Butheriield. oe n2 et oo ns Agricultural College.
sc 5 pies Rippoyies 22 steer bi See Se Columbia.
Wepraska ..._._--... Ree W Wena". ee ye a ee Brownville.
ae Boum Bowyier..* . ee Carson City.
New Jersey ---------- BranitincDive= cub eee Ieee: Trenton.

New Hampshire __-_-_-_- ING de baCNOldGE® 222. ee. ee Concord.
North Carolina__-_----- OK, Diaper 2 a ee eas Raleigh.

ob) 4 eee VE Wis Mallore: 26. 6's 4. 354 ae es Columbus.
oe ae C.D Gabrielsons: 2. yf 6s eae Salem.

Rhode Island___-----~- George A. Stockwell _.-._....-.----- Providence.
South Dakota -------- Wialter Bu Deane« 2.255440 4))! = ae Yankton.

US ae EP: Folsom {27 32 2 se ae Salt Lake.
Weemont. 9 -....__-.. We BU is 4 fs aie ok East Hardwick.
West Virginia. _---_--- SEAR E ES cya bc eee Se el eee eee Charleston.
SeneansIH 2.0... -- sent ME Trebek o. 25. Soy ors Madison.

Commissioner of Agriculture and Forestry.

Soh Beynon: Clarice 25 89s 5 a ee Honolulu.

SECRETARIES OF STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES.

(S20 r a ODE BLO Wits 5e ee ea eee Hawkinsville.
ame oe See G. Ee Few Hontents <r ee e Des Moines.
Movigiana,.___...- ---- 3. 3a. WEGUMHINEP- ee Baton Rouge.
ea RS as || i eee -Augusta.
Minnesota —-.---.---- mW; Banilall’. 25... 2 2. eee Harmnline.
Montana. ---..-....- raets! PUDGl. — 2 e). ee ee Helena.
PIeWeG 2... = 2k. Wea. My: Deane. ==. <a ee eS Reno.
i James: Docharty-= . 4. ss '- 5.22 Albany.
North Carolina-.-----. pOMeUR Bl. PDE Men ea Raleigh.
ennsylvania _------- Tan WOM os TF ee Ee ee York.
South Carolina- ------ A es fon, ee eee ey en oe Pomaria.
a privy eee ee ee Rutland.

OFFICIALS IN CHARGE OF FPARMBERS’ INSTITUTES.

State. | Name of official. Post office.
PIR AMS .--.-=..-- I. F. Culver, Commissioner of Agriculture-_------.---.-- Montgomery.
| C.A. Cary, Alabama Polytechnic Institute ------.------ Auburn.
Arizona___...._.... R.H. Forbes, Director Agricultural Experiment Sta- | Tucson.
tion.
APEANSAS - - ------ _| W.G. Vincenheller, Agricultural Experiment Station_| Fayetteville.
California --...-.--- | E. J. Wickson, Univer sity Of Caliiormia 222 _ ae 28. Berkeley.

| D. T. Fowler, Conductor Farmers’ Institutes for Cen- Do.

tral and Northern California.

A.J. Cook, Conductor Farmers’ Institutes for South- (Oe

| ern California.

Colorado --...-.-.- B. O. Aylesworth, President State Agricultural College| Fort Collins.

Connecticut -_---.-- | T.S. Gold, Secretary State Board of Agriculture -_-_---- | West Cornwall.

F. H. Stadtmueller, Secretary Connecticut Dairy- | Elmwood.
men’s Association.

J. pe eSETEEA, Secretary Connecticut Pomological | New Britain.

ociety

Delaware _-------- Wesley Webb, Superintendent Farmers’ Institute | Dover.
for Kent County.

A. T. Neale (Director Agricultural Experiment Sta- | Newark.
tion), Superintendent Farmers’ Institute for New-
castle County.

S. H. Messick, Secretary Farmers’ Institute for | Bridgeville.
Sussex County.

larga 22-2552: H.E. Stockbridge, Agricultural College _-_.-----.-.---- | Lake City.
ieerrian. ..-..- =. H. C. White, President State College of Agriculture | Athens.
and Mechanic Arts.
Py. Editor Atlanta Evening Journal_-__-_-._...-.-.-.----.- Atlanta.
bias === - = == =--- AS Hostetter, Secretary and Superintendent of | Springfield.

Farmers’ Institutes.
E. Davenport, Dean College of Agriculture, Univer- | Urbana.
sity of Illinois.

688

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

OFFICIALS IN CHARGH CF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES—Continued.

State.

Indiana
Towa

Warisas = ise

Kentucky

Maine

Massachusetts-_-__

Michigan

Minnesota
Mississippi

tion.

' C. D. Smith, Director Agricultural Experiment Sta- |

!

|
|

culture.

tion.

ture.

tion.
O. C. Gregg, Superintendent Farmers’ Institutes
Cues Hutchinson, Director Agricultural Experiment

Station.

Missouri
Montana

New York
North Carolina__

North Hea BS
pales

wine = = }
South Carolina --__|

South Dakota: _---
Tennessee

th 22
Vermont
Virginia

West Virginia
Wisconsin

J. R. Rippey, Secretary State Board of Agriculture_-

J. Reid, President College of Agriculture and Me-
chanic Arts.

E. A. Burnett, University of Nebraska

e _| N. J. Bachelder, Secretary State Board of Agricul-

ture.

F. Dye, Secretary State Board of Agriculture

. E. Dawley, Director of Institutes

S. L. Patterson, Commissioner of Agriculture

E. E. Kaufman. Assistant Dairy Commissioner

W. W. Miller, Secretary State ‘Board of Agriculture __|

J.W ithycombe, Vice-director Agricultural Experi- |
ment Station.

A.L. Martin, Deputy Secretary of Agriculture and |
Director Farmers’ Institutes.

o. Stockwell, Secretary State Board of Agricul-
sure.

se S$. Hartzog, President Clemson Agricultural Col-
ege.

S. A. Cochrane, Director Farmers’ Institute

T. H. Paine, Commissioner of Agriculture

F. H. Broome, Secretary Agricultural Experiment
Station.

| J. H. Connell, Director Agricultural Experiment Sta- |

tion.

President Agricultural College
C. J. Bell, Secretary State Board of Agriculture
G. W. Koiner, Commissioner of Agriculture
J. M. McBryde, President Polytechnic Institute -____- }
E. A. : BE yan, Director Agricultural Experiment Sta-

tio
| D. M. Silliman, Institute Director
G. McKerrow, Superintendent Farmers’ Institutes---

Name of official. Post office.
| W.C. Latta, Agricultural Experiment Station________- Lafayette.
Geo.’Van Houten, Secretary State Board of Agri- | Des Moines.
W. M. Beardshear, President State College of Agri- | Ames.
culture and Mechanic Arts.
J.T. Willard, Director Agricultural Experiment Sta- | Manhattan.
L. Moore, Assistant Commissioner of Agriculture, | Frankfort.
i Labor, and Statistics.
M. A. Scovell, Director Agricultural Experiment Sta- | Lexington.
L. Jastremski, Commissioner of Agriculture_._..___-. Baton Rouge.
B. W. McKeen, Secretary State Board of Agriculture__| Augusta.
W.L. Amoss, Director Farmers’ Institutes_-_-._______- Benson.
J. W. Stockwell, Secretary State Board of Agricul- | Boston.

Agricultural College.

Lynd.
Agricultural College.

Columbia.
Bozeman.

Lincoln.
Concord.

| Trenton.

| Fayetteville.
Raleigh.
Fargo.
Columbus.
Corvallis.

| Har risburg.

| Providence,
Clemson College.

Brookings.

Nashville.
Knoxville.

College Station.

Logan.

East Hardwick.
| Richmond.
Blacksburg.
Pullman.

| Charleston.

Madison.

President, John W. Springer, Denver;

NATIONAL LIVE STOCK ASSOCIATION.

[Organized January 25, 1898. ]

secretary, Charles F.

DAIRY OFFICIALS.

Martin,Denver.

National Association of Dairy and Food Departments.—Secretary, J. B. Noble,

Hartford, Conn.

National Dairy Union.—Secretary, Charles Y Knight, 188 South Water Street,

Chicago, Il.

N ational Creamery

Elgin. Tl.
New Englanc
Center. Conn.

Buttermakers’

1 Milk Producers’ Union.—Secretary,

Association.—Secretary,

L. 8. Hayward, Pomfret

E. Sudendorf,

“ek ve States Milk Producers’ Association.—Secretary, H. T. Coon, Little York,

Celumbia River Dairy Association.—Secretary, H. T. French, Moscow, Idaho.

DAIRY OFFICIALS. 689

ALABAMA. ’

Alabama Dairymen’s Association.—Secretary, F. H. Bates, Hamburg.

CALIFORNIA.
State Dairy Bureau.—Secretary and agent, William Vanderbilt, 114 California
Street, San Francisco
California Dairy Association.—Secretary, Samuel E. Watson, 421 Market Street,
San Francisco.
Dairymen’s Association of Southern California.—Secretary, James R. Boal,
126 West Twenty-fifth street, Los Angeles.

COLORADO.

Dairy Commission. —Commnniissioner, T. L. Monson, Denver.
State Dair ymen’s Association.—Secretary. A, M. Hunter, Boulder.

ONNECTICUT

Dairy Commission.—Commissioner, John B. Noble, Hartford.
Connecticut Dairymen’s Association.—Secretary, George E. Manchester, Station
A, Winsted.

Connecticut Credmery Association.—Secretary, Frank Avery, Manchester.
GEORGIA.
Georgia Dairymen’s Association.—Secretary, M. L. Duggan, Sparta.
ILLINOIS.
Food Commissioner.—Commiissioner, Alfred M. Jones, Room 1623 Manhattan
Building, Chicago.
Illinois State Dairymen’s Association.—Secretary, George Caven, 188 South
Water street, Chicago. : en
Chicago Milk Shippers’ Union.—Secretary, S. Hill, 94 La Salle street, Chicago.
INDIANA.
State Dairy Association.—Secretary, H. E. Van Norman, Lafayette.
IOWA.

Dairy Commission.—Commissioner, B. P. Norton, Des Moines.
Iowa State Dairy Association.—Secretary, J.C. Daly, Charies City.

KANSAS.

Kansas State Dairy Association.—Secretary, A. L. Goble, Riley.
MAINE.
Maine Dairymen’'s Association.—Secretary, L. W. Dyer, Cumberland Center.
MASSACHUSETTS.
Dairy Bureau.—<Assistant executive officer, George M. Whitaker, Box 1332,
Boston.
Massachusetts Creamery Association.—Secretary. A. W. Morse, Belchertown
MICHIGAN.

Dairy and Food Commission.—Commissioner. Eliiot O. Grosvenor, Lansing.
Michigan Dairymen’s Association.—Secretary, S.J. Wilson. Flint.

MINNESOTA.

Dairy and Food Commission.—Commissioner. J. M. Bowler, St. Paul.

Minnesota State Dairymen’s Association.—Secretary, Robert Crickmore, Pratt.

Minnesota State Butter and Cheese Makers’ Association.—Secretary, J. K.
Bennett, Clinton Falls.

1 A 99—44

690 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

$ MISSOURI.

Missouri Dairymen’s Association.—Secretary, Levi Chubbuck, 1214 Chemical
Building, St. Louis.
NEBRASKA.

Food Commission. — Deputy Commissioner, F. B. Hibbard, Lincoln.
Nebraska Dairymen’s Association. —Secretary, Ss. C. Bassett, Gibbon.

NEW HAMPSHIRE.
Granite State Dairymen’s Association.—Secretary, J. L. Gerrish, Contoocook.
W JERSEY.

Dairy Commission.—Commissioner, George W. MacGuire, Trenton.
New Jersey State Dairy Union.—Secretary, G. L. Gillingham, Moorestown.

NEW YORK.
Department of Agriculture (including dairy).—Commissioner, Charles A. Wiet-

ing, Albany.
New York State Dairymen’s Association.—Secretary, W. W. Hall, Gouverneur.

NORTH CAROLINA.
North Carolina State Dairymen’s Association.—Secretary, C. W. Gold, Wilson.
NORTH DAKOTA.

Commission of Agriculture.—Commissioner (and ex officio State dairy commis-
sioner), H. U. Thomas, Bismarck.
North Dakota State Dairymen’s Association.—Secretary, E. KE. Kaufman, Fargo.
OHIO.

Dairy and Food Commission.—Commissioner, Joseph H. Blackburn, Columbus.
Ohio State Dairymen’s Association.—Secretary, L. P. Bailey, Tacoma.
Ohio Dairy Union.—Secretary, F. A. Stranahan, 30 Huron street, Cleveland.

OREGON.

State Dairy and Food Commission.—Commissioner, J. W. Bailey, Portland.
Oregon Dairymen’s Association.—Secretary, F. L. Kent, Corvallis.

PENNSYLVANIA.

Dairy and Food Commission (of State department of agriculture). —Commis-
sioner, Levi Weils, Harrisburg.

Pennsylvania State Dairy Association.—Secretary, A. L. Wales, Corry.

Pennsylvania Dairy Union.—Secretary, H. Hayward, State College.

Creamery Association of Hastern Pennsylvania.—Secretary, George R. Meloney.
1937 Market street, Philadelphia.

SOUTH DAKOTA,

South Dakota Dairy and Buttermakers’ Association.—Secretary, C. P. Sher-
wood, Desmet.

TENNESSEE.
| East Tennessee Dairy Association.—Secretary, Paul F. Kefauver, Madisonville.
TEXAS.
Dairymen’s Association.—Secretary, J. E. Maguire, Waco.
UTAH.

Food and Dairy Commission.—Commissioner, H. J. Faust, Jr., Salt Lake City.
Utah Dairymen’s Association.—Secretary, F. B. Linfield, Logan.

CATTLE BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATIONS. 691

VERMONT.

Vermont Dairymen’s Association.—Secretary, F. L. Davis, North Pomfret.
WASHINGTON.

Dairy and Food Commission.—Commissioner, E. A. McDonald, Seattle.
Washington State Dairymen’s Association.—Secretary, D.S. Troy, Chimacum.

WISCONSIN.

Dairy and Food Commission.*~-Commissioner, H. C. Adams, Madison.

Wisconsin Dairymen’s Association.—Secretary, George W. Burchard, Fort
Atkinson.

Wisconsin Cheesemakers’ Association.—Secretary, U. 8. Baer, Madison.

PROTECTION AGAINST CONTAGION FROM FOREIGN CATTLE.

An act of Congress of August 28, 1894, prohibits the importation of cattle and
cattle hides, but by the act of March 2, 1895, making appropriations for the
Department of Agriculture, it is provided that the prohibition may be suspended «
by the President whenever the Secretary of Agriculture shall certify to the Presi-
dent what countries or parts of countries are tree from contagious or infectious
diseases of domestic animals. The President, by proclamation of November 8.1895,
lifted the embargo with reference to Norway, Sweden, Holland, Great Britain,
Treland, the Channel Islands, and the countries of North, Central, and South
America so as to admit cattle under sanitary regulations prescribed by the Secre-
tary of Agriculture; also from all countries soas toadmit hides under regulations
prescribed by the Secretary of the Treasury.

CATTLE BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATIONS:.!

American Aberdeen-Angus Breeders’ Association.—Thomas McFarlane, Har-
vey, Ill., secretary. Number of registrations: 34,936; date of first entry, Novem-
ber, 1883. Registration fees: For animals under 1 year old, to members, $1.50;
nonmembers, $2.50. Entries of ancestors to complete pedigrees, $1. Entries of
native animals over 1 year old, $3 to members, $5 to nonmembers. Transfers
free within 90 days, $1 after 90 days. Certified pedigrees, 50 cents; extended pedi-
grees, $1; duplicate certificates, 25 cents. Affiliated foreign society: Polled Cattle
Society of Scotland, Dr. Alex Ramsay, secretary, Banff, Scotland. Eligible? to
registry: American-bred animals whose sires and dams are recorded in American
book, but application must be made within 2 years of birth; and imported animals
recorded or tracing to the eighth or a prior volume of the affiliated Scotch book.

American Devon Cattle Club.—L. P. Sisson, Newark, Ohio, secretary.?

American Galloway Breeders’ Association.—Frank B. Hearne, Independence,
Mo., secretary. Number of registrations: 16,395; first herdbook printed in 1883.
Registration fees: To members for animals under 1 year, $1; over i year, $2; to
nonmembers double; transfers 25 cents if within 90 days: otherwise, 50 cents.
Affiliated toreign book: The Galloway Herd Book of Scotland, Rev. John Gillespie,
secretary, Mouswald Manse, Ruthwell, R.S. O., Dumfriesshire, Scotland. Eli-
gible to registry: Animals having sires and dams in the herdbook of this associ-
ation or in the affiliated Scotch herdbook.

American Guernsey Cattle Club.— William H. Caldwell, Peterboro, N. H., secre-

1 Under the provisions of paragraph 473 of the act of July 24, 1897, any animal
imported specially for breeding purposes shall be admitted free, provided that no
such animal shall be admitted free unless pure bred, of a recognized breed, and
duly registered in the book of record established for that breed.

The Secretary of the Treasury, upon the advice of the Secretary of Agriculture,
issued June 22, 1899, regulations for the importation of animals under this law,
rem ao the recognized breeds and the books of record established for these

reeds.

2?Requirements for eligibility to registration can not be given fully in these lists
of breeders’ associations. Only the more general conditions are stated; for par-
ticulars application must be made to the secretary of the association.

3Tn this and other cases in these lists of breeders’ associations the lack of data
as to registrations is due to failure to receive the necessary information from the
association.

692 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

tary. Number of registrations: Bulls, 6,369; cows, 12,331; date of first entry, 1878.
Registration fees: Home-bred, under 6 months, $2, over 6 months, $3; imported,
within 6 months after landing, $2, after 6 months, $3; members pay, $1 less.
All transfers, $1. Affiliated foreign societies: English Guernsey Cattle Society,
England; Royal Guernsey Agricultural Society, Guernsey; General Herd Book,
Guernsey. Eligible to registry: Animals imported, or tracing through both sire
and dam to animals imported, from the island of Guernsey and registered in one
of the affiliated herdbooks.

American Hereford Cattle Breeders’ Association.—C. R. Thomas, Independ-
ence, Mo., secretary. Number of registrations: 90,000; date of first herdbook,
1879. Registration fees: To members, calves under 6 months, $1; over 6 months,
$5; to nonmembers, double. Duplicate entries, 25 cents. Transfers within 6
months of sale free to members, 25 cents to nonmembers; after 6 months. 50
cents to all. Duplicate certificates, 25 cents. Affiliated foreign society: Here-
ford Herd Book Society, 20 East street, Hereford, England. Hlhgible to registry:
Animals whose sires and dams are recorded in the American book or in Volume
XIII or prior volumes of the affiliated English book. ;

American Jersey Cattle Club.—J. J. Hemingway, No. 8 West Seventeenth
street, New York, N. Y., secretary. Number of registrations: 204,006; date of
first entry, July,1868. Registration fees: To members, for animals under 2 years,
$1; nonmembers, $2. Animals over 2 years old, double. Entries of records of
dead animals to complete pedigrees, $1. Transfers within 90 days, free; after 90
days, $1. Affiliated foreign society: Isiand of Jersey Royal Agricultural and
Horticultural Society. Eligible to registry: American-bred animals whose sires
and dams are recorded in the American book; to animals imported from the
island of Jersey under certain regulations.

American Polled Durham Breeders’ Association.—J. H. Miller. Mexico, Ind.,
secretary.

American Shorthorn Breeders’ Association.—J. H. Pickrell, Springfield, 111.,
secretary. Number of registrations: Over 400,000; date of first herdbook, 1846.
Registration fees: For all animals under 4 years, $1 each; over 4 years, $25 each;
for extended copies with seal, 25 cents extra. Affiliated foreign book: Hnglish
Shorthorn herdbook. Eligible to registry: Animals that trace back to recorded
ancestry.

American Sussex Association.—-Overton Lea, Nashville,Tenn., secretary. Num-
ber of registrations, 187. Registration fees: To members, $i; nonmembers, $3;
fees double if not registered within 6 months of birth or importation. Affiliated
foreign society: Sussex Herdbook Society. Eligible to registry: Animals regis-
tered in the English Sussex herdbook, or the get of animals registered in the
English or the American herdbook.

Ayrshire Breeders’ Association.—C. M. Winslow, Brandon, Vt., secretary. Num-
ber of registrations: Bulls, 6,928; cows, 15,505; books revised at separation from
Canadian book in 1876. Registration fees: To members, $i; nonmembers, $2;
double rates for animals over 2 years old. Affiliated foreign book: Ayrshire
Herdbook of Scotland. Eligible to registry: Animals that trace closely to animals
recorded in the books of this association or to the Scotch book.

Brown Swiss Cattle Breeders’ Association.—N.S. Fish, Groton, Conn., secretary.
Number of registrations: 5,100; date of first entry, September 8, 1880. Registra-
tion fees: For animals under 1 year old, $1 to members, $2 to nonmembers; for
animals over 1 year old, double fees. Affiliated foreign society: None. Eligible
to registry: Animals descended from registered animals in direct line.

Dutch Belted Cattle Association.—H. B. Richards, Easton, Pa., secretary.
Number of registrations: Males, 383; females, 904; date of first entry, April 12,
1886. Registration fees: To members, animals under 6 months, $1; over 6 months,
$2; to nonmembers, $1 more. Transfers within 380 days, $1; after 30 days, $2.
Affiliated foreign society: None. Eligible to registry: All offspring of registered
animals unless disqualified by physical defects.

Holstein-Friesian Association of America.—Frederick L. Houghton, Brattleboro,
Vt., secretary. Number of registrations: Bulls, 32,821; cows, 64,540; date of first
entry, March 15, 1871. . Registration fees: To members of association, for males,
$3; for females, $1; tononmembers, for males $5, for females$2. Feesfor animals
over 1 year old, double the ordinary. Affiliated foreign books: Friesch Rundvee-
Stamboek; Nederlandsch Rundvee-Stamboek; North Holland Herd Book. Eligible
to registry: Only such animals as are determined under the regulations of the
association to be ‘‘ pure bred.”

Red Polled Cattle Club of America (incorporated).—J. McLain Smith, Dayton,
Ohio, secretary. Number of registrations: Bulls, 6,753; cows, 14,419; date of first
herdbook, new series, 1890. All cattle registered in the English book, as well as

HORSE BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATIONS. 693

the American cattle. appear in these books. Registration fees: For animals under
1 year, $1 to members and $2 to nonmembers; over 1 year, 50 cents extra. A ffili-
ated foreign society: The Red Polled Cattle Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
Eligible to registry: Animals whose sires and dams are registered.

HORSE BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATIONS.

Aynervican Association of Importers and Breeders of Belgian Draft Horses.—
J. D. Conner, jr., Wabash, Ind., secretary.

American Breeders’ Association of Jacks and Jennets.—J. W. Jones, Columbia,
Tenn., secretary. Number of registrations, about 750; date of first entry, 1891.
Registration fees: .To members, $2 for living animals; transfers and certificates,
$1 each; fees to nonmembers, double. Affiliated foreign society: All similar asso-
ciations are in Spain. The American association will cooperate with any foreign
society recommended by American consul. if such society is found to have satis-
factory rules. Eligible to registry: All animals when black with light points, as
follows: Native, 154 hands high; imported, 15 hands. if of unrecorded sire or dam;
jacks of recorded ancestors if 14} hands, jennets 14 hands.

American Cleveland Bay Breeders’ Association.—R. P. Stericker, Attica, N. Y.,
secretary. Number of registrations, 1,524: date of first entry, November 10, 1885.
Registration fees: To members, stallions $2, mares $1; nonmembers, stallions
$5, mares $3. Fees are doubled if animals are not recorded within two years from
date of birth or importation. Affiliated foreign societies: Cleveland Bay Society
of Great Britain and Ireland: Yorkshire Coach Horse Society of Great Britain and
Ireland. Eligible to registry: Mares bred in America, four crosses by registered
sires; stallions bred in America, five crosses by registered sires; stallion or mare
whose sire and dam are both recorded in the American book or one of the affili-
ated foreign books, and imported animals recorded in one of the affiliated foreign
books.

American Clydesdale Association.—Alex. Galbraith, Janesville, Wis., secre-
tary. Number of registrations, 9,440, about one-half being stallions and one-half
mares: date of first entry, 1879. Registration fees: To members owning stud
books 1 to 8, inclusive, $2; nonmembers owning these books, $3; members not
owning books, $3; nonmembers not owning books, $5. Transfers for members,
$1; nonmembers, $2. Extended pedigree certificates, same terms as transfers.
Affiliated foreign society: The Clydesdale Horse Society of Great Britain and
Ireland, 93 Hope street, Glasgow, Scotland. Eligible to registry: Animals whose
sire and dam are recorded in the American or affiliated English book; animals
recorded in the English book; stallions having five top crosses and mares having
four top crosses by sires recorded in American book; but unsound or unworthy
animals will not be admitted.

American Hackney Horse Society.—A. H. Godfrey, room 48, Astor Court
Building, West Thirty-fourth street, New York City, secretary. Number of
registrations: Stallions, 527; mares, 1,043; mares inspected and recorded, 117.
Registration fees: Members’ stallions, $3; members’ mares, $2; nonmembers,
double. Transfers for members, $2;-nonmembers, $3. Inspection fees: Mare or
filly certified to be sired by a ** full-registered ” hackney stallion, $2; other mares,
$2 and actual expenses of inspectors. Affiliated foreign society: English Hackney
Horse Society, London, England.

American Percheron Horse Breeders’ Association.—S. D. Thompson, Chicago,
Mil., secretary.

American Shetland Pony Club.—Mortimer Levering, Lafayette, Ind., secretary.

American Shire Horse Breeders’ Association.—Charles Burgess, Wenona, IIIL.,
secretary. Number of registrations, 5,460; date of first entry, November 1, 1886.
Registration fees: To members, for each animal, $2; nonmembers, $5. Trans-
fer, $1. Affiliated foreign society: The Shire Horse Society of Great Britain, J.
Sloughgrove, secretary, Hanover Square, London, England. Eligible to registry:
Staliions and mares whose sires and dams are recorded in the American book or
the affiliated English book; stallions and mares recorded in the affiliated English
book, and stallions having five top crosses and mares having four top crosses, in
each case by sires recorded in the American book.

American Stud Book, Thoroughbred.—James E. Wheeler, 173 Fifth avenue,
New York. N. Y., registrar. Number of registrations, 21,320. First stud book
published about i868, but systematic reports of foals began in 1898, when 1,506
were registered. Registration fees: $2 up to November 1 of the year in which
the animal is foaled; after that date registration will be permitted upon a pay-
_ ment of a $50 fine, provided the failure to register is shown to have been uninten-
tionalor accidental. Affiliated foreign society: None. Eligible to registry: Only

694 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

horses having either five uncontaminated thoroughbred crosses, or which authen-
tically trace through or to animals recorded in the first six volumes of the Ameri-
can book, or in a recognized book of another country.

American Suffolk Punch Horse Association.—Alex. Galbraith, Janesville, Wis.,
secretary. ;

American Trotting Registry Association.—J. H. Steiner, room 1103, Ellsworth
Building, 355 Dearborn street, Chicago, Ill., secretary. Number of registraticn:
Last volume of registry contained about 18,000 registrations; previous volumes
not somany; fourteen in all; first published in 1871. Registration fees: To stock-
holders, $1; nonstockholders, $2; double for animals over 2 years old. Certificates
of registration, 50 cents; transfers, 25cents. Affiliated foreign society: Not stated.
Eligible to registry; Animals whose pedigrees are established.under the rules of
the association.

French Coach Horse Society of America.—S. D. Thompson, Chicago, HL,
secretary.

German, Hanoverian and Oldenburg Coach Horse Association of America.—
J. Crouch, Lafayette, Ind., secretary. Number of registrations, 600 stallions, 120
mares; date of first entry, December 30, 1889. Registration fees: To members,
$2.50; nonmembers, $5 for each animal if application is made within four months
of importation or birth: after that time, double fees. Transfers, $1 to members,
$2 to nonmembers. Affiliated foreign society: None. Eligible to registry: In-
ported animals of properly authenticated foreign registry; native animals whose
sires and dams are registered; and stallions having five crosses and mares having
four crosses.

National French Draft Association.—C. E. Stubbs, Fairfield, Iowa, secretary.
Number of registrations, 10,137; association organized February 9, 1876. Regis-
tration fees: To members, $2, nonmembers, $4; for transfer, $1 to members, $2
to nonmembers. If application is not made within one year from importation
or foaling the registration fee is $5. Affiliated foreign society: French Draft
Horse Stud Book. Eligible to registry: Imported animals properly vouched for
by the affiliated French society; animals whose sires and dams are registered in
the American book; stallions having five top crosses, and mares having four top
crosses by sires recorded in the American book.

Select Clydesdale Horse Society of America.—Charles Irwin, Topeka, Kans.,
secretary.

The American Morgan Register.—Joseph Battell, Middiebury, Vt., treasurer.
Number of registrations, about 5,000; date of first volume, 1894. Registration
fees: Stallions 1 year old or over, $2; mares, geldings, and colts under 1 year, $t.
Affiliated foreign society: None. Eligible to registry: Any meritorious animal
tracing in direct male line; also to any animal whose sire and dam are recorded
in the Morgan register.

The American Saddle Horse Breeders’ Association.—I. B. Nall, Louisville, Ky.,
secretary. Number of registrations: Stallions and geldings, 1,400; mares, 1,721;
date of first entry, July 31,1891. Registration fees: To members, $2; nonmem-
bers, $4: if registered during the year foaled, one-half. Affiliated foreign society:
None. Eligible to registry: Horses having recognized gaits and tracing to regis-
tered animals under prescribed conditions.

The Oldenburg Coach Horse Association of America.—C. E. Stubbs, Fairfield,
Towa, secretary. Number of registrations, 200; association incorporated March
5, 1892. Registration fees: To members, $2; nonmembers, $4. Transfers, $1 to
members, $2 to nonmembers. If application is not made within one year from
foaling or importation, the registration fee is $5. Affiliated foreign society:
Gesellschaft Zuchter Oldenburger Kutschpferde, of Oldenburg, Germany. HEli-
gible to registry: Any imported animal properly vouched for by the affiliated
society; animals whose sires and dams are registered in the American book; stal-
lions having five top crosses and mares having four top crosses by sires registered
in the American book.

SHEEP BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATIONS.

National Cheviot Sheep Society.—Howard H. Keim, Ladoga, Ind., secretary.
Number of registrations, 1,292; date of first entry, March 24, 1894. Registration
fees: To members, 50 cents for lambs under 1 year; over 1 year, $1; nonmembers,
double. Affiliated foreign society: The Cheviot Sheep Society of Great Britain,
John Robson, Newton, Bellingham, Northumberland, England, secretary. Eligi-
ble to registry: Animals whose sires and dams are recorded in the books of the
National Cheviot Sheep Society, the American Cheviot Sheep Breeders’ Association,
or the affiliated British book.

» ma mi

SHEEP BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATIONS. 695

American Cotswold Association.—George Harding, Waukesha, Wis., secretary.
Number of registrations, over 21,000. Registration fees: Prior to April 1 fol-
lowing year of birth, 50 cents; over this age, $1; transfer, 25 cents. Affihated
foreign book: English Cotswold Flock Book. Eligible to registry: American-
bred animals whose sires and dams are registered; imported animals having cer-
tificate from affiHated English book.

American Leicester Breeders’ Association.—A. J. Temple, Cameron, Il!., seere-
tary. Number of registrations: 3,812; date of first entry, July 24, 1888. Regis-
tration fees: To members, 50 cents; nonmembers, $1; transfers, 25 cents.
Affiliated foreign society: None. Eligible to registry: American-bred animals
whose sires and dams are recorded in the American book; imported animals reg-
istered in the flock books of Great Britain, or from reputable British flocks.

American Lincoln Breeders’ Association.—L. C. Graham, Cameron, Ill., secre-
tary.

American Merino Sheep Register.—R. O. Logan, California, Mich., secretary.

American Oxford-Down Record Association.—W. A. Shafor, Middletown, Ohio,
secretary. Number of registrations: 17,829; date of incorporation of association,
January, 1882. Registration fees: To members, 50 cents for each animal recorded
before July 1 of next year succeeding birth ; recorded after that date, $1. To
nonmembers, $1 for any age. Transfers, 25 cents each. Affiliated foreign
society: Not stated. Eligible to registry: Animals imported from Europe if
registered in the English flock book; native animals when approved by the
board of directors.

American Southdown Association.—J. G. Springer, Springfield, Iil., secretary.
Number of registrations: 12,977; date of first entry, May 4, 1883. Registration
fees: To members, for animals up toJuly 1 following birth, 50 cents; older, $1.50;
to nonmembers, 50 cents additional. Transfers within 6 months of sale, 25 cents;
later, 50 cents. Affiliated foreign society : Southdown Sheep Society of England.
Eligible to registry: American-bred animals that are immediate descendants of
animals previously recorded in the association book ; imported animals themselves
recorded and numbered in English book, provided their sires and dams are also
thus recorded and numbered. :

American Shropshire Registry Association.—Mortimer Levering, Lafayette,
Ind., secretary.

American Rambouillet Sheep Breeders’ Association.—Dwight Lincoln, Milford
Center, Ohio, secretary. Number of registrations: 10,000; date of first registra-
tion, 1889. Registration fees: 25 cents for ewes and 50 cents for rams. Trans-
fers, to members free, nonmembers 10 cents; after 6 months 50 cents to all. Eli-
gible to registry: Proof of pure blood satisfactory to committee.

American Sutfolk Association.—F. A. Franklin, Atlantic, lowa, secretary.

Black Top Spanish Merino Sheep Breeders’ Association.—R. P. Berry, Clokey,
Pa., secretary.

Delaine Merino Sheep Breeders’ Association.—J.C. MeNary, Houstonville, Pa.,
recording secretary; J. H. Hamilton, Cannonsburg, Pa., corresponding secretary.

Dickinson Merino Sheep Record Company.—H. G. McDowell, Canton, Ohio,
secretary. S

Dorset Horn Sheep Breeders’ Association of America.—M. A. Cooper, Washing-
ton, Pa., secretary. Number of registrations: 1,000; date of first entry, June
23,1891. Registration fees: Certificates, 50 cents; transfers, 25 cents. Affiliated
foreign society: Not stated.

Hampshire-Down Breeders’ Association of America.—J. I. Gordon, Mercer, Pa.,
secretary. Number of registrations: 8,712; date of first entry, December 3), 1889.
Registration fees: Mature animals, $1; lambs, 50 cents upto January 1; fees to non-
members, double. Affiliated foreign society: Hampshire-Down Sheep Breeders’
Association (of England). Eligible to registry: Hampshire-down sheep imported
from, or that can be traced in all their lines of descent to,the flocks of reliable
breeders in England.

Improved Black-top Merino Sheep Breeders’ Association.—L. M. Crothers,
Crothers, Pa., secretary. Number of registrations: About 3,000. Registration
fees: To members, for each animal 25 cents for registry, 15 cents transfer; non-
members, 50 cents and 25 cents. Affiliated foreign society: Not stated.

Improved Delaine Merino Sheep Breeders’ Association.—R. B. Barber, Cedar-
ville, Ohio, secretary.

Michigan Merino Sheep Breeders’ Association.—E. N. Ball, Hamburg, Mich.,
seeretary. Number of registrations: About 50,000; date of first entry, 1880. Reg-

istration fees: For each fiock of fifty or less, $5; over, 10 cents for each sheep.

Affiliated foreign society: None. Eligible to registry (only for members of the
association): Animals tracing to flocks of breeders of pure American Merino
sheep. Each breeder must keep a register of his fiock.

696 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

National Improved Saxony Sheep Breeders’ Association.—John G. Clarke,
Washington, Pa., R.D.9, secretary.

National Lincoin Sheep Breeders’ Association.—H. A. Daniels, Elva, Mich.,
secretary. Number of registrations: 6,873; date of first entry, December 20,
i891. Registration fees: For lambs, 50 cents; sheep, $1. Affiliated foreign
society: Lincoln Long Wool Sheep Breeders’ Association of England. Eligible
2 ee aey Only animals having registered sires and dams in American or Eng-
ish book

New York State American Merino Sheep Breeders’ Association.—J. H. Earl],
Skaneateles, N. Y., secretary. Number of registrations: Not given; date of first
entry, 1879. Registration fees: For ordinary register of lambs, 20 cents: for
entered pedigree, 40 cents; for recording stock ram in list, $1; for lambs not on
file with secr etary at time of annual meeting, | 25 cents.

Ohio Spanish Merino Sheep Breeders’ Association.—F. C. Stanley, Edison, Ohio,
secretary.

Standard Delaine Spanish Merino Sheep Breeders’ Association.—S. M. Cleaver,
East Bethlehem, Pa., secretary. Number of registrations: —. Registration fees:
For flock of 50, $10; for all over 50, 10 cents per head; to *‘ others than members
owning sheep records in this register,” 25 cents per head. Affiliated foreign
society: Not stated. Eligible to registry: Approved animals scaling 72 points or
more. This minimum of 72 will be increased by one each year til! 80 is reached.

Standard American Merino Register Association.—J. P. Ray, Hem!ock Lake,
N. Y., secretary.

The Continental Dorset Club.—J. E. Wing, Mechanicsburg, Ohio, secretary.
Number of registrations: 716 in 1898 and 523 in 1899; date of first entry, —_ oe
1898. Registration fees: Native animals under 1 vear, 50 cents; over 1 year. $1;
imported, “within 6 months of importation, 50 cents; after 6 months, $1; pi
fers, 10 cents. Affiliated foreign society: None. Eligible to registry: Imported
Dorset sheep bred by reputable . breeders, and sheep tre acing direc ‘tly to such im-
ported animals.

United States Merino Sheep Breeders’ Registry Association.—J. A. B. Walker,
Enon Valley, Pa., secretary.

Vermont ‘Atwood Club Register.—George Hammond, Middlebury, Vt., secretary.

Vermont Merino Sheep Breeders’ Association.—L. H. Skiff, Middlebury, Vt.,
secretary.

SWINE BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATIONS.

American Berkshire Association.—C. F. Mills, 512 East Monroe street, Spring-
field, Ill., secretary. Number of registrations: 52,500; date A: first entry, 1875.
Regi stration fees: For native animals aocleeie 2 years, $1; over 2 years, $2; ie
animals, within 6 months of importation, $1; after 6 Tonnes $2. Transfers, 25
cents; certificates, 50 cents. Affiliated foreign society: Not stated. Eligible to
registry: Animals that trace closely to ancestors recorded in the book of the
association.

American Duroc-Jersey Swine Breeders’ Association.—A. V. Bradrick, Shelby-
ville, Ind., secretary. Number of registrations: 9,480 females, 4,048 males; date
of first entry, 1890. Registration fees: Animals under 2 years, $1; over 2 years,
$2: transfers, 25 cents. Affiliated foreign society: Not stated.

Amevican Essex Association.—F. M. Srout, McLean, Ill., secretary. Number
of registrations: Boars, 1.685; sows, 2.632; date of first entry, September, 1887.

American Small Yorkshire Club.—G. W. Harris, 8409 Third avenue, New York,
N. Y., secretary.

Cheshire Swine Breeders’ Associ ation.—B. B. Badger, Ouaquaga, N. Y., secret
tary. Number of registrations: 2,810.

Chester White Record Association. —W. H. Morris. Indianapolis, Ind., secre-
tary.

American Chester White Record Association.—Carl Freigau, Dayton. Ohio,
secretar a Number of registrations: Boars, 3,105; sows, 3,890; date of first entry,
October, 1884. Registration fees: To members, 50 cents for each animal; non-

members, $1; transfers, 25 cents. Affiliated foreign society: None. Wligible to
registry: Chester White hogs on approval of the executive committee of the
association.

American Poland-China Record Company.—W. M. McFadden, West Liberty,
Iowa, secretary.

Central Poland-China Swine Association.—W. H. Morris, Indianapolis, Ind.,
secretary.

Ohio Poland-China Record Company. —Carl Freigau, Dayton, Ohio, secretary
Number of registrations: Boars, 24,482; sows, 58, 980; date of first registration,

POULTRY ASSOCIATIONS. 697

March, 1877. Registration fees: Animals under 2 years, $1; over 2 years, $2.
Affiliated foreign society: None. Eligible to registry: Animals whose pedigrees
had already appeared in some reputable record previous to the fall of 1883, thus
furnishing the evidence that the ancestors on both sides trace direct to pure Poland-
China stock, as originated in southwestern Ohio.

Standard Poland-China Record Association.—Geor ge F. Woodworth, Maryville,
Mo., secretary. Number of registrations: 79,688; date of first herdbook, 1887.
Registr ation fees: To stockholders, 50 cents; nonstockholders, $1; transfers, 25
cents. Affiliated for eign society: None. Eligible to registry: All animals the
direct offspring of animals recorded or eligible to record in existing reputable
records; unrecorded ancestors must be recor rded.

Victoria Swine Breeders’ Association.—H. Davis, Dyer, Ind., secretary.

Suffolk Swine Association.—W. F. Watson, Winchester, Ind. , Secretary.

National Duroc-Jersey Record Association.—R. J. Evans, El Paso, Il., secretary.
Number of registrations: Males, 3,250; females, 7,500; date of first entry, October
15, 1891. Registr ation fees: To members, 50 cents; nonmembers, $1; for animals |
over 2 years old, one-half more. Affiliated foreign society: None. Eligible to
registry: Animals whose sires and dams are recorded in either the National or the
a Duroc-Jersey record and which are pure red, cherry being the choicest
shade.

The American Tamworth Swine Record Association.—E. N. Ball, Hamburgs
Mich., secretary. Number of registrations: 521; date of first entry, February 16,
1898. Registration fees: To members, 50 cents; to nonmembers, $1. Affiliated
foreign book: The National Pig Breeders’ Association Herdbook of England.
Eligible to registry: Only animals whose sires and dams are recorded in the Ameri-
can book or the affiliated English book.

The American Yorkshire Club.—William F. Wilcox, Benson, Minn.. secretary.

ASSOCIATION CF BREEDERS OF DOGS.

American Kennel Club.—A. P. Vredenburg, 55 Liberty street, New York, N. Y.,
secretary.
POULTRY ASSOCIATIONS.

National and interstate organizations.

Name of assoviation. Secretary. Post office.
American Dorking Club_- Ee yaad (BANS Bel Enc ntleys ee ae ee North Grafton, Mass.
American Buff Plymouth "Rock Club _.--_--_- We CaDenni yes tee Se =n! Rochester, N. Y

American Black Minorca Club John A.Gamewell -------- Hackensack, N.J.
American Cochin Club -----.------ ee Arthur R. Sharp -..-.-. .-.- Taunton, Mass.
National Exhibition Game and Game Ban- | J.C. Pratt......----....---- 170 Adams street,
tam Club. ; Chicago.
MumericAnveroudan Club... 2... ---<-ss-cusa-= | Thomas F’. Rigg --.---.-.-- Towa Falls, lowa.
American Leghorn Club -..-......-----.-------] Geo. H. Bur: SOLE Be 2 ae es Station,
American Plymouth Rock Club -.------------- (tACB? Schwab: 2222 222-2.42.- Rochester, N. Y.
Cornish Indian Game Club of America - ----.-- Adam Thompson_---------- Amity, Mo.
Eastern White Wyandotte Club--_-_-----.------ Wien els So ee oS Woodstock, Vt.
munonce Club of Northwest. ------==--=--=.2-- TFS) 8 Ue Ly ty ae ee Minneapolis, Minn.
National Bantam Association... -.----.---------.| B. Latham -_...2%2.-.=.---- Flatbush, Long Is-
land, N.Y.
New England Light Brahma Club -....------- Gaw..Cromaek:—-- 2 32 3. Stoneham, Mass.
National Poultry and Pigeon Association----- | Geo. E. Howard ....-------- Washington. D.C.
National Fanciers’ Association .-.-_--.-.------ Hredsi, Kanney—--2-5-=25- Morgan Park, Ill.
Boston Poultry Association......-.....--=----- Ci Minot) Wieltk_- = 22 22 131 Devonshire st.,
Boston, Mass.
Wolverine P. P.and P.S. Association -_....___- Gus williams Bay City, Mich.
St. Louis Fanciers’ Association ....--...-_----- John A. Francisco--------- 1201 Lincoln Tr. Bla...
St. Louis, Mo.
Mid-Continental Poultry Association ---.--~--- hale Wis Shui sen 8 eee Ke “Kansas City, Mo.
Interstate Poultry Association --___-...-..------ joi, ELOPTOCES 2os- 2-0 See cao | Falls City, Nebr.
Buffalo Poultry Association __..._.......__---- [pBomiredsec ot soos 2 A BuitalowNa ye
Madison Square Garden (New York) Poultry | H. V.Cz Word .2.5). 5. Montclair, N. J.
and Pig Association.”
Northern Ohio Poultry and Pet Stock Asso- | LF. REDO hiss sees soe ee Cleveland, Ohio.
ciation.
Buckeye Poultry Associaton -_..---..--------- Geo. B. Wetzel-_------------| Dayton. Ohio.
Tri-State Poultry Association ----------------- eRRAR MG Intoshitssse: = 8.52 te | East Liverpool, Ohio.
EAtESDure Manciors: labs 2s) o <6. = fs2ho2- 2 PARP NRobimson= assesses | 110 Second avenue,
= | Pittsburg, Pa.
Eaedmont Poultry. Association: - --.--2.----=--- BoweGetsimoeer= 25-5425 Spartanburg,S.C.
Nashville Pouitry Association. --_.-...-------- Jo. Hopkins ee .025 4. see | Nashville, Tenn.
Tacoma Poultry Association---_-_-------.------ i. CUCrrohms ae 215 oeote res § | 402 Berlin Bldg., Ta-
| | _ coma, Wash.
Western Bantam Breeders’ Association -_----- A.W: Browne os. oc. ss5—s22n= | Morgan Park, Il.

698 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

POULTRY ASSOCIATIONS—Continued.

Secretaries of State poultry associations.

State. Secretary. Post office.
District of Columbia ---.--- Geo, BoHow avd 222. So ase acta er seater eee Washington.
Cis Sere ee Bawerd, Craie pt sesi2c oS Se se ee Albion.
Were hina ya nos ho eee OWNAGE OWN ai ono are ee Concord.
Olawhiomia, 92522 229-2225 e22 L. F. Lavert Guthrie.
Rhode Isiand i o-* aea eee H.5. Babcoe Providence.
MenNGSSeGrsac2ese aoe — Sua M.D. Andes Bristol.

—

STATH VETERINARIANS AND SECRETARIES OF SANITARY
BOARDS.

ALABAMA,
Dr. Jerome Cochran, Montgomery, secretary State board of health.
ARIZONA.

H. Harrison, Phenix, secretary live-stock sanitary commission.
Dr. J. C. Norton, Phenix, veterinarian.

CALIFORNIA.

Dr. J. R. Lanie, Sacramento, secretary State board of health.
Dr. Charles H. Blemer, Sacramento, State veterinarian.

COLORADO.

B. H. Du Bois, Denver, president State veterinary sanitary board.

Dr. Henry Sewail, 23 Eighteenth avenue, Denver, secretary State board of health.

Dr. Solomon Bock, Denver, State veterinary surgeon.
CONNECTICUT.

Dr. C. A. Lindsley, New Haven, secretary State board of health.

George L. Fosket, Winsted, secretary of commissioners on diseases of domestic

animals.
DELAWARE.

Dr. E. B. Frazer, Wilmington, secretary State board of health.
FLORIDA.

Dr. Joseph Y. Porter, Key West, secretary State board of health.
ILLINOIS.

Dr. J. W. Scott, Springfield, secretary State board of health.

Dr. C. P. Lovejoy, Princeton, State veterinarian.
C, P. Johnson, Springfield, secretary board of live stock commissioners.

INDIANA.

Dr. J. N. Hurty, Indianapolis, secretary State board of health.
Dr. IF’. A. Bolser, Newcastle, State veterinarian.

Mortimer Levering, Lafayette, secretary State live-ctock sanitary commission.

IOWA.

Dr. J. I. Gibson, Denison, State veterinary surgeon.
Dr. J. F. Kennedy, Des Moines, secretary State board of health.

‘ji

STATE SANITARY OFFICIALS. 699

KANSAS.

Dr. H. Z. Gill, Topeka, secretary State board of health.
Taylor Riddle, Marion, secretary live-stock sanitary commission.

KENTUCKY.
‘Dr. J. N. McCormack, Bowling Green, secretary State board of heaith.
Dr. F. T. Eisenman, Louisville, State veterinarian.
A. G. Herr, St. Matthews, cattle commissioner.
LOUISIANA.
Dr. Will R. Harman, New Orleans, secretary State board of health.

MAINE.

Dr. A. G. Young, Augusta, secretary State board of health.
Dr. George H. Bailey, Deering, State veterinarian.
John M. Deering, Saco, and F. O. Beal, Bangor, cattle commissioners.

MARYLAND.

Dr. John S. Fulton, 10 South street, Baltimore, secretary State board of health.
Dr. A. W. Clements, 916 Cathedral street. Baltimore, State veterinarian.
C. W. Melville, Westminster, secretary live-stock sanitary board.

MASSACHUSETTS.

Dr. Samuel W. Abbott, Boston, secretary State board of health.
Dr. Austin Peters, Boston (Commonwealth Building), president cattle commis-
sioners.

a MICHIGAN,

Dr. Henry B. Baker, Lansing, secretary State board of health.
Dr. George W. Dunphy, Quincy, State veterinarian.
Henry H. Hinds, Stanton, pr esident State live-stock sanitary commission.

MINNESOTA.
Dr. M. H. Reynolds, St. Anthony Park, St. Paul, director veterinary department
of State board of health.

’ Dr. H. M. Bracken, St. Paul (Pioneer Press Building), secretary State board of
ealth.

MISSISSIPPI.

Dr. John F. Hunter, Jackson, secretary State board of health.
Dr. J. C. Robert, Agricultural College, professor of veterinary science.

MISSOURI.
Dr. Willis P. King, Kansas City (Fountain place), secretary State board of
ae. F. Luckey, Columbia, State veterinarian.
J. R. Rippey, Columbia, secretary State board of agriculture.
MONTANA.
Dr. M. E. Knowles, Helena, State veterinarian.

NEBRASKA,

H. R. Corbet, Lincoln, secretary State board of health.
Dr. A. T. Peters, Lincoln, secretary State veterinary associatioa.

NEVADA.

Dr. W. H. Patterson, Reno, secretary State board of health.

700 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

NEW HAMPSHIRE.

Dr. Irving A. Watson, Concord, secretary State board of health.
N. J. Bachelder, Concord, secretary board of cattle commissioners.

NEW JERSEY.

Dr. Henry Mitchell, Trenton, secretary State board of health.
Franklin Dye, Trenton, secretary tuberculosis commission.

NEW MEXICO.
Dr. J. M. Cunningham, East Las Vegas, secretary State board of health.

J. H. La Rue, East Las Vegas, secretary cattle sanitary board.
Harry F. Lee, Albuquerque, secretary sheep sanitary board.

NEW YORK.

Dr. Baxter T. Smelzer, Albany, secretary board of health.
F. W. Smith, 700 South West street, Syracuse, secretary tuberculosis committee.

NORTH .CAROLINIA.

Dr. Richard H. Lewis, Raleigh, secretary board of health.
Dr. Cooper Curtice, Raleigh, consulting veterinarian, State board of agriculture.

NORTH DAKOTA.

Dr. J. W. Dunham, Fargo, chief State veterinarian.
Dr. John Montgomery, Ardoch, secretary board of health.

OHIO,
Dr. ©. O. Probst, Columbus, secretary board of health.
Dr. H. J. Detmers, Columbus, veterinary surgeon, State University.
Dr. D. N. Kinsman, Columbus, secretary live-stock commission.
OKLAHOMA.

Dr. C. D. Arnold, Kingfisher, superintendent board of health.
W. E. Bolton Woodward, secretary live-stock sanitary commission.

OREGON.
Dr. William McLean, Portiand, State veterinarian.
PENNSYLVANIA.
Dr. Benjamin Lee, 1532 Pine street, Philadelphia, secretary State board of
health.
Dr. Leonard Pearson, 3608 Pine street, Philadelphia, State veterinarian.
RHODE ISLAND.
Dr. Arthur L. Parker, Providence, veterinarian to State board of health.

Dr. Gardner T. Swarts, Providence, secretary State board of health.
John 8. Pollard, veterinarian State board of agriculture.

SOUTH CAROLINA.

Dr. James Evans, Florence, secretary board of health.
Dr. G. E. Nesom, Clemson College, State veterinarian.

SOUTH DAKOTA.

J. L. Harris, Webster, secretary board of health.
Dr. J. W. Elliot, Aberdeen, State veterinarian. .

COMMITTEE OF NATIONAL ROAD PARLIAMENT. 701

TENNESSEE.

Dr. J. A. Albright, Somerville. secretary State board of health.
Dr. J. W. Scheiber, Memphis, State veterinarian.

TEXAS.

Dr. R. M. Swearingen, Austin, State health officer.
Robert J. Kleberg, Corpus Christi, secretary live-stock sanitary commission.

UTAH.
Dr. T. B. Beatty, Sait Lake City, secretary State board of health.
VERMONT. :

Dr. J. H. Hamilton, Richford, secretary board of health.
C. J. Bell; East Hardwick, secretary cattle commission.
,

VIRGINIA.

Dr. Paulus A. Irving, Richmond, secretary board of health.
Dr. Charles McCulloch, Blacksburg, State veterinarian.

WASHINGTON.

Dr. Elmer E. Heg, North Yakima, secretary board of health.
Dr. 8. B. Nelson, Pullman, veterinarian agricultural experiment station.

WEST VIRGINIA.

Dr. A. R. Barbee, Point Pleasant, secretary State board of health.
D. M. Sullivan, Charleston, secretary board of agriculture.
WISCONSIN.

Dr. H. P. Clute, Milton, State veterinarian.
Dr. U. O. B. Wingate, Milwaukee, secretary board of health.

: WYOMING.
Dr. George T. Seabury, Cheyenne, State veterinarian.

George East, president, board of live-stock commissioners.

CENTRAL COMMITTEE, NATIONAL ROAD PARLIAMENT!

State or Territory. Committeemen. Post office.

RRR RIY ED 2 So es 2 2 Mai. Wi oCre Wane. <5. = Senta cee aaa Montgomery.
JUSS 2 eee eee Governor, Jonm.G. brady. ee eo Sitka.
JUTE! See PEOvennor 977©: Hue HOR ee soe se. 8 | Tucson.
CLA ISTEIYS 715) 0 ee G. W. Sappington -_.___-___- = he a ee Little Rock.
COSTN Io) 92 rr ASW OOdSOT) Set ee XS. Pa eee | Sacramento.
Bena) re a OmInG. CATDONbOR os: — = ae ea) Eee | Fort Collins.
Connecticut .-2.-...-------- | Col'Chas. Li Burdeth_<-*.2"---2)>_--___-__----!| Hartford.
Helaware:-=.--2-- 22-22-52. | sWilitasn : Cogeh Sa >: Sass 7 ee ee | Newark.
District of Columbia----..-| Gen. Roy Stone, acting president of league.... Washington.
HON oe on as wa i We Niter-< =e a ae ee ee eee | Jacksonville.
Cia a enn iCohGeW. Harnicsone =. 8 esses eee | Atlanta.
(io U Os Se eee as Jaren Mull ari Sees oo ee ee ee Pee Cee eee Glenns Ferry.
TEES Sy 5 Bo ek a AS K. Prime, general western secretary of Dwight.
eague.
~~ 25,7 Tht A ae es ee ean WO Garrard = 2 = ee ee nee eee Springfield.
Mebiadinys <2 000-8 Foleo Mason J. Niblack= 22 220 2) 22 eee See Vincennes.
LUD Ve oe eae E. H. Thayer, chairman conference com- Clinton.
mittee. .

! These persons are also the co-workers of Office of Public Road Inquiries, Depart-
ment of Agriculture. They are supplied with the publications of that office as
issued, and im return furnish information of progress in road making in their
respective States.

702

CENTRAL COMMITTEE, NATIONAL ROAD PARLIAMENT—Continued.

YEARBOOK OF

THE DEPARTMENT

OF AGRICULTURE.

a eel

State or Territory.

Committeemen.

.

Post cffice.

EAM Sas... 22 ites BL eee
VEN DUCHY. an 2 == aes He ae
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts----=--.------
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri

Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey

New Mexico
INIOwOr eres 2. wee

North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Mbhodewlsland-= 2272.2.
South Carolimal==_-2- 2222285
South Dakota es = 3222.5
MONNESSCO: = - 24s 29 = aes s
ING ats RA ee en eee
Vermont
Wha re pe se eee ee
Wiashine ton .-2--.--.-2---.
WWASCONSIA! © S-8 se te ee
Wyoming

F.D. Coburn
Wie 01, Ee Crump pee Se ee Sores 2
| Guy Samuels
| F.J.Ilsley

George Av Perkin cose soe ee ee
| W.L. Webber
A.B. Choate

F.H. Ray
Curtis Turners eS
Gen: John. Hi fones=2---42- sesee
Ex-Governor David H. Goodell _-__-_..-.--._--
| E. G. Harrison, general eastern secretary of
league.

J.A.C. Wright
John C. Tipton
WW Barrett. - 2 bos 2s eee
Hon. Martin Dodge
A.N.Spencer
Jeherson. Myers? =) <3:- =. se
C. H. Handy
Wii sE Varis(at lee i oe eee
O.S. Basford
Mag: ©, A. Locke s Sess. 2255 oe
J.$. Dougherty
J.W. Votey
‘Thomas: Wihiteheade:: -.5225-c=-- ee
Bes keholehuats (o14(j-ws oe eee ee ee moe 2
|} Otto Dorner, general press agent of league _-
C.P, Hill

Capt. James H. Dake... 2...21- SS a Se
.| John R. Rippey

Topeka.
Bowling Green.
Baton Rouge.
Portland.
Darlington.

| Boston.
Saginaw, East Side.
Minneapolis.
Scooha.

| Columbia.
Helena.
Omaha.

Carson City.
Antrim.

| Asbury Park.

Albuquerque.
Rochester.
Shelby.
Churchs Ferry.
Cleveland.
Yukon.
Salem.
Warren.
Bennettsville.
Redfield.
Nashville.
Dallas.
Burlington.
Richmond.
Nooksack.
Milwaukee
Cheyenne.

STATES HAVING CFFICES POR FOREST WORE.

Kansas.—Forest commissioner, E. D. Wheeler, Ogallah.
Maine.—Forest commissioner, Charles EH. Oak, Augusta.
Michigan.—¥orest commission, Arthur Hill, president, Saginaw.

Minnesota.

Wire warden, Gen. C. C, Andrews, St. Paul. |

New Hampshire.—Forest commission, George H. Moses, secretary, Concord.
New Jersey.—Geological survey, Prof. John C. Smock, director, Trenton.
New York.—Fisheries, game, and forest commission, Austin W. Wadsworth,

president, Albany.

North Carolina.—Geological survey, Prof. J. A. Hcimes, director, Chapethill.
North Dakota.—State superintendent of irrigation and forestry, W. W. Bar-

rett, Bismarck.

Pennsylvania.—Forest commissioner, Dr. J. T. Rothrock, chief, Harrisburg.
Wisconsin.—Forest commission, Ernest Bruncken, secretary, Milwaukee.
West Virginia.—Geologic and economic survey, Dr. I. C. White, superintendent,

Morgantown.

PORESTRY ASSOCIATIONS.

American Forestry Association.—President, James Wilson, Secretary of Agri-
culture; secretary, F. H. Newell, United States Geological Survey, Washing-

LOND:

California Society for Conserving the Waters and Forests.—President, Hon.
J. M. Gleaves; secretary, KE. H. Benjamin.
Sierra Club.—President, John Muir, Martinez, Cal.; secretary (corresponding),
Prof. W. R. Dudley, Stanford University, Cal.
Forest and Water Society of Southern California, having a branch in each
southern county.—President, Abbot Kinney, Los Angeles; secretary, William H.

Knight, Los Angeles.

Colorado Forestry Association.—President, W. N. Byers, Denver; secretary,
D. W. Working, Denver.
Connecticut Forestry Association.—President, Maj. Edward V. Preston, Tray-
elers’ Insurance Company, Hartford; secretary (corresponding), Miss Mary Wins-

low, Weatogue.

FORESTRY ASSOCIATIONS AND SCHOOLS. 703

Indiana Forestry Association.—President, A. Lisber, Indianapolis: secretary,
J. P. Brown, Connersville.

Massachusetts Forestry Association.—President, Henry P. Walcott, Cambridge;
secretary, Alen Chamberlain, Tremont Building, Boston.

Minnesota State Forestry Association.—President, W. W. Prendergast, Huitch-
ison; secretary, George W. Strand, Taytors Falls.

New Jersey Forestry Association.—President, 8. Bayard Dod, Hoboken: sec-
retary-treasurer, J. F. Hall, Atlantic City.

North Caretina Forestry Association.—President, W. E. Petty, Seaboard Air
Line; secretary. W. W. Ashe. Chapelhill.

North Dakota, The Sylvaton Society.—W. W. Barrett, Bismarck.

Mazamas, The.—President, W.G. Steel, Portland, Oreg.; secretary, Frank EH.
Donaldson, 264 Stark street, Portland.

Pennsylvania Forestry Association.—President, John Birkinbine, 1012 Walnut
street, Philadelphia: secretary, Dr. Joseph T. Rothrock, commissioner of forestry,
Harrisburg; corresponding secretary, Mrs. John P. Lundy, 245 South Eighteenth
street, Philadelphia.

Franklin Forestry Society, The.—President, Alvin B. Kuhn; secretary, W. G.
Bowers, Chambersburg, Pa. ;

Chester County, S. C., The Forestry Association of.—President, Judge J. J.
McClure; secretary and treasurer, Prof. H. A. Green, Chester. A
Utah Forestry Association.—President, Dr. J. R. Park; secretary, Prof. C. A.

Whiting, Salt Lake City.

Washington Forestry Association.—President, Prof. Edmund 8. Meany, Seattle;

secretary, Albert Bryan.

SCHOOLS OF FORESTRY.

ALABAMA.—State Agricultural and Mechanical College, Auburn: One term, two

hours a week; lectures and occasional field work.

ARKANSAS.—Arkansas Industrial University, Fayetteville: One term, twice a
week; with horticulture.

CALIFORNIA.— University of Southern California, Los Angeles: Full course.

CoLorapo.—The State Agricultural College of Colorado, Fort Collins: Portion
of junior term in horticulture.

CoNNECTICUT.— Yale Forest School: A two years’ graduate course. ;

Storrs Agricultural College, Storrs: Touched on in horticultural course. -

GEORGIA.—Georgia State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Athens:
Junior year in horticulture concludes with short course in forestry.

IpaHo.—College of Agriculture of the University of Idaho, Moscow: General
practical course.

ILLINOIS.—College of Agriculture of the University of Mlinois, Urbana: One term,
twice a week; general.

InpDIANA.—Purdue University, Lafayette: Elective in senior year; general instruc-
tion.

Iowa.—lowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Ames.

Kawnsas.—Kansas State Agricultural College, Manhattan: One term, three times
a week; general instruction.

Kentucky.—Berea College, Berea: General instruction.

Ogden College, Bowling Green: Just introduced.
Probably also at the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Kentucky,
Lexington.

Maine.—The University of Maine, Orono: With horticulture and botany only.

MaARrYLAND.—Maryland Agricultural College, College Park: Only incidentally.

MASSACHUSET?S.— Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst: With horticul-
ture.

Harvard University, Cambridge: Arboriculture taught.

MIcHIGAN.—Michigan Agricultural College, Agricultural College: One term, three
=a a week, and daily lectures during half of another term; general instruc-

ion.
State University. Ann Arbor: Some instruction.
State Normal School, Ypsilanti: Some instruction.

MinnesotTa.—College of Agriculture of the University of Minnesota, St. Anthony
Park, St. Paul: Four times a week for two terms. Course 1, lectures cover-
ing general principles and Minnesota conditions. Course 2, lectures and field
work; practical conditions.

704 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

MissiIssIpPI.—Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical College, Agricultural Col-
lege: Touched on in botany.

MissouRI.—College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts of the University of Mis-
souri, Columbia: One semester, two hours a week; general instruction.

Montsana.—The Montana College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Bozeman:
Lectures and field work, with agricuiture.

NEBRASK'A.—The Industrial College of the University of Nebraska, Lincoln: One
semester, twice a week; general instruction, including dendrology.

NeEvapDa.—School of Agriculture of the Nevada State University, Reno: One
year, three hours a week; with horticulture.

New HaMPSHIRE.—New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the Mechanic
Arts, Durham: Two terms, twenty exercises each; general instruction.

New Yorxk.—New York State College of Forestry at Corneil University, Ithaca: .

Four years’ course; practical instruction afforded by a demonstration area of
30,000 acres of State forest.

NortH Carouina.—Biltmore School of Forestry, Biltmore: One-year course,
comprising practical work in the forest, theoretical instruction, and forest
research. No botany or other auxiliary sciences.

The North Carolina College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, West
Raleigh: One term, one hour a week; lectures only.

North Carolina State University, Chapel Hill: Short course of lectures on
forest conditions and need of management. :

Nortu Daxota.—North Dakota Agricultural College, Agricultural College: Four
weeks, five hours a week; confined chiefiy to forest inflnences on climate and
soil conditions.

OuI0.—Ohio State University, Columbus: One term, twice a week; general instrue-
tion.

OKxLAHOMA.—Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College, Stillwater: One
term in connection with horticulture; general instruction, including demon-
stration on experiment station farm.

OREGON.—Oregon State Agricultural College, Corvallis: One term; optional in
botany course.

PENNSYLVANIA.—University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia: General course.

The Pennsylvania State College, State College: One term; lectures on gen-
eral principles. Other schools.

RHODE ISLAND.—Rhode Island College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Kings-
ton: One term, three times a week; elective in horticulture course.

SoutH DaxKotTa.—South Dakota Agricultural College, Brookings: Three to four
hours a week; general instruction and field work.

TENNESSEE.—University of the South, Sewanee: General course.

TEXAs.—State Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, Coilege Station:
Ten weeks, twice a week; general instruction.

VERMONT.—University of Vermont and State Agricultural College, Burlington:
One half year, two hours a week; general instruction with some field work.

W ASHINGTON.—Washington Agricultural College and School of Science, Pullman;
One semester; attention chiefly devoted to plantations, with considerable
field work.

University of Washington, Seattle: Some instruction.

WEST VIRGINIA.—West Virginia University, Morgantown: Twelve weeks, five
times a week; lectures on general principles.

Wisconsin.—College of Agriculture of the University of Wisconsin, Madison:
One year. twice a week; general instruction.

Wyvominc.—College of Agriculture of the University of Wyoming, Laramie:
With horticulture.

CFFICERS OF HORTICULTURAL AND KINDRED SOCIETIES.

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF NURSERYMEN, 1900.

President, W.J. Peters, Troy, Ohio: vice-president, E. Albertson, Bridgeport,
Ind.; secretary, George C. Seager, Rochester, N. Y.; treasurer, C. L. Yates,
Rochester, N. Y.

AMERICAN CARNATION SOCIETY, 1900.
President, William P. Craig, Philadelphia, Pa.; vice-president, William F. Kast-

ings, Buffalo, N. Y.; secretary, Albert M. Herr, Lancaster, Pa.; treasurer, Fred
Dorner, jr., Lafayette, Ind.

ig teaaaeant

HORTICULTURAL SOCIETIES. 705

AMERICAN CRAXBERRY GROWERS ASSOCIATION, 1900.

President, E. H. Durell, Woodbury, N. J.; first vice-president, Joshua S. Wills,
' Medford, N. J.: second vice-president, C. L. Holman, Toms River, N. J.; secretary
and treasurer, A. J. Rider, Trenton, N. J

AMERICAN POMOLOGICAL SOCIETY, 1899-1900.

President, C. L. Watrous, Des Moines, Iowa; vice-president, Thomas Meehan,
Germantown, Pa.; secretary, William A. Taylor, 55 Q street NE., Washington,
D. C.; treasurer, L. R. Taft, Agricultural College, Michigan.

AMERICAN ROSE SOCIETY, 1900.

President, Benjamin Dorrance, Dorrancetown, Pa.; treasurer, John N. May,
Summit, N. J.; secretary, Leonard Barron, 136 Liberty street, New York, N. Y.

CIDER AND CIDER-VINEGAR ASSOCIATION OF THE NORTHWEST, 1900.

President, F. C. Johnson, Kishwaukee, Ill.: first vice-president, G. W. Hilliard,
Brighton, I1l.; second vice-president, George Keightley, Clarksville, Mo.; secretary
and treasurer, George Miltenberger, No. 213 North Second street, St. Louis, Mo.

. EASTERN NURSERYMEN’S ASSOCIATION, 1900.

President, W. C. Barry, Rochester, N. Y.; vice-president, R.G. Chase, Geneva,
N. Y.; secretary and treasurer, William Pitkin, Rochester, N. Y.

MISSOURI VALLEY HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY, 1900.

President, Homer Reed, Tenth and Broadway, Kansas City, Mo.; vice-president,
Edwin Taylor, Edwardsville, Kans.; secretary, A. Chandler, Argentine, Kans.;
treasurer, G. F. Espenlaub, Rosedale, Kans.

NORTHWEST FRUIT GROWERS’ ASSOCIATION, 1900.

President, Dr. N. G. Blalock, Wallawalla, Wash.; vice-presidents, L. A. Porter,
Lewiston, Idaho; E. L. Smith, Hood River, Oreg.; Frank L. Wheeler, North
Yakima, Wash.; E. Hutcheson, Landers, B. C.; secretary, H. E. Dosch, Portland,
Oreg.; treasurer, W. 8. Offner, Wallawalla, Wash.

PENINSULA HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY, 1900.

President, Joseph E. Carter, Smyrna, Del.: vice-president, Orlando Harrison,
Berlin, Md.; secretary-treasurer, Wesley Webb. Dover, Del.

SOCIETY OF AMERICAN FLORISTS AND ORNAMENTAL HORTICULTURISTS, 1900.

President, Edmuna M. Wood, Natick, Mass.; vice-president, F. R. Pierson,
Tarrytown, N. Y.:; secretary, William J. Stewart, Boston, Mass.; treasurer, H. B.
Beatty, Oil City, Pa.

WESTERN ASSOCIATION OF WHOLESALE NURSERYMEN, 1900.

President, A. L. Brooke, North Topeka, Kans.; vice-president, R. H. Blair,
Kansas City, Mo.; secretary and treasurer, U. B. Pearsall, Leavenworth, Kans.

STATE SOCIETIES.

Arkansas State Horticultural Society, 1900.—President S. H. Nowlin, Little
Rock; vice-president, W. J. Patton, Springdale; secretary, W. K. Tipton, Little
Rock; treasurer, Joseph Vestal, Little Rock.

California State Floral Society, 1900.—President, Emory E. Smith, Palo Alto;
secretary, Mrs. H. P. Tricou, San Francisco.

Pomological Society of California, 1900.—President, Abbot Kinney, Los Angeles;
vice-president, D. Edson Smith, Santa Ana; secretary and treasurer, G. H. A.
Goodwin, Los Angeles.

Colorado State Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, W.S. Coburn, Hotch-
kiss; secretary, W. B. Osborn, Denver.

1 A 99——45

706 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Connecticut Pomological Society, 1900.—President J. H. Merriman, New Britain;
vice-president, G. 5. Butler, Cromwell; secretary, H. C. C. Miles, Milford; treas-
urer, R. A. Moore, Kensington.

Florida State Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, G. L. Taber, Glen St.
ea secretary, Stephen Powers, Jacksonyille; treasurer, W. S. Hart, Hawks

ark.

Georgia State Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, P. J. Berckmans, Augusta;
vice-president, First district, G. M. Ryals, Savannah; secretary, G. H. Miller,
Rome; treasurer, Louis A. Berckmans, Augusta.

Idaho State Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, Charles P. Hartley, Cald-
well; vice-president, Robert Schleicher, Lewiston; secretary, Robert Milliken,
Nampa; treasurer, G. T. Hamill, Nampa.

Illinois State Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, Henry M. Dunlap, Savoy;
vice-president, H. A. Aldrich, Neoga; secretary, L. R. Bryant, Princeton; treas-
urer, J. W. Stanton, Richview.

Indiana Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, C. M. Hobbs, Bridgeport; sec-
retary, James Troop, Lafayette; treasurer, Sylvester Johnson, Irvington. .

lowa State Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, Charles F'. Gardner, Osage;
vice-president, M. J. Wragg, Waukee; secretary, Wesley Greene, Des Moines;
treasurer, W. M. Bomberger, Harlan.

Kansas State Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, Fred Wellhouse, Topeka;
vice-president, J. W. Robison, Eldorado; secretary, Wiliam H. Barnes, Topeka;
treasurer, Frank Holsinger, Rosedale; entomologist, Perry J. Parrott, Manhattan.

Kentucky State Horticultural Society, 1900,—President, M. F. Johnson, Fern
Creek; secretary, J. C. Hawes, Fern Creek.

Maine State Pomological Society, 1900.—President, W. M. Munson, Orono;
first vice-president, S. H. Dawes, Harrison; second vice-president, D. P. True,
Leeds Center; secretary-treasurer, Charles S. Pope, Manchester.

Maryland State Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, James 8. Harris, Cole-
man; ~vice-president, J. P. Blessing, Brownsville; secretary and treasurer, W. G.
Johnson, College Park.

Massachusetts Fruit Growers’ Association, 1900.—President, George Cruick-
shanks, Fitchburg; vice-president, H. O. Mead, Lunenburg; secretary; 8. T.
Maynard, Amherst; treasurer, Ethan Brooke, West Springfield.

Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, Francis H. Appleton,
Boston; vice-president, Charles H. B. Breck, Boston; secretary, Robert Manning,
ae Tremont street, Boston; treasurer, Charles E, Richardson, 101 Tremont street,

oston.

Michigan State Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, C. J. Monroe, South
Haven; vice-president, R. D. Graham, Grand Rapids; secretary, C. E. Bassett,
Fennville; treasurer, Asa W. Slayton, Grand Rapids.

Minnesota State Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, W. W. Pendergast,
Hutchison; vice-president, F. W. Kimball, Austin; secretary, A. W. Latham, 207
Kasota Block, Minneapolis; treasurer, H. M. Lyman, Excelsior.

Missouri State Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, N. F. Murray, Oregon;
vice-president, D. A. Robnett, Columbia; secretary, L. A. Goodman, Westport;
treasurer, A. Nelson, Lebanon.

Montana State Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, S. M. Emery, Bozeman;
secretary and treasurer, C. H. Edwards, Missoula.

Nebraska State Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, George A. Marshall,
Arlington; vice-president, J. H. Hadkinson, Omaha; secretary, C. H. Barnard,
Table Rock; treasurer, Peter Youngers, jr., Geneva.

New Hampshire Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, C. C. Shaw, Milford;
vice-president, J. W. Farr, Littleton; secretary, W. D. Baker, Quincy; treasurer,
T. EK. Hunt, Lakeport.

New Jersey State Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, Henry E. Hale,
Princeton; vice-president, William H. Reed, Tennent; secretary, Henry 1. Budd,
Mount Holly; treasurer, Charles L. Jones, Newark.

New Mexico Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, L. Bradford Prince, Santa
Fe; vice-president, W. 8S. Harroun, Santa Fe; secretary, Jose D. Sena, Santa Fe;
treasurer, Soloman Spiegelberg, Santa Fe. :

North Carolina State Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, J. Van. Lindley,
Pomona; vice-president, W. F. Massey, Raleigh; secretary and treasurer, Thomas
L. Brown, Greensboro. :

Ohio State Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, E. H. Cushman, Euclid;
vice-president, W. N. Scarff, New Carlisle; secretary, W. W. Farnsworth, Water-
ville; treasurer, N. Ohmer, Dayton.

HORTICULTURAL SOCIETIES. TOT

Oregon State Horticultural Society, 1900.—Presidente Dr. J. R. Cardwell, Port-
land; first vice-president, William Galloway, Oregon City; second vice-president,
H. M. Williamson, Portland; secretary and treasurer, E. R. Lake, Corvallis.

Pennsylvania State Horticultural Association, 1960.—President, Howard A.
Chase, 1450 South Penn Square, Philadelphia; vice-president, Daniel D. Herr,
Lancaster; M. C. Dunlevy, Carnegie; recording secretary, E. B. Engle, Waynes-
boro; corresponding secretary, W. T. Brinton, Christiana; treasurer, Samuel
C. Moon, Morrisville.

Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1909.—President, James M. Rhodes, Third
and Chestnut streets, Philadelphia; vice-president, Robert Craig, Forty-ninth and
Market streets, Philadelphia; secretary, David Rust, Horticultural Hall, Phila-
deiphia; treasurer, Sidney W. Keith, Land Title Building, Philadelphia.

Rhode Island Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, J. E. C. Farnham. Provi-
dence; vice-presidents, R. H. I. Goddard, Providence, Royal C. Taft, Providence,
Joseph D. Fitts, Providence; secretary and treasurer, Charles W. Smith, 61
Westminster street, Providence.

South Da J
Forestburg; vice-president, L. R. Alderman, Hurley: secretary, N. E. Hansen,
Brookings; treasurer, G. H. Whiting, Yankton.

Texas State Horticultural Society, 19)0.—President, F. T. Ramsey, Austin;
vice-presidents, P. I. Burch, Rockport, S. D. Thompson, Bowie; secretary, Samnef
H. Dixon, Pauh; treasurer, D. O. Lively, Fort Worth.

Vermont Horticultural Society, 1900. —-President. T. L. Kinney, South Hero;
secretary and treasurer, F. A. Waugh, Burlington.

Virginia State Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, Samuel B. Woods,
Charlottesville; vice-president, A. F. Mosby, Richmond; recording secretary,
George E. Murrell, Fontella; corresponding secretary and treasurer, Walter
Whately, Crozet.

West Virginia State Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, R. C. Burkhart,
Martinsburg; vice-president, J. H. Crawford, Organ Cave; secretary L. C.
Corbett, Morgantown.

Wisconsin State Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, Franklin Johnson,
Baraboo; vice-president, T. E. Loope, Eureka; secretary, J. L. Herbst, Sparta;
treasurer, R. J. Coe, Fort Atkinson.

Wisconsin State Cranberry Growers’ Association, 1900.— President, Charles
Briers, Grand Rapids; vice-president, 5. M. Whittlesey, Cranmoor; secretary,
W. H. Fitch, Cranmoor; treasurer, Melvin Potter, Centralia.

OFFICERS AND MEMBERS OF STATE BOARDS OF HORTICULTURE.

California State Board of Horticulture, 1900.—President, Ellwood Cooper, Santa
Barbara; vice-president, Frank H. Buck, Vacaville: secretary and chief horticul-
tural officer, B. M. Lelong, Sacramento; treasurer, William B. Gester, Newcastle;
auditor, R. D. Stephens, Sacramento; quarantine officer and entomologist,
Alexander Craw, Sacramento; clerk, E. F. Hallahan, Sacramento; district com-
missioners, Thomas A. Rice, H. Weinstock, Benjamin M. Maddox, A. Block,
W. T. Hotchkiss.

Indiana State Board of Horticulture, 1900.—President,C. M. Hobbs, Bridgeport;
vice-presidents, Mrs. W. W. Stevens, George P. Campbell, Amos Garretson,

C. Grossman; secretary, J. Troop, Lafayette: treasurer. Sylvester J ohnson,
Irvington; executive committee, E. Y. Teas, L. B. Custer, J. G. Stevens.

Montana State Board of Horticulture. 1900.—President, I. D. O°’Donnell, Billings:
secretary, C. H. Edwards, Missoula; district committeemen, 8S. M. Emery, W. H.
eet D. E. Bandmann, J, H. Edwards; Governor R. B. Smith, ex officio,

elena.

Oregon State Board of Horticulture, 1900.—President, H. B. Miller; secretary,
Henry E. Dosch; treasurer, Lloyd T. Reynolds; commissioners, Wilbur K.
Newell, Lloyd T. Reynolds, A. H. Carson, Emile Schanno, and Judd Geer.

Utah State Board of Horticulture, 1900.—President, Thomas Judd; vice-presi-
dent, H. E. Carey; secretary, J. A. Wright, Ogden.

LOCAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETIES.

Horticultural Society of Central Hlinois, 1900.—President, H. Augustine, Nor-
mal; vice-president, G. J. Foster, Bloomington; secretary, J.C. Blair, Champaign.

Horticultural Society of Nor ‘thern Minois, 1900. —President, J: if Hartwell,
Dixon; vice-president, O. W. Barnard, Manteno; secretary, A. W. Bryant, Prince-
ton; treasurer, L. Woodard, Marengo.

708 EARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Horticultural Society of Southern [linois, 1900.—President, J. W. Stanton,
Richview: vice-president, L. N. Beal, Mount Vernon; secretary and treasurer,
E.G. Mendenhall, Kinmundy.

Northeastern Iowa Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, Charles F. Gardner,
Osage; vice-president, Elmer Reeves, Waverly; secretary, Charles H. True, Edge-
wood; treasurer, G. A. Ivins, lowa Falls.

Northwestern Iowa Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, P. F. Kinne, Storm
Lake; vice-president, J.C. Winsett, Fostoria; treasurer, Ben Shoultz, Correction-
ville; secretary, W.B, Chapman, Washta.

Southeastern Iowa Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, W.S. Fultz, Mus-
catine; vice-president, W.T. Richey, Albia; secretary, C. W. Burton, Cedar Rap-
ids; treasurer, F. R. Harrington, York Center.

Southwestern Iowa Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, J. P. Jackson,
Glenwood; vice-president, Silas Wilson, Atlantic; secretary, W. M. Bomberger,
Harlan: treasurer, I. M. Needles, Atlantic.

Horticultural Association of Western Maryland, 1900.—President, Charles C.
Biggs, Sharpsburg; vice-president, Caleb Long, Downsville; secretary and treas-
urer, Arthur L. Towson, Smithsburg.

Cape Cod Cranberry Growers’ Association, 1900.—President, Emulus Small,
Harwick Port, Mass.; vice-president, Luther Hall, Dennis, Mass.; secretary
and treasurer, Franklin Crocker, Hyannis. :

West Michigan Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, R. M. Kellogg, Three
. Rivers; secretary, C. A. French, Grand Rapids; treasurer, A. Hamilton, Bangor.

Southern Minnesota Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, J. C. Hawkins,
Austin; vice-presidents, O. L. Gregg, Austin, and O. W, Moore, Spring Valley;
secretary and treasurer, Robert Parkhill, Chatfield.

Central Missouri Horticultural Association, 1900.—President; D. F. Nixon, Har-
riston; vice-president, D. Edwards, Boonville; secretary, C. C. Bell, Boonville;
treasurer, W. A. Smiley, Boonville.

South Missouri Horticultural Assoviation, 1990.—President, D. J. Nichols, West
Plains; secretary and treasurer, J. T. Snodgrass, West Plains.

Eastern New York Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, James Wood, Mount
Kisco; vice-president, W. F, Taber, Poughkeepsie; secretary and treasurer, Edwin
C. Powell, Ghent.

Western New York Horticultural Society, 1900.—President, W. C. Barry,
Rochester; vice-presidents, 8. D. Willard, Geneva; J. S. Woodward, Lockport;
Albert Wood, Carlton Station; T. B. Wilson, Halls Corners; secretary, John
Hall, Rochester.

West Tennessee Horticultural Institute, 1900.—President, J. W. Rosaman,
Gadsden; vice-president, L. C. James, Gibson; secretary and treasurer, J. D. John-
son, Henderson.

East Tennessee Horticultural Society.—President, E. F. Wetmore, Ogden; sec-
retary and treasurer, H. Lightfoot, Chattanooga.

NATIONAL, SECTIONAL, AND STATE BEE EEEPERS ASSOCIATIONS.

UNITED STATES.

National Bee Keepers’ Association.—President, E. R. Root, Medina, Ohio; secre-
tary, A. B. Mason, Toledo, Ohio; general manager and treasurer, Eugene Secor,
Forest City, Iowa.

CALIFORNIA.

California Bee Keepers’ Exchange.—Secretary, J. H. Martin, Riverside, Cal.

California State Bee Keepers’ Association.—President, R. Wilkin, Ventura, Cal.;
secretary, J. F. McIntyre, Sespe, Cal.

Central California Bee Keepers’ Association.—Secretary, F. E. Brown, San
Francisco.

COLORADO.

Colorado State Bee Keepers’ Association.—President, R. C. Aikin, Loveland,
Colo.; secretary, Frank Rauchfuss, Denver, Colo.

CONNECTICUT.

Connecticut Bee Keepers’ Association.—Secretary, Mrs. W. C. Riley, Water-
bury, Conn.

BEE KEEPERS’ ASSOCIATIONS. 709

ILLINOIS.

Illinois State Bee Keepers’ Association.—President, C. C. Miller, Marengo, Ill;
secretary, James A. Stone, Bradfordton, II.
/apaegen Illinois Bee Keepers’ Association.—Secretary, B. Kennedy, New
Milford, Ill.

INDIANA.

Indiana State Bee Keepers’ Association.—President, E. S. Pope, Indianapolis,
Ind.; secretary, W. 5S. Pouder, Indianapolis, Ind.

IOWA.

Eastern Iowa Bee Keepers’ Association.—Secretary, W. A. Hay, Anamosa,
Iowa.
KANSAS.

Southeastern Kansas Bee Keepers’ Association.—President, J. P. Ralston, Union-
town, Kans.; secretary, J. C. Balch, Bronson, Kans.
a
MICHIGAN.

Michigan State Bee Keepers’ Association.—President, George E. Hilton, Fre-
mont, Mich.; secretary, William G. Voorheis, South Frankfort, Mich.

MINNESOTA.

Minnesota Bee Keepers’ Association.—President, J. P. West, Hastings, Minn.;
secretary, L. D. Leonard, Minneapolis, Minn.

Southern Minnesota Bee Keepers’ Association.—President, E. B. Huffman,
Homer, Minn.

NEBRASKA.

Nebraska Bee Keepers’ Association.—President, E. Whitcomb, Friend, Nebr.;
secretary, L. D. Stilson, York, Nebr.

NEW YORK.

New York State Association of Bee Keepers’ Societies.—President, W. F. Marks,
Chapinville, N. Y.; secretary-treasurer, C. B. Howard, Romulus, N. Y.

New York State Bee Keepers’ Association.—President, I. L. Scofield, Chenango
Bridge, N. Y.; secretary, J, H. Knickerbocker, Pleasant Valley, N, Y

OHIO—PENNSYLVANTIA.

Northeastern Ohio and Northwestern Pennsylvania Bee Keepers’ Association.—
Secretary, Ed Jolley, Franklin, Pa.

TENNESSEE.

Southern East Tennessee Bee Keepers’ Association.—President, M. T. Fouts,
Parksville, Tenn.; secretary, W. J. Copeland, Fetzerton, Tenn.

TEXAS.

Central Texas Bee Keepers’ Association.—President, E. Y. Terral, Cameron,
Tex.; secretary, E. R. Jones, Milano, Tex.

South Texas Bee Keepers’ Association.—President, M. M. Faust, Floresville,
Tex.; secretary, G. W. Huffstedler, Beeville, Tex.

Texas State Bee Keepers’ Association.—President, W. R. Graham, Greenville,
Tex.; secretary and treasurer, J, N. Hunter, Leonard, Tex.

UTAH.

Utah Bee Keepers’ Association.—President, E. 8. Lovesy, Sait Lake City, Utah;
secretary and treasurer, J. B. Fagg, Mill Creek, Utah.

710 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

VERMONT.

Vermont Bee Keepers’ Association.—Secretary, M. F. Cram, West Brook-
field, Vt.

WASHINGTON.

Washington State Bee Keepers’ Association.—Secretary, L. R. Freeman, North
Yakima, Wash.

WISCONSIN.
Southwestern Wisconsin Bee Keepers’ Association.—President, N. E. France,
Platteville, Wis.; secretary, F. L. Murray, Calamine, Wis.

Wisconsin State Bee Keepers’ Association.—Secretary, Miss Ada Pickard,
Richland Center.

STATE OFFICIALS CONCERNED WITH THE PROTECTION OF BIRDS
AND GAME.

CALIFORNIA.
Board of fish conmissioners.?

President, Alexander T. Vogelsang, Mills Building, San Francisco; Charles B.
Gould, Oakland; H. W. Keller, Santa Monica; chief deputy, John P. Babcock,
San Francisco.

COLORADO.
Department of game and fish.

Commissioner, Thos. H. Johnson, 35 Capitol Building, Denver; chief wardens,

first district, Frank Fenn, Denver: second district, James Lyttle, Meeker; third

district, W. A. Lee, Glenwood Springs; fourth district, B. F. Jay, Grand Janc-
tion; fifth district, HE. H. Norton, Montrose.

CONNECTICUT.

Commission of fisheries and game.

President, George T. Mathewson, Thompsonville; secretary, Alden Solmans,
South Norwalk.

ILLINOIS.
State game commissioner.
Henry W. Loveday, Springfield; suboffice, 816 Schiller Building, Chicago.
INDIANA.
Convmissioner of jisheries and game.

Z. T. Sweeney, Columbus.
IOWA.
Fish and game warden.
George E. Delavan, Estherville.
MAINE.
Commissioners of inland fisheries and game.
Chairman, L. T. Carleton, Augusta; Henry O. Stanley, Dixfield; Charles E.

Oak, Caribou.

‘Corrected to April 1, 1900. *Has jurisdiction over matters relating to game.

ri

OO —S

OFFICIALS FOR PROTECTION OF BIRDS AND GAME. Til

MARYLAND.
Game warden,
Robert H. Gilbert, Calvert and Lombard streets, Baltimore.
MASSACHUSETTS.
Commissioners of fisheries and game.

Chairman, Joseph W. Collins, Boston; secretary, Edward A. Brackett, Win-
chester; Elisha D. Buffington, Worcester.

'

MICHIGAN.
Game and fish warden department.

Warden, Grant M. Morse, Portland; chief deputy, Charles E. Brewster,
Portland.

MINNESOTA. a
Fish and game commissioners.
President, A. T. Williams, Minneapolis; vice-president, Jacob Danz 2d, St.

Paul; secretary, W. W. Ward, Fairmont; treasurer, A. L. Cramb, St. Cloud;
executive agent, John Beutner, Proctorknott.

MISSOURI.
Game and fish warden.

A. J. D. Burford, Burfordville.
MONTANA.

Board of gaine and fish convmissioners.

Chairman, Prof. M. J. Elred, Missoula; secretary, R. A. Waagner, Bozeman;
State warden, H. Percy Kennett, Victor.

NEW HAMPSHIRE.
Fish and game commission.

Chairman, N. Wentworth, Hudson Center; financial agent, W. H. Shurtleff,
Lancaster; secretary, F. L. Hughes, Ashland.

NEW JERSEY.
Fish and game commissioners.

President and treasurer, Howard P. Frothingham, Mount Arlington; William
A. Halsey, Newark; Benj. P. Morris, Long Br: anch: J. Frank Buda, Burlington
City; fish and game protector, George Riley, 190 Broad str eet, Newark.

NEW YORK.
Commissioners of fisheries, game, and forests.

President, W. Austin Wadsworth, Livingston County; Percy Lansdowne,
Buffalo, Erie County; Delos H. Mackey, Delaware County; B. "Frank Wood.
Queens County; De Witt C. Middleton, Watertown, Jefferson County; chief
protector, J. Warren Pond, Albany.

NORTH DAKOTA,

Game warden.
Geo. E. Bowers, Fargo.

12 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

.

OHIO.
Commissioners of fish and game.

President, George Falloon, Athens; J. C. Burnett, Sabina; Albert Brewer, Tiffin;
James W. Owens, “Newark; Aor, Hazlett, Bucyrus; secretary and chief warden,
L. H. Reutinger, Athens.

OREGON,

Game warden.

L. P. W. Quimby, Portland.
PENNSYLVANIA.

Board of game commissioners.

President, William M. Kennedy. Allegheny City; C. K. Sober, Lewisburg;
James H. Worden, Harrisburg; E. B. Westfall, Williamsport; Dr. Charles B.
Penrose, Philadelphia; I. A. Stearns, Wilkesbarre; secretary, Dr. Joseph Kalbfus,
Harr isburg g,

RHODE ISLAND
Commissioners of birds.

Chairman, F, H. Peckham, jr., Providence County; E. R. Lewis, Washington
County; William H. Thayer, Bristol County; A. O’D. Taylor, Newport County;
secretary, Thomas W. Penney, Kent County.

UTAH.
Fish and game warden.

John Sharp, Salt Lake City.
VERMONT

Fish and game commissioners.

John W. Titcomb, St. Johnsbury; Horace W. Bailey, Newbury.
WASHINGTON,
Fish comnvissioner and game warden.
A. C. Little, 210-212 Berlin Buiiding, Tacoma.
WISCONSIN.

Fish and game warden

James T. Ellarson, Madison.
WYOMING.

Game warden.
Albert Nelson, Jackson.
MANITOBA.
Game guardian.
W.M. Ingram, Winnipeg.
_ NEW BRUNSWICK.

Crown land department.}

Surveyor-general, A. T. Dunn, Fredericton; chief game commissioner, L. B.
Knight, St. John; commissioner of fisheries, D. G. Smith, Chatham.

‘Has jurisdiction over matters relating to protection of game.

ORGANIZATIONS TO PROTECT BIRDS AND GAME. W135

NEWFOUNDLAND,
Department of marine and fisheries.'
Deputy minister, E. C. Watson, St. Johns; secretary, M. Harvey, St. Johns.
NOVA SCOTIA.
Nova Scotia Game and Inland Fishery Protection Society.

President, Col. Clerke: vice-presidents, H. N. Wallace, L. G. Power: secretary,
Geo. Piers, Halifax; treasurer, H. N. Wallace; chief game commissioner, C. S$.
Harrington; commissioners, A. O. Pritchard, New Glasgow, Donald Ross, Mar-
abel “alia Breton Island; W. 8. Crooker, Queens County; Albert Bigney, Cum-

erland.

ONTARIO.
Game commission.

Chairman, Dr. G. A. MacCallum, Dunnville; James Dickson, Fenelon Falls;*
W. G. Parrish, Athens; W. B. Wells, Chatham; H. S. Osler, Toronto; chief
game warden, E. Tinsley. Parliament Building, Toronto.

QUEBEC.
Department of lands, forests, and fisheries—Fisheries and game branch.

Commissioner, S. N. Parent; assistant commissioner, E. E. Paine; superin-
tendent, L. Z. Joncas; general inspector and assistant superintendent, H. de Puy-
jalon, Quebec; provincial game keepers, N. E. Cormier, Aylmer East; Joseph
Riendeau, Montreal.

NATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS FOR PROTECTION OF BIRDS AND
GAME.

AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGISTS’ UNION—COMMITTEE ON PROTECTION OF NORTH
AMERICAN BIRDS.

Chairman, Witmer Stone, Academy Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Pa.; E. H.
Forbush, Malden, Mass.; William Dutcher, 525 Manhattan avenue, New York,
N. Y.; Mrs. Olive Thorne Miller, 628 Hancock street, Brooklyn. N. Y.; Mrs.
Edward Robins, 114 South Twenty-first street, Philadelphia, Pa.; Mrs. Florence
Merriam Bailey, Washington, D. C.; T. 5. Palmer, Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C.; Ruthven Deane, 24 Michigan avenue, Chicago, Ill.; O. Wid-
mann, Old Orchard, Mo.; Mrs. E. Irene Rood, Fort Worth, Tex.; Leverett M.
Loomis, California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, Cal.; A. W. Anthony,
Taylorsville, Cal.; Mrs. Louise McGowen Stephenson, Helena, Ark.

LEAGUE OF AMERICAN SPORTSMEN.

President, G. O. Shields, 23 West Twenty-fourth street, New York, N. Y.
Secretary, Arthur F. Rice, 155 Pennington avenue, Passaic, N. J.
Treasurer, F. S. Hyatt, National Exchange Bank, 90 West Broadway. New
Works IN. Y:
Chief wardens of State divisions:
California—Dr. David Starr Jordan, Stanford University.
Colorado—A. Whitehead, 17 Bank Block, Denver.
Connecticut—Ralph B. Lawton, Bridgeport.
Iilinois—H. W. Loveday, 816 Schiller Building, Chicago.
_ Massachusetts—Dr. Heber Bishop, 4 Post-Office square, Boston.
Michigan—J. Elmer Pratt, Grand Rapids.
Minnesota—S. A. Smart, St. Paul.
Montana—Prof. M. J. Elrod, Missoula.
New Jersey—A. W. Van Saun, Pompton Plains.
New York—A. E. Pond, 148 Fifth avenue, New York City.

1 Has jurisdiction over maiters relating to protection of game.

714 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Chief wardens of State divisions—Continued.
Ohio—L. H. Reutinger, Athens.
Oregon—Robert F. Kelly, Box 188, The Dalles.
Pennsylvania—C. F. Emerson, 189 North Perry street, Titusville-
Utah—John Sharp, Salt Lake City.
Vermont—W. HE. Mack, Woodstock.
Virginia—Franklin Stearns, 13 North Eleventh street, Richmond.
Washington—J. S. Stangroom, New Whatcom.
Wisconsin—James T. Drought, Milwaukee.
W yoming—Dr, Frank Dunham, Lander.

NATIONAL GAME, BIRD, AND FISH PROTECTIVE ASSOCIATION.
President, A. L. Lakey, Kalamazoo, Mich.
Secretary, C. E. Brewster, Grand Rapids, Mich.
Treasurer, J. P. Barnum, Prairie du Chien, Wis.
NATIONAL SPORTSMEN’S ASSOCIATION.

President, Charles Tatham, New York, N. Y.
Secretary-treasurer, J. A. H. Dressel, 280 Broadway, New York, N. Y.

NORTH AMERICAN FISH AND GAME PROTECTION ASSOCIATION.
President, S. N. Parent, Commissioner Lands, Forests, and Fisheries, Quebec,

Joint secretaries, L. Z. Joncas, Quebec; Rene Dupont, Quebec; D. J. Smith.
Chatham, N. B.

STATE ORGANIZATIONS FOR PROTECTION OF BIRDS AND GAME.

ARKANSAS STATE SPORTSMEN’S ASSOCIATION.

President, W. A. Leach, Fort Smith.
Secretary, Paul R. Litzke, Little Rock.

CONNECTICUT ASSOCIATION OF FARMERS AND SPORTSMEN FOR THE PROTECTION OF
FISH AND GAME,

President and treasurer, Abbott C. Collins, 18 Preston street, Hartford.
Secretary, George P. McLean, Simsbury.

DELAWARE GAME PROTECTIVE ASSOCIATION,

President, A. D. Poole, Wilmington.
Secretary and treasurer, I. N. Mills, Clayton.

GAME AND FISH PROTECTIVE ASSOCIATION, DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.
President, Capt. Robley D. Evans, U.S. N.
Secretary, Dr. W. P. Young, 1333 F street NW., Washington.
Warden, Maj. Richard Sylvester, Washington.
ILLINOIS STATE SPORTSMEN’S ASSOCIATION.

President, E. 8. Rice, Chicago.
Secretary-treasurer, Wm. B. Leffingwell, Room 1524 Masonic Temple, Chicago.

ILLINOIS FISH AND GAME PROTECTIVE ASSOCIATION.

President, H. W. Loveday, 816 Schiller Building, Chicago.
Secretary, H. A. Sullivan, Room 912, Ashland Block, Chicago.

IOWA STATE ASSOCIATION FOR THE PROTECTION OF FISH AND GAME,

President, W. B. Kibbey, Marshalltown.
Secretary, L. C. Abbott, Marshalltown.

ORGANIZATIONS TO PROTECT BIRDS AND GAME. 715

KENTUCKY FIELD TRIAL CLUB.

President, Geo. L. Danforth, Louisville.
Secretary and treasurer, Herman Newcomb, Louisville.

KENTUCKY FISH AND GAME CLUB.

President, Frank Pragoff, 422 West Main street, Louisville.
Secretary, Hamilton Griswold, Louisville.

MARYLAND STATE GAME AND FISH PROTECTIVE ASSOCIATION.

President, George Dobbin Penniman, Baltimore. :
Secretary and treasurer, Frank C. Kirkwood, 1500 Bolton street, Baltimore.

MASSACHUSETTS CENTRAL COMMITTEE FOR THE PROTECTION OF FISH AND GAME,

Chairman, A. B. F. Kinney, Worcester.
Secretary and treasurer, Henry H. Kimball, 5 Park square, Boston.

MASSACHUSETTS FISH AND GAME PROTECTIVE ASSOCIATION. a

President, George W. Wiggin, Tremont Building, Boston,
Secretary and treasurer, Henry H. Kimball, 5 Park square, Boston.

ROD AND GUN CLUB OF MASSACHUSETTS.

President, C. P. Curtis, Boston.
Secretary and assistant treasurer, W. C. Thairlwall, 45 High street, Boston.

MICHIGAN STATE GAME AND FISH PROTECTIVE LEAGUE

President, A. L. Lakey, Kalamazoo.
Secretary, C. E. Brewster, Grand Rapids.

NORTH DAKOTA STATE SPORTSMAN’S ASSOCIATION.

President, C. A. Hall, Grand Forks.
Secretary, E. C. Carruth, Grand Forks.

OREGON FISH AND GAME ASSOCIATION.

President, J. N. Teal, Portland.
Secretary, A. E. Gebhardt, Portland.

PENNSYLVANIA STATE SPORTSMEN’S ASSOCIATION.

President, J. O°'H. Denny, Ligonier.
Secretary, Will K. Park, 34 South Third street, Philadelphia.

[SOUTH CAROLINA ] WESTERN CAROLINA GAME PROTECTION ASSOCIATION,

President, C. F. Dill, Greenville.
Secretary and treasurer, Charles F. Schwing, Greenville.

TEXAS STATE SPORTSMEN’S ASSOCIATION.

President, B. S. Pillow, Austin.
Secretary and treasurer, Fred Petmecky, Austin.

UTAH STATE FISH AND GAME PROTECTIVE ASSOCIATION.

President, T. J. Almy, Salt Lake City.
Secretary, George D. Adler, Salt Lake City.

[VIRGINIA] EASTERN SHORE GAME PROTECTIVE ASSOCIATION.

President, J. W. Bowdoin, Bloxom.
Secretary and treasurer, T. W. Blackstone, Accomae, C. H.

« VIRGINIA FIELD SPORTS ASSOCIATION.

President. Polk Miller, Richmond.
Secretary and treasurer, William H. Colquitt, Richmond.

716 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

TrISH AND GAME PROTECTION CLUB, PROVINCE OF QUEBEC,

President, F. L. Wanklyn, Montreal.
Secretary, Wm. J. Cleghorn, 107 Beard of Trade Building, Montreal.

AUDUBON SOCIETIES.

(Organized for the study and protection of birds.)
California: ;
President, Albert K. Smiley, Redlands.
Secretary, Mrs. George 8. Gay, Redlands.
Connecticut:
President, Mrs. Mabel Osgood Wright, Fairfield.
Secretary, Mrs. William Brown Glover, Fairfield.
Delaware:
President, A. R. Spaid, 2311 West Eighteenth street, Wilmington.
Secretary, Mrs. Florence Bayard Hilles, Delaware place, Wilmington.
District of Columbia:
President, Gen. George M. Sternberg, U.S. A., Washington.
Secretary, Mrs. John Dewhurst Patten, 3033 P street, Washington.
Florida:
President, Rt. Rev. H. B. Whipple, Faribault, Minn.
Secretary, Mrs. C. F. Dommerich, Maitland, Fla.
Illinois:
President, Ruthven Deane, 30 Michigan avenue, Chicago.
Secretary, Miss Mary Drummond, Wheaton.
Indiana:
President, R.W. McBride.
Secretary, Amos W. Butler, Statehouse, Indianapolis.
Towa:
President, Mrs. James B. Diver, Keokuk.
Secretary, Mrs. T. L. Wales, Keokuk.
Schaller [lowa] Audubon Society:
President, Mrs. T. J. Andre, Schaller.
Secretary, Miss J. E. Hamand, Schaller.
Maryland:
President, Wm.C. A. Hammel, State Normal School, Baltimore.
Secretary, Miss Anne Weston Whitney, 715 St. Paul street, Baltimore.
Massachusetts:
President, William Brewster, Cambridge.
Secretary, Miss Harriet E. Richards, Society of Natural History, Boston.
Minnesota:
President, John W. Taylor, St. Paul.
Secretary, Mrs. J.P. Elmer, 314 West Third street, St. Paul.
New Hampshire:
President, Mrs. Arthur E. Clarke.
Secretary, Mrs. F, W. Batchelder, Manchester.
New Jersey:
President, Alexander Gilbert.
Secretary, Miss Anna Haviland, 53 Sandford avenue, Plainfield.
New York:
President, Morris K. Jesup, New York City.
Secretary, Miss Emma H. Lockwood, 243 West Seventy-fifth street, New
York City.
Ohio:
President, William Hubbell Fisher, 18 Wiggins Block, Cincinnati.
Secretary, Mrs. D. Z. McClelland, 5265 Eastern avenue, Cincinnati.
Pennsylvania:
President, Witmer Stone, Academy Natural Sciences, Philadelphia.
Secretary, Mrs. Edward Robins, 114 South Twenty-first street, Philadelphia.
Rhode Island:
President, Prof. H.C. Bumpus, Providence.
Secretary, Mrs. H. T. Grant, jr., 187 Bowen street, Providence.
South Carolina:
President, Miss Christie H. Poppenheim, Charleston.
Secretary, Miss S. A. Smyth, Legare street, Charleston.

FARMERS’ READING COURSES. tii

Tennessee:

President, P. T. Glass. Ripley.

Secretary, Mrs. C. C. Conner, Ripley.
Texas:

President, Mrs. J. W. Hertford.

Secretary, Miss Cecile Seixas, 2008 Thirty-ninth street, Galveston.
West Virginia (branch of Pennsylvania Society):

President, Witmer Stone, Academy Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Pa.

Secretary, Elizabeth I. Cummins, 1314 Chapline street, Wheeling.
Wisconsin:

President, Edward A. Birge.

Secretary, Mrs. George W. Peckham, 646 Marshall street, Milwaukee.

PARMERS’ READING COURSES.

Farmers’ reading courses constitute one of the most important agents in the
diffusion of knowledge among farmers and are rapidly growing in popularity.
The idea of these reading courses is to systematize in a few definite lines the gen-
eral home reading of the farmer,and to make the knowledge thus acquired a per-
manent mental endowment fund, to be used in making farm life more attractive
and more profitable. The work is generally conducted on the Chautauqua plan.
The agency having charge of it (usually the agricultural college) lays out certain
courses of reading on such subjects as ‘‘soils and crops,” ‘‘ feeding and breeding
of farm animals,” ‘‘ dairying,” ‘‘ fruit culture,” ‘‘ gardening,” ‘* farm economics,”
**domestic economy,” and similar topics; selects sets of books for reading which
most clearly set forth the principles underlying these subjects ; provides for super-
intending the work; makes ar rangements for “supplyi ing prospective readers with
books, examination papers, etc.; : and acts as a sort of bureau of information.

The method followed in any particular case is simple: A book on a chosen topic
is sent to areader, whois asked toread carefully a certain subject. Printed ques-
tions bearing on this subject are then sent to him and full answers, without
recourse to the book, requested.

No expense is attached except for books anda small enrollment fee, seldom
exceeding for the whole course more than $1 in amount. Sometimes diplomas
signed by the college authorities are given upon the completion of a course. A
course usually covers about two years’ reading. Anyone wishing to take up the,
work of the reading course has but to apply for membership to the manager of
the reading course in his own State, or in another State. Details regarding the
courses offered, books required, enrollment fees,-etc., will be sent him. Upon
subscribing to the rules of the society, he is at once admitted asa member, and
can begin reading without delay. No entrance examinations are required.
Courses are provided for women and technical courses for special students.

The following is a list of States which have organized reading courses and of
the officials in charge of these courses:

OP St | ———— Prot. A: B: Peehles- fy 22S... Storrs

Pre AD ie. 5 ay: Se ee Prot. Chinton Dasmith-- 53-22. eae hata College.
New Hampshire _..._.._.-- Prot.:©.-W-Burkett=- 22222 = 2 Durham.

LG 0d en a Prot. Li: He Baileys 3.3 2 Ithaca.
Pennsylvania... ....=2- .2.- Prof. George C. Watson ._-_-_-__- State College.

Semon Wakota:. =. 2.8.22. - Mr.8.2A..Cochranes... =.=. = Brookings.

Meat Virpinia _=....--..L-.- Brot. 0; Cr Atkeson.2-- 52252 28 Morgantown.

FARMERS’ NATIONAL CONGRESS.

President, Hon. W. D. Hoard, Fort Atkinson, Wis.; secretary, John Stahl, No.
4328 Langley avenue, Chicago, Il.

PATRONS OF HUSBANDRY.
NATIONAL OFFICERS.

Master, Aaron Jones, South Bend, Ind.; overseer, O. Gardner, Rockland, Me.;
lecturer, N. J. Bachelder, Concord, N. H.; treasurer, Mrs. E. S. McDowell.
Columbus, Ohio: secretary, John Trimble, No. 514 F street NW.., Washington,
D. C.; executive committee, E. B. Norris, Sodus, N. Y.; J. J. Woodman, Paw
“Sas oe S. H. Messick, Bridgeville, Del.; Aaron J ones, ex officio, ‘South

end. In

=

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720 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

OFFICIALS CHARGED WITH AGRICULTURAL INTERESTS IN
SEVERAL COUNTRIES.

Argentina.—Minister of agriculture. Official address: Su excelencia el ministro
de agricuitura, ministerio de agricultura, Buenos Aires.

Austria-Hungary.—Minister of agriculture at Vienna and minister of agricul-
ture at Budapest. Official addresses: K. K. Ackerbau-Minister in Wien, and K.
Ungarischer Ackerbau-Minister in Budapest.

Belgium.—Baron Maurice van der Brueggen, ministére de agriculture, Brux-
elles.

Brazil.—Minister of industry, etc. Official address: Ministro da industria,
viacao e obras publicas, Rio de Janeiro.

Chile.—Minister of industry, etc. Official address: Ministro de industria y obras
publicas, Santiago.

China.—No ofticer of central government. Provincial officers: His excellency
the viceroy of Liang-Kiang, Nan-King. His excellency the viceroy of Hu-Kuang,
Wuchang. His excellency the viceroy of Liang-Kwang, Canton.

Costa Rica.—Minister of Public Promotion. Official address: Ministro de
fomento, San Jose.

Denmark.—Mr. Alfred Hage, Landbrugsminister, 6 Slotholmsgade, Copenhagen.

France.—Minister of agriculture. Official address: Monsieur le ministre de
Vagriculture, No. 78 rue de Varennes, Paris.

Germany.—Count von Posadowsky-Wehner, secretary of the interior, Berlin.

Great Britain.—The Right Honorable Walter Hume Long, M. P., president of
the board of agriculture, 4 Whitehall Place, London S. W.

Guatemala.—Minister of public promotion. Official address: Ministro de
fomento, Guatemala City.

Haiti.—Secretary of state for agriculture. Official address: Secrétaire d’etat
de Vagriculture, Port-au-Prince.

Italy.—Director-general of agriculture. etc. Official address: Direttore generale
dell’ agricoltura, industria e commercio, Roma.

Japan.—Mr. Arasuke Sone, minister of agriculture and commerce, Tokio.

Korea.—Mr. Ye Ching Kun, Seoul, Korea, minister of agriculture.

Mexico.—Senor Manuel Fernandez Leal, secretario de fomento, City of Mexico.

Nicaragua and Salvador.—Dr. Leopoldo Ramirez Mairena, ministro de fomento,
Palace of the Executive, Managua.

Russia —His Excellency A. 5S. Yermolow, minister of agriculture and State
domains, St. Petersburg. :

Spain.—Director-general of agriculture, etc. Official address: Director-general
de agricultura, industria y comercio; Ministerio de Fomento, Madrid.

Sweden and Norway.—Count A. Wachtmeister, general direkt6 and chef f6r
' kongl. domanstyrelsen, Stockholm; M. M. Selmer, skogdirektor, Christiania.

Switzerland.—M. le conseiller fédéral, Dr. Adolphe Deucher, chef du departe-
ment fédéral ducommerce, de l'industrie, et de Vagriculture, Palais Fédéral. Berne.

Turkey.—Selim Melhainé Pasha, Constantinople, minister of agriculture.

Venezuela.—Mr. Federico Fortique, direccion de agricultura y cria, Caracas.

REVIEW OF WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS, SHASON OF 1899.

The accompanying tables and diagrams (see figs. 32 and 33 [pp. 722, 723] and Plates
LXI-LXIII) show how the temperature and rainfall over the United States during
the crop season of 1899 varied from week to week from normal conditions of corre-
sponding periods of former years. The large tables show departures from normal
temperature and precipitation (in degrees Fahrenheit and in inches and hundredths,
respectively) for Weather Bureau stations, by months from January 1 to March
1, and by weeks ending Mondays at 8 a. m., seventy-fifth meridian time, from
April 10 to October 9. The diagrams exhibit by curves the departures from nor-
mal, by districts, for the same period, and the three plates show, respectively,
the departures from normal temperature and the total precipitation for the United
States during the crop season and the departures from normal precipitation.

CONDITIONS FROM JANUARY TO APRIL,

In the Gulf States and interior portions of the Middle and South Atlantic States
and over the southeastern Rocky Mountain slope, January was rather colder than
the average, but the month was much milder than usual throughout the Ohio,
Upper Mississippi, and Missouri -valleys, northern and central Rocky Mountain
region, and on the Pacific coast, the average temperature excess ranging from
6° to 9° per day from the central plateau region eastward to the Upper Missouri

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899. PLATE LXI.

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PLaTe LXIl.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899.

Statute Miles
wo

| TOTAL PRECIPITATION
FOR THE PERIOD
FROM
MARCH 1 TO OCTOBER 9, 189%

223 DAYS

ois

Scale

of Shades.

Pee

PLaTe LXIll.

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899.

— Ns

Shaded portions show excess (-}), and unshaded por-
tions deficiency (—) in rainfall.

Figures show, in inchea, amount of excess or deficiency
/of rainfall over areas bounded by light lines.

ro hire |

@

DEPARTURES

NORMAL PRECIPITATION
FOR THE
CROP SEASON OF 1899,

FROM MARCH 1 TO OCTOBER 9.
23 DAYS.

\
| Statute Miles |
wnso 0 10) 20 ?
5
SL
- se _ = oe

5 WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS. 120

Valley. There was much rain in the Southern States, particularly in the region
from the west Gulf coast northeastward over Louisiana and portions of Missis-
sippi, Tennessee, and Arkansas, where amounts ranging from 6 to more than 10
inches were reported. Throughout the Rocky Mountain districts, Upper Missis-
sippi, and Missouri valleys, Lake region, and northern New England there was less
than the usual precipitation, portions of Kansas, Nebraska, lowa, and Missouri
receiving less than .25 inch. Notwithstanding the fact that comparatively little
protection was afforded winter wheat by snow covering, its general condition at
the close of the month was promising. The crop was, however, subjected to a
period of extreme cold in the latter part of January in the central valleys.

Except over portions of the middle Pacific coast region, where there was a
slight excess in temperature, February was an exceptionally cold month through-
out the United States. From the middle Atlantic coast westward to the eastern
Rocky Mountain slope, and from the Gulf northward to the lake region, the
average daily temperature deficiency generally ranged from 8° to 14°. There was
much more than the average precipitation in the Atlantic coast districts south of
New Engiand, over portions of the central Rocky Mountain region,-the greater
part of Oregon, and along the immediate coast of Washington, while generally
throughout the central valleys and lake region and from the central Gulf States
westward to the south Pacific coast there was less than the usual amount, the
month being exceptionally dry over nearly the whole of California, and thence
eastward to Oklahoma and western Texas. During February the wheat crop
experienced very unfavorable temperature conditions over a large part of the
winter-wheat area, zero temperatures extending as far southward as central
Texas and nearly to the eastern Gulf coast.

March averaged warmer than usual in the Gulf and Atlantic coast districts,
but was very cold throughout the central valleys, Lake region, Rocky Mountain
regions, and on the Pacific coast, the average daily deficiency in temperature
from the Upper Mississippi Valley westward to Idaho ranging from 6° to more
than 20°. Over the northern portions of Alabama, Georgia, and eastern Tennes-
see the precipitation was exceptionally heavy, and more than the average amount
fell over the greater part of the Pacific coast, northern and central Rocky Moun-
tain districts, and from the Upper Mississippi Valley eastward to the Atlantic
coast. The month was drier than the average over the greater part of the Gulf
States and in portions of the Missouri and Red River of the North valleys and on
the north Pacific coast. At the close of the month the general condition of
winter wheat was less favorable than at the end of February, except in Oregon
and California, where the condition of the crop was promising. Preparations for
cotton planting were well advanced in Texas, some haying been planted in the
southern part of that State, and in portions of Georgia and South Carolina.
Corn planting had made some progress as far north as Tennessee, and inthe
more southerly sections a large part of the crop had been planted. The seed-
ing of spring oats was in progress as far north as the Missouri and Ohio valleys.

SUMMARY OF THE SEASON BY WEEKS.

By weeks ending with Monday, from April 10 to September 25, the crop condi-
tions may be summarized as follows:

April 10.—At this date the season was unusually late in all districts east of the
Rocky Mountains, except over southern and western Texas. The ground was
frozen to a considerable depth in the States of the Upper Missouri valley, frost
being stillin the ground as far south as northern Missouri, with considerable snow
over portions of the upper Lake region and New England. From the middle Rocky
Mountain slope eastward to the Atlantic coast the season was variously estimated
to be from two to four weeks late, and as a result farming operations were much
delayed. Some corn had been planted as far north as Tennessee and in the extreme
southern portions of Missouri and Kansas, planting being nearly completed in
Louisiana and Texas. Much cotton was planted in southern Texas, and some
in northern Texas, but in the central and eastern portions of the cotton belt
but little had been planted. The general condition of winter wheat continued
unpromising in the principal wheat-producing States of the central valleys, but
in California and Oregon the condition of this crop was very favorable. In
Washington much wheat was winter-killed.

April 17.—The general weather conditions of this week were exceptionally
favorable for farming operations and crops throughout the country, with the ex-
ception of the extreme north Pacific coast region, where the week was cold and
wet, and over Arizona and the southern portions of California and Utah, where
drought prevailed. Frost was leaving the ground rapidly in the States of the Upper
Mississippi and Upper Missouri valleys, and considerable progress was made with

AnD 46

THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

YEARBOOK OF

122

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le and South Atlantic States, the Gulf States,

and Deen (inches) departures for the season of
e region,

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and the Lak

Tennessee,

alley and

1899 from the normal of man

Fic. 32.—Temperature (degrees Fahr.)
the Ohio V

WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS. 723

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Precipitation, ire tenths of trches, -....--- ==

Temperature, i degrees,

Fic. 33.—Temperature (degrees Fahr.) and ate ie (inches) departures for the season of
1899 from the normal of many years for the U i Mississippi and Missouri valleys, the Rocky
Mountain region, the North Pacitic coast, and California.

724 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

farm work in the more southerly portions of these sections. Light to heavy frosts
occurred as far south as northern Georgia, causing some injury to corn and garden
truck. Inthe Gulf States, including Arkansas, corn planting was nearly com-
pleted and was in progress in the central portions of Missouri and Kansas, but
east of the Mississippi practically no corn has been planted north of Tennessee and
North Carolina. Over the central portions of the Gulf States the stand of corn
was generally good, but in Georgia and Texas much replanting was necessary.
The reports generally showed a decided improvement in winter wheat in the States
east of the Rocky Mountains as compared with the unfavorable conditions at the
close of the previous week. On the Pacific coast the condition of wheat continued
unfavorable in Washington, but in Oregon and California the outlook was prom-
ising. Rapid progress was made with spring-wheat seeding over the southern
portion of the spring-wheat region and a little was sown as far north as North
Dakota. Oat seeding which was previously confined to the States south of the
Ohio and Missouri rivers was now well advanced in Illinois, and was in progress
in Indiana and the Middle Atlantic States, a general improvement in the condition
of the crop in the Southern States being reported. Over the central and southern
portions of the cotton belt the planting of cotton was vigorously pushed, and the
early planted was coming up over the southern portions of the east Gulf States. In
southern Texas cotton planting was nearly completed and was well advanced in the
northern part of the State. Some tobacco had been planted in South Carolina.

April 24.—The weather conditions of this week were generally less favorable
than in the preceding week. Portions of eastern Kansas, Missouri, Oklahoma,
and western Arkansas, and local areas in Alabama suffered from excessive rains,
while light rains would have proved beneficial in southern Michigan and portions
of the Upper Ohio Valley and Middle Atlantic States. In the west Gulf States and
generally to the eastward of the Mississippi River, however, the weather condi-
tions were very favorable. Further improvement was reported in the condition
of winter wheat, although it was apparent that much of the crop had been winter-
killed, especially over the northern portions of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana, and
in northwestern Ohio. Spring-wheat seeding was nearly completed over the
southern portions of the spring-wheat region, but was delayed by unfa-
vorable soil conditions over the northern portion. The bulk of the oat crop was
sown, except in the more northerly sections, where seeding continued. In the
central valleys the early sown oats were coming up well and the crop was begin-
ning to head in the Southern States, where the outlook was generally promising.
Cotton planting was general over the northern portion of the cotton region, except
in Oklahoma and northern Texas, where it was delayed by wet weather. West
of the Mississippi, corn was being planted asfar northas southern Nebraska, ané
east of the Mississippi, in the southern portions of Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio,
and in West Virginia and Maryland. Wet weather retarded corn planting in
Missouri, but rapid progress was made in Tennessee, Virginia, and North Carolina.

May 1.—In the districts east of the Rocky Mountains the temperature condi-
tions of this week were highly favorable. There was, however, too much rain in
portions of the Missouri and Red River of the North valleys; and destructive
local storms occurred in portions of Kansas, Missouri, and Georgia, while rain was
needed in the central Gulf States, Ohio Valley, Middle Atlantic States, and
southern New England. Inthe Rocky Mountain districts and on the Pacific coast
the week was unfavorable owing to unseasonably low temperatures and frequent
frosts, which were more or less destructive. In the States of the Ohio, Central
Mississippi, and Lower Missouri valleys the weather was exceptionally favorable
for planting, germination, and the growth of corn, and rapid progress in planting
was made. In the Southern States corn made good growth and was being culti-
vated. Where not winterkilled, general improvement in the condition of wheat
was reported, especially in the Ohio Valley, Tennessee, and Middle Atlantic States.
In California and Oregon the outlook for wheat continued favorable, but the con-
dition of the crop in Washington was less promising than previously reported.
In the southern portion of the spring-wheat region early sown wheat was coming up
to good stands. Seeding was about finished over the southern portions of Minne-
sota and North Dakota, but was delayed in the Red River of the North Valley and
Oregon. Cotton made favorable growth over the central and southern parts of the
cotton belt, planting being well advanced over the northern part.

May 8.—Over the eastern portions of the country the temperature conditions of
this week were favorable, but it was too dry in portions of the Middle Atlantic
and Gulf States. Inthe Rocky Mountain and Pacific coast districts the week was
much too cool, and frosts in the Rocky Mountain region were destructive to fruit.
In the Middle, Atlantic States, and generally in the central valleys, excellent
progress was Inade with corn planting, which was in progress as far north as

WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS. 125

New York, Michigan, and South Dakota. Early corn was being cultivated in
North Carolina, Tennessee, and the southern portions of Missouri and Kansas.
The general condition of winter wheat continued to improve, the outlook in Cali-
fornia being very promising. This week marked the completion of oat seeding in
the more northerly sections and, with the exception of the west Gulf States,
where the crop was suffering for rain, the outlook was generally promising.
Early planted cotton made favorable progress over the southern and central por-
tions of the cotton belt, but the crop was suffering for rain in portions of South
Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana. In northern Texas considerable replanting was
made necessary by reason of heavy washing rains. Tobacco plants were scarce
in some sections of Virginia and Maryland, but were abundant in other portions
of the Middle Atlantic States and in the Ohio Valley.

May 15.—The most unfavorable features of this week were the unseasonably low
temperatures on the North Pacific coast, the continued absence of rain over the
greater part of the Gulf States, and excessive rains in the Ohio and Mississippi
valleys. Except on the North Pacitic coast, however, the temperature conditions
were decidedly favorable and crops generally made good growth except in por-
tions of the Gulf States where drought prevailed. While frosts were frequent in
portions of the lake region, Upper Mississippi, and Upper Missouri valleys, no
serious damage resulted. Heavy rains delayed corn planting in Missouri, lowa,
Illinois, and Indiana; but elsewhere over the northern portions of the country
planting progressed favorably, and about half the intended acreage was planted
in Dlinois and Ohio. Winter wheat made rapid growth in the States of the
central valleys. In Washington an improved condition was reported; but in
California dry northerly winds proved injurious in some sections. Spring-wheat
seeding was still unfinished in Minnesota and North Dakota, but over the south-
ern portions of the spring-wheat region the crop made good growth and was
stooling well. Oats were injured by frosts in South Dakota but generally made
rapid growth, except where suffering from drought in the central Gulf States,
South Carolina, and Nebraska. The oat harvest began this week in Florida. In
the Carolinas and Georgia cotton made favorable progress, but in the central por-
tion of the cotton belt it suffered from insectsand drought. Replanting of cotton
continued in the washed-out regions of northwest Texas, the bulk of the crop in
that State being up to good stands and growing rapidly, but was badly in need of
cultivation in the northern and central portions. Some tobacco was planted in
Kentucky, Ohio, and Virginia, but farther north no planting had been done.
_ May 22.—In the Pacific coast and Rocky Mountain regions and in the northern

districts east of the Missouri Valley this week was unseasonably cool and unfa-
vorable for germination and growth, and while there was ample warmth in the
Southern States the continued absence of rain over a large part of that section
proved very unfavorable. Too much rain in western Kentucky and portions of
Missouri and Arkansas retarded the cultivation of crops in those States. Winter
wheat sustained considerable damage from insects in the central valleys and
Middle Atlantic States, and the general condition of the crop in the States
east of the Rocky Mountains was less encouraging than in the previous week;
the crop was also unfavorably affected by cool weather on the North Pacific
coast. In the central portions of the cotton belt insects caused serious damage
to cotton, which, over the southern portions of the Gulf States and in Florida, was
suffering seriously for rain. In Texas the weather was especially favorable for
clearing the crop of grass and weeds.

May 29.—In the Middle and South Atlantic States this week was much too cool,
but elsewhere east of the Rocky Mountains the temperature conditions were very
favorable. In the Gulf States the protracted drought was largely relieved by
ample moisture, and portions of Wisconsin, Illinois, lowa, Missouri, and Arkan-
sas suffered from excessive rains. The weather continued unseasonably cool on
the North Pacific coast where excessive moisture continued to retard farming
operations. In Washington, however, this week was the most favorable of the
season to date. Corn was generally reported backward and made slow growth
from the Missouri and Central Mississippi valleys eastward to the Middle Atlantic
coast, but in Kansas and in the east Gulf States it made decided advancement,
The general condition of winter wheat in the States of the Ohio, Central Missis-
sippi, and Lower Missouri valleys was probably less favorable than in the previous
week, the crop having suffered considerable damage from rust and insects. Some
improvement, however, was reported in Nebraska, Iowa, Pennsylvania, New
York, and in portions of Oklahoma and Arkansas. Harvesting began this week
in some of the Southern States. The week was highly favorable for spring wheat
in the Dakotas and Minnesota, and the crop did well in Nebraska and Iowa.
Cotton improved over the eastern portion of the cotton belt except in the Caro-

726 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

linas, where it was too cool, but made slow growth in portions of Louisiana and
Mississippi, where it suffered from drought. In Texas cotton grew rapidly and
was well cultivated, except in some localities in the northern portion of the State.
For lack of rain tobacco setting was not general, but much ground was prepared.

June 5.—From the Rocky Mountains eastward very favorable temperature con-
ditions were experienced; but on the Pacific coast the season continued very back-
ward and unseasonably low temperature prevailed. In the principal corn States
the weather was more favorable for this staple than in the preceding week,
although cultivation was extensively retarded as a result of general rains in the
Missouri, Central Mississippi, and Ohio valleys, planting being delayed in portions
of Illinois, lowa, and North Dakota. Over the greater part of the Southern States
corn was suffering for rain, but in Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, Kentucky, and
Tennessee and over the greater part of the Middle Atlantic States its condition was
generally promising. The harvesting of winter wheat was quite general in the
Southern States, some having been cut as far north as Tennessee and Arkansas.
Reports indicated no improvementin this cropin Missouri, but asarule the reports
from the Ohio Valley and Middle Atlantic States were favorable. In the Dakotas,
Minnesota, and Iowa, spring wheat made rapid growth and was in promising
condition. In the Carolinas and Georgia the condition of cotton was, as a whole,
satifactory; but in the central portion of the cotton belt rain was greatly needed,
especially for germination, and, while the crop was generally doing well in Texas,
the southern portions of the State needed rain also. With rains in the Ohio
Valley, Maryland, and Virginia, transplanting tobacco was rapidly pushed.

June 12,—The rains of this week largely relieved the drought in the Southern
States, although portions of northern Louisana and eastern Texas continued to
suffer. There was too much rain in Kansas, over the southern portions of Mis-
souri, Illinois, and Indiana, and portions of the upper lake region and Minnesota.
Unseasonably cool weather continued on the north Pacific coast and in the
northern Rocky Mountain districts. In the central valleys corn made good
growth and its condition generally improved, but cuitivation was much retarded.
In portions of the Southern States corn suffered for rain, especially in Georgia,
Florida, and southern Texas. Winter wheat harvest was now in progress as far
north as the Ohio and central Mississippi valleys and about finished in the east
Gulf and South Atlantic States. On the north Pacific coast wheat made rapid
growth under the most favorable conditions that had been experienced to date,
and although the wheat crop in California was subjected to excessively high
temperatures, it escaped injury, owing to the absence of high winds. Thereports
respecting spring wheat were less favorable than in the preceding week, as the ~
result of excessive moisture, especially on the lowlands of Minnesota and North
Dakota; on uplands in these States, however, it made luxuriant growth, and lodg-
ing was threatened in portions of Minnesota. Oat harvest was nearly completed
this week in the Southern States, and over the northern sections the general con-
dition of the crop was more promising, although damage from rust and too rank
growth was reported from portions of the Mississippi Valiey. Cotton improved
in the Carolinas, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Tennessee, although the
stands in Tennessee and Alabama were reported as poor; in Texas it was well
cultivated and made good growth. Rapid progress continued in transplanting
tobacco in the Ohio Valley and Middle Atlantic States; in Florida and portions
of Tennessee and the Carolinas the crop suffered from drought. Haying was
in general progress in the central valleys, Middle Atlantic States, Oregon, and
California.

June 19.—On the Pacific coast this was the best week of the season to date, afford-
ing ample warmth and sunshine, conditions much needed in Oregon and Wash-
ington. While heavy rains delayed cultivation and caused damage to crops in
portions of the Mississippi and Missouri valleys, and drought continued over por-
tions of New England, the Middle Atlantic States, Tennessee, and the central and
southern Rocky Mountain region, the week, as a whole, was favorable for crop
growth. Corn made good progress in all districts, and a part of the crop received
its final cultivation as far north as Missouriand southern Illinois. Winter wheat
harvest was interrupted by rainsin portions of the central Mississippi and Lower
Ohio valleys. Damage from rust was reportedfrom Michigan and Pennsylvania,
and from drought in New York, while grain in shock sustained injury in portions of
Texas. Heavy rains in Minnesota caused injury to spring wheat in that State and
aiso in Iowa, but elsewhere a general improvement in the condition of the crop
was reported. The reports from nearly all sections of the cotton belt indicated a
general improvement in cotton, but in portions of eastern Texas, Arkansas, and
Oklahoma, it needed cultivation.

June 26,—Over much the greater part of the country the weather conditions of
this week were highly favorable, particularly in the Middle Atlantic States and

WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS. (27

central valleys and on the north Pacific coast. Local storms, however, caused
damage in portions of the lake region and upper Ohio Valley, while drought con-
tinued in portions of New England, the South Atlantic and Gulf States, and in
central Tennessee. Corn made marked progress in the principal corn States, and
in those States where cultivation had been retarded the fields were cleaned. A
considerable part of the crop had received its final cultivation in Kansas, Mis-
souri, Dlinois, and Indiana. Winter-wheat harvest continued under favorable
weather conditions, and was in progress in the more northerly sections of the
winter-wheat region. <A large crop of excellent quality was being harvested in
California, and, in Oregon and Washington, wheat made rapidadvancement. The
outlook for spring wheat continued promising, with less danger from rank growth
and lodging. Except over portions of southern Texas, Louisiana, and Mississippi
cotton made favorable progress, and as a whole was well cultivated.

July §.—This was a cool week on the north Pacific coast and over most of the
country east of the Rocky Mountains. Asin the previous week corn made favor-
able progress in the principal corn States, although suffering for rain in Missouri.
The harvesting of late winter wheat continued under favorable weather condi-
tions in the more northerly sections and in California. Spring wheat continued
promising and the crop was heading in the southern portions of the spring-wheat
region. Cool nights retarded the growth of cotton to some extent over the east-
ern part of the cotton belt, while in portions of the Carolinas, Tennessee, and
Arkansas it was suffering for rain, but the crop generally made good growth.
The heavy rains in Texas, however, inundated a large acreage. Tobacco suffered
from drought and insects in Kentucky and Tennessee, but the reports from the
other tobacco States were generally favorable. The most noteworthy feature of
the weather of this week was the phenomenally heavy rains which fell on June
28 and 29 over the drainage basin of the Brazos River in the central portion of
Texas, and which were followed by heavy rains for four or five days in succes-
sion. On June 29 all the tributaries of the Brazos River from McClennan County
south to Brazos County were higher than ever before. This water with that of
succeeding rains caused a flood in the Brazos which covered all low lands from
2to12feet deep. It is said that in places the river was more than 12 miles wide.
The flood moved southward very slowly, and tt was fourteen days from the time
the crest of the flood was noted in central Texas until it passed out into the Gulf
of Mexico.

July 10.—This week was marked by absence of high temperatures in the districts
east of the Rocky Mountains,in which the weather conditions were generally
favorable for farming operations and crop growth, especially in the States of the
Upper Mississippi and Missouri valleys and on the Atlantic coast. Excessive
rains, however, caused some damage to grain in shock in Kansas and Texas, while
drought continued in the Gulf States, Tennessee, and portions of the Ohio Vailey.
Raintalls amounting to from 0.50 to 0.75 inch occurred over a considerable por-
tion of the drainage basin of the Brazos River, but the conditions on the whole
were favorable for the subsidence of the waters in the inundated districts. Gen-
erally,corn made rapid growth in the principal corn States, but suffered from
drought in portions of Ohio, Kentucky, and central Tennessee. This week marked
the completion of the winter-wheat harvest, except in the extreme northerly sec-
tions, where it was well advanced. In Kansas and Texas some damage resulted
from sprouting in shock. In the eastern and central portions of the cotton belt
and outside the flooded region in Texas cotton made good progress, the sea island
crop in South Carolina being very promising. Tobacco suffered much from
drought in Tennessee and in portions of Kentucky and Ohio, but in the Carolinas,
Middle Atlantic States, and New England the general outlook was much improved.

July 17.—The absence of rain over a large part of the Gulf and South Atlantic
States in this week intensified the previously existing drought conditions in that
section, more particularly over the interior portions of the central and east Gulf
States, middle Tennessee and the western portions of the Carolinas, while exces-
sive and continuous rains in central Wisconsin proved unfavorable. The eastern
portions of Oregon and Washington experienced high temperatures with drying
winds that were detrimental to the grain crops of those States. Overalarge part
of Texas, including the greater part of the inundated region, there was an almost
total absence of rain, but the bottom lands of the Brazos basin were not yet dry
enough for cultivation. The weather conditions of this week were favorable for
the growth and development of crops and for general farming operations in the
central valleys, New England, Middle Atlantic States, and generally throughout
the central and southern plateau region and in southern California. Corn suffered
from drought in the South Atlantic, central and east Gulf States, central Tennes-
see, southern Missouri and in portions of Kentucky and Virginia, but in the Mid-
dle Atlantic States and generally throughout the central valleys the week was

728 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

very favorable for corn, which made excellent growth in these districts. The har-
vesting of spring wheat began in Iowa, the reports respecting this crop being
generally favorable throughout the greater part of the spring wheat region. The
general condition of cotton in the eastern portion of the cotton belt was less
favorable than in the preceding week, due principally to the continuation of
drought, but in part to the ravages of insects. The crop in Missouri, Arkansas,
Mississippi, Oklahoma, and Texas, except in the flooded region, however, gener-
ally improved. The first picking of the season was reported this week from
southern Texas. In Kentucky the tobacco crop was greatly improved and the
outlook continued promising in the Middle Atlantic States, New England, and
portions of Ohio and Indiana.

July 24.—Much-needed rains fell this week in Tennessee and in the central and
east Gulf States, although portions of Mississippi continued to suffer. Rain was
also needed in southern Texas, Nebraska, the Dakotas, portions of Mlinois,
Indiana, the Middle Atlantic States, and New England, but upon the whole the
general weather conditions were favorable for crops in the States of the central
valleys and Lake Region, and on the middle Atlantic coast. Crops experienced a
marked improvement in the middle Rocky Mountain States. Over the greater
part of the central and western portions of the cotton belt, the condition of cotton
was somewhat more favorable than at the close of the previous week, the crop
being well cuitivated; but over the eastern portion shedding was reported, with
complaints of drought in portions of the Carolinas. Rains caused marked
improvement in tobacco in Kentucky and Tennessee, and the general condition
of the crop in the Ohio Valley, Middle Atlantic States,and New England was
very promising, except in portions of Pennsylvania and Virginia.

July $1.—The drought was relieved this week in the South Atlantic and east
Gulf States, and beneficial rains fell in Ohio and Indiana; but rain was needed
in portions of New York and Pennsylvania, the central portions of Illinois and
Missouri, and in Louisiana, Arkansas, the Dakotas, western Nebraska, and central
Colorado. Local storms with very heavy rains proved damaging in Alabama,
western Florida, and southern New Jersey; but, notwithstanding these conditions,
the week may be said to have been generally favorable. While corn would have
been benefited by rains in central Minois and portions of Missouri, lowa, Ne-
braska, and South Dakota, the crop made satisfactory progress in the principal
corn States, the outlook in Kansas being considered the best in years. At this
date early corn was matured as far north as Missouri and southern Illinois.
High winds, with temperatures exceeding 100° in South Dakota, caused injury to
spring wheat, and, while the heat in North Dakota was not so excessive, the crop
was more or less damaged in that State. Over the eastern portion of the spring-
wheat region the crop was more promising. Spring wheat also sustained some
injury from hot’ winds in Oregon and portions of Washington. While rains im-
proved the condition of cotton in the Carolinas, the excessively heavy rains in
North Carolina proved injurious. Good growth was, however, generally reported,
especially in the eastern sections of the cotton belt, although complaints of shed-
ding were numerous. Picking was well advanced in portions of southern Texas.
Tobacco suffered from drought in New York and on low lands in Tennessee by
heavy rains, but elsewhere the crop experienced marked improvement, especially
in the States of the Ohio Valley. Considerable progress was made with plowing
for fall seeding in the central valleys and Middle Atlantic States.

August 7.—As a whole, crops generally made satisfactory advancement this
week in the States of the central valleys, as well as over the greater part of the
Atlantic coast and east Gulf States, Lake region, central and southern Rocky
Mountain regions, and on the Pacific coast. Drought prevailed, however, over
the greater part of Texas and Oklahoma, and in portions of the Dakotas, Min-
nesota, Wisconsin, New York, New England, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the
Carolinas, while excessive rains delayed work in southern Minnesota and upper
Michigan, and local hailstorms proved destructive in portions of the Mid-
dle Atlantic States. The general condition of corn was further improved, an
abundant crop being promised in the great corn States of the central valleys,
as well as in the Middle Atlantic States. The spring-wheat harvest was inter-
rupted by rains in southern Minnesota, and thrashing retarded in Nebraska and
Jowa. Severe hailstorms caused much injury to spring wheat in northeastern
North Dakota. In Washington and Oregon good harvesting weather prevailed.
While rust and shedding in cotton were quite generally reported, the condition
of the crop over the central and eastern portion of the cotton belt was somewhat
improved. In portions of Louisiana and Arkansas and over the greater part
of 'Texas, rain was badly needed and the condition of cotton less promising than
at the close of the previous week. Picking was now in progress in central Texas

WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS. 729

and over the southern portions of the central and eastern districts, first bales
having been marketed in Alabama and South Carolina. In the principal tobacco
States the weather conditions were highly favorable for tobacco, which was
reported as much improved in Kentucky, Tennessee, and North Carolina. The
soil was in fine condition for plowing for fall seeding in the central valleys and
Middle Atlantic States.

August 14.—Very favorable weather prevailed during this week in the Ohio
Valley, and generally in the Middle and South Atlantic and east Gulf States,
throughout the central and southern Rocky Mountain districts and on the Pacific
coast, while drought prevailed in the lower Lake region, southern New England,
and portions of the central and west Gulf States. The lower Missouri, Red River
of the North, and central Mississippi valleys suffered from excessive rains, and
in Wisconsin, Minnesota, and North Dakota destructive hailstorms occurred.
Rainfalls of from 0.50 to more than 1 inch, remarkable for the season, occurred
in Washington and Oregon, and, although retarding harvesting in Oregon and
causing some damage to oats in Washington, were generally beneficial. This was
another very favorable week for corn. Except over southern Missouri, central
Kansas, and in central and western Nebraska, where it needed rain, the crop
generally made further advancement. Stacking and thrashing of spring wheat
was generally delayed by rains, and violent hailstorms in the Red River Valley
caused the loss of about 50 per cent of the expected yield of 50,000 acres in Min-
nesota, while high winds lodged and shelled considerable ripe grain in North
Dakota. In nearly all sections cotton opened rapidly, and picking was in general
progress. While complaints of shedding continued, they were somewhat less numer-
ous than in the previous week over the eastern half of the cotton belt. Rust was,
however, prevalent and increasing in the central and eastern districts. In the
north-central and western portions of the cotton belt the condition of cotton was
decidedly less promising than at the close of the previous week. The condition
of tobacco continued favorable except some damage from storms in New York,
from too much rain in southern Indiana, and from drought in Pennsylvania.
Cutting was now in progress in the Ohio Valley and middle Atlantic States.
Plowing for fall seeding was exceptionally well advanced.

August 21.—While there was an entire absence of rain over a large part of the
country east of the Rocky Mountains, very heavy rains fell in the Red River of
the North Valley, on the Virginia and North Carolina coasts, and over portions of
the central Gulf States. In the Pacific coast States the week was too cool, and
rains in Washington and Oregon interrupted harvest. In the principal corn
States favorable temperature conditions and general absence of rain advanced the
maturity of corn, the general condition of which was very satisfactory, although
late corn needed rain in portions of the Ohio and upper Mississippi valleys, in
Oklahoma, and parts of Nebraska and Kansas, cutting being general in the last-
named State. Spring-wheat harvesting was delayed in the Dakotas and Min-
nesota by heavy rains, which caused injury to stacked grain in Minnesota. Over
the central and eastern portions of the cotton belt the condition of cotton con-
tinned practically as at the close of the preceding week, rust and shedding being
prevalent. Cotton opened rapidly and picking was in progress in the northern
portions of the cotton belt. Drought proved very damaging to cotton in Okla-
homa and Texas, but the weather was very favorable for picking. Tobacco
suffered from drought in Ohio, but in other tobacco States the general outlook
continued favorable, although some damage was caused by high winds in North
Carolina, and moist weather proved unfavorable for curing in Maryland.

August 28.—The drought was relieved locally in the South Atlantic States, but
continued with increased severity in Texas, Oklahoma, southern Missouri, and
Michigan. Very favorable weather conditions prevailed in Iowa, northern Mis-
souri, Nebraska, and Kansas, but, as in the previous weeks, reports of damaging
effects of excessive moisture were received from the Dakotas and Minnesota.
Abnormaily cool weather continued on the Pacific coast, with rains unusual for
the season in Washington and Oregon. In California the persistent prevalence
of low temperatures proved injurious toraisin grapes. The general condition of
corn in the States of the central Mississippi and Ohio valleys was less satisfactory
than in the previous week, owing to continued absence of moisture, which con-
duced to too rapid maturity. In Iowa. northern Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, the
Dakotas, Minnesota, and the Middle Atlantic States the weather was more favor-
able to corn, and the crop generally made good progress, although late corn was
somewhat less promising in portions of Nebraska and Kansas. The reports of
injury to grain in shock and stack continued from the Dakotas and Minnesota
principally, however, as a result of the rains of the previous weeks. Grain in
shock was also injured by rains in Washington and Oregon, but in the last-named

730 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

State the rains were of material benefit to late spring grain and other crops.
While complaints of rust and shedding in cotton were somewhat less numerous
in the eastern portion of the cotton belt, they continued undiminished in the
western districts, where there was quite a general deterioration in the condition
of thecrop. Favorable progress was made in cutting and housing tobacco, which
work was quite well advanced.

September 4.—At the close of this week a very large part of the country was
suffering from drought of greater or less severity, high temperatures having pre-
vailed with no rain in nearly all districts suffering from the lack of rain at the
close of the preceding week. Very favorable weather conditions, however, pre-
vailed on the Atlantic coast, except in portions of New England and North Caro-
lina, which were suffering from drought. The weather continued cool over the
greater part of the Pacific coast, but generally was more favorable than in the pre-
ceding weeks. Under the prevailing high temperatures corn made rapid progress
toward maturity, the late corn having ripened too rapidly. Reports of injury
from excessive moisture to grain in shock and stack continued from portions of
Minnesota, South Dakota, and Washington. Cotton picking was retarded by
rains in portions of the east Gulf States and on the Texas coast, but in other por-
tions of the cotton belt picking made rapid progress. Reports of rust and shed-
ding, as arule, were less numerous, and were confined principally to the central
portion of the cotton belt. In portions of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida,
cotton sustained injury from rain and sprouting and rotting of bolls in places; in
Georgia, however, the crop improved. Tobacco matured rapidly, and favorable
progress was made in cutting and housing the crop. The condition of the soil
was very favorable for plowing and seeding in the Middle Atlantic States, but in
the central valleysand southwest this work was largely suspended owing to dryness.

September 11.—While the first half of this week was excessively hot and dry
over the greater part of the country east of the Rocky Mountains, there were
beneficial rains during the latter part which partially relieved the droughty con-
ditions in portions of Texas and Oklahoma, the central Mississippi and Ohio yal-
leys, and generally throughout the Middle and South Atlantic States. Drought
continued, however, in portions of New ‘York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Wisconsin,
Kentucky, and over the greater part of Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, Okla-
homa, and Texas. The cutting of early corn, the greater part of which was now
safe from frost, was general in all sections, the maturing of the crop having been
rapidly advanced by hot and dry weather of the previous weeks. Late corn was
materially injured by heat and drought in portions of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois,
Nebraska, and southern Missouri, but in Iowa it was not as badly injured as the
previous reports indicated. In the Dakotas and Minnesota the conditions were
favorable for spring wheat harvesting and thrashing, although thrashing was
prevented to some extent by local showers in Minnesota. In Washington and
Oregon harvesting was vigorously pushed, the absence of rain being especially
favorable. Reports of premature opening of cotton were general in the east-
ern and central portions of the cotton belt and picking progressed rapidly in all
sections. The crop sustained damage from local storms in South Carolina and
Georgia and drought in Arkansas. The prospects for the top crop were gen-
erally very poor. The bulk of the tobacco crop was cut and housed in the more
northerly tobacco States.

September 18.—Rain was very generally needed, more particularly for plowing
and fall seeding, from the east Gulf coast northward over Tennessee, the upper
Ohio Valley, interior portions of the Middle and South Atlantic States, lower Lake
region, and northern New England, over much the greater portion of which area
practically no rain fell during the week. Drought continued over a large part of
Texas, and rain was needed in Nebraska and portions of Iowa, Wisconsin, and
Michigan. Some late corn in northern Michigan and portions of Wisconsin, New
York, and northern New England was injured by frost, but on the whole the
weather conditions were favorable for the unmatured portion of the crop. Late
corn in the central valleys suffered material injury in consequence of drought.
In the Dakotas and Minnesota, where the thrashing of spring wheat had been
much delayed, the weather conditions were favorable for this work. The north
Pacific coast region also experienced favorable weather for the completion of
harvesting and thrashing, the reports from Oregon indicating that the injury
resulting from the rains of August was less serious than was anticipated. The
weather was very favorable for cotton picking over the greater part of the cotton
belt. Premature opening continued in all districts and the reports generally
indicated that the crop would be gathered at a much earlier date than usual, and
that the top crop would be very short, in some sections almost a failure. The
weather was also favorable for finishing the tobacco harvest and for curing.

WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS. tae

September 25.—As no rain fell over a large part of the Southern States the
drought of the previous week continued, and rain was needed over portions of
Illinois, lowa, Nebraska, and in the southern Rocky Mountain regions. Through-
out the central and northern portions of the country and on the Pacific coast the
weather was generally favorable for maturing crops and for farm work. The
corn crop experienced generally favorable weather conditions. In the States of
the Ohio Vailey and lake region a large part of the crop had been cut and some
husking had been done. Reports continued to show that late corn had failed to
develop well in the central valleys and Southern States. The absence of rain on
the Pacific coast was favorable for the completion of the grain harvest and for
thrashing in Washington and Oregon, where the damage from the August rains
Was much less than had been expected. Cotton picking made rapid progress
under favorable weather conditions. Nearly the whole crop was open and the bulk
was gathered over alarge part of the cotton region. Except over limited areas in
Virginia and North Carolina, the tobacco crop was practically cut and housed,
the weather of this week proving generally favorable for curing. Excellent prog-
ress was made with plowing and fall seeding in the Ohio Valley, Middle Atlantic
States, and New England, but generally throughout the Southern States and in
the upper Mississippi Valley the soil was too dry. In the Ohio Valley and Middle
Atlantic States early sown grain was germinating finely.

CLOSE OF THE SEASON IN OCTOBER.

The monthly climate and crop bulletin for October, 1899, showed that in the
districts east of the Rocky Mountains the month was very mild and the first half
generally dry. These conditions proved very favorable for maturing and gather-
ing late crops, but were not favorable for plowing, fall seeding, and germination
of sown grain over a large part of the winter-wheat region. During the latter
part of October the drought conditions were largely relieved, although Iowa and
portions of eastern Nebraska, northern Missouri, and the central Gulf States
were suffering for rain at the close of the month. Under exceptionally favorable
weather conditions cutting, husking, and cribbing of corn made rapid progress.
Only a small part of the cotton crop remained ungathered at the close of the
month. Although the top crop was very light, the absence of frost, especially
over the eastern part of the cotton belt, permitted much to mature.

TEMPERATURE FOR THE SEASON IN THE SEVERAL REGIONS.

Plate LXI shows that for the period from March 1 to October 9 (223 days)
the Southern States, Ohio Valley, and lower Lake region received more than
the usual amount of heat, the average daily excess ranging from 1° to 2° over an
area extending from central Texas northeastward to New York. Along the
Middle Atlantic and Gulf coasts the average seasonal temperature was nearly
normal. From the upper Mississippi Valley westward to the Pacific coast,
including the middle plateau region and California, the season averaged cooler
than usual, the deficiency in temperature being very marked from the upper
Missouri Valley westward to Idaho, Oregon, and northern Nevada, where it
ranged from 2° to 4° per day.

RAINFALL FOR THE SEASON IN THE SEVERAL REGIONS,

Plate LXII shows the total rainfali for the period from March 1 to October 9;
and Plate LXIII the excess or deficiency as compared with the normal. Except
over eastern Texas and southern Florida, the seasonal rainfall in the Southern
States was was much lighter than usual, the deficiency ranging from 4 to 16
inches. There was also a marked deficiency over the northern portion of the
Ohio Valley, the greater part of the Lake region and New England, and through-
out the central and southern Rocky Mountain districts. The total rainfall over
the greater part of the Middle and South Atlantic and east Gulf States generally
ranged from 24 to 40 inches, like amounts occurring over portions of the central
Gulf coast and eastern Texas, while the region from Arkansas and northern Texas
northward to Lake Superior received from 24 to 30 inches. Over much of the
lower Lake region and northern New England the total rainfall amounted to
less than 18 inches. The normal seasonal rainfall over a large portion of the
central and southern plateau regions is less than an inch, but during the present
season even this small amount did not fall, the total for Yuma, Ariz., for 223 days,
being only 0.01 inch.

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got: 9+ | OI+ Lot 10 Sys i| ML! Mea | ha ol— (a p= (dies e+ ES 0 Tes a (eh CEI eR PSs Te ‘PUIG pow rs
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tet ecto Nevin eect ale iet tee geen Neti TC — (re me ea = Be Bets A ppm Roan 0 eee gs Oo =n Soe eae 5aIO ‘purly tog <
pen itt aed etre Homes beth | he te ee at aa (ccc em a a aan a USB AA ‘01}9%0S
248vo0p oyTovd _4
ae Jee Pelle ee care A pee ac ema hs! Fe i to [Aer Poche Gn tte alestne So BA Se aS eet ZILy ‘xiueoyd
a y+ 0 jt or ee Shes 9 + ae 0 a 0 oy ee 0 Gere PERI S. Sar ae ee eee, xo, ‘Ose 1H
oH Lari lin Nae eee IC i MCG ere en 2) eee Fe ga TRS SM DY Mec ate Rae | 1) ges Le oe) a |e ea a sh ae Xo Nog ByUEg
f= ote CD 0 ea teste, WOT apo Wein! lami gio if Gree |e ees ie eters eae tee The xo, ‘OUaTIC VY
Seer ant. pee be iil ls SANG Soy NE ee sy Ne all ie i el aa Foley So MR eee is suvy ‘espod

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

738

pL I+
im +
78 'T-
ag" +
po a
98° +
Gy -4+
66 B+
00°F
6a "¢—

Of ed een ieee ope see iear =k teri ae Sr = tape = Peo neo a

Nn Geet i eecteall ee etcal m= Bie sts | OSs eae || Reape | Octal OD eine |G) ts

Ge G0 = OR ESO Os Se Gr | Sp erste Gps PGE es nett DS

OO Ne 00): Gels Rei LL | eeectealsan ste Ga | Oe ee NOR = |RTLO): tr

Ge (bab ein SDI We 1 Oi — MR eee Ge ste IMAGE rE ltteer. |\'G8.

hie > Cte Webieate Wlee = | S8F = || Lee ices) ROE ta OD EAB ND ech OT ROR a

Chae a Omen shoe: — (ORs = /POGees— ie hed: — OR ma lleOLeouealPOrD= |Nean

Site NoCkee RO = G8 Nee oe Pol =a ramet OR ste EB Sige ate Wet D== G50 Sts

Cectaee Gem OG oe | Or = Se Oke sn GOR ah Gem aed c3 cL T GP"

Gems Om latnasl BOM ete Olea || Oe MOO ia Neel |PQPs (ike a Obi ten a0 ae Se

Olean lo euees Cope srl) Mess (elie Okan ll TS —— | ett —— (ROR: eae t= ADE ar +

ieee a eect Orne 1 eal Rete Se I ROveay I Ake OS NTet = Oe 4

eee Cet | eet OTe Dien CR ista kere |LOG as LBS = OS rT 60 e008 <= a

(SUT ce a HS Ry SAA SSair ai Ep lems eel cel E20 Vn? Da ee Ut tl Uo

Cee RO Rae Gh a ON ee On = 0G OOVL— | Sb L892) Olt —

Leeeeione | KOOh eal Soper |hOltelee= | eA tone (OORT a0 t——-|/COh Ean) Set" |SOl = Fela

Cote Cen ce) econ eo I Te —— OE Leg Uriel bel |e. 0 90°T OFT

GS Eepecmeatal | hidtsame [Facer | Re eae || Ghee RB aap | OOle See |S I ROTES 8 et | SON

Clee NMOS BORN Gate OO Sa PS. 286 = 188) | 16: = | 88" 9° 76"

TSE) Se LEASH al (ABM (5th (Bt ch2 Seta 2 mal 82 &g oo Co) ea OBs Ss

Gielen Pee eetae rte NOON Ist: |ptOe ate | PO sa 80m (PGkie | Tee 2 26e nae eo

aaa nr Wocr= |Gar ta pen os ea = 1 G0 a |-Gar on (88e a ee. 1 PR ee

Paha ae Oosys Ueatirnl| SOc (Genel ABE oct: ile ae || hein GO)” aa OF. 6s GG"

Leesan (fees ieee (Gi eee || LO cea Gee steele WOR ect iG: med Oto m eILGpe sro GRE =

Omega Ode eet GTi RG re | Lae tet PO! PO ee RS Tete TS ot Se Tt i) TO)

SD Weel ROG cme TO ee GON WEG a lilaehre (E: Gieall iG: pl BU i De —

86° — ere PO le Gorka eee ae iGBicas NOG ay Sha? = Tee Oe (NOB ee OG ares

Cees Greate | Lice UOle ae GQ) | (OGie mene!) Gre cam I Gi aie ay Lier

Oe 0) 08" TO" OB ae OSs ate) Flee: (08% = Sat pu = IL et te

Ch tamierme eres PS eel IO art ESB einer Ohi OL* 1g" MN)

pene Ocal meee (LD | deta RO GO tL oF" = Welle =| CPi ieee sh

mecha Ge mee LO eee | elie marl Lei: eet Slaten t| Lesa) GO) oa 6g Ss Jit

Le = Geepes PRUs om cece cml ee ae || O02 ae ilpoo's Mig & oh 96° 0°

Dineen a Lodieies || Rakme See Gti (GUA =a haar mall TO) = 6ete 69" SF" 6g" +

OMOm ees Os Sa Om 1 990— OL Om COs S90 1 0r0— ||| TIS 0— "| eo0— |6S'0— "140 0 —

96 ‘6I %G g “66 GG “CT 8 I FG “LT ‘OL

—ounp —AvI —ldy

—SuUIpuo syooM LOT

‘OAIS
-npour
‘ead w

04

Ture

OL IT

Gea al Ssanmnenttigns > <-nasaiase aes scnn eens AN ‘030Ms0
:MOLSO.L OFV'T
nea a lat se a alia a a oa eel ate Tp yale [2h |

ee ee ee ah, a ean ae o1ggo ‘snquinjop
ae ed ee ee ane te a a | ere rs oLggo ‘1yeuUdToUlpD

pares 2" 2395 age hc hak Oe aaa ae eee puy ‘syodvmurpuy
Puen a eee te ae Ss ees Ay ‘eytAsmory
Fen R oS PRT ce Senn ES Cae ea One er ae uudy, ‘Bsoouvy1wyD
7s GE ite CL aaron uudy, ‘OT[TAYSt NT
Sy Speaaeae Siva TaN Sea att a we Sy na a 9 T uuay, ‘srydurepy
:eassouuay, pus AoyVA OO
XO, ‘OlloguYy ug
Xo, ‘WOJSAATVY)
OEE UE Poe Tn ere 7) eee Sanna era xo, ‘oulyse[Ug
ALV “oy TFT
““"YLV SYPUIG 410 NF
SR SNERAE a gristan tee Soe ron See ae Cea aa nee or" "err ‘Q1odeAalyg
BT] ‘SUBETIG MON
SSITT ‘SaAnqsyorA
- Bry ‘ALouUIOS UofT
BLY ‘OTIQOTL
cigs aaa Gleb S rin or aaky 2 bene aii imei Wig hina aT Bx) ‘vyUByyV
*S94B45 FIND
Bly ‘e[[TAuOsyoR pe
TESRARSS SS RSET Ae ee ere nw SSt Se APES Se ES ey) ‘YBVUUBABS
pre See Coen aaa coe a ee ae ee oa vx) ‘Bjsnsny
O'S ‘WOyseLIVyD
SESE EER Ce CL Doe Eee ee ON ‘UO}SULUTILAY
Se ee ee ee a eer rier SA aay ig ON ‘o}}0,.18qD
1S99VIS O1FUBIPY GINS
Bee 7 Ee PRET S OSS jt A, SUES ER RES v 2A *H[OJ.10
RO IIa Sh SO Si og at gs, eins BA ‘sanqyousT
O ‘qd ‘WopSuIGSV A
Sa pe. ELIS SMR, RE aoa Se vg ‘viydjeperigd
UO YIOK MONT
AN ‘Auvqry
$S09BIS O4UCIFV PIPPI
ssuy ‘Woysog,
ec aia eae oe ol ah le ata cl rae a dn OW ‘puryza0g
eM ‘a1odyseq
:puslLsUug MON

*SUOTIUIS

‘suownys lig ‘savah iunw sof uoypvasasgo uodn pasng ‘yousonu mos ‘G6s~T fo wosnas 4of (sy;paspuny PUY sayour) saungendap wo1npIdwIadT

739

1

a
[+

a+

1

+

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—

lero el |
sear |

|

fester Reteat

“ot

11) |t+] )4+ ++

a
+
[+] 4++

|

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|

[++}++ 444+ 414

|
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ey
+ $I

|

|

WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS.

arte

farsel

(oetlss

ce
++)

ietannto |
US 3e all

Preise e FET |

FS a Eee EE eee a aS a BQ ‘OS01q weg
een a ene Sie ne la a aa eee eee a ‘SO[OSUY SOT

a a [¥O ‘OostouBary UBg
ase cia nataiaps sae ec hat ae ee Oa oe a 18) ‘ojmeurER.1ORg
Walt Ae ee eR RG Naess > cine ee rae 1&0 ‘Bulg pow
eae a Fe rear a age rap aae a BOI ‘Sang osoy
Cee eS ST Tae FARE ES ae BOIO ‘puvy.a10g
Teagan <p aisle Ses seen ele Efe Aca YSB A ‘oT99Rag
, 24SBOD OY loved
SPR aS 0 a Re Pe ASCO EES ZY ‘xX1ueyd
Se SE ES SE Ss he ek ee Xo, ‘OSvd I
Piaget Se ee a eS ee XOW “N ‘oy BURG

Sr Seah SEA PE ERD BEE ES SE SSS xo ‘oueTIqy
oat 5 tee Se Sea Ce Safe, 17 en DELL Bees BOC

SOMO N OUIOIY XO
ip eee one pale bel aici baie ook by Gr ded etal) aba YvVq *s ‘aomypT
AQON ‘ourgueye A
a a AQON ‘ByBUAIG
LX deta late se Rela as etait Sala tine leis sleet itd suBy ‘Biptoou0y
SP ee a ee a eee oy ‘A4ID sesue
PaaS SS" Seca as age Ohana nein sone a oOo” ‘pleysuradg

:AOTIBA TINOSSTL
ai ead abate sila Cl etal sii ig OSCE Ee I aA | Oy ‘snort 49s
Nee eee RES 511 hk DRL TSE a Ill ‘Oare
ta Toe eo Bare dete ae 110 ‘pjoysuradg
Bag > AS SEN ER WES One aa Om nn ee Se ea oe Sas BMOT ‘SOULOT SOD
tralebeieteiges sae eS Sad SCC Ny BMOT ‘4410dm0A BG

Bic olptatair tg ated Jil ere a Ea ig niet COLLET SLM, ‘OSS0A0 BT

rcp a seca ee ee eS lg See a uu, ‘(neq "4
:AOTIVA, (aetna Gea ao

GUT ‘Wynn

ti: true eommonniaeanibiaceres a's TL ‘sw

; oro “puxfossd[p
paie omiea's Saas = 2 she 72Sa 5c a4 ana n anasto bred asses ee AN ‘Ojeygug

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

740

pe Gael neo ees sree at rOgt =| oR He —a[sgee 9 ear —ssge alegre [ies [GG Rare ane SPORT TGP an Ores K‘N ‘oS0Mso
WOLSOL OUT
Ce — TO aloe = Oe lee ealeGee =e Oke =a OL- SNe actea aye cael NOGs: a Cpe 180" Nasi ey aetieas|(ot SO coal Re mage a eo ema eon ae vq ‘8.1nqgs}yid
Pe eRe 8 Ge eG: al eep — alee —— Oe Gy) al Cie Ope ea Cet o aes atmo Ist || die «fees lipo tae ec pean ren Pane ory ‘snqumyo)
Ge — Ibe se | ea0 in ea eee — "|S Ok steel heer Oe ae ORS pa NGO ecT Ta iatcel Oral Pee er! ict | ER ce == ln norte ean een ogo yeuUTUID
gies at Ochre pfeil (ieee aOR ted Miles arenes Gb [sien AG encnr a MOGh Lets NEOs alte lemet= |MGGie al |eOee a 1) en Cae ao eet iter CUE ‘syjodwurrpuy
Gee GGt ea Giaee—o Gs — a ema) G ys al (Rte ea Grea atec eae stan (Ge ooale RO). cteal One li Gee aaa GO eral oar elcid Onan ena naa ES: OT [TASINO'T
COT wht Ghee meth — Oe <a lO) ipas neon —aliepe ——itCnr sl OG aa Agi — By cee Be ede sal calls vas) bial eS en eee ‘esooues7ey
eter iat | Chama ioe — nl eC) | eee — Te ste ROMs, —— oN OO ae GR rs te G ies BO t= | G0 Sate il Ole =o (LB ame HN epee |” oot en oo Ree nn ne PR uuaT, ‘OT[TASe NT
I ce alate #9" g¢° OK ——S AG) cate | BO eae RG at | A el Seta | eT er ce at ren vee ai) | Ge = | rm ne uuoy, ‘stydure yy
: ‘oessouueT, PUB AOTIBA OTTO
Stace ee eee—el He — Qe fn ee ere Cale 8 (LG Gr a lapge = eve ali0 a nOS" sal Re men= [Sim e(\AGO) vat lb scasm in 9 5 caper emia xoy, ‘Olmojuy weg
CHE lecra ti leCe ta (Gs ReG ain | eras unset Oe —sItaget — (G0 hearb a: | 69" — | (OLS ara One i Oligaral sk ing 8 See hn eee XO, ‘WOJSOATRY)
he REC ea Nh aa TA clea Oe at cae — a CO OQ ete AG | MOGs — sae a eta: |S) 60m saay seis |e ore ro ie rere een xoy, ‘eUlSoTed,
hte BROS ae OO alate TI: ““HLVW ‘Yoo op9qvy
Lob a GL = 1,8" Gee les emp imeem pene eree ce Brrr Til eine alps toail (je cella ome aaall OU ot i oll) and ak ia Sean YLV ‘YAIUAg 4.1097
ieee Une Riese se O\e a (SCO —a NG See Rises ge Gt Oe El EO ea Gp a ae So ee et Seon. (eee | eee wry ‘qa0deA0r149
ties SO" su |na0) T cg POL ASAE ESS STE ee eee ae ery ‘SUvOTIO MON
rae ee) Go (ee a eta ae ata OO oe mall apie at Giese — Ot oO eel ip sce |B CORT a) Bena OG oc Neate Sa Tose Semi cee pin mana SSI ‘SanqsyorA,
Ghat Cees ae Osu Bly ‘Aroul0SyuOTT
en Cr oe eee ae |e ROG — ala Go al GE al SRO — Ge: — NOOSE a 4/) eeee a all Abeer RO bs lesen a=? | PG aT] ee SER SST CS Se a Sis en re TLV ‘OTIGONW
aie ae lia eG ie aloes GRE tl Pe states: al GS — Ol Ts Oe RES TSE 2ST | Le ate [OR Se oa eee i BH ‘Bay
1S0}BIS JIN
eee tea Repeal ORs | PGs Stee TOsGe= LO NOs 8 TOOT — S20 — TSP a RGie — sa 86a ER Stall (G0 ee = |ianne equine a liane ean VL q ‘OT TAUOSyOVe
ieee oa Greta stele Pore a ers —-allalipelatalluaae ate || ohGie an ROD AROh Tle — aOR. eto ——egicias | |Gen bo s| bs aaeee Dae s Ra aon eraae Rp yeuURAaLs
PPG ea LO = ee. | (e6 — Bp ‘vysnsny
Fae eae iene OG eon Ci ial (Oita eetn GG tna opie ca Gp in POs Meal Toa ADS to Gp ui —9| (OG. cn NOS ay gre ble naa) pMLLEoteuacarea ees O's WOyseTIBy
Clean Ora — eee tai OG af — |G | GG — pee ARO — a epGie ate |S eGe TON T= GOen— | Silas i len ||eo5 8 S0GkL cinta cat Gayle eel OuN “WOSUTUTEM,
eesti ns pe oil aan rh oe (ee at ear Ne Tn ps c= Ocal (MEG sta OD [as | ORT lO Tee steadl Lee == ier = eae eae oni etn gna ran ON ‘0990T1eq9
:891B1g OIJUBITV TINS
Lares Hepa (ehep acer d bsfet soe lLa( (latent body feel Coen a GSC eas 0] Ayers tall (fea) Gee tet 1B] Hh (ats en Urner | gees Peal arc, cr ella 1) ore ee REL Roe eT ALi mm ere BA ‘YTOF1ON
OL T+ Pai yeaa | Meee tta | eels bal Cece tag eekp eee a ta mre ictee (GEES ata SQ rtae [eee hs otal pes eI ee "WT Re ach | AQ a= =| Cae ae Sete at nee ceonaie Om Rr BA ‘SainqyouAry
Fee amie tee | RE ct | eed [iste eee ea Neha oT pre TSS ate ipo tO ote Gh ate EQ he 1 AGC tot BAe te |ieRGiy —-| ie eokean pa aieaeet © Geenitye cence es ‘e) ‘q “wozsuryseM
sesso fey eee) be aise |e epe a an GT” — Oem = Nap TG” tan aac 9G Br Al Ge — aT teh ae as se era eee eee vq wrqdepeygd
(eee ee OCs teal ste |G rete oh Oe | Ab ae erator || YAS. ORS G Piste al POs Sh beers US ee eat es ogee eee AVID SIoX MON
We pecs NOP ste 8 il SF t=" es Fac G3 eee Pape edt) ost esha | Son Creo 2) Jl | = | Nn en KN ‘Auvqry
:S0}B4S OUR V OLPPHT
(inet | OR reat hres — 9 Gat =—- pela eG EO eOrt— | see) = ERE t st OL BOM al Re st ssvpq ‘woIsog
Sie eeleOge te Ook Gh. == (Spo = 80): |RSS OTe eee leet) | ete oT pPuvyyIcg
1e0+ | 69°0— | 20+ | 920 ¢90 TF - C20 LO SOO 3) P80 = 6S On COT 9S 0> | TS) One oy ‘F10dyseq
:pUBISUM AON
6 6 “GG “SI nae oe “8G “Te FL ‘h TS FG vA’ 0 €
—10q09QO —1equteydeg —Isnsny Arne

—SUIpUS SOOM IO

‘SUOT}UIS

‘ponuljwU0N—'o7a ‘wULUOU WoLf GEST fo Uosnas uof (syzZpaLpuUNY PUY sayour) saungundap wo1npedrwaA
I 1hi 1 fou; 27 F2C)

741

CROP CONDITIONS.

WEATHER AND

«
—— Ok 00° 600° 00° JA Gast |b ln) sa ell qa) I) (ole 00° 00° (02> es ree ea et ce Se 1v0 ‘OSetq weg
NG 00° 0 een Os 00° 00° TOs 008 00° 00° 60° (AU tettengs) Soe ee) oa Sak Ae a Se 1% ‘sejesuy sory
|e eel OO Oe Os 00° 00° 00° 00° 00° 00° 00° CONE al tea cake iaeke Aa meter Pe 18D ‘OostlouRAy UBg
SNAP ee OS a 5 0 in (C09) = 00° 60° HA Vea {IX 0.0 Ye 00° 00° 00° Ot a er ne [89 ‘oOJUeUTB.IORG
Sa | ES ee ||| GO tania Ce 00° 00° ao” + | 00° 00° 00° 00° LO ab | ae ab oe eee RA eat -taed vo ‘Bul pey
Se AS NPA Se EGO sis PLS el iteree are AP (eared COO LO 9 LO. a OO | Feast | See | eee: geek aie one erie een S919 ‘SaInqoasoy
alee ee | MOO ime tat | eect |e eiLehoee ARG tod Oe mete atl) ent AC) Fake a ete | ck onl ER TN et ili ne ee eae SIO ‘puryy10g
sae LS Bard Sams arms EY Recs 2 a ATA re CE eC i Te SB Ye oe 109] Ce cera 2) Cpe (N'A 5 D)oe Seal Ie, (eee Sa ele ee a Tit Sob ISS Se AA ‘9199R09
198uoH dyLOBd
SS LS Se Se alae SSutea ea Mare yea oR hes aN ae CU: tare | OA, <oral | Pecktigt REDEEE SoG aot CeOnarECnREr ZIV *XTUOU
meet | ofp ates || peat te, 2 alg tee ee eM) Joram UV ieee LY aioe ats te are | (Coe oe geeaind Fg PD ke ee XOL ‘OSV 1H
me NGS ae || Se ae ee ce 6¢ ODS | ae O ses 1a Fell Coen aa. ee aaa XO N ‘Oyy BITBg
Se lhGlintese \'ul oe |oo! 9" (he LO bss GR eal Pe ae (1) Saree aal Wich ay | aed a eae ee eG eal ge XOZ, ‘oueTIC Vy
sei ac nice | inl (0 men 0 Aca?) eral A?) aml) eal 1) A OOo Ge ret Sion, bet acc = > ee apr ees eae suey ‘ospod
|) 0) a CP a I ace mn aL Pa aa He Feels eC Be corti CObset sl ag ak hociece.- Ne aaa me aaa OOD ‘toate,
smelly reuse ores lL, OY eee AGS Ye Meme al ey femal (Cee I avn at al Wah cet oa eed A Dy ioe anya Tule || SU) cle aes" Saleh ao oe eee AGO N ‘099BT ef W110 N
SANG ay, eS el OLR GG San Gate ain lncaren vai Oat Ce ero O0s Al" eee se eae ee ee ok M ‘ouues0q
% 1% Seas areal |G he | Line en Pill ere | ecvee onty |G) came Pl | Se gs eo are Bi ‘AIO oxer'yT yIVe
= GF se cee ote tll sie, teal SRO emmtenCgeeeeste Roce sts NTO: =e | CO lero CRS aL a ea oe ae ee eee sv ‘ousnyodg
oe ares AOR Cis ee cio Deen | Geb Grete ane = Cer SS ian oe ge ab ger apne ere quoyy ‘evusyeyy
91 3 ST. CGemictan | Poe oO eee ee) ote Ole = OR Oe SS ae oe ee eae pe QUOT ‘OLAVTT
:edo[g ureyunopy Axyooy
SG aa | cepa ee eerste Gtr OIE mer ROOn ct Ose | Aare SiO ie Ih GR ae tt: AVC N “WO9STLILMA
are lahat cance. ane Gime CP saan Oeste | ORR ae | eG cae OR” aa COE em i QU a Vd ‘N ‘HOLwUIstey
Sa Gos ate ie ees | OGwac NO emt OR ant TT a aL = Re) tree GOS ate BSE = a ee ee UUIPL ‘PVeyLOoPL
| 1980M 40 NN} OUL.13 XG
Ogee 6G as |.80' oy = = = 1 (ka oem (aL) ae |) ea LS fe “> yVq ‘Gg ‘UOAn;T
Gl || Ten Le a = = “if Sets Ol san | Ghee IO) ICON ‘OUlpUETR A.
Poise KO's — alah = = = = 69 Tt co eal a>) Seco Tay (A Dl Bl Ape [ania ae Sega pe So IqQoN ‘Byeug
Apa as A Aoi "10 eto : A = = oh SI I+ | 02 sl° — | 7° - suey ‘vIproou0”y
LS [Sosa Ned} = te = = Gg | 28° — |'T6 0g" + | 00'S oy AUD sesue
Lo SSeS acon = = = = a 88°.— | & CL OO sce CHa tl I Be all a hag E> obit IOC rate Opt ‘ploysuartidg
:AQTIVA LIMOSSTpL
= a OE mel ize) Sis tOG: = be =a Oh. ei Odectnlc ap ectaa pga a DOG teed ies capone ae’ Bee ager eres OW ‘SmnoryT 49
= 08 9% GO" + | 99° + | €9 - | 9 ig == '|.08 £0°G Ld i meal | ree ake me ne erate ga ket oo ae [ly ‘oareg
= gee | Slee NiGeaae Of st || LO e— =" ALRere OL, Bea | 88 —" 199 ste |p mail lee = = Aine aS See ome aie “ie eee Ill ‘pleusurids
= Of =a eLOk: LL LS ii Loo = UL. ate alnUpea uate | cere eet ee Shen; Pe tees | eae Speier mat nie ae eo ah BMO] ‘SOULOP] SOC
= |\Beeem X00" igs ae ol Sg = Nhe f0> | SL | WS ae = rhe: GO aaa oe sce cts ae er BMOT 4.10dTAARC
= 98° rc Ae Roce 1) Aad (8) © i L =O ttete cele eal bhai oe eet seen octet Gee = || Pptiaeetan [itn eee cr SE SUA ‘OSSOID BT
= OOO CO re a CO we OF ets i ap te tie aera papel ee | OID Ses ee. LUN eam eS a rel eae os Se iS Se ae ae uu ‘Neg 49
:AOTTVA tddississipy teddy,
10° = |;Se Ni al igs eons a onal) ee oats A eat NRO ete hee nie |) 1 — mal (cee ac ca gece =~ es econ ce uur ‘W4nyad
hielo aC eterna bicameral RY ieee Oe INGO oe A OFan ees G0) wares |( Ot oeall nie nO Drees ana ana (QOS AS cane ce ie 2 ye ange ane Ill ‘OsvorgD
Fo = 1 8S — ETE 80 68" 09 Es abies ECS) lie eal (DAtra | (65! Pes la LoL 25 ee 1 Ue a GT! Soma ha ae abs a So ec ST AA ‘OOHNBATIPL
PINT SONA ce NL Ba jie HOA eats DENT 7 Ae Racca t TOLS3 Faint LF fee TVS 2 cea (8h “ete «tlm ra BEA PP ta Prete Ge seormell Sos” co veh sar ae ee ale TOU USARTT puBry
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742 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

PROGRESS IN AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY IN 1899.

As often happens, a large part of the work of this field has been of such a nature
that no immediate results could be expected. In all parts of the world contribu-
tions have been made to agricultural chemistry during the past year which do
not seem of sufficient general value to merit mention in a paper of this nature, but
which will serve to make up data essential to generalizations that may follow i in
the near future. As an illustration, a vast array of digestion experiments may be
cited, as well as the chemical examination of soils, irrigation waters, foods, and
feeding stuffs.

The subject of the application of nitrifying organisms to the soil has received
an increased amount of attention, and while the results of many experiments
would seem to be conclusive, it can not be said that a marked advance has been
made. Itis well known that such an application is of value to soils on which a
stand of a leguminous plant could not be otherwise secured, but much remains to
be done in determining the classes of soils to which ferments may be added with
advantage, and the particular ferment which is essential to each plant.

it has” long been held that the ordinary complex nitrogenous compounds of
the soil are “changed successively into ammonia, nitrous acid, and nitric acid.
Within the last year it has also been shown that even the simplest amins, when
subjected to the action of soil ferments, are never oxidized to nitrous or nitric
acid without the formation of ammonia as a preliminary product.!

Experiments made on the conservation of manures,’ indicate that greater loss
takes place in storing acid manures than those whose reaction is alkaline. In
the former case the loss is due to the liberation of free nitrogen owing to tke
reaction of nitrites with amido or ammonium compounds, while some ammonia
is given off by alkaline manures.

Pot experiments with soils show that a reduction in yield follows the applica-
tion of coarse straw and manure. It has been held that this was due to that
change in the physical nature of the soil caused by the coarse texture of the
material employed. Recent experiments,’ however, indicate that the reduction
in yield is due to the supplying of a favorable medium for the denitrifying organ-
isms already present in the soil. The grinding of the straw and manure did not
tend to reduce the action of the denitrifying organisms. Pentosans were found
to promote the development of these organisms more than cellulose. Ordinary
variations of the water content of the soil did not appreciably affect denitrifica-
tion, but a high water content seemed to favor it. It is not believed that much
importance is to be attached to denitrification resulting from this cause in the field.

Contrary to the commonly accepted theory, humus, obtained from soil and peat,
has been found to be comparatively free from amids.* Evidence has also been
offered in support of the view that humus is capable of decomposing minerals and
insoluble salts.®

Experiments*® published during the year seem to indicate that the availability
of the phosphoric acid of certain phosphates is due to the action of silicic acid.
These acids always exist together in soluble form, and the amounts of the two are
somewhat, though not regularly, proportional. It is suggested that phosphoric
acid goes into solution on account of the more or less complete precipitation,
either as carbonate or humate, of the calcium with which it is originally combined,
and the consequent combination of phosphoric acid with ammonia or other alkalies.
This takes place most readily in phosphates whose lime is most loosely combined,
such as superphosphates and Thomas slag.

he investigation of peaty soils has been continued. Onesample,’ whose phos-

phoric acid content was 0.38 per cent, contained 0.05 per cent of free phosphoric

BOG and 0.13 per cent combined with humus. Only insignificant amounts of
lecithin were present.

The percentage of chlorin in the ash of the tobacco plant * has been found, gen-
erally speaking, to be roughly proportional to that of the chlorin in the soil, and
inversely proportional to the percentage of nitrates inthe soil. The chlorin occurs
in greatest abundance in the leaves and is combined almost entirely with potas-

-sium and sodium, potassium chlorid largely predominating.

1B. Demoussy, Ann. agron., 1899, 25, 232-244.

°G. Marpmann, C. B. Bakt. Par., 1899, 2, 67-70.

’ Kruger and Schneidewind, Landw. Jahr., 1899, 28, 217-252.

ay, Sistini, Landw. Versst., 1899, 51, 153- 158.

5P, Lyashchenko, Seisk, Kohz. i Lyesov, 1899, 198, 718, through Exp. Sta.
Record, 1899, 11, 623.

oW. Hoffmeister, ibid., 1899, 52, 329-346.

7G. Nannes, J. Landw., 1899, 4'7, 45-48.

®P, Pichard, Cr., 1899, 128, 615-617.

PROGRESS IN AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 743

The cause of the reduction in the yield of starch when potatoes are fertilized
with crude Stassfurt salts! has been studied further, and the theory that injurious
efiects were due to the chlorin contained in the crude salts is fully confirmed. In
comparative experiments with potassium fertilizers containing chlorin and those
free from it, the latter were found to increase both the percentage of starch and
the yield of tubers and to be entirely free from the injurious effects of the former.
It is suggested that potatoes take up more potash in the form of chlorid than in
any other combination, and that the potassium chlorid content of the tubers
interferes with the formation of starch.

Some attention has been given to the injurious effects suffered by soils that have
been overflowed by sea water.? In addition to the salt that is left behind, the
layer of mud that is leposited is said to prevent the washing out of the sodium
chlorid and interfere with the germination of the seed.

In a large number of laboratories an extensive study of the composition of
soils has been made. Of much of this work it can only be said at present that
the literature of the subject has been increased. Many of the analyses were con-
nected with extensive plans of fertilization, crop rotation, or irrigation. In
some cases they form a part of the survey of a large section of the country.
Many agricultural laboratories, both in this country and abroad, have conducted
work of this nature.

Analytical methods have been criticised, and some new methods and importaht
modifications of old ones have been devised. As illustrations, two methods?
may be cited which have been suggested for estimation of the carbon dioxid
combined with lime, without including that of the carbonate of iron. In this
connection may also be mentioned valuable contributions that have been made
to the literature of methods for the determination of the productiveness of soils.4

The study of the effect of special fertilization and culture on the composition
of seeds has received considerable attention. It has been found that the fertili-
zation of rape® for a large yield (with phosphoric acid) produces a seed with a
relatively high percentage of fat and low percentage of proteids. Maize® has
also been found to be susceptible of improvement in its composition, by means
of seed selection. Thus, it is possible to grow a product rich in starch or in pro-
teids as may be desired. It is claimed that this cereal may be roughly graded
with respect to its proteid and fat content by the naked eye, since the percentage
of proteids varies with the thickness of the glutinous layer, and that of the fat
with the size of the germ.

The water supply and water content of the soil has received the usual amount
of attention at home and abroad. A study has been made’ of the relation
between the fertilizer and water content of the soil, and the amount of water
removed therefrom by cats under varying water and fertilizer content of the
soil. In this work it was found chat the water supplied could be more completely
utilized the larger the application of fertilizers, and that a liberal application of
fertilizers requires a large amount of water. With an insufficient water supply,
however, a heavy application of fertilizers was found to make the soil solution
too concentrated and cause a reduction of the yield. The application of salts,
which caused deleterious changes in the composition of the fertilizing ingredients
of the soil, was found to affect the water supply unfavorably. Atthe same time,
experiments are described* which seem to disprove the theory that the applica-
tions of fertilizers tosoilsretards the loss of moisture by evaporation and drainage.

The study of the Australian salt bush andits value asastock food, as well as its
power of resisting alkali ard drought, has been continued in California.’ This
work confirms the experience of preceding years in approving of the plant as a
forage plant to be raised in alkaline soils. A number of other drought and alkali-
rns plants have also been described,"® and their value as forage plants dis-
cussed.

1 Johann. Wilms., J. Landw., 1889, 4'7, 251-292. B. Sjollema, ibid., 305-309.

2A. J. Swaving, Landw. Versst., 1899, 51, 463-471.

* Adolf Mayer, ibid., 1899, 51, 339-340. Stutzer and Hartleb, Mitt. Landw. Inst.,
Breslau, 1899, 101-105, abs. Exp. Sta. Record, 1899, 11, 110.

4W. W. Winner, Izv. Moscow, Selsk. Inst., 1899, 5, 117-144, through Exp. Sta.
Record, 11, 623.

‘Wilh. Grashoff, J. Landw., 1899, 4'7, 85-90.

°C. Gs Hopkins, Il. Exp.-Sta. Bull., No. 55.

1C. v. Seelhorst, J. Landw., 1899, 4'7, 369-378.

8 Willard and Clothier, Kan. Exp. Sta. Bull., No. 89.

°M. E. Jaffa, Cal. Exp. Sta. Bull., No. 125.

“Alven Nelson, Wyoming Exp. Sta. Bull., No. 42.

744 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The chemistry of the changes of nitrogenous compounds during the germina-
tion of the seed and the growth of the plant has received careful attention.! The
following is given as a summary of our information on this subject atthe present
time: (1) The process of proteid decomposition cccupies a long period, and may
be characterized by a peculiar curve. (2) The accumulation of asparagin is
characterized by a similar curve, whose maximum is identical with that of the
first-mentioned curve. (3) Both curves attain their maxima a few days before
the evolution of carbon dioxid takes place. (4) Attheend of the period of germi-
nation the rate of the formation of asparagin exceeds that of the decomposition
cf proteid, some asparagin being formed from amido compounds. (5) Proteids
may be formed in the dark from carbohydrates and amido compounds, but not
from asparagin. (6) Proteids are decomposed as rapidly in seeds germinating in
the light as in those germinating in the dark. (7) The formation of proteid
begins with the unfolding of the leayes—in some plants in ten days after germi-
nation, in others later. (8) Proteids are formed simultaneously from asparagin
and other amido compounds, or from the latter first and then the former, but
mas the reverse. (9) The most energetic regeneration of proteids occurs in
seeds.

Recent work in the study of the vegetable proteids? has led to the conclusion
that the protein bodies hitherto prepared are in fact definite chemical com-
pounds of protein substances with common mineral acids, or contain such com-
pounds in admixture. It is also found that egg albumen prepared by the usual
process contains two distinct substances.

Some very extensive work has been done on the chemistry of butter fat,* a
series of samples of butter made fromaherd of high-grade Guernseys being taken
as the basis of the work. Attention has been given to the physical and chemical
constituents of the substance, its chemical composition, and the chemistry of its
rancidity. This work is of such a nature as not to permit an abstract, but adds
materially to our information on the subject. In point of scientific value, it will
doubtless take a high rank in the chemical work of the year.

BEET SUGAR.

The attention of the laboratories of a large number of the agricultural experi-
ment stations, especially of the Northern States, has been occupied a part of the
year with sugar beets. While it can not be said that any new information has
been gained by this work, a large number of analyses have been made, and the
data accumulated are undoubtedly of value.

The importance that is attached to this work by the capitalists of the country
is indicated by the number of beet-sugar factories that have been completed in
the United States during the year 1899, in time to be operated during the beet
season of 1899 and 1900, as well as the number building for the season of 1900-1901,

Beet-sugar factories built in 1899.

Company. Location. te
Spreckels Sugar Co____-.- --2--.---5-!-2------| spreckels, Cal -=---22-2--- 50 22= 3, 000
American Beets uenl COs. eres ssa nan Oxnard):'Cal- =... 2 eS ee eee 2, 000
Union Sugar Cons esse eee eee eee Santa Maria, \Calin 2: 22a pae ese eee 600
Colorado Sugar Manufacturing Co ---------- Grand) Junction,i;Colo 22-2- == - == sees 350
Nlinessipucar COs ses. ses eee eee ee Pekin! 1)... 2-3-2. 3:, i322 700
Baye City Sucar OOlss. 2 eee ene eee Essex ville, Wich’: 22222422). Bee ee seen 600
Wiestibay City susan COmsnanss sean see aaa West Bay City, Mich : 590
Nima ougat GOs st iss ore eee ase an eee Adma Mich) =3:325. -5-¢222— + == es 500
Kalamazoo Sugar CO aces ose eee ee Kalamazoo, Mich." 30 = s--eeeeee 500
Wolverine Sugar.CO-- 2 seo esses eseee as eeeeens Benton Harbor, Mich 500
Holland Sucam Col... seas eee Holland; Mi¢h 22222-2225 222220 see 350
Detroit Susan Co-..24 See eee eS Rochester; Mich 4... -s2cses! ==<9) eee ane 500
Peninsula Sugar Refining Co ---------------- Garo; Mich ~.22 232.02 soso sas een eens 600
Standard Beet Sugar Co -— 222. - 3. ee Ames! N@br. 22022. eee eee eee 600
Utah Sucar Come-.8-2 = 2 Sa eee Springville, Utah (auxiliary to Lehi) ---- 350
Washington State Sugar Co _--..-.---------- Waverly; Wash. .-c)ocerses-se2-p eee eee 350

=e =

aQuantity of beets ground daily when running full time expressed in tons of 2,240 pounds.

1D. N. Prianischnikow, Landw. Versst., 1899, 52, 187-165 and 347-882.
2T. B. Osborne, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1899, 4, 477-495.
20, A. Browne, jr., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1899, 21, 612-633, 807-827, and 975-994.

PRINCIPAL INJURIOUS INSECTS OF THE YEAR. 745

Factories building for campaign of 1900-1901.

yo } Sah Capac-
om pe . | *a K -
C pany Location ity.a
American Beet Sugar Co-__.-..--.-.---.------ Rocky Ford, Colo---_----- eae 6 re 1,000
@eentonnl Beat Sucar Co -—- =) 2222 oes) Sugar City, Colo 2) 2 eee 500
Continental Sugar Co ---------.__...-..------ \hremontObials: isi: eet ee eee 400
Empire State Sugar Co-_----.---..------------| Tay O0S INN eno = oe ee ee 500
UEP TO oo nen oa eae as | Bingham Junction, Utah (auxiliary to 350

Lehi).

a Quantity of beets ground daily when running full time expressed in tons of 2,240 pounds
THE PRINCIPAL INJURIOUS INSECTS OF THE YEAR 1899.

THE AMERICAN Locust (Schistocerca americana Dr.).—The American grasshop-
per or locust appeared in great numbers in portions of Georgia and Mississippi,
and did considerable damage to corn and small grains, and in cotton fields.

THE APPLE APHIS Se is mali Fab.).—Many cases of injury by this common
apple pest were reported in various portions of the country, and in particular in
Pennsylvania, District of Columbia, North Carolina, Georgia, Iowa, Washing-
ton, and Arizona.

THE APPLE-TREE TENT CATERPILLAR (Clisiocampa americana Harr.).—The
apple-tree tent caterpillars were more abundant than in several yearsin New York
and New Hampshire.

ASPARAGUS BEETLES (Crioceris asparagi Linn.; C. 12-punctata Linn.).—These
two species continued their spread northward and westward, although no serious
injury has yet been reported in the new localities which they have invaded.

THE BEAN LEAF-BEETLE (Cerotoma trifurcata Forst.).—This leaf-beetle did
considerable damage to beans in Virginia, Maryland, Alabama, and Missouri;
an attack was noticed also in Illinois.

THE Back APHIS OF VIOLETS (Rhopalosiphum viole Perg.).—This, one of the
most destructive insects in violet greenhouses, was reported as in previous years
to be injurious in several localities in New York, Maryland, and Canada, in the
last-mentioned locality being reported by Dr. James Fletcher.

THE BLACK GOOSEBERRY BorER (Xylocrius agassizii Lec.).—This new pest of
the gooseberry was reported to have done injury to the stems cf this fruit in
British Columbia, where it was found in stock recently introduced from Oregon.

THE BOLL Worm; CoRN-EAR WorM (Heliothis armiger Hbn.).—In Georgia the
boll worm was more than usually destructive to tomatoes, beans, and sweet corn.
It also did extensive damage to beans in Mississippi. Farther north it was less
injurious than in many years.

THE BRONZE APPLE-TREE WEEVIL (Magdalis cenescens Lec.).—Injury by this
new enemy to the fruit industry of the Pacific States was reported in portions of
Washington and Oregon to apple trees of all ages.

THE CABBAGE CURCULIO (Ceulorhynchus rape Gyll.).—This enemy to young
cabbage plants was troublesome in the vicinity of Racine, Wis., and was found
in the greatest abundance in the District of Columbia.

THe CHERRY Fruit FLY (Trypeta cingulata Loew.).—This fruit fly was found
to be very injurious to cherries in various parts of New York the past spring.

THE CHINCH BuG (Blissus leucopterus Say).—An outbreak of the chinch bug in
northern Ohio has been described by Professor Webster.

THE CLOVER-LEAF WEEVIL (Phytonomus punctatus Fab.).—Extremely abun-
dant in the District of Columbia.

THE CoLoRADO PoTaTo BEETLE (Doryphora 10-lineata Say).—The ‘‘ Colorado
potato bug” attracted more attention than for several years past. Professors
Slingerland and Quaintance report it as being more than usually common in New
York and Georgia. Professor Johnson did not find it as abundant as usual in
Maryland.

THE CoMMON STRAWBERRY LEAF-ROLLER (Phoxopteris comptana Froel.).—This
common leaf-roller occurred in abundance in the District of Columbia and Mary-
land during the last season, and was reported to have been troublesome also in
Towa and Illinois.

THE Common SquasH Bue (Anasa tristis DeG.).—The squash bug continued
its depredations on cucurbits, and has been especially destructive in Georgia.
Dr. Felt has recorded it as abundant in parts of New York. Correspondents
have reported injury also in Mississippi, Wisconsin, and Virginia.

THE DESTRUCTIVE GREEN Pra LousE (Nectarophora destructor Johns.).—This

746 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

plant-louse, new to economic science, attracted much attention along the north-
ern Atlantic section of our country. Recorded from Virginia to New Bruns-
wick, it was especially injurious in Maryland, where Professor Johnson reports its
damage to acres of peas.

THE EUROPEAN ORCHARD SCALE (Aspidiotus ostreceformis Curtis).—The dis-
covery of this well-known European scale in various parts of our country has
been recorded by Mr. Marlatt of the Division of Entomology. As yet, it has been
found only in the northern portions—New York, Michigan, and Idaho; and in
Canada.

THE FALL ARMY WoRM oR Grass WorM (Laphygma frugiperda S. and A.).—
The fall army worm appeared in unusual numbers during the year throughout a
considerable extent of the eastern United States, from central New York and
northern Illinois to Florida and Georgia, and westward to Kansas. The species
was particularly destructive to the rice and corn fields of the South, to small
grains, grasses, and lawns northward, and to a great variety of garden crops in
all sections. The same insect was reported as damaging tobacco in Cuba.

THE FoREST TENT CATERPILLAR (Clisiocampa disstria Hbn.).—The north-
eastern portion of the country again suffered severely from the ravages of the
forest tent caterpillar.

THE FRUIT-TREE BARK-BEETLE (Scolytus ruguiosus Ratz.).—The fruit-tree
bark-beetle was observed injuring the peach and other fruit trees in Michigan,
Georgia, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Virginia, West Virginia, and Maryland.

THE GRAPE Root-worm (Fidia viticida Walsh.).—This insect continued its
depredations, according to Messrs. Webster and Mally, in northern Ohio. e

TH GREENHCUSE LEAF-TYER (Pilyctenia rubigalis Guen.).—This destructive
greenhouse pest, though not so troublesome as in previous years, was still of some
importance as a depredator upon violets in Maryland and Virginia, and to other
greenhouse plants in New York and Canada.

THE HARLEQUIN CABBAGE BuG (Murgantia histrionica Hahn).—This, one of
the worst enemies of cruciferous crops, was less troublesome northward than for
a number of years. It was, however, locally abundant in certain localities in
Maryland and Georgia.

THE HESSIAN FLY (Cecidomyia destructor Say).—The ravages of the Hessian
fiy attracted attention in Ohio, New York, Michigan, and Minnesota, yet without
instances of great severity. In Maryland it was reported as very abundant on
early sown wheat.

THE IMBRICATED SNOUT-BEETLE (Epicceerus imbricatus Say).—Injury by this
beetle to fruit-trees in Texas and Oklahoma was reported. Attack was noticed
in Maryland, but the species was rarer in its northern range than in former

ears.
z THE IMPORTED CABBAGE WEBWORM (Hellula undalis Fab.).—This cabbage
webworm, an important insect new to economic entomology, and of recent impor-
tation into the United States, was reported during the year as having done con-
siderable damage to cabbage, turnip, and other cruciferous crops in portions of
Georgia, South Carolina, and Alabama.

THE IMPORTED CABBAGE WoRM (Pieris rapce Linn.).—This species was quite
troublesome to young cabbage in Maryland and Virginia early in the season, but
was controlled by parasites later. It was troublesome during the year in Georgia,
Alabama, California, Illinois, North Carolina, and the District of Columbia.

THE IMPORTED CURRANT WORM (Pteronus ribesii Scop.).—This introduced pest
was abundant and injurious in Maryland, Virginia, and Kentucky.

THe IMPORTED EM LEAF-BEETLE (Galerucella luteola Mill.).—The elm leaf-
beetle has been recorded as very abundant in Massachusetts by Professor Kirk-
land, in New York by Dr. Felt, and in Maryland by Professor Johnson.

THE LARGER CoRN STALK-BORER (Diatrea saccharalis Fab.).—This corn-
stalk-borer has been recorded as abundant in parts of South Carolina, Georgia,
and Alabama, but was rare farther southward.

THE MEDITERRANEAN FLOUR Motu (Ephestia kuehniella Zell.).—This moth
Was a conspicuous mill pest in California, Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, and
Canada. Late in the previous year it was reported in a new State, Minnesota.

THE MELON PLANT-LousE (Aphis gossypii Glov.).—Professor Johnson reports
that the melon plant-louse ruined hundreds of acresof melonsin Maryland. Pro-
fessor Quaintance recorded its abundance in Georgia.

THE New YorK WEEVIL (Ithycerus noveboracensis Forst.).—During the year
this species effected injury to apple and peach trees, as reported by Professor
Quaintance in Georgia, and by a correspondent of the Division of Entomology in
Virginia.

THE OBLIQUE-BANDED LEAF-ROLLER (Caca@cia rosaceana Harr.).—This com-

PRINCIPAL INJURIOUS INSECTS OF THE YEAR. TAT

mon enemy of rosaceous plants was observed by Messrs. Chittenden and Pratt in
great numbers in different localities in Maryland, and an attack was reported by
Dr. James Fletcher in greenhouses in Canada.

THE ONION TuHRIPs (Thrips tabaci Lind.).—The onion thrips continues to be a
subject for investigation in several States, Michigan and Georgia being notably
affected, while it was also recorded from Ohio, Florida, and New York.

THE PALE-STRIPED FLEA-BEETLE (Systena blanda Mels.).—Injury by this
species was noticed by a correspondent in Michigan, and it was reported by Pro-
fessor Johnson as troublesome in Maryland. Damage was severe to sugar beets,
to Kieffer pear grafts and to tomatoes. Attack was also noticed on beans.

THE PEAR-TREE PsYLLA (Psylla pyricola Forst.).—The pear-tree Psylla has,
according to Professor Johnson, been unusually abundant in Maryland pear
orchards.

THE PICKLE WorRM (Margaronia nitidalis Cram.).—The pickle worm was
very destructive to cucurbits in Georgia.

PiInE BARK-BEETLES (Dendroctonus spp.).—Extensive damage was done to
coniferous forests in the Northwest by species of this genus of destructive bark-
boring beetles. " -

THE PLUM CURCULIO (Conotrachelus nenuphar Hbst.).—The plum curculi
was reported py Professor Quaintance as ovipositing in apples, currants, and
salmon berries in Georgia. In Maryland Professor Johnson states that it did
much injury to the peach crop. :

THE PLuM MoTH (Grapholitha prunivora Walsh.).—This insect which is some-
what of a pest farther north, was abundant in Maryland near the District line,
attacking and destroying both plums and apples.

THE PURPLE SCALE (Mytilaspis citricola Pack.).—The purple scale of the orange
seems to have gained a firm foothold in southern California, and during the past
season there was considerable alarm among the orange growers of that State. A
State employee, Mr. George Compere, was sent to Hawaii to collect specimens of
a Coccinellid beetle, which Californians hope may reduce the scale insect to insig-
nificant numbers.

THe Rocky Mountain Locust (Melanoplus spretus Thos.).—There was some
hatching of the destructive Western grasshopper or migratory grasshopper in
North Dakota during the present season, and a large swarm was observed flying
over that portion of the country.

THE ROSE-CHAFER (Macrodactylus subspinosus Fab.).—Professor Webster, of
Ohio, claims to have founda valuable remedy for the rose-chafer. One-half pound
of fish-oil soap dissolved in a gallon of water and sprayed upon them will kill 95

er cent.
: THE SaLT-MARSH CATERPILLAR (Leucarctia acreea Dru.).—This was one of the
commonest caterpillars in the District of Columbia, Maryland, and Georgia during
the year, attacking cabbage, beans, peas, and various other garden crops.

THE SAN JOSE SCALE (Aspidiotus perniciosus Comst.).—The San Jose scale con-
tinues to occupy a prominent place in the list of insect pests. Notable remedial
work was performed both in Maryland, where Professor Johnson exterminated it
with hydrocyanic-acid gas, and in New Jersey, where Professor Smith used
crude petroleum against the scale.

THE SEVENTEEN-YEAR CICADA (Cicada septendecim Linn.).—Brood XIX of
the Seventeen-year Cicadi made its appearance in western New York.

THE SMALLER CORN STALK-BORER (E/lasmopalpus lignosellus Zell.).—This stalk-
borer was reported for the first time since 1881 as injurious in the Southern
gee It was destructive to beans and peanuts in Alabama, Georgia, and South

arolina.

THE Sooty Corn-Root WEBWoRM (Crambus caliginosellus Clem.).—Professor
Johnson has recorded a new and remarkable habit of the corn Crambus in infest-
ing the stalks of tobacco. It was also abundant on lawns in the District of
Columbia.

THE SQUASH-VINE Borer (Melittia satyriniformis Hbst.).—The squash-vine
borer was reported in injurious numbers from Georgia and Ohio. It was abun-
dant in some localities in Maryland, but occurred so late as to do little injury as
compared with former years.

THE STRIPED BLISTER BEETLE (Epicauta vittata Fab.).—This blister beetle
was very abundant in New York on potatoes, according to Dr. Felt. Professor
Webster says that more complaints than usual were received of its ravages in
Ohio, while Professor Johnson recorded it as especially numerous on potatoes,
tomatoes, cabbage, and beets in Maryland.

THE STRIPED CUCUMBER BEETLE (Diabrotica vittata Fab.).—The striped cucum-
ber beetle was reported as doing much damage in Georgia, Maryland, and Indiana.

748 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

THE TARNISHED PLANT-BuG (Lygus pratensis Linn.) .-—Professor Stedman has
reported on the damage by the tarnished plant-bug in Missouri. Professor
sohnson recorded it as sucking the buds of pear and plum trees in Maryland; he
used a spray of 15 per cent solution of kerosene and water successfully. Professor
Webster recorded 16 as injurious to peach buds in Ohio.

THE VIOLET SAWFLY (Emphytus canadensis Kby.).—This sawfiy was reported
by Dr. James Fletcher to have been destructive in violet greenhouses at Toronto,
Canada.

THe WatnuT Hanp-Maip MoTsH (Datana integerrima G. & R.).—The cater-
pillar of this destructive forest insect was reported to have done extensive injury
to different species of forest, shade, and fruit trees by defoliation in Ohio, North
Carolina, Maryland, and the District of Columbia.

THE WESTERN CoRN Root-Worm (Diabrotica longicornis Say).—During the
season this species was injurious in Nebraska and Ohio, and was reported to be
increasing in the severity of its attack in both States.

THE WESTERN GREEN JUNE BEETLE (Allorhina mutabilis Gory).—This south-
western species of June beetle was stated by a correspondent to have been inju-
rious to a considerable number of fruits in southern Arizona.

THE WHItTE-MarKED TussocK-MoTH (Orgyia leucostigma S. & A.).—In Balti-
more, Md., this tussock-moth was unusually troublesome on shade trees.

WINGLESS May BEETLES (Lachnosterna farcta Lec., and L. lanceolata Say).—
The two species of wingless May beetles above mentioned were injurious to col-
lards in Texas.

THE WOOLLY BEAR (Spilosoma virginica Fab.).—The woolly caterpillars of this
moth were very injurious to onions in both Georgia and Massachusetts as
reported by Professor Quaintance and Professor Kirkland.

PROGRESS IN FRUIT GROWING IN 1899.

In the absence of statistics on the subject, it is safe to say in a general way the
year 1899 was a fairly prosperous one in fruit growing. Where crops were short
many valuable lessons resulted in experiences gained of certain peculiarities of
the season.

A prominent fruit grower in southern Michigan, whose motto has been “ Thor-
ough Culture,” reaped a rich harvest from his peach crop, though the widespread
and unusual cold wave of February, 1899, had destroyed the peach buds, not only
of his vicinity, but of nearly the whole peach belt from the Rocky Mountains to
the Atlantic seaboard. The exception in his case was doubtless due to the fact -
that his trees were in complete health, full of vigor, and constant care and con-
tianous culture prepared them for the trying ordeal through which they passed.
This fact is suggestive.

Another peculiarity of the past season was the long-continued and universally
prevalent droughts. Here, also,is foundavaluable lessononculture. Anintelli-
gent fruit grower of Connecticut, who has more than once pronounced blessings
on the San Jose scale, curculio, and ccdling moth, inasmuch as they have no ter-
rors for him, but assist him in securing a monopoly of the best markets, claims
the drought is a blessing in disguise, as he meets it in an intelligent way that is
sure to bring satisfactory rewards for his perseverance. It is sufficient to say he
does not ‘‘ wait for rain” before ordering his cultivators into the field.

Pomology not being an exact science, it is impossible to make a definite state-
ment of the progress made during a given time; but it is safe to say that no single
year in the history of fruit growing in the United States has shown greater
progress in the production of new varieties as well as in methods of culture, care
of trees, plants, and vines and the management and marketing of fruit products.

The production of new and desirable varieties is an art rapidly approaching the
conditions of a true science. While it is a fact that many valuable discoveries in
this line have been the result of accident, we are not content to longer trust to
chance for valuable results. Fruit growers are learning to combine the good
qualities of both parents in the improvement of pomological offspring, as is done
in the breeding and improvement of domestic animals. Very great skill and sci-
entific knowledge is required in the line of plant breeding in order to obtain any-
thing like satisfactory results. From this cause the successful and continuous
production of desirable new varieties will forever belong, as it now does, to the
intelligent, painstaking few. No mere bungler or novice can expect to attain
satisfactory results in this line of work. The creation and introduction of new
and promising varieties of fruits is not the work of a given period of time, as, for
instance, a calendar year, but more properly a series of years, in which to test
their qualities under the varying conditions and vicissitudes of climate, ete. A

RECENT PROGRESS IN ROAD BUILDING. 749

variety must be pretty thoroughly tested by the above standard before it can be
safely given out as beyond doubt an acquisition.

In this connection it is admissible to refer to a series of interesting experiments
being made by Prof. H. J. Webber, of the Division of Physiology and Pathology,
in the production of hybrids of the hardy orange, Citrus trifoliata, crossed with
the common sweet orange. These experiments are now well under way, many
promising plants having already been produced, from which it is hoped to obtain
fruit in the near future It is hoped that varieties may thus be obtained that are
of fine quality and sufficiently hardy to greatly extend the limit of practical
orange growing.

The successtul introduction into California of the blastophaga during the past
year by the Department of Agriculture, greatly encourages the hope of successin
producing the trueSmyrna fig. Great anticipation isnow centered in the successful
wintering of the colony of insects established during the past year at Fresno. If
they should come out all right in the spring and follow their natural instincts,
as in their native home of Smyrna, the successful pollination of the Smyrna fig in
California is almost assured.

The export trade in apples, while not as large as that of 1896-97 (the largest
ever known by more than 1,500,000 barrels) , shows an increase over the year 1897-98
of almost a half a million barrels. Great Britain is the best export market for,
the apple, and there is an increasing demand for the apple in the German Empire.

The shipments of deciduous fruits from California shows an increase of 87 per
cent over the year 1898. The total for the year was 7,500 carloads. California
produced 14,000.000 pounds of almonds, equaling one-third of the home consump-
tion.

The best paying fruit crop on the Delaware peninsula in 1899 seems to have been
the Kieffer pear.

Florida produced about £309,000 worth of cocoanuts.

RECENT PROGRESS IN ROAD BUILDING.

The Maryland highway division of the State geological survey, since its
creation by the legisiature in 1898, has made a careful inquiry into the road ques-
tion of the State. Its report sets forth the need of better roads, and gives sug-
gestions as to the manner in which this result may be most quickly and accept-
ably brought about. The document takes up the question of road legislation
and shows how much money could be saved by putting the roads in good condi-
tion; which amount is estimated at $3,000,000 per annum. The total mileage of
public roads in Maryland is placed at 14,483, or about 1.47 miles to each square
mile of territory. This amount includes toll roads which are owned by 51 com-
panies, the combined length of such roads being 497 miles. Over 13,000 miles of
Maryland roads are composed of earth, 880 miles are built of stone, 225 miles of
gravel, and 250 miles of shells. There are 2,021 miles of highways in the State
that are classed as main roads.

Governor Stone, of Pennsylvania, has recently appointed a special commission
to investigate the road subject of the State and to present a bill to the next legis-
lature which, in the opinion of the commission, will best meet the demands for a
change in the present system of road building. The commission consists of A. J.
Cassatt, president of the Pennsylvania Railroad; ex-Governor Beaver, John P.
Elkin, attorney-general of the State; H. B. Breckenridge, of Leetonia, and H.C.
Snavely, of Lebanon.

A report comes from Allegheny County, Pa., that 25 miles of road were opened,
improved, and dedicated to the public during the calendar year 1898, and during
the past year the amount has been increased to 50 miles. These roads have been
macadamized and given subdrainage and surface drainage. The width of the
main roads is about 33 feet, and they traverse populous rural districts. Theaverage
cost per mile for road improvement in Allegheny County is about $6,000. About
85 miles of roads are either contracted for or are now undergoing improvements.

The legislature of New York is being strongly urged to appropriate $1,000,000
this year for the improvement of State roads. Massachusetts appropriates one-
half miliion dollars annually for the same purpose, while New Jersey spends
$150,000, and will this year probably increase that amount to $200,000.

The toll roads of Kentucky are being bought up and made free as fast as possi-
ble. These turnpikes are turned over tothe counties in consideration of a payment
of from $75 to $250 per mile. Some of them, however, are given to the counties
without any consideration whatever. Shelby County has recently bought up 117
miles of turnpike, at a total cost of about $15,000, and these roads were made free
on January 1,1900, It has been estimated that nine-tenths of the roads of Ken-

750 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

tucky are still worked in the old-fashioned way by forced labor. Each man living
on the farm, between the ages of 18 and 50, is compelled to work the road or pay
someone else to do so. This system very rarely results in good roads, as a large
portion of the work injures rather than benefits them. The feeling is growing
in Kentucky that the existing method compels too small a portion of the citizens
to bear the burden of improving all the roads of the State, and a movement is
now on foot to secure a more uniform system of taxation by passing a State-aid
law. The same condition exists in Virginia, where the State-aid sentiment is also
becoming very strong. A State-aid measure is also to be presented to the legisla-
ture of Ohio, and will stand a fair chance of becoming a law.

In Georgia road improvement is making a steady march. In the vicinity of
Athens over six miles of roads have been, in the last six months, thoroughly
graded and several very steep hills have been thrown out. The work Has been
done at a very small expense to the county, the excavation and removal of earth
costing not more then 10 cents per cubic yard.

A long step toward better roads was taken in Tennessee by the adoption of a
new road law. This law, in effect January 1, 1900, differs from the old lawin
that it requires the election of only one road commissioner for each county, who
is to have charge and oversight of all roads and bridges in the county. Under
the old law a commissioner was elected for each civil district. All highways in
the State are now to be worked by contract, sealed proposals for which are sub-
mitted on or before the first Monday in January of each year. The main high-
ways are to be constructed according to correct and high standard specifications,
avoiding heavy grades and reducing some by cutting down steep portions or
changing the direction of the road where advisable. Bradley County, Tenn., is
to have a hundred miles of new stone roads, haying recently borrowed money for
the purpose. The construction of the main road from Cleveland to Mahan Gap
has already been begun; hills are being leveled or skirted, hollows filled, and stone
culverts and framework for bridges built. It is thought that 100 miles of stone
and gravel roads will be completed in Bradley County by the end of the calendar
year 1900.

The.commissioner of highways of Connecticut estimates that 500 miles of roads
have been completed since the State-aid system was adopted. The improvement
of several hundred more miles is in progress or has been projected.

State Commissioner of Highways Viall, of Vermont, states that more miles of
roads have been built during the last year than during the whole period from
1892 to 1898. One hundred and seventeen miles of road were built during the
calendar year i899, and at this rate, if it continues, the commissioner says that
the main thoroughfares of the State will be made permanent within a few years.

The people of Columbia, 8. C., have come to realize the necessity of good roads
as well as the importance of building them in the best and most economical way
through the medium of good-roads machinery. A road-building plant has recently
been purchased at an expense of about $6,000, which includes a fine rock-crushing
plant, a large and a small steam roller, big plows, road machines, etc. The rock-
crushing plant turns out about 60 tons of stone daily.

A few years ago the legislature of California passed a wide-tire law, which went
into effect January 1, 1900. Several defects have been pointed out in the law, and
it is quite probable that it will become a dead letter on the statute books.

At East Hampton, N. Y.,the women have taken a hand in the building and
maintenance of the public highways, and for this use $1,551.50 has been turned into
the treasury of the Ladies Village Improvement Society during the past season.

Considerable interest has been recently taken in the use of crude petroleum in
improving the surfaces of common earth roads. The press has given the idea
a wide circulation, and experiments are being made throughout the country. The
advocates of this system claim that when a road is properly treated with oil the
result is a dustless and nonabsorbent surface, which will turn rain water and
furnish a dark-colored roadbed, which is more pleasing to the eye than the ordi-
nary light, dusty soil; also that an oiled road will be free from grass or weeds.
The present methods of oiling the roads are yet in the experimental stage.

PLANT DISEASES IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1899.
DISEASES OF FRUIT, SHADE, AND OTHER TREES.

With a few exceptions, the prevalence of fruit diseases in the United States in
1899 did not vary greatly from what has been noted for previous years. Fruit
trees throughout the country were in many cases severely injured by the extreme
cold of the winter, and, while in many instances they recovered remarkably well,

DISEASES OF PLANTS. Tol

yet a number were killed outright and some were so badly injured that they suc-
cumbed later. Some were so slightly affected that the injury was not very appar-
ent, but in many cases such trees will inevitably sooner or later become affected
with some of the more common diseases. Peaches and, toa lesser extent, other
fruit trees were so injured that they bore no fruit. Pear blight was very prev-
alent during the year, causing much damage in the Le Conte pear region of
the South, and was reported for the first time as doing considerable injury on the
Pacific coast.

Apples were remarkably free from diseases of all kinds throughout the South,
but in the Northern Pacific States a disease known as black canker caused great
injury. Where the lines of treatment recommended by the Department were
carried out, however, the latter disease seemed to be controlled.

Peach yellows still continues to do injury, notably in the region near the
Atlantic coast. In Michigan the disease has been brought largely under control
by rigid inspection of orchards and the destruction of diseased trees as soon as
discovered. A new disease, known as little peach, has recently appeared in the
peach orchards of Michigan, and is also known to occur in New York and Dela-
ware. Peach-leafcurlhas been more or less prevalent throughout the Pacific coast
region, as well as in the East. The application during the year of sprays recom-
mended by the Department has resulted in controlling the disease wherever the,
treatment was properly made.

Black rot, anthracnose, and other diseases of the grape prevailed more or less,
but in most cases they were held in check where proper treatment was carried on.
The California vine disease caused considerable alarm in parts of central and
northern California, and experiments having for their object the discovery cf resist-
ant varieties are now being carried on and show encouraging results.

In the subtropical fruit-growing region, notably in Florida, freezes injured the
young orange trees despite the strenuous efforts made by the growers to protect
them by means of sheds, tents, etc. Pineapples have been injured by a number
of diseases, especially by blight, but where careful attention is given to selecting
healthy slips this disease may be in a measure controlled.

Various trees planted for shade or ornament have been affected with the usual
diseases which prevail to a greater or less extent every year, depending much on
climatic conditions. In cities especially shade trees are apt to suffer during even
moderate droughts, and there were many complaints, resulting from local causes
of this kind, during the year.

DISEASES OF SMALL FRUITS.

Anthracnose of the raspberry and blackberry and strawberry leaf blight were
abundant, although not more so than in previous years.

DISEASES OF COTTON, VEGETABLES, AND CEREALS.

Cotton was considerably injured by a disease known as wilt, which has spread
over large areas of the sea island region and has also done considerable damage
in the upland districts. Anthracnose and rust of cotton also caused severe
damage in several localities. Watermelons were injured by the wilt, but where
the recommendations of the Department with reference to rotation of crops and
the use of fresh land were followed the disease was held in check.

The leaf spot of muskmelons was exceedingly abundant, especially in the Cen-
tral States and the Rocky Ford, Ga.,melon district. Tomatoes were injured by
the leaf blight (Septoria) , which must now be regarded as a serious factor in con-
nection with the growing of this crop in the Central States and to some extent
elsewhere. The bacterial diseases of cabbage, and of the tomato, eggplant, and
Irish potato were about as abundant as usual, but did not do great damage except
in limited localities. The various grain rusts and smuts were not more destruct-
ive than usual, although prevalent to a considerable extent.

152 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

STATE STANDARDS FOR DAIRY PRODUCTS, 1900.

The following table shows the requirements for articles sold under the names
specified. States notnamed have no lays prescribing standards for dairy products:

[Prepared by Dairy Division, B. A.I.]

Milk. ee Cream.) Butter. Cheese.

States. SS eee aa eae
Total | Solids Total
solids. Inotfat.| F2t- | golids.| Fat: Fat. Fat.

Per cent.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Fer ct.| Per cent.

@aliformiacn 2... 5-=o2| chases 2 2a|e scree eee | ee eae ee Full cream, 30 p. ec. fat.
Half skim, 15 p. ec. fat.
Skim, from skim milk.

Colorado 2S IU AES fGen) ee 2) ee ea eee See oc | Se ee 35 p.c.total solids, fat.
DisiJoL Colum bides,|o2222- 2226 » 9 3.5 9.3 20 83
Not over
12 p. c.
water or
5 p.c.salt
(ChOOR GIA ae nen ae een ene te 8.5 3.5
IN GISnt eee. ia ee aes Bie ergs = 152 80 48 p.c.total solids, fat.
indiana ee S25 2 Sees See 9 Op. | SLesess aA 80 10 p. ce. milk-fats.
TOWatese ees 12/5) |i ee 3 bey eb
Mainer. 2 oe.c eins iota | eee 3
Massachusetts ---__-- 13 9.3 Suh 9.3
zp ead edger ae a 12 9 3
Michican- 3. 5 12:5.) Seen 3
PS OY oat are th i ne ae | ee sp.grav
1. 029-33 1. 032-37
Minnesota =... ---- ik : 45 p.c.total solids to be fat
IMASSomrl © 23D sae se ee 4 ees | From milk testing at
least 3 p. c. fat.
New Hampshire..--- 13
New Jersey--------- 12
INeway Onk 3/285 5-5 Aeicty eee ee 3
North Dakota --.--- Tiel eae Bi pte enn 15
OHO See eee ee lil pe cece 3 1 1 80 20 p. c. fat. .
May and June -__- AS.
Orecon= ae era Sees 3 Sp era =e Not over
12'p.c.| 1.035 : 14 p. c.
cream water.
by vol.
Pennsylvania. -.--.- TC eee 3 (230. D.C)2-c2a222| 2 2enaseh ae Full cream, 32 p. ec. fat.
(Milk and skim- |Sp.gray. fat. Three-fourths cream, 24
milk standards | 1. 029-33 6 per c. p. c. fat.
refer to cities cream One-half cream, 16 p. c.
of second and by vol. at.
third class.) sp.grayv One-fourth cream, 8 p. ¢c.
1. 082-37 fat.
Skim’d, below 8 p. c. fat.
Rhode Island __..__- 1M eee 2.5
South Caroling 2) |poeens | 8.5
Ose ee SP SEE SE ee See eet 9p. c.
solids
7 not fat
Wiermoni oss ese sone 12.5 9.25
May and June ___- 12
Washington]! 2o s|Gase ee 8 SB epe| tees See Sse se es Bee ae Full cream, 30 p. ec. fat.
. Skimmed, 15 p. ec. fat.
WaSCOnSIn = soe <8 || 2 ee | eee 3

1Condensed milk shall be made from milk containing at least the legal standard of 3 p. ec.
butter fat, and evaporated to one-third or less of its original volume.

* Coffee cream shall contain at least 15 p. c. of fat, and whipping cream 22 p. c. fat. 6 Al's

3 Milk solids of condensed milk shall be in quantity the equivalent of 12 p. c. of milk solids in
crude milk, of which solids 25 p. c. shall be fat.

PROGRESS IN FORESTRY DURING 13899.

Advancement in forestry during the past year is observable both in the direc-
tion of growth of public sentiment and in that of specific legislative and executive
action.

In May, 1898, an important increase in the appropriation of Congress for the
administration of the Federal forest reserves enabled the Secretary of the Interior .
to place in the field a more nearly adequate forest service. The forest ranger
system as it now exists may hopefully be regarded, subject, of course, to impor-
tant elaboration and extension, as the first step toward a scheme of forest protec-

PROGRESS IN FORESTRY. 153

tion that promises to be substantially effective. In the suppression and avertance
of forest fires the present system has already shown encouraging results.

Since September, 1898, seven new reserves have been added. These are the
Trabuco Canyon and the Fish Lake reserves, the Gallatin reserves, the Gila
River, Lake Tahoe, Santa Inez, and Prescott reserves, with a total acreage of
5,250,186 acres. The Mount Rainier Reserve, originally created by President
Cleveland, has been reduced by 207,360 acres, which have been set aside to form
the Mount Rainier National Park.

The United States Geological Survey is steadily pursuing its all-important work
of surveying, describing, and mapping the lands included in the reserves. The
work of mapping has progressed in the Flathead and Lewis and Clarke reserves of
Montana, the Priest River and Bitter Root reserves of Idaho, the Cascade Reserve
of Washington, and the Uintah Reserve of Utah.

The examination of the forests of the reserves and adjacent regions has, during
the past season, been completed in the Mount Rainer Reserve of Washington; has
been continued in the Olympic Reserve, nearly completing that valuable forest
region; has been commenced in the Cascade Reserve of Oregon, and the reserves
of the Sierra Nevada of California. The work of estimating the supply of stand-
ing timber, which was completed for the State of Washington last year, has been
continued into Oregon, and most of the stand of that State has been secured. It*
has been continued in California, with the prospect of completing that State
during the coming year. Similar estimates are being made for the States of the
Great Lakes—Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota—the work being carried on
jointly by the Department of Agriculture and the Geological Survey.

General public interest in forestry has increased in a remarkable degree, shown
by the attitude of the press and the favorable legislative’action which has fol-
lowed agitation among the States; New York, with its College of Forestry and
management of the the college forest, both now well under way, under the direc-
tion of Dr. B. E. Fernow, takes, perhaps, the first rank. This year a further
appropriation of $300,000 was made for additional purchases of forest land in the
Adirondacks, bringing the whole amount expended for this purpose since the
organization of the Forest Preserve Board in 1897 to a total of $1,800,000. Though
the purchases are not yet completed, the figures contained in the last report of
the board show a total area of lands in the Adirondacks reserved to the State
amounting to something over 1,100,000 acres. More significant still, as marking
the beginning of a distinct movement on the part of private owners of forest
lands, is the work in private forestry, also in the Adirondacks, which has been
regarded as satisfactory in the main. both by the persons interested and by the
Division of Forestry, under whose guidance it has been carried on.

California, as usual, has been most active in all departments of forest agita-
tion, and although comprehensive legislation failed of the governor’s approval at
the very close of the last session of the legislature, the intent of the plan was car-
ried into operation by the forest organizations themselves. A noteworthy happen-
ing has been the offer of certain redwood manufacturers to furnish $1,000 in
money, as well as to provide subsistence in their camps and transportation over
their lines for the agents of the Division of Forestry, in order to hasten the time by
a year when investigations on the growth and reproduction of the redwood could
be begun. At the University of California.a school of foresty may be established
in the not distant future.

Pennsylvania also has made marked progress. Her forest-fire law has received
a useful amendment. The commissioner of forestry has received added author-
ity, conferring power to purchase lands for creating forest reservations whenever
there are available funds in the treasury for that purpose. Under the safeguards
provided there is no necessity for delay in awaiting special legislation for each
new case of purchase. Finaily, the commission authorized sometime since to
select three tracts of land of at least 40,000 acres each, is about to take final action,
and a recent communication from Dr. Rothrock states that within the next few
months probably 200,000 acres of forest land will be reserved to the State of
Pennsylvania. :

Minnesota has been especially energetic, and has been fortunate in having the
efforts of her own citizens, ably assisted by enthusiastic friends from other States,
in the endeavor to induce Congress to set apart vast timber lands for a national
park and forest reserve. A State board of forestry has been appointed, whose
members have been chosen on a well-considered plan. The special points of this
admirable act are its provisions for the acceptance by the board of lands granted,
deeded, or devised to them for the purposes of forest reservations, and for the
reinvestment of the moneys to be derived as revenue from the proposed manage-
ment. Assurances have been given that gifts, under these provisions, amounting

iS A.-99 48

754. YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

to thousands of acres, will very soon be made to the board. An executive com-
mittee has been chosen, composed of Captain Cross, president of the board;
General Andrews, its secretary; and Professor Green. It took action at once to
arrange for a visit of inspection of the Minnesota forests by Dr. C. A. Schenck.

Michigan has likewise created a permanent forest commission, with the com-
missioner of the State land office as ex officio member. The personnel of the
commission, headed by Mr. Arthur Hill, a prominent lumberman, promises most
favorably. The main provision of the act is that the governor appoints a State
fire marshal, for a term of two years. The marshal appoints two deputies, one
of whom shall reside in the upper peninsula; and in addition, city and town fire
marshals throughout the State are made deputies. <A bill to create the office of
fire warden, with provisions based on the Massachusetts law of 1894, was intro-
duced but failed of passage. Its supporters, however, have good hope of securing
its enactment at the next session of the legislature.

What Minnesota has been attempting for the North and West, North Carolina
is urging for the South, and for the seaboard States in general. A great national
park is proposed for the crest of the Alleghenies, primarily for timber preservation.

Georgia has passed a significant amendment to her forest-fire law by which the
setting of fire to woods willfully, carelessly, or negligently is now made a misde-
meanor, whereas formerly malicious intent was specified, a provision which made
the law inoperative from the difficulty of establishing proof. A number of other
States stand in need of similar amendments before their statutes, long dead on
the books, can be rendered effective.

Wisconsin has provided that forest wardens, formerly appointed in every organ-
ized town, are henceforth to be appointed in certain counties, while in the remain-
ing counties they are to be appointed only on request of the supervisors.

In the matter of tree planting and conservation on a small scale, Indiana has
passed a law offering partial remission of taxes on definite proportions of holdings
covered with a specified number of forest trees per acre, either as virgin forest or
as planted or partially planted to that number. Such areas are to be assessed at
a valuation of $1 per acre.

Nebraska and Nevada have repealed their laws providing bounties for forest
trees planted and cultivated. Like the bounty law of Pennsylvania, they have
had small results because of the trivial inducement offered.

The legislature of North Dakota recently established a school of forestry,
located at the village of Bottineau; and a bill has just been introduced in the
United States Senate (Senate bill 158, December 6, 1899,) providing for the grant of
30,000 acres of public land, to be selected by the proper authorities of the State,
to aid in the maintenance of the school. The bill has been twice read, and
referred to the committee on public lands.

755

UNITED STATES.

FOREST RESERVES IN THE

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AGRICULTURAL LIBRARIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

157

AGRICULTURAL LIBRARIES OF THE UNITED STATSS.!

State Post office. Institution.
Alabama... --..-- jE Sa Se ee State Ag¢’l and Mechanical College -
: Uniontown ---------- Canebrake Experiment Station __--
wIvONna-—+..---.--- Wacson 22a ee University of Arizona--_---.--------
Arkansas ---.-_.-- Fayetteville -__..__-- University of Arkansas ---.--------
@alifornia ---.---. Berkeley: sass s2e-o2 University of California -_....-..--
Colorado-.-...----- Fort Collins -_.___.-- State Agricultural College---._----
Connecticut ------ Storrs. - 2 2- Connecticut Agricultural College -
New Haven....-..-.--- Conn. Ag’l Experiment Station----
Delaware --------- Neoware: 2. S20 Se2:.- Delaware College --_..--...---------
mlorita) ---.-.-.-.- Bake Cibysos9- 5 Florida Agricultural College ------
Goeorpis .....-.---- Athens:.. 32552 State College of Agriculture and
Mechanic Arts.
College. 2 i eesa2 aes Georgia State Industrial College --
Dahlonega ---.------- North Georgia Agricultural Col-
Hxperiment 22-2. = Experiment Station ..........-.-.--
Milledgeville -_.____- Middle Georgia College---..--------
LUG oe MOSCOW 22222 eae University of Idaho
ENO 2. - = ---=-- Urbans 22552-8225 Wniversipy Of linoigs<-_..-s =o
Glenwood .....------ Illinois School of Agriculture and
Manual Training for Boys.
indiana --.:..-.=--- Lafayette: <2 -2=2-=2- Purdue University = 22:5 22. 2-2
Lo rr Ames ..........------| State College of Agriculture and
Mechanic Arts.
Des Moines ....------| lowa Horticultural Society --------
Co Manhattan -| Kansas Agricultural College --_-----
Topeka =.....2: 22222 State Board of Agriculture -_-__---
PROBES. <2 --- oa Kansas Horticultural Society ------
Kentucky---.----- Lexington. .-=---- ---- Agricultural and Mechanical Col-
lege of Kentucky.
Frankfort -.--....-.--| State Normal School -......-.---.--
Douisiana ----- ---- New Orleans ----.---- | Louisiana University. .-...-.-.---.-
PUES re Orono s 2-2-2 = 222 ee University of Maine---__.-._--.-.---
Augusta _........---.| Maine Board of Agriculture ----.--
Maryland. -------- College PAT eee eae Maryland Agricultural College_--_-
College Park -.-.---- Maryland Horticultural Society ---
Massachusetts -...| Amherst ---.-.-.------ Mase chuneites Agricultural Col-
ege.
Jamaica Plain (Bos- | Bussey Institution--._......--------
ton). |
Boston.101 Tremont | Massachusetts Horticultural So-
street. | _ ciety.
Boston, State House_| Massachusetts Board of Agricul-
ture.
Worcester _-.__--..-=- | Worcester County Horticultural
Society.
Winchester --..------ | Massachusetts Forestry Associa-
tion.
Michigan. -----...- Agricultural College | State Agricultural College. ---...--
Minnesota -------- Minneapolis ---...--- University of Minnesota __-_--._----
Minneapolis --------- Minnesota Horticultural Society --
Taylors Falls --.----- Minnesota Forestry Association ---
Mississippi ---- ---- Agricultural College} Mississippi Agricultural and Me-
chanical College.
WOSLHOO 22-2. ee Alcorn Agricultural and Mechan-
ical College.
Missouri ---------- Columbia: X22 2ss.22 University of Missouri-_--....------
Montana -- ---..--- ‘Bozemans = t= Montana College of Agriculture
and Mechanic Arts.
Bovemanss--~ 2-53 State Board of Horticulture -------
Nebraska ...-..--- PNCoOlNS <2 2-5 So University of Nebraska -.....--..--
NaVAGa\..-=-.-=.-- Reno's eee Nevada State University --_-..-_---
New Hampshire-_-| Durham -----..------ New Hampshire College of Agri-

New Jersey

New Mexico------ |

New York
North Carolina___

North Dakota ___-
Ohio

Oklahoma

Oregon
Pennsylvania--_---

eulture and Mechanic Arts.
Rutgers College =---222--=<-2=-4-.--
Experiment Station
State Board of Agriculture
New Mexico College of Agricul-

ture and Mechanic Arts.
LGOne ye =] Sous tee hese Experiment Station

New Brunswick
New Brunswick
Trenton
Mesilla Park

Ephatas. 2-2. es Cornell University: ---__.----- ---.--

Raleigh, =o -% 22.2 22" North Carolina College of Agricul-
ture and Mechanic Arts.

Marco toa. N. Dakota Agricultural College -__-

Colambus2- >. —--- Ohio State University --------------

Columbus 2-_-=- -—==-- State Board of Agriculture ---__----

Wooster += --: -23-9%- Agricultural Experiment Station -

Stillwater -....-.---- Oklahoma Agricultural and Me-
chanical College.

Corvallis: <---=-= = Oregon Agricultural College-------

Harrispure 2) 22st Pennsylvania State Agricultural

Society.

1The numbers in some cases include pamphlets as well as bound volumes.

Volumes
SL Total
Ge volumes.
2, 494 12, 982
1,000}
248 4,000
750 2,000
3, 000 79, 000
500 9, 968
1, 000 7,000
2; 0005/2 ee
4,500 10, 000
3, 300 5, 500
600 20, 000
3 500
a 5, 000
860 800
Se Bi 004
7,500 45, 000
(a) 3, 000
2,800 9,200
2,400 138, 060
1,500 1,500
7, 260 19, 704
a 1,000
a) 500
5 7,015
957 1,372
550 1, 665
2,500 16, 000
1,300 1,500
(a 4,000
a 8, 000
9,192 19, 980
(a) 14, 569
10, 600 10, 000
3, 200 3, 200
3, 000 3, 000
500 500
9, 000 19, 380
7, 000 50, 000
1,800 1, 800
100 100
3,810 10, 084
75 4,000
3, 000 30, C00
100 , 000
300 8
4, 856 44,000
(a) 4,600
2, 100 7, 060
12, 855 40, 000
2, 885 2, 885
350 400
500 3, 552
4, 400 4,400
15, 000 225, GOO
(a) ts
8, 800 8, 000
5, 000 32, 000
4,000 4,000
1600) |:
(a) 3, 497
170 5, 000
3, 125 3, 125
aNot stated.

158

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

AGRICULTURAL LIBRARIES OF THE UNITED STATES—Continued.

My a Volumes, Total :
State. Post office. Institution. agricul- oes
tural, |volumes.
Pennsylvania ----- Philadelphia, Broad Pemneylvenis Horticultural So- 3, 500 3, 500
above Spruce. ciety.
State College -_-.---- The Pennsylvania State College --- 1,311 15, 754
? State College -------- Experiment Station ----2-2---2-4-5+ 500 500
Rhode Island - ---- Keneston 232595. 25-5- Rhode Island College of Agricul-, 2,100 7,800
ture and Mechanic Arts.
South Carolina ---| Clemson College- ---- Clemson. Gollere ... - 2-5) seas (a) 5, 000
Georgetown --------- Winyah Indigo Society ------------- (a) 2,000
South Dakota ....| Brookings --..-.------- Sarees Dakota Agr ionitaral Col- 585 4,974
ege
Tennessee -------- Knox yallle-.. = 5. == University of Tennessee ___--._---- , 000 20, 000
WMoxas fc. cee ns sse College Station ----.- Sista eee bare and Mechanical 450 6, 000
ollege
Witaheosns= fo BoA? TQGaN co--=—-Paa= -o Agr "icultural College of Utah --...-. 364 7,201
Menmont 222->_--- Burlington -=----=--- University of Vermont--..--.-..--- (a) 57, 384
Mirpinia 2. -22:.-2. Blacksburg 222-2224 Virginia Polytechnic Institute__-__- (0) > |e
Hampton 322s se-: -- Hampton Agricultural Institute -- 600 -9, 600
Washington ------ Pullman 222e-2e-a=— Washington Agricultural College (a) 5, 132
and School of Science.
West Virginia---- Morgantown esse West Virginia University.-.-...----- 3,176 17,500
Wisconsin ......-.| Madison ---.....------ University of Wisconsin -_..-._...- 5, 000 50, 000
Wyoming -------- Toa amMiOrw—.-- == = University of Wyoming--......---- 1, 366 7, 000

- aNot stated.

bLibrary recently burned.
BOARDS OF TRADE THAT PUBLISH COMMERCIAL WEWS.

City and State.

Name of organization.

Secretary.

Baltimore, Ma. ...-..---=.--
Boston Wass=s2 52> J--scane-
Buffalo, N. Y
Chicago, eens = ae eee
Cinemmnati, Ohios==--------—
Den Vel, |GOlO se sso. see eee==

Detroit, Wiech: so---4------=-
Dalabh Math =-s-se-se- oe =
Indianapolis, Indo. ==... -
Moussyvalle: eye =e 8
Memphis, Tenn. —--.-.=---.-
Milwaukee, Wise s.s-2~----=
ary MOn kN Nie ses eee
Omaha, Nebr
IPeotias Mleee ces seeee ease oe
see DHta pea ensssook ose

Portland, Oreg
ichmonG, Vaca eee a seo
Stetuould WMO. fas neoene n=
San Francisco, Cal

Do
Seattle, Wash
Toledo, Ohio---.- es E
Washington, D.C

Mer eet Exchange

Busrdvor Trade... =e ee eee ae

Chamber of Commerce --2 fe =

Chamber of Commerce and Board of
Trade.

Boar d of Trade

Mer een Exchange
Chamber of Commer ce
Produce Exchange
Board of Trade
Commercial Exchange
Produce: Prxchange: o's es.--ssose eee
Board of Trade
Chamber of Commerce
Merchants’ Exchange
Clamber'ef Commerce]. 2. 2a se
Produce xchange: fs - ees ee seee
Chamber of Commerce
Produce Exchange
Board of Trade

COTTON EXCHANGES.

W. F. Wheatley.

Elwyn G. Preston. ‘
C. H. Keep.

George F. Stone.

Charles B. Murray (Sup’t).
Arthur Williams.

F. Re Waring.
S. A. Kemp.
Jacob W. Smith.
. Buckner.

. J. Langson.
J.C. Brown (statistician),
L. C. Harding.

R. C. Grier.
Armon D. Acheson,
Howard Austin.

P. L. Willis.

R. A. Dunlop.
George H. Morgan.
E. Scott.

T. C. Friedlander.
Thomas W. Prosch.
Denison B. Smith.
George H. Harries.

City and State.

Athlanibat! Gals cmc este sese.<eche
Augusta, Ga
Birmingham, Ala. ---.-.----
Charleston, S. C
Columbia,$.C
Columbus, Ga
Dallas, Tex

Galveston, Tex
Greenville, Miss.........-.-
Gr eenwood, RWaISS =. Sane no le
15 Va yots (so) 0 pu! 12> roan
Little Rock, Ark

Name of organization.

Chamber of Commerce
Exchange and Board of Trade
Commercial Club

Cotton Exchange
Board of Trade

.| Chamber of Commerce.-.-..-..-----------

Cotton Exchange and Board of Trade--
wages besten
= do
Cotton Exe hanes and Board of Trade--
Board of Trade.

Secretary.

V. V. Bullock.
W. F. Alexander.
J. B. Gibson.

R. A. Tavel.
W.E. McNulty.

‘Rhodes Brown.

Paul Giraud.

H. Lampley.

Ss. M. Brith.

S. O. Young.
Edward Holland.
C. K. Marshall.

B. R. Warner.
George R. Brown.

ACREAGE, YIELD, AND VALUE OF PRINCIPAL CROPS.

159

COTTON EXCHANGES—Continued.

City and State.

Memphis, Tenn
mwerrmiion, Miss =.=... -..-<-
Mobile, Ala
Monroe, L
Montgomery, Ala
Nashville, Tenn
Natchez, Miss
Newbern, N.C
New Or leans, La .
New York,
Norfolk a Portsmouth,

Va.
Raleigh, N.C
Richmond, Va
Rome, Ga
St. Louis, Mo
Savannah, Ga
Selma, Ala
Sherman, Tex
Shreveport, La
Texarkana, "Ark
Vicksburg, Miss - ---
Waco, Tex

-| Cotton Exchange

Wilmington, N. C
Yazoo City, Miss

| Cotton Exchange

Name of organization.

Cotton Exchange
Board of Trade and Cotton Exchange--
Cotton Exchange
Board of Trade
Commercial and Industrial Association-
@hamber of ‘Commerces--o2--- ---5 =<.
Cotton and Merchants’ Exchange
Cotton and Grain Exchange

Meavenantsl Soe ee Shag tak eo cehel
Cotton Exchange
‘Commercial Club
Board of Trade
“Cotton Exchange
Commercial Club
Produce Exchange

_| M. L. Kelly.

Secretary.

alker.
, Bolling.
. Windes.

Georg © A. Morgan.
ferrihew.
ive . McKinnon.

Henry Hawkins.
G. A. Hays.
J. H. Cook.
L. Jones.
John L. Cantwell.

L. Bowman.

STATISTICS OF THE PRINCIPAL CROPS AND

Acreage, production,

[From Division of Statistics.]

value, prices, and exports of corn in

FARM ANIMALS.

the United States, 1866

to 1899, inclusive.
Aver- Ckicago cash pr ic e per | Domestic

Becaae age bushel, No. 2. exports,

ass farm - : fe : ineludin:
gen anc ries oF, dian | price |Farm value, ay o corn meal,

Year. | Acreage. | y eee Producticn, | per Dee. 1. December. | following fiscal
Pit bush- year. years be-

wie) | el, = ginning

Dec. 1 Low. | High. [Low. ‘igh. July 1.

sh. Bushels. _ | Cents.) Dollars. Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Bushels.
fe 5.3 867,946,295 | 47.4 | 411,450,830 | 53 62 64 79 16, 026, 947
iBone. 5 -- 23.6 | , 768,320,000 | 57.0 | 437,769,763 | 61 65 61 71 12, 493, 522
1. 34, 246 i. ' 906,527,000 | 46.8 | 424,056,649 | 38 58 44 51 8, 285, 665
i!) ee 37, 103,245 | 23.6 874,320,000 | 59.8 | 522,550,509 | 56 67 73 85 2, 140, 487
Lis (ise 38. 646, 977 28.3 | 1,094, 255,000 | 49.4 | 540,520, 456 41 59 46 52 10, 676, 873
ia eae 34,091,137 | 29.1 991,898,000 | 43.4 430, 355,910 | 36 39 38 43 35, 727, 016
iofe----- 35,526,836 | 30.8 | 1,092,719,000 | 35.3 | 885,736,210 | 27 28 34 39 40, 1b, 374
Cc 39,197,148 | 23.8 932,274,000 | 44.2 | 411,961,151 | 40 49 4§ 59 35, 985, 834
1874__.-- 41,036,918 | 20.7 850, 148,500 | 58.4 496, 271,255 | 64 76 53 67 30, 025, 036
TST: -_ | - 44, 841, 57 29.4 | 1,321,069,000 | 36.7 | 484, 674, 804 40 47 41 45 50, 910, 532
Ye 49, 033, 364 | 26.2 | 1, 283,827,500 | 34.0 | 436, 108, 521 40 43 45 56 72, ’ 652, 611
ei -—- 50,369,113 | 26.7 rig 342, 558, 000} 34.8 | 467, 635, 4] 49 35 41 87, 192,110
12): ao 51,585,000 | 26.9 | 1,388,218,750 |} 31.7 | 440, 230, BIT 30 32 33 36 87, 884, 892
i 53,085,450 | 29.2 | 1,547,901,790 | 37.5 | 580,486,217 | 39 431 | 328 | 36} 99) 572, 329
Daa) S— - 62,317,842 | 27.6 | 1,717, 434,543 | 39.6 | 679,714,499 | 35% 42 413 | 45 93, 648, 147
1:2) ie 64, 262,025 | 18.6 | 1,194,916,00C | 63.6 759, 482,170 | 58} 63} | 69 {are 44, 340, 683
1882 ---- - 65, 659,545 | 24.6 | 1,617,025,100 | 48.5 | 783,867,175 | 494 61 538i | 56% 41, 655, 653
1883 --- - 68,301,889 | 22.7 | 1,551, 066, 895 2.4 | 658,051,485 | 544 634 | 523] 57 46, 253, 606
1884__.-- 69, 683,780 | 25.8 | 1,795,528,000 | 35.7 | 640,735,560 | 342 404 | 442 | 49 52, 876, 456
1885. __- 73,130,150 | 26.5 | 1,936,176,000 | 32.8 | 635,674,630 | 36 42: | 344 | 36g | 64,829,617
4886... .. 75, 694, 208 2.0 | 1,665, 441,000 | 36.6 | 610,311,000 | 35% 38 3865 | 39% 41, 368, 584
BG ==: = - 72, 392,720 | 20.1 | 1,456,161,000 | 44.4 | 646,106,770 | 47 514 | 54 60 25, 860, 869
SBS = 2 - - 75, 672,763 | 26.3 | 1,987,790,000 | 34.1 | 677,561,580 |} 334 355 | 33h | 358 70, 841, 673
1889___.- 78, 319,651 | 27.0 | 2,112,892,060 | 28.3 | 597,918,829 | 294 35 32% | 35 103, 418, 709
1890 __.-. 71, 970, 763 | 20.7 | 1,489,970,000 | 50.6 754, 433" 451 | 472 53 55 692 32) 041, 529
1891... _- 76,204,515 | 27.0 | 2.000; 154,000 | 40.6 | 836,430,223 | 392 | 59 | 403 [a100 | 76,602,285
1892. =... 70, 626,658 | 23.1 | 1,628, 464,000 | 39.4 | 642,146,680 | 40 422 4 | 44} 47, 121, 894
1893 -...- 72,036,465 | 22.5 | 1, 619. 496, 131 | 36.5 | 591,625,627 | 344 364 | 36 38t 66, 489, 529
1894____- 62, 582,269 | 19.4 | 1, 212, 770, 052 | 45.7 554, 719, 162 | 44% ATA | 47% | 55d 28, 585, 405
1895 <- -. . 82, 075,830 | 26.2 | 2,151,188,580 | 25.3 | 544,985,534 | 25 26% | 273 | 294 | 101,100,875
a 81,027,156 | 28.2 | 2. 283" 875, 165 | 21.5 | 491,006,967 | 223 23 | 23 251 | 178,817,417
13) yee 80, 095,051 | 23.8 rf 902, 967,933 | 26.3 | 501, 072; 952 | 25 24 | 3828 | 37 212, 055, 543
1): 77, 721,781 24.8 | 1,924, 184. 660 | 28.7 552, 023, 428 | 33h 38 321 | 348 | 177, 255, 046
1899-.-. . $2,108,587 | 25.3 | 2,078, 143,933 | 30.3 | 629,210,110 | 30 Olde eer Seba e a ee

a Result of corner.

760 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Acreage, production, value, prices, and exports of wheat in the United States, 1866
to 1899, inclusive.

Aver- Chicago cash price per | Domestie
Recor age bushel, No. 2. exports
age farm arene ne uding
fon Arad ; 2 r price | Farm value, May of our,
= ASE eee Production. |* yer Dee.1. | December.) foliowing fiscal
acre bush | year. years be-
; el, ginning
Dec. 1 Low. digh.|Low. High| July 1.
Acres. Bush. Bushels. Cents.| Dollars. Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Bushels.
15, 424, 496 9.9 151, 999,906 | 152.7 | 232,109,630 | 129 | 145 | 185 | 211 12, 646, 941
18,321,561 | 11.6] 212,441,400 | 145.2 | 308,387,146 | 126 | 140 | 134 | 161 25, 284. 803
18, 460,132 | 12.1 224, 036,600 | 108.5 | 243,032,746 | 80 88 8&7 96 29, 717,201
_| 19,181,004 | 13.6 260, 146,906 | 76.5 | 199,024,996 | 63 76 79 92 53, 900, 780
18,992,591 | 12.4 235,884,700 | 94.4 | 222,766,969! 91 98 | 118 | 120 52, 580,111
19, 943,893 |; 11.6 230,722,400 | 114.5 | 264,075,851 | 107 | 111 | 120 | 143 38, 995, 755.
20, 858,359 | 11.9 249,997,100 | 111.4 | 278,522,068 | 97 | 108 112 | 122 52, 014, 715
¢ 22,171,676 | 12.7 281, 264,700 | 106.9 | 300,669,533 | 96 | 106 | 105 | 114 91, 510, 398
f 24,967,027 | 12.3 308,102,700 | 86.3 | 265,881,167 | 78 83 78 94 72, 912, 817
Aes ee | 26,881,512 | 11.1 292, 136,000 | 89.5 | 261,896,926 | 82 91 89 | 100 74, 750, 682
ey (jee 27,627,021 | 10.4 289, 356,500 | 96.3 | 278,697,238 | 104 | 117 | 180 | 172 57, 043, 936
1 eee 26,277,546 | 13.9 364,194,146 | 105.7 | 385,089,444 | 103 | 108 98 | 113 92, 071, 726
187825 82,108,560 | 13.1 420,122,400 | 77.6] 825,814,119] 81 84 91 | 102 | 150,502,506
1879____. 82,545,950 | 13.8 448,756,630 | 110.8 | 497,030,142 | 122 | 1833 | 112: | 119 | J , 180
1880____- 37,986,717 | 13.1 498,549,868 | 95.1 | 474,201,850 | 934 | 109% | 101 | 112g | 186,321,514
18815255 87, 709,020 | 10.2 383, 280,090 | 119.2 | 456,880,427 | 124: | 129 | 123 | 140 121, 892, 389
gape 87,067,194 | 13.6 504,185,470 | 88.2 | 445,602,125 | 911] 948 | 108 | 1132 147, 811, 316
1883___.- 36,455,593 | 11.6] 421,086,160 | 91.1 | 383,649,272 | 943 | 99: | 85 | 94% | 111,534, 192
IBC ven 39,475,885 | 138.0 | 512,765,000 | 64.5 330,862,260 | 69} | 762 | 852 | 90%; 182,570,366
1GS5e ee 34,189,246 | 10.4) 357,112,000 | 77.1] 275,320,390 | 827] 89 | 72: | 79 | 94,565,793
BS6s 2s 36, 806,184 | 12.4 457,218,000 | 68.7 | 314,226,020] 754 | 792 | 802 | 88! 153, 804, 969
ites (ee || 37,641,783 | 12.1 456,329,000 | 68.1] 310,612,960 | 754 | 791) 811] 892 119, 624, 344
1888__ -- - 87,336,188 | 11.1 415,868,000 | 92.6 | 885,248,030 | 968 | 10514 | 771 | 952 88) 600, 742
LRgo Rees 88, 123,859 | 12.9 ae 560,000 | 69.8 | 342,491,707 | 76: | 803i | 892 ! 100 109 430, 487
it) eee 36, 087,154 | 11.1 9° 262,000 | 83.8 | 334,773,678 | 873 | 922 | 982 108 106, 181, 316
1891___..| 39,916,897 | 15.3 te 780,000 | 83.9 | 513, 472° 711 | 898 | 931 | 80 85} 225, 665, 812
AS92: 22° 88,554,480 | 13.4 515,949, 000 62.4] 322, 111; 881 | 691 | 7% 681 | 764 | 191, 912, 635
1893_-__-| 84,629,418 | 11.4 396,181,725 | 53.8 | 213, 171, 381 | 594 | 643 | 524 | 603 | 164, 283,129
1894._ ___. 34, 882,436 | 13.2 460, 267,416 | 49.1 225, 902; 025.| 52 63: | 60} | 85§ | 144,812. 718
Th ee ae 84, 047, 332 13.7 467,102,947 | 50.9 | 237,938,998 | 53%] 648] 571) 678 | 126, . 968
1896_____| 34,618,646 | 12.4 427,684,346 | 72.6 310, 602° 539 | 748 | 938: | 688 | 972 | 145,124,972
1897__.-_| 89,465,066 | 13.4 530,149,168 | 80.8 | 428,547,121} 92 | 109 | 117 | 185 | 217,306,005
1898_____| 44, 055, 278 15.3 675, 148, 705 | 58.2 | 892,770,320 | 62) 70 682 | 793 | 222, 694,920
1899.____| 44, 592, 516 12.3 547, 303, 846 | 58.4] 319, B45, 259 | 64 69) |. 28] eco |e

Acreage, production, value, prices, exports, and imports of oats in the United
States, 1866 to 1899, inclusive.

| | Chicago cash price per | Domesti
| | eae bushel, No. 2. eeports, [Imports
| Av- farm har including oe —
ESET A erties jeraee| Produe- | price < o May of | oatmeal, years
aire ie ase. (ve aes tion. per Dee tT December.) following fiscal host
ee bush- o> year. | years be-| 2°S
acre. | | ning
eee ou ee ginning | July 1a
Dee.1 Low. High.| Low./High.| July 1.
| |
| Acres. |Bush.| Bushels. | Cts. | Dollars. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. me Bushels.
RGR. | 8,864,219 30.2) 268,141,078) 35.1) 94,057,945) 36 43 59 78 25,895) 778,198
1867____.| 10, 746, 416 25.9) 278,698,000! 44.5) 123,902,556] 52 LG 4 eyseeee eee 199! Set 780, 798
1868.____ 9,665,736) 26.4 254. 960, 800! 41.7) 106,355,976) 43 491} 568! 624 481,871) 326, 659
1869_____ 9, 461,441) 30.5) 288,334,000! 38.0 1 521,734, 40 443} 463) 534 121, 5172, 266, 785
iisy( ne 8, 792,395) 28.1] 247:277; 400! 39.0] 96,443,637| 373| 41 47i| 51 M7, 1, 572 599, 514
14 oe 8, 365, 809 30.6 255, 743,000! 36.2 92) 591, 359 30%} 33 34h} 424 2,975) 535, 250
187202 9, 000,769, 30.2 271, 747,000} 29.9] 81,303,518! 233! 253] 30 34 te ore 225, 555
1) pe 9,751,700) 27.7) 270,340,000) 34.6 93,474,161] 34 405| 44 48} 812,873, 191, 802
(3). 10, 897. 412} 22.1) 240,369,000! 47.1) 113, 133, 934 51g} 54 574 644 504, 7701, 500, 040
it) Ge | 11,915,075) 29.7) 354,317,500} 32.0) 118,441,491} 293] 303 8 814} 1,466,228) 121,547
i (eee 13, 358, 908) 24. 0} 320, 884,000} 32.4] 103,844,896) 31%) 344) 373) 45§) 2,854,128) 41,597
i ee 12,826,148) 31.7) 406,394,000} 28.5) 115,546,194) 241] 27 23 27 | 3,715,479) 21,391
1S78s..2 13, 176,500) 31.4 413, 578, 560} 24.6) 101, 752, 468 195} 208) 248 304) 5,452,136) 13, 395
1879. ____| 12,683,500) 28.7 363, 761,820) 33.1] 120,583,294, 323) 363) 298 34% 766, 366) 489,576
1880.____ 16,187,977} 25.8] 417;885,380| 36.0] 150,243.565| 294] 333] 364] 393! 402,904) 64, 412
iC a 16,831,600, 24.7) 416,481,000} 46.4] 193,198,970} 43) 468 48} 568 625, 690) 1 983
1882. ___- 18, 494,691) 26.4! 488,250,610) 37.5] 182,978,022] 349) 414) 383) 42% 461,496) 815, 017
1883. ____ 20, 324. 962| 28.1] 571,802,400] 33.0) 187,040,264, 298) 364) 303) 341) 3,274,622) 121, 064
1884_____| 21,300,917) 27.4) 583,628,000) 28. ! 161,528,470) 223) 254) 343) 37] 6,193,104) 94,310
1885 3.22 ) 22,783, 630) 27.6) 629, 409, 000! 28 5] 179,631, 860] 27 29 261) 298] 7,311,306) 149,480

an years 1866, and 1884 to 1899, inclusive, oatmeal is included.

ACREAGE, YIELD, AND VALUE OF PRINCIPAL crops. 761

Aereage, production, value, prices, exports, and imports of oats in the United

States, 1866 to 1899, inclusive—Continued.
€ Chicago cash price per | Domesti

as aceon tas Domestic ltmports

Av- poe c oS) | during

erage Produe- pein Farm | May of pees a fiscal

Year. | Acreage. jyield| “tion. per| lve, |December.| following | fiscal || Ye@FS
per 1 Dee. 1. = begin-

acre bush- | year. years be-| yn

’ el, : ginnin july

est aus High. Low. High. July 1. :

Acres. |Bush.| Bushels. | Cts. | Dollars. | Cts. | Cts. Cts, | Cts. | Busheis. |Bushels.
es 23, 658,474) 26.4! 624,134,000) 29.8) 186,137,930! 253) 273) 258! 274! 1,374, 139, 575
Cp ae 25,920,906) 25.4) 659,618,000) 30.4) 200,699,790) 288) 302 2, 38 573, 080| 128, 817
1888- _._- 26, 998, 282) 30.0) 701,735,000} 27.8) 195,424,240} 25 263} 218) 238 1,191,471} 181,501
1889____- 27,462,316) 27.4) 751,515,000) 23.0) 171,781,008} 20 21 248) 30 | 15,107,238) 153, 232
Ss 26,431,309) 19.8] 523,621,000) 42.4) 222, 048, 486 39%) 437} 451) 54] 1,382,836] 41,848
eke. 25,581,861) 28.9) 738,394,000) 31.5] 232,312,267) 314) 335 ° 2 333| 10,586, 644] 47, 782
1892. __.. 27,063,835) 24.4!) 661,035, 000 31.7) 209, 253, 611 258) 314) 28% 3824) 2,700,793) 49,433
1893. - .-- 27, 273, 033} 23.4] 638, 854,850) 29.4] 187,576,092) 274) 293) 323{ 36) 6,290,229) 31,759

1894____- 27,023,553) 24.5) 662,036,928} 82. 4| 214,816,920} 28%) 298) 273| 303) 1,708,824) 330,3

ee 27,878, 406} 29. 6 $24, 443,537) 19.9) 163,655,068) 168) 173) 18 193) 15,156,618} 66,
1896___.- 27,565,985) 25.7) 707,346,404) 18.7) 182,485,033} 163; 183] 163) 183) 37,725,083) 893, 908
i ( 25, 730,375) 27.2) 698. 767,809) 21.2! 147,974,719] 21 237| 26! 32 | 73,880,307} 25,093
ee 25,777,110] 28.4) 730,906,643) 25.5] 186/405,364] 26 | 273] 24 | 274) 33, 534, 28, 098
1899. _..- | 26, a, om 30. a 796, 177, 713 ot 198, 167,975) 224) 23 |__-..-!_--.-- | Lin oe
I |

Acreage. production, value, prices, exports, and imports of barley in the United
States, 1866 to 1899, inclusive.

j | Av- | Chicago cash price per Tr ‘
a lerage| bushel, No. 2. Domestic | quence
| erage’ Produc- ee Farm | May of | figeal| Sscal
Year. /Acreage.|y ea tion. | per va 9: December.) following | years | ~ooi8
ey bush- re | year. |beginning| 2°872-
eee: el, | — | Jualyl. | Fain
| Dec.1. Low. High. Low. High. Pears
| | } |
| Acres. |Busi.| Bushels. | Cts. | Dollars. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Bushels. | Bushels.
866_---- 492,532) 22.9) 11,283,807) 70.2} 7,916,342) 59 10) 10 385) PE100: | Cee | 3,247,250
NGGT ==. ~~ 1,131,217) 22.7) 25,727,000) 70.1) 18,027,746) 150 | 180) 227 | 250} 9,810) 3,783, 966
eee 937,498) 24.4) 22.896.100) 109.0, 24,948,127) 140 | 170) 149) 175 59,077 5, 069. 880
1869. -... 1.925, 795| 27.9) 28,652,200) 70.8) 20,298,164) 74] 85 50 | 62 | 255, 490) 6, 727, 597
1870. ___- 1, 108,924] 23.7, 26.295.400/ 79.1 20,792,213; 68| 80, 72) 95 | 340/093) 4,866. 700
iC 1,177,735) 22.7) 26,718,500) 75.8! 20,264, 554] 64 55 | 71} 86, 891) 5,565, 591
itece=. 2 1,397,082) 19.2) 26,846,400) 68.6 18,415, 8: 60 70 7 | & 482,410) 4,244. 751
BSie--=-; 1. 387,106) 23.1) 32,044,491) 86.7) 27,794, 132 158 | 130 | 155 | 320,399) 4,891,189
iy 1,580, 626] 20.6) 32,552,500) 86.0) 27,997, 120 | 1293) 115) 1387 91,118 6, 255, 063
asp: 1,789, 902} 20.6) 36,908,600) 74. 1) 27, 367, : 81} 88 623} 72} 817, 781/10, 285, 957
ABBE > = 1, 766,511) 21.9) 38,710,500) 63.0! 24, 402, 63) 683 80 85 | 1,186,129) 6, 702, 965
in 1,614,654) 21.3) 34,441,400) 62.8) 21,629, 563) 645 463 523) 3,921,501) 6, 764, 228
Ly ee 1,790,400) 23.6) 42,245,630; 57.9) 24, 454,¢ 91} 100 64 | 73 | 715, 536) 5,720, 979
BSTo: —- . 1,680,700) 24.0) 40,283,100) 58.9) 23,714, 86 | 92 75} 80) 1,128,923) 7,135, 258
1880____- 1, 845,329) 24.5) 45,165,546 66.6) 30,090, 7 100 | 120 95 | 105 885, 246) 9, 528,616
aac. 1,967,510) 20.9) 41,161 | 82.3] 33, 862, 101 | 107 | 100} 100 205, 930/12, 182, 722
—— 2,272,105) 21.5} 48, 953, 9: 32.8) 30, 768, 79 2 80) 80) 433, 005) 10, 050, 687
1883 -_-.- 2,379,009) 21.1) 50,186,097) 58.7} 29,420, i | i 65 i 724, 955) 8, 596, 122
1884-____ 2,608, 818} 23.5) 61,203,000) 48.7) 29,779,170; 33 58 65 65 | 629,130) 9, 986, 507
1885____- 2, 729, 359) 21.4) 58,360,000) 56.3) 32,867, 62) 65 58 60 | 252, 183)10, 197, 115
T8S6_____ 2,652,957) 22.4) 59,428,000) 53.6) 31,840,510) 51) 54 57 57 | 1,305, 300/10, 355, 594
ifs) 2,901,953! 19.6) 56,812,000) 52.2) 29,464,390! 80 80 | 69 77 5950, 884/10, 831, 461
1888. __._| 2,996,382} 21.3} 63,884,000) 59.6) 37,672,032)-_--..-|_----- [oes 1, 440, 321/11, 868, 414
1889____. 3990, 834| 24.3} 78.332,976| 42.7| 32.614.271| 58| 58 |_.....|_....- 1) 468; 311/11; 332) 545
1890... 3° 135,302] 21.0| 67, 168,344| 64.8| 42,140,502/._...|__..__|__...-|__.... | "973; 062| 5,078,733
i eee 3, 352,579} 25.8) 86,839,153) 54.0) 45,470,342 -_-.-_- ee es (eS eS eA Uae ene ay ees
1892 ___- 3, 400.361) 23.7) 80,086,762) 47.2) 38,026, 062 Gi | 65) 65) 3,035, 267) 1,970,129
Ik 3 Goa 3, 220,371} 21.7} 69,869,495) 41.1) 28,729, 386 52 Rey 60 | 5,219,405) — 791, 061
1894. -__. | 3,170,602} 19.4) 61,400,465) 44.2) 27,134,127) 533 554, 51 52 | 1,563, 754) 2,116, 816
at = = 3,299,973) 26.4 87,072,744) 33.7) 29,312,415) 33 eee eee | 7,680,331; 837,
1896... - -- 2,950,539} 23.6) 69,695,223) 32.3| 22,491, 241). .__..|__--..]_----<]-=---- | 20,030, 301) 1,271, 787
iho (eee 2, (195116) 24.5) 66,685,127) 37.7) 25,142, 139) _ 2----|_-=---]_----- VoSene | 11,237,077| 124, 804
1h 2 eee 2,583,125) 21.6) 55, 792, 257 a = ee al 9 Se ae eee) Fae eee 2, 267,400) 110, 475
be . O94, 25:

762

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Acreage, production, value, prices, and exports of rye in the United States, 1866
to 1899, tielusive.

Year. | Acreage.

Acres
1866. ...- 1, 548, 033
Gic=—- = 1, 689,175
1 iis soe 1, 651, 321
Us | es 1, 657, 584
1O(0L == 1, 176, 137
A (ey Ce 1, 069, 531
1S(e see: 1, 048, 654
iireseeo- 1, 150, 355
Paces = 1,116, 716
185... 1, 359,788
Sy eee 1, 468, 374
Uy) ae 1, 412, 902
TicV isn eae 1, 422, 700
FAyO Ss 1, 625, 459
SRO ste 1, 767, 619
1881 _-..- 1,789, 100
1882. ___- 2, 227, 894.
WO8Be_-- 2 2,314, 754
[boot eae 2, 343, 963
BS85 Seeoe 2,129, 301
ASBGE So 2,129, 918
Tory eee 2, 053, 447
SoG aes 2, 364, 805
1889____. 2,171, 493
1890____- 2, 141, 853
ib ae 2, 176, 466
iG 2 ete 2, 163, 657
1893____- 2, 038, 485
1894_____ 1,944, 780
1895-2222 1, 890. 345
1896____. 1, 831, 201
Tis y Geet 1, 703, 561
LAOR AS 1, 643, 207
ic.) | 1, 649, 308

Production.

24, 540, 829

peEgeo#2
SSSSESERE

RBRSLRRRBS

i ~

25,

25, 657, 522
23, 961, 741

Aver- |
age
farm
price | Farm value,
per Dec. 1.
bush-
el,
Dec. 1
Cents Dollars.
82.2 17, 149, 716
100.4 3, 280, 584
94.9 21,349, 190
77.0 17, 341, 861
73.2 11, 326, 967
alk 10, 927, 623
67.6 10, 071, 061
70.3 10, 638, 258
T7.4 11, 610, 339
67.1 11, 894, 223
61. 4 12, 504, 970
57.6 12, 201, 759
52.5 13, 566, 002
65. 6 15, 507, 451
75.6 18, 564, 560
93.3 19, 327, 415
61.5 18. 439, 194
58.0 16, 300, 5
52.0 14, 857, 040
57.9 12, 594, 820
53.1 138, 181, 330
54.4 11, 283, 140
58.8 16, 721, 869
45.7 12, 009, 752
62.9 16, 229, 992
77.4 24,589, 217
54.2 15, 160, 056
51.3 18, 612, 222
50.1 18, 395, 476
44.0 11, 964, 826
40.9 9, 960, 769
44.7 12, 239, 647
46.3 11, 875, 350
51.6

12, 214, 118

Chicago cash price per
bushel, No. 2.

December.

May of
following
year.

Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts.
Pee eee 142 | 150
1382 | 157 | 173) 185
1063} 118} 100} 1153
66 774] 78 83}
2 ot = 91
7
574] 70 681) 76
70 81 91 | 102
93 994; 103 | 1074
67 68%} 614) 70}
653) 73 70 923
552) 562] 54 60
44 4431 47 52
773i} 81 733} 85
82 913} 115] 118
963} 98 U7 83
57 He bot fo
51 52 68 73
583} 61 58 61
53 544, 543) 56}
554, 614) «63 68
50 52 39 413
44 454] 493) 54
643! 683) 83 92
86 92 704; 79
46 51 501} 62
45 473} 4441 48
471) 49 62i| 67
32 354, 33 364
37 424, 328] 354
458) 47 48 75
52}, 554) 56}; 62
49 52

Domestic
exper aaa
cluding
rye flour,
fiscal years
beginning
uly 1.

Bushels.

PESR

vee wee ee ew

BRSPERRSLSERSSSSERRELES

BOD TO bt DOP HE DO
woo c8 co CO
Sah Searas

BEREZES eS

=

Sm
mae
SEE

Acreage, production, value, and prices of buckwheat in the United States, 1866 to
1899, inclusive.

Year.

Average
Acreage. jyield per
acre.

Acres. Bushels
1, 045, 624 21.8
1, 227, 826 17.4
1, 113, 993 17.8
1, 028, 693 16.9
530, 992 18.3
413, 915 20.1
448, 497 18.1
454, 152 17.2
452, 590 1 Gs
575, 580 17.5
666, 441 14.5
649, 923 15.6
673, 100 18. 2
639, 900 20.5
22, 802 Uy Gy!
828, 815 11.4
847, 112 13.1
857, 349 8.9
879, 403 12.6
914, 394 13.8
917,915 12.9
910, 506 11.9
912, 630 13. 2
837. 162 14.5
844, 579 14.5

Average

ie farm
roduction. |/price per
bushel,

| Dec. 1.

Bushels. Cents.
22,791, 839 67.6
21, 359, 000 78.7
19, 863, 700 78.0
17, 431, 100 71.9
9, 841, 500 70.5
8, 328, 700 74.5
8, 183, 500 73.5
7, 837, 700 15.0
8, 016, 600 72.9
10, 082, 100 62.0
9, 668, 800 66.6
10, 177, 000 66.9
12, 246, 820 52.6
13, 140, 000 59.8
14, 617, 535 59.4
, 486, 200 86.5
11, 019, 353 72.9
7, 668, 954 82. 2
11, 116, C00 59.0
12, 626, 000 5.9
11, 869, 000 54. 4
10, 844, 000 56.1
12, 050, 000 63.6
12, 110, 829 51.8
12, 482, 831 57.4

ee

208, 165

eo
Rs

wre eS ee eS ee ee ee

a

29 36 00

RRSRESESESESERE
EESESSEREESZELESN

PED AID DAI DA DHMH AID AAA SOON
i
=
=)

Bes
Be

ACREAGE, YIELD, AND VALUE OF PRINCIPAL CROPS. 1763

Acreage, production, value, etc., of buckwheat in the United States, 1866 to 1899,
inclusive—Continued.

Average

Average farm Farm

Year. Acreage. | yield per} Production. price per} vaiue,

acre, bushel, Dec. 1.

Dec. 1.
Acres. Bushels. Bushels. Cents. Dollars.

IER fos oS oa ca wow anc ueeges 849, 364 15.3 12, 760, 932 57.0 7, 271, 506
0. 22-435 SRS 861, 451 14.1 12, 148, 185 51.8 6, 295, 643
Ree ee. 8 i acere kee 815, 614 14.9 12, 122, 311 58.4 7, O74, 450
(a tee) eee eee 789, 16.1 12, 688, 200 55.6 7, O40, 238
_ .. 8.4.2 eee eee 763, 277 20.1 15, 341, 399 45.2 6, 936, 325
i“ se + +2 eee 754, 898 18.7 14, 089, 783 39.2 5, 522, 339
ee ee a 717, 836 20.9 14, 997, 451 42.1 6, 319, 188
oe ee eee 678, 332 17.3 11, 721, 927 45.0 5, 271, 462
EE ee eee 8 one Soden ngs 670, 148 16.6 11, 094, 473 65.7 6, 183, 675

Acreage, production, value, prices, exports, and imports of potatoes in the United
States, 1866 to 1899, inclusive.

Ay- Chicago price Dom
erage per bushel, Burbank. me eee
Av- farm —_—_———_—_—___—— exports,| @2728
y Bae Sieid Production.| Price = | May of fiscal fiscal
Lo pe ae ae SSS SS Tae io December. following years tone
ern pack year. neg ning
pees Low High Low. Hig gh| July 1. fe
Acres. | push. Bushels Cts. Dollars. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Bushels. | Bushels.
i eo 381 |190.2 | 107,200, (URS UY - aesS 2 ee ees) eS See 512, 380 198, 265
82.0 | 97,783,000 | 65.9 | 64, 462, 486 |_-._.- oes eS Eases 3878, 605 ;
93.8 | 106,020,000 | 59.3 | 62,918, 660 |_-.--- eee EEE Eee 138, 470
109.5 | 133,886,000 | 42.9 | 57,481,362 |---.--]------ as eee 5956, 968 5,
$6.6 | 114,775,000 | 65.0 | 74,621,019 {------ Breet a) (BS ee eens 553, 070 458, 758
98.7 | 120,461,700 | 53.9 | 64,905,189 |-____- es 3 Tovar see 621,537 | 96, 259
85.3 | 113,516,000 | 53.5 | 60,692,129 |__.-.-|__--.-|___.-- Sea 515,306 | 346,840
81.9 | 106,089,000 | 65.2 | 69, 153, 709 ae fee acne! Bie pees 497, 413 549, 073
80.9 | 105,981,000 | 61.5 | 65 | 609, 642
110.5 | 166,877; 000 | 34.4 | 5
71.7 | 124,827,000 | 61.9 |
7 | 94.9 | 170,092) 000 | 43.7 |
69.9 | 124, 126,650 | 58.7 | 72 -
800 | 98.9 | 181, 626,400 | 43.6 | 79, 153, 673 | 696, 080 721, 868
510 | 91.0 | 167,659,570 | 48.3 2 :
53.5 | 109,145,494 | 90.9 | >
78.7 | 170,972,508 | 55.7 | 8 ve
275 | 90.9 | 208, 164, 425 | 42.2 9, NE
85.8 | 190, 642,000 | 39.6 a 6
77.2 | 175,029,000 | 44.7 | 78,153, 408 |--.-_- oslo. | 33 50 | 494,948 | 1,937,416
é 73.5 | 168,051,000 | 46.7 | 78,441, 940 4 47 65 90 | 454, 864 | 1, 482, 490
e 56.9 | 134,103,000 | 68.5 | 91,506, 740 70 83 65 85 | 403, 880 | 8, 259, 5388
30 | 79.9 | 202,365,000 | 40.4 | $1,413,589 3 37 24 45 | 471,955 885, 380
77.4 | 204,990,345 | 40.3 | 72,704,413 33 45 30 60 | 406,618 | 3,415,578
79 | 57.5 | 148, 078,945 | 75.8 |112, 205, 235 82 93 $d | 110} 341,189 | 5,401,912
93.9 | 254,426,971 | 35.8 | 91, 024, 521 30 40 50 50 | 557, 022 186, 87
7, 962 | 62.0 | 156, 654,819 | 66.1 |103, 567,520 60 72 70 98 | 845,720 | 4,317, G21
70.3 | 183,034,203 | 59.4 (108, 651, 801 51 64 88 | 803,111 | 3,002,578
62.4 | 170,787,338 | 58.6 | 91,526, 787 43 58 40 70 | 572,957 | 1,341,533
|100.6 | 297,237,370 | 26.6 | 78, 984, 901 18 24 10 23 , G49 175, 240
5 | 91.1 | 252,234,540] 23.6 | 72, 182, 350 18 26 19 26 | 926, 646 246, 178
64.7 | 164,015, 964 | 54.7 | 89, 643, 059 50 62 60 87 | 605,187 | 1,171,378
75.2 | 192, 306, 41.4 | 79, 574, 772 30 Ss pee al eens 581, 833 530, 420
mG (ape genoa | 20.0) ap ses aaa | a ee ne ae eee

76

4

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Acreage. production, value, prices, and exports of hay in the United States, 1866

to 1899, inclusive.

Spe Chicago prices of No.1 ‘
| r
Aver- ve timothy by carioad lots. Domestic
Bee Prod farm Farm value oe
ee al pret as OdUC=\ alas arm value, } C:

Year. | Acreage ae tion. ers Dec. 1. December. iontie ee years be

acre ton, Rin “a

Dec. 1 Low. | High.| Low. | High. ;

Acres. Tons. Tons. Dolls Dollars. Dolls.| Doils.| Dolis. | Dolls Tons.
1866. ...- 17,668,904 | 1.23 | 21,778,627 | 10.14 | 220,835,771 5, 028
i eee 20,020,554 | 1.31 | 26,277,000 | 10.21 | 268,300, 623 5, 645
1868-2222 21,541,573 | 1.21 26,141,900 | 10.08 263, 589) 985 ||....--s|_.-21- Se LES | er
18692 eh 18, 591, 281 1.42 | 26,420,000 | 10.18 268, 933. 048 6, 723
1870222 19,861,805 | 1. 2¢ 24,525,000 | 12.47 305, 743, 224 4,581
THs (le 19,009,052 ! 1.17 22, 239, 400 | 14.30] 317,939,799 5, 266
ei geste 20,318,986 | 1.17 | 23,812,800 | 12.94 | 308, 024,517 4, 557
1873 21,894,084} 1.14] 25, 085,100 | 12.53 814, 241, 037 4,889.
iy: eee 91) 769. 772 | 1.11 | 25,183,900 | 11.94 | 300, 222, 454 7,183
OSs ee 23, 507,964 | 1.18.| 27,873,600 | 10.78 | 300,377, 839 7, 528
LBIG222—= 25, 282" 797 1.22 | 30,867,100 | 8.97 | 276, 991, 422 7, 287
ttc yy See 25, 367, 708 1. 24 |~ 31,629,300 | 8.37 264. 879. 796 9,514
PSTOn aes 26, 931, 800 1.47 | 39,608,296 | 7.20 B85, 015, 625 8,127
1879_____| 27, 484, 991 1.29 | 35,493,000 | 9.32 330, 804. 494 13, 739
1880__._- 25, 863,955 | 1.23 | 81,925,233 | 11.65 | 371,811, 084 12, 662
1881-e 30,888,700 | 1.14 | 35,185,064 | 13.43 415, 131, 366 10, 570
1882_~__- 82, 339,585 | 1.18 | 38,138,049 | 9.70 371, 170, 326 18, 309
1883. __.- 35, 515, 948 1.82 | 46,864,009 | 8.19 | 384,834, 451 16, 908
1884. 2° => | $8,571,593 | 1.26! 48,470,460 | 8.17 | 396,139,309 11, 142
1885. ____| 39,849,701 | 1.12) 44,731,550 | 8.71 | 889,752,873 13, 390
1886___._ 36,501,688 | 1.15 | 41,796,499 | 8.46 | 353, 437,699 18, 873
Bee 37,664,739 | 1.10] 41,454,458 | 9.34] 413, 440 283 18, 198
TABS E 88, 591,903 | 1.21 46, 643,094 | 8.76 | 408,499, 565 21, 928
i {cf} eee 52, 947.2 236 1.2 66,829,612 | 7.88 | 470,374,948 36, 274
1890 -| 50, 712, 513 1.20 | 60,197,589 | 7.74 | 473,569, 972 , 066
189k 2233 51, 0414 490 | 1.18 | 60,817,771 8.39 | 494,113, 616 35, 201
1892. ___- 50,853,061 | 1.18 | 59,823,735 | 8.49 | 490,427,798 33, 084
1893: 228. 49, 613, 469 | 1.33 | 65,766,158 | 8.68 | 570,882,872 54, 446
1894__>__ 48, 321°272 | 1.14| 54. 874,408 | 8.54 | 468,578,321 47,117
1895 =e. 44,206,453 | 1.06] 47,078,541 8.35 | 393,185, 615 , 052
1896___..| 43,259,756 | 1.37) 59,282,158} 6.55 | 388,145, 614 61, 658
1897___._| 42,426,770 | 1.43 | 60,664,876 | 6.62 | 401,390, 728 81, 827
18982____| 42,780,827 | 1.55 | 66,376,920 | 6.00 | 398, 060, 647 64, 918
1899. _...| 41,328,462 | 1.35 | 656,655,756 | 7.27 | 411,926,187 | 10.50 | 11.50 |.......|_.2-c..| ---ocenee

Acreage, production, value, prices, and exports of cotton tn the United States, 1866

to 1898, inclusive.

New York closing

Aver- prices per pound on

Aye ee middling upland. Domestic

age . arm SS OR ena

Year. | Acreage. | yield PEON: price | Value. May of | fiscal years

per outs per December. | following | beginning

acre pound, year. uly 1.
Dec. 1.
Low.| High.|Low. | High.

Bales of 500

Acres. |Bales. Bales. Cents.| Dollars Cts. | Cts..| Cis: | Cts pounds.
1866 .....- a6, 300,000 | .83 | 2,097,254 |_. -..-- 204-561) S96 i nus el eee eee Rec. 1, 322, 947
3H 7,000, 000 SOU 2. DLOsbbd nena se 199;:583; 510 ||, 22226 | Sees Se eee ee eee 1, 569, 527
3 fs 000, G0G .84 | 2,366, 467 |_. __--- 226: 94, 168 324) gaceee elas ee Jssccee 1, 288, 655
1, 750, 000 -40.| 8,192,551 | 16.5 | 261,067,087 |__.._2|_.--.2 el. ---. eee 1,917, 117
8, 680, 000 . 50 4 352, 317 4200) 1202-708, 086 | <2--2 eS cee| eons eee 2, 920, 856
7 378, 000 40 | 2,974,351 | 17.9 | 242° 672; 804 |___..-|_..---- 234 24% 1, 867, 074.
8, 500, 000 -46 | 3,980, 508 16.5 | 280,552,629 | 19} 201 | 194 198 2, 400, 127
9, 350, 000 .45 | 4,170,388 | 14.1 | 289,853,486 | 15% 164 | 17% 18% 2, 717, 204
| 10, 982, 000 .38) | 3,832, 991 13.0 | 228,118,080 | 144 14% | 16} 168 2, 520, 837
10, 803, 030 43} 4,632,313 | 11.1 | 233}109,945 | 13x3] 185| 1148} 134 2, 982, 810
| 11, 677, 250 .38 £ 474, 069 9.9 | 211,655,041 | 12y,; 124 | 103%) 118 2, 890, 738
12, 600, 300 88 | 47731865 | 10.5 | 235,721,194 | 114 114 | 108 114 3, 215, 067
12) 266, 800 -41 | 5,074, 155 8.2 | 193, 467, 706 833 94} 11% 13} 38, 256, 745
12, 595, 500 -46.| 5,761,252 | 10.2 | 242,140,987 | 128 18%,' 1144) 1g 3, 644, 122
15,475,300 | 43] 6, 605,750 | 9.8 | 280,266,242 | 112] 12 | 107%] 102 4, 381, 857
16, 710, 730 .33 | 5,456,048 | 10.0 | 294, 185,547 | 117 12} | 1275] 128 3,479, 951
16,791,557 | .41 | 6.949.756 | 9.9 | 309,696,500 | 10: | 10%, 103 | 114 4, 576, 150
16,777,993 | .34| 5,713;200 | 9.0 | 250,504,750 | 108] 10% Us] 114 3, 725, 145

a Estimated.

ACREAGE, YIELD, AND VALUE OF PRINCIPAL CROPS. 765

Aereage, production, val

te, prices, and exports of cotton in the United States, 1866
to 1898, inclusive—Continued.

New York closing

|

Aver- prices per pound on
Aver- age middling upland. Domestic
age _ | farm exports,
Year. | Acreage. | yield Peoduc price Value. May of fiscal years
per ; per | December. | efollowing | beginning -
acre. ound. year. July 1.
| Dec. 1. |
| Low.) High. Low. | High.
\————
Bales ef 500
Bales. Cents.| Dollars. | Cts.| Cts._| Cts. | Cts. pounds.
33 | 5,706,165 9.2 | 253,993,385 | 10%) 11%) 108) ll 3, 783, 318
ce 6, 575, 691 8.5 | 269, 989, 812 93 OF} 933; 955 4,116, 074
-39 | 6,505, 087 8.1 | 309, 381, 938 93,1 923] 108 1144 4, 338, 914
: 7, 046, 833 8.5 | 337,972,453 | 104 108 915! 1075 4,528, 241
; 6, 938, 290 8.5 | 354, 454, 340 93 92 | 11 | 11s 4, 769, 633
RE: 7, 311, 322 8.3 | 402,951,814 | 10} 103 | 1138) 123 4,945,599
.42 | 8, 652,597 8.6 | 369,568, 858 935 975) 8% 85 5,814,717 -
: 9, 035, 379 7.3 | 326,513, 298 TE 873, 72 TZs| . 5,870,439*
‘ 6, 700, 365 8.4 | 262, 252, 286 OF 10 7 i 4,424. 230
‘ 7, 549, 817 7.0 | 274,479, 637 743, Sy] 7 7s 5, 366, 564
; 9,901, 251 4.6 | 287, 120, 818 5R 5t3) (GR Te 7, 034, 866
.36 | 7,161,094 7.6 | 260,538, 086 8t 83) 8 82 4, 670, 452
.37 | 8,532,705 6.6 | 291,811, 564 Tes 74) OTE 733 6, 207, 509
.45 | 10. 897, 857 6.6 | 319,491, 412 533] OB]. 6S 68 7, 700, 528
ee = == 24, 967, 295 .45 | 11,189, 205 5.7 | 305, 467, O41 5g 5E 6t 6 7, 546, 820

|

Acreage, production, value, and distribution of the principal crops of the United

States in 1899, by States.

States and Territories.

~

Maine
New Hampshire
Vermont
Massachusetts
Rhode Island
Connecticut
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Delaware
Maryland
Virginia
North Carolina

Mississippi
Louisiana

rr
Indiana
Tilinois

CORN.
Crop of 1899. Shipped
Stock } out 0
: s 4 tar i noo county
Acreage. Production.| Value. : where
grown.
Acres. | Bushels. Dollars. | Bushels. Per ct.| Bushels.
1, 873 427,428 213, 714 | 98, 308 23 0
25, O14 | 975, 546 478, 018 243, 886 25 0
7,526 | 1, 710, 936 804, 140 564, 609 33 0
40, 264 1, 449, 504 739, 247 434, 851 30 0
8,116 | 251. 596 133, 346 108, 186 43 7,548
46, 149 1, 799, 811 899, 906 647, 932 36 0
503, 389 15, 605,059 | 7,022,277 | 5,305,720 34 156, 051,
54, 816 9,937,824 | 3,975,130 | 4,273,264 43 1, 391, 295
1, 257, 996 40,255, 872 | 16,504,908 | 15,699, 790 39 3, 220. 470
206, 696 4,547,312 | 1,546,086 | 2,137,237 47 1, 273, 247
580, 076 18, 562, 482 | 6,682,476 | 6,682,476 36 6, 125. 603
1, 744, 045 34, 880,900 | 13, 254,742 | 12,905, 933 37 2,441. 663
2,457, 936 31, 953,168 | 15,017,989 | 14, 698, 457 46 | 1,697,658
1, 857, 021 16, 715, i89 , 396,594 | 7,520,935 45 | 334, 264
3, 249, 479 82,494,790 16,247,395 | 15, 922, 447 49 | 1, 949, 687
509, 337 5, 093,370 | 2,699,486 | 1,935,481 38 203, 735
| 2,751, 260 33,015,120 | 15,517,106 | 15.517, 106 47 990), 454
2, 440, 232 39, 043, 712 | 17,960,108 | 19, 131, 419 49 780, 874
1, 438, 707 25, 896,726 | 11,394,559 | 10, 876, 625 42 1, 035, 8&9
4,508, 411 $1,151, 398 | 29,214,503 | 29, 214, 503 386 | 10,549, 682
2, 404, 357 48, 087,140 | 18,273,113 | 20,196, 599 42 3, 366, 100
2, 999, 888 59, 997, 7 23, 399,126 | 21,599, 194 36 5, 999, 776
693, 984 18,048, 584 | 8,119,613 | 6,134,819 34 1, 082, 615
2, 657, 747 55, 392, 687 | 20,495,294 | 18,835,514 34 3, 325, 561
2,751, 356 99,048, 816 | 29,714,645 | 34, 667, 086 35 | 19, 809, 763
1, 059, 054 26,476,350 | 9.531.486 | 9,001,959 34 1,588,581
3, 732,963 | 141,852,594 | 38,300,200 | 52, 455, 460 37 | 38,300, 260
6,865,287 | 247,150,332 | 64,259,086 | 88,974,120 36 | 79,088, 106
3 - 686.365 | 12,505,910 | 13,756, 500 33 2, 084, 318
171, 272 7,481,105 | 12, 156, 796 39 4, 052, 265
55, 717,463 | 84,787,444 35 | 36,337,476
| 48,874,519 | 55,391, 122 34) 11,404, 054
| 59, 405, 306 | 92,672, 277 39 | 54,652, 881
51, 605, 852 | 85,261, 842 38 | 44,874, 654
7,804,528 | 9,305,399 31 8, 404, 876
182, 653 160, 514 2 5, 535
18, 921 3, 10 0
23,196 | 10,789 20 0

766

Acreage, production, value, and distribution of the principal crops of the United
States in 1899, by States—Continued.

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

CORN—Continued.

Crop of 1899. Shipped
nae Stock on hand out of
States and Territories. Mar. 1.1900 county
Acreage. |Production.| Value. ae . where
grown.
Acres. Bushels. Dollars. Bushels. | Per ct.| Bushels.
Colorado). -b45< vss. sbeeee==2 171, 264 2,911,488 | 1,251,940 756, 987 26 116, 460
[NOiw7 MORI CO ss pesos esse see 24, 015 480, 300 278, 574 57, 12 , O21
(Uibahe ete 6 oecek oe sass cab cos 8, 134 162, 680 95, 981 32, 536 20 1, 627
Washineton-—.2--!2.222232.25 5, 586 128, 478 0, 663 37, 259 29 0
Overonesa-2 ce se edse eS 18, 519 297, 418 190, 348 56, 509 19 17, 845
Galifornia .- 2.25... 22 82e0. 08 56, 925 1, 536, 975 922, 185 430, 353 28 76, 849
ORMPROMG.. 35. 9easnss-cees-8sce 533, 335 10, 133,365 | 2, 026, 673 | 3, 040, 010 30 1, 418, 671
Wnited States. .-.-:-.--- 82, 108, 587 |2, 078, 143; 933 62 629, 21 210,110 110 (778, 729, 528 37.2 | 348, 087, 934
WHEAT.
Acres. Bushels. Dollars. Bushels. | Per aa Bushels.
ManING lose ona pates oe cache eee 1,953 43, 942 39, 987 11, 425 - 439
New Hampshire -.-2------2-2 511 8, 789 OD 1, 055 6 0
Visi citty 9. eS Se 3, 560 78, 320 66, 572 25, 062 32 783
Conneciiciitee ee. 2.2.4.8 ae 800 5, 490 5,216 1, 702 31 0
INiGnve One ee oe eee 378, 690 7,005, 765.| 5,604,612 | 2,522,075 36 1, 261, 038
ING Wa slet SOV sore ene eee eee oe 123, 370 1,788, 865 | 1,341, 649 518, 771 29 p
Pennsylvania 25. -- 2222 2 te 1, 505, 362 20, 472, 928 | 13,512,129 | 7,165,523 35 5, 118, 231
Delawatets 2 ee. - Seo cs cee 72, 856 982, 557 634, 139 233, 189 25 531, 557
VER yA eee ean a eee 759, 643 10, 710,966 | 7,283,457 | 2, 463, 522 23 5, 569, 702
WVarn Paintin eee eee oe ee eee 758, 625 6,380,450 | 4,268,010 | 1,519,308 24 , 215, 658
Nonthi@arolinae 2... 22-28 521, 731 3,495,598 | 2,866,390 978, 767 28 174, 780
Sonth@anolinaes.= so-so sae 148, 271 963, 762 954, 124 154, 202 16 0
Geormiatee: nes oo eee $07’ 359 2,021,225 | 1, 980, 800 384, 033 19 101, 061
pA atoammninnts. Se. 2222-222 -a8E 56, 735 431, 186 383, 756 68, 990 16 , 312
IMR SISSIp pT - eo 2 eco eaee 3, 248 25, 010 19, 508 6, 002 24
AMES S13 2 ea one See ae 814, 832 9,044, 635 | 6,150,352 | 1,356, 695 15 2, 080, 266
ONT ea ag cE) = eee a 227, 135 1, 953,361 | 1,250,151 507, 874 26 312, 588
MennGBROR oe see a. Soke ces = ee 953, 187 8,292,727 | 6,468,327 | 1,824, 400 22 1, 824, 400
West Virginin =... Jesc:- 417, 285 3,880,751 | 2,755,333 | 1,280, 648 33 853, 765
Wenbiekyye oa s-2 2 - ee sees oo 901, 272 8,201,575 | 5,418,040 | 1,804,346 22 1, 886, 362
Ohi ee eee ee 2,816, 761 89, 998,006 | 25,598,724 | 14, 399, 282 36 | 17,599, 123
Wrehioan =o" 2 ceec cs o4 see il 587, 523 13, 335,193 | 8,667,875 | 4, 000, 558 30 , 400, 893
Ibe @hten eth ee oe eee eS eee ae 2,587, 875 25,361,175 | 16,231,152 | 6,086,682 24) 11,412,529
im O1S) eee Foe 266, 541 12) 665, 410 7, 979, 208 026, 466 16 546, 315
Wisconsin perse seaon es Seeeee 759, 573 11,773, 382 7,181,763 | 4,356,151 37 2, 354, 676
MirrimesObtas-sasrre- = sone 5,091, 312 68, 223, 581 | 37, 522) 969 | 23, 196, 018 34 | 53,896, 629
gpa ee es ee tee ee 1, 399, 653 18, 195, 489 10,007,519 | 5,822,556 32 4, 912, 782
MiSSomrii so menos ee seer 1,151, 884 11, 398, 702 7” 087, 195 | 2,507,714 22 2,507, 714
IRETIS AR re eae eee ee 38, 721, 229 36, 468, 044 | 18,963,383 | 9,481, 691 26 | 22,974, 868
ING DraSKa Se anna no ee ee 2,018, 619 20,791, 776 | 10,187,970 | 6, 655, 368 32 | 10,895, 888
South Dakotac.. «sscsseneenes 3, 526, 013 37, 728. 339 | 18, 864,170 | 10, 186, 652 27 | 29,805, 388
North Dakotas. --2 325252 4-526 4, 043, 643 51, 758, 680 | 26,396,901 | 11, 386, 899 22 | 45,547, 504
VEGI ania ene ee ee ee ee 69, 764 1, 792, 935 ie 093, 690 573, 739 32 645, 457
RVWEVOMMIN acs c= gee 21, 029 ¢ 395, 345 264, 881 59, 802 is} 19, 767
Gploradop sce ee ees eee 309, 611 7,307,781 | 4,182,535 | 2,054,579 28 2,935, 112
NIG? HVEOKICO. 00 nn eee encase 186, 946 2,579, 855 | 1,573, 712 412, 777 16 103, 194
PASTS a scone eee oe 22, 362 342, 139 218, 969 30, 793 9 78, 692
(ita Se a a ee 180, 505 38. 736, 454 | 1,980, 321 934, 114 2 822, 020
DISTR ENG V7 pies a SR el CEE fee 38, 167 037, 006 522, 125 109, 921 16 151, 141
Ndahige=!s lees tee eee 142, 153 3, 440,103 | 1,720,052 | 1,238, 437 36 1, 926, 458
Wiastiime tome 2. --- ss sees eee ae 956, 405 21,710, 394 | 11,072,301 | 7,815, 742 36 | 16,934, 107
(Graccnes © (2) i 1 hae 1, 143/205 | 217949/536 | 11) 633; 254 | 7, 682,338 35 | 13,608, 712
Ciirornia = = ea eee 2, 393, 185 33, 743, 909 | 20,921,223 | 12, 147, 807 36 | 23,958,175
Ofciahoma oot ee 1, 218, 253 16, 202,765 | 8,587,465 | 2,754,470 17 | 10,207,742
United States __.....---- 44,592,516 | 547,308, 846 [319,545,250 [158,745,595 | 29.0 | 305, 019, 752
OATS.
Acres. Bushels. Dollars. Bushels. | Per ct.| Bushels
(UCM See ee eee eee eee se 141, 619 4,956,665 | 1,883,533 | 1, 685, 266 34 99,
New Hampshire ......_.....-- 29, 92 1, 047, 445 408, 504 366, 606 35 20, 949
\W/ TG a) 1 re 107, 009 3,959,333 | 1,464,953 | 1, 544, 1 389 39, 593
Massachusetts ...-..........-. 14, 819 489, 027 185, 830 151, 598 81 0
a oOgdetslgnd 2.2 once ccee ls 8, 668 95, on 85, 286 27, 657 29 954
WMannecticuts --- ...25.ce-5-- 18, 752 525, ( 194, 271 152, 266 29 10, 501
hen NQayil ee ONS Se See 1, 464, 568 45,401, eB 14, 982,531 | 20, 480,724 45 8, 632, 129
aermheESP i. catsec nsec. ce 95, 193 2) 284° 632 753,929 891; 006 39 228,

ast

ACREAGE, YIELD, AND VALUE OF PRINCIPAL CROPS.

767

Acreage, production, value, and distribution of the principal crops of the United
States in 1899, by States—Continued.

OATS—Continued.

States and Territories.

PRBMeylVANIA).~.2-....---5..--
Delaware
Maryland
Ge ee ese-- --- = ------
North Carolina

Mississippi
Louisiana
ov

Tennessee - - -
West Virginia
Kentucky
Ohio

[Ul Li 2 ee
eet = 2 ke
Wi. 2)
1
Missouri --.-
Kansas -----
Nebraska
So
iNertn Dakota .-.-........---- }

ee ee ee

bo bo.
Weapniipion-—-o-._....-..=...-
Oregon

United States ._........-

Crop of 1899

Acreage. | Production.
Acres Bushels.
1, 186, 304 39, 148, 032

16, 004 320, 080
2, 852 1, 675, 596
367, 5387 5, 145, 518
398, 934 4,787, 208
251, 998 3, 023, 976
476, 87 4, 291, 857
35, 606 320, 454
801, 207 8, 012, 070
136, 574 1, 365, 740
30, 738 553, 284
682, 719 17, 067, 975
313, 918 5, 964, 442
380, 446 5, 326, 244
137, 324 3, 158, 452
455, 267 8, 194, 806
915, 166 32, 945, 976
899, 972 30, 599, 048
, 071, 914 34, 301, 248

3,349,446 | 127,278,948
1, 880, 205 67, 687, 380
1, 646, 513 52, 688, 416
3, 848, 053 126, 985, 749

811, 974 20, 299, 350

1, 349, 290 89, 129, 410

1,715, 804 51, 474, 120
589, 703 15, 382, 278
599, 589 17, 987, 670

60, 986 2,317, 468
14, 743 442, 290
90, 698 2, 448, 846
7,418 178, 032
25, 654 872, 236
82. 352 1, 099, 968
81, 945 3, 031, 965
170, 622 5, 118, 660
59, 477 1, 843, 787

26, 341, 380

796, 177, 713 ge 167,975 |290, 937, 335

36.

: Shipped
Stock on hand eee
= county
Value Mar. als 1800. where
grown
Dollars. Bushels. | Per ct.| Bushels.
11, 352, 929 | 17, 225, 184 44 1, 565, 921
80, 020 105, 626 33 25, 6
502, 679 452, 411 27 301, 607
1,698,021 | 1,548, 655 30 257, 276
1, 962, 755 957, 442 20 143, 616
1, 421, 269 241,918 8 30, 240
2, 060, 091 557, 941 13 42,919
160, 227 41, 659 13 9, 614
1, 295, 190 421, 690 14 30, 12
682, 870 136, 574 10 13, 657
221, 314 55, 828 10 5, 533
5, 120,392 | 3, 072, 286 18 3, 413, 595
2,027,910 |} 1,789,333 30 178,
1,704,398 | 1,491,348 28 106, 525
1, 105, 458 979,120 31 126, 338
2,622,338 | 2,376, 494 29 409, 740
8, 236, 494 | 11,531, 092 35 7, 907, 034
8, 567, 733 | 11, 627, 638 38 7, 037, 781
7, 889, 287 | 10,976,399 32| 12,691, 462
28,001, 369 | 44,547, 632 35.| 62,366, 685
15, 568, 097 | 27,751, 826 41 | 18,952, 466
11,591, 452 | 25, 290, 440 48 | 12,645, 220
24, 127, 292 | 38, 095, 725 30 | 50,794, 300
4, 871, 844 7, 104, 772 35 1, 826, 942
8, 608, 470 | 15, 651, 764 40 8, 608, 470
11, 324, 806 | 19,560, 166 38 19, 560, 166
3,526,424 | 7,206,171 47 3,219, 778
4, 856,671 | 8,818, 958 AQ 2, 158, 520
903, 813 834, 288 36 556, 192
176, 916 66, 344 15
1, 028, 515 832, 608 34 587, 723
78, 334 21, 364 12 35, 606
348, 894 174, 447 20 43, 612
417,988 483, 986 44 384, 989
1,152,147 | 1,091,507 36 1,121, 827
2,098,651 | 2,098, 651 4] 1, 637, 971
866, 580 479, 385 26 184, 379

5 | 223, 014, 086

Acreage, production, and value of barley, rye, buckwheat, potatoes, and hay in the
United States in 1899.

BARLEY.
Average ad Soa Average FE ]
States and Territories. Acreage. | yield per| Production. oi Mm |value per ae A BRE
acre, ELC’, acre. eons
Dec. 1.
J
Acres. Bushels. Bushels. Cents. | Dollars. Dollars.

alii Ee 11, 988 29 347, 652 59 Lu 205, 115
New Hampshire -....._...---- 4,620 25 115, 500 65 16. 25 75, O75
Van ONG See a ree 17, 384 31 538, 904 52 16. 12 280, 230
Massachusetts ...........--..- | 1, 695 30 50, 850 68 20. 40 34, 578
ipmomertstand =. 2.22} 315 29 9,135 70 20. 30 6, 394
Ro i rae 168, 853 24 4, 052, 472 50 12. 00 2, 026, 236
Bennsglvania .---._. ---- 8, 564 21 179, 844 49 10. 29 88, 124
icniy 22 i) Sa 1,970 18 5, 460 66 11. 88 23, 404
NTT 2s a San 1,779 ive 19, 569 64 7.04 12, 524
on ae 1, 381 21 29, O01 43 9.03 12, 470
(OLN) a } 21, 550 28 603, 400 45 12. 60 271, 530
Lui ia 38, 631 24 927, 144 48 11.52 445, 029
LUT ae 6, 132 25 153, 300 45 11. 25 68, 985
beter eer i Pe 13, 638 29 395, 502 47 13. 63 185, 886
Wea es 255, 685 30 7, 670, 550 40 12.00 3, 068. 220
2 LD Pe) a ee ee 525, 765 20 8, 144, 125 Bal (eth) 2, 524, 679
LOT"), 22sec el ae ie 461, 996 26 12, 011, 896 31 8. 06 3, 723, 688
VLA SSO oe Se ee 72 18 12, 960 42 7.56 5, 443
INT UGOS oe ee 187, 245 17 38, 183, 165 27 4,59 859, 455
JO ETS TST ae el i 36, 276 26 943,176 30 7.80 282, 953

768 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Acreage, production, and value of barley, rye, buckwheat, potatoes, and hay in the
United States in 1899—Continued.
BA RLEY—Continued.

Average Average

Average :
States and Territories Acreage. |yield per| Production.| 7™ |yalueper| Farm value,
Sone price, ns Dec. 1.
; Dec. 1. =

Acres. Bushels. Bushels Cents. | Dollars. Dollars.
SouthDakotans-29-- pene nse 104, 798 23 2,410, 354 29 6, 67 699, 003
North Dakotas! sp-t2. sose-e 246, 228 24 5, 909, 852 33 7.92 1, 950, 986
Montanace: a. e eS 6,183 35 216, 405 51 17.85 110, 863
Wolorat Ope tee sete eee pees 12, 069 28 337, 932 55 15. 40 185, 863
New Mexico-_ 1,109 32 35, 488 61 19. 52 21, 648
Witainy 2s 2 5, 905 33 194, 865 52 17.16 101, 380
fidahoes 11, 586 35 405, 510 46 16.10 186, 525
Washington- 40, 296 35 1, 410, 360 A4 15. 40 620, 558
Orecitts sess ena tate 28, 497 28 797, 916 50 14. 00 398, 958
Orbtorniae eee ees oe ae 855, 376 26 22, 239, 776 50 13. 00 11, 119, 888
Waitedywstates essere s. 2,878, 229 25.5 73, 381, 563 40.3 10. 28 29, 594, 254

RYE.

Acres, Bushels. Bushels. Cents. | Dollars. Dollars.
WEAIN Girish swiss este oa eee 983 15 14, 745 84 12. 60 12, 386
New Hampshire.--...----.---- 924 15 13, 860 81 12. 15 11, 227
VWenmonte 22. o-s eee 3,173 17 53, 941 62 10. 54 33, 443
Massachusetts: :. 2.-22ten.2.2 8.331 16 133, 296 79 12. 64 105, 304
Gounecticut.25-.-- 2225. s522-2 14, 248 18 256, 464 64 11. 52 164, 137
New avons totes 2. 2 Se uel a 227, 100 16 3, 633, 600 56 8.96 2,084, 816
Newislerseye 4h.25-= seh lees 66, 719 15 1, 060, 785 55 8.25 550, 452
Pennpylvaniat co: 32-22 -tee 262, 406 15 3, 986, 080 51 7.65 2, 007, 406
IVEar i yal snc ts meek 2 ee Sa Dove 14 353, 276 57 7.98 201, 367
Wan oiries: 2 se SoS ER ee 36, 719 9 330, 471 53 4.77 175, 150
Worbe Carolina 22.228. 2 72208 45, 754 i 820, 278 75 525) 240, 208
SOUL anohnd 2.5 see cele. 3, 825 5 19, 125 109 5.45 20, 846
GeOreiais fh hs aho7. Gee Bas? 15, 805 6 94, 880 112 6.72 106, 210
PN amin ape LO: 2 ot ee eee 1, 822 8 14, 576 104 8.32 15, 159
TTA ch ES Sia NS © 3, 766 10 37, 660 82 8.20 30, 881
TRICaINSAS Lene ee ee ee ee Aiee: ll 19, 052 74 8.14 14, 098
Moennesseenk Seb eee 11, 892 9 107, 028 67 6. 03 71, 709
WiestwWvareiman= 5. 5 Sees 13, 22 10 132, 290 62 6.20 82,020
on biekiw yee ns. eee 24, 443 10 244, 4380 70 7.00 171,101
OhTO Pee ee Mae Ee eae 39, 120 16 625, 920 55 8. 80 B44, 256
Nie Mi gan inset ae tee ae 78, 358 14 1, 097, 012 52 7.28 570, 446
Oe are re aL aaa ee 35, 741 15 464, 633 48 6. 24 223, O24
MITINO IS pt eae oe yey) oe pe ees 76, 955 15 1, 154, 825 47 7.05 542, 5383
IWASCONSInet sss =) eat eee 204, 875 15 3, 073, 125 48 7.20 1, 475, 100
MiNMeRO tA arts eee Sees 61, 804 18 1, 112, 472 42 7.56 467, 238
i on Dhar gars ee eee ee ae 112, 770 18 2, 029, 860 40 7.20 811, 944
INGESOUTIS: ee esdsslee aoc ee sone 9, 803 13 127, 439 50 6.50 63, 720
RANGA Sis 2-2 Soo eee ene 140, 532 11 1, 545, 852 42 4. 62 649, 258
INGbraska 0.2) se es 62, 319 16 997, 104 38 6.08 378, 900
SOUR akOban os esas a soemeee 2,451 15 36, 765 37 6.55 18, 603
NorthiDalkotaco ssesees sass e. 16, 315 15 244, 725 37 5.00 90, 548
Wolorados = eee seers 2, 3874 14 33, 236 48 6.72 15, 958
Witahieo.- SS Aas eee eee 3, 452 17 58, 684 48 8.16 28, 168
WWashino tone seseee-seen see 2, 246 16 35, 936 60 9. 60 21, 562

Ornemon 2s = eee es eee 5, 616 11 61, 776 70 7.70 43,
Callitormiae sats. a eees oe eeee 36, 472 15 547, 080 7 11.70 426, 722
United States__........- 1, 659, 808 14.4 23, 961, 741 51.0 7.36 12, 214, 118

BUCKWHEAT.

Acres. Bushels. Bushels. Cents. | Dollars. Dollars.
INTRNTIONS sos. etl. See 23, 754 22 522, 588 44 9. 68 229, 939
New Hampshire ----....---.-- 2, 827 20 56, 540 50 10. 00 28, 270
BVOrMONt cos ooo te 9, 348 23 215, 004 52 11. 96 111, 802
IMaSSaChUseLtN coo nooo sun ene 2, 209 20 44, 180 70 14. 00 30, 926
Connecticnit. ic see eee 38, 807 19 72, 333 63 11. 97 45, 570
ING Wav OV. 2-52 eS es 241, 543 13 8, 140, 059 59 7. 67 1, 852, 635
INGA OL RCV concn soe aan 10, 422 21 218, 862 56 11. 76 122, 563
Rennsylvania e.c.-2 02-2 ee 242, 280 20 4, 845, 600 54 10. 80 2, 616, 624
Welawere: 222 2005.0 2 ee 273 18 4,914 49 8. 82 2,408
WG Gesi IE as ER aie oie RT CS 7,510 13 97, 630 56 7.28 54, 673
Warrcigiaen 5 Sel) eee 4,616 14 64, 624 54 7.56 34, 897
iNorth Carolina -......--..1.22 1, 685 17 28, 645 49 8.33 4, 036
ileal (2 rh ee 1,005 12 12, 060 57 6. 84 6, 874

ACREAGE, YIELD, AND VALUE OF PRINCIPAL CROPS.

769

Acreage, production, and value of barley, rye, buckwheat, potatoes, and hay in the
United States in 1899—Continued.

BUCK WHEAT—Copntinued.

Average

Average Average
States and Territories. Acreage. | yield per| Production. farm value per Farm value,
| ra rice, = Dee. 1.
cre, : acre.
ec. 1.
rat Acres. Bushels. Bushels. Cents. | Dollars. Dollars
Wiesh Virginia ..-..---..--.---- 14,015 17 238, 255 56 9. 52 133, 423
lM) 21555325 ee 9, 415 16 150, 640 58 9, 28 87,571
Tachi Sey Eee 23, 083 il 253, 913 5 6.05 139, 652
LOUIE, SoS See 5,331 16 85, 296 59 9.44 50, 825
(UMS G) 2 8 ree See 4, 762 15 71, 4380 58 8.70 A], 429
MMRPORNIN =.=. =.-.----=.-.<- 80, 936 15 464, 040 63 9. 45 292, 345
emma interes Sen SS 11, 386 17 193, 562 52 8. 84 100, 652
Li eee 2, 098 16 193, 568 58 9.28 112, 269
LOLI sr 2,499 14 34, 986 61 8.54 21,241
co SEG k Ti, eee 5, 104 16 81, 664 62 9. 92 50, 632
LST. = Se 240 vi 4,080 74 12. 58 3, 019
United States.......-..- 670, 148 16.6 11, 094, 473 5S 9.23 6, 183, 675
POTATOES.
Acres. Bushels. Bushels. Cents. | Dollars. Doilars.
COSC Si iS Sones 46, 865 139 6,514, 235 42 58. 38 2, 735, 979
New Hampshire ------.-------- 127 2,570, O74 46 58. 42 1, 090, 284
CLERC, oh 182 3, 288, 7380 36 47.52 1, 183, 961
Massachusetts ----.---.------- 134 3, 760, 710 57 76. 38 2, 143, 605
none tniand. 2... -=.-3-- 142 1, 024, 104 50 71. 00 512, 052
Monmecuicub:.-s.=........2-..- 130 3, 823, 060 46 69, 80 1, 528, 608
Liliny i 88 28, 707, 976 40 35. 20 11, 483, 190
Mewwersey..=-....-..-----..- 83 3, 980, 265 51 42.33 2, 029, 985
Inanneylvanin .......-.----=--- 85 15, 243, 815 43 36. 55 6, 554, 840
ao tn te oe 52 272, 428 51 26. 52 188, 938
Wrertemibtig sss 52% ek eo ee 64 1, 420, 352 51 32. 64 724, 380
Mamminine eae oo eo ok 66 2, 409, 990 56 36. 96 1, 349, 594
North Caroling -~-.....--...-.. 57 928, 701 66 37. 62 612, 943
South Carolina ..--..........-- 56 231, 896 104 58. 24 241,172
(onc?) 33 ae 46 257 , 324 83 38.18 213, 579
eairarsieigee ss = 2 oe 69 117, 576 124 85. 56 145, 794
Ln pi a 56 335, 832 8&7 48.72 292, 174
MGS - == =~ - 2 ----2=--2 222 61 824, 032 102 62. 22 330, 513
LL ESO 7 ag ene 60 476, 820 81 48. 60 586, 224
“oot eee eae 64 927, 936 91 58. 24 844, 422
if ET Ts Se eee 63 1, 778, 198 71 44.73 1, 258, 971
(ni ee 44 1, 135, 464 65 28. 60 738, 052
Went eVireinia ...-.......-...- 12 2, 672, 784 52 37. 44 1, 389, 848
LSTA (i rr 51 2, 025, 210 61 81.11 1, 235, 378
i... 2 71 11, 505. 053 43 30. 53 4,947,173
Cn: ee eons 66 11, 430, 216 2 21.12 3, 657, 667
Lhd (i, a ee eae 76 8, 214, 232 43 32. 68 3,532,120
LULD oct) 22 a oa ee eee 96 15, 648, 192 41 39. 36 6, 415, 759
“STIL DOTER Th a 156, 337 108 16, 102, 711 26 26.78 4,186, 705
MOM NOSOtR s— 26-22 = saad 113, 423 96 10, 888, 608 25 24, 00 2,722, 152
Ream etre ee eee 198, 478 100 19, 847, 800 23 23. 00 4,564, 994
HEI ee ee Sd SL 105, 512 83 8, 757, 496 40 33. 20 8, 502, 998
BRIN AS eer ee 99, 646 95 9, 466, 3870 45 42.75 4, 259, 866
SIP Sica Se No 145, 560 94 13, 494, 640 25 23. 50 3, 373, 660
“SlOEH HOD Pao) is ee ee 56, $25 78 4,440, 150 27 21.06 1, 198, 840
Norte Dakota... ----22.05 52-2 29, 854 103 3, O74, 962 27 27.81 830, 240
WU Do EP ae Se eee 4, 597 141 648, 177 53 74.78 345, 534
WirGOnno® = oss 2 3,77! 125 471, 250 61 76. 25 287, 462
CISUGT ERG Gy, Sec haan ae 32, 804 84 2,718, 536 55 46.20 1, 492, 445
Mewaitexico 28. 2). Ss 734 49 35, 966 68 33. 3:2 24, 457
irri e Seles Sie oe 5, 446 120 653, 520 55 66. 00 359, 436
La hs ee alias 102 180, 642 90 91.80 162, 578
TIBIA Ook roles “eee eras 4,790 124 595, 960 61 75. 64 362, 316
Washington 15, 397 144 2,217, 168 50 72. 00 1, 108, 584
ORC. —————aa— 14, 934 115 1,717, 410 49 56. 85 841,531
ETI RO TR ee 26, 548 119 8, 158, 617 63 74. 97 7,989, 929
United States. -_....---- 2, 581, 353 88.6 | 228, 783, 232 39.0 34. 60 89, 628. $32

1 A 99-——49

770 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Acreage, production, and value of barley, rye, buckwheat, potatoes, and hay in the
United States in 1899—Concluded.

HAY,
= Average |
Average Average
States and Territories. Acreage. |yield per| Production.| f7™ |yaine =e Farm value,
ied rice, ae Dec. 1.
" ec. I. cs
Acres. Tons. Tons. Doliars. | Doliars. | Doliars.

IMBine 2 at-=> bee eo ee 976, 848 0.90 879, 165 10. 10 9.09 8, 879, 546
New Hampshire 2----- 2 - 602, 097 . 89 5, 866 11.75 10. 46 6, 296, 426
Wermtont=-2-2 222-2. 2a 843, 235 1.14 961, 288 9.25 10. 55 8, 891, 914
Massachusetts .-.-----=--=.--- 590, 707 1.13 667, 499 15. 50 17.52 10, 346, 234
Rhode Island 222s: 2252220 55-- 73, 008 89 64, 977 17.25 15. 35 1, 120, 853
Qbntieeticutl: 2.23 = see 475, 482 94 446, 983 14.50 13. 68 6, 480, 818
iNGwewOrk. et -c2 2s. 5-2 3-8 4, 356, 064 1.04 4, 530, 307 10. 45 10. 87 47,341, 703
ING wesersey.. sees: a=n--- s4--2- 392, 191 83 325, 519 15.35 12.74 4, 996, 717
Pennsylvania -.....-----------| 2,557,475 1.20 3, 068, 27 11.50 13.80 35, 298, 155
IDA Eos ee es 46, 1. 04 48, 620 11. 65 12. 12 566, 423
Winemland (0) s8-2 2 to 2 282, 992 1.13 319,781 | 12.15| 13.73 3, 885, 339
VAIN Ao ee eho sane a 534, 603 1.10 588, 063 10. 25 11.27 6, 027, 646
North Carolina. 2: = 25. .2=-==- 130,526 1.50 195, 739 10. 10 15.15 1, 977, 469
South Carolina---------------- 144, 354 1.22 176, 112 10.30 12.56 1,813, 954
Gene 20. eo 109, 287 1.45 158,466 | 13.15] 19.07 2) 083" 828
HIVE? tech =e oe 5, 942 1.46 8.675 | 15.35| 22.41 133, 161
FAY Oe 10 ope ee ee ne 49, 847 1. 66 82,7 11. 40 18. 92 943, 304
Mcinaippt se cee 5, 902 1.44 79, 059 9.25] 13.32 731,298
AROS a eee 25, 405 1.95 49,540 9.7 18. 92 480, 538
Fist 1s ee ek See eS rene Se 311, 156 1.43 444, 953 7.10 10.15 3.159, 166
ArkeneS oe cae 138, 1.48 205, 491 8.65 12. 80 1,777, 497
IRENTOSREE coor oe aoa eee 2 243, 348 1.31 318, 786 11.25 14, 74 3, 586, 343
Wiest Viroinia 22262 = ee 498, 998 1.29 643, 707 9. 45 12.19 6, 083, 031
montaeiey, by 5 306,173 1.29 394.963] 10.40] 13.42 4, 107, 615
Oi ee eats See aa ae 1, 641, 307 1.30 2, 135, 699 8.95 11. 68 19, 096, 606
Wipe 1 ae See 1,352, 7 1.22 1, 650, 375 8.50] 10.37 14) 028,188
Li sh: ns Coes ese ee eee 1, 562, 22 1,34 2, 093, 376 7.80 10. 45 16, 328, 333
ace ise SE Pe 1, 833, 884 1.29| 2/365, 710 7.75| 10.00] 18,334,252
Wisconsin _----- eee eee et ae 1, 324, 298 1,47 1, 946, 718 6.85 10. 07 13, 335, 012
Minnesota 1.70 2, 575, 230 4.35 7.40 11, 202, 250
WO Wels - = oe ee eee ee ee 1.34 5, 025, 974 5.30 7.10 26, 637, 662
Missouri -- 1.37 3, G94, 304 6.25 8.56 19, 339, 982
Kainbae” 2-23.15 1.57 5, 155, 908 3.50 5.49 18, 045, 678
Nebraska 1. 66 3,377, 698 3.7) 6.14 12, 497, 483
South Dakota-_ 1.43 2,779, 474 3.10 4.43 8, 616, 365
North Dakota- 1.58 606, 796 3.30 5. 21 2, 002, 427
Montana 1.42 513, 931 7.70 10. $3 3, 957, 269
Wyoming --- 1,47 399, 783 6. 60 9.70 2, 638, 568
Colorado ---- 2.10 1, 639, 274 7.35 15. 43 11, 982, 514
New Mexico 1.70 65, 127 10. 60 18. 02 690, 346
Arizona 2. 63 72, 651 10.35 27.22 751, 938
Utah,<- -.-- 2.50 485, 852 7.10 17.75 3, 449, 549
Nevada. ----- 1. 8&7 294, 488 7. 65 14.31 2, 252, 833
idaho... 22 3 2. 50 539, 895 6.39 15. 75 3, 401, 338
Washington--- 2.02 615, 664 8. 90 17.98 5, 461, 610
OPnemOn ce - 2 --2-22--—. 52 1. 1, 255, 264 6.85 13. 49 8, 598, 558
California 1.68 2, 784, 182 8. 00 13. 04 22, 273, 456
United States_-__-.------ 41, 328, 462 1.35 56, 655, 756 7.20 9.97 411, 926, 187

TOBACCO STATISTICS.

The following table contains statistics of tobacco production in the United
States based upon information in possession of the office of the Commissioner of
Internal Revenue and of the Bureau of Statistics of the Treasury Department.
It is the intention of the Department of Agriculture to resume the annual collec-
tion of statistics of production as soon as the Twelfth Census has furnished a new
basis for that work in the results of its careful and systematic investigations:

EXPORTS OF COTTON FROM UNITED STATES. tie

Production of tobacco in the United States, i892 to 1898, as compiled from the
reports of the Bureau of Internal Revenue and of the Bureau of Statistics of the
Treasury Department.

| 1892. 1893. 1894. | (1895. | 1896. 1897. 1898.
Tobacco manufac-
tured:
Chewing, smoking, | Pounds. 0unds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds.
and snuffa.____.- 234, 081, 332/249, 858, 869/250, 994, 675 254, 561, 904 265, 871, 158 247, 358, 414 5286, 453, 738
Cigars and ciga-
rettes @ ___....__._| 96, 925, 980) 89, 973,814} 93, 639, 213) 95,053, 056) 96, 213, 473/102, 519, 323 b106, 855, 524

Exports, domestic a 277, 258, 871/304, 797, 808/293, 637, 217 300, 047, 687 281, 074, 422|269, 966, 833) 346, 823, 677
Exports, foreigna..| 1,611,863} 1,776,636) 3,060, 385) 2, 767,454) 1,779,103) 2,323,516) 1, 847, 687

609, 878, 046)646, 407, 127/641, 331, 490 632, 430, 101 644, 938, 156/622, 168, 086] 741, 980, 576
Less importsa_.....| 22,093, 270) 24, 899,173) 31, 355, 899) 20, 258, 704) 12! 848,743] 11, 307, 830) 17, 107, 839

587, 784, 776\621, 507, 952\609, 975, 591 612, 171, 397 632, 089, 413/610, 860, 256) 724, 872, 737

| | | |

a For calendar year following. b Preliminary estimates.

|

UNITED STATES TREASURY DEPARTMENT,
OFFICE OF THE COMMISSIONER OF INTERNAL REVENUE,
Washington, D. C., March 14, 1900.

I have made a careful examination and study of the statement of the produc-
tion of leaf tobacco in the United States for the years 1892 to 1898, inclusive, as
compiled by the Division of Statistics, Department of Agriculture, from the
reports of this office and the Bureau of Statistics of this Department, and am of
the opinion that the statement is as complete and correct as is possible to be made.

H. C. Jones, Chief, Tobacco Division.
CONSUMPTION OF AMERICAN COTTON BY FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

The comparative figures in the following table are compiled from the reports
of the Bureau of Statistics of the Treasury Department, and are for fiscal years
ended June 30. They show the number of bales of cotton exported to each for-
eign country in 1889, as compared with the years 1898 and 18¢9. As the exports
contain sea-island as well as some light-weight round bales, all bales are reduced
to the uniform weight of 500 pounds each.

Exports of cotton from United States to foreign countries.

[In bales of 500 pounds. ]

Year ending June 30, Year ending June 30, | Year ending June 3),
: 1889, 1898. 1899.
Countries.
Bales. Value Bales. Value. Bales. Value.
Austria-Hungary -..-.---- 5 610 $275, 275 35, 614 $987, 724 57,127 | $1,576,175
Lo Si i ae ae aie 147, 807 7, 556, 687 161, 942 4, 809, G09 129, 525 3, 599, 471
to) LDPE 2k ae ad ase aed ET SO eee: eens Sarena 24, 741 732, 810 39, 249 1, 078, 300
erences nas ik | 400,196 | 20,174, 889 842,038 | 24,599, 724 803,406 | 21, 946, 691
eoraany = eee 660, 756 | 82, 308,593 | 1,858,524 | 54, 886,245 | 1,728,975 | 47,346, 67
Netherlands __.....-_-___- 292;
LES ee eee eer ee
i Teas
2) Die Sere ae ae

Sweden and Norway -----
United Kingdom_________.
Other Europe---__.-.-.____
Dominion of Canada_---_-
Mexico

Cc
East Indies (British) -

Hongkong
epau ae Seen 2, A, 214 428, 226 1 5, 774, 784
other countries -__-.-- 216 1S OR oa a | ee os eee ee ee ee

we

INO her | 4, 769, 623 7,546,821 | 209, 564, 774

772 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Except in the cases of Belgium and Russia, the increase inexports has been very
large, in some cases the amount being more than double what it was eight or ten
years ago. The decrease in exports to Russia of 40,211 bales in 1898 as compared
with i889, and of 49,025 in 1899, is additional evidence of the growth of cotton
culture in the trans-Caucasian provinces of that Empire, and of the effort to become
independent of the United States.

There is a decrease in the consumption of American cotton in 1899 as compared
with 1898 in all countries except Austria-Hungary, Denmark, Italy, the Nether-
lands, Portugal, and the United Kingdom. The most notablereductions are129,549
bales in Germany, 41,480 in Japan, 38,632 in France, and 32,417 bales in Belgium.
On the other hand the countries showing an increase are as follows: United King-
dom 77,343 bales, Italy 29,772, Austria-Hungary 21,513, Denmark 14,508, the Neth-
erlands 8,112, and Portugal 2,792 bales. But notwithstanding a net decrease of
153,708 bales last year, as compared with the year previous, 1898 and 1899 are con-
spicuous as having recorded the largest exports of cotton in the history of ovr com-
merce. The extremely low prices in 1897-98 and 1898-99 reduced the export values
$7,333,055 in the former and $28,210,496 in the latter year, as compared with those
of 1889, although the number of bales exported in 1898 was 2,930,896 and in 1899
was 2,777,188 greater than in 1889.

THE WORLD’S CONSUMPTION OF COTTON. .

While there are no available statistics showing the annual crops of all the cotton-
producing countries, the consumption of the mills in Great Britain, the continent
of Europe, the United States, India, Japan, Canada, Mexico, and other countries
fairly approximates the world’s production, the unknown quantity being the
domestic consumption in China and a few other countries in the Orient that pro-
duce comparatively small crops.

The following statistics, taken from Mr. Thomas Ellison’s Annual Review of
the Cotton Trade, issued in Liverpool, November 1, 1899, show the number of bales
of cotton consumed by the mills of the world from 1890-91 to 1898-99, inclusive:

The world’s consumption of cotton, 1890-91 to 1898-99,

[in bales of 500 pounds. ]

ee eR a eet rary Great Continent| United < All other
Year ended Sept. 30— Britain. |ofEurope.| States. India. countries. Total.
G6 eee eae oe ek mess ere oe 8, 884,000 | 3,631,000 | 2,367,000 924, 000 150,000 | 10,456, 000
802 ene See a ee 8,181,000 | 3,640,000 | 2,576, G00 914, 000 160,000 | 10,471, 000
COG eee Ta te ee Ee ey So 2, 866,000 | 3,692,000 | 2,551,000 918, 000 220,000 | 10,247,000
hs) Seat Se Dee eee ae eee oe 3, 233,000 | 8,848,000 | 2,264, 000 959, 000 250,000 | 10,554, 000
1895)- 222 --2ees-s25-e2e-=-----| 98,250/000 | 4,030,000"). 2,743,000") <1, 074, 000 300,000 | 11,397, 060
TT OGG See eee nts eres a neat 8, 276,000 | 4,160,000 | 2,572,000 | 1,105, 000 419,000 | 11,532,000
aS (2s ee, Ce Rg ae ee) 8,224,000 | 4,368,000 | 2,738,000 | 1,004,000 488,009 | 11,822, 000
SOB Se heh ceren need lp einen Ay 8, 422,000 | 4,628,000 | 2,962,000 | 1,141,000 713,000 | 12,876, 000
SOO ee geo a eee Ae 8,519,000 | 4,836,000 | 3,553,000 | 1,297,000 727,000 | 13,932, C00

These figures certainly show a very gratifying increase in the consumption of
cotton, the increase in all countries in 1898-99 over the previous year amounting
to 1,055,000 bales, of which more than one-half wasin the United States, while
the increase in all countries since 1890-91 amounts to 3,476,000 bales. But it is
especially gratifying when the increase in the United States is compared with
that of other countries. In 1898-99 this increase, as compared with the previous
year, amounts to 591,000 bales, as against 208,000 in all continental European
countries, 156,000 in India, and 87,000in Great Britain. Since 1890-91 the United
States shows an increase of 1,186,000 bales, as compared with 1,205,000, in all
continental European countries, 373,000 in India, and 135,000 in Great Britain.

ACREAGE, PRODUCTION, AND PRICES OF COTTON.

Cotton crop of 1898-99.

{In commercial bales. ]

Movement and mill purchases.

7173

Taken from other States

and ports.

States and Territories. inpearded is is Reese Taken Total crop.
by rail, |} ac Total. gues from Total.
ete. eyes other | ports
States.
JI ht or 1,079,871} 121,128 | 1,200,999 22, 986 1,971 24, 957 1, 176, 042"
PR ANSAS) == -- 2 ==... 940, 773 3, 288 944, 061 Oe el (ee ae ce 24, 592 919, 469
ch ee Bb) OGL: | ae. AN (epee eee ea ol eke ey ee |e ee 35, 064
BGT IBS aos 622 so 1,232,810 | 281,527 | 1,514,337 | 185,589 17 | 135, 606 1, 878, 731
Indian Territory ------- PANS ies il eran eae 215, 269 (ie Sila ee ae eS 7,431 207, 838
Lo 5 ee eee ee | eee ee | eee :
inp 50 25, 447 25, 497 pape Gl bee ek, wees 25, 447 7) 25D)
Joi ae 879, 264 18, 749 898,013 | 160,414 19,852 | 180,2 717, 747
MAnSIAGIp pI... =. ~--- 1, 302, 420 21,650 | 1,324,070 WG: O42 \ Rose 76, 942 1, 247, 128
LU 33, 12 3, 017 13% COW fll) 5 Soe ee Bes 3,017 33, 120
North Carolina. -------- 336,407 | 374,891 711, 298 79,113 2,565 81, 67: 629, 620
PeEenOMMA 22... ==... N09: 4705 ere ee 109, 479 A5S' (sete 453 109, 026
South Carolina. -------- 581,788 | 466,181 | 1,047,969 10, 953 1, 602 12, 555 1, 035, 414
MEnNIeRSEC) 22-5 --.- 311, 321 36, 358 347, 679 SE GOO) |e nee 24, 859 522, 820
JUS) 3, 413, 245 17,156 | 3,430,401 60, 483 6, 799 67, 292 3, 363, 109
Toil. 5 ee ee eee a SEs ae |b eee eee 34
\ld tt 13, 990 44, 502 58, 492 rte |e 44, 502 13, 930
Mrs ea eae 10, 484, 874 |1, 413,928 | 11,898,802 | 676,791 32,806 | 709,597 | 11,189,205
Comparative acreage and production, 1897 and 1898.
[In commercial bales. ]
| eres ale Ac J
Statesand Terri-| Acr = 5 les. | Acres. Bales.
tories. 1897 1898. 1897-98. | 1898-99. Increase.| Decreaso. Increase. Decrease.
Alabama -.------. | 2,709, 460) 3,003, 176| 1,112,681] 1,176,042] 293, 716|__________- 63, 361| eee
ATKANGAS........- 1,619, 785) 1,876,467; 942.267) 919,469) 256,682)_......__..|_......._- 22,798
Wiorida: =< --...- 251,169) 152, 452 53, 657 3D, 064). ...-----4 OB 657|-< . eae 18, 593
Georgia -—--.--.-- | 3,487, 702) 3,585,205) 1,350,781) 1,378, 731) ....-.---- 2, 497 27, 990) ee
Indian Territory 317,992) 314, S06} 207, 386 201i (S00) See noe eee 3, 086 452) 212 eee
a 285) 8| 138 ee BT4| sca eee | 136
Kentucky -------. 105) 137 35 50} Bel hse 15|22. 2
Louisiana --.-..-- 1,245, 599) 1,281,691] 788,825) T1'7, 742) = -86;,202)--.2- 2. -- 5 -- 5 70, 578
Mississippi ------- 2,778, 610! 2, 900, 298] 1,524,771) 1,247,128] 121,688)/__.....____|___..___| 277, 643
IMSGROUTI 222... 83, 319) 82,318 26, 848 55ers eee ae 1,001 6;212\.5.- eee
North Carolina -.| 1,302,437 1,311,708) 646,726) 629, 620) +7 | eae en ee ane TRE 17,106
Oklahoma -.----.--- 216, 664) 215,893} 110,175 109; 026) 222222 RGA ee Se 1,149
South Carolina.-..| 2,074,778, 2,353, 213) 1, 030, 085) 1,035,414), 278, 485)..._._____- 5 a20 see
Tennessee 967,077) 896,722) 268,635) 322,820)_.....___- 70, 855 54-1851 22 eee ae
cr ea 7,164,175; 6,991, 904) 2, 822, 408) 3,363, 109) _.....-.- V2, 270, B40. Ol Sees see
Sia 75| 35 60 EY | a ee meray 11) nae reefs 26
\Ghit re 50,612); 51, 162 2, 878 13, 990) (7571) eee eee 107). eee
mata =. Ei ese aa ss 897, 857) 11, 189, 205) west, 711| ee ee Q2cGl. 348|- ee

a Net increase.

United States crops, exports, imports, and consumption of cotton, 1888-89 to

ISIS—I99I.

|
An Average

United States| Exports He Cay Average |price (mid-| Imports
Years. crop (commer-| (commercial | ails (Bone net ree dling up- | (660-pound

cial baies). bales). @ ee bales).| Pe bale. pene): ow, bales). a@

Pounds. Cents.

6, 938, 220 4, 830, 463 2,314, G91 470 10.71 15, 946
7,311, 822 5, 003. 879 2,390, 959 471 11.53 17, 212
8, 652, 597 5, 856, 194 2, 632, 023 473 9. 03 41,518
9, 035, 372 5, 917, 249 2, 876, 846 473 7. 64 57, 828
6, 700, 365 4, 494, 047 2,431, 134 475 8. 24 86, 736
7, 549, 817 5, 336, 553 2,319, 688 474 7. 67 55, 412
9, 901, 251 6, 889, 57’ 2, 946, 677 484 6.60 98, G44
b7, 161, 094 4,751, 602 2,504, 972 477 8.16 110, 701
TS9G-97, 2 oo b 8, 532, 075 6, 092, 537 2,847, 351 477 7.12 103, 798
i (LC 6 10, 897, 857 7, 650, 477 3, 443, 581 482 6. 22 105, 821
i) ee D1, 189, 205 c7, 424, 913 3, 589, 494 489 6. 00 112, 361

aFrom Bureau of Statistics, Treasury Department. _
other figures for production are those of Latham & Co.

b Estimates of Department;
ce Preliminary estimate.

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

174

Condition of crops in the United States, monthly, 1885-1899.

Spring wheat.

Corn.

Winter wheat

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CORN CROP OF THE WORLD. T15

Condition of crops in the United States, monthly, 18S85—1899—Continued.

Hay. | Cotton.

Clover. Timothy. : a Ze

Year. 3 5 is =

g > > bo g > fe 63 3

5 3 3 5 5 3 = 5 55

5 cr 5 < 5 5 < 2) | oS
ae Se AEs Bae yess 92.0] 96.0| 96.5! 987.0] 73.0
LS a eee Sl eee 91.2 88.7 86.1 81.3 82.1 79.3
«id 2 Se a ae aoe 80.6 96.9 96.9 93.3 82.8 76.5
| Saal a ee SE ereedeee 88.2 86.7 87.3 83.8 78.9
Sn ee Se eee 94.5 86.4 87.6 89.3 86.6 | - 81.5
ae 95.1 94.0 93.9 93.6 88.8 91.4 89.5 85.5 80.0
a 91.0 89.3 87.4 90.9 85.7 88.6 88.9 7 75.7
|S 94.9 95.5 96.8 93.2 85.9 86.9 82.3 76.8 73.3
a 92.7 92.6 89.8 89.6 85.6 82.7 80.4 73.4 70.7
. 87.8 80.2 77.3 75.6 88.3 89.6 91.8 85.9 82.7
a 32. 73.9 70.8} 69.9 81.0 82.3 77.9 70.8 65.1
-] a 88. 4 83.7 84.8 87.5 97.2 92.5 80.1 64.2 60.7
“aa 6 en Se ih a oe 83.5 86.0 86.9 78.3 70.0
_ .. a eee Tae pees 99.3 89.0 91.2 91.2 79.8 Tg 4
| ae Ee hee geet | 86.7 85.7 87.8 84.0 68.5} 62.4

Corn crop of the countries named, 1894-1898)
Countries. | ise. | 1895. | 1896. iso. | 1898.

| Bushels. | Bushels. Bushels. Busheis. Bushels.
fitted Biates .....-..__...._.- 1,212, 770, 000 2,151, 138, 000 2, 283, 175, 000 /1, 902, 968, 000 | 1, 924, 185, 000
Cr Sit a ee 16, 788, GOO 25, 602, 000 24, $30, 000 | 5,441, 000 24,181, 000
_ 0. ob. 25628 eee | 77, 273, 000 71, 906, 000 | 76,264, 000 | ee 893, 000 168; 600. 000
Total North America -./1,306,831, 000 2,248, 646,000 2, 38,269,000 2, 050, 302, 000 | 2, 048, 866, 000
anne ss tl | 5,000, 600 9, 000, 000 9, 000, 000 8,000,000 | 9,932, 000
2 OD eee 16, 000, 000 72, 000, 000 80,000, 000 40, 000, 000 56, 000, 000
NING cn oi ono 5, 252, 000 5, 840, 000 5, 000, 000 | 4, 000, 000 4, 000, 000
Total South America....| 26,252,000 | 86,840,000 | 94,000,000 | 52,000,000 | _69, 932, 000
. | 27,419,000 | 26,163,000 | 30,426,000 | 30,401,000] 23, 496,000
eS es 19,085,000 | 15,714,000 | 18,252,000 | 17,000; 600 18, 000, 000
= SRR aT EA 15,000,000 | 15,000,000 | 15,000,000 | 15, 500, 000 15, 500, 000
| > i etna 59,603,000 | 70,483,000 | 79,910,000 | — 65,891, 000 79, 640, 600
IE ne Ee 13,795,000 | 18,720,000 | 17,492,000} 14, 757,000 16, 074, 000
CS ol ee 68, 48,000 | 142,743,000 | 128,866,000 | 102, 239/000 | 127, 6397 000
Croatia-Slavonia _____.--_____- 12,002,000 | 17,454,000 | 17,617,000 | 14, 162, 000 17, 500, 000
Total Austria-Hungary.) 94,335,000 | 178,917,000 | 163,975,000 | 131,158,000 | 161, 213, 000
0 Sl ee 29,892,000 | 71,323,000 | 65,428,000 | 79,753,000 | 101, 870,000
Bulgaria and E.Roumelia ---| _ 8,000,000 8, 000, 000 6, 400, 000 5, 000, 000 , 009, 000
Sa 17,414,000 | 17,000,000 | 16,000,000 | 16, 000, 000 17, 000,000
(y -aa 23,275,000 | 31,693,000 | 23,773,000 | 51, 966, 000 47,918, 000
Total Europe-_....---.-- 294,023,000 | 434,293,000 | 419,164,000 | 412,669,000 | 471, 637, 000
at 2 Ee | 322, 000 493, 451, 000 450, 000 333, 000
a 32,000,000 | 33,600,000 | 34,000,000 | 35,000, 000 32, 000, 000
Ge ‘Goleay 5a Ee erie 2,761, 000 2 878, 000 1, 650, 000 2, T61, 000 2, 061, COO
otal Africa... ae 083, 000, ~ 38,471,000 | 38,101, 000 | 88,211,000 34, 394, 000
Australasia________.._._-__...- 9,118,000 | 8,500, 000 000 | 10,; 10, 201, 000 000 | 9); 9, 412, 000 9, 780, 000

RECAPITULATION BY CONTINENTS.

North America ___......___..- 1, 306, 831, 000 |2, 248, 646, 000 |2, 384, 269, 000 |2, 050, 302, 000 | 2, 045, 386, C00
South America __--__--_-- = 26,252,000 | ' 86,840,000 | ° 94,000,000 | ~ 52,000, 000 69, 932, 000
_ _) Se 204, 023,000 | 434,293,000 | 419,164,000 | 412,669,000 | 471, 637,000
__ Se a: ae 35,083,000 | 36,471,000 | 36,101,000 | 38,211, 000 34, 394, 000
nstvalagia_.........-..__.. 9, 118, 000 8,500,000 | 10, 201, 000 9, 412, 000 9, 780, 000
Un ee er 1, 671, 307, 000 (2, 814, 750, 000 [2, 943, 735, 000 [2, 562, 594, 000 | 2, 634, 109, 000

| >

1 This and the following tables entboly such official figures as areavailable in regard to wheat,
rye, barley, oats, maize, rice, sugar, and fiax, together - with commercial or other estimates for
a number of countries for which official data are not furnished. There are many countries
which not only issue no official figures, but for which not even rough estimates, or information
upon which to base them, can be had; and these are necessarily omitted from the tables. They
are, however, for the most part countries whose proga uae enters to a very limited extent into
the world’s commerce in the articles named, and the part of the world’s production covered by
the tables embraces substantially all that is of much commercial importance, |

176

Wheat crop of the world, 1895-1899,

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Countries. 1895. 1896. 1887. 1898. 1899,
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.

United States ......-.--------- 467,103,000 | 427,684,000 | 530,149,000 | 675,149,000 | 547, 304, 000
Guterioee: ke Meee kaa 18,183,000 | 19,184,000 | 29,765,000 | 33,042,000 | 22, 158, 000
Manian boo es. een ee 32)777,000 | 14°825,000 | 18,837/000 | 26,11270G0 | — 28, 802; 000.
Rest of Canada _...-.---.------ 6,500,060 | — 6,800,000 | 7,500,600 | 9, 060, 000 9, 000, 000

Motal Canada . 2... 22! ~~ 57,460,000 | 40,809,000} 56,102,000 | 68,154,000 | 59, 980, 000
MER RCO it ke, Oka Tie 10,035,000 | 22,555,000 | 9,700,000 | 15,000,000 | 15, 000, 000

Total North America 534,598,000 | 491,048,000 | 595,951,000 | 758, 303, 000 622, 264, 000:
GARI ea ee te "15,000,600 | 12,000,000 | 10,500,000 | 14,000,000 | 13, 000, 000.
rere n rina ee eer See 60, G00, COO 41, 435, 006 25, 410, OVO 46, 603, 000 92, 167, 000:
[Oe BEAT 7 shee eee eee ee 8, 915, 000 4, 059, 000 3, 600, 000 6, 000, 000 , 164, 000:

Total South America ...| 83,915,000 | 57,492,000 | 39,510,000 | 66, 603,000 | 112,331, 600
Great Britain__......------ ___.| 88,348,000 | 58,851,000 | 56,672,000 | 75,380,000 | 67,594,000
ep laudyeecks Gee ce ce SMR 1,109,000} 13194;000 | 1,355,000 | 1,856, 060 1,731, 000

Total United Kingdom_.| 39,457,000 | 60,045,000 | 58,027,090 | 77,186,000 | 69, 325, 000
Noy ee eee ae 260, 000 300, 000 300,000 | 800, 600 260, 000
Bred one ek teh eee a 3,705,000 | 4,704,000 | 4,678°000 | 4, 542, 000 4, 430. 000
Wann ee 3,467,000 | 3,689,000 | 3,474,600 | — 2,991,600 3. 500, 000
Netherlands _......__-.-------- 4. 282° 000 | 5,045,000 | 4. 280;000 | 5,000, G00 4,300, 060
IBID coe = seen eeeetemees 12, 878, COC 13,748, 000 11, 967,000 | 14,069,000 12, 400, 000
WRanGO > kere Set ghee 340, 432, 000 | 339,793,000 | 246,596,000 | 363,498,000 | 366. 079; 000
rae ra Pe ERE eA, 81,218,000 | 71,892,000 | _ 94:637,600 | —99;000,600 | 88, 000, 000:
POECU RE Si she nes eae 7,000,000 } 5,600,000 | ~ 8,200,000 | __7; 800, 000 6, 400, 600
1a) ke ea aca eh cRit te ee 118, 162,000 | 145,283,000 | 86, g19. 000 | 137,345,000 | 197, 912) 000
Switzerland __.-...--.------.-- 5,000,000 | 4,800,000 | 4300/0890 | 4,500,600 4. 200,000
Gaemany. =e ae 116, 545,000 | 125; 661, 000 119, 903,000 | 19255577000 | 141, 369° G00
Mishra seca.ce eee 41,770,000 | 44,004,000 | 35,859,000 | _47, 357,000 | 42, 282, 000
Punedry at cn) eee 158/012; 000 | 149,954,000 | 83,590,600 | 128,140,600 | 138,060, 000
Groatia-Slavonia ._.....-----2- 8, 661, (00 9, 614, 000 6, 271, 600 11, 408, 6G0 9,500, 000
Bosnia-Herzegovina. ---------- 2, 000, 600 2” 050, 600 2, 000, 6CO 2, 160, 000 2,000, C00

Total Austria-Hungary.| 210,443,000 | 205,622,000 | 127,720,000 | 189,005,000 191, 842, 000
Roumenia <4 ot eget ee 68,502,000 | 71,194,000 | 36,448,000 | 58, 457,000 | 26, 064, 600
Bulpania kia: Soothes 37,000,000 | 48,275,000 | 30,739,060 | 35,000,000 | — 2,000, 600
Sharon ates tb Seat toe, ae 9, 400.000 | 9,300,000 | 1235005660 | 11,000; 000 8, 560, 600
Montenegro ...... 2.02... 220, 000 220, 000 200, 000 220, 600 280, 000
Turkey in Europe 21, 500, 600 24, 00D, 000 17, 800, GOO 25, 000, C60 15, 600. 000:
Gienccens ict a ee een 4,000,000 | “4,800,000 | 3,200,000 | 4, 000, 000 2).000, 000
Russia proper --..-.----------- 292.272, 000 | 300,423,000 | 238,557,000 | 334,246,000 | 314, 876, 000:
Dolan.) 5 1 one roe ae 17, 387.000 | 19,476,000 | 17,808,000 | 21,691,000 | 21, 544, 000
North Caucasus .....--.------- 67,127,000 | 45,148,000 | 29;883;000 | 52,251,000 | 57,313, 000
Hauntand:-<.-- + (sey ete ome 160; 000 98,000 90, 000 100, 000 90, 000:

Total Russia in Eprope _| 376,886,000 | 365,145,000 | 286,338,000 | 408,288,000 | 393, 823,000

Total Europe.-.--------- 1, 460, 357, 000 |1, 509, 065, 000 |1, 158, 236, 000 /1, 579, 758, 080 | 1,499, 604, 000
Giperin- 3. <0. ieee eee 30,899,000 | 34,160,000 | 42,835,000 | 36,157,000] 45, 473, 000
Central Asia__--- As ee 7,462,000 | 12,830,000 | 11,687,000 | 14,944,000 | 14, 938; 600
Trans-CauGasia =.= “a= seeano as 47, 060, 000 42, 000, 000 40, 000, G00 40, 000, 000 33, 000, 000

Total Russia in Asia _---| 85,361, C00 88, 990, 000 Oe 922, 600 91, 101, 060 93, 411, 000.
Turkey in Asia......---------- 46,000,000 | 44,000,000 | 48,000,000 | 44,000,000 | 35, 200, 000
iy areaty sess. Ayoub eee 2°200,600 | 2).400,000 | —2)400/000 | 2; 400) 000 2, 000; 0X0)
engine se bake 27° 000,000 | 20, 600,000 | 20,040,000 | 17,600,000} 16,009, 000
British India .......-:..s208 255,244,000 | 205,743,000 | 191,257,000 | 259670, 000 | 282, 585, 000
Napa boc oe ee 20, 341000 | 18,187,000 | 19,509,000 | 20,000,000 | — 20,000, 000

Total Asia _..............| 431,146,000 | 379,320,000 | 375,088,000 | 434,771,000 | 399, 196, 000
Peers 2a 2 ee 26,793,000 | 23,631,000 | 18,000,000 | 24,118,000 | 15, 000, 000
2) ee aE RES LG 7,500,000 | 5,600,000 | 5,000,000 | 6,500, 000 4, 800, 000
Pee ied 6. epee ee 14,000,000 | 122000,000 | 122.000;630 | 14,000,000 | 14,000, 000,
@ape Colony ---.-=---..2.-2 s452 2, 542, 000 2, 257, 000 2, 200, 000 2,612, 000 2, 000, 000

Mota] Africa. ........--.- 50, 835,000 | 43,488,600 | 87,200,000 | 46,630,000 | 35, 800, 000:
West Australia... 176, 680 194, 000 252, 000 421, 000 | 892, 000:
South Australia -- 8, 027, 600 6, 116, 000 2, 803, 000 4,141, 000 9, 056, 000:
IP OUSIAN Gen ceh a= -a2abaieses - 562, 000 128, 000 620, 000 1, 041, 000 626, 000

OAT CROP OF THE WORLD.. 1%

Wheat crop of the world, 1895-1899—Continued.

Countries. | 1895. 1896. | 1897. 1998, | 1899,
eee ae Beare Ss ee,
Bushels. Bushels. | Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
New South Wales............- 7,263,000} 5,359,000} 9,132,600 | 10, 893, 000 9,579, 000
en eee. 11) 807, 000 5,848,000 | 7,315,000 | 10,914,000 | 20, 198, 000
0 a a 899,000} 1,202,000} —1,327,000| 1,721,000 2 376, 000
Ae Es 3, 727, 000 7,059,000 | 6,113,000 | 5,849; 900 13, 485, 000
Total Australasia ____..- 32, 461, 000 | 25,906,000 | 27,652,000} 34,980,000 | 56, 212, 000
RECAPITULATION BY CONTINENTS. -
North America...............- 534, 598.000 | 491,048, 000 | | 595,951,000 | 758,303,000 | 622,264,000
South America __-..--------_ 83,915,000 | 57,492,000 | 39,510,000 | 66,603,000 | 1127 381/000
|: eS 1, 460, 357, 000 |1, 509, 066.000 |1, 158, 236, 000 |1, 579,758,000 | 1, 489, 604: 000
J 431, 146, 000 | ' 379,320,000 | 375. 088.000 | ’ 434771, 000 |” 399; 196: 600
- 7 i 50, 835,000 | 43,488,000 | 37,200,000 | 46,630,000 | 35, 800, 000
oS ea re 32,461,000 | 25,906,000 | 27,652,000 | 34,980,000 | 56, 212, 000
ie Ps 593, 312, 0 2, 506, 320, 000 2 2 , 233, 637, 000 | = | 2,725, 407, 600
Oat crop of the countries named, 1895-1899.
Countries. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. ee
: |
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. .| Bushels.

Bieited States =... ---.....-.. 824,444,000 | 707,346,000 | 698, 768,000 | 730,907,000 | 796, 178, 000
OT Se 87,367,000 | 85,595,000 | 89,038,000 | 89,596,000 92, 731, 000
| Aare 23,267,000 | 128961000 | 10965.000 | 17,854.000 | 23" 022! 000
Rest of Canada -_------_---___- 8,500,000 | 9,000,600 | 12,000,000 | 13,000,060 | 14.000; 000
Total Canada -....._...-- 119, 134,000 | 107,491,000 00 | 112, 003,000 } 120,450,000 | 129, 753, 000
Total North America -.| 943,578,000 | 814, , 837,000 | 810,771,600 | 851,357,000 | 925, 931, 000
Great Britain. .<.............. 125, 998,000 | 117,609,000 | 120,530,000 | 122, 669, 000 118, 363, 000
a 53,977,000 | 50,383,000 } 48,181,600 | 55,348,000 | 51, 298, 000
Total United Kingdom_.| 179,975,000 | 167,992,000 | 168,711,000 | 178,017,000 | 169, 661, 000
a "70,242,000 | 56,090,000 | 58,473,000 | 70,416,600 | 53, 698, 000
RS 2 ec 40, 237,000 | 38,521,000 | 35,220,000} 41.474000 | 37/500/000
Netherlands __._--- = 2-12-11... 15,525,000 | 15,340,000 | 16,125,000 | 17,536,000 | — 16,504, 000
> Sea 30,050,000 | 26,196,000 | _29:591,000 | 13.417/000 | 10,877,000
_ = ae 269,235,000 | 261,078,000 | 227,595,000 | 278:277,000 | 273) 305.000
_ 2 9,863,000 | 7,844,000 | 10,354,000 | 10, 872; 000 9, 676, 000
_ > Se 19,193,000 | 22,265,000 } 19,599,000 | 18,567,000 | 16,504. 000
_ Se 430,209,000 | 411,263,000 | 393,983,000 | 465,321,000 | 474,179. 000
ee | 113, 545,000 | 104,220,000 | 96, 164,000 | 114,189,000 | 113,508,000
oe eee 69, 137,000 | 69,930,000 | 52,644,000 | 78,708,000} — 74,956.000
Croatia-Slavonia --....._..._--- 4,180,000 |° 4,820, G00 4, 035, 000 7,022, 600 4,500, 600
Total Austria-Hungary i 186, 862,000 | 178,970,000 | 152,843,000 | 199,919,000 | 192, $84, 000

} a = |
Peaurmania ss. 290-522 2-5° .. 1c | 16,375, 600 4,720,000 | 9,852,000 | 17, 410, 600 6,255, 000

| —— =
Ruseia proper ..:....-..------- | 673,978,000 | 668,973,600 | 547,323,000 | 559,920,000 | 839, 639. 000:
Prarie Ris = Pedal er oe 43,334,000 | 47,794,000 | 41,585,000 | 55,515,000] 56, 463. 000
North Caucasus -__--__.-__-_- 14,760,000 | 12, 201, 600 | 6,695,000 | 12,416,000} 12,546,000
Total Russia in Europe | 732,072,000 | 728,968,000 | 595,603,000 | 627,851, 0¢0 & 908, € 648, 000 000

Total Europe --.... --. --./1, 993, 838, 600 ii, 929, 247 247, 000° ie 717 , 949, 000 h, $39, 077, 600 fe 2, 169, 7 Wiel 000

Siierine eee 43,826,000 | 60,733,000 | 59,550,000 | 51,258, 000 76, 853, 000
Central Asia__-9 0 3,558,000 | 10,131, 000 8,559, 000 8, 423, 000 9, 804, (00
Total Russia in Asia.___| 47,384,600 | 70,864,000 | 63, 109.000 | 59,681, 000 86, 657, 000
SSS \ =< —— ——4
Motel Asia -----.......- | 47,384,000 | 70,864, 000 68, 169,000 | 5, 681, 000 86, 657, 000
AT rapa OE i ca Sk 4,402,000} 4,486.000| 4, 126, 000 5, 088, 050 3, 095, 000
@ape Colony _-.-._.-....-----_- 1. G68, 090 1, 707, 000 __1ta7000 | 936, 060 1, 493, 000 1,500, 000
Total Africa ____________- 5, 410, 000 ee 193, 000 | 5, 062, 000 6,581, 600 4,595, 000

778

YEARBOOK OF

THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Oat crop of the countries named, 1895-1899—Continued.

Countries. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899.

Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
West Australia....-......2-.--: 2 20, kK ; 58, 000
South Australia eee eS (a) (a 196, 000 211, 000 Slt, 000
G@reenslandics Ee eae eee 31, 11, 000 33, 000 32, 000 4, 000
New South Wales .__._.._.---- 580, 000 386, 000 861, 000 561, 000 287) 000
Wictomiasee-4-2 tC ase ors 5, 811, 000 2,971, 000 7, 032, 000 4,961, 000 5, 697, 000
TPASWATIID o-= as oe ee $57, 000 936, 000 1, 003, 000 1, 1387, 000 2, 343, 000
MNGwreAcalandr = cuca aos 10, 544) 000 12, 650, 000 11, 587, 000 10, 045, 000 17, 032, 000
Total Australasia-__-_---- ~~ 17,944, 000 | 16, 974, 000 20,751, 000 16, 977, 000 25, 735, 000

RECAPITULATION BY CONTINEN'S.
NorthAmerica.-. 2. 2-225 943,578,000 | 814,837,000 | 810,771,000 | 851,357,000 925, 931, 000
PURO DO eee tees Seen Ae 1, 993, 835, 000 |1, 929, 247, 000 |1, 717, 949, 000 |1, 939, 077,000 | 2, 169,771, 000
JST sg a a ie Se ER 47, 384, 000 70, 864, 000 , 109, 59, 681, 000 , 857, 000
SAUTE 2 Ea AE eet Ak 5, 410, 000 6, 193, 000 5, 062, GOO 6, 881, O00 , 895, QUO
IMTISbE BIAS =~ 3-5-5225 senoesses 17, 944, 000 16, 974, 000 20, 731, 000 16, 977 25, 735, 000
MM Otalwsmeee ees aaa eoee 3, 608, 154, 000 |2, 838, 115, 000 |2, 622, 622, 000 |2, 873, ae 3, 212, 689, 000
aNo returns.
Barley crop of the countries named, 1895-1899.
Countries. 1895. 1896. 1897, 1898, 1899.

Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
netted: States! 22.2202 0.5:4.5255 87, 073, 000 69, 695, 000 66, 685, 000 55, 792, 000 73, 382, 000
OnpaniOs nse oe eee eet 12, 471, 000 13, 069, 000 12, 401, 000 13, 063, 000 15, 298, 000
INFaMEBO baie =. a2 Ge ee ae eee 5, 823, 000 3, 272, 000 3, 284, 000 4, 413, 000 5, 549, 000
Restor Ganada,s2 2-22 32 uekee 2, 408, 000 2,500, 000 2, 400, 000 2, 900, 2, 950, 000
Total iCanada- 2) ao sn2 2" 20, 694, 060 18, 841, 000 18, 085, 000 20, 376, 000 23, 797, 000
Total North America ___| 107,767,000 88, 526, 000 84, 770, 000 76, 168, 000 97,179, 000
Great Britain: =< 2 2242..252 70, 814, 0600 73, 005, 000 seen 70, 187, 000 69, 850, 000

iv oleande see Si kone Soe eee 6, 579, 000 7, 272, 000 » 982, 000° 6, 889, 000 7, 061,
Total United Kingdom - 77,393, 000 80, 277, 000 74 902,000. 77, 085, 000 76, 911, 000
Readout. sae yyes et earn 14,618,000 | 14,390,000 | 14,303,000 | 14,805,000 | 11, 691, 000
Menmearic sg: <2 ay ee ee eee 21, 794, 000 21, 249, 000 19, 172, 060 21, 868, 000 21, 000, 000
Netherlands. 05305 20s sae 4.291, 600 4,561, 000 3, 736, 000 5, 000, 000 4, 090, 000
Boonie. 22 i a ee es ee 38, 900, 000 3, 987, 000 3, 457, 000 4, 000, 000 3, 700, 00U
UN TN Os Se ee Se OSES ae eS: 45, 283, 000 46, 088, 000 41, 157, 000 46, 878, 000 47,782, 000
Hibs byge iets oak ee oe ere 7, 435, 000 10, 057, 000 7, 700, 000 8, 900, 080 8, 000, 000
Garmnninnes bine oe See eee eee 130,549,000 | 127)1172000 | 1192580/000 | 132? 019/000 139, 241, 000
INGISDTIA ees oat ace By ee 59, 092, 000 54, 818, 000 49, 756, 000 60, 044, 000 58,740, 000
TERS fale Vila rs ae 52, 456, 000 57, 842, 000 41, 290, 000 54, 774, 000 54, 731, 000
Croatia-Slavonia ._..-.+--._..- 2,418, 000 3, 021, G00 2, 148, 000 3, 373, 000 3, 201, 000
Total Austria-Hungary_| 113,961,000 | 115,681,000 93,189,000 | 118,191,000 116; 672, 000
Roumania ..............-.-----| 22,388,000} 31,787,000 | 21,225,000 | 29, 656,000 4,543, 000
Bil onrig: ss. es on ee 16, 600, 600 20, 000, 000 11, 000, 000 18, 000, 000 , G00, 000
Russia proper--....----.------ 210,222,000 | 208, 449,000 | 203,363,600 | 254,702,000 | 179, 850, 000

12{al 2ir2 Co ee a a eee eee Oe | 15, 912, 000 16, 744, 000 15, 967, GOO , 480, , 090,
North ‘Caucasus.---.-..0-/2525 20, 397, 000 19, 286, 000 11, 120, 000 25, 107, 000 18, 144, 000
Total Russia in Europe.-_| 246,531,000 | 244,479,000 | 230,450,000 | 299, 289, 000 218, 084, 000
Total Europe.-.--.---.-- ~ 707,143, 000 | 719,673,000 | 639,871,000 | 770,692,000 | 661, 624, 000
Siberia......-......-...... ....| 4,833,000} 6,001,000 | 6,119,000 4,904,000! 5, 955, 000
WetboEmo ASIA. ook an ee 1, 490, 000 3, 149, 000 2, 081, 000 2,728, 000 2, 870, 000
Total Russia in Asia-_-__- 6, 823, 000 9, 150, 000 8, 200, 000 7, 632, 000 8, 825, 000
ue ee ee ae 43,700,000 | 40,180,000 | 41,099,000 | 44,059,000 | 44, 000, 000
Ppa WAR esos: 50, 023 023, 000 ~~49,330,000 | 49,299,000 | 51,691,000 | 62, 825, 000

RYE CROP OF THE WORLD.

Barley crop of the countries named, 1895—1999—Continued.

Countries. 1895. 1896. 1897 | 1898. | 13899,
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
PERN Tee es OS 38, 687, 000 31, 094, 000 20, 000, 000 87, 000, 000 20, 000, 000
(TTT ays Se ee ae 8, 000, G00 4, 000, 000 5, 000, 000 11, 000, 000 6, 000, 000
feawesteolony =. = > =... s 686, 600 680, 600 793, 000 37, 000 900, 000
a Ee AM IICH « = 25 ee | 47, 325, 000 35, 784, 000 25,793, 000 48, 937, 000 26, 960, 000
Mest Australia. -....=--...-..- 15, 000 “19, 000 a 13, 000 | 24, 000 - 380,000
South A-ustralia--....-....--.- 121, 000 92, 000 111, 000 167, 060 241, 000
Preaemntanig oe ee. oo oS SS 39, 000 8, 000 , 000 52, 000 36, 000
ew South Wales__.__-..._..- 185, 000 99, 000 114, 000 103, 000 66, 080
MeINEII ee ee sek 1, 647, 000 738, 000 841, 600 782, OVO 1, 148, 600
WPL SE, 022 eee 209, 000 148, 000 77, 000 72, 060 190,
memeeee And .--.5=--..-.---22. 1, 032, 000 1, 069, 000 848, 000 732, 000 1,731, 000
Total Australasia__..... 3, 248, 000 2, 168, G00 2, 024, 000 1, 932, 000, 3, 442, 000
CDS JE a ae 915, 504, 000 | 895, 491,000 | 801, 757, 000 | 949, 420, 000 i 841,970,000 .
ee
Rye crop of the countries named, 1895-1899.
Countries. 1895. | 1896. | 1897. 1898. 1899.
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
Minibed Stabes -...>.......-.-.. 27, 210, 000 24, 369, 000 27, 363, 000 25, 658, GOO 23, 962, 000
a 1,960,000 | 2, 301, 000 3,439,000 | 2,757,000| 2,357,000
MTV) 5S a a i ar ae 84, 000 54, 000 50, 000 66, 000 66, 600
Peso CANAGS -_......-..--.-- 260, 000 400, 000 470, 000 420, 000 400, COO
Total Canada ___..._-..-- 2,304,000 | 2,755,000} 4,009, 000 3,243,000 | 2, 823, 000
Total North America -..|_ 29,514,000 | 27,124,000 | 31,372,000 | 28, 901, 000 | 26, 785, 000
PeenO Ital) =) = 25... 55 a8 619, 000 2, 065, 0OU 1, 709, 000 1782, 000: ||). 22 eee
Sy ial 2: ere 308, 000 349, 000 3, 316; 000: 55250552
Total United Kingdom..| 1,927,000 | ~ 2,414, 000 | 1,992,000 2,098,000 | 2,000, 000
0 oe ee a 20,200,000 | 24,026,000 | 23,599,000 | 21, 469, 000 21, 436, 000
ST eee 18, 399, 000 20, 081, 000 18, 116, 000 16, 132, 000 18, 000, 000
SO UA a oe 12, 796, 000 13, 571,000 11, 930, G00 11, 000, 009 11, 500, 000
in ee 21, 213, 000 22, 218,000 20, 401, 000 18, 000, 000 22, 000, 000
Oe 71,418, 600 69, 424, 000 48, 139. 000 66, 755, 000 68, 255, 000
CUTS = eee 17, 340, 000 15, 381, 000 18, 000, 000 21, 000, 000 15, 000, 000
> 122- SSe eee 4,010, 000 4, 000, 000 4, 000, 000 4, 000, 000 .2, 700, 000
RRR ess a a ss wane 304,116,000 | 335,970,000 | 321,659,000 | 355,581, 000 341, 551, 000
he ee 66, 629,000 | 76,696,000 | 65,828,000 | 81,620,000 | 75, 199, 000
Hungary a ee ee ae 45, 066, 000 48, 426, 000 35, 3809, 000 43, 179, 000 47, 268, G00
(Creatia-slavonia —............. 1, 939, 000 3, 021, 000 2, 369, 000 3, 551, 000 2, 848, 000
Total Austria-Hungary-| 113, 634,000 | 128,143,000 | 103,506,600 | 128, 350, 000 125, 315, 000
Momenania .....-....--2-.-<-22< 9,254,000 | 12,217,000| 6,794,000 | 7,629, 000 1, 988, 600
PRREROT ERE rene 6 aio Se 5 Aes 7, 200, 000 4, 800, 000 10, 000, 000 14, 400, 000 10, G00, 000
Muassia proper =......-.--s...-- 717, 964, 600 700, 983,000 | 567,466,000 | 636, 467, 000 805, 230, 000
faiths a 2fes ls 54, 746, O00 61, 845, 000 54, 228, 000 72, 029, 000 67, 580, 000
Noven CAUCASUS .--—--=.-==-<.- 10, 952, 000 4,584, 000 3, 758, GOO 5, 572, 000 7, 638, 000
Total Russia in Europe _| 783,662,000 | 767,412,000 | 625,452,000 | 714,068,000 880, 448, 000
otal Wurope: 52 --—.--< 1, 385, 169, G00 1, 419, 657, GOO 1, 215, 588, COO |1, 380, 452, 660 | 1,520, 198, 000
cl a ee 17,003,000 | 21,154,000 | 27,994,000 | 22, 627, 000 30, 523, 000
SIE We a 618, G00 $94, 000 833, 600 4, 660, 009
Total Russia in Asia _-___ 17, 616, 050 22, 148, 000 28, 827, 060 23,4381, G00 81, 183, 000
dice. Se ee 35, 913, 000 30, 321, G60 ; 31, 563, 000 33, 709, 000 384, 069, 000
YO RDS Sees ee 1, 468, 212, 000

1, 499, 250, 000 |1, 305, 350, 000 |1, 466, 514, 000 |*1, 612, 161, 006

780 YEARBOOK OF

Hop crop of the countries named, 1895-1899.

[In bales of 180 pounds. ]

THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Countries. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899.
Galifonmiajes+ 220) eases = aoe See eke wees 52, 0G0 35, 6CO 45, 000 44,500 64, 000
Orecon cet. sn cee ree 99, 500 56, 000 75, 000 71, 250 85, 0CO
SAVE ES ath a4) ole ee ee eee pe nee ee Sy 28, 860 12, 000 32, 600 36, 200 33, 000
NIG VaR OT (2 beens fue ee Ee eee 110, 000 75, COO 75, 000 65, 000 58, 000
Total Wnrted States 22s = 5 eee “290, 300 178, 600 227, 000 216,950 240, 000
istraliac 2 eb 5 a RRL ds cele er te wee ded eae 18, 383 18, 383 a7, 218
Austria-Hungary 95, 000 136, GOO 100, 000 95, 000 190, 683
IBelpimin che Fai ss See Ee Se eee eee 85, 734 30, 680 b 70, 311
LD Toye Wale lees ieee se Se ees oe ee 2 OES 343, 000 281, 000 255, 784 218, 000 411, 554
NCO A. > 222 sas) ee BES. Ss eee 42, 000 43. G00 88, 184 AZ, S67 25, 545
Giormianiy 2 ea eee 368, 000 553, 600 584, 498 440), 920 407,199
PUSS A= STS Sek =f eed Se A ns ee eee eae 64, 000 61, 240 41, 057
7 | ea ay he Sse dc 1,138,3:0 | 991,000 | 1,423,583 | 1,123,990 | 1,393, 517
aNew Zealand only. b Belgium and theNetherlands
Flax crop of the countries named, 1895-1899.
Seed. Fiber.
Countries. SS
1856. 1897. | 1838. 1856. 1897. 1898.
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels, Pounds. Pounds Pounds.
United Statesa ____-_- 17,402, 000 || 11,000,000. | 17,217,000 |... -_ ab a
Manitoba -2o2. 2-2) oo-=— 267, 500 255, 500 805, 500 |=--22.-+.---2-\23.-64285 2 eee
MGxiIGOMee a eee eee 108, 000 222, 500 81).600 |_ 2-23.22 22 | ee eee
Areentina.d_._--2.2..2 7,500, 000: | 7,000,000 | 9,000, 000 |...2-_.. =. 2._|. 2-22 ee ee
Total America _-| 25, 277,500 | 18,478,000 | 26,833,500 |...._..._____ Ss
Givedon: 2288 eos Sauls 70,000 | 73,500! 75,000 | 4,138,000 | 3,917,000 | 4,223, 000
Netherlands 812, 060 275, 000 308, 060 11, 795, 000 11, 503, 000 d 12, 934, 000
Beloiuminses ene ne se 394, 000 850, 000 | d 400, COO 31. 417. 000 30, 123, COO 32, 246, C00
Hirano 22 oe eee 523, 000 524, 000 397, 000 41,549, GOO 41, 224, 000 25, 126, 000
italy 0). 2 ee sesessteees | we hae oad eee eee el eee eee 41, 917, 000 41. 917, 0CO 41,917, 000
Austria_........-...---| 743,000 724, 000 802,000 | 86,800,000 | 88,195,000 | 88, 833, 000
enn are ee ee 5, 000 220, 000 250. G00 11, 972, 000 10, 629, 600 14, 939, 000
Croatia-Slayonia _____- 26, OOO 58, 000 | 51, 000 8, 688, 000 9, 816, 000 10, 325, 000
Total Austria- | *
om caryesss--2 1,014,090 | 1,002,000 | 1,103,000 | 107,460,000 | 108,640,000 114, 097, 006
MoumMania ose eae 674, 000 676, 000 461,000 |....2---.-2--%|-:2522- ee ee
prying! ook UN Pal eee Ne ee re 1,237,000 | __1, 237, 000 1, 237, 000
LEjobseits We aeORya ey aaeeek oees ss 39, 625, UO | 27,296,500 | 28,537,500 |1, 474, 692, 000 1, 24 40. 284. OO } 1, 530, 776, co
Total Europe--..| 42,612,600 | 80,197, 000 31, 241,500 [1 1,714, 205, 000 |1, 478, 245, 000 | 1, 762, 556, 000 000
British India__....---- 14,795,000 | 8, $39,500 | 17,839, 000 | ee ae 2 2 ee fe =
RECAPITULATION.
SAIN OTICN ohne ee oe 25,277, 500: | 18.478.000: | 26,833, 500)... -.--.-.-- 5). 2 eo oe
WURGDO meee eae 42,612, 000 | 30,197,000 | 81, 241,500 |1, 714, 205, 000 |1, 478, 845, 000 | 1, 762, 556, 000
British India ___.___._- 14; 795, 000'| 8, 889,500 | 17,839,000 |...2.-2.._.2_|_..

Total.......--..--| 82,684,500 | 57,514,500 | 75,914, 000 A, 714, 205, 000 1, 478, 845,000 | 1, 762, 556, 000

a Commercial estimate.
b Average, 1892 to 1895.

c Census 1893.
d Average for 3 preceding years.

SUGAR CROP OF THE WORLD.

Sugar crop of the countries named, 1895-1896 to 1899-1900.

[Tons of 2,240 pounds. ]

Countries.

CANE SUGAR.

United States:
Louisiana
Puerto Rico

BP RINCROD 8 esc ne Sanaa tee

British West Indies:
Trinidad, exports
Barbadoes, exports
Jamaica
Antigua and St. Kitts

French West Indies:
Martinique, exports
Guadelou

Danish West Indies:
St. Croix

Haiti and San Domingo

Lesser Antilles (not named above)

Mexico, exports

Central America:
Guatemala, crop
San Salvador, crop
Nicaragua, crop
Costa Rica, crop

South America:
British Guiana (Demerara), exports
Dutch Guiana (Surinam), crop
Peru, exports
Argentine Republic, crop
Brazil, crop

Moralin Americn, +. =. 322-----<-<-
Asia: a
British India, exports. ---.-......---
Siam, crop
Java, exports
Philippine Islands, exports

ot olkeg Vd AE) Ee ae ae
Australia and Polynesia:
ueensland
Sem OuUcn Wales. —~--280 22 A
Hawaiian Islands
Fiji Islands, exports

Total Australia and Polynesia ---

Africa:
Egypt, crop
Mauritius
Reunion

Europe:
Spain

Total cane-sugar production,
(Willett & Gray)

BEET SUGAR.

Europe beet-sugar production (Licht):

1895-1896. | 1996-1897. | 1897-1898. 1898-1899.

1899-1900.

237,720} 282,009! 310,447 | 245,511 132, 600
50, 000 58, 000 54 000 53, 825 50, G00
240,000} 219,500} 314,009 | 345,261 395, 000
58, 000 53, 000 53, 000 53, 456 45, 000
47. 800 52.178 47. 835 40. 876 44. (00
30, 000 30, 000 30,000 27 000 27 (00
24” 000 29° 000 25, 000 22) GUO 18, 000
35, 000 35, 000 35, 000 34, 000 35, 000
45,000 45, 000 45, 000 40. 600 30, 000

8, 000 13, 058 13, 000 12,000 12, 000

50. 000 48. 800 43. 000 50, 600 55, 009
8,000 8) 006 8,000 8,000 8) 009

2" 000 2’ 000 2" 000 2) 000 2° 0C0)
7,000 8,000 9,000 11, 000 12, 000

2" 000 3,000 4,000 4° 500 5, 000
500 500 1.500 3,750 4,000

200 200 | 500 750 1,600

105, 000 99,789 | 106,7 81, 535 80, 000
6,000 6,000 | 6,000 6,000 6.000

68. 000) 71.735 | 105,463} 110, 000 100, 000
130,000 | 1655000 | 110/600 72) 000 90, 000
295,000 | 175,903] 200,478 | 151/495 175, 000
1.379, 220 | 1,405,672 | 1,528,992 | 1,374,939 | 1,326,000
=: = = | = 1 eo

80, 000 | 28, 000 20,0001 10,000 10,000
7,000 7000 7,000 7.000 7) 600
605.025 | 498°434| 5315201 | 689° 281 722° 000
230,000 | 2027000 | 178,000 76, 000 40; 000
922,025 | 735,434 | 736,201 | 782,281! 779,600
60,000 | 100, 74 97,916 | 163, 734 122, 500
32" 000 31. 000 26. 000 28" 000 15,000
201,632 | 224218} 204,833 | 2527506 275, 000
30, C00 30, 000 30, 600 34 000 30, 000
323,632 | 385,992 | 358,749 | 478,240 442. 500
92,000 | 100, 060 80,178 50, 322 94, 000
149,000 | 152,677 | 121,693 | 186, 487 155,060
44.700 45, 082 31 483 37,781 | 35. O00
976.700 | 297,759 | — 233,354 | 315,090 284, 000
8, 000 8, 000 8,000 8,000 8,000
2,909,577 | 2,892,857 | 2,865,296 | 2,958,550 | 2. 839, 500
1,615,111 | 1,836,536 | 1,852,857 | 1,721,718] 1,790,000
791,405 | 934,007 | 7831,667 | 150515290 | 12 120; G00
667.853 | 752,081 | 821,235 | 830/132 970, 000
712,096 | 728,667 | 738°715 | 776, 066 809; O60
235,795 | 288,009 | 265.397 | 244/017 300, 040
106,829| 174,206| 125,658 | 149,763 180, 000
156,340 | 2021990 | 196) 245 ante 275, WO
4,285,429 | 4,916,496 | 4,831,774 4,982,101 |” 5,535, 000

a Japan, consumption 250,000 tons, mostly imported. China, consumption large, mostly imported,

782 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Sugar crop of the countries named, 1895-1896 to 1899-1990—Continued.

Countries. 1895-1896. | 1896-1897. | 1897-1898. | 1898-1899. | 1899-1900.

BEET SUGAR—continued.

United States beet-sugar production
(Willett & Gray):

Waltorniaic] 2 teen oe eee ee 21, 877 28, 200 31, 381 16, 486 37, 938
Nebraska ---- 3, 743 5, 246 6,579 4,721 591
tah, - £2 225 ee 3, 600 3, 640 1, 641 5, 764 8, 574
iNew Mesos faa ee eee ccs e oes 550 446
ING Wie OF 2a ene ee eee | eee eee Je ace 1,030 1, 607
Michigan =» 228. ca See het. ee ee EN a Se eee 2, 253 14, 699
Minnesota 891 2, 053
Oregon---_- 826 982
Tilinois --- 3 804
WOO ERD Mere ee or. ee eek ee | Ee 804
Washingt ton! - 222-2. 2.6 Poe. 3s ee ee eee 446
Total Umlbed States 22225222 ee2 29, 220 37,536 40, 398 32,471 72, 944
= = ———S_ sss
Total cane and beet sugar_---____- 7, 224, 226 | 7,786,889 | 7,737,468 | 7,973, 122 8, 447, 444
Rice crop of the countries named, 1895-1899

Countries. 1894-95. 1895-96. 1896-97. 1897-98. 1898-99.

Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.
North Carolina 4, 600, 000 2, 726, 000 2,720,000 2, 080, 000 2, 560, 000
South Carolina ------- 22, 354, 800 27,901, 440 29, 532, 160 28, 395, 200 23, 054, 720
Georgia 6, 656, 000 10, 464, 000 8, 727, 040 10, 181, 760 3, 584, 000
Louisiana 76, 800, 000 127, 600, 000 55, 907, 200 75, 664, 800 107, 792, 000
United Statesa ___._- 109, 820, 800 168, 685, 440 96, 886, 400 116, 321, 760 136, 990, 720
AWGRIC OS eee oe. 27, 173, 862 87, 614, 694 46, 755, 161 6 43, 261, 948 6 43, 261, 948
136, 9894, 662 256, 300, 134 | 143, 641, 561 159, 553, T08 180, 252, 668

387, 450, 600 383, 293, 440 385, 000, 000

385, 000. 000 385, 000, 000
1, 042,112,000 | 1,088,576, 000 683, 072,000 | 1, 167,744,000 | 1,122, 368, 000

Europe _______-- 1, 429, 562, 600 1,471, 869, 440 | 1,068, 072,000 | 1,552,744,000 | 1,507,368, 000
Bengal __- _.| 46, 688, 006, 400 | 35,516, 635,200 | 20,119,388, 800 | 44,591, 904,000 | 47, 863, 849, 600
Madras __ -| 3,994,211,200 | 6,312, 264,000 | 5,416,286. 400 | 5,375,070,400 | 6,182, 803, 200
Burma _____- --| 5,082) 731, 760 | 4) 645,872,000 | 5,340, 048,000 | 5,848, 304,000 | 4, 858, 448, 000

India __- 55, 764, 999, 360 | 46,474,771, 200 | 30, 875, 723,200 | 55, 815,278,400 | 58, 905, 100, 800
Japan s. S 12,974, 286, 650 | 11, 764, 925,575 | 10,737,770; 225 | 15.300, 991, 450 | 13,481, 647, 725

Asia_._._...-----| 68,739, 286,010. 58, 239,606,775 | 41,615,408, 425 71, 116, 269, 850 | 72,386, 748, 525

RECAPITULATION.
North America______- 138, 994, 662 256, 300, 134 | 143, 641, 561 159, 583, 708 180, 252, 668
Europe _---.-.-.-.-.-- 1, 429/ 562/000 | 1,471,8695440 | 1,068,072, 000 | 1,552, 744,000 | 1,507, 368, 000
es awe eG 5 SUE AED 68.739, 286, 010 | 58,239; 696,775 | 41) 613; 493; 425 | 71. 116, 269; 850 | 72386, 748, 525
otal eos ce 70, 305, 842, 672 39, 967, 866, 349 “42, 825, 206, 986 | 72, 828,597,558 | 74,074, 369, 193

a Figures from Dan Talmage’s Sons. b Average 1893-1897,

AVERAGE YIELD PER ACRE OF PRINCIPAL CROPS. i 783

Average yield per acre of the principal farm crops, 1890-1899.

[From Division of Statistics. ]

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784 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Average yield per acre of the principal farm crops, 1890-1899—Continued,

W HEA T—Continued.
States and Territories. 1891. | 1892. | 1893. | 1894. | 1895. 1897. | 1899. | 1899.
.| Bush. | Bush. | Bush.| Bush. | Bush. Bush, | Bush.
IMinimensouao-=-se-a--o earn 252 NG} ASS: 96 | 13.5 132350 5 15.8 13.4
Oates en nee, oe Aaa ee J8 | 1658° | Weby | 105 9) 1408 1985 : 13.0) VW 16% 138.0
IMISSOUT Ieee eto een HO USs6i tile bare |eiisssy yee || Tele 9.0 9.8 9.9
METI GES $e ee ae eee eee Bay 15.5 17.4 8.4 | 10.4 Lath y 15.5 | 14.2 9.8
ING braskaec® aceon ose ree ae RSe0| Lo Olteiesb 8.7 7.0 | 12.0 ; 14.5 | 16.4 10.3
South Dakotas. =) ee: g \fl5.2 | 12.5 8.5 6.6 | 12.0 | 11.2 8.0 | 12.4 10.7
North) Dakotas oe eon eee . 17.8 | 12.2 9°60 |) 1158) |} 20F'ON eS | TORS | ieee 12.8
IMG Titan eh oe eee ee ta 0 | 20:0 | 21.5 } 21.5 | 24.8) | 23:9 | 26:5 | 8255 | 20n5 25.7%
Vesy Omics ele 61s 2 Ae ee 20.0 | 175 | 18.% | 19.6) | 26.019) 245° 1 25,0 2aan 18.8
Goloradov. Ste ea ae : 20:2) | 19.0) T3852) 10.9) 28a Lae aine Ona teoees 23.7
INewilliexicouc:- 220 ltl ees 12. 1. | 13.8) |) 1628" | 1850) ) 2054 eae Os Eee O es ees 18.8
STU oTA See Oa Sa e | ee oleae, 14.5) | 1566) || 8 170) 2055 230 isso mal aceien 15.3
ORFS) eile EN eS ee ea 17.5 | 17.3 | 18.8 | 22/0 | 22.4 | 26.5 | 21.0 | 28:0 20.7
INO WAC cn tee ace. Ly en 1853 | 19:2 | 14.7%. | 20:0 | 21% | 8050) ees eako 18.0
Gahom ree oe Si Sees 20.0 | 22.0 | 19.3 | 20.6 | 17.8 | 245 | 22:0 | 81.0 24.2
Weshinetone-=252. 2 aaa 17.5 | 17.2 | 20.3 | 16.6 | 15.5 | 18.0 | 23.5 | 22 22.7%
One Ones at pe toe te ees 19.0 | 15.70) 108) | ATT. 2050) | T750) | eo ene 19.2
@alifornignwe.s eet eas 13. 13.0 | 18.3 | 11.3 | 13.0 | 14.6 | 10.0 9.1 14.1
Oklahoman! 2. ee eee peak oe eee ae oe eel eee 11.3 | 11.4 3.0 | 19.0 | 14.9 13.3
General average ------ 15.33 | 13.38 | 11.44 | 13.19 | 18.72 13.48 | 15.83 | 12.27
OATS
Bush. | Bush.| Bush.| Bush. | Bush. sh. | Bush. | Bush.
MGS: Saicccee cee ese a seee ee 34.6 | 32.2 | 36.3 | 33.5. | 40.1 | 40:0 | 3h 36.0 35.0
New Hampshire .---..-_...- 39.0 | 84.0 | 34.2 | 31.1 | 36.9 | 38.0 i 33.0 | 35.0
ViGTINONG eee oe tne eee 2 37.5 | 35.5 | 36.4 | 32.9 | 43.8 | 40.5 3. 38.0 37.0
Massachusetts) ...----.--.-+- f 33.0 | 30.4 | 34.3 | 31.9 | 86.0 | 36.0 | 382. 32.0 33.0
Rhode Island 3. 33.5 | 29.4 | 28:2 ~| 30:0 2.4 | 80.0 | 32:0 | 2770 26.0
Connecticut 2). 30.0 | 25.3 | 25.0 | 25.8 | 31.9 | 29.0 | 29.0 | 28.2 28.0
INIGWalY OF Kae ce eee Soeegeeee 17.8 | 31.5 | 28:0 (24.0 | 22.2 |} 3h¥ |°33:0 | Ssl0 eae 31.0
NG Wi CERO Vea eee ores 1%.3 | 28.0 | 25:7 | 23.9 | 28:4 | 35.5- (320 | 2520) 5k 24.0
Penney vata nn nee V2) | 2762) | 2be 2. |) 2628) 12253) | Sl | Sle We28ne lees 33.0
Melawaressctss ae ses. oes 13:0: | 20:8 | 19:3 | 25)4 | 19:0) | 19:1 | 2950 | 2270" neeeo 20.0
Maryland's 02m: S22 Sees 12.0 |, 1950: | 19:0 | 21.2" | 21.4 \-26:2 | 24.10 2250 Ses 23.0
Warciniay ten en ean oe OF8)5 |) FONT | WES PANES | W250) 4 ee S35 eee el ee 14.0
North! Carolina\=. 25). eenes 9.2 9.5 9.7 | 14:1 4).10:9 | 15:0) ) 12) Om 13820 ass 12.0
South Caroling fess 8 22.110; 10:6 | 30:5 | ILS yd270 | 16.2) |) 010 | osbe sien 12.0
CeGreigi toh eee i 7 | 100% |) 18538. Pasi4 1 145 1 1250) ASO ose 9.0
TAL oTes (0 Fe yee ee mer cee a L 11.4 OSs | MAS les) slOkee Meno 9.0 | 15.4 9.0
Nila ae acorn sna ot. see } 12.8 | 10.2 |14.2 | 13.2 | 14.9 114.0 | 13.0 | 168 10.0
IMISGISSID Dae. 2 eee ee 3} 115 | 1056) | 1625) 1380) bse] SO ete eles 10.0
MOUISIS TAN: 2 eae 3.2. | 12.3 | 1222) | 1650. | 2258) [50> | 1ONON | aSsO me ated 18.0
MeKAg cee wee rot es eee : 24.5 | 24.5 | 25.1 | 82.7 | 20.7 | 20.0 | 25.0 | 20.7 25.0
AIRE NGA Ge hee eee ee ee tees 3.5) | 265° | 15.9 | 19.3 | aB8s5o ("25.4 6 I0) sei Oe neem 19.0
INGNNEBSOC: 35.4.2 s nee ee 9.5 9.7% | 18.5 | 18.4 | 14.6- | 22.5: | 1605. | LOsO tesa 14.0
WeStiVArcinia. 2222 eo ene 6 117.38 | TO5 | 23.5) | 18: | 28.4 124.0) 120708 sige 23.0
ikentucky=.2 225) =e ase cone 8.5 | 18.5 | 18.38 | 22.2 |-21.0 | 26.2 | 21.0: | 18:0 | 224 18.0
ORO eet oS See eee 0 | S13) | 2628 286. 130.38 Jel | S10" |) S220 Misono 36.0
NiGhi oan -2os0e see ohae sae 26.6 | 82.5 | 28.7 | 26.0 | 26:1 | 28. 30.0 | 26.0 | 32.8 34.0
IMQianaA foe eed oo eee 1b | 28.5 | 26.5 | 27.5 | 82.3 | 22.9 | 29.0 | 80:2 | 2082 82.0
LUG oo i= ee Em ei Sen ee 71.0 | 86.2 | 26.3 | 27.2 | 86.1 | 24.4 | 28.0 | 32:0 | 29.0 38.0
SWWAUSeO ASTIN) ce ksh eee 6.0: | 33.3 | 80.2 | 27.6 | 32.9 | 8378 | 33.4 ; 36,1 36.0
MIRMWeESOtE..cc-<. sole eee BD 6ir | |S0200 | Sai Sinl ea8e Micon bea |soes ome edo 36.3 82.0
ROWalees eet ee ees 8 | 36.7% | 20.4 | 2408) 2516 4622) e275 84.0 33.0
Missouri-_--- 4 | 23.8 | 20.0 | 28.4 | 23.3 | 27.7 18.0 17.0 25.0
Kansas - CA ORES ON OY a PAS Heshe TRB) ible |i abrGatt) pay 18.0 29.0
Nebrask 7163 | 30.5 | 26.7% | 15.0) | 126) |-2358 Toro 32.1 30.0
MOMpa Dakotas 2-2 so aiaSe 21.0 (32.3 | 26.3 | 21.5 e6-"\)20.8 |ekee 26.8 26.0
North: Dakotaz< 4... 2. eS: 183.5 | 26.5 | 21.9 | 25.9 | 32.1 | 22:0 80.7 30.0
MWowtatiaccoso- ko. 2 eee 31.0 | 88.5 | 28.8 | 84.0 | 40.1 | 85.8 | 47.0 40.6 38. 0
Wi ONTINC y= ae. 20 eee Se AE ek 28.6 | 24.0 | 30.4 | 41.0 | 82.0 81.2 30.0
MOOLOTHC OL ae ee saree ~8) | 82560) 28% 6% 1 Teeho |) Shs 2850 35.8 27.0
iNewaMiexico: £2. 3 ise 24.0 | 22.0 | 20.3 | 29.2 | 35.0 | 39.9 | 27.0 38.8 24.0
{Dir ll 4 See eee ame ede ier 7.5 | 82.5 | 26.5 | 27.9 | 88.0 | 33.8 | 88.0 39.7 34.0
THO Ses ee ee 0.0 | 35.0 | 29.0 | 83.1 | 88.5 | 85.2 | 42.0 43.6 34.0
Wisishinie tote.) 20 ee seen cee 3.5 | 38.0 | 34.5 | 39.7 | 86.5 | 40.8 | 36.0 41.9 37.0
WRES OI ese toe ee renee 0.0 | 81.5) 26.5 | 28.5 26.7 | 28.8 2180 27.0 80.0
| FULT oy ig aly: Rel ane ERIE Te 8 2b | 2805 | 20238) 2056) Sate” Sek alse 33.0 31.0
General average ___._- 28.86 | 24.43 | 23.42 | 24.50 | 29.57 | 25.66 | 27.16 | 28.35 | 30.23

AVERAGE YIELD PER ACRE OF PRINCIPAL CROPS.

785

Average yield per acre of the principal farm crops, 1890-1899—Continued.

1294599 30

BARLEY.
tates and Territories. 1890. | 1891. | 1892. | 1893. | 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899.
|
, Bush. | Bush.| Bush.) Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush
JG 20.0 | 26.5 | 2e.d> | 26.0) |) 26.0) | $2.45 | 80.6) 1-25.00) 29. Ole imeare
New Hampshire-.....-..._- 20.0 | 26.3 | 23.5 | 25.3 | 24.4 | 25.6 | 29.8 | 22.5 | 23.5 25.0
“Uv Athi 22.5 | 27.8 | 26.0 | 27.5 | 27.9 | 33.2 | 38.0 | 28.5 | 80.0 31.0
Massachusetts _.....-.-_.-_- 22.0) | 26:4 | 22.5" | 25.3) | 21% | 22:5) | 80:0) | 84.5) | 245 30.0
tenode island _._.........=.. 2% | 2850) | 21.5: | 25.2) | 30.0 | 23.5 | 29:0 | 28:0 | 28:0 29.0
i 16.7 | 23.3 | 22.2 | 20.3 | 17.5 | 22.9 | 23.2 | 25.0 | 25.2 24.0
PeMBNULVAIIA 9~ 25-2. -—~---| << 52- Poe [ede el OlOF IG Ge POL Ny Se | ae hy Gea 21.0
CUD...) ee 15.0 | 15.2 | 16.5 | 14.5 4 15.3: | 21.6 | 12.0 } 25.0 } 20:0 18.0
op PTS Sc. 2 Se a 12.7 | 19058 | Tad | 138.8) [28200 114.0) |) 18.0) 11820 11.0
— a 19.0 | 24.5 | 22.3 117.0 | 28.7 | 33:3 | 14.8 |20.0 | 16.0 21.0
Ol 19:5) | 20.0) | 2a.0) | 227 | 28-5) | 28.20 120, Wee Be i e8u7 28.0
Pemuetaean 26s 8 22. 24.5 | 23.4 | 16.4 | 20.6 | 18.1 | 22. 21.5 | 25.2 24.0
ou TT Oe ee 16.5, } 23.5) | 28/0) | 19.9) | 20.7- | 15.0) 2053 | 19.0 | 234 25.0
(UU OonS! 5235 re 20.3 | 26.0 | 17.9) | 23.2 | 23:5 1 20:0 | 23.7 | 25.0 | sr3 29.0
oo cnc a 22.7 | 26.5 | 25.5 | 24.0 128.6 | 29.8 | 27.4 | 28.0 ; 29.1 30.0
Mamnerole,. =< 2222. ce 22.5 | 27.38 | 24.9 | 22.1 | 23.5 | 36.0 | 27.2 | 25.5 | 28.4 25.0
(30° _ i -|eu.0) | ete) | EU 22.6. | 18.5) | 28:0) || 2623 220) 12650 26.0
Loo rr 2 ee 29:1 | 20.0 | 140 | 15.3) | 17.5 | 19:0 | 200 18.0
Li? 18.0 | 26.5 | 25.0 8.1 8.8 | 14.4 4.6 | 17.5 | 28.0 17.0
Lisi al aTy 17.3 | 27.2 | 22.2 | 12.0 6.7 | 28.4 | 19.9 | 22.0 | 27.1 26.0
Bouter Dakota... -2.==.+.2-. lig.5 (s88.5 23.8 | 15.4 | 14.7 | 19.5 | 28.5. | 20.0 |} 23.0 23.0
ete jo"? 1130.0 24.3 | 15.2 | 20.1 | 80.4 | 16.1 | 22.5 | 26.4 24.0
i Sy | 24.0 | 80.0 | 82.5 | 30.1 | 22.5 | 25.0 | 25.0 | 38.0 | 36.0 35.0
Meme ---.._.....--.-.-.--| 24.5). |-26.5) | 24.0 |.28:3 | 27.8 | 31.3 | 20.0 | 28.0 | 30.5 28.0
MemenOxICO)..:-.--- --.-.22- 20.0 {22.0 | 19.6 {| 21.6 | 27.0 | 28.0 | 19.0 | 32:5 | 33.8 32.0
ci = | 23.2 [26.7 | 20.3 | 37.6 | 33.0 | 30.0 | 27.1 | 31.0 | 37.0 33.0
Olof j-------| 29.0 | 26.0 | 30.0 | 32.6 | 24.5 | 15.3-| 35.0 | 35.0 35.0
MVesnineton.—.....-..---.-.- 25.0 | 31.5 | 25.3 | 40.1 | 33.7 | 37.3 | 26.0 | 45.0 | 39.8 35.0
5 Ut 20.0 | 24:0 }.23.3 | 26.1 | 38.6 | 22.1 | 21.8 | 32.5 | 2.1 28.0
Mamstormin--.--- 2-2-6 2 =| 22.3°> | 23.7 | 24-0)" | 22:5) || 16.2 ||) 20:3 286 2820) | 10:5 26. 0
} "7 si + 7 oy oH =| Si ners
General average---,--| 21.00 25.80 | 23.70 21.70 | 19.37 | 26.39 | 23.62 | 24.52 | 21.60 | 25.50
| |
RYE.
Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush. | Bush. | Bush.| Bush. | Bush.| Bush.| Bush
Lt 11.8 | 16.0 | 13.5 | 12.0 | 16.5 | 19.2 18.0 | 13.5 | 18.0 15.0
New Hampshire ---.-..._.-- 1255 | 16-2 | 14.0 | 15.1 1 15.4 | 16°50) | 1976.) 18:0) } 175 15.0
noi) ea rr 12.9 |16.1 |1483 | 140 | 13.1 | 16.0 | 18.6 | 16.0 | 19:1 17.0
Manenchusetts 2... 2.5. ..- 13.5 | 15.3 | 15.2 | 16.2 | 19.2 | 19.9 | 22.0 | 19.5 | 16.7 16.0
Cet Sy ————— 12.2 | 14.3 }14.3 | 15.9 | 12.9 | 16.9 115.4 | 19:0 | 18:0 18.0
Lr on! Paes8) WaOF |) ae ae ple 9) 1 TR aS IS bs es 16.0
MPWiGrSey .—-..=....-.5..-- 11.3 | 14.3 {18.5 | 13.4 | 14.8 | 13.6 | 13.8 | 17.0 } 15.5 15.0
LS ei 2.2 |14.8 | 12.6 | 14.7 | 13.9 | 15.1 | 16.0 | 19.0 | 16.1 15.0
Ona Ee: 120;3 Wee des. sk || Ses |e 9:2 | 17.0 | J45 14.0
ONG ee ee 6.6 8.2 8.8 9.3 S23) 1 SEO) |) 00) dO ase, 9.0
Worth Carolina .._.......... 5.7 7.0 6.5 fy 9.0 (ew 1.5 8.8 9.1 7.0
Bonen ©arouna_.--......-... 5.4 6.0 6.0 5.4 4.7 9.3 4.8 6.6 8.5 5.0
TL 2) 2 ee 4.9 7.6 6.0 6.4 6.5 7.2 ape 7.4 8.0 6.0
Alabama --- peo =| ne SS 6.5 9.8 | 13.3 | 10.2 8.0 9.6 | 11.1 8.0
Oe See Bra WwAdse <4 Ade? 9:3: | 113 5.5 7.0) 1250" 1250 10.0
iS tii ea 6.5 9.3 8.2 7.5 O50 TODS | ClO! iets) Tees 11.0
MBMMOSECS)....-.—2-------=-.-- 6.3 Bode ol) wince 9.5 7.6 7.2 QO TOL" 105 9.0
LC Ab rr 9.5 | 10.5 9.5 8.2 8:0) 6h | 1056. i atebs eS 10.0
LCE ET) BO | Oss. Wott dees: | A222 see | DEON 1820 1 1350 10.0
no a a a Hee \daeo |) 12.6 | Fase | 18s 48 96 | 18:0 | 14 16.0
TCL eh a a 13.4 | 15.0 | 138.7 | 12.8 | 13.2 | 13.6 92 | 15.0) |) 1523 14.0
UL To re as eee IST OV AES | 12.5 |} 44 | 1953. 12.2 41096: | 38:0" | 1555 13.0
LO UDID IY Shep ee Sa Be SS See Ie AS | WS | |.48.9 | A826 15.2 bs | Ssh: | 148 15.0
MBcOnseIn. - =. 24) 2.22855 125. (14:6 pIs:% |14-5° | 16:0 | IER 14:5 | 160) (15:3 15.0
WEITICS OG. -- te 3. Ss 140 [AS VE a Se ge Oh nis Ge lates. lee0ss 18.0
CSD io ee ae fd PTO! f ISS TGS 1629) 92066 ee S60) 01940) 18.0
Lol: of Bas Sas tet VSS (Isso. .| 12-8) 1552 11222 | 22 PO Sa 13.0
LS) See 13.0 ; 14.3 | 15.0 7.0 5.8 5.9 70 114.0) |) 1586 11.0
LO STS See See 13.2 | 15.7 | 14.5 | 10.1 6.1 9.3 | 16.9 | 17.0 | 18.8 16.0
Roden Hakotal= -..-.-..22.| 11.7 fl5.3 | 12.5 | 10.6 4.5 8.4 | 11.6 | 16.5 | 16.6 15.0
Brorth Dakota_!...-._....._.|f--* geo. es [ese | Oe ees | 1220 a5: alas0 15.0
niente) i 144.5 | 20.6 | 14.6 | 21.0 | 15.6 | 14.5 |:28.5 | 15.0 | 18.0 14.0
iCstlr. i --| 13.5 | 16.8 | 13.2 | 11.9.) 19.0 | 19.8 | 20.0 | 12.0 | 19.5 17.0
NVR TONS 6 ee -. Sos 14:2) | 1423 | 17-0) | Wes. | 1424 | 26.7 (510) 1 F955. || 1826 16.0
Clg es ee 13 | 1858 20) AOS A | eS ee TSO) ae 11.0
pig ee 144.0 | 16.5 | 11.5 | 17.5 | 138.2 | 11.6 | 14.3 | 12.2 9.0 15.0
General average _____- 11.80 | 14.40 | 12.70 | 18.03 | 18.74 | 14.40 | 18.31 | 16.06 | 15.61 | 14.44

786 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Average yield per acre of the principal farm crops, 1890-1899—Continued.

BUCKWHEAT.
States and Territories. 1890. | 1891. | 1892. | 1593. | 1894. | 1895. | 1856. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899,
Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.) Bush.| Bush
Migine 5232S ce. 2. ete eee 20.0 | 22.0 | 19.0 | 2.0 | 37.8 | 38.6 | 42.3 | 35.0 | 26.5 en
New Hampshire -_-__.-.---- -| 18.0 | 21.5 | 17.5 | 23.2 | 20.0 | 29.9 | 27.2 | 27.0 | 2.0 20.0
(WiGrIIONL the. 22 eee “eee 20.0 | 22.5 | 2.0 | 29.2 | 22.4 | 34.5 | 31.4 | 24.0 | 22.4 23.0
Massachusetts _....--.------ V5 | 165 | 41T.6-| 22:5 | 19> | 15:0) F383 |, 1980) e20uo 20.0
Connecticut... 2 42.= = 14.7 116.0 | 12.6.| 15.8 | 16.4 | 2 | Tee 1 AOy ieee 19.0
ING WaMOr ke seo -ose eres - eee 15.5 | 175 | 14.7 | 144 | ISS | Zhe =) 188 |. 22:0 | ter 13.0
ING OE SEM coe Sean eee 14.0 | 14.2 |12.5 | 144 | 14.4 | 18.7 | 20.7 | 16.0 | 21.0 21.0
Pennsylyania: 2-2) 13.5 | 186 | 14.5 | 14.1 | 18.0 | 19.9 | 17.3 | 210 | tee 20.0
Delay ares... se ee wagede={et Qeesepeceeeaet COO) f 2000 if TOsO et 2OsOn | tS IO. sates 18.0
NWisrrsylean cee) 202 Sab ee ee 12.0 [12.5 [12.5 | 168°} 20:0 | 10:9 | 2227 | 1950: | We 13.0
Vana eae SS 2. SM 9.5 | 12.5 &3 | 13.3 | Tk? | 1D 7180) eo ies 14.0
Neri Carolina —2-2-.- 22252. EO pS $2 | 1E6 (187 § 120 |} 20) Oe aes 17.0
IRGATHOSSEOt ate | eo TO. Oo ee seeee “75 | 12.6. 1/128 | 10.0 | 24.0) | 1e0) passe 12.0
West Virginia. -°2.2__.2_22. 12.0. | 18.5 | 16.8 | 13.5 | 22.6 | 18.8 | 19:5 | 1950) |920:5 17.0
Ohio 12.0 | 15.5 | 12.6 | 12.0 | 14.9 | 14.6 | 18.8 | 18.0 | 20.0 16.0
Michigan 16.5 | 14.2 13.0 | 18.9 12 8) LES PIB S3 yy) TO a 11.0
Indiana__- 15.0 13.2 | 18.5 6.9 | 14.8 14.3 | 240 | 140 18.4 16.0
Tilinois 14.5 |} 14.0 | 123) | 1h6 |) 17 | 183 | 13-8 | 13:0 eee 15.0
Wisconsin 14.3 Fs | iso jlsss 8b} 19 | 13.5 18.6 15.5 15.0
WMmieSOta 26. 2.-2st5 aoe ae 12.8 | 12.5 | 18.8 | 15.2 9.2 } 15.3 |10.6 |} 170) | toe0 17.0
Oech es eee Se ee ee. 14.2 13.5 10.7 13. 2 12.6 13.5 | 16.2 17.0 15.0 16.0
WESEMUIRL IY eset eee 13.2 | 12.5 1 Ss— | IZ 9.2 | 10.2 | 21.8 15.0 15.8 14.0
INGbEASK ase cca ee. 12:0 | 12.001 82) | 14%} 87 | 6.7 |) 2138. _| 14.0) aes 16.0
reson. ses ce ee Se oes ESO fo Soe IL 2 | 20.0 | 38.0 | 15.5 | 21.0 | 18:0. |} 14.0 17.0
General average ------ 14.50 | 15.30 | 14.10 | 14.86 | 16.05 | 20.10 | 18.66 | 20.89 | 17.28 | 16.56
POTATOES.
Bush.| Bush.| Bush. Bush.| Bush.| Bush.) Bush.| Bush. | Bush.| Bush.
Winer ee eee creas ames 95 125 | 82 120 147 163 165 59 130 139
Now Hampshire. ou. .-=.-..- 90 110 80 1i9 1Z0 124 1038 51 $0 127
WEEMmOntEH ose] ccs ee $5 120 54 Wt 124 154 128 10 105 132
Massachusetts: ..-.--.--- =.- 87 120 83 119 105 133 108 62 7¢ 134
Bhodelsiand2-2- 25-525. i) 120 9 108 133 | 1388 105 110 | 123 3142
Gonneeticute- =.022 80 $2 2 87 79 128 106 54 100 130
Ticats cl: cue ee tee OEE St 62 87 63 70 7 122 § 62 it 8&8
INGw Jersby)- 22 228 ee 76 98 71 73 60 o4 94 68 7 83
Pennsylvania 68 84 60 76 64 ill 109 63 54 85
Diolanw rere sa! Se Bas 70 76 42 50 59 58 78 60 49 52
Maryland® 22 52% 2- =. ee 7 78 60 49 52 7 $0 Tt 58 64
Wiatvomiiace o> ee Sees: 68 76 58 7 59 73 93 61 68 66
North G@arolina 2 --.-----72- 4 75 55 97 62 i 7 66 67 57
Sonth Garolina_-:- 2... 2-20 63 69 70 83 59 SO 52 65 65 56
Geordie 8... eee ee 72 7 7 74 52 58 55 52 54 4G
JENNGS ei C5 ts Spee ae tera Sore aa eae 75 74 65 87 90 55 75 75 G4 69
SA ania eee Bees es 67 G7 65 83 43 70 64 5D 74 56
DMESSSISSTD pat Le oP eee 61 60 67 81 vp. 58 70 59 7 6i
NAOwIsialla Coe es eee oes eee 3 73 65 67 45 89 55 78 Go
Gl es ise ee es eee) ee 67 69 61 53 80 89 52 60 78 64
iApkensgss soo 2- =* eee s 60 75 68 | 88 82 70 59 55 74 63
SPENMBSSOG Ke 2s fe ee ST os 62 7 67 68 55 G4 62 40 52 44
Wiesh Var einin 23f40 ease. 58 88 60 80 52 69 $3 56 62 iz
WeMitiCky soe :2 sae oe ee 33 7 58 68 54 86 85 47 G4 51
(G1 tis eee ey See 46 93 60 58 63 3 89 42 61 | 71
Mii Caras 2 ee eee 58 96 62 75 62 101 88 72 it | 66
iG iit eal eee Se ee 37 $3 56 51 59 66 85 31 71 7
ES ee ee. oe ds 30 92 52 53 50 7 97 38 70 $6
Wisconsin--___- 2a 2 eee 60 98 65 V7 45 107 78 99 98 1
ivbinTMtesoOtas) 2.2 a). 220s 68 100 70 65 38s 158 84 106 85 96
Wait ae Se Baten ee ates pee 45 99 53 58 43 106 94 60 80 100
VERSO UP Ie. ena ot es oa 39 96 51 78 69 109 7 42 65 &3
LEG SEO ES RII See eos ee NOES | 28 88 47 44 4} ve 69 48 70 95
INGM EAS e 2s oo ee fe 2 97 48 44 22 67 90 63 65 4%
South Dakota ..----.-------- \ 45 \f 92 64 54 23 66 96 St 72 7
Sore DAKO] /.5-. 0 29. Slee L 105 75 69 &4 128 102 | 99 87 103
NOB <2. Sook. ee tae 2 2 RE SP ay 100 188 111 53 170 15 104 141
pane es ae ees eee we seh POR 100 134 150 100 167 150 120 125
WOlOvedo mec2.2- oSeseessh st 73} 15 99 94 85 95 88 97 7 e
New Mexico 80 85 35 70 r6) 80 72 90 58 44
Die) 85 105 59 88 135 172 155 148 135 120
1002 71 EE a ee alle ee 95 98 100 1382 161 150 150 135 155 102
Idaho. SSE Oe ee EO I ee 115 98 153 178 105 162 140 120 124
WES) 59 91 6) | ee a ra 115 125 100 120 12 149 125 162 108 144
hump tos co soos ok 100 | 110| wl 197| 112) 64| 87} 160} “Sey ain
Califormia, ---.2-.-.-----.-4.- 95 95 (6) 96 52 75 80 105 95 119
General average---..--| 57.50 | 93.90 | 62.00 | 70.26 | 62.35 |100.59 | 91.14 | 64.71 | 75.19 | 68.63

AVERAGE YIELD PER ACRE OF PRINCIPAL CROPS. 787

Average yield per acre of the principal farm crops, 1890-1899—Continued.

HAY.
States and Territories. 1890. | 1891. | 1892. | 1893. | 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899
Tons. | Tors.| Tons. | Tons. | Tons.| Tons. | Tons.| Tons. | Tons. | Tons.
oo Thi. 3s oh rrr 200 — 195 | O90} O92) Of95 | HOF) 160) FO) Fz 0.90
New Hampshire -------_---- | 1.65 - 2 90} 1.66 . 93 95 90) denSn| eles .89
oo 2 ees 1.08 | 1.60 205") TA) A) Orr N25. \) TUS) Shoes 1.14
Massachusetts _...-........- F008 Pte | Pa) AT E28) Raa S237) aon Pees 1.13
LD AR CN k. 12 .85 90. . 83 1 ab F LALO?) Eros |e ners 89
Cemectieut .--..-....-..-... $2 -90 | 1.00 . 99 87 oot LeOR) Is200y Seo . 94
i (7 A Rar Ls RO: ERE Ee . 73 20h | Ida") ap 1. 04
LO il) re 1.380! 1.05} 1.07 295) Lie et Toth | at) eae 83
Permayivania —........._...| L2| £15} LO; £8) L1is[ LOR} Loe; 1.40) 1:4 1.20
[lly (Uh 7 ee 1.20) 1.10] 1.00 eo) wl ae) eee PON Sa a5s | es 1. 04
Mmeyiand)—-..2.-.......-..- 1.2% | 1.12 98 | 2.0L) 1.03] 1.25 87 | 1.35) 1.20 1.338
oh ee Lay] LB 25 ft Foo te || detaap ye 1087) IOS) Stose 1.10
Maren (around... ........... Ee | £10} B20) £7 1.45} 1.63) 1.26] 1.25) 1.70 1.50
poamen Carolina-.........__- Eat} 235) 20 SE or bos! |) CEO R eset = TOO eb 1.22
SU a a> |) EST) RSS) Eee EEG) | GOP SS) TESST) eS 1.45
pic fo a es US 2 ek a) Be Aes 2.00} 1.23 | 1.53} 1.40] 1.60] 1.60 1. 46
2. ci Sa | BS 1.30} 2.30} 1.52} 2.68| 156} 1.40) 1.45] 1.90 1.66
MRISSID DH =~ —.......--=.--.- } dao} reo) eSh) Pe) SI St FP Ieob. F F235 0) ees) | eee: 1. 44
Toot) | 1.80] 1.30! 1.40] 1.62] 1.96] 2.02] 2.90] 1.90] 2.10 1.95
L 1.31} 1.05} 3.04} 1.33] 1.48} 1.00] 1.40] 1.56 1.43
1. Lat Lip) Bet se) Lee Tis | a0 aoe 1.48
t; 120) 1.20} £39 | EIS} 21.38} 3.40) 1.45) 150 1.31
i+ 1.38} 1.00) F.20|) 1. See eee Peso oleae 1.29
ak LB} bt ES) haw Et BS? 1.2 eye ee easy 1.29
1.30] 1.20) 3.35] 1.33] 1.27 .o8} 1.26] 1.44] 1.39 1.30
i E- 2S) Wee) a ae eo 08} £16; 1.49) 1.36 1.22
1L.é 1.20) 120 | 136} 1.27 61} 1.30] 1.43] 1.45 1,34
Le: Bie Pes | 2) le 66} 1.38] 1.29] 1.56 1.29
1.2 LE]. Eat Lee iat TOO cee |) eon) maken 1.47
cs LB) LS} Let Le] Beer 16a! T5r |) reso 1.70
Loe 20] Lp] 158 tee) BGS TE WSO er 1.34
E Pip} obs f Geet <% | Te] 1.438) 15) 1.60 1.37
SOU) E308 etO't ad ee) cee Ratan, Loh) steAG 1.57
F E20 Peo lb Clip 5) .99 | 1.66} 1.60] 1.60 1,66
fia} £2) T42 . Ot EO 2 1.25) 1.38 1.43
LL] £80.) Be) £39) Tae 165)) 1.60.) 22.50 1.58
PID) VEO! Pel 20.) LO Of] 1.38] 1.50) 1.45 1.422
g .98| 1.15) 1.35] 1.60) 1.08} 1.55] 1.65] 1.96 1.47
SeUaRRRRC Soo | 137} 1.88} 2.00) 139] 2.27] 2.42) 2.20] 2.25 | 2a 2.10
PURI RICO. 2 2 | EE] £30) Le] 208 | 2. SSP el | s2000) 3:50") esi75 i
2 EU oe eee fae set Eh le del) elute), eincautme.cunl “00h cooge 2. 63
OD Sa 5 ee } BSS] £40} 1.40) 1.72) 2.52] 2.56) 2.70) 2.95 | 3.25 2.50
LU 2 As | L220} 2.20} 1.75) 2.66| 4.04} 3.0L} 2.55] 2.50) 2.60 1.87
MS Oe ee edie 1.2 1.50] 2.45] 2.531 2.57 | 2.60) 2.30] 3.75 2.50
Wraseineton .-........- siees 1.40} 1.45] 1.40] 1.58] 2.05} 1.85) 1.95) 2.2) 1.75 2. 02
enn STIBee eo = I 250) 805) es) 188i} 2:00 | tet 1.98} 1.90] 1.90 1.97
(Otani re 1.40; 1.40] 1.50) 1.69] 1.93| 1.66; 1.65] 1.60! 1.60 1.63
General average------ } 1.20} 118} 1.18} 1.33 | Torah TOG Sie Washi bs 1.35
COTTON.
|
States and Territories. | 1890-91 | 1891-92 | esr 1893-94 1894-SS | 1895-96 | 1896-97 | 1897-98 | 1898-99
| |
Bales. | Bales.| Bales. | Bales. | Baies.| Bales. | Bales. | Bales. | Bales.
VT ESIC) 282 Se eee eee al | ee Se eee see seen 0. 21 0. 18 0. 24 0. 25 0.27
MMe OEP OMAN eo 59 —= Soeon fo |e See a) 8 0. 34 As) 38 42 - oD 48
MEI ORRENS LETS os oe en |) ree Ee | |e 34 oo 42 46 . 50 Ad
ot ee eee E Li .33 33 3) oT 38 ar; )
Florida _- .33 24 20 .18 2h 2B
Alabama. a5. .3e 28 31 41 39
Mississipp any 41 4h 42 Bt) 43
UL 7 DTOSRS cr) Se ee ees ae Sd St (et cee ee ae - 50 .55 45 46 . 63 56
OSL SS sce Se Se Se) ee ee Pe eee 48 45 .33 dl 39 . 48
10° [2 TSE ee eR es Se ee ee ee vou le) 348 44 39 . 58 49
LUISE A | eR A ee | eee .3t .33 eA . 26 28 . 36
Massouri 9. =... See ee Se j-nee o> een (ee 38 22D .3l 32 -40
wie De ALS Se Ba a |e ee ee |: 45 54 45 -51 50
Hasta ROrEKUOR Y= 68) eS eee eee 45 82 . 62 . 65 . 66
General average ___- 43 436 371 387 418 335 367 448 448

CORN.

Average value per acre of principal farm crops, 1890-1899
[From Division of Statistics.]

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

788

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,

790 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Average value per acre of prineipal farm crops, 1890-1899—Continued.

BARLEY.

States and Territories. 1890. | 1891. | 1882. | 1893. | 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899.
\VAIKO) faaecte 52s win she ae \$15. 20 1$19.08 |$15.16 [$17.49 |$17.23 1316.85 |$13.16 1313.75 |$15.12 | $17.11
New Hampshire ---.-.------- 16.20 | 19.46 | 17.39 | 17.71 | 15.37 | 14.34 | 15.53 | 13.50 | 13.63 | 16.25
IWenmnontetn. - see kee 15.75 | 19.66 | 17.16 | 16.50 | 16.74 | 15.60 | 13.53 | 13.11 | 14.10] 16.12
Massachusetts __...----.---- 16.94 | 20.03 | 16.87 | 22.77 | 13.67 | 14.63 | 17.40 | 22.77 | 16.17 | 20.40
hode istend —.--- 42 2.28." 16. 49 | 21.84 | 17.63 | 21.92 | 21.60 | 17.63 | 17.40 | 15.12 | 17.08 | 20.30
MWe MORE sa as45- a5. Soares 13.08 | 15.15 | 16.65 | 12.18 | 9.80 | 18 55 | 9.05} 10.50} 12.10] 12.00
Pennsylvania -_-.-----------| 14.70 | 14.40 | 12.37 | 9.50 | 7.97 | 8.28) 6.88] 9.55 | 8.54] 10.29
REG ee eee nae a eee 9.72 | 11.86 | 10. 7 8.99 | 8.41 | 11.66) 6.00] 10.75 | 10.00} 11.88
Tennessee __...........------| 13.61 | 6.86 | 12.87 | 8.31] 7.73} 11.55 | 6.30 | 10.62 | 10.08 7.04
INEMUNGMY: Hos so eee 12. 42 | 13.2 8.47 | 8.67 | 13.49 | 12.65 | 5.92] 8.00| 6.40 9.03
OnTOp sei eo. ec lee ee 13.65 | 15.42 | 13.39 | 10.67 | 13.68 | 11.56 | 7.68 | 11.69 | 12.63] 12.60
WWrehi Pat ns a See 14.05 | 14.70 | 14.04} 8.04) 10.80] 7.78 | 9.37 | 8.60} 11.09] 11.52
LG eM oa alot 10.72 | 18.87 | 14.56 | 8.95] 9.32] 6.00] 6.70} 8.36} 10.380} 11.25
Witireiceecee.. 0 ise). = ree 12.18 | 14.30 | 8.7 9.28 | 11.2% 9.00} 7.35] 9.50] 10.65 | 13.63
Winsconsin. 2-2 SSS eee 13.17 | 14.57 | 12.75 | 10.32 | 12.87 | 9.96 | 7.40] 8.96} 11.64] 12.00
WIRHEVE SOG a 3-220 <= 12.37 | 11.74 | 12.31 | 7.96] 9.63} 8.64] 5.44] 6.12] 9.37 7.75
Loni a sae Se ee Sa soe | 11.75 | 11.47 |} 8.44] 7.46] 6.51 | 6.44] 5.521 5.76] 8.84 8.06
MMBSSOT Tees soe ee ee ¥1.40 | 14.71 | 12.22] 8.00] 7.14] 7.34] 4.88] 7.60} 7.20 7.56
1 SONOS Sk Mee eae See alates 10.26 ; 10.60] 8.75] 3.81 | 4.31 | 3.3L] 1.01 | 4.38] 7.56 4.59
INfebnadkseeras- Soo. ot eee 9,86 | 10.06 | 7.33] 3.72| 2.45| 6.82) 3.78 | 5.28| 6.78 7.80
South Dakota . =~... _- Mi 14 (fll. 68 | 8.16 | 5.63) 4.72] 3.71] 5.42 | 4.40] 6.21 6. 67
NORD ne DaAkOba, =o sso cee ee pee 112.60 | 8.02) 4.71 | 7.24] 608] 3.388] 6.07} 7.66 7.92
Wontalnrssses tore ok oe oe 17.76 | 19.50 | 21.45 | 15.05 | 9.00 | 14.75 | 13.75 | 19.00 | 20.52 | 17.85
@Goloradoye: 22 ee 18.62 | 14.84 | 12.96 | 14.15 | 16.04 | 18.78 | 9.20 | 14.28 | 14.03} 15.40
New Mexico ..._----- Ho seaet 12.96 | 15.40 | 12.74 | 12.53 | 18.90 | 19.04 | 12.35 | 17.88 | 18.59 | 19.52
Uhr et oes eee eee eae aN 17.40 | 16.02 | 10.56 | 16.92 | 15.18 | 11.70 | 11.38 | 13.95 | 17.389] 17.16
d Ks $5) 19 oy Se a ree ae 15.75 | 19.72 | 8.58 | 15.90 | 15.82 | 10.2 3.37 | 14.70 | 16.80} 16.10
Wieshineton, <5 > foro ere 17.00 | 18.90 | 11.39 | 15.64 | 10.78 | 14.17 | 10.40 | 19.35 | 17.91 | 15.40
ORG ROM e253: ga. see ee 17.50 | 11.52 | 10.72 | 10.44 | 12.74 | 8.84] 9.81 | 14.63 | 14.26] 14.00
California _-...-.--.--..-----| 16.72 | 14.46 | 11.28 | 9.45] .6.84] 8.12.) 10.37 | 12.42 | 6.82) i268

General average -_..-- 13. 44 | 15.56 | 11.18 8.92 | 8.56] 8.88] 7.62) 9.25] 8.93] 10.28

RYE

ID ET a ere ac aS = erp $10. 03 |$15.52 |$11. 24 |$12.96 |$13. 37 [$16.32 |$12. 06 lator $15.12 | $12.60
New Hampshire -......----- 10.50 | 15.389 | 11.62 | 11.78 | 11.40 | 12.16 | 14.11 | 15.12 | 13.12) 12.15
WIEN OM tee tee ee eee 10.32 | 14.49 | 10.44 | 10.22 | 9.56) 9.12) 12.09 | 9.60] 11.08] 10.54
MWasssachwsetts usec oo cee 10.94 | 14.69 | 10.94 | 12.15 | 14.02 | 13.38 | 15. 11.90 | 10.52 | 12.64
Connectieut..---.-.- eee ee 9.76 | 13.44 | 10.44 | 10.49} 8.39] 10.65} 8.78 | 11.21 | 19.80] 11.52
ING WY OEE 2b Sn 2 a 8.98 | 138.20] 8.26) 9.39] 8.32] 8.69] 6.2 8.88 | 8.75 8. 96
Wew lerscy son. one 8.48 | 11.73] 8.37] 9.38} 8.14] 6.94] 6.49] 8.50] 7.75 8. 25
Pennsyivawia os = 22222 8.54} 11.84 | T/Sk | 8.38} 7.78} 7.55 | 7.52) Sale 7.65
Wisrsy lameness eee 7.21 | 10.74] 7.01} 6.68] 6.35 | 6.32 | 4.42] 7.82] 7.83 7.98
MEP ones aoe ee 4.42 | 6.72| 5.54] 5.21] 4.75 | 5.72 | 4.80) 5.50) S15 4.77
North) Carolina _- ==) 22522" 4.62} 5.95] 5.52] 5.39 | 6.30] 4.93} 5.32] 5.28] 5.82 5.25
Southi@arolnas-- 2-2-0252 4.59 | 6.42] 5.88] 5.94] 4.51 | 10.7 4.18] 5.68 | 8.67 5.45
GEGPG a aees. eee ee ees 4.4 8.7 6.00 | 6.91 | 6.31 |- 6.12 | (7.17 | (6588) wes 6.72
labora so. eee. ees eS 6.48 | 8.40] 6.50 | 11.27 | 12.64] 8.57 | 7.04 | 11.33} 11.65 8.32
RO SsIS eee a ae eS PE 4.40) 8.96] 7.84] 6.382] 8.48] 4.13] 4.69] 8.64] 8.52 8.20
PAP KANSAS! oD eee oe Se -| 4.09] 8.418] 6.72 | 4.35] 6.84| 7.20] 7.00] 9.46] -7.41 8. 14
PREKENCSSOG eco tee ee ae 4.73 | 7.40| 5.65| 5.60] 4.48) 4.46) 5.40] 5.80] 5.56 6.03
West Virsinia2--.. -.- 2222. 6.56 | 7.98 | 6.37) 5.338) 4.56] 9.82] 5.94]. 5.87] 5 82 6.20
Menbuehkey: © io.) oft. Sens 6.65 | 8.55) 7.01] 7.66 | 7.20) 7.39) 5.94) 6.89) Ts 7.00
OUST see eee ae 7.37 | 13.18 | 7.06) 7.14] 8.23) 6.66] 3.74] 7.92] 7.83 8.80
hE ees i 8.04 | 11.70 | 7.26] 5.63] 6.07) 5.44} 2.94] 6.30] 6.58 7.28
inchiarig Se). ba Seo 8.22 | 13.42 | 6.50] 6.48| 8.11] 5.12) 3.82] 5.46] 6.67 6. 24
LLL Me a Sk Oe RR PT 7.49 | 13.48 6.15 5.70 | 8.00) 6.08) 5.20} 6.82] 6.51 7.05
WWISCONSHG = 22 2) Sh ae 7.00 | 11.39 | 6.58 | 624] 6.88] 5 64| 4.82] 6.56] 6.58 7.20
Minnesota. = 2. .20.<2) = se 7.42 | 11.70 | 7.52 | 6.27 | 7.55] 5.91] 4.68} 6:36) 779 7.56
LGC epee ae ee a OS 6.85 | 11.39 | 6.47) 5.99] 7.77,| 6.39) 5.08] 5.76) 7.60 7.20
SIO Eis 5 o8 So ee Ziot. | 9088] 6.25.) “S22600 F241] 476 | So ore memes 6.50
Mansas . 22-2220 .-2<---2--22) YES 79215") 16/00) |, (266°) (2567 1. S 2t Saat Oa nomen 4. 62
inelpraska: - 22 22522 a aS 6.86] 9.42] 5.63] 3.5 2.93 | 2.79 | 3.72] 5.441) 6:30 6.08
Benen Weakeote. 32 oi Ls xo |f 9.18] 4.62) 3.92) 2.07) 2.10] 3.13] 5.78] 5.64 5.55
North Dakota! 5. 22 5... if 28 1111.38 | 5.19] 3.94] 5.55] 5.75] 2.64] 5.221 5.40 5.55
Welorado 2-2... .--| 9.43] 12.77 | 7.59 | 10.50 | 10.30} 6.96 | 14.57} 7.80] 9:00 6.72
Us 8.51 | 10.75 | 7.26] 5.59] 10.83] 6.93) 8 00} 7.20) 8:97 8.16
Washington 9.66 | 11.73 | 9.35 | 10.42} 8.06 | 20.03 | 7.50] 12.09 | 10.44 9. 60
Oregon ...-. 9.72 | 11.04] 7.20] 7.66} 8.04] 6.05 | 7.62] 8.85] 10.37 7.70
LORNA, et oe 9.80 | 14.85 | 7.70] 10.50} 7.92}| 6.73) 8.70] 7.938) 6.30) IW

General average _____- 7.58 | 11.80] 6.98 | 6.68] 6.89] 6.33] 5.44] 7.18] 7.23 7.36

AVERAGE VALUE PER ACRE OF PRINCIPAL crops. 791.

Average value per acre of principal farm crops, 1890-1899—Continued.

BUCKWHEAT.
States and Territories. 1890. 1891. | 1892. | 1893. | 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897 1898, | 1893
}
'

. iD 2 s-. 2 a i eee 'g11.00 ‘$13. 42 $10.83 \s15.66 $21. 92 sit. 76 $15.07 |$15,40 $10.34 | $9.68
New Hampshire ___________- | 13.16 | 14.40 | 12.25 | 8.58} 12.20 | 14.05 | 17:20 | 14.85] 9.40 | 10.60
lon a 11.60 | 12.37 | 9.60 | 15.48 | 12.77 | 12.77 | 12.56 | 11.04 | 9.84] 11.96
Massachusetts -_.__________- 11.38 | 11.55 | 8.97 | 20.63 | 12.85 | 8.85} 9.70) 12.54 | 12.20) 14.60
Gienmectient. ---~---._....._. 8.82 | 12. 32 9.00 | 11.38 | 10.99 | 8.62} 7.24] 9.69 | 10.64} 11.97
LS 4 a re 8.99) 9°80} 7.35} 8.64) 8.37] 9.42|° 6.9) 8.80| 7.56 7.67
NeW Ors y ..-...........-._ 8.40 | 9.51} @32} 9.50] 9.36) 9.35] 8.07) 7.84| 11.34) B76
SoS 3 | 7.43 | 7.75 | 7.69} 8.32 | 9.54] 8.76} 6.57] 8.82] 7.57) 10:80
Lo) SS TS ae | 8.41 | 11.47 | 8.46} 11.00; 10.00} 5.00; 6.00] 6.84] 6.60 8. 82
_ IS | 7.08) 8.75) 8.12] 6.84] 1.20] 6.10} 11.12 | 9.69] 6.47 7.28
oo a 6.18 | 8.12) 5.06] 7.31] 7.94) 5.45] 8.46) 7.00] 7.79 7.56
Worth Carolina ___...._...-- 6.93 | 6.44) 3.96) 5.63) 8.7 5.28 | 12.00 | 5.39 | 9.36 8.33
J iS 0 Shi TS eee a Sy: 8.86 | 4.65} 6.80) 7.20] 5.40 | 14.88] 10.26 | 9.36 6. 84
Weeee Vireinia -.._...._-___. 8.16 | 8.10} 10.60} 7.82 | 14.01 | 10.72} 9.75] 9.381 | 10.05 9. 52
Lu 1 ee 7.80 | 10.08 | 7.43 | 7.20} 9.83] 8.08] 8.08] 9.00} 10.20 9, 28
Loy SS | 9.08) 7.10) 6.387 | 7.37) 6.60] 7.40] 5.81) 6.46| 5.96 6. U5
Co... 3 Se See 9.75 | 8.32) 667 | 3.86) 8.29 | 8.29 | 12.24] 6.86] 9.38 9, 44
Loi 15, 6. 8.99; 8.96) 6.78) 6.61) 9.01} 5.85 | 6.21) 7.4! 7.28 8.70
lols 7.58} 5.03) 6.08} 9.01 | 4.76) 8.2 5.13 | 6.84] 6.20 9. 45
i 2S) eee eee 6.66} 7.0 | 6.21) 8.06) 5.43] 7.80) 4.35) 7.65) 7.35 8.84
. 2) eee 8.95] 8.10) 6.42) 8.05 | 10.20) 6.75! 7.45) 8.33) 7.69 9. 28
Loi: lop eee 8.58 | 9.37 7.35 | 7.387 | 5.52] 5.92] 15.26) 9.00] 9.48 8. 54
Lo 8.40 | 6.96) 410) 7.64] 2.52] 436] 10.65 | 7.14] 7.8L 9. 92
Oph as 1 11.20 | 12.39 | 8.40 | 10.00 | 20.90 | 7.75 | 14.28 | 9.90! 8.12 12.58
oe += =i | = — = ———-

General average __--_- 8.45 | 8.56] 7.31 | 8.67 | 8.92 | 9.00) 7.32| 8.80] 7.77 9.2

POTATOES.

or .25 $63.14 $64.80 \s64. 68 $55. 42 [362.70 |552.51 $59. S80 $58. 38
New Hampshire .50 | 68.00 | 74.97 | 56.40 | 42.88 | 50.76 | 45.90 | 44.10 | 58.42
Brio G9 —--..--.-.- -..- iB) by 6 | 36.72 | 58.28 | 54.56 | 40.04 | 37.12 | 49.00 | 44.10 | 47.52
Massachusetts -_.........--- 7 80 | 65.59 | 90.44 | 68.25 | 63.84 | 61.56 | 55.80 | 61.11 | 76.38
ipereeiey Rolegid. —— b E 80.75 | 85.32 | 95.76 | 62.10 | 56.70 |106.70 | 78.72 | 71.00
@Connectient-..-............- | 65.00 | 50.60 | 62.32 | 65.25 | 53.72 | 52.48 | 48.76 | 48.60 | 55.00] 59.80
Loh a 48.36 | 32.19 | 40.95 | 38.50 | 36.96 | 28.06 | 27.59 | 41.54 | 80.66 | 35.20
Lo Ue | 62.352 | 48.02 | 53.25 | 54.75 | 37.20 | 31.96 | 33.84 | 53.04 | 45.75 | 42.33
BERNSYLVAMG . .-.... ......-- 52.36 | 36.32 | 43.20 | 45.60 | 36.48 | 31.08 | 29.43 | 41.58 | 31.82 | 36.55,
ON, Sa Se ae 52.50 | 34.20 | 26.46 | 32.50 | 25.00 | 22.04 | 27.30 | 39.00 | 33.81 26. 52
LE eee a8 37.44 | 40.50 | 33.32 | 27.56 | 26.10 | 27.00 | 50.32 | 30.74 | 32.64
Seenemiata as 2 2. 23-.-| Bo. 5B 34.80 | 47.88 | 33.04 | 27.74 | 31.62 | 42.70 | 37.40 | 36.96
North Carolina.......___..- 47. 43 33.55 | 58.20 | 37.20 | 43.45 | 33.97 | 42.24 | 41.54 | 37.62
South Carolina _.____.......| 56. 59.50 | 638.91 | 45.43 | 65.70 | 34.22 | 68.25 | 65.00 | 58.24
of we 68. ¢ 56.00 | 68.08 | 42.12 | 41.18 | 41.25 | 52.00 | 40.50 | 38.18
OY = i as yey ¢ 48.75 101.79 | 67.50 | 55.00 | 63.00 | 90.00 | 76.80 | 85.56
ao) AS ee 62.5 | 49.40 | 73.04 | 37.84 | 56.70 | 48.00 | 51.70 | 61.42 | 48.72
Lolth 1) i | 59. 50.92 | 68.04 | 59.04 | 37.12 | 43.40 | 48.38 | 33.2) 62.22
LoS Be. | 50.05 | 55.61 | 37.35 | 64.08 | 41.80 | 54.40 | 58.50) 48.60
PPE ee 60.2 51.85 | 54.59 | 79.20 | 69.42 | 40.56 | 57.0 67.08 | 58.24
PeraneAS- =... 2-..-....-<- 52.5 47.60 | 56.32 | 43.46 | 35.70 | 31.27 | 46.20 | 40.70 | 44. 73
vit 52. 32.16 | 33.32 | 26.95 | 25.60 | 24.80 | 29.20 | 29.64] 28.60
Ment Vareinia ..........--.. 47.56 34.80 | 47.20 | 29.64 | 28.93 | 28.83 | 36.40 | 33.48 | 37.44
MEMORY osee 2 n= 2.72 30.16 | 38.08 | 30.24 | 33.54 | 28.05 | 31.49 | 29.44) 31.11
Les 39. 38. 40 | 38.86 | 32.76 | 20.16 | 23.14 | 26.04 | 25.01 | 30.53
Le rn ye 32. 86 | 33.75 | 26.66 | 16.16 | 16.72 | 30.96 | 21.33 | 21.12
UO LLG a ee | 34. 40. 32 | 37.23 | 31.86 | 20.46 | 21.25 | 19.22 | 29.11 | 32.68
inoi 41.60 | 39.22 | 32.00 | 23.10 | 25.22 | 23.56 | 38.20 | 36.36
2 eee es . See 35.10 | 37.73 | 23.85 | 18.19 | 14.82 | 37.62 | 28.52 | 26.78
2 ee See eel de. 60 | 30.36 | 19.89 | 22.12 | 17. 64 | 32.86 | 21.25 | 24.00
a4. ee ee 38.25 | 37.70 | 29.67 | 20.14 | 20.68 | 28.2 24.00 | 23.60
ee oo. 27 | 44.46 | 35.88 | 27.25 | 24.18 | 26.46 | 29.04! 383.20
2. SR ee eee ee 41.36 | 34.76 | 27.88 | 30.24 | 18.63 | 26.40 | 35.70 | 42.75
See ea Dea 3 | 36.00 | 34.76 | 16.94 | 20.10 | 22.50 | 31.74 | 2A.05 | 2.50
35. 2) | 31.86 | 17.02 | 17.16 | 19.20 | 30.08 | 2.26 | 21.06
30.00 | 33.81 | 38.64 | 21.76 | 21.42 | 32.67 | 29.58 | 27.81
60.00 | 95.22 | 53.28 | 25.44 | 54.40 | 62.40 | 57.0 | TL 73
70.00 | 87.10 | 90.00 | 56.00 | 71.81 | 82.59 78.60 | 76. 2%
6.39 | D.76 | 46.75 | 31.35 | 41.26 | 4. | 41.55 | 26.20
25. 00 46.96 | 60.60 | 50.40 48.96 | 70.20 | 45.2: 33. 32
42.48 | 29.04 40.50 | 58.48 | 49.60 | 44.40 | 41.55 | 66.60
58.00 | 52.80 | 56.35 | 57.00 | 72.20 | 98.55 |139.50 | 91.S0
52.$2 | 85.68 | 94.34 | 42.60 | 48.60 | 44.80 | 64.80 | 75.64
50. 00 | 46.80 | 25.00 | 41.72 | 50.00 | 45.36 | 42.14 | 72.00
39.20 | 59.69 | 40.32 | 24.96 | 33.93 | 64.00 | 40.42 | 56.35
44.25 | 48.00 | 25.48 | 36.00 | 42.40 | 51.45 |.52.25 | 74.97
40.65 | 41.71 | 33.43 | 26.73 | 26.08 | 35.37 | 31.11 | 34.60

792 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Average value per acre of principal farm crops, 1890-1899—Continued.

HAY.

States and Territories. 1890. | 1891. | 1892. | 1893. | 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899.
IVER ING 2 sath 22. Se oe ee re 9.25 | $8. 84 [$11.52 $11.16 | $9.12 | $9.87 1$10.25 1610.73 | $9.12 09
New Hampshire -_-_______-- 0.24 | 10.12 | 11.88 | 16.54 | 9.97 | 11.88 | 12.38 | 18.23 | 11.561 10.46
WiGrinOnitns- sue, eee 9.40 |.14.40 | 9.50 | 11.80 | 11.93 | 18.11 | 12.85 | 12.03} 9.211 10.55
Massachwsetts’ 2222... 521222 3.50 | 17.60 | 18.26 | 19.93 | 19.53 | 19.42 | 20.99 | 19.46] 17.18] 17.62
IRhodeisland---2 222 eee 2-: 15.68 | 18.81 | 15.66 | 16.27 | 12.25 | 15.70 | 18.26 | 16.67 | 14.98] 15.35
@onnectieut 2222 eee 16.20 | 14.17 | 16.50 | 17.32 | 13.54 | 18.68 | 15.74 | 15.60 | 14.61 |] 13.63
INIGWiVObKk 2 sb oe eee 9.69 | 12.10 | 12.10 | 14.05 | 11.30 | 10.00 | 9.75 | 11.14] 8.05] 10.87
INGw. Jersey, 2. Ssens Sees 13.39 | 15.12 | 15.25 | 17.26 | 16.34 | 15.29 | 16.50 | 18.81 | 13.63] 12.74
IPenmsyivetia, sees eee S- 9.38 | 11.50 | 13.53 | 14.83 | 13.35 | 12.42 | 12.88 | 12.81 | 11.46 | 13.80
Deliwaross-2 22 ee o> eS 12.00 | 18.20 | 12. 12.75 | 19.50 | 14.96 | 14.30 | 18.50 | 11.66 | 12.12
Marylanaas: ce. see 12.30 | 12.49 | 11.52 | 14.82 | 11.46 | 14.44 | 10.31 | 14.17 | 11.16 | 13.78
BVA eee Re ee eee 13.59 | 12.43 | 10.92 | 14.53 | 8.56 | 12.92 | 11.08 | 11.07 | 11.22 | 11,27
INorta Carolina 224 = Se 2s. 16.08 | 12.10 | 12.66 | 18.89 | 15.85 } 16.53 | 18.55 | 12.19 | 15.81 15.15
South Carolina ==: 2225.2 17.81 | 14.01 | 18.56 | 15.18 | 16.45 | 7.62 | 15.06 | 11.50] 15.20] 12.56
Geore aieece ssc shoes “See 19.24 | 15.79 | 15.93 | 15.92 | 14.86 | 17.44 | 15.25 | 17.55 | 20.56 | 19.07
HUGridareece.. see 7 eee 19.84 | 17.70 | 16.38 | 39.50 | 19.99 | 20.24) 18.20 | 14.25 | 22.66 | 22. 47
U/NTEES Lh cine Hees es i eee 2 16.87 | 16.09 | 14.04 | 17.08 | 25.49 | 15.93 | 18.72 | 18.86 | 17.57 | 18.92
Mississippi --___---- ----| 14.82 | 14.59 | 18.38 | 15.86 | 17.79 | 18.91 | 12.77 | 14.06 | 15.96 | 18.32
Monisiana se --| 13.26 | 15.05 | 18.72 | 14.58 | 28.85 | 19.47 | 16.63 | 16.62 | 19.74 | 18.92
MGA cee ss 8 wets SIRO RT | 9.50 | 11.46 | 8.99 | 9.98 | 10.18} 9.52) 7.20 | 10.15} 8:77 | “dOms
SAR ATI SH Gee ag See eer ee 11.33 | 13.74 | 10.05 | 10.96 | 11.66 | 1L12 | 8.90 | 11.25 | 10.39 | 12.80
Tennessee -__---------.------| 11.50 | 18.56 | 11.44 | 14.96 | 18.30 | 15.05 | 18.54 | 15.59 114.295} 14.74
WieStaNanoinia, ee Lee 9.77 | 10.82 | 10.50 |} 14.02 | 10.87 | 9.04 | 11.94 | 11.95 | 12.941 12.19
Rientucliyiue-- oes seet enon 11.25 | 11.98 | 10.92 | 18.51 | 18.19 | 14.77 | 11.35 | 11.70 | 18.19.| 13.42
Gio eee ene eee a 9.75 | 9.84 | 10.55 | 13.37 | 10.74} 7.40] 9.99] 9.001 7.99] 11.63
Michigans. 22 2285o2 see 10.00 | 12.65 | 10.08 | 18.37 | 10.85 | 7.59 | 9.84] 11.55 | 9.72) 10.37
iin ese Lee ae 10.40 | 9.24] 9.36] 12.46| 9.63) 7.84 | 9.838 | 8.441 8.121 10.45
IDUbbeVoy ys Ehsan eae re ee Se 9.88 | 9.65 | 9.41 | 10.72 | 9.50] 6.77] 8.82! 7.93) 9.20} 10:00
WWISCONSIM =~ oa teeta eee 8.31 | 10.98 | 9.18 | 10.94 | 10.42} 8.47] 8.25] 8.44] 8.62] 10.07
Minnesota -.-...-----.2------|) 6.75') (656) || 5575 | 540) 25.40 | (6665) (6:40 266s esas 7.40
PO Wa heersy S22 es ee aray ase 8.10} 6.60} 6.56} 9.73) 5.39] 6.97 | 6.94] 6.387} 7.09 7.10
IMEI ES OU ie ote eran ae 8.64) 7.18 | 7.76) 8.738) 6.65| 7.96} 6.94) 7.07 | 9.28 8.56
i CEST) OES he tc a et de 4.14] 4.71] 4.84] 6.14] 4.04] 4.04] 3.83] 4.42] 4.74 5.49
INGDrAS hans en see aes 4.25] 3.80] 5.12] 6.09) 4.20} 3.52] 4.05] 4.80] 5.28 6.14
South Dakota .--.-..-.---.--]\ 9 gy |f 5.08} 4.25} 5.21 | 4.02} 2.60} 8.99) 3.69) 4.14 4,43
North Dakota. 9.00. s22oe22-- ; \ 4.60} 5.3: 4.80) 4.61 | 4.94) 5.59] 5.20) 4.87] “5/21
MNTONGAN Mee see see 12.60 | 9.77 | 9.85] 9.94] 8.60] 10.72] 9.47 | 11.63 | 9.86! 10.93
Waveney: soo es ee ae 9.2 8.37 | 7.36 | 10.80 | 16.10] 7.02 | 11.07 | 9.90 | 11.40 9.70
ColorsdGe = O28) ee 12.33 | 15.04 | 18.60 | 8.31 | 17.12 | 14.21 | 18.68 | 12.88 | 11.88} 15.43
IN@woMiemico: 22-7 Sees 10.17 | 10.45 | 13.50 | 17.68 | 21.62 | 20.88 | 17.10 | 24.50 | 27.56] 18.02
NEI ZONE ates See meee ee : b 13.65 | 14.44 | 21.84 | 16.65 | 28.00 | 15.60 | 42.00! 27.22
(Witale asta cee. eee 8.83 | 8.89 | 14.01 | 18.49 | 18.50 | 14.01 | 14.62] 17.75
ING Valter see. See ee 12.25 | 26.60 | 29.29 | 20.32 | 12.29 | 12.50 | 18.20] 14.31
AGW aoe eS ee eee ee 11.10 | 13.48 | 10.98 | 16.06 | 12.25 | 12.08 | 18.37 | 15.75
Washington 12.60 | 14.49 | 15.13 | 12.49 |} 18.88 | 20.25 | 18.20 | 17.98
Oreron mee ee ee 12.93 | 15.23 | 11.72 | 10.89 | 13.07 | 14.73 | 18.78 | 13.49
California =. ace a tees 13.14 ! 18.30 | 18.34 | 11.72 | 10.48 ! 14.40 | 22.80 | 18.04

General average 9.64 | 11.51 | 9.70] 8.89] 8.97 | 9.46] 9.30 BET,
COTTON.

States and Territories. {1890-91. |1891-92. |1892-93. |1398-94, 1894-95. 1895-96. |1896-97. |1897-98. rr 893-99,
T\YZr0 Presto rk: Heep, me Mane Ne pea LL |e hs OS oe Sh aa $5.94 | $7.31 | $8.07 7.39 $7.31
Nout) CarGlinas aoncs scene lan ceeeee Eee ere $12.20 | 10.00) 15.52] 14.45} 14.66 12. 98
Shootin OR Moline yee = = ae eyes |S aa oe seein 12.24 | 10.44) 17.26 | 15.97} 18:85 11.06
Geoueiaee os (ee eee eee SaaS eee Lae Seen E97 9.10 | 14.25 | 12.71} 10.82 10. £2
HONIG a aa- 52 os oe ee ee eee ee |e ee 12.17 6. 67 8.28 7.92 8. 67 9. 84
JNUES] ofc h cat: Eee ee emcee Roi Ri) Cal ka 12. 24 8:97.) 10. 47 |) 2OSG5 eae eT 10.31
MASSIRSSID Dll 2-4-2 2h) ae Smee meme ee | eee 12.92) 11.07 16. 69 14.47 15. 89 11. 60
L by(opb l= 42) oF: eee eee Rebar pbs mle pao. Salle, BT Te 17.50 | 15.41 | 18.42} 15.40] 18.37 16.11
RIVES Sn eek oso e cneg | re re | ee | ee 16.59 | 12.58) 13.40] 11.00 }--12.05 13. 82
BT PAYS Si Sh ee crt | oe oe | ees a 12.36 | 11.17 | 17.98 | 12.71} 16.83 13. 40
PUBMIGIORHG On oat = sce set Son Sere ee dh seer ect rare NE 11.138 7.6) 9, 92 8. 62 7.98 9.77
WHILE (Va) bh pile a eine pagers Sty [edo PS a RS = OR Ur SSE AIK. eR 10.18 9. 96 9. 33 11.60
(Ole CHeYoy a0, pee ee ee IL tear CEea SI 22.14 | 15.92 | 15.55 14.40
InCeun DOPPItOTY. ==. <=. ||i2 tee eee eee | ecco et eee 13.22 | 21.16 | 19.94 18. 96

Menerdhaveragé ......:.| 2 1.0L seen 13.41 | 10.94| 14.58] 12.54 | 13.14 | 12.8

FARM PRICES OF PRINCIPAL CROPS.

7193

Prices of principal agricultural products on the farm, December 1, 1890-1899.

{From Division of Statisties.]
CORN (PER BUSHEL).

;
1891. 1892.

1898. | 1899.

States and Territories. 1890. 1893. | 1894, | 1895. | 1896. | 1897.
peat eee

. Cents.| Cents.|Cents.| Cents.| Cents.| Cents.| Cents.| Cents.) Cents.| Cents.

Maine --_.:--. sport dssce Ae 74 80 67 62 72 i 47 48 50
New Hampshire -...-.-__._. 72 77 65 57 76 51 45 45 46 49
Von) ————— 72 76 64 61 69 48 38 43 44 47
Massachusetts .-............- 70 78 62 62 61 52 46 47 49 5)
node Island —_--..._....._- 72 79 63 69 75 56 49 54 64 GS:
Gonnecticut.._-.......-..... 7 76 62 64 68 51 42 49 52 50
LS i 65 66 60 55 61 45 38 40 43 45
Lo ia ——— 62 65 58 52 54 42 36 38 40 40)
Pennsylvania --..--.--.--.- 60 57 57 49 55 39 33 34 40, 41
LU ee 50 55 44 40 45 34 25 30 31 34
Lia Es | rr 50 53 45 44 50 37 82 30 35 36
Va 55 50 53 46 47 37 82 38 35 38
Worth Carolina -....-..--.... 55 58 54 50 47 38 37 43 43 47
South Carolina..-....-...... 70 70 57 60 65 46 46 49 46 504
Coo a re 69 69 56 56 58 41 43 48 48 50
_ Sit 2 75 80 60 68 7 47 53 55 50 53.
Alabama 68 63 5: 69 53 37 45 46 41 47
Mississippi 7 58 51 55 49 37 4 45 39 46
Louisiana 70 60 50 57 2 40) 45 45 4] 44
ae 72 55 45 54 56 31 41 41 34 36
Arkansas 65 46 47 45 AT BY 37 40 29 38
Tennessee 52 43 43 39 39 27 28 36 29 39
West Virgini- 60 52 56 | 55 57 40 34 40 37 45
Kentucky 49 40 40 43 44 27 25 35 27 37
to 51 | 41 42 40 43 27 21 25 27 30
Loe bi ee rr ae 55 | 48 46 45 50 32 24 27 34 36
Lois ee Se ee 47 | 38 | 40 36 37 23 19 21 25 27
J tivcu:) a a 43 37 | Shee ol 39 2 18 21 25 26
Wisconsin -------- 8, 45 44 38 35 45 30 22 25 23 30
Lot: oc) 42 39 | 37 34 43 20 19 24 24 24
US. a 41 30 | 32 27 45 18 14 17 23 23
Way Ait Aa a 44 38 36 30 40 20 20 24 QT 30
Lo TaiCtl. «2a = 51 34 31 31 43 19 18 22 26 25
Lo NTRInG =e Se 48 26 28 2 50 18 13 17 22 23
Hout Wakota.°..-.-..2-.... NL so ff 35 33 25 46 23 18 21 & 26
Morten Dakota ........-..-.- (ae |e 40 40 38 44 24 25 32 36 33
| aie Wilmer.» 70 | 7 88] 7| 60| 65| 66 52
Vee aint) a ah Gp) ene 61 | 65 65 57 7 50 55 43
Gelerada..........-......... 6} 53| 40/ 51] G1| 41} 36] 38] 40 43
Mew BlOkicO-..-._-..<2_.... 73 72 (CANS Ae 56 55 58 56 58
Si? 7] ie i ere 68 | 60 58 | 58 | 5 49 51 55 60 59
Washington: _----..-..°....- 50 j-----_- 60 | 12 69 40 57 55 42 55
2p ne 66 71 56 | 47 56 5d 56 53 60 64
MeeteeOriid)=-- >. -- ---2--=_-.- 65 71 55 50 57 53 53 56 62 60
OriahomaA~------------.--- Seo oa |-------|------= Po oe lessiees|eeeeee 2052 20
General average------ 50.63 | 40.60 | 39.43 | 36.53 | 45.74 | 25.33 | 21.50 | 26.33 | 28.69 | 30.28

Jl POAC ets ae ee
New Hampshire----.-----.-
UCAS It
feanmoecticnt.--.-----2...--
REO Keno Soo. sk on
Is oy GG) ieee eee
onnsylvania -*---2-- 22 =
evar e <2 =e 2 22 2k eS
LTR | a ee es
Sie a oe oe
Morin Oarotinas 2. ___-

Arkansas

Pepe ee ee
SSSSRSSSSRESEEAS

. 87

lela
est te

$0.79

$0.82 | $0.84 | $1.06
pe Gul Le OON| lkeO
. 69 .93 | 1.04
Oot) = ose 1.00
68 . 88 . 90
gill . 89 93
- 65 83 . 91
. 64 . 87 94
. 64 88 - 93
. 65 . 80 - 92
12 83 94
88 289)| 1.18
82 -89 | 1.03
80 -85 | 1.01
61 . 82 99
15 89

59 ail . 84
62 74 95
69 78 89
61 76 89
60 -78 &8
60 . 84 87

794 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Prices of principalagricultural products on the farm, December 1, 1890-1899—C’t'd, |

WHEAT (PER BUSHEL)—Continued.

States and Territories. 1880. | 1891. | 1892. | 1893. | 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899,
Minnesota oo os eee #0. 81 | $0.78 | $0.61 | $0.51 | $0.49 | $0.44 | $0.68 | $0.77 | $0.54 | $0.55
TO Wel ee ee cd eee . 80 81 . 60 .49 . 50 - 46 . 62 et 202 55
MWiSROWEH j2-- 52225 pa es . 83 . 80 .58 48 43. J5F .70 ~85 .59 . 68
Wansasr-erees-— 92 East se “fsis 73 52 42 44 ~45 . 63 74 . 50 5S!
INGDRaSIim re. oe >. ee . 76 .73 50 -40 .49 -40 .58 . 69 AT 49
South Dakota: .5..:22.2.- \ 70 lf .72 Ae ~44 .46 .38 . 62 . 69 . 5 50
North. Dakota: t2--c. .-eec-- ; ‘ear e) 52 .43 43 38 . 64 74 5 .5L
SOTAy att! eee cee 2 . 80 . b4 69. .60 . 4 13 . 66 . 68 .58 61
Viuyominge - =: 2822 3 . 82 - 82 . 66 - 65 . 63 . 64 . 62 -70 - 69 .6T
Gotoradom>: 5) = See 81 wt 58 52 . 65 . 56 . 61 . 70 . 56 57
Wew Mexico: =-2/-....o8--.- .95 . 82 . 80 15 . 88 73 . 65 Ry . 62 .61
iG TY AOS ty = ee ee as . 90 15 ay -65 | 1.00 . 65 . 80 74 . 92. 64

ULTY nS >: as ee sea 18 75 . 62 . 60 . 53 44 . 68 . 68 . 54 53
IMevada aware ste 5.0 . 86 .o7 rds) 13 .75 49 . 69 . 90 . 95 .18
HOS =. i a <a 78 84 . 60 . 69 46 47 . 65 ier oo ari)
Washmeton...2o2-...200 2. .76 75 .58 .48 39 4] 74 . 68 4 aA:
Gine sonree 5. =) ep 52 SBE 5 . 88 . 64 5D | 43 47 72 12 62 oe
Gm fOraitee 5.2 S2e acne eee 16 . 95 . 68 . 53 Rou 60 . 83 . 83 72 . 62
Ohgl ait otines. = 226. 25a coe soe TOs ee ee ee al 48 68 ays 42 53

General average-___.-- . 838 | . 839 624 | .538 | .491 509 726 808 582 584
|

OATS (PER BUSHEL).

New Hampshire
Vermont ----.----
Massachusetts -
Rhode fsland_-
Connecticut

New Jersey --
Pennsylvania
Delaware _-_-
Maryland --
Warginig.=-.-: =.
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia, 22-2
Florida ae So oes
Aabamases 2-22. =
Mississippi --.--.+----
Housiang. ._.2 <<... -
Marcas sansa ons ee
PAST EAN SAG 6 i on aos ae ore
‘Berne sseG. 26.2 2-- == Je. ee
West, Virsimiay =<. 5222-22-25
Wenbucky.2 22st eee eee
Ohi

Nachiean {252222 0e Soe ee
AGAMA. oo tet eee eae
Irate es So op eneeersremen = aoe eee
Masconsim 2-0 uh sees
MN CSO bane oe ee eee
Uy es Se es es,

LEGO a eee a Pr
Mvebrasha) =. 222) 2 eee
hoemtih Dekota, 222 822. 2
MoOnehibeskotac in. = 22 504 sce
Ti Ca ET 1 ER
WE OMNI) 28052062 Ve
(GOUCUE6 77 eae Ae
WierwaiWOexico, 2225.52 8 322
cea Pe ee SS SO

NVashimeton.- ===> .--.24.---
(O55) 20) sk oe weep
(CE USUI OS iit; ea ea em

Cents. |Ceits. |\Cents. |\Cents
57 45 45 45
56 46 44 43
50 4] 43 42
5D 47 48° 42
54 47 49 43
53 45 45 40
50 38 39 30
50 40 41 Bi)
48 BYE 40 35
45 39 38 38
44 38 38 35
45 41 39 30
51 51 45 44
60 61 52 53
60 60 52 52
61 62 65 55
2 60 51 51
60 58 5 47
él 52 50 44
55 47 38 42
53 42 40 39
45 40 38 31
45 40 41 38
45 3t 3t 34
42 33 35 30
44 32 55) 32
41 32 34 2
41 28 31 27
40 28 Z 27
37 ae 28 26
38 26 26 23
39 28 30 25
38 27 26 27
39 23 23 22
ihe wie: 23 25
eahlitenre 28 28
59 48 40 37
56 eee. 2 38 40
50 38 34 37
57 55 56 ol
55 42 40 33
58 50 37 4]
AT 4] 35 35
50 41 37 37
56 60 40 38

42.41 | 31.46 | 31.66 | 29.36

Neen. Cents. Ces Cents. Cents. Cents.

44.| 34 32'| BE 38
49| 35| 35| 38| 38 39
51| 33| 31| 321 35 37
43| 34| 35| 33] 37 38
47|. 301 31| 341 37 37
43| BL} atl at) 36 3T
39| 28| 2%| oF! sit 33
33| 29/ 981 30] 31 33
33| 2o7| | 2a! 30 28
3} 291 2] 8] 30 25
39| o7| 23! 2| 20 30
37| 30| 26| 291 29 33
44| 38| a | arl 37 41
53| 49} 48{ > 4bt 4 a?
bi | 46° a) amas 48
él} «| sat sa} Be 50
Bi|-43:| 41 | pee 43
47| 30| 44| a&@| 49 5D
47| 36| 34| 38] 38 40
39| 381 | 27] 38 30
40| 32| 31f 33| 29 34
35| 27| 261 28] 28 32
30/ 32! 28] 301 30 35
36! 26| | 27| 2 32
31| 22| I7| 20] 9% 25
34; 33/ 19| 2B] 27 28
30| 230| 16| 19| 38 23
Bol a7 feats ne rau emems 22
Zo | 1g |. 33.) (oie eee 23
30; i | Iet sores Pe
253}. 141. 10). Gees 19
29| 18| i7| 19| 3 4
31]. 17 | > 1a. coe 23
33} |. 10 ee 28
35/ a7] \18| 18) nee 23
29} 16] 18| 2] 96 7
31| 44| 31| 33| 35 39
4g} 30} 53) 35} 46 40
46} 281 30| 32] 4t 42
50} 45] 40.) ee 4
34} 30] 39] 33| 38 rr
32} 991 30| 32 38
31| 33| 40| 35| 40 38
28 2 33 35. 40 41
i} A sol. Aue owe 47

32.45 | 19.85 | 18.73 | 21.18 | 25.50| 24.89

FARM PRICES OF PRINCIPAL CROPS. 795

\

Prices of principal agricuitural products on the farm, December 1, 1890-1899-—C’'s’d.
BARLEY (PER BUSHEL).

States and Territories. | 1890. | 1891. | 1892. | 18938. | 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899.
= — oe

Cents. |Cents. |Cents. |Cents. |Cents. |Cents. |Cents. |Cents. |Cents. |Cents.

MeN a... 2.-- c yd re he: 68 67 66 52 43 5 56 59
New Hampshire $1 ve 74 70 63 56 5 60 58 65
Vermont --___--- 70 | 72 66 60 60 47 41 46 47 52
Massachusetts 77 | 75 75 90 63 65 58 | 66 66 68

Rhode Island _- 76 78 82 87 72 75 60 54 61 7
New York....- 78 | 65 75 60 56 81 39 42 48 50
Pennsylvania - 70| 64 57 50 48 41 40 39 44 49
“1. - 4 e eeee 78 65 62 55 54 50 43 50 66
ool iveli lt ee ees eae 66 55 56 50 45 59 56 64
Lo Pe, 558 ee een oe eel ee sae 38 51 AT 38 40 40 40 43
iG sees == 70 60 57 47 48 41 38 41 44 45
Michigan __ 63 60 60 49 50 43 42 40 44 48
Indiana. --- 65 59 52 45 45 40 33 44 44 45
Tilinois -_---- 60 5d 49 40 48 45 31 a 39 47
Wisconsin --- 58 55 50 43 45 34 Pz 32 40 40
Minnesota --- 55 43, 42 36 41 24 20 24 33 31
pws os. 52 42 40 33 42 23 21 24 34 81
Missouri -_- 57 57 42 49 51 48 25 40 36 42
Kansas -.-..- 57 40 35 47 49 23 22 25 27 27
Nebraska ----_- 57 37 33 31 | 43 24 19 24. 25 30
South Dakota- 52 { 41. 35 33 35 19 19 22 27 29
North Dakota - 54 42 33 31 36 20 21 2 29 33
Montana ------ 74 65 65 50 40 59 55 50 57 51
Colorado -.-.- | 76 56 54 50 58 60 46 51 46 55
LUD La 70 65 58 70 68 | 65 55 55 61
ly 75 60 52 45 46 39 42 45 47 52
Fdaho > .-...- 75 68 33 53 7 42 22 42 48 46
Washington --- 68 60 | 45 39 32 38 49 43 45 44
Cli 70 48 46 40 33 40 45 45 49 50
Maeornia <3. ..-.....--2..-- | 6l| 47 | 42) 45| 40] 48 54 65 50

s a ef a AB a = s a
General average__..... 64.80 | 54.00 | 47.20 | 41.12 | 44.19 | 33.66 82. 27 | 37.70 41.34 | 40.88
| | !
RYE (PER BUSHEL).

|\Cents. lcen ts. lCen ts. licen ts. |Cents. |Cents. |Cents. |Cents. |Cents. |Cents,
LWW =. $5 | 97 | d4 108 sl 8&5 67 82 84 84
New Hampshire ____.___.-.- | 84] 9] 83 78 74 76 72 8¢ (BS 81
“ p.tl Gei er 80 90 73 73 73 57 65 60 58 62
Massachusetts ---_---.---.-- 81 96 72 75 73 67 7 H 63 19
Connecticut. ....-..... ee 80 94 16 66 65 63 iy 59 60 64
poy oS Omle- — = - _. - -- aaa | 73 88 65 63 54 48 44 48 50 56
ic Se ——————— 75 82 52 7 55 51 47 50 50 55
Pannsyivanis .............- 70 80 62 57 56 50 47 43 47 51
ot Went) | 70 88 62 51 47 49 48 46 54 57
VOD a 2 ar 67 82 63 56 54 52 48 50 46 53
org Carolina. ......-..<. 81 85 85 70 70 64 71 60 64 75
South Carolina__-_-_-_--- 85 107 98 119 96 115 86 102 109
Clo aes 90 115 100 108 97 85 101 92 98 112
labame -_- 90 112 100 1415 95 84 88 118 105 104
PRexAS.._.-- 80 80 70 68 15 75 67 72 71 82
Arkansas. -...._- Sue | eee 88 82 58 76 72 70 86 65 74
JUDD TS i ee 75 85 65 59 59 62 60 58 53 67
West Virginia __ ‘ 69 76 67 65 57 61 56 51 52 62
Kentucky ---__- 4 7 83 2 58 59 56 54 53 55 70
ity 63 85 56 47 45 45 39 44 45 55
Michigan -- 69 78 53 4 46 40 32 43 43 52
Indiana ___- 60 78 52 45 42 42 36 42 43 48
Tiiinois--.-- 59 77 50 41 43 40 34 44 44 47
Wisconsin_-- 56 7 48 43 43 3a 33 41 43 48
Minnesota -__- 53 68 44 41 43 28 30 37 38 42
oy 50 67 49 41 46 31 29 36 40 40
LoS res 53 73 50 45 47 39 AT 44 47 50
Lk 55 64 40 38 46 38 35 40 37 42
Nebraska -_-_..____- 52 60 33 35 48 30 22 32 34 38
South Dakota___ AT 4 60 37 37 46 25 27 35 34 37
North Dakoita__________- 65 44 32 37 27 22 36 36 37
PeioradGar: 2 ole 65 62 52 50 65 48 62 52 50 48
LAELL oe eS ae 63 64 5d 47 57 35 40 60 46 48
Wagshington.___________- BA 68 82 55 69 56 15 50 2 58 60
REO ee a 68 80 |- 60 (é 57 54 60 59 72 70
TORTI ae eee 70 90 67 60 60 58 60 65 | 70 78
General average _____- 62.89 | 77.44 | 54.18 | 51.26 | 50.12 | 43.97 | 40.87 | 44.73 | 46.28 | 50.97

-

796 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Prices of principal agricultural products on the farm, December 1, 1890-1899—C't'd.
BUCKWHEAT (PER BUSHEL).

States and Territories. 1890. | 1891. | 1892. | 1898. | 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899.
Cents. |Cents. \Cents. |\Cents. |Cents. |Cents. |Cents. |Cents. |Cents. |Cents.
ai bewba yee ec ceres he 2 EE lee 55 61 57 54 58 46 38 44 39 44
New Hampshire -.---------- 62 67 70 37 61 47 63 55 47 50
WWerm Ont oa eee ees ies 55 55 48 53 57 37 40 46 46 52
Massachusetts -~ 2-2-2. -.~- 65 70 78 75 68 59 53 66 61 70
Connecticute == =s = 3 60 77 75 72 67 56 51 57 56 63
INTE Wie VOT Rene ee ee ere ees 58 56 50 60 54 44 37 4) 45 59
INGW? es ORSGY == oes tae 60 67 57 66 65 50 39 49 54 56
Pennsylwaniai ss) 2-2 a= = a3) 57 53 59 53 44 38 42 Ay 54
DRISWATOs-2- ase ee ee 58 75 60 55 50 50 30 36 40 49
MVidieylaind + 52 ee Se ees 59 70 65 58 56 56 49 51 53 56
Vana one = ee es 65 65 61 55 54 54 47 50 45 54
North Caroling .----..2----2 63 56 55 49 47 44 60 49 48 49
AR as) Cs ee eee Se ia es ah 62 54 57 54 62 57 52 57
Wiesh Virginia 2: = See od 68. 60 65 68 62 57 50 49 49 56
CONGO. 2 5 eps eee oe ore ee 65 65 59 60 66 55 43 50 51 58
Muchieam) 52 oss oe. = Se Se ete 55 5 49 53 55 43 38 38 42 55
1a GIT) oe he eR a Be ee 65 63 58 56 56 58 51 49 51 59
NOs ee eee eee 62 64 60 57 77 A4 45 57 52 58
IWASGOnEIN-] =) eee es 53 53 45 57 56 46 38 38 40 63
MNES Obey 22 eee eee ee 52 56 45 53 59 51 4] 45 49 52
Lowa 2... ine eee rane 63 60 60 61 75 50 46 49 48 58
IViiGSO Ure See ee 65 75 65 58 60 58 70 60 60 61
Nebraska: 2 ohio eu 70 58 50 52 68 65 50 51 61 62
Wreconese noses ore eee 7 81, 75 50 55 50 68 55 58 74
General average------ 57.37 | 56.98 | 51.85 | 58.36 | 55.57 | 45.21 | 39.19 | 42.14 | 44.97 | 55.74
POTATOES (PER BUSHEL).
Cents. |Cents. |Ceuts. |Cents. |Cents. |Cents. |\Cents. |Cents. |\Cents. |Cents.
INVESTOR ie aes ee ee aes 71 4] 17 54 44 34 38 89 46 42
New Hampshire --_--_-------- 2 45 85 63 47 32 47 90 49 46
ierITRONIb ee eee cee ee 63 38 68 48 44 26 29 70 42 36
Wviassachigsebuste-- oss) see 84 54 83 76 65 48 57 90) 63 Dil
Rhode slisland==2)2" 222s 85 60 85 79 72 45 54 97 64 50
Gonnecticut -=-:-~--222---- 85 55 76 75 63 41 46 90 55 46
INOW OTE sone tc eos 78 37 65 55 48 23 31 67 42 40
ING Wi dS OTSOY 2222-7 -- ose es 82 49 15 75 62 34 36 78 61 51
Pennsyiventaoe.-225)) lot 77 43 72 60 57 28 27 66 58 43
MO WATOso nk ee ern gee 75 45 63 65 50 38 35 65 69 51
With yilane = cane ose ene 71 48 68 68 53 30 30 68 53 51
\Walisteal git) ceo Se See ee 67 47 60 57 56 38 34 70 55 56
North Carolunay ---2..-----5 65 68 61 60 60 55 43 64 62 66
South arora. sone none 90 82 85 V7 17 73 66 105 100 104
GEOROIR Se es ee 95 80 80 92 81 71 75 100 75 83
lo ridanmas sob eee sa weer an 97 90 75 iz 75 109 8&4} 120 120 124
SRI oi cay ee Ce SR 93 78 7 88 88 81 15 94 83 87
WEEN oye ee ee Ls 98 81 76 84 2 G64 62 82 72 102
NDyoyaRKsrt3) oz Wipes ee aes SSS 92 82 77 83 83 12 76 85 75 81
AB Sreret PR a ee oe RE HR oe 90 95 85 103 99 78 Ui 95 86 91
PAP RGMSART. epee Celene. 88 64 70 64 53 51 53 84 55 71
MONNESSEO Sa. eee ee ee 85 55 48 49 49 40 40 73 57 65
WiGSEVaxwiniae ss ales 8&2 42 58 59 57 42 31 65 54 52
RrenGickyc -a5 see ee 84 45 52 56 56 39 33 67 46 61
Ono eee Oe ae 85 35 64 67 52 32 26 62 Al 43
SR THCUCCE Ce 2 a EE 64 24 53 45 43 16 19 43 27 32
IMCIANAS ot. atta Seen ee 2 37 72 73 54 31 25 62 41 43
NIN OIS 2 Ya =. tee = Sore 95 40 80 74 64 30 26 62 46 41
Woiseonsin. 2) Ss eee 63 26 54 49 53 17 19 38 24 26
Winmnesota: 2S" 222 Sb Men se: 60 2 48 46 51 14 21 | 31 25 25
TOWiaees coc) cece heen 70 22 75 65 69 19 22 47 30 23
WESSOUIIEE = Sees, ee re 80 35 77 57 52 25 31 63 44 40
tain Sa pies. ee.) BES 98 35 88 79 68 42 27 55 51 45
INGDUASKAL =o oS eed 99 28 75 79 U7 30 25 46 37 25
South) Dakota s2)...20 22-2228 68 28 55 59 74 26 20 82 28 27
Worn WWakOtaes. oases sole 20 40) 49 46 17 21 33 34 27
WEOUIGT EL enc eh een 80 4] 60 69 48 48 32 40 55 53
Wyoming eh Soma sey eek 80 43 70 65 60 56 43 55 65 61
(Grol tohit:\6 Kom We ne pees a ee 15 28 61 54 55 33 47 56 54 55
ING MBSICO.2°. 0 see. ee 95 63 80 67 80 63 68 78 78 68
tains iret er Owes 75 25 72 33 30 BA 32 30 31 55
T(E Fee de 70 50 58 40) 35 33 38 73 90 90
ACTER ee ete cat fot a 2 | ee 40 54 56 53 40 30 32 54 61
Wrashington. 2252 22.7228 60 38 50 39 28 28 40 28 39 50
WIRE PON estas hen nae dle coe y 65 40 56 47 3 39 39 40 AT 49
WHIMMOUTNIA sees ates ee 68 54 59 50 49 48 53 49 55 63
General average ___-__- 75.77 | 35.78 | 66.11 | 59.37 | 53.59 | 26.57 | 23.62 | 54.66 | 41.38 | 39.04

~ i; *

_ Se

FARM PRICES OF PRINCIPAL CROPS.

7197

Prices of principal agricultural products on the farm, December 1, 1890-1899—C't'd.

HAY (PER FON).

|

States and Territories. | 1890. | 1891. | 1892. | 1893. | 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899.
os |
39.25 | $9.30 |312. 80 |312.13 eaeens $10.25 | $9.75 | $7.60 | $10.10
New Hampshire______._ ___- 9.75 | 11.00 | 13.20 | 15.60 | 10.50 | 32.50/12. 90 | 11.50 | 9.25 | “11.75
“ Son ae 8.70 | 9.00 | 10.00 | 10.63 | 9.94 | 12.25 | 10.28 | 9.25] 6.35 | 9.25
Massachusetts --...._______. 13.50 | 16.60 | 16.60 | 17.33 | 15.50 | 17.50 | 16.40 | 13.90 | 12.10 | 15.50
fhodeialand.—---.-......._- 14.00 | 18.25 | 17.40 | 19.60 16.33 | 17.2 16.60 | 14.50 | 12.65 | 17.2
@onnecticut.._....-....._--- 13.50 | 15.75 | 16.50 | 17.50 | 15.56 | 16.10 | 14.712 | 13.00 | 11.15 | 14.50
Mevionke ==). --.-;---2._. 7.75 | 11.00 | 11.00 | 11.33 | 9.66 | 13.70 | 12.04] 8.25] 5.75 | 10.45
ecmderseg ests... 10.30 | 14.40 | 14.25 | 17.43 | 14.09 | 12.64 | 14.35 | 10.75 | 9.60} 15.35
Pennsylvania ___...._..____- 7.50 | 10.00 | 12.30 | 14.40 } 11.31 | 12.30] 12.15 | 9.15] 7.90] 11.50
Pitan ee 10.00 | 12.00 | 12,33 | 17.00 | 15.00 | 12.16 | 13.00 | 10.00 | 8.45 | 11.65
Matra 9.84 | 11.15 | 11.75 | 14.25 | 11.13 | 11.55 | 11.85 | 10.50] 9.30] 12.15
empatige ec 10.70 | 11.00 | 11.50 | 13.09 | 11.89 ; 11.43 | 10.21 | 10.25 8. 50 | 10. 25
North Carolina -_..__---__-- 11.91 | 11.00 | 10.55 | 11.11 | 10.93 | 10.14 | 10.75 | 9.75} 9.30! 10.10
South Carolina__...________- 13.00 | 12.18 | 11.30} 9.67 | 10.75 | 7.62 | 11.32] 11.50] 9.50! 10.30
eerie 14.25 | 13.50 | 11,80 | 12.06 | 12.38 | 10.90 | 11.05 | 13.00] 11-75 | 13.15
Cnn 2) re 15.50 15. 00 | 14.00 | 19.75 | 16.25 | 13.23 | 13.00 | 14.25 11410} 15:
ieee eS 13.50 | 12.38 | 10.80 | 11.24] 9.51 | 10.21 | 9.80] 10.25] 9.25/ 11.
Mansicsippi.....-.-..-.-.--. 11.40 | 11.22} 9.91! 9.61] 9.67 | 9.70] 9.46] 9.50] 8.401 9.25
Meanie fe. 10.20 | 11.58 | 9.80] 9.00] 10.64] 9.64] 8.75] 8.75] 9.40/ 9.70
> Ta 9.50| 8.75| 8.56) 9.60| 7.62] 6.43| 7.20| 725] 585} 7:10
0 10.30 | 10.57 | 8.74] 9.37] 8.83] 9.27) 7.54] 8.65] 6.75 1° 8.65
Diet 10.00 | 11.30 | 10.40 | 10.76 | 11.27 | 10.83} 9.67) 10.75] 9.50] 11.25
West Virginia.._..-.-__.___- 8.50 | 9.17 | 10.50 | 12.25 | 10.66 | 12.73] 9.79] 8.85] 840] 9.45
Sn 9.00 | 10.15 | 9.50 | 10.16 | 10.47} 10.94] 9.46] 10.00] 9.10] 10.40
DI). : 2 ee 7.50 | 8.20! 9.17} 10.05! 8.46]12.76] 7.93| 6.25] 5.75 | 8.95
Michipan =). -2-.__.-____...| 8.00¢} 11.00 || 8.40) 9.16 | 9.04 13.09 | 8.48) 7.75| 7.15] 8.50
Th ers 8.00) 7.70] 7.80} 9.16] 7.58] 12.03! 7.18] 5.90} 560] 7.80
LE ny 2 7.60) 7.72| 7.58] 8.86] 8.33] 10.25] 6.39| 6.15] 5.90] 7.75
Moneonnios —. | 6.65] 9.80] 7.65] 7.20) 7.96] 9.63] 6.60] 6.25] 5.75] 6.85
Minnesota’ ......-..-...-.--. 5.00] 5.75| 4.60} 4.57] 5.30] 5.12] 3.79] 4.501 3.70‘ 4.35
is wo 6.75 | 5.50] 5.25] 6.16| 7.39] 6.45] 3.99] 4.251 4.05] 5.30
Leon 7.20 | 6.20] 6.75} 7.04] 7.82] 6.80] 4.85] 6.15] 5:80] 6.25
Soot) ae | 5.18] 3.62] 4.40} 4.69} 5.25] 3.26] 2.70} 3.40] 3.25] 3.50
Nebraska --..-.........-...-| 5.00] 3.17] 4.27| 4.87] 7.12] 3.56| 2.44] 3.00] 3.30] 3:70
South Dakota_.............- 4.50 420] 3.40] 3.67) £28] 320] 312| 295] S00] 310
Wart Meirota..”_.....-..... “O11. 4.00 | 4.10] 3.72] 3.87] 3.48]. 3.389] 3.25] 3.25] 3.30
LJ 10.50 | 8.50) 8.95) 7.89] 7.17] 1.40! 6.86] 7.75 | 6-80 7.70
. = pee 9.00 | 6.40 | 8.00 | 10.00 6.50 | 7.14} 6.00] 5.90 | 6.60
LUG SiGe a 9.00} 8.00} 6.50} 6.98 | 7.54) 5.87] 6.22] 5.50] 5.40} 7.35
New Mexico __...._.-._....- 9.00 | 9.50} 11.25) 8.50 | 11.50] 8.00] 5.70] 7.00! 7.35 | 10.60
Soi Se eae (6G, 10.50 | 8.25 | 12.00] 9.00} 8.75] 5.00 | 12.00] 10.35
Miner 8.00} 5.50] 6.31] 5.17] 5.56] 5.27] 5.00] 4.75] 4.501 7.10
pine Se ee 9.75 | 5.00] 7.00 | 10.00| 7.25] 6.75| 4.82] 500} 7.00] 7.65
. 3 eae ee 11.00 | 6.67 | 7.40) 5.50! 4.34] 6.25] 4.71] 5.25] 4.90 6.30
Washington..._........._...] 12.00 | 10.50 | 9.00} 9.17| 7.38] 6.75 | 7.09} 9.00] 7.60] 8.90
infin 2 tae 10.00} 8.00} 8.92] 8.10] 5.86] 6.12] 6.60] 7.75] 7.25] 6.85
Gaitatnial =... -- | 10.50 | 11.00) 8.76) 7.87) 9.50] 7.06) 6.35] 9.00] 14.25] 8.00
General average____.. 7.74 | 8.39) 8.49] 8.68) 8.54] 8.354 655] 6.62] 6.00] 7.27
| |

|

Cents cael Cents.| Cents.| Cents.; Cents.| Cents.| Cents.| Cants.| Cents.

Vie sap But RO BG Pee. I 5.0}; 7.8 il 6.9 5.9 7.0
North Carolina .__- 8.7 234) BG) 722 4.8 8.2 6.7 7.0 5.9 7.2
South Carolina ____.______._ 8.7 7.4 $67 71 5.0 8.8 6.8 6.9 5.6 7.0
SOP: Cyeeen en 8.6 7.4) 8.5 7.3 4.5 7.0} -7.0 6.7 5.6 7.2
ptereitictee - sa 8 8.6 7.3} 8.2 7.3 4.8} 11.5 8.7 6.8 5.6 8.4
_ND) Coo ee See 8.6 7.3 8.5 7.0 4.8; 7.8 6.5 6.7 5.7 7.9
WISSIGSippl _—- ===. =e 8.8 7.3) 8.5 7.0 4.1 7.5 6.7 6.7 5.7 7.0
MISERUS ERD Fcc ee ae 8.3 7.3) 8.4 7.0 4.3 7.8 6.7 6.7 5.7 6.9
PE sees ee 8.4 7.0 8.0 6.9 4.5 7.3 6.5 6.6 5.8 6.8
PERRET ES es hk ESO ee” oe 8.5 7.3 8.5 6.8 4.8 7.6 6.4 6.5 5.8 6.9
PRemnessee 2.9) oo) 22-22. | | 8.4 7.3 8.5 6.5 4.5 7.3 6.2 6.6 5.7 (es
1 LASS 0) Tic eee bo Hp [ieee CRE bee eens 4.6 7.4 6.2 6.4 5B 40)
SORdnnOMe 2882 ak. Seeeeae pee Sseass-|tee-25<|) 486 7.5 6.2 6.7 5.8 6.5
Indian Territory- --....-...- ee | Bae Eee Rees a ene el eae} eee 6.4; 5.8 6.9
_——$——$—$— $$$ — I ————

General average ______ | 8.6 | 7.3 8.4 7.0 4.6 7.6 6.6 | 6.6 5.7 R=
a a ee ae a a ee ee

798 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. i
Average yields of wheat, oats, rye, and barley in certain countries.
[From official returns. Bushels per acre.]
WHEAT.
Year. eee Russia. renters Austria. ees France. Kinnioa :
|
(a) KO) || (d) (6) (a) a) (a)
USCS oS eee ene a ee B.2 10.8 25.1 17.4 17.8 26. 1 al.7
tit Tl es SS Ce See ee Se 3 13.7 9.8 24.4 15.35 20. 1 19.7 27.2
De eee ne oS re aoe 12.4 9.0 26, 4 15.9 19.2 20.0 St.7
(E34 $40 2 oy St eee eens ee ae 13. 7.3 25.3 13.2 12.1 pee 30.0
Tit: See See ee ee 15.3 9.8 27.2 18.0 bias! roi el 55.8
nerogpen 22.2 8) 13.6 9.3 | 25.7 160| 47: 19.2, “BL.9
OATS ia
|
(@) (c) (c) (c) (a) (a) (a)
24.5 21.7 46.8 25.9 28.3 Mee 43.7
29.6 19.9 43.2 26. 2 23.3 27.5 39.9
20.4 19.2 41.8 23.1 29.4 27.0 39.2
te ee $b.7 33.9 21.5 23.1 23.1 40.1
28.4 16.5 47.1 27.3 30.2 28.0 43.6
af. § 18.6 43.8 | 24.8 | 27.9 26.8 41.3
RYE.
(a) (d) (d) (d) (ay | (ay (df)
Tite eet lapse er epg ap 9 re Se 13.7 RT 22.0 17.2 19.3 | 19.5 25.4
LD eek Sd SEER eee 2h 13.4 11.6 20.9 14.5 36.8 | 18.8 26.8
Ose Neen. Scie ee Ne 13. 2 10.9 22.7 16.3 18.3 18.7 25.4
ib fie Se aes eee oes 16.1 9.3 21.8 eal 5.9 3. 21.6
Oye ete ae i ee eR Sees 15.6 10.5 24.2 Neer f Wifes | 18.3 25.8
Average _..---------- 14.4 11.0 22.3 15.9 72) oe “2.6
BARLEY.
|
(a) (e) (e) (e) (a) (a) (a)
Ue see aoe eee ee eae 18. 4 15.3 33.0 22.8 21.2 22. w.F
LCs ere See Se ae es ee Se 26.4 13.7 81.2 20.9 20.6 21.9 33.1
Rp Oar ee ae nee a8 23.6 12.8 30.7 19.3 22.8 21.8 35.2
Do 2 fea pe ep eg ee ee 24.5 11.8 29.0 17.6 17.3 19. 4 53.9
This ieawe sae See e N 21.6 14.9 32.2 22.0 22.5 23.3 37.4
| = = = <<
NVeTaye posse 23.1 | ie | 31.2 20.4 20. § | 21.7 Baa
i ! }
a Winchester bushels. c Bushels of 32 pounds. e Bushels of 48 pounds.
b Bushels of 60 pounds. d Bushels of 56 pounds. J For Ireland only.

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YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

800

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‘SInO'T ‘49 phcoralras ‘OSBOITD ‘TYBUUTOULD ‘O.LOTITIA[ Cg “MIOX MON

‘penuryuop—(THHSN WHd) NAOO

Jaq u1e00q
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PP RATS SS ATs ARORA RE POE NSE FSS See a eee iO ArenIge
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passeteesternc cers scer as sane Se serena ens oN Teer ese 104.0990
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SO SSSR SUES: Sg Ssrin = sesso Gases daa pac ea ses asta aes 1840300
Si aSat ahs ta 75 Sac seaser sss eenpsoasnsesSserecicn = IE uUO1deg
St Sder sees cos o ens Ss eastiees Serer neta seneeS sels qsnsny

L681

eyed

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WHOLESALE PRICES IN LEADING CITIES.

« n"
cel 19F'T $01 fes° £0 °T GL" TOME tL" 00‘T OL" 68 tL ‘t fog! SiR SIRS Oe ao OS GOEL OCCh CO mic mentee
OPT |S |'6.° 169° 61° ig ° 162," iFL° Tgy° ig9° OSs, o lleenaaedl ere eal es oe cS Se ia ae ae ee eae Ane
tee eta he fg9" 173" FL" £3" OL" ye 19° aq" RRS Pilra-i5 Wikre Geta ea kee Rae ini RE yam a ene ey oun
128 T 08 'T GL" 169 ° 26° 18" 166° TOL” 9h” Ig9° (Ra | Rincp gee ae GO ares Se a ans tae Veet Sead MASS ae ee RES RE ERE EE ART
OST |FIG'L |aee° rg9" FEO cee ROGn 46" t€8" fie 199° Be’ Wiese Gc lllaaeaae a lee 7c Saks Gomes tas ok klpes Spt te ep gee na Tady
T98T ISS ltr." 369° 746° 706° t16° Gg" 9L° As g3" 168" eT Gi a? hal iSaecese? "Sak oo UG te meee os ca ne a qoleyl
OFT feet tes: tTL” 68° 708° 68° C8" #9)" feL° 18° 196° EGG Ai. so oes Se io Sa So ee sp a Arenaqayy
fog'T | OG'T |i6L° iTL" 16° 08° 146° gg 18° ae 18° FLOSS [else aie ater ae ocak ao eee gee Vp een a canonerds Arenuepe
“L168
|
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OST = j§sF°L FIR" oli Gs gh 16° 96° 91° AOE nce. bak ce ee a eee 1oquleAO NT
186 'T GUL GL TE9° 108° 89° i#3° 78° * =| 69° 06" tS. lite oi Se ee cP ce eo RE ee 1940300
790'T |196" #9" 1g" fgg" FOG" ag HTL” 69° Oe COS) tikec a maghege Soot a vec aa ce oe nanan og aa arequueydeg
496" $86" beg" og" 79° _9g° ae i¢9” LG: 199° 1 ea SS ERR Seen Raa oe Bae eee a cares pasa ee st qsnany
C6" $6" gg" tag" Jeg: eg" tF9" t#9° 6" £19" oo" Ayne
¥20'T 196" fgg" 1g" 09° fog" £19" 89° TS, #9" fe9°
FL0°T | GOT |f09" igg* 89° $qq° 69° yh 99° fey" tL"
T10'T =/f20°L =| 849° $gg° teh” TGQ ° TG) ° Ve Sh 38° te) °
5c a jg 0) eb Lg" toh" E19" PL" 8h y 58" io)"
579) ed cc] Oo a 6g" PL" Th fc)” 82° 1” 428° 18)
Ralete MLOME sg" fgg CL: £9" keL° 91° 99° $92" {99°
feo'T ise: |e" f19° [tz9" £19" aL
486" CG Ieg" 109° gg” i219" Bao (GO iPad aracee es ASS Si see sia Sa eae 1OqWAAO NT
416" G6 Gg" t19" tLO" 69° eee SAGO = TRESS anes oe Sete ee ee aaa 1040990
G6" 06° EL igg* 519° 99° FBO) NOON: iigaenSS Saree esate on aaa as roqmoydeg
196" t6" 29° i £09" Ue ra Tee: UGE. © Inger ene age se Se ene Sister et ea ery oak qsnsny
C6" 18° 169° fTh° 4E9° PL fhL” Ole (|dG9" | gas" Agnes eres ners ss Sage a ene ee J ANA
1E6° #13 ° 508° fcg* fIL” 98° gs" BRSY ai 2 Aneel eee ae oun
$26" 3° 08" Gg" #9" Gg £9" Foe” Weg)” Re" sSedigee caren = Sapa Roe eae ea ede fe
06° G8 §¢9 * 9° tg" 19° Ale Ole R008 Aes Sapte oe tr ee aiese wees hoa ie eco Tady
06° T° L6G" |f9G° eg" igg* g9" TON ROG! Jers eee gee aa ee ale OLR YL
wea HtTS” ss foG” sites” tag" a Fe 6S" CR |) 3 el aaigle PS > Rea ae as one 37 Siie Oe aage eg eae ATENAIGOT
4980S |fzs0$ | sg'0$ |fecoS jft¢-0$ jist 0S |te¢-os £9 '0$ SOON ORY | HONOR: | Satan terran eee ee to Aaenure
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(THHSNd Yad) LVARM

*ponuljuo0g—séesl-S6sr ‘saznig pazrug ay} Jo saiio Burppa) ur sao1ed aypsajoy AA

al
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oO

ARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

YE

802

~
4g6° {196° «| 79° 09° | 61" i860" 61° | 89° fea #9" GL’ | 04" pera er oe tk oe OE woe) eee
t20'T | £46" HO" FTO" |fOL” = figo" = RO FLO" ETA: i Sa a) a et eeatel TOqUIAAO N
{20'T |f10'T feo" ro" ey" 160° teh" TOs" HL 189° fey" (ae ten" Chee bee fo Sr eee a ee RR Se a Pe ret Se 1940300
H240'T f2O'L = (fELO" if9* eh" $9" fey" 10," je): 469° iPh* fo." Huy ieee. | eee ema coe aie hawaiian oo hs roqureydeg
£10 ROE | tOL 99° teh" 99° rh" Oo." ae 69° teh" ie 484° HL TAE | aa pe eae Oy Genta Sy Bias Sargeant qsnsny
ijaa CO'L ath" ian: ous 69" ee 140 iG)" isg° fey" ve fs" NG Meees Onn as eso Ne ERS a bie eae base Rees. (hie eee Ainge
481 OWT. Rae: Os" igs’ fe," f03" TGy* 6h" FIL" 6h" gy" 708° (MMS on oe a ee eee Madea = Re eo Te eune
fale SOE =| Gh rL9° 518" rh 08° ey" 164° 189" 16s" fe 13° fag’ PaGaL ST Sage SSRIS EST Uae oe Pe aii nina ---- £BIT
Os eg0kt = hese gD" 08° igh" 491° {T° #94" OL° 61" fay: 198° oS | ane CASEA ES ee Mis ata aes: ES [udy
GIT |f90°T |toL: #9" 9)" 69° gh" 69° iP 99° QL. Va $19" Roll see as Sa a Bk Space Se ee ae qorvyyy
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i ee ANE aN 99° keh fcg" ie #99 ° FOL” 29° ELL" 69" fos" rae ieiaetas See on Sie haoute ahs & bint utara wine 1940909
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Te (ORT | Ost i.0s° FOOL | 69° ae | 2° Caen |x fOL'T =| 09° Mien lege Wiper coes 5c eed ee nda a emma iene Slee
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= “L681.
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*ponulyuon—Gésl-G6sT ‘sazgpyg paqtg ay. fo sar. Burpne) ur sao1ud aznsajzoy AA

803

WHOLESALE PRICES IN LEADING CITIES.

See Stio nig.
Racist e kaa a NE RS SET ie Ajne

Dre Ae = Se RES: LO 198Q0JOO
“re o-====- Tequreydeg
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*‘ponuljuog—66ST-S6sT ‘sazn)]g pazug ay2 fo sari Hurpya] ur sao1ud aynsajoy A4

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

804

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805

WHOLESALE PRICES IN LEADING CITIES.

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THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

YEARBOOK OF

806

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807

WHOLESALE PRICES IN LEADING CITIES.

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09° OF" GF oe" og Gaver Wasteeo|faerea [es ap 1900 || 08° =| G9" GL" 09° Qh: (Qe eo Sacer Se le oe tady
Gp" og 0g" oe" Rarer Jilkqun we Aleks deme ee qequtaydag || 78° | go" OL; | 99° OL" re ee mall ty ee apes BP cape eae OLB AL
89°08 =| sg'0$ =| OL" eee. ater: le oerie (iMate ees: ieee qsnany || 60° 09" OL 0g" 89° Otis lnaeret Gee clea ALONAC OT
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“ponurjwog—sesl-Sasl ‘sagnyg papug 2y7 fo saya Buypna] Uz sud 0080/04 MA

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

808

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YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

812

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813

WHOLESALE PRICES IN LEADING CITIES.

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818 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Nuneber and value of farm animals in the United States, 1880 to 1900.
[From Division of Statistics.]
Horses. Muies. Milch Cows.
January bs
om Number. Value. Number. Value. Number. | Value.
1S8Oee 11, 201, 800 $613, 296, 611 1, 729, 500 $105, 948, 319 12, 027, 000 | $279, 899, 420
101) eee 11, 429, 626 667, 954, 825 1, 720, 731 120, 096, 164 12, 368, 653 256, 277, 060
NSRP Saas 10,521, 554 615, 824, 914 1, 835, 166 130, 945, 378 12, 611, 632 826, 480, 310
IOS eee eee 10, 838, 111 765, 041, 308 1, 871, 079 148, 732, 390 13, 125, 685 396, 575, 405
ABSL eau 11, 169, 683 833, 734, £00 1, 914, 126 161,214, 976 13, 501, 206 423, 486, 649
UC Steet 11, 564, 572 852, 282, 947 1, 972, 569 162) 497 097 13, 904, 722 412, 903, 093
TBSG eee Se 12, 077, 657 860, 823, 208 2, 052, 593 163, 381, G96 , 239, 888 382, 935, 523
i ees 12, 496, 744 901, 685, 755 2,117,141 167, 057, 538 14, 522, 083 378, 789, 589
1 [Si ee Se ae 13, 172, 936 946, 096, 154 2,191, 727 174, 853, 563 14, 856, 414 366, 252, 173
NS ees Bene 13, 663, 204 982, 194, 827 2, 257, 574 179, 444, 481 15, 298, 625 , 226,
i ee 14, 213, 837 978, 516, 562 2,331, 027 182, 394, 099 15, 952, 883 352, 152, 133
Tope cee 14, 056, 750 941, 823, 222 2, 296, 832 178, 847, 370 16, 019, 593 , 397, 900 4
Tsoeieeee ! 15,498,140 | 1, 007, 393, 636 2, 314, 699 174; 882; 070 16, 416, 351 351, 378, 132
HBOS as oe 16, 206, 802 992, 225, 185 2, 331, 128 164, 763, 751 16, 424, 087 357, 299, 785
Sd ees 16, 081, 139 769) 224° 799 2, 852, 231 146, 232, 811 16, 487, 400 358, 998, 661
ASO ea 15, 893, 318 576, 730, 580 2, 333, 108 110, 927, 834 16, 504, 629 362, 601, 729
TS06 222 3-=2 15, 124, 057 500, 140, 186 2, 278, 946 103, 204, 457 16, 187, 586 363, 955, 545
1507 eo = 14, 364, 667 452, 649, 396 2, 215, 654 92, 302, 050 15, $41, 727 , 239,
DBOB ees eas: 13, 960, 911 A78, 352, 407 2, 257, 665 99, 032, 062 15, 840, 886 434, 813, 826
BSOO 2m es 13, 665, 307 511, 074, 813 2, 134, 213 95, 963, 261 15, 990, 115 474, 233, 925
TOO Sts 13, 537, 524 603, 969, 442 2, 086, 027 111; 717; 692 16, 292; 360 514, 812, 106
Other cattle. Sheep. Swine. Total value
Sanuany. of farm ani-
Number Value. Number. Value. Number. Value. mals.
SS eee Se |
ISBOL S22. =) 21, 231, 000 |$341, 761,154 | 40,765,900 | $90, 230, 537 34, 034, 100 |$145, 781,515 |$1, 576, 917, 556
ele eres ss 2); 937; 702 | 362) 861509 | 43/576; 899 104, 070, 759 | 36,247) 608 | 170,535, 435 | 1,721, 795, 252
POSZ ae 8-8 23,280, 238 | 463; 069, 499 | 45,016; 224 | 106,594 954 | 44,122) 200 | 263; 543,195 | 1,908, 459, 250
TSSB ose ow 28,046,077 | 611,549, 105 | 49; 237; 291 124, 365, 835 | 43,270,086 | 291, 951,221 | 2,338, 215, 268
5 fol ee ee 29; 048; 101 | 633; 2297 054 | 50; 626) 626 119, 902, 7 44, 200, 893 | 246, 801,139 | 2, 467, 868, 924
1885________-| 29,866,573 | 694, 382,913 | 50, 360, 243 107, 960, 650 | 45, 142,657 | 226,401, 683 | 2, 456, 428, 380
Tl eee eee 31, 275, 242 | 661, 956, 274 | 48,322,331 | 92, 443, 867 | 46,092, 043 | 195,569, 894 | 2, 365, 159, 862
LBS iieas ees: 33, 511, 750 | 663, 187,926 | 44,759,314 | 89/872) 889 | 44,612,856 | 200,043; 291 | 2) 400, 586, 938
LBBB Na see oe 34. 878, 863 | 611, 750,520 | 43,5447 75 89, 279, 926 | 44,346,525 | 220,811,082 | 2, 409, 043, 418
TSE p eso 35,032,417 | 597; 236, 812 | 427599; 079 | 90,640,369 | 50,301; 592 | 291 307, 193 | 2, 507, 050, 058
PS OO Ress 2 36, 849, 024 | 560; 625, 187 | 447336) 072 | 100; 659; 761 | 51, 602) 780 | 243) 418, 336 | 2,418, 766, 028
ASHI 2 2 36, 875, 648 | 544,127,908 | 43, 431,186 | 108,397,447 | 50,625,106 | 210, 193,923 | 2,329, 787,770
yh ie a ae 37,651,239 | 570,749; 155 | 44928) 365 | 116, 121) 290 | 52,398; 019 241, 031,415 | 2, 461, 755, 698
To 3 eee ee 35, 954) 196 | 547; 882° 204 47, 273, 553 | 125, 909, 264 | 46,094, 807 | 295, 426, 492 | 2, 483, 506, 681
dS ee ae ee 36, 608, 168 | 536,789,747 | 45,048,017 | 89,186,110 | 45,206, 498 | 270, 854, 626 | 2,170, 816, 754
This sae eh 34,364,216 | 482,999,129 | 42) 204; 064 | 68; 685,767 | 44; 165, 716 | 219, 501, 267 | 1, 819, 446, 306
1896 8 32,085, 409 | 508,928, 416 | 38,298,783 | 65,167,735 | 42; 842) 759 | 186.529) 745 1, 727, 926, 084
i 30, 508, 408 | 507,929, 421 | 36,818,643 | 67,020,942 | 40,600,276 | 166,272) 770 1, 655, 414, 612
SOR eens ee 29, 264, 197 | 612, 296, 634 | 37,656,960 | 92,721,183 | 39,759,993 ) 174.351, 409 | 1,891, 577,471
iC aes 27,994) 225 | 637; 931; 135 | 39,114) 453 | 107,697,530 | 38) 651,631 | 170, 109, 743 | 1,997, 010, 407
1G) See eo) 7 ; 610, 054 | 689; 486, 260 | 41, 883065 | 192) 665/913 |... | 2, 08, 650, 818

a Exclusive of swine.

Averuge value of farm animals in the United States on January 1, 1880, to 1900,

[From Division of Statistics. ]

Year Horses. | Mules. eee uber Sheep. | Swine.
$54. 75 $61. 26 $23. 27 a8: 10 $2. 21 $4. 28
58. 44 69.79 23. 95 7.33 2.39 4.70.
58. 53 71.35 25. 89 19. 89 2.37 5. 97
70. 59 79. 49 30. 21 21.81 2.53 6.75
7A. 64 84. 22 81. 37 23. 52 2.37 5.57
73. 70 - 82. 38 29.70 23. 25 2.14 5. 02
V1. 2 79. 60 27.40 21.17 179E 4, 26
2.15 78. 91 26. 08 19.79 2.01 4.48
71. 82 79. 78 24. 65 17.79 2.05 4.98
71.89 79.49 28. 94 17.05 2.13 5.79
68. 84 78. 25 22.14 15. 21 2.27 4.72
67. 00 7.88 21. 62 14. 76 2.50 4.15
65. O1 75. 55 21. 40 15. 16 2.58 4. 60
61. 22 70. 68 21.75 15. 24 2. 66 6.41
47.83 12.17 21.77 14. 66 1.98 5. 98
36. 29 47.55 21.97 14. 06 1.58 4.97
33. 07 45. 29 22. 55 15. 86 1.70 4.35
Bl5L 41. 66 23.16 16. 65 1. 82 4.10
54. 2 43. 88 27. 45 20. 92 2. 46 4,39
37.40 44.96 29. 66 22.79 2.15 4.40
44.61 53. 56 31. 60 24. 97 2. 98: |2 32a

NUMBER AND VALUE OF FARM ANIMALS.

Number, average price, and total value of farm animals in the United States on
January 1, 1900, by States.

Mules.

States and Territories.

Average

New Hampshire --

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820 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Number, average price, and total value of farm animals in the United States oi
January 1, 1900, by States—Continued.

Milch cows.

Other cattle.

States and Territories. Average Average
Number. price Value. Number. price
per head. per head.

Maine -<:..=--- es 203, 814 $28. 90 $5, 890, 225 112, 723 $26.38 | $2, 973, 863
New Hampshire -.--.---.------ 135,457 32.70 4,429, 444 79, 221 25. 57 2, 025, 477
WErMONG eee yo onc een en tee 268, 886 31.90 8,577, 463 182, 450 23.41 3,100, 074
WMassachnsetts asses = sees 181, 589 37.20 6, 755, 111 73, 378 27.12 1, 990,
Rhodelslande=t5 >. e--ses ss 25, 256 39. 95 1, 008, 977 10, 149 29. 83 302, 788
Connechicube sa -s-— knee eee 144, 529 34. 80 5, 029, 609 66, 188 30. 90 2, 045, 545
INV MORK aeons a aaen ame eee 1, 487, 416 35. 20 52, 357, 043 572, 299 27.45 | 15,707,884
NeW OLSOVi ts torch ee eee 223, 261 39.10 8, 729, 505 39, 896 30. 70 1, 224, 982
Penansylivemlam esos o see eee 970, 473 33.15 32, 171, 180 523, 653 27.34 | 14,314, 840
Tela WaICe me tee she 5 ee 35, 730 31.50 1, 125, 495 22, 305 28. 03 625, 247
icine Gee orcas eae ee 154, 712 29. 80 4, 610, 418 102, 723 25. 36 2, 604, 643
Wit odie eee es pe eD Ses 242, 488 24.05 5, 831, 836 325, 000 23.96 7, 787, 812
INOPEPRVCATOMMA <-<2cgofecce se 243, 298 18.20 4, 428, 024 274, 843 12.31 3, 383. 726
Soupm Caroling: 5 ---_-se5-55-2= 122, 959 19:25 2,366, 961 137, 264 10. 77 1, 478, 267
Georgians tee eee 285, 431 23. 95 6, 836, 072 380, 716 11.07 4,216,
Tai kos tho Fy yan ie RES ee Be 113, 108 16.70 1, 888, 904 299, 712 8.38 2,512, 036
Paiva DAN Ao ee een a eae 231, 802 18.40 4,265, 157 279, 278 10. 96 3, 061, 719
MMISSISSI pits see eee ee eae 244, 103 20.7 5, 052, 932 273, 706 13.59 3, 719, 121
iOUISIan aoe eo eee 123, 232 21.95 2,704, 942 171, 729 13.37 2, 296, 702
TREKS bee ge ee eee ee 693, 794 25.25 17,515,298 | 4,352, 541 17.86 | 77,736, 384
ATK Sa Soe Se eee ee ee 188, 936 20. 25 3, 825, 954 230, 486 14. 04 3, 235, 910
MemnOsseGrs aoe EO be ee 239, 394 24.15 5,781, 865 286, 841 18.79 5, 390, 598
Wiesheavireiniao: = -- 52ers 167,173 28. 40 4, 747,713 241, 025 25.15 6, 061,
ACGnCU Chay, sae mae siele OEe PAE 235, 798 27.25 6, 425, 496 303, 651 24. 52 7,446, 740
(OLN) 2 Sa es eee Se 780, 939 32. 30 25, 224, 330 674, 619 30.69 | 20, 702, 044
Nirehi Gari: <s 7 oee oc: A eee 463, 698 32. 70 45, 162, 925 333, 120 26.75 9. 043, 695
Lays hea see ae Sa 605, 855 33.75 20, 447, 606 629, 075 32.65 | 20,536, 787
iimnGis yes ARS a Ree | 1,021, 2386 36. 30 37,070, 867 | 1,303, 018 31.62 | 41,197,518
Wisconsin=-5 52. sear | 1,003, 321 33. 60 33, 711, 556 595, 208 27.33 | 16,267,023
Min TreSa bas sae Sse oo ee eee 672, 540 31. 65 21, 285, 891 564, 463 24.27 | 13, 700, 854
LO et ae es ee ak ES 1, 263, 283 34. 90 44, 088, 57 2,178, 729 33.47 | 72,930, 788
HUY ISSO} E12 Ee ee PB 659, 731 28. 60 18, 868, 307 | - 1,387, 615 26.65 | 36,981, 329
a Sasiee te tu eet ark Peer atta 707, 675 82. 50 22,999, 438 | 2, 159, 549 28.90 | 62,401, 253
ING brasks ee sees ie ee eee 685, 3: 35. 50 24,329,499 | 1,521,454 30.38 | 46,220, 249
Sonth=Dakotals=4- = 2-5 42a 398, 383 33. 40 13, 305, 992 480, 817 29.61 | 14,237,235
NortneDakotau=2- se = 170, 205 81.95 5, 629, 750 255, 166 27. 24 6, 951, 242
WWontanore.-o eos = 2 eee Sees 45,314 39. 25 1, 778, 574 914, 494 27.19 | 24,865, 089
Wivonling 3 cess ss] Teas SESS 18, 104 40.55 734, 117 729, 722 23.10 | 20,505, 914
Cotorado 2 = Se es 93, 499 36. 2 3, 384, 664 | 1,021, 922 27.69-| 28,297,538
ING Wwe iGxIGO ae aes eee ee ee 19,510 31.70 618, 467 659, 849 18.64 | 12,301,571
INEZ OU eee et ae eee 19, 140 32. 50 622, 050 362, 721 16. 46 5, 959, 293
Wihalntercs 2 le. ee ene 57, 209 32.15 1, 873, 595 278, 867 22. 93 6, 396, 237
INV eo es Be oe aN eat ag ee 18, 250 34.10 622, 325 219, 831 23. 06 5, 068, 415
Vdahoe sot ore! Sikes eke 33, 075 31. 90 1, 055, 092 364, 853 23.77 8, 672, 748
Wishing ions: =) ase seer ae = 122, 414 35. 40 4, 333, 456 268, 030 25. 21 6, 757, 573
OrecOnrere ena pepe e 115, 415 31.05 3, 583, 636 522, 018 23.36 | 12,192,775
Calitornigie ee leee oae ene 308, 872 33. 75 10, 424, 480 604, 881 24.57 | 14, 864, 947
Oklatioima: 320. Wee Seo oa 40,715 31.90 1, 298, 808 283, 256 25. 36 7, 182, 529.

United States ------_---- 16, 292, 360 31.60 | 514,812,106 | 27, 610, 054 24.97 | 689, 486, 260

NUMBER AND VALUE OF FARM ANIMALS. 821

Number, average price, and total value of farm animals in the United States on
January 1, 1900, by States—Continued.

SHEEP.

— . Average

States and Territories. Number. | price Value.

f per head.

He AS eee 254, 027 $3.10 $787, 484

; hal EG CSO a ee eee F 2, = & a hrs =

7 (0 into nces See Se ee eee ee ee ere eee Ee 69, 25 6 a
Lith DEST see eee ee ee a eee 40,194 4.53 182, 883

| LE LS ES EE ee ee ee ee ee eee ee 10, 608 3. 86 40, GT4
Lb ULF 2 Se SSS Ses Se sees Aas ee ee eee eee ae a rie oe : rrr be

| es | ee eee
Pennsylvania: -..........-- oe ee ee eee $14, 322 3. 60 2, 928, 302

{ UL: +s. eS ae ee ee ee ae ee ee 12, 592 3. 67 46, 269
er aes oe ee rae. Ley Be 8 Soe Se a 138, 177 3.51 485, 553
og LL 2 ene TR Sk ey a a ee ere ee 376, 918 3.09 1, 164, 676
ee a] be] Bass

a OF DE a Se ee ee eee ee ee ee eee, Se 34 nd .

: SL = a ee RS SS ee ee ee ee 294, 826 1.76 518, 893
Ln? aR Se a 2 eS ee ae 76, O74 1.69 128, 870
_. i 9) 2.22. SE ee ee eee ee ee eee 171, 799 1.53 262, 767
it J) So 5 Se Se ee ee eee 215, 7 1.56 335, 490

i ine wee A ee Rk 113, 205 1.58 179, 203
3... SL 8 ea eee ee 2,416, 721 1,92 , 634, 063
Woo Jil: = _ eS ee ee eee ee 108, 957 1. 67 181, 795
La id? 2. a ee ee ee eee, eee 261, 735 2.37 596, 485
0 ee See —— ater Be eae
LT OS arn. le ee a ee Bt ee ee 9, & : , 656,

hio B if =~ = 2 Je ee ee ee eee ee 2, 839, 690 3.71 | 10,535,250
RTE hr tes Rca RE ee Se Oe EEY 1, 389, 073 3.58 | 4,972,882
1.2 ee ee ee ee oe 677, 905 4.00 2,713, 993
EIEIO Cs 5 eS Ts GS See ce ee ee ee 637,719 3.97 2, 532, 383
Mr sk oe gE eS ee 744, 656 3. 65 2,716, 505

oS eee s see Te eee es 419, 218 3.15 1,333, 113
renee ie een 8 ee oe ee eee 619, 476 4.02 2,487, 816
_ 3 7 >... [eee ee eee 597, 619 3.10 1,854, 711

nae Sn as ae to to ee oo oo es ae 275,118 3. 04 835, 534
0 =o Ee SS See eee Ses 322, 057 3.39 1, G90, 807
SY oe Se ee ees ee 381, 882 3.29 1, 257, 156
0 SC ESS Se er ee eee | 374, 110 3.16 1, 188, 683
2 hg Se a aE | 3,884,179 2.84 | 110017474
0 PL ot ee ee Se ee ee ee eee ees | 2, 840,190 3.51 9, 964. 806
i LU ee eee eee ee eee 2,185, 327 2.86 6, 250, 856
(Ol OST 222 ae Se Se eek = | eee ee ee 3, 973, 439 2.17 8, 622, 362
Ee ee 1, 024. 430 2.34 | 2’ 393, 581
Un 2eee tose = ee a ee ee 2, 370, 983 2. 59 6, 150, 580
re SP eee © AR ne re Se ers oo ee 657, 773 2.91 | 1,914,120
8 i Se a ee a ee arte reo 2, 658, 662 2.80 7,444, 254
0 Sr So SMR ea is a eee ne, Cee ot 790, 217 3.13 2,470,218
os a SIR Se eS a a re” Seer 2, 446, 695 2.67 6, 522, 676
io La a ee eS ee eee 0 2,001, 501 2.85 5, 710, 282.
8 TIE TS pS ale OS ee SE eS ee) ere eee ere 33, 094 2.52 | 33, 380

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YEARBOOK OF

832

THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

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833

AGRICULTURAL EXPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

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YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

834

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AGRICULTURAL EXPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 835

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836 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

AVERAGEH PRICES FOR IMPORTS AND EXPORTS.
[From Section of Foreign Markets. ]

Average import price of agricultural products imported into the United States
during each of the jive fiscal years 1895-1899.

[the import prices of merchandise here given represent ‘‘ the actual market value or whole-
sale price of such merchandise as bought and sold in usual wholesale quantities, at the time of
exportation to the United States, in the principal markets of the country from whence
imported, and in the condition in which such merchandise is there bought and sold for exporta-
tion to the United States, or consigned to the United States for sale, including the value of all
cartons, cases, crates, boxes, sacks, and coverings of any kind, and all costs, charges. and expenses
incident to placing the merchandise in condition, packed ready for shipment to the United
States.” (Act of June 10, 1890.)
The export prices are the actual market values in the port of shipment. ]

| Years ended June 30—
Articles imported. SL S__ EEE
| 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899.

ANIMAL MATTER.

Gatile frecvon. Guty 22. -=>5--2-- 8. sess head._| $6.63 $20.56 | $119.41 | $132.81 $152. 81
Cattle dutiable: 2-2 ea eee dou. 4.95 6.89 7.80 9.75 als Wa iy
Motal Cabtleco: 2-20 ee Bee dos aa th 6. 93 7. 87 dye) 11. 62
Horses, tree of duty -.-2--2- ae do-_---| 330.17 196. 34 138. 85 181. 82 277. 65
IHOrses;dwtia bles.) ee ee ee do= = 53. 88 50. 72 58.38 117.92 129.01
TotalMROESES Fa 22 ee See eee ee eee do_---| 80.56 66. 32 66. 42 154. 49 181.15
Sheep, free-of dutty: =>. se adee eso sec do.--.| 15.90 10. 85 15.70 14. 05 19. 25
Sheep du tiable ses = ee eee do 2.25 2. 54 2.45 2.73 3.36
Maree Ntslia’s\et Seon ane Be es doz 2. 34 2. 65 2.51 - 2.82 3.47
IBGSSWiaie) Sito cose eee een ee pound_- 274 278 . 249 . 266 243
Bristles, crude, not sorted, bunched or pre-

[aiige (6 aie cee een ea Se a ee pound_- .399 2.23 - 611 - 346 .579
Bristles, sorted, bunched, or prepared____- do . 958 .912 . 903 . 814 - 788
‘Rotalibristles: 2 3222-22-25 co ae Seen eee ee don . 956 . 913 - 903 . 814 - 785
Butter ees aes See eee doz -179 . 164 . 160 Pail . 167
@hecsee Ses. 2+: ae ee ees dol 141 .139 135 . 134 . 132
Eses BEEP pee aie See ad 8 Sele dozen_- 120 . O94 082 049 095

ilk:

COCOONS Haast a a Seen oe ee pound-- 434 -405;/22552— es 381 . 169

Raw, or as reeled from the cocoon- ---- do=— 2.76 3.28 2. 84 3.05 3.28

WiaSbO mo Be = te ae oe oe ee te dos . 449 312 . 285 374 421
otal Rilke Ss ee en a a eee dole 2.43 2. 86 2.37 2. 66 2.89
Wool, class 1, clothing: -

Im theierease -.-. seessts2a-seee ee acne pound . 2) 22.3 s=a4| eee . 158 .170 . 150

Scour eds: 5220 kas ae ee es ee doe. 3) 2-35-52 Bee . 265 . 280 .155
MotaliwoolaGlasd seas soe ae ee See adore = . 153 . 166 SLT 175 . 150
Wool, class 2, combing:

mibhererease 922k ee Se es (6 Fo yeepeel (RS apnea eee . 189 .199 272

SCOMTREG en ere eee ee G62 aes el eee all -210 . 165
MotaltwOol Glass cance ee oe ee ees dows . 196 228 . 189 -199) 212
Wool, class 3, carpet:

Incthelprease: 35325. Pye ee eee oe Gos. .2} 3-52 - ee alte eee - 105 . 096 . 094

Scourcd eS oe ee eee Got 2) eo See ee cee -118 - 088 . 097
otal woolsclassigs sess seu ae ean eee d0_.-- . 091 . 097 . 105 . 096 . 094
Rotalsw.OGla2\ sae aoe ee eee dol . 124 .141 . 152 - 126 - 108
Glue: 2 sos ee a EE ee donee . 088 089 096 104 . 089
Hides and skins, other than furs: :

Sue is a ee te . 202 . 220 220 Lin =

ides Of cautle.2_..-22_ 222 ssa ee Of= =. 9. é _

ra A an a RROD Re =o" ee | ae 14 106 {7145 "148
Totalihidesiand sking=s" 2522s ee aoe - 115 . 145 135 - 151 - 157
BON eye «lee 2a niko ele Re ee ee gallon _- . 341 . 383 - 415 395 . 409
Sausage Bologna: =o ee eee pound.) _[--=---2—4 «220 - 2008 ||--2225...-|/- =
Oils, animal, n.e.s,,except whale and fish _gallon__ . 820 327 . 158 . 404 .173
Stearn. oo. oss. acess esse eceeee eee eeee pound: -|2-----2-5 S071 |.~s.-2-23)2 see 014

VEGETABLE MATTER.

(Ar cols Om wine 16@sio.-- = nee eee eae pound__ . 068 . 096 . O84 . 083 . 082
Barley 22 ious oe) Se ee bushel_- -410 .379 - 310 301 «486
Corn (maize) S22 ee ee ee dos - 456 . 433 . 329 . 433 388
Oats 2155 eae ee eee ee ee do. 2 . 262 «274 . 260 370 - 385
Oxtmeal~2 25:0: Say eS ae ae eee ound . 056 . 057 021 055 - 059
Rive ee 5 eee eee ushel_- 486 1.89 2.36 404 2. 44
WHOtt > 3-6 i> <5. ones) -s) do== . 608 . 657 767 . 952 7.52
Wheat Tour, 22-2 = 5s 22 ere ee barrel_- 4. 44 4.91 4,41 4,46 4.48
Chocolate, other than confectionery and sweet-

Shed chocolate. = oi ej eee pound_. .195 .173 163 - 16k 1.79
Cocoa, or cacao, crude, and leaves and shells of,

WOUNG 2-5 85). 2k Se ee eee . 109 .103 . 095 . 136 . 143
Cocoa, or cacao, prepared or manufactured,

MIOUNC ee on oor oo ee net ee . 3837 . 330 . 297 B57 .319
motel COCOa,,OF CACRO.s..--2----5-2-28e See pound... . 120 . 114 . 105 . 148 -U7
REL ODI ee onset on odes oo ae ec Se dou: 147 . 146 1 . 075 . 066

IMPORT PRICES OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 837

Average import price of agricultural products imported into the United States
during each of the five fiscal years 1895-1899—Continued.

Years ended June 30—

Articles imported.

1896, 1897. | 1898. 1899.

1895.
VEGETABLE MATTER—continued.
Chicory root, raw, unground ----_-.----- pound..} $0. 017
Chicory root, roasted, ground, or otherwise pre-
ee a oe ee pound-- 033
Mami chicory root -.--..~....-==.--=------.- Tae O17
aires substitutes, n.©..8-.-...-.----.- ~.-4.- qao-==* . 039
Total coffee substitutes -........-.-.------- doz. . 22
2 «lo. Le eee — do... . 096
JD Sahn er ton__| 201.43
current Ol? —— oo ~ = <= - 22-5 ee do...-| 472.16
Pawie and. tow Of... =... ---=-.--<<----5 -s-a= do.-.-| 122.22
PermmnnekIed, OLC: .--.- == 222. -----5 --=- do__.-| 164. 46
mresr Vampico fiber. .......-... 2-4 ---.c- do_..-| 46.65
pEDeanNG jute butts .....-.-----.-------=.- do_...| 24.88
OSS do_.--| 80.76
LoL EES ae eee do_...| 57.64
Fibers, vegetable, n.e.s--------------------- doec-}) 52:78
Fruit juices:
Prune juice or prune wine ------ ---- gallon-.- . 739
Other, including cherry juice ----.----- olen ed Lae
SrmmerrmnteyiiCeS. =. >... ---222-->--- 5-555 C31 0 jo aed Useless
Peete 2 ee... Spound.- 016
2 eee eee dol: . 021 |
Ld. 1 ee eee do_-_- 050 |
PSN LDYONCS. 25... — <3 ee te ee do__- 037
VEE TEE __ Se ER Se ean ee EN (er . 041
OLE ae Sep a ee ee Sere ee dg . 108
Ginger, preserved or pickled-_---.----...-.-do--..|.---.-----
oS Ee Ena ase ton... 7.10
PE 54 ee oe pound_. 191
Menpprn te oo eee Oe eee tee aoe*: . 509
Soo ee a bushel. 677
Mme iguors, pottled .-..........--------- gallon 953
Malt liquors, anbottled -...-.....--..--..-.do..-. . 803
Total malt liquors ------- pera eaeenee doz. 510 |
Lis th be een pound-. - 007
7 BPO" vr ee See gallon-.- 1.23
Opium, crude or unmanufactured ---.-..- pound... 2. 04
PEI IMRTODArOd 32 02> =o) a ee dots. < 6.58
DTG Ch er ee eee do.-=. 3.31 |
“ot LS ee eee ne eee do. -22 017
Rice flour, rice meal,and broken rice----..- doz . O14
oval rice and rice meal-.-.-...-.....-..-..-- do. 016 |
Penance Or naxseed |... --=-----..3 ». bushel_- 1.09
Spices, unground:
iG 2S) SR ae aa eee pound_- 311 |
Pepper, black or white---.....--------- do . 039 |
Rae reo Of Guby) ~=.-.---32--<-4 gdo=<3 . 059
Spices, ground (and other dutiable) ---.--- do:=—2 . 132
BIRURNC CH =k 2 rs ae Se does . 063
Spirits, distilled:
Of domestic manufacture, returned, proof
TNT See eS ee ae ee ee 2 ees . 870
TES a ee ee ees eee Sate proof gallon_- 2. 60
(ULNGIS S28 Ce ee ee Se een do: ==. 1.09
Wan distilled spirits. -.-.=2.2..2-2-22--._-- dow 1.23
20 Sie Fe ee eee ene eee pound_- 019
pene eee ee 2 Se eb ced oS ton_. 3.17
LL EDS oS at ee oe ees gallon. O86
Beet sugar not above No. 16 Dutch standard,
(PEG 2. ea ae ee ee ee ae 020
Sugar, other than beet, not above No. 16 Dutch
TDs ee eS ee ee pound_- . 021
Sugar above No. 16 Dutch standard sides: . 028
PIN PTS oe Se ee aa ne doe= . 021
ee ee ed eR se eee do-=. . 135
Tobacco, leaf:
Suitable for cigar wrappers -----.------ dow 2 127
Other (including stems) --.-..--..------ do== - 309
Pepe blectt bapAccO soe 2 2-2. S322 si Shee dor . 553
Retnwmi Heats. ~~ 2 8 A oc cu Seton aese Sess dos? 3.61
ReRBS ANG Peas. .- 52-25 2-222. She abe bushel 1.01
Pees meee + 2 PRs 2h eke ee mum bere 4|4-224--- -
UU RIS =. 2 Se ee See IpUshele=|L aes a2.
LE eS ee ene O2=- - 450
“EEO ED ee eS ere eee gallon-- . 26
Champagne and other sparkling wines, dozen
CRESS 2 a a ee eek ee ane eS 14.77
Sirlliwines. bottled. s*-_.-...=.2--- dozen boitles-- 4,82

Bill wines: in bOLuled_ 22.55 ee gallon.. . 697

033 <Q6b'|-2 eo . 033
O14 O14 016 027
038 . 037 034 3 037
O17 O17 . 030 033
a ee ra ae 0395 100
id. . I~ ©
me 62 375. o 215. 88 £01.81
25. 26 124. 27 E
21305 273 71 139. 49 121.05
58. 78 53.20 | 50.84 64.31
22.49 23.93 | 22.65 27.61
76. 30 73.68 | 64.44 116. 77
65.47 60. 61 74.58 128.12
41.13 | 66.32 | 62.22 68.7
830 701 . 880 776
Since aeee Se anes een 489 517
Deanery. | aes 621 631
017 - 020 . 033 026
020. 024 027 - 025
054 060 | . 053 - 049
142 103. | - 180 - 106
O43 045 - 058 057
098 091 115 128
Roe apnea Sree pepe (ers me oe - 044
9.16 8.59 8. 92 5. 81
217 209 273 - 449
501 | . 482 . 586 543
856 B47 |, 1985 “892
970 . 978 . 948 . 999
293 | 219 285 296
507 526 479 523
006 007 O04 - 095
i Pea ly 1.22 1.25 1.17
1.87 2. O4 2.14 2.38
7. 44 7.21 6.51 6. 67
3. 06 2.70 4.10 3. 22
016 019 022 - 020
013 01S - 016 - O15
015 O18 . 020 019
1.08 1.03 1.11 1.07
320} 270 273 241
- 039 047 - 065 038
. 052 053 - 065 i2
113 | 111 . 100 039
- 060 | O64 - 076 030
918 | . 903 . 860 836
2.66 | 2.70 2.87 2.85
1.16 1.20 1.30 1.37
1.21 1.27 1.21 1.29
018 O18 O17 016
3.95 3.38 3.08 2.20
157 158 151 136
023 018 019 021
022 021 - 023 - 024
029 025 - O24 - 927
023 020 - 022 O24
135 131 . 140 -131
1.07 - 935 - 931 1.05
394 - 506 551 - 561
501 . 694 715 - 705
4.30 5. 36 4.37
1.07 1.01 - 912 899
O44 Bl an een sel eens
sanokaeete 1.12 - 873 . 647
- 128 -o91 404 - 595
303 270 261 202
14.73 14. 64 14.58 13. 98
4.56 4.77 4.88 4.90
. 688 . 680 (21 . 698

838 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Average export price of agricultural products exported from the United States
during each of tie five fiscal years 1895-1899.

Years ended June 30—

Articles exported.

1895. 1896. 1897.
ANIMAL MATTER.

Cathe se tee hee Se See pe ee Se head-_-| $92.26 | $92.7 $92. 70
I gese 3 Pee ee ak ee Se ee Se dole fies 10. 80 10. 30
EIR OSs 1 ae PEE Sn eine EES A do._..| 157.99 140. 52 120. 64
UVR OS et SERRE ws SRS ak Seen pee ae dos.) we A4 68. 63 72. 97
Beep es. ben ee et ae ee te ee ee adoz-: 6. 48 6. 26 6.27
BROS Wal s esne Se ae ee aes Tae pound _- 294 . 296 . 289
LETT RE) pees See Renee af. Le Fe 2k eee BZ On2-6 164 . 152 143
GREER ee. ee Sie eee ee ee des 091 . 084 - 091
| Dfetea ies ee ea ee ee ee hs ee. Pie MEER dozen_. 168 .147 . 139
Feather s, Other than ostrich =-_- 2. - pound._}| a.i68 - 166 . 099
Giitto Sears SS Sa eee ate apes 2 . 097 . 095 | . 095
Hides and skins, other than furs_-_--______- do. =! . 064 . 098 O77
BSE CARO cet 2 ee. ose eae Ge. 24 . 089 . 088 . 086
[B'S Ss tiie) 0 Geese oes J ee ee om Ee ee dok3 . O88 . OB4 . 078
Beer salted ior pickleds — --<22 8 Se (t= 24 . 057 . 056 . 052
Beet other cured (3-722 ee fale eerge . 090 -115 . 089
At OW an Seetle e Sees ae ekas Be doe. 050 O44 | . 037
ESRI es eee ne ee ee Gols 683 | 079 . 068
EIS SS 7 Ge DORR aon st at dens 104 . 098 | . 097
Pork; Precis sso": Saha ben aols 3 074 - 059 | . 073
Por k, saltedtor pickled) 20-= 5-22 2322 ee dos.4 . 071 . 057 . 049
Biren ee et tees ee ee do. s=3 . V8 - 066 | . 051
Miontitonss strates ee Su Ky eh dol 081 . 075 . 078
Ole ool See en es ee ee ea fore . 091 . 078 . 059
Oi ares in (imitation butter)_________. dol . 698 . 097 . 097
Waere(Onl) 2222s = 22: Se eee gallon_- 549 -511 | - 437
Other animal oils, except whale and fish __do___-_ . 523 . 504 425
Total animal oils, except whale and fish_-__do____ . 544 -510 . 455
SE TWASEO ft at an Soc oe eerie oe aoe ee ee pound_- . 356 | . Buk . P44

OIE a= ee ees so ee ee ees ee et do. 059 | . 051 - 051
Woolen. Herre @2 232 Fens Sosa po et oS. aoe aos, 4 113 . 123 118

VEGETABLE MATTER

Bale yitecis, settee sae ee Se oe bushel-- .491 404 . 382
Bran, Dees. and mill feed... = 775 5 | Pa ee A ee | A Spee 5) SEC eee
Bread and bhisenit ..<..5:............- pound__ . O45 . 045 - 046
Bnew heat sa: 45... = 20 2-8 = ea Seek bushel4)- = 2. - eee - 405
Corn maize). > Sr ee ee Oe do.u.4 .529 .318 . 306
Ponti Gales a 5 Se ee Le oe nee barrel_-_ 2.90 2. 36 1.90
Onis. 5 ee te a eet = bushel__ . 302 . 260 249
Ostmca levee 20S Na pound __ 028 | . 024 - 023
1 ieee Oe ee ee eee eo oe bushel_- . 566 -| . 450 - 428
VOOM TR 2h et ee ge ee barrel__ 3.20 2. 96 2. 87
Rie ea, ba ae ce eS eae eee bushel__ .576 . 655 . 753
Wiheat tlowmr rs: 5-2) 38 8 a ee barrel_- 3.38 3.56 3.84
Ciders. 2 Pesos. oe et Fa gallon_- 128 - 128 - 122
Cotton; sea-island ==. 3-5) = oo ee rs pound_- 182 = 199 189
Cotton, other than sea-island____-.._..____- Or . 058 . 080 074
Rotaliconbou, IN: DALES a5 - oe sea ono nae dors. . 058 - 081 . O74
Waste rcobbon a5 = eee eee ees 00s... 4| 22% 2-364 2S
RosalCounone a2: 22 soe eee eee ee do. . 058 . 081 . O74
Apples ried. =i oe see ee ee dos=2 . 055 . 050 . 044
Apples; green or ripe: 2. 52-2. 2 ie barrel_- 2.39 2. 58 1,58
PEIN OSCG 5254 Satan a otc ee oa ees Bee Bound #4). o-sh SE eee
eaapinS ote 8 ee ey ee Chole eeae| ete | oe a ee! | ee
Ganspng- seete. re ae as ae ee ao. 8. 54 3.86 4.68
Giucoso, orerape|supar.-. 22s ae aos .019 . 016 . O14
RY oe = se Se soo a oe ee ton..} 14. 84 14.80 13.71
15 io io) =) SRR so) PEN te N=” 1 epee pound... 107 . 088 ml!
Lard substitutes, n. e.s. (cottolene, lardine, etc.)

OUN Gs oon a ee . 076 | . 060 | . 053
10 2] | ee Sine ae EES re” Free bushel_- . 681 . 685 . 612
Malt liquors, bottled ___....._-._- dozen bottles-- 1.15 1.20 1.16
Malt liquors, unbottled _..............-_- gallon__ . 256 . 240 228
DeEnioilcake.. 2:2: eae eee pound..|->.=-s-¢ Sle eee
Oil cake and oil-cake meal, cotton-seed__..do___- 009 . 009 . 009
Oil cake and oil-cake meal, flaxseed, ov linseed,

OMG: 2 Mow. 3... ee . 012 O11 . 009
Total oil cake and oil-cake meal ________- pound-. . 010 . 010 . 009
BRET OU SP 28 os ns Ne oe gallon. 3|. tnSse-¢e)-.. <2. 2s5|42-ee
(Doniee ete a es SAS GR domes - 322 - 282 « RD4
LAU 1 ie ae ee earl Janeen eT She doe 3 . 596 .495 . 384
RED DOGMNb OU). .2-- 28 Ws J ae pound... 2.22 2.05 1.58

v2) oo 5 a ee eee ae O.-24 . 038 010 . 038
Rice bran, meal, and polish ._........-..... do... - 008 . 006 - 006
Total rice and rice meal..__....._--..._..... do__.- - 010 . 006 - 009
ETOIBOOCU So. 5 ccccmab ecw cece seece nee aoz.<2 008 . 007 . 006

a Exclusive of egret feathers.

1898.

1899.

SUGAR STATISTICS.

839

‘Average export price of agricultural products exported from the United States
during each of the five fiscal years 1895-1899—Continued.

Articles exported.

Years ended June 30—

1895. | 1896. | 197, | 1808. | 1899.
VEGETABLE MATTER—continned.

mlaxweeed., GF lnseed —-.-...........=--..<- bushel__}| $1.17 $0.910 | $0. 820 $0. 899 £0. 995
SOE ps 3 a eee eee pound~ . 093 -079 | 077 | 081 . 063
UTD DUNS 5 oS Se ee ee ee dos. . 056 O44 | O34 - 081 - 031
Alcohol including cologne spirits--proofgallon__}| a .268 @ .257 @ .336 . 286 | .. 289
LUT a ee eee ee do-.-- . 942 978 1.07 1.59 1.40
TD, J. RS ee eee noe do-_-_- 1.29 1.36 1.36 1.39 | 1.38
DESO She rer ao-==- 1.683 1.34 | 722 | 341 | 1.19
0) 2 ee eee do. 1.97 1.70 1.80 aw 1.57
DOSS Shela ee he rr i eee . 389 | . 450 .451 .818 | 12
Motel disteiled Bpirits. -- =. .-. =... --2.--2 =. de. .< 914 . S67 . 834 . 637 aids
CTS es eee pound 81 . 028 021 O19 . 021
(Co PERT Tse a a aR 5 aa ee pee Pallones|e=-- eee . O71 . 078
IIo ee nee ene GOss-se 2 os oo ee - 105 14
Total molasses and sirmp------------------- do--_-- - 093 | . 106 . O88 - 093 1
PunerEHONOrO Wil .c. eee ee ee toe ele pound__| . 032 035 . 032 038 - 035
IP EDT res, SS ek ee ee do=<.- - 046 | . 049 . O47 - 050 O45
DRE oo do----| -045 “042 045, “049 "045
JUf int a ee ee age. -]- = O17: |==.--. 5. ..]_~-2=-2 3 eee
SS a ee a Oe eee Ho. --! . O87 . 085 . O80 . O87 . O92
Tobacco, stems and trimmings --.--------- Gon 025 | . 021 . 022 . 023 026
ESIC 2 Pee dour: 086 . 083 078 . O84 090
2 OS a eee eee bushel-_ hey a | 1.33 1.23 1.28 1.44

0 4 Sa O---< 876 | . 738 817 - 907 . 814
Wuembrnbat to et ru eo ot do...- . 730 | . 46 . 556 761 NE
_ tL Ss 2 eee gallon.- .141 . 138 - 128 119 . 126
sts oo dozen bottles. _| 4. O4 4.05 4.14 4.83 4,74
ENCE WPTINSE DIOR, | an a a gallon-- 485 . 434 . 453 420 417

a Including wood alcohol.

SUGAR STATISTICS.

[From Section of Foreign Markets. ]

Quantity of sugar imported into the United States from the principal countries
of supply during each fiscal year from 1895 to 1899, inclusive.

Countries | Years ended June 30—
from which im-|} = —=
ported. | 1895. | 1886. 1897. 1898. | 1809.
|
Pounds. | Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.

Cuba -..-.---- -- |1, 845, 763, 398)1, 093, 171, 312) 577,790,173) 440,225,111) 663, 543,657
Germany ------ 31, 182, 968) 525, 991, 6571, 604, 233,071) 175,275,440) 667, 127, 773
Dutch East In-

Gi ee = 280, 464,270, 567,670,780, 634,171,629) 621,751,462) 986, 438,330
Hawaiian Is- |

art 274, 385,228) 352,175,269) 481,217,116) 499,776,895) 462, 423, 600
British West | | :

Ades == = — | == 193, 498, 237| 217,421,118} 222,103,866) 231,401,746) 267,565, 738
British Guiana | 110,848,960 146,433,256] 175,639,179} 139,145,529) 138, 152,464
Pi) a 180, 262,039) 191,457,878} 140,773, 692| 139,426,285] 41, 222, 162
Santo Domingo 66, 492,169] 116,972,841! 131,279,582) 94,336,444) 112, 218, 037
ype - = —-= =< 23,250,815) 100,335,317) 124,055,211) 52,354,144] 141, 940, 690
Puerto Rico ___| 56,352,954) 81,582,810) 86,607,317; 98,452,421) 107,208, 014
Philippine Is- }

fiane@siene = 68, 770, 492} 145,075,344) 72,463,577) 29, 489, 600) 51, 625, 280
Belgium ------- 24,338,139) 72,721,186) 130, 423, 987 1, 366, 370) 30, 000
Austria-H un- :

Paves 9 7,411,234; 40,703,929) 105, 138, 128 2,788,767) 69,397,345
United King- :

Same es _ 40,610,295) 56,992,162} 68,250,019) 21,106, 7! 16, 685, 790
Netherlands-_- 2, 600,203) 40,965,863) 82,248,664] 38,659, 827 6, 894, 728
io 35,832) 34,810,370) 92, 169,241 17,781 66, 007
British Africa_ 3,776,030) 26,564,115) 25,895,460} 12,081,142) 55,075, 128
Dutch Guiana - 8,794,544) 12,299,609} 18,043,833] 25,636,341| 38, 124, 370
ute 23, 696,923] 31,827,859) 11, 437, 760 7,161,664) 10,758, 164
Danish West

Endites-- .-.... 9,131,589} 12,202,619) 16,999,347) 14,832,991) 22,711,548
JSG ited 6,341,221] 46,940,759) 12, 428, 502)......_--...-
British East

dies: 2.2 =~ 8, 908, 277 2,565,592) 11,173,293 9,381,265) 29,599, 283
2 TL. op ee ES ee | eeseee cece 2, 863, 8,544,857) 50, 080, 303
Hongkong ----- 8,351,495, 12, 046, 973; 3, 243, 630 4, 183, 2 5, 084, 695

Annual average,

1895-1899.
Pounds. \Perct
924, 24.24
656, 762, 17.23
618, 095, 294; 16.21
403, 995, 622) 10.69
246,398,141] 6.46
142, 043, 87. 3.73
138,628,411} 3.64
104, 258,815} = 2.7.

88, 387, 2.32
86, O40. 2. 26
73, 484, 859} 1.93
45,775, 1.20
45, 1.18
40, 1.07
36, -95
25, 26%
24, - 65
20, -54
16, 976, .45
15, .40
13, 34
12, .32
12, .32
6, SUG

840

YEARBOOK OF

THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Quantity of sugar imported into the United States from the principal countries
of supply during each jiscal year from 1895 to 1899, inclusive—Continued.

‘ = Year ended June 380—
eee ae Annual average,
from which im- 1895-1899
ported. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1889. =
Russia, Euro- | Pounds. Pounds. Pounds, Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. |Per ct.
pean. s.2--- Jevevnmeeass| soles make 815, 702 242,575) 14, 800, 295 3,171,714) 0.08
Mexico! 22-2222 3, 021, 232 4, 006, 707 1, 412, 255 3, 059, 018 3, 088, 609 2,917, 564 08
Canada -_---.-- 8, 329, 961 1, 304, 887 1, 098, 330) 717, 532 2,020, GOL 2, 694, 142 07
Guatemala. ---- BU 050) See c= ete eae |e cece tee eer ce 4,921, 185 4, 477, 566 1, 995, 270 05
Dutch West CY ot
UB aXe (ets ieee pees 86, 652 277, 260 5, 085, 441 1, 484, 436 . O4
Turkey, Asiatic Bet aacc ese amma aes 3, 861, 397 672, 279 . 02
Salvador .-.-.-- : 2,471, 012 494, 202 OL
Other countries 330, 910) 898, 795 978, 149 1,317, 686 03
"Rotalee==2 13, 574, 510, 454/3, 896, 335, 557/4, 918, 905, 733)2, 689, 920, 851)/3, 980, 250, 569/3, 811, 935, 283) 160. 00

Value of sugar imported into the United States from the principal countries of
supply during each jiscal year from 1895 to 1899, inclusive.

3 Years ended June 30—
Countries from | Annual average,
pe atehy peepee beds sel. agg 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899, mere io
Doliars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. |\Per ct

(Oxel] ot Neer eicee eee ar 40,100, 204 | 24, 102,835 | 11,982,473 | 9,828,607 | 16,412,088 | 20,485,241 | 24.38
Germany 22222 6, 332,916 | 12,528,755 | 29,844,019 | 3,520,796 | 14,095,417 | 13,264,380 | 15.78
Hawaiian Islands---.-| 7,403,658 | 11.336, 796 | 13, 165,084 | 16,660,412 | 17,292,723 | 18,171,735 | 15.67
Dutch East Indies_--} 5,759,486 | 11,388, 487 | 13, 090,328 | 11,250,181 | 19,817,646 | 12,261,215 | 14.59
British West Indies -| 3,989,614 | 4,700,527 | 5,898,877 | 4,552,454 | 6,049,479 | 5,037,190 5.99
British Guiana--_----- 2,517,726 | 3,414,368 | 3,657,025 | 3,045,666 | 3,461,889 | 3,219,335 3.83
Bier yee eee Dee 2,701,287 | 3,776,486 | 2,186,989 | 2,317,990 810,276 | 2,348, 606 2.79
Bie vant ecmeecoeimenes 596,277 | 2,657,425 | 2,616,423 | 1,230,071 | 3,570,343 | 2)134108| 2.54
Santo Domingo ------ 1,188,951 | 2,459,302 | 2,059.169.! 2,030,239 | 2,659,456 | 2, 079, 423 2.47
IPUeCTLO MICO 22 5-——- 994,084 | 1,707,318 | 1,577,911 1,918,742 | 2,495,849 | 1,737,781 2.07
Philippine Islands-_-.-]| 1,111,006 | 2,270,902 | 1,199, 202 381, 279 969, 323 | 1, 186, 342 1.41
United Kingdom -__- 976,266 | 1,402,694 | 1,452, 004 504, 714 434, 237 953, 983 1.14
Austria-Hungary - 178, 472 958, 402 | 1,957, 027 67,831 | 1,485,037 929, 354 peat!
Bel oie eee 458,779 | 1,771,280 | 2,311,309 31, 909 788 914, 953 1.09
Netherlands _____.--- 296,761 | 1,182,605 | 1,916,933 957, 908 176, 014 [ , 044 1.08
Dutch Guiana -_------ 195, 589 289, 243 380, 959 585, 326 953, 047 480, 833 57
Gina ee eee ea 668, 287 20, 301 318, 803 176,751 296, 57. 475, 143 .57
Tan Cope eee eee 1, 412 859,359 | 1,421,317 480 2, 506 457,015 54
British Africa ____..- 49, 725 461, 054 417, 850 131, 469 835, 950 379, 210 45
Danish West Indies - 205, 338 261, 728 316, 781 812, 446 556, 562 330, 570 39
Arcentinay == s-ccsts | seamen eneee 159, 108 917, 457 260; 901s) cae see 267, 504 .32
| EAS WW Mies A ae ra ea a | ne ea ee, Sl Deh eB 56, 969 148, 599 921, 480 225, 400 Prete
British East Indies __ 94, 957 82, 8389 174, 531 134, 838 566, 297 200, 692 24
Hono kon ciate 236, 292 353, 610 87, 465 107, 295 141, 767 185, 286 22
Canidae 222 a eras 289, 060 92, 692 74,191 32, 589 139, 028 125, 511 1b
RUSSia MUO pea =| eaneea eel ene een eee 14, 927 5, 736 340, 815 72, 296 . 09
Guatemala ......-_-- Bk61S 0 Eee ASA eee 212, 637 118, 262 67, 503 . 08
IWexclCOMsea te eee 55, 112 63, 572 19,111 48, 682 52, 995 47, 894 - 06
Dutch West Indies --|_.._-.._---- 48, 974 1,761 4,811 136, 893 , 488 05
POR VARIA GIG st oal ne oe Se eee eS SCE ee ee. ee eee eee 85, 226 17, 045 . 02
Salvador. Se oe 5 ee ee Ree Se a See | ee kn) eae eee 63, 459 12, 692 .O1 -
Other countries -...- 55, 014 18, 411 9,291 16, 384 22, 749 , 860 . 03

Motalic 2245 see. 76, 462, 836 | 89,219,773 | 99,066,181 | 60,472,749 | 94,964,120 | 84, 037,182 | 100.00

FREIGHT RATES ON MISSISSIPPI RIVER.

TRANSPORTATION RATES.

841

Grain; average rates, in cents per bushel, from St. Louis to New Orleans by river.

[Compiled from reports of the St. Louis Merchants’ Exchange; reprinted from Bulletin No. 15,
Miscellaneous Series, Division of Statistics. ]

Per bushel.
Grain ae ae:
eset aoe | Wheat Corn on rye.
pom | balk. | ee
2 EE a See ee. Sere es SO (eee ed) ES ee 9.05 | 10.93
s+ ea ee. ee A eee Penne tae ee 11.09} 14.83
re = 28S See eee Ns 6.23 9. 84
IE et Ee A Se eR es Soe de 6.32 8.42
1) 5S RN I a Se ee ee eee eee toca es. |/ as 9.23 | 13.668
er tS ees ee Ee ee le | See 6.71 | 16.29
Ree eS oe ae ee eee © fie ee | eee 9.79 | 19.04
I a Re ee eB ee (GI SP ee NP | 6.15 9. 67
Lo ee ot oe ea ae RR ee os ee fee: oe aes | 4.95 8.09
ec cre eee Se ete ad see eee Meee | 4.87} 10.01
OY, Jiao a Eee or SS ee ee awe fos eee | eee Cee | 5.02] 11.80
hs Poe Ba bee ee ee 20. 04 8.11 | 7.63] 8.59
re 292 We tie Mente ee eS de ee ok 17.36 7.19| 4.96 8.93
I rs Fee eet Sot a ee hel a 18 7.75 | 5 1
ca eam me = meme oe a a ee anne 19 Bi Pialil 9.50
La a a ee ee ee - eee I ten ee | 20 6 4 8
DS Lup eee ee ee SS de 20 | 6.42] 5.50 7
NE 2 ei 17.75 | 5.50] 5 °
2 SRE SEs Rk SS 0 12 |) Pie 6B 7
2 La SE a aes ee eee 15 6.40} 5 re
ce ne ee eee ae ee Pee 16 6.50| 5 7
2 OS, a ee Be ee 18.25 6 5 7
rr Ss a ee ot en iy |) tee a 7.50
te) Rr Fe ea et 17.93 5.95 | 5 ii
i ania a PE A Oe a ae SL 15. 66 | 6.58 | 5 7.
a, io eR! eS ee ee ie 16.28 | 6.88) 5 7.50
|... as EE ee ee ee eee 16.87 | 6.50) 5 7
Je eae ae eee aie Te re ie ee ps RN rp een ES
LDU... eae Sf OT sa Seine aie ae P 17.14 5, BO: 223 oils ae
“OPE 22. tean dei Bie RR Vea ae Ss CS eee eee 12.50 5 5h 2 ae
| iy its See eee aes eee. Sep Santos Aleta Sa 14.55 5 aso. a
a SL Sete ee De 2) ee ed 15 98 Ns: oe ee
ll 8 ee re SeeS> eee ener 10 A SD. koe
0 a ES I ae <a a a 10 ABD |. See

a Rates in currency reduced to their equivalents in gold.

842 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Miscellaneous commodities, New York to Chicago by rail.

AVERAGE RATES FOR LESS THAN CARLOAD QUANTITIES, IN CENTS PER 100
POUNDS.

[From Bulletin No. 15, Miscellaneous Series, Division of Statistics. ]

ae pie
Year. plea tural Lead. ee Baad oe Starch. Sug Holes Rice.
sure Ba

VGRi a esses te 137 137 | 60{ 117 17 | 117 117} 60 60} 60
v1 eee a) 122 56] 103 WOH St Aen 56
19890 ...----- ce L's 9 [ORES (See ig ees (eee 54.
1870a _.------ aS eA a AS Rees led e 79 Ae ee
feVa co. - 81 i ae Mia 49 | 36 58 | 36 46 | 46
187200 2-2: 105 105} 43{ 98 81| 438 72| 43 55] 51
Aeysa.. o. GOviett 31 2 31] 31 50] 31 40] 31
i Ry hea Se 37 | 74 37 | 37 62| 37 49| 37
iia. be (ae ae 251 48 29) 24 40] 24 41| 25
1876 a ..-.---- = eee eee 20:1 > 87 20 | 20 5 ee) 23} 20
TS a, Pl ee are 33| 56 33| 33 50 | 33 40| 33
As(Sa:-2.2-- oho hee oe 41] AL 41] 41 41} 41 4 ae
iit eee Weise, Ae ae) 40} 40 40} 40 40} 40
its i phere itl Pom ei 40} 40 40| 40 40| 40 40| 40
ifs) i: ae i ee 33| 33 33| 33 33| 33 33} 33
108 apd ee 7 Sal Ree eee 26) 26 26| 26 26| 2 24
if Males Bowen 351 35 351 35 35] 30 30| 35
Regu ined Sede ee oe | 35| 35 35 | 35 35] 25 251 3
Gis se a ee a lei) oT |: 37 a7). 20 20) “BF
SS ee ee Toate 35] 85 35 | 35 35 | 25 25 | 35
TORTS oct 230204 Vy et eee Dee 35} 46 35 | 35 35 | 33 33] 35
it: a ee 73 49| 35] 49 35 | 35 35| 35 35 | 35
TABOO, Bac 75 50| 351 50 35] 35 35 | 35 35 | 35
ASOD eects 75 50| 385] 50 35 | 35 35| 35 35 | 35
ABOL oe ees 75 50) 35] 50 35} 35 35| 35 35 | 35
Ye eee Set 75 50} 35] 50 35] 35 35 | 35 35] 35
ic ee ae 15 50}; 385] 50 35| 35 35] 35 35 | 35
Sade eee e 75 50} 35] 50 35} 35 35 | 35 35} 35
ees 15 50} 35] 50 35| 35 35 | 35 35} 35
Poop 75 50| 35] 50 35} 35 35 | 35 35 | 35
RRO ter. 2c: 15 50] 35] 50 35| 35 35 | 35 35 | 35
(oe Sie vis) 50]; 35] 50 35| 35 35 | 35 35 | 35
iu ap a oe 75 50] 35] 50 35] 35 35| 35 35| 35

a Rates in currency reduced to their equivalents in gold.

Soap.
Caste com
fancy, Mon

117 93

103 56
92 54
98 60
71 46
93 55
62} ~ 40
74 49
48 83
37 23
65 40
62 41
60 40
60 40
51 33
44 26
60 35 -
60

RRKRRKRRRRERRBSESE

RRRKRKRFERKRRKRKRKRRRKRANK

RAILROAD RATES, NEW YORK TO CHICAGO. 843

Miscellaneous commodities, New York to Chicago by rail—Continued.

AVERAGE RATES FOR CARLOADS, IN CENTS PER 100 POUNDS.

Agri Crock- Soap.

Year. hese ural Lead. a ce ote: ee Starch. Bue: Mel Rice Castite Gases
ments Lea fancy. | OB.

197 a _......- 137 | 137 7| u7| u7 ur! 60 60| co| uz7| 93
1868 a ....---- 12| 122! 56] 103] 103]-....- yeh ne 56| 103| - 56
18690 _....-.- 99 eg eae a eee (ee (ea ea 54 92| 5A
1870a __------ ye tos |) Sees [ WB fetal) ea eee ee)
1871 ......-- 81 s1| 39] 71 49| 36 58 | 36 46 71| 46
a 105 | 10] 43] 93 81] 43 72| 43 55| 51 93| 55
a 69| . 54] 31| 6 a1) St 50| 31 40] 31 62| 40
a 81 ao} a7| 7 37 | 37 62| 3T 49| 37 74| abe
isisa ..-..--- 53 33] 25] 48 29! 24 40 | 24 41} 25 4g| 3
Ye 39 23} 20] 37 20} 20 32] 20 23 | 20 a7|. 3
1877 a _..----- 72 39] 33] 56 33| 33 50| 33 40| 33 65 | 40
ae 7 41} 41 | 41 A} tay re ies 41| 41 62 | 41
eee 75 40} 40) 40 40 | 40 40 | 40 40 | 40 60} 40
a 75 40} 40; 40 40| 40 40} 40 40| 40 60} 40
oa 65 33] 33° 33 a 33 | 33 33] 33 51| 3
Bi 56 26 | 26] 26 | 26] 26 26) 24 24| 26 44| 26
on 7 36} 35] 35 35] 35 35| 30 30| 35 60] 35
ae 75 36 | 35.| 35 35] 35 35| 25 251 35 60| 3
J? 56 27 | Tle OF il) PLE 27) 20 20| 2 | 45 27
So 75 35} 35| 35 35 | 35 35| 25 25] 35 6o| 35
TT 67 s1| 27 | 35 31] 27 a7] 25 29} 35 6k | as
ee 63 30| 25] 35 30| 25 25| 25 30] 25 63| 20
Se 65 30} 25] 35 30] 25 25| 25 30] 25 65| 30
. 2 oe 65 30| 25] 35 30] 25 25 | 2 30| 25 6 | 30
oe 65 30} 25] 35 30| 25 25] 25 30| 25 4] 26
1s. -.....- 65 30| 25| 35 30| 25 25| 24 30] 25 5) 2
ae 65 30} 25] 35 30| 25 25| 24 30|} 25 2] 2
" aa 65 30] 2] 35 30| 25 25] 24 30] 25 251 2
a 65 30| 25] 35 30] 25 25| 24 30] 25 231 2
ee 65 30} 2] 35 30| 25 25| 24 30] 25 3) 2
ae 65 30] 25] 35 30| 25 25| 24 30] 25 25) 2
————— 65 30| 25] 35 30| 25 25| 24 30] 25 25} 25
a | 65 30| 25| 35 30] 25 25| 24 30] 25 25) 25

a Rates in currency reduced to their equivalents in gold.

844

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Miscellaneous commodities, New York to Chicago by rail—Continued.

AVERAGE RATES, REGARDLESS ocnbe SHIPPED, IN CENTS PER 100

5

Dr Cotton | Boots
Year. piece an

g00ds. | goods. | shoes
SGU Geass cee ee 2s Sent ee Sec eee tate er ee 137 137 137
LSO8is 25 tee Sa ee sae Re od eet ee ee Se eee 122 122 122
S69 Gis oe Soe eee ce a ane See ee ne eee 99 99 99
STO Ge aie: Re Sees nee ee ee Cee eee ere ees 113 113 113
LOG oS eee Se aa ee 5 roe ee ee eS Gt ee 81 81 81
Scene = ee ee Se ee ee eee 105 105 105
SY eee ts oe See ee tera ees eee a See ate ae 69 69 69
1,2) (7 ea eh pS CeSpU me a CEA in A Sea 2, Sep A ph St bs 81 81 81
NOT eee eRe a eee a ee ee ee 53 53 53
TST G Gi She coe ccs cden oe co oe seo Sites = pene Pee ee ee 39 39 39
LEW em ao Sc Cotas Sate ee Guceee: oS eee se Uae ee 12 12 72
i tol to}? ie eet een See eee ee! Ste) eee ee 77 77 77
TOTO te ease Bee = See ei ean See eee Sees 75 15 75
EBS ee eee ee ee ee ee nr ee a 75 75 75
YS foH I a Ard agg 5 ry eras va Orie oe foe ee) 2d Seed 65 65 65
1 oof a Rg 2 Pat OM ee he gay SEER re eg ne oe 56 56 56
OBB e eR et a ona ae a ee ee 75 75 15
BOE eee oe oe eee eben at ee eae 4 ees See 75 75 75
S85 s Ferre. Seen ee eens ee ae ea Mere ena cee te 56 56 56
S862 8 See oot on tc ce ceo Pease ree She Roane oar ee eee 75 66 75
EB (ese eee i ea oe idee ee ae ee een noe 75 50 75
BSG oreo nee eR ae ee Ae ae ee 73 49 73

1 B89 see eaten se ee eear anaes eos eee een es 75 50 7
NBO ook eee oe ea ee oaks, Che Se ene eae eS RE ee (& 50 75
SO epee ae eee Soe ee ce ey ee ee ee ES 75 50 75
TOO uss et es Sa 8 EU Tt ee ee ye 75 50 75
SOS 2 eae ee so Nace ee an Sele oe ree RE RE ae ee ee 75 50 75
SOS es net gen. See oo eee ee kr eer 75 50 75
ROD ae BS a ee St eee a ec ol er 75 50 75
i [5)?,syalbreeatniateenies) Seles .. ARMs ¢ Tyee Ames «IS mag 2 bowed 75 50 75
POO Gees ae Pen ree ort te ce ee or per Sen eR ea 75 50 75
OOS Fe ec Boe ea oe ee ae ae Oe SORE oe 75 50 75
HBO S= <= ee 75 50 75

a Rates in currency reduced to their equivalents in gold.

RAILROAD RATES, CHICAGO TO NEW YORK. 845

Live stock and dressed meats, Chicago to New York by rail.

AVERAGE RATES, IN CENTS PER 100 POUNDS.

[From Bulletin No. 15, Miscellaneous Series, Division of Statistics. ]

| Dressed hogs.
ees Horses | Dressed | a
Year. Cattle.| Hogs. |Sheep. aw, | Heats Bete ig- C ° mm Gn
| cars f

Lip eS os a ee eee re lh eee bo | ee oer 81.)) 22. 2 | ee
LST) oo. 5S hr a Bee (SSE | es a ee eee ee 83)... cn
TOO) 2 ae sp a a (| 85; (22 2.0) 6
0 VL a 3 ed ee a (oe oo rel Lo fe eee | (en ee Wile SoS a
ToDo 2 ga SS ARE ROS SEAT Tse Se eae oe ee | it
LL” 55 ee an Ms ee ee wees || ek See El pa ee (eae (CS ieee ec
erent!) 20) SN Ae ee Bo the lw Sa Me MOW|teen = oe a
Lint) ..2 aes PES ees 7 45, 61 60 rd [a allele 8 nf
ane a. Ss 5) ee ee ee 55 43 65 60 8% |... 3 hee
oh ——_— CS niet ae eee 35 31 61 60 56) |) 2) ee
aEMENERS. k= 2 5 ae ee 36 29 53 60 Sit. 2) a
eee eee 40 32 50 60 6,|.
9 ee ee Gi |e 138 44 | 60 bi
DS oo j 31 | 26 43 60 54. |i ee
OE UL ese a | 33] 30 42 60 61 53 43
oy ee re 33/ 2} 40 60 62 59 4
LSD: Sy RS ae ree 22 | 26 | 31 60 46 46 44
USD Lies ee 25 30 | 30 60 47 47 45
U1) ee 23 28 | 30 60 39 39 39
Re eee wnctdoncune 8 30 30 60 45 45 45
Lito. eee | 28 28 | 30 60 45 45 45
eee ee [oo loeb, Be 60 45 45 45
TMs 2 ee 28 | 30 | 30 60 45 45 45
TOT pest 28 30 | 30 |" 60 45 45 45
It 2 ne oer 28 30 | 30 60 45 45 45
IS oe ee ees 28 30 | 30 60 45 45 45
Teeeeeeenor See ol ee 28 30} 30 60 45 45 45
Dt as ee oe b25 | 25 25 60 40 40 40

a Rates in currency reduced to their equivalents in gold.

bRates did not go into effect until February 1, 1899. Until that time the 1898 rates governed.

846

Meats packed, Cincinnati to New York by rail.

AVERAGE RATES, IN CENTS PER 100 POUNDS.

[Compiled from reports of Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce. ]

[From Bulletin No.15, Miscellaneous Series, Division of Statistics. ]

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Year Jan. | Feb. | Mar.| Apr. | May.|June.| July.| Aug.|Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec.
LEGS OL a aeees Sees 56.3 | 53.0 | 58.8 | 45.4 | 43.0 | 42.8 | 42.0 | 41.2 | 46.1 | 51.8 | 55.8 | 55.5
1869 2259 Pisa ye sae = 55.3 | 49.3 | 41.9 | 87.6 | 35.9 | 36.2 | 86.7 | 87.3 | 40.2 | 42.2 | 46.6 | 46.9
1670 aes so: == 3=-3 49.5 | 41.8 | 44.4 | 44.2 | 43.6 | 40.0 | 38.5 | 88.2 | 43.6 | 44.3 | 45.8 | 49.7
WAGs. = one == se 49.7 | 49.3 | 45.6 | 40.7 | 40.4 | 36.8 | 37.8 | 40.0 | 40.2 | 46.3 | 53.8 | 54.9
OIC Geeta ns == Set 2 55.0 | 54.4 | 54.5 | 49.5 | 48.4 | 46.4 | 39.4 | 89.3 | 45.5 | 50.7 | 53.1 | 53.5
NOUS Ge Saas eases 58.2 | 52.6 | 51.9 | 50.9 | 48.8 | 42.9 | 43.2 | 41.6 | 40.8 | 43.6 | 43.7 | 44.3
Beith eee eee 44.9 | 43.9 | 40.1 | 80.9 | 22.3 | 35.9 | 36.4 | 86.5 | 36.5 | 35.2 | 33.4 | 31.8
IMO Gee es asss ass 29.3 | 28.8 | 28.6 | 28.7 | 28.5 | 21.4 | 21.8 | 22.0 | 21.6 | 25.3 | 28.8 | 32.9
RG ea fa ek = 87.2 | 37.0 | 35.4 | 20.9 | 22.2 | 22.2 | 22.3 | 22.5 | 22.7 | 22.8 | 22.9 | 24.8
NOT sea oo eee 82.7 | 35.4 1 81.5 | 27.7 | 27.1 | 80.7 | 31.3 | 27.6 | 28.1 | 29.5 | 82.1 | 32.2
WBS Gino<es ase ene 82.3 | 82.4 | 27.9 | 24.9 | 23.8 | 20.8 | 20.6 | 24.4 | 28.6 | 28.9 | 29.6 | 33.0
1 ee ee eee 33.0 | 30.4 | 26.2 | 21.0 | 21.0 | 18.3 | 21.5 | 26.6 | 30.5 | 33.3 | 37.9 | 39.0
GSO. coos Meee ae 89.0 | 39.0) 89.0 | 34.5 | 30.5 | 30.5 | 30.5 | 20.5 | 20.5 | 30.5 | 31.5 | 35.0
RS cot Seba setone 35.0 | 35.0 | 35.0 | 80.5 | 80.5 | 25.7 | 21.5 | 21.5 | 21.5 | 21.5 | 21.5 | 21.5
if Oe ee ee (hs ae 21.5 | 24.3 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0.| 26.0 | 30.5
te tae eee eee 30.5 | 30.5 | 30.5 | 29.2 | 26.0 | 26.0 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.7 | 30.5
GRA NS io ee oe 30.5 | 30.5 | 23.3 | 17.5 | 17.5 | 18.4 | 23.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0
GBD See ee eee 24,4 | 21.5 | 20.0 | 20.6 | 18.5 | 17.5 | 17.5 | 21.5 | 21.5 | 21.5) 22.8 | 26.0
Ue Ress See a ee 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 27.7
POS Se oe ee Se 30.5 | 30.5 | 80.5 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0
MOOD Rane Re oe as 28.0 | 28.5 | 26.3 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 19.9 | 17.3} 15.5 | 18.8 | 21.5 | 23.6
cht eee, je 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0
OE am aa Seana ee 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 24.8 | 20.0 | 20.0 | 20.0 | 20.0
ch: are. eee 20.0 | 24.3 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 86.0
bt ee See eee 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0] 25.7 | 21.5 | 21.5 21.5 | 21.5 | 21.5 | 21.5
HS eee eee io 21.5 | 23.7 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0~
OO Sa ae eee ao 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0) 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0
i ee 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0
MBG eee ees ge 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26,0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0
NBO Ye. seve: este 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0
BDO Rees o=seeeoeee 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 25.0 | 26.0 | 26.0
TBOUwESe cela of 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 21.5 | 21.5 | 21.5

The
year.

48.80
42,11
43.69
44,59
49.67
46.51
36. 48
26. 47
26.91
30. 47
27.26
28.19
33.41
26.73
25. 85
27.83
24.22
21.10
25.14
27.12
23. 11
26.00
23.89
25. 36
23.70
25. 43
25.00
26. 00
26.00
26. 00
26. 00
24. 83

a Rates in currency reduced to their equivalents in gold; average currency values of gold for
specific months used in making reductions.

RAILROAD RATES, CHICAGO TO NEW YORK. 847

Grain, Chicago to New York.
AVERAGE RATES, IN CENTS PER BUSHEL.

[From Bulletin No. 15, Miscellaneous Series, Division of Statistics.]

| Wheat. Corn.
Via lake and rail. Via all rail. te mr ee
— As re- As re- As re- AS re- As re- As re-
Re yok Oniease New York Pehtecee | Ghiccae | Cnc
Produce | Board of | Produce Board of Hoaetl: of | Board of
Exchange.| Trade. |Exchange.| Trade. Trade. Trade.
|
a 19.15 19.58 28.98 26.11 19.32 24.37
a. Se | 22.38 22.76 27.75 m.47| 21.24 26.57
ee ee 24.91 26.25 29,80 31.13 23. 67 29.06
ee 23. 64 21.63 29.17 27.26 20.19 25. 420
oe 15. 20 15.37 25.81 23.61 12.48 22.03
A 12.7 12.09 20. 97 20.89 11.34 19.50
ee 10.58 10.19 14.80 15.12 9.68 14.12
eee 15.08 14.75 19.37 19.56 13. 42 18.03
to 11.31 11.99 17.56 17.56 10.45 16.39
1. See 13.30 13.13 17.30 17% 12.20 14.56
A ee 15.7 15. 80 9.90 19. 80 14,43 17.48
. 3 A ee 10. 40 10.49 14.40 14.40 9.42 13.40
SS a 10. 90 10.91 14. 60 14.47 10. 28 13.50
1 ee 11.50 11.63 16.50 16.20 11.00 15.12
') oe 9.95 10.00 13.12 13.20 8.50 12.32
2 5 ee 9.02 9.02 14.00 | 13.20 8.01 12.32
2,00 | 12.00 16.50 | 15.00 11.20. 14.00
oe 12. 00 12.00 b 15.74 | 15.75 11.20 14.70
eee 11.00 | 1.14] 514.50) 14. 50 10. 26 13. 54
Ses b8.7 8.97 15.00 | 15.00 8.19 12.60
oa 8.50 8.52 14.31 | 14. 30 7.32 11.36
eee 8.53 8.57 15.00 | 15.00 7.53 14.00
epee 7.55 7.59 14.23 13. 7.21 12. 96
ie 8.44 8.48 14.70 14. 63 7.97 13.65 -
2 Se 7.00 7.0 12.88 13.20 6.50 12.32
re 6.95 6.96 12.17 11.89 6.40 10.29
ee 7.82 6.61 12.00 12.00 6.15 10.50
Seer eae. ie tk 7.87 | 7.42 12.32 12.50 6.92 11.43
ee 9.50 4.91 11.55 12.00 4.41 9. 80
OL ae 6.63 | 6.63 11.13 11. 60 5.83 10.08

a Rates in currency reduced to their equivalents in gold.

b Averages based upon officially published tarifis ; actual rate lower.

c Averages based upon officially published tariffs; actual rate lower. The lake and rail rate
for 1898 actually averaged about 4.95 cents.

848

YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Average freight rates, in cents per ton per mile.

[From Bulletin No. 15, Miscellaneous Series, Division of Statistics. ]

Year.

18700 --
1871a --
1872 a --
1873a@-.|
18740 _-
1875a --
18764¢ _-
1877 @ _-
1878 a __|
SVE =
1880- -_-
1Seleaes
1882_.- - -
1883. - --
1884____
18852 --5
1886___-
Sheva
1888: —- -
1889___-
1890__.-
1S9re

1892

1S ye
1894___-
1895_._-
1896_-_-
1897 ___-
1898 _ __-

Fitchburg R. R.

3. 903;

3. 624

2.218
. 958
. 582
. 299
36

Dy
6

1

]

1

1

1
Leia
1.19
1.09
1.06
1.07
1.13
1.116
1.015
. 995
991
« 925
. 928
895
. 878
. 864
. 870
. 844

Boston and Albany R.R.
New York Central and

a a a

es ee

ee a

ot (2) Lie} 5
fre er Sa z : E = z
; ae : Ss ° Ma lam]? . FS
a Pm | @ | Be | a |UE| 26]
B Gale leole.| a [ue eel =
- eg| ¢ | S| "b| £ | selec] <
a of} a (BS) oF] Gg [ag lse] s
dl ga Sede | ee | oe egal ae
9 a step al ere or one = Dips 5.3 | 9
S|" |\'oa|/ 2 |SE/e | 3 | ee] "| F
foot ete | SEIEHS esp pee elec Tides Sa] ee 2
My Cy o A es 4 a o a
ca 4 aly Ay ie) eB oO @) oO
a? 1 | 1.268] 1.2 4.101, 2.316} 2. } iL.
| 1.282] 1.244] 1.211] 1.276) 4.445 2.369] 2.289) 1.
1.362| 1.227] 1.504! 1.264! 3. 643 2.229] 2.177) 1.7
1.267] 1.164! 1.258] 1.220, 1.909] 1.916] 2.002] 2.173! 1.
1.184] 1.065! 1.164] 1. 354 1.871] 2.187} 1.
1. 989 299 1. 688] 1.833) 1.6
. 84] . 061 1. 6938} 1. Ip
954 035 1.563) 1.949) 1.
914 . 985 1,539) 1: ie
825 860 1. 4£9] 1. 704) 1.
.918 . 866) 1.20¢) 1.749} 1.
. 857 . 892 1.220) 1. Ie
874 153] 1.417] 1.281) 1.481} 1.
. 881 BY 922 1.170) 1. gt
84 672 1.097] 1.2¢8) 1.€
. 695 550) 1.043) 1. 1
755) 54 1.071 1.
730 537 1.012) 1.
723) 5A 964) 1.
. 685) 538 971) 1.
. 661 . 561 . 995
. 656) 525 | 1. 639
. GAT . 518 1. 055
620 51] 1.039
- 606) ATS 989
565 425 1. 084
568 425 1.017
561 419 958
521 369 966

Union Pacific Rwy.

5. 596
2.419

| 2.890

2.153
1, 949

Nash-

ville R.R. .

Louisville and

pau railways in the

United States.

2.513) 1.889
2.298, 1.789
2.053. 1.846

1.930
1.940

|| 1. 687

1. 688
1.382
1, 635
1, 528

ee
i

1.613
1.520
1.421
1.217
1. 286
1.296
1.153
1.232
1.188
1.102
1.205
1.136
1.011

«a Rates in currency reduced to their equivalents in gold.

<7

RAILROAD PASSENGER RATES.

Average rates, in cents per passenger per mile.

{From Bulletin No. 15, Miscellaneous Series, Division of Statistics.]

Year.

Fitchburg R. R.

1870 a__| 1. 965

1871 a_.| 2.010
1872 a_-| 1.928
1873 a__| 1.820
1874 a__| 1.984
1875 a__| 1.910)
1876 a__| 1. 864
1877 a_.| 1.947
1878 a__| 1.969
1879____| 1.888
1880____| 1.885
1881 .___| 1.820
1882_...| 1.715)
1883_...| 1.790
1884_._.| 1.651
1805....| 1.833
1886__..| 1.756
1887....| 1.89
1888__..| 1. 978|
1889____| 1.957
1890___.| 1.915
1891___.| 1.869
1892___.| 1.916
1893....| 1.869
1894__._| 1.851)
1895_...| 1.819
1896____) 1.769
1997____| 1.811!

1808... 1. 826)

Pm pt tk fk

Boston and Albany R. R.

rw 2

rw

Ppp ppwp ppp

% P a |e ge a
So S me s : 8 | 3 i a
ae rag gy ee bes ty = (i) |= a ee a =
Esyen] Ae fon] e Ea : Be | Op d b> Gq
a ioe : Gilg ba as } 5 a
=i S|) pew aleae A ~ | wa | Be] 2 ae | oh
of Ge | oa See | = | eel eet | a
On Go| = |e SR pets jal ai = | em
~ 68 of | 2 IMS|/oF| a les les| 3] &
fal @ | See jee leo!) & | g]Aa| & | 3 ee
oo] "' |ao7 a | RO| o Oo }.6@ | 62 | o | ae ae
Bae eg fe eee ee ee 2 |woles| © | Gg le
= a 7 fo} ed i=] 3S n
EB lio |) 2a) Boles a | 8a] 3 S| eons
of | # [ae] 8 |S] 8 aig |s |e ive
A B&B 4 Ay Ay iS) = io) iS) oS) 2) 4
~ i ae
1. 770) 2.470} 2.204) 2.167) 2.282) 3.979) 3.250) 3.426) 3.272)___._- 4.301, 3.194
1. 920) 2.396) aie PS 7 aa 4,037) 3.358) 3.435) 3, 322) _-..-- 3.775, 3.340
1. 863! 1.904) 2.321) 2.379). -____ | 3.992) 3.034) 3.229] 3.404|__...- 3.730, 3.240
1.799) 1.927) 2.221) 2.317|_--.-- 3. 686] 3.097] 3.131) 3.099) __.-_- 3. 541; 3.102
1. 929) 2. 088 coils 2.349) 2.301) 3.542] 2.966} 3.065) 2.995) 2.949) 3.394, 3.412
BE 1. 955; 2. 088) 2. 259) 2.407] 3.231, 2.882] 2.687) 2.690) 2.755) 2.878) 3.219
1. 693) 1. 859] 1.846) 1.819) 1. 830) 3.322) 2.804) 2.626) 2.805) 2.614] 2.974) 3.018
1. 953} 1.772] 2.182) 2.185} 2.192) 3.786) 2.942) 2. 772 2. 994 2.798) 3.140) 3.167
1.978) 2. 158} 2.255] 2.277) 2.258) 3. 738) 3.122) 2.933 | 2.795) 3.226] 3.345
2.044) 2.090) 2.221) 2 258) 2. 228) 3.630) 3.066] 2.971) 2.908) 2.417|__.-.- 3.444
1.999) 2.041] 2.135] 2.222) 2.156) 2.959) 2.514) 2.806] 2. 868) 2. 076)______ 3.476
1. 862} 2.016) 1.988) 2.152] 1.895) 2.989] 2.164) 2.666) 2. 856) 1.628] 3.341] 3.168
1. 808) 1.948} 2.156) 2.249) 2.024) 2. 605} 2.388) 2.505) 2.579) 1.951) 3.800] 2. 706
1.986} 1. 673} 2.196) 2.297) 2.193) 2.373) 2.424) 2.504) 2.516} 2.141] 3.128] 2.614
1. 942) 2.189) 2. a 2. 258) 2.222] 2.379) 2.225] 2.572) 2.553) 1.900) 2.952) 2.342
1.419} 1. 756] 2.058) 1.950) 1.569) 2.270) 2.211) 2.466) 2.563} 2.026] 2.749) 2.103
1. 845} 1. 890] 2.098] 2.114) 2. 130) 2.181] 2.208} 2.420) 2. 415}-2. 023) 2.1385) 2.486
1.989} 2.039] 2.260) 2.125} 2.255) 2.074) 2.268) 2.528! 2.538) 2.062) 2.3801] 2.394
| 1.967] 1.851) 2.280) 2.111) 2.10 | 2.025) 2.197) 2.312] 2.445) 2.123) 2.248) 2.429
1.982] 1. 722} 2.286) 2.076) 2.18 | 1.709) 1.927) 2.285) 2.415) 2.128] 2.155) 2.870
1.910) 1.584} 2.254) 2.094) 2.25 | 2.056] 2.022) 2.149) 2.359) 2.004! 2.045) 2.403
1.905) 1.601) 2.105) 2.070) 2.23 | 2.155) 2.078) 2.322) 2.408) 2.205) 2.059) 2.483
1.887; 1.589] 2.183} 2.028) 2.00 | 2.181) 2.101) 2.308) 2.464) 2.043) 2.104) 2.448
1.8 1.551] 2.195) 1.968) 1.98 | 1 saad 1.999) 2.095} 2.414} 1.981) 1.987) 2. 432
1. 857} 1.509) 2.069 1.995) 2.00 | 1.905) 1.925) 1.891) 2.191) 1.776) 1.758) 2. 365
1. 837] 1.560) 2.215} 1. 97 2.06 | 1.980) 1.995] 2.146) 2.411) 2.119) 1.962} 2.318
1.838} 1.641) 2.148) 1.950) 1.88 | 1.952) 1.979 2.168) 2.875] 2.117] 2.075] 2.187
1. 842) 1.543) 2.108 1.958 2.02 | 1.980) 1.979] 2.153) 2.289) 2.116; 2.101) 2.254
1. 806) 1.548 ee | 2.02 | 1.943} 1.938) 2.092 2.91 2.058} 1.945] 2. 152

All railways

849

in the

United States,

a Rates in currency reduced to their equivalents in geld.
b Excludes ferry earnings at Jersey City, N. J.

99

54

PN DE XxX.

Page
EMM BRRDOCIONS 22.55, on keen 2 l5 otal Ue kL Se See 48
Abbe, Cleveland, daily weather bulletin at Cincinnati ____..._...-_-------. 77
Professor, proposal for State cooperation in climate and crop service- 87
Academy of Sciences, National, work of committee on forest policy _-_-_-- Bess 297
of France, commission, on nitrogen as plant food_- 247

Accounts and Disbursements, Division, organization and dues nie See 67
remarks by Secretary .-.------.--- 45

Beene of principal crops, statistics. .-.--_..2..-....- 2-22.22 525ile- 799-77
Adirondacks, lumbering on system devised by Division of Forestry__------ 420
note on improvement in cutting spruce -__-_.--------------- 22
Adlum, Joseph, introduction of Catawba grape__.__.........--.-.---------- 475
Admission to agricultural colleges, requirements. ____._----..----------- 176, 183
BE GTAItOT) OF HCCGS. TOMETES. .... == 222 50n8 SU ee 571
Pearse pli 4anags: Rete... ... 2) 525 oe Se ee ee 25
Agricultural and mechanical colleges, list by States ._.._...---..---------- 183
Hooks iwaweline libraries. 2. 21 20.25 ee ee eee 509
chemistry, progress 1n 1899) 25. ee RE 742-744
status at beginning of century; prospects__-_ 202-218, 246
Rollere libraries, typical’! Mes <3 ble ee ee eee ees 499-502
suggestion by Simeon De Witt _--_.......-------=+-- 163
Colleges and Experiment Stations Association, work----_- 530, 572
organizawon /....-.-2-.-5 171
other institutions having courses in eae 671
field. of work for graduates _-.-.__...-----22222b.- a 26
first permanent institutions __.___....-_..-.---..2.= 164
total fund from Morrill land grants ___-__------_--- 168

conditions and resources, natural, study by experiment sta-
ttORS' . 2 Se eee ee ee eee 539
experiment stations in United States, article by A. C. True_ 513-548
memarke® = 5.7515 ek ee ee 171
exports and imports, remarks of Secretary -_-----------------

interest, officials in charge in foreign countries -_---------._- 720
libraries of the present tame .. -_.._.-_ 2.2 =. 2s 499-511
mite Stabes, dist: ' Dele) see ee ee 757
library society at Agnherst, Mase .. 2.222222. 2222 2b 497
machinery, influence of patent laws 2. .)2.2 22. =2 2/22) 22 ele 319
production, causes Of tmerease _-__- _-_---__.---------+-------- 314
products, imports and exports ---_.----.-...----+=--+-+.---- 822-835
publications of all countries, exchange____._.....----------.- 45
peed can weherencesas:. =. ss 6 See eee 549
Beets cancmnmen: sft 2) soe 5 aes SESE a ee 564-570
societies in United States, organization _______.---..----.---- 159
Society, National, organization and work _____.-------------- 164
teaching, relation to usefulness of resultsof chemical studies_ 224
Agriculture, beginnings by white race in America ______.._--------------- 308
division into specialties, and diversification of study ---..---- 174
increase of products with increase of population----------- 656-657
organization of secondary schools; common schools---------- 177
progress in United States, article by George K. Holmes--_-._ 307-334
scientific, at middle of century Seed ee ae a ee ea 218-224
transition to more recent conditions _____.-_--.-------------- 312
work of meteorologist, article by F.H. Bigelow __.___-_._-_-- 71-92
Agrostologist, visits to abandoned farms......... APS SEO Es EES oa 60

852 INDEX.

Page.

Agrostology, Division, organization and duties___--..__-----.-----------=. 669

publications 22a ee ee ee ee 677

remarkson establishment, 2) 525-2 = es 390

some restilts of work. J: oo 2 ee 361

plansfor tutureswork: *-< sco 8 ee ee en 31

progress, article by F. Lamson-Scribner _._._.._..---_-.-- 347-366

scientific or systematic, review of work; books and writers. 362-366

special investigations of Department.__.__.__._-__-__--_.223 304

Alaska experiment stations, remarks. ...-.-.-.-- ee eee 529

study of temperatures at-stations: 2 =s=5. .3.-222_-2- =. ee 13

work of experimental nature, remarks by Secretary ____......____- 384

Albatross, collection and use of eggs in Hawaiian Islands_______.________- 271

Nicolo), chemical problem im production(==<2-- 45 so 256

‘Alfalta, Turkestan, discussion by Secretary._—-02-- 2 42-2) - ee 62

Alfortschool, views. as to origin of elandens) -=- 205225 0) 97

Alkali lands, remarks by Secretary on reclamation__.___.___.__._.-.-...- 26

soils, note on question of forage:crops= 202. 225s see 31

notes. on ‘dangers of irrigation. 22-24. J22) 9 2 eee 341, 343

problem .of rassese ic. eles! Ben SSE ee 855

study and mapping in arid regions, note_____-----_-.--..----- 24

value of salt bushes and salt sages __.....- Voce . 860

Allegheny Mountains, conservative forestry__.......-.._-.-2--------.-._-— 421

ALVORD, HENRY E., article on ‘‘ Dairy development in the United States ’_ 381-402

American dairy products, lack of supervision! {=225 2-250 22) 5 eee 47

food products, note on investigations *5-_--2- 2424-2 35

locomotive engine; popularitivyi- 2. S252) 2 15-452 ee 650

ornithology, development, 2-52... 222202) ees eee 259-261

Ammonia, formation in oxidizing of amins — = 37-02) 424255225 742
Liebig’s view of its place in plant nutrition ___.____.----- Bye 22

note/on accumulation in soil]. 6 ee 251

Angus cattle, importation for breeding) co 25 32255 ee 633

Animal diseases, development of knowledge, article by D. H. Salmon___--- 93

work of experiment stations)2 36 455) =e 546

husbandry, lack Of SClemiiStse ee eee a 37

industry, need ofeducation. = 52. Gea 67

workof the Government, article by George F. Thompson 441-465

Anthrax and blackles. comparisonst. 2a) oie ee 123

nature demonstrated by experiments, 4-- = .-.-_5__> ee 122

(or charbon), discussions. +8444 shin Le 113-120

persistence of contagion in soil 452-2 Sa. | se 116

rods; observations: .b. Sete as sods bee eee 117

virus, failure of killing with compressed oxygen _ _.------------- 119

Antivivisection societies, remarks as to effort for legislation__------------- 101

Apple blight; note on causeand remed yoee= ee. _ = Be 193

Apples, improvement; origin of well-known varieties ___.__--------------- 478

note on production of American varieties ___..__..--------------.- 465

Appointment Clerk, Department of Agriculture, duties______..------------ 667

Appropriations for Department for 1898, 1899, and 1900 _________-__.------- 670

Arbor Day for schools, establishment and observance ______-__----_------- 306

Arboretum, proposed, discussion by Secretary ...=252-0--- ose) ee 66

Arid public land, need of reform in management---_-...-.----------------- 602

region, appearance and TesOuUTGES)2 22254) 5 oes eee 598

methods needed for development 22... £2 eee 607

regions, water-right problems .___...___-_- pede cbho cle 597

Arizona, civilization in Salt River Valley -.--._...-2Ac<e.2.<e. soe 599

Army officers, assignment to duty in weather service___.___--------------- 79

Arnold, James, establishment of arboretum at Bussey Institution --_-------. 514

Arsenic and arsenical compounds, remarks on use as insecticides_--. 147, 148, 149

Arthur, J.C., work at Geneva, N. Y.,on diseases of plants _......---------- 193

Agh in plants, notesis +. es2hs oes Oe oe ee ee ee 222

Ashes, early ignorance of valuable constituents _..........---------------- 208

Assistant Secretary of Agriculture, dutiesin 2/2). ...cue4--en eee 667

Association of Economic Entomologists. (See Entomologists. )
Bee ons of agricultural scientists, relation of Office of Experiment Sta- sai
LOTUS oo oS wm mice is sce mw ea a
Asters, remarks of Darlington:as to. varieties ieee de eee Oe 570

Attorney-General, opinion on use of experiment station funds-__........---- te

Ss

INDEX. 853
: Page.
Atwater, Professor, share in establishment of experiment station work in
(WOonneCin@W th. =o se ac, en a eae eC es Fe ee ee 516
iW Oc studies Of NiUtrihOn sop et 405, 406, 407, 409, 410, 530
Audubon societies for study and protection of birds__-____.---.------------ 716
Aughey, Samuel, study of foods of birds of Nebraska-_--_-. ..-.-------.------ 262
Australia, note on failure to stamp out pleuro-pneumonia __.-----..------- 110
imustrauian saltbush, value and introduction -2-2.---2 5. .=.+22-22-25. 225225 360
mapcock, 5. M.,invention of tester for fat in-milk -_ 222.225... 5.253222 395
Babson, Herman, review of literature of agricultural education _-_--_------ UlBYfA
meer OntnTacts, Note; Experiments: its 8: $5 22a es 2s ee 120, 122
CiLenDACHeNnsisi a. NOt <2. 206 o oe ae ee el ee eee 249
menue. plnckleg, NOES! Anco. Se 2 i a eee 123
gla anders, TOM Arig ss ee oes. 1 _ eee etl ES ah tee ee 100
threads in anthr Be NOTES ete ohhins 5-4) )) el ee oie weet eas Cee 118
Bacon, sale of American product mnder. [irish name: ss: 322 ee_ eee eee 46
Bacteria injurious by decomposition of nitrates -__.----------------------- 202
work of supplying nitrogenous food for plants_-_----.---------- 248, 249,
Bacteriological iny estigation PE RETES Je a. oe hs ge St tgs no A 342
Bailey, L. H., leader ship i in extension of agricuitural education ___. -----.-- 178
Professor, remarks as to var rieties of V egetablesss2: 225) ae 567
Baldwin, Mathias, early construction of locomotive s2055_ 20.92. 5525- Ss 647
alloot! voyares im weather service, Note ..=.=.....-.-:-!_ 2 9. 91
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, building and operation __-------..---------- 646
Barberry, notes on relation to wheat BGS leo a4 Ut 5h aan pe 192
Barley, acreage, production, etc., statistics___-_-- 761, 767, 778, 785, 790, 795, 798, 806
Manshur y, introduction by Wisconsin stevtiiom 0). 4 ath nee 543
Barthélemy, remarks on production of anthrax in horses and sheep-_------- 115
Pee. tc cindy at birds, notes. e864 sols 8 ede 9 ee 265, 266
foe sinceen WOrk ON prasses'-- 22-051 ele ocean Ae 364
Beans, acreage devoted to growing seed__.-._-_+----------+--------------- 560
Beeainnmens Of Varictios: 2.6 2055025: ee eR eee ee rises 567
Momminier anal, ITricaiion, 1OSs 22 2 oe. SL ee ek Se ee 596
Beck, Lewis C., chemical study of breadstuffs_--___..-.-_-_- 22-22-2225 -=22 235
Bee keepers’ associations, national, sectional, and State _.-.---.-----.---- 708-710
ess Hedy ee Se BE ae Se See ee Bee 15
Beecher, Henry Ward, remark on early fruit trees in Indiana_-____.-------- 471
Beef br eeds, three leading, remarks bee ies ee eee eee 632
Beet sugar, chemical Shay: new. Factories ... 2. ..._-/ $s eee 744
Manhuracuurer. |. sot LS ee Be ee eee 254
notes. on workor Chemistiand: others 222-94 22-252 22s ee 15
Beggar weed, Florida, value for succulent forage _----...---..------------- 624
Berkshire Agricultural Society, memorial for national board of agriculture 162
Bert, Paul, experiments in killing anthrax germs) = o252. eee 119
Bessey, Ernst A.,and HERBERT J. WEBBER, article on * ‘ Progress of plant
breeding in the ‘United States: S22: bc peels ee ee 465-490
Bibliogr aphy Gf meteorology ..m0be 22 1s 22 [ee eee 87
BIGELOW, F. H., articie on ‘* Work of the etonelaged for the benefit of
agr iculture, commer Ce; and navigation 722) 20 eaten eee eee 71-92
Biltmore, N. C., systematic n management of forest of G.W. Vanderbilt _-. 422
Biological Survey, Division, estabiehment...../0 oo: tases ea ee 264
organization and duties: ©) 2.22 ea es eee 669
publications-__-222-- 2-=22224-223-5=025 4 == =9 562-2 679
review of work on value of birds_-_-------- 2 ee 264-267
Berd Day in schools, note on establishments. 225.5.) 2522... 9b 22 eee - 267
stomachs, noted aistudies. ss. ae tine Se tal eee ia a 16, 264
Birds and game, officials and organizations concerned with protection___ 7 10-717
beneficial, study by Biological Surveys. 2aiiete-2 35 ae eee 266
bounty Tawa for-destruction 2.5216... ts yee An ee ee 279-282
commercial TiSes, GisCUssiON =. 25-52 5422 eases es aes Se 267-278
investigations OF valuctc2..ce 298k she te ey ee 261-267
measures for destruction, preservation, and introduction -__---_----- 278-290
of, Nebraska, study). -- 35 - -- eae ee ee eee 262
Wisconsin, MNvesivahions HOlCL + 2 ye ee oe Se eee ee 263
supposed injurious, investigations of BiolosicaleSurvey ao---- 5-2-2 =— 265
Bisulphide of carbon, use against insecisumi stored onrdines= sso == ee 152

Blackberries, improvement, SREP Cre 2.112 sta no ees od Ay 481

854 INDEX.

Page,
Blackbirds, study by Biolopical Survey-2202 2 2 <- 2t st See 265
Blackleg descriptions from observation. -..--2-22--.2.-2- 32-22. Yi e 121
loss, remarks “by Secretary: 22. s25t FP eee ee 49
TOMER. 22 Je ods SSeS Se ee ee 124
(symptomatic anthrax), discussion -----.-_------.---------.--- 120-124
work of Bureau of Animal Industry 22.0. -2--2 2... See 454
Blakeslee, O.S., work on calorimeter... 220-05. £22 See ee 409, 410
Blastophaga grossorum, probable usefulness in fig industry _-......--------- 15, 154
Blight of pear and apple, note on cause and remedy --------__------------ 193
Blood corpuscles, red, study in Texas fever investigation____._._._.._____- 132
remarks on efforts'to discover circulations 22les =. ee eee 94.
use in inoculations of anthrax .. 2... .7.25. BAe eee 115
Blount, A. B:, improvement of wheat 2220. --s.2.-_- 2 ee eee 487
Blue grama ‘and side oats, remarks 22). 21. =. ee eee 857
as means of reclaiming range lands’. o.. 2222-32. wi eee 29
grass, seaside, recent discovery of, Division of Agrostology_________-_- 354
TSO... oe cede ASR eee ee ee eee 30
seed, progress in methods of cleaning___.._.__--..--.---.____- 566
sowing for srazine in woodland £.-22 22-5294 2 eee 421
grasses, notes'on varietiesiand value. 1222 ole. ee 355
Boards of trade; publication) 2:2 3eae2S2 eee as Sea ee See 322, 758
Bones as manure, value recognized by Davy__._.------------------_-----25 212

Books. (See Libraries.)

Boophilus bovis, investigation of connection with Texas fever__.__________- 131
Bordeaux:mixture; accidental discovery 2-2 22280) eee 195
Borden, Gail, organization of condensed milk industry -__-___---.---------- 389
Boston Public Library, agricultural books. _~.2..-222..2. 2.-2. . aa 506
Botanic garden, note on establishment at Harvard .__..__...._..----_____- i61
Botanist of Department of Agriculture, seed testing _.____._...-___----__- 572
Botany, !Division, organization and duties... .22224 fs. 2... ....2 522 669
publications._*..- 2.2: <6) - eee ee ee eee 679
note on systematic work of experiment stations __...__.__.....---. 535
Bouley, H., inoculation of cow with eruptive diseases of horse__._._______- 107
views as to glanders___._-_-. ines S28 Rei eee 97,99, 146
Bounty laws tor destruction of birds. 222022222 eee 279-282
Boussingault, notes on work in agricultural chemistry ___-....----_----- 219, 247
Boutet, report of study of anthrax at La Beauce, France_......._...------ 116
Bran shipments:a broad)! 2222.1 eS eae eee Az
Bread, adulterations, note. 22.5.0. 2_ 3 eee ee ee oe eee 236
differencé from hard and soft wheat flour____............_.--_--_-- 216
Breeder, American, work in improving live stock, article by John Clay, jr_ 627-642
reeders’ associations, lists, 2.22.2) eee eee 691-697
early, of cattle, some Of difficulties j22/_+--..-2.1.63 2522S ee 628
Breeding cotton, note on proposed work... 4+-2...- 5. 1.8L 24: eee 18
incestuous, effect on breeds of cattle_____.__- LL Jas ee 635
new era accompanying use of pedigree ____.__-_-------------_--- 634
of live stock, remarks on uniformity. i-:.5. LU: ls. ee 641
plants, note on aworkestes 2h) ee ee eee 200
Breeds, battle, in improvement of cattle {i:22.---2_L.L. ...2eboee 636
beef, three leading, remarks ----- Ane ae eee Loe ee 633
Breese, Albert, production of Early Rose potato ........-...-....---------2 485
Brewer, William H.,and Samuel W. Johnson, early work for agriculture... 515
Brincklé, Dr., experiments in improving raspberries....-.----------------- 481
British markets, American dairy products. ~...222 .v22. 42. 212-2 464
railway companies, freight rates 22.2425 .2i24-4: 202-2 0 ee 663
Brome grasses, varieties and uses ..........-. 2... Usb 2sci tS 358
smooth, note on Vitality {2 2f.- fv2 2a eee 29
Buckham, President, of Vermont University, remarks on Morrill act-___-- 170
Buckwheat, acreage, production, etc., statistics _.......-.-------- 762-768, 786, 796

Bull, Ephraim, discovery and improvement of Concord grape -------------- 47
Burbank, Luther, production of varieties of plums by hybridization --_--_- 480
Bureau of Animal Industry, authority and work given by organic act_.... 441
blacklep’ work... 2:5 2352" eO eee eee 454
distribution of blackleg vaccine, notes- -- ---- 49, 124
inspection services. ig lsseu eee ee 456-464
organization angdimties 2a 222 fe see ee 668

publications y Res Ree eee eee 678

INDEX. 855

Page.

Bureau of Animal Industry, relation of pleuro-pneumonia to creation. ___- 112
triumph in eradication of pleuro-pneumonia_. 442

work against Texas fever _.___.._..-.--_.-. 448-452

Burrill, T. J., note on articles on parasitism of fungi__________.___________- 193
many Mmatitution, work for agriculture. _=-__..... 2222222 i. Ae 227
Butter and cheese factories, establishment; management ___________. -_- 384, 387
Danish, note on adaptation to tropical markets ________._________-- 47
peperts, romaris by Secretary? O80 O08 | ee coe 0 eG ee 52

[an chenmenblatady - 2 ooicra kc a) tle Lore ee eee 744
maprovemons im: quality: oOo. 6 Oe i eee 401

ae Of varichos.<) 23 62-242 CU Se On § 3 Dee 330
maine; Srow tl and chanees =! <= 2 8 ek Se 400

States; impor tags shies =2-2 2c liao lek Oo SO eee 401

musk, atid cheese, early motheds. +. -.-_.-.-*222.. 8 ..e222 Ae 382, 383

notes on substitution of oleomargarine..____._____.___._____._-_-___ 244
wholesale prices in leading cities .....-...__-_.-222 2222222: i eee 811
MVOPKGEGWarIOus NOGeMy <2 52+ oo. eae oe Sal ee eae 390
memeoducts in starch making) value’ ______...-.._-2 22-222. 2.e2scs eee 253
Of Gairyangey Fomarns=:' 22 Ss 22 oe + A ie) ee 401

Caldwell, G. C., work for agricultural chemistry -__............__._---- 228, 229
California and Colorado, cooperative colonies __.._____________.-.-___i-.-- 593
Leki ms io 1 2 di Ree: A A i lea Rl et east pm 591

original use of hydrocyanic-acid gas as insecticide_____________- 150
University, work at College of Agriculture_____...__________- 228, 514
SeetneLer, DOted Gn TOrmMs aNd USG__.----- te 409, 536
Canada, system of government control of export of dairy products _______- 52
Canadian animals (hogs) inspection, note .__........_.-..--.---_---=_-..-- 49
provinces, note on weather, reports. __ 2:22 -__.2 2-22" 2 89
Canaigre, utilization through chemical research, note ________.-_______.__- 256
Sammie, wisutciency for transportation .---.-=-..----.>-..-2-.2---2 122 643, 645
irrigation, corporate, objections, losses_........___-----___-____- 594, 596
Cankerworms, recommendations of use of Paris green _..________________- 147
Canning, preserving, and refrigerating, development__________.._________- 328
Carbohydrates, notes on relation to plant nutrition __-_______-__________- 219, 221
Carbonic acid, note on relations to plant growth .._..-------------___----- 219

Carbuncular fever. (See Anthrax.)

Card index of experiment station literature, remarks. ___.....__.._.______-_- 528
Carey act for reclamation and disposal of public lands by States __________ 604
Caribbean Sea, weather bureau stations, notes ___.___-___-_____. -..._____- 9,11
mmerrelasccd, Tabver plant, Note... --.. = 5222 Ais ee 62
Catalogues of Department Library, notes -.-....--------__--_.---_22 2-2. 44
INSTAR ISC), CR TOT ne en 8 475
Caterpillar, salt-marsh, subject of early study -_..._-..--.-.._-.----_--___- 136
ee and sheep industries COMmparod.._---..-- ue 629
percentages of losses at sea __.._---_- fe ee ee 459

IbEPedoers’ S5s0ClanlOns wish = 5-0 oo ee a ne ee 691
breeding, relation of Shorthorns, discussion_--....-_..-._-_-__--___- 637
contagious pleuro-pneumonia, discussion _________-__------_--____ 109-113
feeding, note on availability of principles to farmers ________________ 232

= rever, Southern, or Texas fever, discussion .._.__...--2..22-2.2775 124-134
SUNG. Berio GF ROEM RUIN — —- 9 eee 243
foreign, protection [of domestic] from contagion _-______.-__._______ 691
Migusnty cincusnon Of extensiqn 9 8) ee ee ee 627
infectious, efforts to separate in measures against Texas fever ______ 128
inoculation of Northern with blood of Southern cow_-__.__-_________ 132
POMC) Timm ee sD ee ee ee 456
INGrihern, SwUGy OF MCKN Ime hexas feyer-- ee ee 131
MOLG.OF INSPOCHGUS FOL GSOR = eo Oe ee 49
MMSE ANG VALUe 2. ee ea See ee ee ee ee ie ern BO feng. 818, 820
owners and shippers, confidence in Bureau of Animal Industry____- 444
problem of grading up as affected by Texas fever____________-_.__-_- 133
Puerto Rican, susceptibility to Texas fever__..._.__.._......._.-___ 49
ranges of Southwest, note on overstocking_-._.____._..-_..-------- - 9349
reduction of insurance rates as result of inspection ____._..__.____.- 458

losses from blackleg by use of vaccine _.___...._._----- 455

regulations for transportation for control of Texas fever........---- 449

856 INDEX.

Page.
Cattle slaughtered on account of pleuro-pneumonia, payment of owner__._ 444
Southern, study of relations of ticks in Texas fever __.___._____.__-. 1382
work against Texas fever of Bureau of Animal Industry____. --___- 448-452
young, immunizing in work against Texas fever__..._--_._.--_____- 134
Cavalry horses (French), spread of glanders;:.. 22224 2.2 <i. 4-45 .2 e eee 97,99
Ceara rubber tree, successot, plamtations 228552) 6) =e en eee 62
Census, federal, note on relation to crop-reporting system_______-___-_____- BA
Office, policy in regard to farm property, etc _-......--....----..-2 321
Centennial Exposition, reference in report of Chemist _-___....--_---.----- 240
Cérealsstinsticrops, date: production! 2 oie 2a. ee ae ee 309, 824
improvement, remarkg sto... oe he Ae ee 486
study by Division, of Chemistry... oe see) ee ee 243
vecetables andiecotton diseases | 2. sn) bane = ee 751
Chabertsremarks on anthrax: seis - 2 =e shee ee ee 109, 114, 121
Charbon, note on article by Renault and Reynal _____--._._-_-.._-----.--- 115
oranthrax.,diseugsionUss) 2 2.5 2 ee ee 113-120
study of rods by Delafond-2 --22).42-3. (4a) eee eee aly
Cheese, American, note on position in British markets __________-__._____- 464.
and butter factories, establishment; management___-___.-_--__-- 384, 387
butter; and milk,early methods’ 2-22 =2- 62 ee eee 382, 383
list ofevarieties... 52. . Se e422 oe ee lee ee eee 330
loss of market of Great Britain by lack of inspection_____________- 52
making; erowth and changes). .25). 212) ee eee 400
note on loss of American trade with Great Britain ___._.__-------- 47
wholesale pricesiim leading. ctties=2) aaa. a. ee ee 813
Chemical and physical investigations of soils, remarks by Secretary ______-_- 28
composition of food materials, note on investigations_--------__- 405
INVES lahlonlOl SOLS vdiScUSSIOM! a. see ne Se 339, 341
substances in soil, statements by Sir Humphry Davy-_-__-_------ 203, 204
technolopy agricultural 22 le ee ee oe 258-258

Chemist, remarks of Commissioner Newton on work_-_.--__---.----. ------ 23
Chemistry, agricultural, lectures of Dr. Trommer, note _._-_-_..-----_---_- 226
promises of advantages from full development___ 245
Division, discovery as to elements of humus in plants_-_______- 220
lines:of workisince 1883" 2-2 ee ee. ee 242-246
organization and duties; publications _____________ 668, 680
in Department of Agriculture, discussion_..._...._.--_----- 235-246
relation to chemistry at present time, discussion ___________- 224-258
progress of agriculture, article by H. W. Wiley -_ 201-258
review of early knowledge of relation to agriculture______-__-- 216
role in agricultural colleges and experiment stations ___._____- 226
Chemists, ee Department] reports, rematkse: es 2 ee --- 201-242
fficial Agricultural, Association, promotion of agriculture _._ 229-231
Cherries, two early kinds im America, notes.) = >. 2 468
Cherry Crab, origin of apples for northern Mississippi region__-_-_--------- 479
Chicago, effortsitior weather forecasts) 22525. - 24) 52) ee er 77
Public Libtary, aenicultural bookse 2-2 32-2) oe se eee eee 507
Chief Clerk, Department of Agriculture, duties__.__..______--._-2_-_-.2= 667
Children and animals, inoculations with smallpox_-__-._-_._.-------------- 108
Chinese: sand:pear, USels.5 0: oss oe 478
Chittenden, Professor, note on nutrition investigations_____--__--.-------- 404
Chiorin, resultsiofchémicalistud yes 2 = nee eee 742
Cholera, hog, treatment, remarks by Secretary _-_-- -- caniteses oo 50
Churns; numerous patents.201 eel ee Ae ee 391
Cicar industry and ‘Connecticut tobacco 2242-28 sean eee eee 431
Cigars, cigarettes, snuff, and manufactured tobacco, statistics._.-._._-__-_- 438
Glay,, Henry, ‘early importation of cattle cos2- 42-2626 e es eee 633

CLAY, JOHN, JR., article on ‘‘Work of the breeder in improving live

stock” 2c. 222208 2k el ee a 627-642
Cleaning and harvesting grass and clover seed __..__-..---.-.------------- 565:
Climate and crop bulletins, discussion: ). 42. 225.03. 20h 20s 0ee se eee eee 87
service of Cuba ‘and Puerto Rico- 22. -- eee ee eee 12
Wloudrobszervations; internationals NOtes ssa se 2s eae ee 91
lover and grass seeds, remarks.-) 2005. 2 ee ee ee eee 564
leguminous crops, early recognition of value to soil__----.----- 217
mote:on early. attention: )..2 0 eee ee eee eee ee 348
seed huiller; mill for cleaning seed. <_ i 8 oe 565

Clovers and other legumes, value for succulent forage __-------- 621, 622, 623, 624

INDEX. 857

Page.

Codling moth, early recommendations for use of arsenicals__...._._..--- 147, 148
Coffee, “remarks on imports from’ island possessions. 2... - ye Ss oe G0
College courses in agricultural colleges, entrance requirements_._.________ 176
agriculture A oe aS) Se ee 182

libraries, agricultur al hooks e222. 2 Se re ee 494
Colleges, agr icultur: al, and other institutions having courses in agriculture. 671
Morrill Act for.endowment. . 2.22. Ub ae 166

and Experiment Stations, American Agricultural, Association. 171
of agriculture, development during closing decade of century...- 173

short and Special courses. «2 eu. Leen See 186
Colman, Norman J., calls of conventions in interest of agriculture ______ 171,518
Colonial conditions (of agriculture), carly. 7 es 2 aasl ieee 308, 382
Colorado and California, cooperative colonies __._________.__.__.__._..__.. 593.
Colored students, list of separate agricultural colleges.._._.____._____.____ 183
Columbia College, grant to trustees for teaching agriculture 2 Fie ae 161
Columbian Agricultur al Society, organization anid: faire / tunes, oe npede wal 161
Exposition, World's, exhibit of experiment stations.__________- 521
Commissioner of Agriculture, report onmensilacennpiSs009 .55 eae eee 617
Comimnissioners of Agr iculture, mtabe Tshi2£$32.sbeG peices Saleem 686
Common schools, early call for aericultures20e eee ee eee 162
efforts for introduction of aericulture. =k. eee 189
remarks by Secretary on agr ricultural teaching >: 2. 69

Comstock, J. H., work for economic entomology, note 24. l= ee ee a reel
Concord grape, discovery and impeovemient. - =. 28 solo). ee ee 476
Condensed ple amonSiry, Nerinminne. 512.8 beer) oor She sh ay ee 388
Congress, acts for benefit of agriculture, notes. _.._-__._-.__..-.---- 2. L222 8. 58,
71, 78, 79, 141, 264, 274, 276, 851, 410, 427, 506, 518, 520, 752
distribution of seed and plants. through Members, note _..__.___- 55
nibraryeaStmeulture ss... 2 ek Sea ila., soa) bc See 506

relation to’ early’ road building@-2 0. <oiccces 21 Ae Seas ee 372
Congressional action regarding road building ae Say OE. es ine Ae ee 374
publications, link < 2 haul oY ant 30,9) gen ead eS pe

Connecticut leaf (tobacco), note on improvement ____..........-_--._-__-- 27
library with farmers’ reading course:.2. 6.202. 2-55) 4. 508

Contagion from foreign cattle, pr otection UES sitet eee See ee) 691
oanthrax, persistence in ‘soils. 46 cen So ee el ee 116

sheep scab, spread, remarks by Secretary _...-...2..--2---.-+ 51

Texas fever, peculias featuress:. 2242 teehee Ses 127
Contagious pleuro-pneumonia of cattle, discussion _____..______..-.._..- 109-113
work of Bureau of Animal Industry. _____-- 442
Contagiousness of glanders, discussion _.._._._.._----.....-------------- 96, 97,98
Cookery and domestic science, schools, attention to nutrition, note____.___- 413
Cooper, Joseph, early work in plant breeding. 5 i354 e eee 470
Peter, operation of locomotives on curved road_______...--_.______ 647
Cooperation among Mormons and in Colorado and California ____..__.___- 593
Corn, acreage, production, etc., statistics ____.____.-- 799, 765, 775, 783, 788, 793, 799
cultiva tion and harvesting, PLOPTCSS 6 aoc: se ee 331
Ranainge and eathenne A690) 20 ee ee 730, 731

par deoof fish ag manurer2.26.2 25 ccee 3 oy ky ek 209
Bremen aViRIMON be oe fA yt 2 Aes Pees 4 a gh 8 471, 486
MOLERGMAGTOSSIN G00, aetna k SN Fe oe eet bo ra ef Bel Dw he Ag
MIGAViD IONIAN ice tla 788 8a 6S ad 2 oh 46

miners wiabeson: patents, ete <2 5..< 2.85. 535 ane 316
PRIETO ES tape hea LOE hy oe ne ke 721, 724
remarks on races found among American Indians____._____________. 466
Valueras Crop tomsucculentntobare {2.2 sj ee 620
mornell University agricultural libraries 2... 02.324 -c-s4esas~ 2 .asccse 501
extension of agricultural education ._.....__....._..-- 178

note on maturedeaching so. - eussne ee 4s ee 69

work in agricultural chemistr YE Ses 2 ee 228
Corporate canal building, remarks = peal $55, 2 a canton esa eae 594
ears. Henry,experiments with plums. : 2 ele ee dee ba 479
Cotton, acreage, etc., statistics 2. -_ 2222222... 764, 771, 772, 773, 787, 792, 797, 815
contr olling position of product of United Spates. ome JSP Ehaeioep
Hey ptian, discussion: by Secretaryia ss. 05:22 ee oe A. 64

exchanges, character and, purposes... 2. 25.42.2e=52 5. sos ee BO 322

BSG Sach Nee MS SE ERS ar te a a Rp 758

858 PAs B03 5-08

Page
Cotton gin, note on invention and usefulness_._.-_--_-_..----2_2222 iL Le 319
IMpPROVEMent=. 2 ave ewes Vase Cee eee wey See, nape = Se ae 471, 490
monthly return of transportation companies _____.____________-_.- 54
picking, 1800-20 Us 2 Be es ee ee 730, 731
planting 71809... 20. ee 2 es ee 721
sthudyofidisease | Soli asstwit hes See ee 18
seed; growth of mses. c 2 Veee e 329
oil exports, developments _ 220 7-. ) 2222 22 ee eee 825
the world’s consumption). 222 2.022 .0 Sy nee ee eee 772
vegetables, and ‘cereals, diseases £2. 2202_. 02. i202... 4 ee 751

Cow. feed; note on:sales'to Denmark... = 222liesi ee es eee
CownpoxsdiscussionlOf onieim sete oss ee ee 102, 104, 107, 108
Cows, notes:on yield of milk and butters. _2: 2222222222 2.2 eee 392
number, and quantity and value of dairy products___._____.________- 402
Cream mechanical separation = 2.9 (il hs eee eee 393
Creamery butter, damage to trade in England by ‘‘ process” butter_______- 52, 53
Crop and climate bulletins, discussion’ 7.222.222... 312. eee 87
Weather Bureau service in Cuba and Puerto Rico _____- 12
weather conditions, season of 1899. 2 eS eee 720-743
production, extracts from ‘censuses 2202.15.22 22 eee 324
reporting system of Division of Statistics, remarks by Secretary_____- 54
Crops, agricultural, remarks on early knowledge of composition_-_-_____- 218-216
and values, effect of railroad extension .._..-2.2.-_.4.-12/2_22 eee 336
field, practical tests by experiment stations. ..._._._..._.-------_--- 538
first,in agriculture of United States, dates .__..._._...-_----.__- eh)
for succulent forage, GISCUSSION tees] sae ee 614, 620
methods, and industries, work of experiment stations____________- 542-545
minor, for soiling, pasturage or silage 22.4 loc 252.2. _ eee 625
principaliand farm animals, statistics. ..l/2 92122 1 eee 759-821
saving in cost of producing .... -. 2b. eee eee 333
Cross-fertilization, notes on use in improvement of plants ____________---.- 472
Crossing of plants, notes on work of Fairchild, Knight, and others _______- 469
Crow and crow blackbird, study by Biological Survey -_.._-_._---.--.__-- 266
Cuba and Puerto Rico, climate and crop service _..._...._.-_.------------ 12
Cuban tobacco, Plorida srowm, notes). = 22-22 eee: eee 437, 438
Cultivation and harvesting of corm; wheat. ete -295e---- esa eee ee 332
Curriculum, older, for teaching agriculture, division of subjeets__________- 174
Custis, George Washington Parke, ‘‘ sheep shearings” at Arlington, Va__.._ 160
Cuthbert raspberry, note on origin 22.22) eee eee 480
Cyclone nozzles, invention and ise, moves. =). eee 153, 196
Cyclones, observations and discussion by Redfield, Espy, and others_---- 74, '75, 76
remarks on forces in production __--..---.------ ee ee 92
Wrest Indian; notes.on warninges222 2 2 eee Oia
Dairy and creamery apparatus, work of experiment stations _____.....---- 537
farm, succulent forage, article by Thomas A. Williams__.-.... 613-626
application of laws of mechanics! = 0-2 222 eee 389
cattle, introduction and herd improvement; breeds_______-_-__.----- 391
development in the United States, article by Henry E. Alvord_._-- 381-402
industry (growth of) organization; list of officials _-___.......---- 899, 688
practices, sample of changes .-___-_--- (eee de eo ee 398
products, American; lack of supervision 2.222.222. eee 47
chemical researches'22 03. Lee ee eee 234
diversificationic:c: w= oe ee eee 330
experimental exports, remarks by Secretary, etc ..------- 52, 464
note on sales of Danish and American in British markets-- 46
quantity and value and number of cows...-.------------- 402
State standards OCCU Ss es eee 752
school, education of butter and cheese makers_____..-_-------------- 186
schools, note... < e: SR a ee eee 399
Dairying at the present time.-..-.2 oe ee eee eee 397
features of factory system. 2 ee ee eee eee 386
Pairymen’s associations, organization ..........--. 00-0. ll deen - eee 391
Daniels, George H., remarks on railway passenger service and rates_------- 663
Danish imports from United States, remarks on study by Secretary-------- 46
Davy, Sir Humphry, classification of vegetable substances_........-------- “214

Delafond, study of enzootic disease (anthrax) at La Beauce, France------- 115

INDEX. 859

Page

MEEWarO OTape, OTICIN 2 324. W-J e R Oe s See ee A476

Department of Agriculture, cooperation with experiment stations__..___.- 25

Library ©2502 seen oo a: © ee ee 504

promotion of reading among farmers_--_-_---- oll

summary of work of Divisions___-_--_-_---. .- 9-11

United States origin! 20027 1 eee eee 165

usefulness, yemarks py Seeretary 2222-05 eae 44

De Saussure, notes on work in agricultural Chemisty. 222 2 eee See 219, 247

. Desert-land law MOPeR alton ss 26 Ee DEAE es SE EE ee oh eee 603

Dewey, Melvil, origination of traveline: dibranies: 2222). os ea Se 509

co LT PEECILS)S). s TERE AG TREN ie ai Ci ge bey 2 TO ee ee Pe (hn 2. 407, 408

Digestion experiments, work of experiment stations_____.........--_------ 537

PMMsUStEHOOD SCA, TeMarks se") J. oy Joe 2 TER ee eee 453

mpermrection for pleuro-pheumonia, notes’ ._.....--.----..222-2e-5- 0.0258 443, 444

Documents, Superintendent, notes on duties _._.._.-..-...-.-..------------ 676

Dogs, early laws; association of breeders. ...............-.-.---.-------- 209, 697

Domestic animals, construction of calorimeters_-_..._......---.----------- 412

dates of first use in United States _..._.___.__.._____- 310-312

Downing, A.J.,suggestion of cross fertilization ________._____- oe ae a 472

Mr., note on plan for arboretum at capital ______.._..._.....<-. 66

Drainage, artificial, recommendation for alkali lands... 2.2 2222.22 5852 26

Serenity, relation toisan Jose scale \.2 =~. 22.2. 2. oe dns tk ee 15

Perea t Uin SeasomGl 1600... oe wooed Ie eo. 2a ee 748

rss mauve, discussion by vecrevary. =... -.-22_-. 2252 l2 + ene ene 63

Hanpandies, experiments with Pubber plants _...........--=-..--.--.s-2-22 62

Economic entomology, entomologists, ete. (See Entomology, etc.)

Eciopistes migratorius, notes on extermination _...------------------------ 269

BNGCAOn aeTCUlbutal, DOFINNING - one ne ee ee 161

discussion by Secretary - aoe ae ana ene 67

in 1900; Araerican system, 2-22 ee 181

the United States, article by A.C. True___._-- 157-190

smeportance Of farmers’ WiStIbGkeS. ----—— 9 we ee 187

MMSohLC HON IMETOrestry ..- =e we ee ee 305

of farmers, development of general agencies____-.._...----.---- 181

scientific and technical, development ...._._..-_..---.---------- 165

Educational results of experiment stations work .____.--.-.--------------- DAT

BEET ITOtS, (WISCUBSION Ol USES 2... tn 8 ee ee ne ee 270-272

mnolesalo prices mNAeaAdIne CIMES _.... 22-55 secre eee oe ee 812

PeeeemecsulcuGuon [Or toahnors —..-- 2-02. . e e e a e 273

Pevmiaan cotton, discussion by Secretary .__-.=..--=.-.5-.---2--)-----.-2556 64
ELDRIDGE, MAURICE O., article on “‘ Progress of road building in the United

PEO 2S eee oat) og en Sa 367-3880

Electrical method of moisture Be anination wie oe at ee 344

PME AreGNOtCS .. cee ES ae ay Ur boa emt 158, 416

Mnenenitieniry.|y,, NOES... 52a eS | oe ee oe 165, 513

“‘Bimergency warnings” in weather service, note___-_-_-....~_------------ 90

Eneland, Midiand Railway, passenger rates --..--..--2_--2=-----2-+--22242 663

English sparrow, introduction (see also Sparrow) .------------------------ 287

Hace. remarks On practice, value, etc. _..______.2.2_2__ 2) ee 616, 617, 620

Entomological Commission, United States, appointment and membership - “441

envesmeratiOns, “WItEES -- -.- 2 A eee 138, 159

Entomologists, economic, founding of association__._..__--_._-_...-------- 142

Entomology, beginning of gener al anbereat |... Se Seen 141

Division, “fir sti importation of ladybird, enemy of fluted scale-__ 154

Orvanizaiion and. Cuties ees 2) ako 668

publications ey eee Leah en Al BN epee te 680

use of hydrocyanic gas against insects__..____-_---- 150

economic, commencement of Government investigations. ---- 138

present standing of United States___.____..--.-.--- 155

progress in remedial discoveries, discussion ___-__- 144-153

United States, article by L.O.Howard_ 135-156

some of the workers and causes of success -------- 136

Work of experiment stations —. 292) = ee eee 545

fainzyins. note:on relation to flavor of tobaccos 2. 22. sa" fe ee 27

macalyptus, planting in California, note. ......-.2 .-.--2 2225.2 ee 2 423

Hurope as market for cattle, development -_............-----.--.---.-.----- 631

860 INDEX.

Page.

Europe, investigations of pleuro-pneumonia___________________---__---____- 110

seed-festing WOrkKe. 2 oa. 3G. bee ee ee 571

Buropean pear, success on Paciie coast ¢<_.-24.4228 2 ee ATT

vines, attempts to cultivate in America_________.-__....._--___- 197

Ewell, E. E., outline of relations of nitrifying organisms to agriculture____ 246

Experiment station, attempted establishment by private funds ____________ bylyi

subject of fertilizer control... 2... 22... =e 338

Station Record, publication... ......222--- 22.20... = 2 eee 527

Experiment stations, agricultural, and agricultural colleges, association__._. 171
collaboration with Divisionof Chemistry 245 —

dissemination of information _.________- 540

establishment; duties _..________- 516, 518, 519

in United States, article by A.C. True_ 513-548

locations, directors, and work ________- 672-675

growth; general results of work _________- 521-525, 542-548

help from Office of Experiment Stations__________. 521, 526

tines of Work 7-3-5 a 2h a= dil oe or 533-542

national and State aid, remarks by Secretary_______- 32

Office, cooperative nutrition investigations __________ 411

establishment and. worl. -___. ..2. 22-52 Sess 526

orfanization.and duties ...C. 2 eee 668

publications --_-__-- Simin eee ee .. 681-683

organization. _—_ = 9. sates Soe ae eee 531

removal of obstacles to agricultural industries______. 546

roleof chemistry. -.21 3.22.2) eS eee 226

State agricultural, applied agrostology_..____.______- 362

entomological work_____..__--2._- 141

systematic agrostology._________-- 366

Experimental work with minor insecticide substances _..-.._. __.-.-_-_-- 152

Experimentation, necessity in investigation ._-"_ =" == _=__._ 9 eee 94

Experiments, agricultural, agencies for conducting ___._._______.________- 320

Hxport animals, inspection before shipment------2----_ 2. = eee 456

statistics of microscopically inspected pork. ____._.___.___.+_. 2228 463

tobacco; curing and uses 9 * Soe ee ee 430, 434

trade in. seed... S25 220 oe see ce) 557

Exports, agricultural, statistics of development _____.__._...._______..---- 325

experimental, of dairy products _...-i-__-_.__..- ) eee 464

of agricultural products; average prices _________--__-- 829-835, 838-839

cheese to Great Britain, beginning. *.__._. ..-_ 222) 384

cotton, from United States £25). 720_2 2)... 2 eer 771

leaf tobacco from the United States, statistics ___._._.._--__- 439, 440

PILING pal. Crops) StabiSWCs, 2a" ee a= 759-771

Factories, beet sugar, N@W... ...- 2 2.2624. Se. e- ne 225 ck 744

cheese and butter, establishment; management__-_-___.-_-__-- 384, 387

‘‘ gathered cream,” radical change in dairying--------.--------- 388

Fairs (agricultural), for educational purposes --_.----.----:--.22--+--seee 160

Farallones, ‘collection:of. birds’ eggs 22222202232. ee 271

Farcy and glanders, discussion...) 2. -.=.0.-..- 7 eee eee 96

Farlow; WG, articles on plant diseases .2) 193

Farm, and dairy, succulent forage, article by Thomas A. Williams -----. 613-626

animals number anda ’value 2-2 sso Sec) = eee 818-821

crops, influence of transportation facilities_____-__----------------- 335

prices, average per bushel for principal crops --.------------------ 793-797

Farmer, assorting of tobacco... 2.20/22. a een Bnd = 435

care for soil micro-organisms by management of soil -____-------- 252

education by experiment stations... -...2i..-25--2--eous eee 547

effect of Irrigation) o2-- osc. 32 neces ee Ss eee eee - SRG

Massachusetts, colonial methods of farming --------------------- 309

need of librariesi.w2: seis 9- 22k. poe 2 ee 491

relation of sportsman in regard to game laws-------------------- 283

Marmors, agricultural ‘libraries. ..i-532 i525. 25 s2e a eee eee 508-511

Alliance, aid in general education of farmers --.....------------- 181

American, capacity for use of libraries....-.---4.2-_.-- =o eee 492

bird biographies by S. A. Allen). 4_ 2:20. 22-22 -5-5)- 2s eee 261

iilletins, notes; oS oe ee etree eee ace 676

on abandoned farms, note a5 40 oe ee ee ee 60

remarks by Secretary on publication. ....---------..-- 43

INDEX. 861

Page.
Farmers’ bulletins, series from Office of Experiment Stations, note------ -- 34
@isams to water Tiphtn-<.2-- ee = eS ee ene 596
cooperation in grass and forage plant investigations. ----.-------- 30
development of general agencies for education---------------~--- 181
growing of seeds by contract -----.------.-------.-------------- - 560
information on principles of animal nutrition.__ -----------.--- 232
institutes, development, etc.; officials -----.-- at RS, 2 170, 171, 187, 687
participation of experiment stations -------.--------- 541
lumbermen and others, practical assistance in forestry ---------- 302
market, enlargement by improved methods of keeping products. 328
methods of protecting woodlands --------.--------------------- 423, 424
National Con@tess...2==5 2-9-6 1. 52655 oe Fee 17
note on response to efforts for technical courses in agriculture... 169
notes or assistance in forestry investigations. -_---.-------------- 22
present conditions and prospects of education: 3547525. aes 189
provision for reports from experiment stations ---------.-------- 520
reading courses, inauguration and extension -.-...-.------------- 179
methods, purposes, and officials -...------------ 717
With) LIDRATICS <== 2-19 Se eso ee ee 508*
Farming, books. (See Libraries, agricultural.)
diversified, cause of Mormon prosperity ------------------------ 593
fostare Of IEMIPAnON | 22. .<sSe6se Ss ese 610
Farms, abandoned, discussion by Secretary ------------------------------- 60
for growing seed, establishment -----.--.---------:-----------z3---5 557
number and acreage, size, machinery, etc., statistics -------- 328, 324, 325
Fat test for milk, remarks on invention of machine for making... ..cs23 395
Feathers, birds, remarks on use-. ----------------------------------------- 272
Feeding of animals, chemical researches- --------- phate tet 5h te Se 232
Fermentation, early views of value in fertilization-------.-.------------- 210, 218
relations of micro-organisms, list of investigators ---------- 250
Ferrel, William, first analytical description of motions of the air -_-------- 75
Fertilization, study - -------------.-----------=--------- 5.0 pee 743
Fertilizer control, subject of early work at experiment stations... +4. 338
manufacture, relation of chemistry ----------------------------- 257
Fertilizers and manures, early knowledge-.-.-.-------------------------- 206-213
commercial, work of experiment statioms ---------------------- 544
development of manufacture and use_---------- -------- 327, 336, 337
Fertilizing value of guano, note ------------------------------------------ 27
Fescue grasses, varieties and uses- -------------------=-------------------- 357
Fever, Texas. (See Texas fever.)
Fiber investigations, publications- .. ---- ern te en ee 683
Field crops, practical tests by experiment stations -_..:+----~--=---2+--s-=- 538
products, note on kinds to be exported -----------------------------; 234
Fig, industry in California, note on probable usefulness of insect -------- 155, 749
Fire, danger to forests; States with patrol «4. 22-3. See 415
in forests, summary of laws for suppression -------------------------- 300
Fires in forests, discussion -. ---------.------------------- -------------- - 24,423
study in Division of Forestry ----- -- .--------------------- 303
Firewood, conservative cuttings of woodland -------.------------------- 418, 419
Fish and game, protection in connection with forestry -------------------; 305
RR NVATITICG | <= 2 = <a ee oa -- Seas eee = 209, 211
investigation of chemical composition and food value} .<5-5-— = ee 405
Fitch, Asa, study of injurious insects of New VOPK a3. es co te 138
Fitzherbert, A., first English treatise on husbandry- ----------------------- 158
Flax crop of certain countries, 1895-1899___.____----------------------~--- 780
Flaxseed, wholesale prices in leading cities----....------------------------ 810
Flies, house, and mosquitoes, note on carrying of disease. =<. £2. -----=---se- 15
Floriculture, note on first important book (see also fOwergy.2-0-- 2-2 582
Florida, extermination of gulls and terns bi; USG.O8 Paes. es ee 270
grown Cuban and Sumatra tobaccos, notes 222-2 222 _- --===s=— 437, 438
phosphates, note on introduction ---_-.-------.---------------z37-; 338
Florists, American, Society. effect of organization; business-_-_-------- 584, 585, 586
Flour, American wheat, sales to Denmark... 05 !ie se. ee eee 46
early recognition of difference from hard and soft wheat - ---------- 216
grain,and meal, analysis, remarks on problems... --.=-.-----.=------- 235

Bifewer seed, 2TOWIDE..... -.- ..- —— - << 2 = ee ee 560

862 INDEX.

Page,
Flowers and bouquets, formality in fashion __..._..-_..-..__.--. 589
ornamental plants, growing; improvement_________.______ 475, 488
cut, awakening of demand; present trade _..___.......... 582, 585
development of wartebiogs 0.) 9 52.0.0, 0 19 Su Se 569
improvements in color, ete., by selection of very distinct parents __ 74
relation of plant breeding totrade...........° 466
FiLoyp, Marcus L. and MiLTon WHITNEY, article on “Growth of the
uobacce dadesbty”_—. 22007. 40 ae Os olaay pee en 429-440
Fodder plants, study by chemist, note .___..-2..00.--.- se 240
Food adulteration, study by Division of Chemubtty 22: .: 5 2 Aaa 244
work of Association of Official Agricultural Chemists__ 93
and nutrition of man, scope of investigations 2. ..0._.. 22a 404
of birtls, ‘Rete on stutly 206.02 a 260
plants, statement by Dawy_. 2... 22-20 ae 205
materials, study of digestibility... 2.0.0: 21d 408
products, note on work of Division of Chemistry... = eee 14
supply, early practices in winintaiming oo 020 2b 328
of plants, relation to variation of growth....________...___.. 469
Foods, evolution of varieties from farm prothcts Uo oo 327
nutritive value, discussion in Patent Office PEpOT 22... ee 232
table on comparative nutritive valee, by Davy... 2_1)) Dare 216
Herage conditions, early, remarks << 2).00) 0/04, 4s 613, 616
plant and graes investigations....._____-_____.._......._.. 21. 29,31, 349
plants, varieties and advantages 2... 5250.11 358
succulent, for farm and dairy, article by Thomas A. Williams ____ 613-626
Forcing houses, appearance of large establishments... 583
of vegetabtes under glass, statistics_..__...._____.__...._..... 1s 586
plants, art among the Romans_..__...______._____._...... 1... 575
Forecast and weather map, daily, discussion _._____ Sicilia 88
weather, Washington, note on distribution....._._____........... 85
Forecasting, early work in United States servEue. 255. IL... eee 81
Forecasts of weather, note on Se 72
remarks on distribution and publication__.__________ 89, 90
weather, for Great Lakes, work of I. A. Teepe. - 2005 ee 7
Foreign birds, discussion of introduction_........-.-- 287-290
cattle, protection against contagion. 1.2 ==... __. ee 691
emand, influence on breeding of live stock....._____._........... 631
Markets Section, duties. 2. - dc si l,i - ‘668
publications 2 222s... 420 683
tobacco trade, requirements, discussion ___.._.___..__....... 01. 433
Forest destruction, early efforts for preyemtion. 2._____.. 2.3 293
fine legislation, review 510) 2)). igi >.) 300
management, problem in connection with rubber production _______ 62
under systematic working plans; planting _______.. 422, 425
reserves, controversy; tables showing names,etc ____.________ 295, 755-756
trees, early planting; watchmen for fire... 417, 424, 425
work, practical, participation of Division of Forestry... 2 aaa 297,301
States having offices, list _-.__. 2/2... oe 702
Forester, proposed study of abandoned farms... ...521 4). 3 oer 60
Foresters, increase of force in Division af Porestiry 0: 0. a ee
Forests, early efforts of private owners for management _ Sa 416,418
natural reproduction, mete L622) oo ie) 427
of arid region as source of wealth _.______.____._.......... 0. 600
Forestry associations, foundation and Work Jou CUs Mikes Oo 304
BD a cis a Oe OO) 702
Division, cooperation with private owners in forest management. 298
field work, Teropris 201200 a ee 802
organization and duties___. tee 669
of systematic forestry _.....___.__...____. 423
publications 0000) i:g.2b 215. 2 eee 683
review of work. 2.13.0 Ni, aon ee - 801-804
system of lumbering devised for lands in Adirondacks._ 420
instruction, New York College and other agencies... __. 305
notes on special investigations ____.__.___..__............ lon, 24
practice by private owners, article by Henry S. Graves ________ 415-428
Private, discussion - 52-2. o.2.w nro ecne a od 298

progress in LBD i wn Latch, Sete cee ee oe eee eek ee 752-754

INDEX. 863

Page
Forestry progress in United States, article by Gifford Pinchot -...._..._- 293-306
SCHOOISJISE =. See ae eee pe 22S 1ST ES re re ee 703
student assistants, note; plans...........--...------------------- 21, 22
Formalin solution, use in sweet-potato disease _._._..__._.-...------------ 18
France, views of v eterinarians as to contagion of glanders_____.._..------- 97
Franklin, mote on observations of stermgsce. sf. ke. eee 73
Freight and passenger rates.) {eee ee ee Se eee eee 660-663
rates, average in cents per ton per mile_____. __.._-..22.2.2252.2-5- 848
Carly, GISCUSSION;/TEGUehON! eH) Se Dee ee ee 648, 658
of different railroad Companies... so. coe Se ee 662, 663
on live stock and dressed meat, Chicago to New York __-___- 845
- miscellaneous commodities, New York to Chicago by rail_ 842-844
packed meats, Cincinnati to New York by rail .._-___.--- 846
tablesshowine chanees —.......-. 2 22 se ee eee 660
French minister of agr iculture, dir ection of study of anthrax .____....._-- 115
war depar tment, experimental investigation of glanders_________-_- 97
PP EIMNOS. Nise on Walamee lol: 2 sed sd. . se ee 84
Fruit growers, note on losses from San Jose scale_____...__-.--.----_-_._- 144
growing in America, remarks on early attempts____-.__.____._-- aS ae 467
Pre Tens ah 1G09* oo cet Ree eee 748
miostry in Pace northwest, note .-. 0.125. .20.-.32.u ee ee See 20
origination of varieties, advice of Marshall P. Wilder_...-.....____- 473
Muen0,. ANG finer 1eCGs, GINGEBES, eek een ee ee 750
Fruits, deciduous, San Jose scale as most dangerous insectenemy,note.._-. 143
note on exhibit at Paris Exposition -............--.-.-------------- 20
origin; new, early, directions for producing _...-......-...-..-.- 471, 472
Fuel value of foods, Bete OF Study Wc .cn ain 2S Tek Cee eee 409
Funds of Experiment Stations, remarks by Secretary ..........-..-------- 32
Puseei, parasitism, articles by T.J. Burrill, note ...-.-....2....2-.--.2 2c: 193.
Fungicidal treatment, SUCGOSS With Crepes fe. 2 Shes ol ee eee 198
Fungicides, application by means'of cyclone nozzle _.- 2 eae 196
Fungus, potato rot, ravages and study, notes ___..._.___-_-_----__----.--- 192
GALLOway, B. T., article on ‘‘ Progress in the treatment of plant diseases
in the United States”_..........._____- 191-200
‘*Progress of commercial growing of plants
under Slaggs. et ete ee eee 575-580
Game and birds, officials and or ganizations concerned with protection_.. 710-717
fish, protection, connection with forestry _..............-...--- 305
birds, iniroddetienea ss... 2) 2 2 eee Ce 289
UE CRASSE: UT SETIOSD, C8 ee oe 282-287
usefulness of Pin eCrBn ns. xo. 8 de dd ee eee 268-270
Garden calendars, early, for distribution to seed dealers, remarks ___.____- 554
subtr opical, note on testing hybrid fruits /.2 2. 2.25"... eee 19
varieties, problem of fixation eens ee ee eee 562
Gardens and Grounds, Division, organization and duties__._..____________ 669
publications fe SEE yee ee 683
‘Gardiner Lyceum,” remarks on work as agricultural school ____________- 163
See arrallroads, CCOHOMICH=: oho... = <2 0-2-0 cs seu eee eee 652
Geneva, N. Y., study of plant diseases at experiment station __________- eee |
tester for Beads, nEteEs cere biel 26s Ls ee 571
Germ theory, application $0: Mnith fae. se iol ee ee eee 117
establishment in regard to anthrax 2.222.422 22 119
Germany, remarks on agricultural schools_-__._........--.---2------------ 225
Germination of seed, tests; study of chemical changes ___________._.___- 574, 743
Gideon, Peter M., origination of Woalthhy apple tio 2b ae ee 478
Ginseng, note on incr PAROLE DLICE: <= 3 cco) Sane eee ae ee. ee 64
Glanders and LATCH PAIICUASION = <.5/535 06. 3S te ee 96-102
mincovery Gf disease ti mian 2.7.20. 6 aoe ho oo eee 98
qusiihableness of inoculations. co 4. 4 ee ee 101
moallein test, discushienives Geckos 4 och ee a ee eee 102
Glover, Townend, note on work for economic entomology________._______- 138
Glucose manufacture and Tse SPST IS oe fh ae ee ee ee 244, 254
Gluten, early recognition of nutritive valued Ju 20es. eben ete 214, 216
in wheat, effect of latitude on content-__ 2.220.222.2222... 202-222. 244
Goffart, M. August, description of method of ensilage____.....--..-----..-- 617
Good roads, movement ini stebes; prosress . Fo.) 22) re SRT A 7

Gooseberries, improvement, romans 12tovus 20d ss Seana aS 483

864 INDEX.

Page.
Graders for road-makine.notey sce a2 ee ee eee 42
Graduate study and original research in agriculture _-.._.___.____________ 182
Grain, average rates by river, St. Louis to New Orleans _______._________- 841
rates, Chicaeo-to New Vorks.c=: h2tu) i= 2 oe Oe ee 847
stored, note orremedytornnsects)2-4 = 2 ee eee 152
Grains, experimentation in northern latitudes; introduction ______.______- 35, 56
fiour and meal, analysis, remarks on problems --_-.._-.-_-----_---- 235
Grange Jibrariessremarks'=—) => Saeaee aoe epee AGE cele 511
Grape g growing, effect of study of plant diseases.-2 2) 2-2 See eee 197
mote.on diseases ..-: .2:. 0.2. Weel ee oe J 194
Grapes, improvements in’ Nineteenth Century _-__.-----------------1---- 473,475
of Europe, noteror experiments. =. ois es eee 20
‘“(Grapes, the * disease Of horses, mote 22/2225 480") fe ee 104
Grass and clover seeds, remar a renee aie 564
garden, establishment on Depar iment grounds: -. 2.3242) 348
Grasses and forage plants, native, notes on investigations_-_--_____- 28, 29, 30, 31
notes on valuable species ___-__._-. -2---------- 355
as sand and soil binders, remarks by Secretary -------------.----- 30
list of private publications Ju See ee eee ie oe =0
true; subject of science of agrostolozye. 9-29 =. eee B47
Grasshopper, Western. (See Locust.)
GRAVES, HENRY §S., article on ‘‘The practice of forestry by private
OWDEES?) Geese oo ee eS Se 2 SR Son te Se 415-428
Grazing and forage;problems in the Soeuth):< 52_2425--...2.1 22. 2 eee 352
free, effect on cattle and sheep industry__-____-__.__-_---_---_---- 630
lands of arid region as:source of wealth = -./__2-_ <2. __-- see 660
Grease, or sore heels; relation to cowpox -...-.2252-245-- -<... 2 eee 103
Great Britain, differences of veterinarians as to pleuro-pneumonia____-_--- 110
importation of cattle for breeding 2-2) _*_-_ | See 632
loss to America of cheese market) 225-3.) 2..- ee 52
GREATHOUSE, CHARLES H., article on ‘‘ Development of agricultural
Mbravies? 3.2. joo See ae Ss Doe Se ee 491-512
Greely, General, administration of weather service_____._-------------.--. io
Greenhouse insects, use of hydrocyanic-acid gas -__-_----------.-------,--__ ll
Greenhouses, improvements i in construction 2.-.. 22. == eee 578-581
iron, introduction and improvements. ------.---------------- 584
Grouse, pinnated. (See Prairie hen.)
Growing plants under glass, progress, article by B. T. Galloway-_------ 575-590
Guano, discussion of suppliestand use .2-2 4. ae. ee 274-278
early uséias fertilizer; remark by Davy —----.-...... 22.0 =e 212
erowthiOl USe 22222... 3 =o eee ee 337
islands appertaining to United States, list; production --_---__-- 276, 278
Guinea corn. (See Sorghums.)
pig, note on discovery of usefulness in inoculation ________-------- 101
Gulf States, note on introduction of tea culture _____:_....._-------------- 58
Gulls and terns; notes on destruction. 222-22 -).-.-....-.2 2 27
Gypsum: as fertilizer; note on-early use. 222-85: 2 ee eee 207
use on soils damaged by alkali containing soda__-_--__-----.------- 25
Wackel, E., note on work invagrostolopy: 25-22-25. 22sec eee 364
Halle, University, first professorship for teaching agricultural chemistry _. 224
‘* Hallock Code” for cooperative legislation for game___-.-_--.------------ 284
Harrington, Professor, administration of weather service__--__-----.------- 79
Harris, Thaddeus W.., first official entomologist in Massachusetts, work ----- 136
Harvard College, books on agriculture in library in 1790__---_------------- 495
subscriptions for endowment of professorship------------ 161
Harvesters and self-binders, notes -..-.-----.\-2=- -¢-4 = .22.2.-0 ee ee
Harvesting and cultivation of corn, wheat, etc.--.....--.------.--!-----=- 332
of seed... Sac2) Bee ae ee eee 564
Harvey, experiments for discovery of movements of heart and blood_----- 95
Hatch Act, for experiment stations, notes on passage and purpose ----- .--- 172
notes; limitations on funds for exper iment stations_-__-_- 517, 519, 521
Havana seed leaf tobacco, note on growing in Connecticut_..---..-.---~-- 27
Hawaii, Commissioner of Agr iculture and Forestry «3... cibax4e2-Geeeee it
introduction of foreign’ birdsuc_ 20. 2ek-0 Hasse ee eee 290
note on agricultural possibilities -.-..---.----.-----------.-+------ 60
Albert Koebele’s work in economic entomology ---------- 154

need of experiment station. .2222642- ee eee = eee 33

INDEX. — 865
Page.
Hawaiian Islands, collection of albatross eggs .._----------.------.--=--=: 271
Hawks and owls, study by Biological Survey, and bulletin --.....--------- 265
Hay, acreage, production, etc., statistics __....---------- 764, 770, 787, 792, 797, 808
Lome; SOUth remarks —22 = |e eeeee es 5 Oe To ae nee ae eee 53
Le RE Se A RR A 2 I ae a ae 2 726
IIA. DEROTOSS ~~ =. =< = 3) ee eee ns 2 Oo Ok hn SO eee 332
Heart, experiments of Harvey for discovery of movements------.--------- 95 ~
MEE OveTeeEN HOUSES, 1mMprovementie = =. =. se eee mY io)
rinenusson. by Secretary, <2--."-- - 2... 50. Sst. 2 uc Lee 64
Henry, Professor, weather maps under supervision __.-.-.-..- ----------- GG
Herbarium of Division of Agrostolomy, notes?__......-2---..2-----25-22- 31, 366
Herd improvement for dairy cattle, remarks ------------------------------ 391
Hereford, breeders, struggle for place among cattle -_._._--.---.---------- 636
eattle: importationsiar breeding. =... - 2... 5s Se eee 332
Parma sOOStruCction Lor featners=: .£ ..-. 24... --2 ene sen enh eee ooo eae 278, 274
menes Drasiiensis, rubber plant. note. ....-.--.----.-------, --2-s2= Seen 62
abs: TavonalMA~wemetn = — .... 2222228022 52-.- ete ee ee 372
Ser. Woe ene i 8 ee bee 228, 340, 362,515 ¢
feed sheep pasture, use of woodland... .....-.._=-...--.-.---=4-cesees 422
Sancasses, MICrORGOpIC MspechiOnS. =.=... 2.2225 22-2 2- h ne See eee 48
cholera and sheep scab, work of Bureau of Animal Industry --------- 452
treatmentaremarks by Secretary... 2... <1. 20st 2 2-2 50
use of serum, and ‘stamping out,” notes_____---------------- 453
slaughtered, parts taken for inspections---..-.-..-...----------=- 22.2 AGS
Meee inspection for export (see also Swine) -..._-.-_--.------.-------=---= 456
Hotmes, GEORGE K., article on ‘Progress of Agriculture in United
Cop bb Bi SSR oy JSS 2 eR a eee Se ee Se 307-834
Pemncrreadine Courses 1. agriculture 2-2-2 ce 188
Homestead law, lack of adaptation to the arid region _-__-__-----.--------- 603
aTEIimatIOn Of SLUCOSC. -.=-----2-2----“Pa-. 22s -- 2824 244
Hops, crop of certain countries; wholesale prices- --.-------------.------ 780, 809
Mmascenocoers associations, list....:2 s_.-2...-.2-4-22 225222 eee eee 693
inoculation with virus of glanders from man_---------------------- 98
mee COWDOX, Variola, discussion . 2.3 <2... 52-2. oe ee 102, 107, 108
MEOISCOVCLY-OF Vanlola..... 200 er tS See 105
Horses, American, remarks of Secretary on market----------------------- Di
Bid producte. provision for inspection 2-22 2--_ --22-- Seen ee 460
sheep, proguchon Of anthrax. -_ += =2. 2-8 tae ee ee 115
im hrance, Garlyanproag Of clanders)_-_- === 2 222 ee 97
MIM DEraANnacy alee ne ee 818, 819
Hornculmral and kindred: societies, list’ ...... .--.2)22-4.--_-5_22 22-22 704-708
exhibit for Panis Exposition, notes. 222 2222 52.22 eae eee 20
investigations of experiment stations _--.....-----.---------- 545
plants, practical tests by experiment stations __..._-_------- 538
Horticulture, practice among the Romans and subsequent neglect--__----- 595
work of experiment stations: 4. .~ 5) en eee eee eee 536
Hot water, introduction in heating greenhouses- ---___.<.---.-------------- 579
enpeds orcine Of yerctables-=.. 20... .-..+..L..UL225. Jee eee 579
n1OLES.ON early GConsuruGchiOonSs.... 22. | 222222222 ee ee eee 582
Hough, Franklin B., appointment to report on forest products -__--------- 301
Houghton Farm, experiment station, account-._--.--------.-----:-+-==4=- 517
Houghton’s Seedling gooseberry, production .-.--.----------------------+-- 483
Hovey, C. M., improvement of strawberry, etc.---..-------.--------- 472, 478, 580
Hovey’s Seedling strawberry, development and introduction --.-....------ 482
Howarp, L. O., article on ‘‘ Progress in Economic Entomology in the
inGed Oo bAleS ase ee 8 oe ee ee eee ee 135-156
Ramer sclover. CVOLUMON = 5228 2.02 2 ea ee eee ee eee = pee 565, 566
Humus, elements, notes on entrance into plants_----._....--=----=------- 219, 220
mew factsiin, Chemistny <: 2.34". 8 4208 Ness eee ee 742
sinde by Chemist, noe 22-25. 2t\jseo ch ote = ooo a ee 240
Hurricanes, discussion by Redfield, Esby,and others-----.---------------- 74, 75
Hybrid raspberries, parentage of Dictator and Caroline-_-_-..---_----------- 481
Pmrioisaiion in tea, culture, Dove, .. <_<. 3.25.5 24s bse52 3-— ee eee 58
note on use in improvement of plants _-.------------------- 472
of plum; blackberry, and Taspbertye os. s-ss5— ee oe 480, 481
mmrids compound, usefalness”.-. 2.2.0.4.) 263 23 eee ne eo eres 474
HESHEXACE KMO WLEO Merry ce oe = Se a Ret ae ee ee ere 469
oerapes and pears; Temarks!. .. 0-224. ss ee anes eee see 476, 477

i a 99 5d

866 “=o
Page.
Hydrochloric acid, usein. making sineoses 222 cs 2s oe Sa eee eee 254
Hydrocyanic-acid gas, use as insecticide, remarks ___.......--.------.--- 150, 152
Minos Boarder Aoracultume, uo reary sige ee eee 504
destruction or native cattle by Texas fever. =. --- 126
Immigration, flow from Europe into United States _-_-___-_.-------.._-- 655-656
Import animals, inspection and quarantine... .-..-.+.-----~-....-s-e=5 eee 457
Importations of cattle Tor breeding--_-___.__-<_ --_-s<.22-5-2- oe ee 632
imports, of agricultural products; prices... 2.2. -25e0. 22204 822-828, 856-837
India rubber, discussion of trade, supply, etc., by Secretary__.__.--..---_-- 61
Indian’ corn, analyses;note (see also Corn) 2----22- 2-252) 236
indians, beginnings of agriculture... ..<-520.2-2.222-6se eee 307
selection of .corm<for seed 37 espe edness ee ee 468
injurious insects, principal, of 1899.35 -- 2-2 =: 5. a 745-748
Inoculation experiments in study of glanders-_..-_.---.----.----.- 98, 99, 100, 101
Texas fever investigations _.....--..-2222--525 130
transmission of anthrax to domestic animals ____-__-__.._. .-- 116
Inoculations and exposures, experimental, success-_---.-------------.----- 113
experimental, upon animals and children, remarks__--_- 106, 108, 122
Insecticide, introduction and use of Paris green____-___----------------- 146, 149
Insecticides, machinery for distributing.- 9222 42) 22 4- 152
study by Chemist, note: ....-2-<2.-2< 5-52.24 -22245652) 240
Insects in greenhouses, use of hydrocyanic-acid gas__----.---------------- 151
injurious, early remedies /- "2 je wae ee) a ee 144, 146
to wheat, cotton, etc., report by Townend Glover__-___-__- 138
principal injurious; of 1809 2282 226 2- enone a 745-748
Inspection and quarantine of animals and products -______.--------- 456, 457, 459
of dairy ‘products, indorsement. . 2.25222 -2 0282. = 22a 53
pork, reduction of Cost2: 221-1 S22 Soe aee 464
work of experiment stations .._ 2.222 - “2293222 540
Inspections, animal,number and cost --...¢.-. .-s]2s- 265 8225eee0-555= ee 48
Instrumental equipment of weather service, note -__---------------+------ 84
Insurance rates on cattle, reduction as result of inspection ______-_.------- 458
International simultaneous observations, note._.____...------+.-_--_-_--_- 86
fowa, notes on treatment of, hog cholera... 225-2 - 3. -2--224- 5 50, 453
Irrication and cooperation, remarks....--- c= 35 8oe aes sehen eee 608, 610, 611, 612
Ganals, losses = 222.522. < 2-4 eee oe eee 596
growth and need of better laws..-.5..._.- ---=5.25--5553eee 601
in Louisiana and other Southern States, notes _____.__-.__-_---- 39
relation to alkali soils, notes __..---------.--. jie ho: See S 25
influence upon people and couminy 222: -.---- 2.22 see _ 09
investigations by office of experiment stations -__._...-----.---- 530
remarks iby Secretarya-. ..3.22.22 36, 37, 40
modern; bepinning si... 62 fe. eee eee 592
presentiand futures. 8.5 exe ee <2 Ae ee 600-612
rise and future in United States, article by Elwood Mead ----. 591-612
Isabella grape, introduction..-2 2: -2-22 22222 ----- = 3 ee ee ee ee 475
Island possessions, note on experiments with rubber plants_--_----.------- 65
Yeonandra gutta, rubber plant, note. 222-22 2 on poe eee eee 62
Japan clover, value for succulent forage -....-222..22 2222. 22. eee 624
introduction Of TiC6.:2 225.023. 5S oe ee eee ee 63
order for tobacco; mote: 22. Te See ee ee eee 436
plum, use in hybridization = 202.022 52 22. eee - 480
Japanese barnyard millet, note on use in New England and South --------- 30
Jeiterson, arricultural books.-=.2-* cel a= bee tee ee eee 496
Thomas, note on weather observations .--.-------.-------------- 73
geonks,J.W.P., study of food babite of robin... 2..<..202- 2. eee 261
genner’s discovery of preventive pf smallpox .._.......-.5-.-¢----see==eee 103
Jersey: cattle, booms, remarke. os 50h ee ee 636
Johnson, Samuel W.,and William H. Brewer, early work for agriculture_. 515
work in agricultural chemistry, note . ---------.----- 227
Jones, A; N., improvement of wheat... 22012) yoo eee ee ee eee 487
Judd, Orange, gift to start experiment station in Connecticut-------------- 516

Syivester D., study of birds... .:..-.<c.ccaketeeuceseeee =e eee 266

INDEX. 867

Page
enero. value.for succulent forage: ivi siosg2 os oe ee 625
Kansas, inter esting letter on tree planting eras ts batt « Re 428
Kedzie, Professor, ‘mixture of arsenic and soda as insecticide= __.__.._.__--- 149
Kentucky, note on extension of tobacco industry -._......._____...-------: 430
production of herp? s::SveeeS e e e ee 64
Mepemenie useiacvainst Insects! = 2. 22 2-0 eaas ee A 8 oe eee 149, 150
Kilborne, F. L., experiments in Texas fever investigation ______.________..- 131
Bares notes On use in- weather service... ._. ...-.---<-s2--22 22 222222222 Le 91
Peatinieimce: novuce of introduction. 2-0 ee. 3 ee eee 63
Knapsack pump, notes on first use and on forms_..___...-.-.._-_-----._--- 196
Knight, Thomas Andrew, plant breeding, note_____________._.---_L2-.__--- 469
Koebele, Albert, note on introduction of ladybird enemy of fiuted scale____ 154
Laboratory buildings, new, discussion by Secretary----.-.--..------------- 65
Ladybird (Novius cardinalis), usefulness against scale insects_-_---.----.--- 154
Lafosse, Professor, teaching regarding glanders Sonia eo 96, 106
Land donated and institutions benefited under the Morrill Act ___________- 168
grant colleges, note; general statisties__..___-......-.-------..--.- 169, 185
remarks by Secretary on register of graduates__ .____- 68
Office, General, part in management of forest reserves________-_____- 297
public, relation to progress of ACTICUIGUTE: 202 ea oe Ne 313
Lands, public, appr opriations from sales for building roads2)>2 =. eee it
morn-Out, improvement, remarks. _ 2... 22 _....2.2..22.21_52. 234
Larus atricilla and L. occidentalis, NOUS = =: .= {4 A Lbs WoT ee ee 270, 271
PEEL OM Ot S! og 2. see alee SU a oe I 77, 203, 220
Law for agricultural education in Missouri, note... .-.______----+s._-___-- 69
homestead, lack of adaptation to arid region__...._-..._....-2....__- 603
amnesic lawn making, notes...22/22c./ 200221.) 022 2 eee 354
Laws against Texas fever, early enactments_-_.---.------------ wo Ree 126
Po InIPation, NEGO 22.252 222... 58.48 .5) 2255 5e ee eee 601, 605
nommuynon birds, list. for century: --.. -3222=1- =. 2 a eee 280
early, protecting forest-bearing land_.___...__.. -.-----2+-2.---4. 293, 294
for benefit of agriculture, work of experiment stations_..___..____.._ 546
BeosOuiOn' GL DICGS.-c <2 228222 = ke 282-287
organic, establishing the weather service_---.--.-------------------- fsa
patent, influence on agricultural machinery-------.--------.-------- 319
Lawton blackberry, jeteamuction 2... ....2-..2 822 el eee 481
Lead, arsenate, note on use as insecticide...__._--.--.--2--- eee edocs esse 149
Leaf tobacco, exported from the United States, statistics __.____ ee ns 439
Peeelanon, early, agains; Pexas fever. -.....-..-.222220. 222-222) ee 125
fOr SUPPLessiomlol Torest Ares. 22 -.. _. >. 122s Wee) ee eee 300
need for export mspection of butter ...-.222.__22._ 22522 eS 52
On water rights; zieed= 2 22) 2 eee eee 37
TOAG, NOL =e 8 eee sos = ee i eee eee Al
Legumes, other, and clover, value for succulent forage__-___-_------------- 621
Leguminous crops, early recognition of value to soil__.---_--.------------- 217
forage plants, native, note on tse. _ 2.02 bet ee 29
plants; note'on'early attention _- 229.29 eee 348
supply of nitrogenous food by bacteria..........._____- 246
Lettuce, varieties on trial grounds of Department, note________.....-__-.___- 567
Libraries, agricultural, development, article by Charles H. Greathouse ___ 491-512
for tarmers.s 220) es Mie FASB See dA Le ee 508-511
- of United States, list___--- 2g he a oh nee 757
STOW SD ANE SIZ6 2S 3s ee 497, 498
for farmers, permanent, suggestion .....-.2._2.22..-__.2.-----.- 511
iibrary- ot Conrress: agriculture s.222.22 22582. ne ee eS 506
Department, review of work by Secretary_...___._...__.--_-_- 44
work? publicationss= 2 Se FE See 70, 683
Weather Bureau, notes on growth and contents ______________- 87, 505
aebie, remarks on work... 2-255 22s22 222205222 _ SS SR A eS 218, 221, 222
mecincsitheory of plantisrowthet- 2.0222) sae ee eee ee 337
ife zones, note on mapping on’ the Pacific coast 22._2_ 222-2 2.22282 22 16
tehtning, loss of life and property, remarks: =. ---2=2-2.-.2222 222. 25 eee 15
ema beans, 6volution of varieties 22. 220-252 ee eee ee 567
Lime-and-sulphur dip for sheep scab, composition_--_------.--_------------ 453
anseéed cake, note on value according to Davy _.2-_. 22. ..20222.1-22 22S 211

importance of nitrogenous by-product for dairy cow-_-_-_----------- 7

868 INDEX.

Page
Liquid manures, notes by Kliyogg on collection and use________________- 206, 207
Little Dutch tobacco; notes. 428 1s ae = ee eos ia ae ee 437
peach: disease; note cate t sac a eee ee Litt 18
Live hogs, wholesale prices in leading cities_____._..2.........--.--------- 814
stock and dressed meat, rail rates, Chicago to New York __.__.___--.- 845
Association, National): ) 02. 2. S36" Sa ced ae 688
improving, work of breeder, article by John Clay, jr________-- 627-642
locomotive, improvements 2... .- 7222.2. aeeewis ee 645, 646,650, 652
Locomotives, wood-burning, relation to freight rates _____._____._..______- 659
Locust, Rocky Mouritain, purpose of U.S. Entomological Commission_..... 141
Locusts, profitiof planting: 2525S ee ee 427
Lodeman, E. G., suggestions of remedies for insects, etc ___..___.____- 147, 148, 149
ondon purple, seas insecticide’. 222-2. 52222 2. ee 149
Louisiana experiment station, change of management .____._--------_-__--- 32
production-of rice, remarks... 2.2: -.-- 54-3 £ 63
Lumberine. conservatives discussion sore eee =. sees = oe 419
Lumbermen, farmers, and others, practical assistance in forestry______.__.- 802
in South) imstance offforestryss =) 1-825 5 421
note on cooperation in forestry investigations.______________. 21
Lyme grasses, remarks on varieties and uses ____-___----2-_-__-2_--.------ 356
Macadam and Telford, introduction of broken-stone roads__________.___- 371, 372
Machinery, agricultural, early problem of transportation _____.___________- 76
economic results:of use =. 25.22.24 2020s ee 331
Machines and implements, agricultural, progress_____.._...._.__--_---_--- 314
Madison, James, extract from letter on agriculture ____...___.___._.__-__-.. 163
note on weather observations ==....----...-2.21 == 73
Mails, rural, note on promotion of free delivery __-.-....-._--_---.---.---- 41
Malaria, human, analogy of Texas fever protozoan organism to parasite ___ 1383
Matler Bacillus: note... 25223. oe. ee ee ee 100
Mallein test for glanders; discussion __:-... 22.2222 242 22 ee 102
Manihot glaziovi, rubber plant, note. 5.25.2. 8 a ee eee 62
Manning, Robert, collection of Massachusetts Horticultural Society Library 503
‘Manual labor’ schools; remarks=_- 22 -_.. Lee ee ee 163
Manufacture of tea, means; note. 22 25-.222 2.252 SS es. 59
Manure and coarse straw, effect of application to soil _____._.-_-...-------- 742
for corn, early use of fish . o.. .2.. lees... eee 209
Manures and fertilizers, early knowledge __--.-i--. -----------2-2++2-ece 206-213
yiews of Liebigos 2.2%. 2.038. 322 eee... eee 222
Map, weather, early suggestions; distribution --_----------..-------------- 76, 85
Maps of soils, remarks 220.2)! 2- 2228.2. oS... re d44
Market, British, relations of Denmark and United States ______....__-____-- 47
butter and cheese, remarks by Secretary -___._.._-------------_--- 52
farmers’, enlargement {0.22 ee ee 328
for American horses, remarks by Secretary ..._-_.-_--------------- 57
gardeners, dependence on seedsmen for seed____.._.----------- --- 558
of American products in Denmark, discussion by Secretary -------- 46
Markets and prices for cut flowers.=_. 22222222452. Jt. 2 ee eee 589, 590
foreign, experimental exports of dairy products ___.-------------- 464
for fruits and nuts, note on exhibits at Paris Exposition -_-_-______ 21
Marl, early views on. uselas fertilizers 5 enc. need ee ae ee 207
Maryland tobaccos, curing, use, and method of selling___------------------ 435
Massachusetts Agricultural College, library_-.--_-.----..-. -----.------+--- 499
unique position, courses of study ----- 185
society Ivbraries: +... s-s8222 9-6. Sree eee ee 494, 502, 504

MEAD, ELWoop, article on ‘‘ Rise and Future of Irrigation in the United
bates? ak Sk es ee el ie 591-612
Meal, grains, and flour, analysis, remarks on problems ---__---------------- 235
Meat inspection, figures showing erowth.22--3-4.5.2-6s-4 43 461
need. of moreand better..2...2_.-..-) See 628
statisties:c< 2. .c.o5bl2ce cee eee 48
Meats and meat products, summary view of business of packing---------- 829
dressed, and live stock, rail rates Chicago to New York -.--.--.----- 845
notes On research for preservatives'__.... e222 2525-26-eoee eee 14
packed, rail rates Cincinnatitio New ork. 22 2cs) seers a eee 846
Mechanical and business problems, discussion. .......------------------- 643-653

separation of cream) from mills 2 oes eee eee 393

INDEX. 869

Page
Merriam, C. Hart, outline of investigations of bird habits-.-.---....-.-.--- 264
Metcalfe bean, note on use as forage plant ._-.-.-----------.-+------------ 29
Meteorological data, collection by experiment stations.._-...._.___-_------ 539
senvicé; threeiepoch sites ese i hs ee 72
Meteorologist, work for agriculture, etc., article by F. H. Bigelow --_----- 71-92
Meteorology, contributions of Weather Burean 2.0... 2...) 24g 91
facts obtained by aerial observations with kites___.___._____. 13
AN SEP UCIONY, . 3 4s oe es ase iis SE ee 81
noteone bibliocraphyewes2 so) a. S255 Sse a eee 87
larger questions=. 2. <+ is .. = sat eea- eee 92
Marican Doll weevil Note.On Sstudyos os so. 22 22-5 sete ee Se eee Als
MEAcomiMmspechion ob animalse s2o252 8s. e032 oe et eee 49
PMaemean Arricultural Collegsevdibrary =< ..-..- 22 S222 Nee eee 500
Micro-organism of pleuro-pneumonia, note. ~._-...=_.._ 225-2 .-25--2-- 222 ils
Micro-organisms, relation to nitrogen nutrition of cultivated plants __-_- 246-253
putrefaction and fermentation, investigators_ 300
Microscopic 1InSspecuion.OL pork, GIscUSsIONN.. 225.022 2k = eee oe ee see 462
Me eCOWS, NuUImMperand value. 226! 2b Lee 2 2 ee ee 818-82Q
Milk and milk products, work of experiment stations ___.__-_----..----- 542, 543
patter, and cheese: early methods. =... 22 222.24... 2. =2c2se. eee 383
effect of herd improvement on yield and quality --------- oe te ee ae 392
reat: best; babcock tester tor Making = 24-4222 2-226! 2ee es. sae eee 395
HesicOL TORMSs Chemes. 22 eee eee SO ee en. 6. ee 331
mechanical separawon) OL Cream... 22. .c5s. Sue fees eee 393
PLroauchion, oTow th Of bUSINeSHs...82- J2= 1) SS. =. Sea Se eee 399
Marne method jack of improvements... U=-.25.22-4..202.4 29242625272 eee 398
Millar Japanese barnyard, note on Use’ --.-<= .-2-.<2--s2.2ccoseees cee. oe 30
MEV Alle LOMsUuGCUlent LOrage:. 3.2) <= 25225205 ec58 ol ae eee 625
Miner, R.D., and A.C. TRUE, article on ‘‘ Development of the nutrition
investigations of the Department of Agriculture”.___._._....-_..----- 403-414
Mineral fertilizers, early lack of appreciation; plant nutrition__.-______- 218, 221
POA LO OL, arid Tresion 35205. Ne a a 599
Mitchill, Samuel L., first professor of agriculture in Columbia College ----- 161
Moisture and temper BbUTOOL SOUSE. 9.25 -2s05ce5 505 8 OSes ate eee 343
Minmne se resiaent, vetoes:o: road: bills: 2... 2222. 222 a 374, 875 .
Moore, Professor, administration of Weather Bureau _..---_. _--_.------- 80
Mormons, early irrigation at Salt Liake =. 22 ee ee eee 592
chat 05 Ff.) : a nh ae pe MEE. ie 343
Morrill Act, effect on farmers’ institutes_.........--------.--------------=- 170
OL 1862:memarks: PrOViSlONS)_ «32 oe eee a 167
second, effect on development of agricultural education _____ 2,173
Justin L., remarks on character and on work for agriculture______- "167
Morton... cterline, institution of Arbor Day....-.--.2-=22=2---. 2-22 ue
Moasguioes and flies, carnyine of disease... =.225-. 5.552 s8e26 25 eee 15
Mountain stations in weather service, note___...........------. --.------:- 91
Mowers and reapers, improvements, including patents, trials eice eae 318
Moyamensine Pine, prize strawberry, note. .-2:----. 2025222222252 eee 483
Reese miEM per and values oes 22 noes ane. Sac Bee eee eee oe eee 818, 819
MMUINDOREUSO. OL CSS. 2 2-6 Sees. = ook es woe ene! ee eee 271
Witton. relation to.sheep-breeding=.2 =. -+-<-..2sss.2525- 0 ee ae oe 639
Mycology, Section, establishment in Department of Agriculture___-_..___- 194
RIVED Awd. WOLK.AN. Weather servicele. fo =<ss552e0 =n cea veces see eee 77,78
Nanmonal highways movement... 2122025. 622221 see os Se 372, 373
parks; Foresiuprobleme.<...22. 2. ssss2ol ce 5) Ae eee 298
Natural. sciences, workofland-crant colleges (222-2226 2 oe ee 169
New England, remarks by Secretary on abandoned farms__-__..__.______2 60
Jersey, building of sood roads.2- . 22-2222 beee GaSe ees ee 378
Orleans. training osugcam experts - = 45 a eee eee 187
York, College of Forestry, remarks; forestry work in Adirondacks... 753
early rant for teachingacriculjuresses. = — 9 = ss see ae eee 161
Society for Promotion of Agriculture, work for libraries _____- 493
to Chicago, freight rates; discussion: .2- 222-922 = a 660, 661
Newton, Commissioner, remarks on work of Chemist _..___...____.__.___- 237
Nile, irrigation and dependent population, comparison _______________-___- 598
Nitrates, problem of supply; conversion of nitrogen _______._________--- 249, 251

Nitrification, progress of study and\discussion~-e40s2 4252225520555 eee eee 251

a Oe - INDEX.

Payre.
Nitrifying organisms, study by Division of Chemistry_----.--------------- 246
of application te sik ~ + ao 2c eee 742
Nitrogen, in agriculture, earlwiwiews/: 2 ascebos se Eee a ee ee 217, 221
nutrition of cultivated plants, relation of micro-organisms----- 246-253
Nitrogenous food for leguminous plants, supply by bacteria_-_____--_--_- 248, 249

Normals in weather service. Temarks\ se". CLT ke Seo ea ee
Northern States, note on sugar beetsys fede: eee Suh Qesee Cie eh 57
Northwest prairie region, problem-of securing apples suited to climate ___. 478
Novius (Vedalia) car dinalis, introduction against fluted scale, note __._-.-- 153
Nozzles for spraying insecticides, NObES'..o. ee Se eee eee 153
Nursery stock diseasessremarks slo a 198
Nurserymen, use of hydrocyanic-acid gas on stocks_.__._..--.------------- 151
Nutrition and food of man,scope of investigations ____------_--.-_-------- 404
human and animal, work of experiment stations_________________ 536
remarks by Secretaryom work ..._-..2.2254-. 5 See 35
investigations by Office of Experiment Stations -----__-.--____-_- 530
cooperative, present work ...-:-2.--.--2._2 22225 411,412

of Department of Agriculture, development, arti-
cle by A.C. True and R. D. Milner___._-_____- 403-414
nitrogen, of cultivated plants, relation of micro-organisms____ 246-253
of man and animals, work of experiment stations_-_____- (Le 543
cooperative inquiriess -o: ss). 5522.55. eS eee 405
plants and animals, chemical researches _________--___------ 231, 232
Nuts, improvement by selection )-2 22.2 2-225 225 ©) a ee 489
note on exhibitat Paris Exposition] == ssa 2 eee 20
Nuttall Ornithological Club, formation and work ___-_-----------_-------- 260
Oar seddine in 1800 2. is oe eS Se ee ee 724
Oats acrease.ete:, StabistiCs ssa. ns 26 eee 760, 766, 777, 784, 789, 794, 798, 803
improvement by hy bridization. 2-202. 2222222 ee ee 488
Oil cake from United States, Danish purchases -__~2-_-22_ 7252522 =) oo ee 46
cakes for fertilizing, reeommendation by Davy ------------------------ 211
Oleomargarine, notes on substitution for butter___-____--_.-.-----.------- . 844
Ormerod, Eleanor A. , remark on work of American economic entomologists. 155
Ornamental plants and flowers, Improvemont__-2- 7. #..__- 22 488
Ornithology, economic, functions of Division of Biological Survey --------- 265
in United States, review, article by. T.S. Palmer__ 259-292
Ostrich, South African, establishment of industry <.-!_. 8 =. 2) 3 274
Owen, David Dale, chemical examination of soils__.._....----------------- 340
Owls and hawks, study by Biological Survey, and bulletin--.._--------_--- 265
Ownership of water supply, problem =) 3a se 2). 2 eee 607
Pacific: slope, mvestigations inacrostologye=- =. --- --_- 55255. ae ee 303
States, noteon beet sugar. s2s26 seb et.. . .. 2 Se eee 57
Packing meats and meat products,summary view of business ------------- 329
Paine, Halbert E., efforts for national weather forecasts_____-_-_---------- Yi

PALMER, T.S., article, ‘‘A review of economic ornithology in the United
States? esos wo cwlsede Se coe Ree Sa ea 2 ee eee 259-292
Pan-American Medical Congress, remarks by Secretary on proposition ---- 64
Parasites as causes of plant ‘disease 04... - 1. 191
Parasitism of fungi, note on articles by T.J. Burrill -.......-.-----..----- 193
Paris Exposition, ‘exhibit of experiment stations, remarks by Secretary -- -- 33
note on horticulturaliexhibit---- 2s ee 20
Paris green. introduction as imsecticide.. 52.5525 eee ee 146
Passenger pigeon, notes; early question of need of protection -------- 268, 269, 284
pigeons, table-ofdargerflocks= ‘22 322) 2 see 270
rates, average. per mile... 22-2 2. s-4 ee ee ee eee 849
GISCussion and motes eee ane 648, 653, 662, 663

Passer domesticus. (See English sparrow.)

Pasturage in the South, remarks Se eed eee Nk ee St ol eee) Te Se 353
soiling or silage, CTOPR.c US oe ee ee 2 eee 625
Pasture, use of woodland, for hogs and sheep; motes: 2-2 .se0siS-h cane 422
Pastures, temporary, on American faxrmssnotes 2 ces25e eae 616
worn-out, cooperative work for improvement sus.) oii. 2S ee 29
Patenslaws and agricultural ‘patents. . 22-0. 222.62. eee Le 817, 318, 319

Office, chemistr ¥ in. Agricultural Reports. 3.006 s.eses sss aoe 281, 235

INDEX. 871

Page.

Patrons of Husbandry, aid in general education of farmer ___.________.._- 181
enconragement of dibrames.c- 2-0-2225 222k 222 511

national and State officers_-__--.........---.-.-.- 717-719

Pea, garden, improvement by hybridization ____._._..________.____....-.__- 485
Eepar blight, note on cause and remedy -/-2-_... 22... 22222-22222 eee eee =) OF
study... 5 tae teste ine: oe oie a eee 18

Pears, early work by Governor Edwards in improving __._.__._...___-__-- 471

notes on origin of well-known varieties; extension of cultivation__ 477,478
Peas, acreage devoted to prowilne seeds ise. ese ena ease oe SE See
black-eyed. (See Cowpea. ;\

Peaysous, investiation, note\2 2. s2ue<4 2 We 6 eee be ee Se 742
Peck, William DS first professor of natural history at Harvard, note ____ 136,161
Pedigree in stock breeding, MOLES Het Sia ve Re ee 634, 635
Pennsylvania ‘scalp act” for birds, note -._+_--2-.+2++.-22-2. 22-2422 2 263
State College, extension of agricultural teaching_-_______-. Bee Wis)

Pentosans, effect upon denitrifyi Ine OLLANISMS) =<... 229 e Ae ee 742
Periodicals in librar GUS RS Beck ee rt Bee ee eee 44
Sues 10DaCC, Guring and T8e . .-. 252... 2h 2. 2 4338

Peruyian guano, quality Beye 8) oo ota ate ets 2 ee ee 27

Philadelphia Society for Promotion of Agr iculture, proposal for libraries_. 492
Philippine Islands, remarks on report on “tr nile; azriculiare ...dios eee 45, 60
Philippines, feasibility of cultivation of Isonandra gutta (rubber plant) —__ 62
need iof experiment Bhation.... 024. Lote ee LL 35

Teen W2NOTs Apr ale balling: <9 oe oe oe ate tet ie a oe 284
Phosphates, cause of av ailability of phosphoric, acid: 2-2-2222). == eee 742
Phosphatic deposits of South Carolina, early reference_____.....__----__- — ‘238
Phosphorus, early lack of appreciation asiplant food. == 3 eee 212
Physical and chemical investigations of soils, remarks by Secretary ------_ 28
quality of earths in relation to water, statement by Davy -_------ 205

Pieters, A. J., article on ‘‘ Seed selling, seed growing, and seed jose ”_ 549-574
Pigeon, passenger. (See Passenger pigeon. )
PINCHOT, GIFFORD, article on “ Pr ogress of Forestry in United States ’__ 293-306

Pine belt of Atlantic coast, prevention of fires; planting .........-...--- 425, 426
Pinnated grouse. (See Prairie hen.)
Plains, Western. importance and extent of tree planting -..........----.-- 426
fea roads, remarks on early popularity... -.=:-. 5. -22.c4~..ssesenceese 371
Plant and seed, introduction, note on section_.-..........--.------------.- 55
breeders, note on conference in Tiondon. _...- .. 22222222282 2 aces 19
breeding during nineteenth century, evolution of methods-__-_- 468, 469, 470
in United States, progress, article by Herbert J. Webber
and *EirnstcA.. Bessey: 20 jo. ee ee 465-490
review of improvement of fruits in ‘nineteenth centur Vosco mai
diseases, beginning of modern research __-___.--.-..---__----- 192, 193, 194
in "1899, ea Sia 750
the United States, progress in treatment, article by B. T.
Galloway2===- 2.42 ..2.3825. 2 eee eee 191-200
food, nitrogenous, supply to leguminous plants by bacteria __---_--- 248
remarks on dgnger of/exporting: 22-42 -2=98 4 2 eee 233
statement ‘by Davy 2 ie 2.222 oe ee eee - 205
Browne Gera 22 22 22 2k re re Se a Pes shoe =) 758i
Prowl. study of chemistry... 2... 22.ic2eeo. Qe ee eee - ‘44
nutrition, development of principles, by Liebig -.--___-_----------- AAS
ele: mote om shud yrs ete ee De Se eee aes eis
maLbolopinin igck soba <0 ot 2 soce- el ere De vei See 37, 67
pathology, present and future, remarks.____.....-._..--_--..-.-.--- 199
Beintinejof forests, discussion’ = 2s5s0% “2082 te eee eee ae See ae
Plants, cultivated, relation of micro- organisms to nitrogen nutrition ---- 246-2
for production of rubber, ee AMET SSOP |. 62
semiarid regions, remarks by Secretary soe othe es. 60
growing under ‘glass, present state of industry_-_._....--...=..-- 585-590
progress, article by B. T. Galloway -.----- 575-590
growth, study of chemical processes, note__.._....._.--.------..--.. 240
proot of sexualitiyess ae Sn ee ee aes Does ee ee eee O9,
statements of Sir Humphry Davy on relation to soil______..-.------ 204
views of Liebig and others as to supply of carbonic acid_________- 220, 222
Pleuro-pneumonia, contagious, work of Bureau of Animal Industry_____- 442, 448
experiment asioicontagion |< 755s. tae ee ee 112

experiments and report of Australian commission -~---- 110

872 INDEX.

Pago.

Pleuro-pneumonia, inspection of cattle, notes.__-.....-..---------- 2. eae. 443, 444

INV.estiGahoOns eves 2 es ee ee ee, eee 109, 110, 111

proclamation of ‘eradication... 2.2.22. -22_- - 2-2: 445

statistics of work of eradication -_..___-. 22222-22222 446

success of experimental exposures and inoculations.._. 113

Plows, review of improvements including patents_._........_.-.-.--_--- 315, 316

Plum curculio, development of use of Paris green ___..___.____.---_-_-__-- +148

Plums; remarks ondmprovement 22s] osss Soe ae eee 479

Poa macrantha, value as sand binding grass, note _______________---_.------ 354

Polar expeditions, international, note ---..- =. -..22.2992)_.-L 2. - eee 86

Pollen, early use of mixture in hybridization. =. _- 9/22: .2-4_2252e eee 473

Pomology, Division, organization and duties; publications_---------____- 669, 684

‘Pond’s seedling ‘grape, introduction_\_ 224-2 -. 820.2 222 ee eee ATS

Poplar, success in systematic lumbering 2.2) 2.) 0 221 25a Sas eee 422

Population, center, relation of movement to transportation__-._--.-------- 658

Pork inspection microscopic =! iu. 222 ae S2 ees 2 se Se 462, 464

statishies 222522) cs wees eee = he ere eee ee 49

Portland Oreg., importation of birds; notes===--- oe = ee 288, 289

Post-graduate work in agricultural science, lack of opportunities -__.__---- 68

office regulations, note on effect on seed trade __-_-.--------------- eas

Potash, early notes on value'as plant food --. 2-00.22)... 2 ee 213

Potato beetle, Colorado, use of Paris green, note __.__._________--------_--- 146

Improvement fromiséedlings' = 22 eae eee 484

Potatoes, acreage, production, etc., statistics._---___..-_-- 763, 769, 786, 791, 796, 807

study of ‘starchyield i222: s 22s ee ee ee eo ee 743

Potato-rot fungus, impetus to study of plant diseases___-___-_-.----------- 192

Poultry associations, st... 26e2.. 2S a2 Jt Se See 697

enemies notéeion book 222) 2262. 2 eee eee 263

Statistices7:..%=42o--¥.22i8. 9s 2. ee ee eee 324

Prairie hen; slaughter and disappearance .25__22 2222 ee a eee 268, 269

Precipitation, average daily departures from normal for 1899__________-- 737-741

Preservatives in foods, statement of Chemist________.-_--_.---._-_..__---8 14

Preserving, canning, and refrigerating, development ------.--------------- 328

Press, agricultural, dissemination of information regarding chemistry_--_ 229

bulletins of experiment stations, notes _...._-_-------------.----- 523, 541

Pribilof Islands, collection of birds’ eggs--_--- GEL. .....8 271

Prices of. principal. crops, statistics _> - 22.2 22.5288. 2. . =. 222 eS ae 759-771

“Process” butter, remarks by Secretary on damage to butter market_-_-___- 52
Proteids, vegetable, chemical study: == 2...952220-222.-_- .. 22233 Seeeeee 744 |

Prussia, commission to investigate pleuro-pneumonia ____.-----.---------- 110

Public control of irrigation, need of adequate system, note-___----_------- 602

use Of moneytrom sale for road) buildane!_:)_._ 2 eee 372, 37.

Jands, leasing, discussion by/Sectetary=-e--_ 2-252 ae 59

librariesvasgriculturalbooks 22 c.-) ee 2 oe 506-508

Road Inquiries, Office, organization and duties (see also Road) ----- 669

supervision and control of irrigation&= —._..2s2429e02 "2 eee 608

Publications; Department; motes 2-2) 550 sees eee ee 676

Division, organization and duties; publications -_.-_------- 669, 684

miscellaneous, remarks by Secretary -....__---------.--.--=- 43

of BiologicaliSurvey,notes. 224555 eee 264.

Department, demand: 2. ..¢--.4eb see see eee 45

during’ calendar: year 1899/4222 25- =~ 2a eee 676-686

experiment stations, franking privilege, etc -_----------- 520, 540

Office of Experiment Stations, remarks -__-_.------------ 527

on agriculture; beginning 2) 62a 25 ae eee 159

economic entomology, notes=.-- 2458-225 e Sa. ee 142

systematic agrostology, list of most important ----.---- 362, 363

(papers) of Weather Bureau, list of subjects---..-.----------- 86

private,on grassesiand) forase plants. 22 22224 —=e =e 390

Fuerto Rican insects; note on study lscueos. 2242nele ee eee 15

Ricojand Cuba, climate andicropisenvmiceses. as s2s2= === eee eee 12

note on. cattle: ticks:.2s.. esse eae ee ee 50

need of experimentistation 22 os5s. se22eeee-e eee 33

production of tropical fruits and coffee ._....-------- 61

Putrefaction, relations of micro-organisms, list of investigators ----------- 250

Pyrethrum roseum and P. cineraricfolium, tests in growing forinsecticide. 152

Pyrosoma, absence from Puerto Rican cattle ticks _.......-.----.--------- 50

bigeminum, contagion of Texas-fever...-.. 0.20. 5ct-------eccce . 1383

INDEX. 873

Page
Quarantine aud inspection o£ Import anmunalss.<2: 2.2. soe oo ee 457
for Texas fever, regulations for tr ansportation Of (cattlesaseas 449
of animals, gtatinticnte ee ian nek oh eC 49
restrictions for pleuxo-pneumonia. note! 4-2 eee 443
use as means of suppression of Texas fever_____._.___._____-- 133
Railroad extension, effect on crops and values ________....__..---------2-- 336
Manarers, alm) OL lMprovements). . 422-1992 -o see ae Se eee . 665i
mileage, advance with growth of population _________________-_- 656
EDO Se eee See en = SE Cas oats n= os) ee ee 653, 659
irack, similar constructions im earlier times __- 2.052522 0 eeee 644
Railroads, building, consolidation and extension _._____________- 646, 648, 651, 652
note ontiree planting on plains). _ 2.02225 50 sss oe eee 428
steam, introduchon and development =- 2. 42 22252-—. ee 875
Rails and roadbed, early forms and improvement _________________-- 649, 650, 651
Railway, Midland, of England, passenger rates ______.........----------.- 663
Rainfall for the season in several regions (see also Precipitation) _____.___- 731
note onixelanon to teacultre: 4220s ee eee ee 58
observations ol cause by spy, notei 2-22. 4. s-4 222. eee 74
imaneo industries; influence on irrigation... 2-2) 222.222.2024. 522 oe ee 604
lands notes onireclamation=:.. 224 0 sai Bh Se ee 29
Ranges, cattle of Southwest, note on overstocking_-___......_..----..-_-- 349
for stock, remarks by Secretaryus= 42.9 2s se 62 cee eee eee 59
Seaspverries, remarks.on improvement. .._.....:.....----..--.--s8s-ss2555 480
Bates. ireichtiand passenger, discussion 2.0. 2. 22222. ees. oo ae eee 660
Rations for Army and Navy, utilization of results of nutrition studies.... 412
Reading courses, farmers’, methods, purposes, and officials__________._=___- 17
Reapers and mowers, improvements, including patents, trials, ete_.__.___- 318

Redfield, generalizations of first essay on storms___----.-..--.--------.--- . ti
Redwood in California, notes on growth and study ______..----__.--..----- 21, 238
Refrigerating, canning, and preserving, development _________.___.__-__-- 328
Regie governments, kind of tobacco required for-teade: us 2532.24 53S4a50— 434
Rear orass: NOON Use. <2 22 See Peed Le a eee 30
imenenyes, forest, improvement of service: . 222... 212 262.-92 ue ee eee 752
TPOVAGWES =... .ccacemeeee eee Sole A ee 295
Reservoirs (in irrigation) remarks by Secretary.___.__..._...------------- 39
faeercrop of certain countries, 1895-1899. S222 es eee 782
elds, intleatloneeee > abe oa i ee ee 39
From: Japan, Dobe omaintroductione. sess eee lees os es ee 16
improved, discussion of introduction by Secretary _____-.-_-_--_----- 63
Richardson, Clifford, note on analyses of flour and bread_______.___.-_--_- 405
Riley, Charles V., work for economic entomology ._....... -_.--------.- 140, 147
Rinderpest, note on confusion with anthrax -____.............-..._.- ae 114
femerscaces, note.on pubblacation 222.2... 4.-. 33... eee eee 89
Pivers. VW estern, notes:om lows. 22... 22220. 5. eee: eee e 39
Roadbed and rails, of railr oad, early forms and improvements -_---------- 649
Road building, Congressional action, TeMATKSs 2 uu txt Thea Seah ee 374.
in United States, progress, article by Maurice O. Eldridge_ 367-880
FeGent PROSTess eee os ees ee eee 749
Road Inquiries, Public, Office, establishment (see also Public) -_____-__---- 377
publications: 2. =:\. 2. Ses ee eee 684
parliament, national, central committee, committeemen_.__._..____- 701
iosdsand canalsearly agitation and. effort. = = 92-525 e + oo eee 654
imjearly days; descriphonihysDickense: 922222.) eee 377
of colonists; forced-laborsystem 2) 2—. 2 =.. 5. = = ae eee 368
DLOPOSi tion, for nationale syeheriyeee es sees yee ee era eee ees ee ee 373
ro pinrecood a bitsie 22.22 eee We ee ses ay ON Cl os te ae 261, 263
Rocky Mountains, grasses of eastern slope, early report _._____________-_-- 349
Roof, sash, substitution of fixed roof in greenhouse_____________-___._..__- 579
Roses and other flowers, figures for quantities sold ___.__.______--___-_.---- 584
thaTHOIOR METRE NG Onye lanyd OKO beEH oye 2 ee ee ee = 7489
Rothamsted, study of nitrogen as plant food _..........--.-2..-...-.-.--- 247
Rubber, india, importance of trade, supply, etc., discussion by Secs etary _- 61
plants, experiments for island possessions U a a eee ee 56
Rusk, J. M., proclamation of eradication of pleuro-pneumonia___-_-__.-_---- 445
Rust, wheat, notes,on relation) to: bar berry -2 ..': =- 2-22 ese ee oe See 192

Rye, acreage, production, etc., statistics.....-.- 762, 768, 779, 785, 790, 795, 798, 805

874 ' «INDEX:

Page.
Satmon, D.E., article on ‘‘ Some examples of the development of knowl-
edge concerning animal diseapes” 6202 252200 sos s23 2 ee 93-134
Saltbush, Australianschemicallsindy 29-2 oe ee ee ee ee 743
note on Valueon alkalidamdss2 see bee ee a ee ee 29
Saltbushes, remarks ‘on, valwer 22h 2b es Se ee ee eee 359
Salt Lake City, damage to-alkali soils 2) L os: {2224.12 Sle ee ee 26
marshes grasses, notes. 0.2 ase SecA ee eee eee 35D
note on early use.as offensive to insects _ 2220.2. 22 22 eee 213
River Valley of Arizona, civilization |!) 2252 ee eee 599
San Jose scale, study; discovery in Eastern United States_________._____. 15, 143
Sand-bindins prasses; notes losis 2 Se ee ee ee ee 304
dunes. tree planting... 5 . OL eee ba be SS ees Sa ee 428
Sane, French name ofanthraxoc! o0. 2a Sie eo ever See ee eee 115
Sanitary boards, secretaries, and State veterinarians ______----_--- =i 698-701
Saunders, William. notes.ion work 2-22) 2525222 ee a eee 66, 348, 487, 580
neab, sheep; remarks by Secretary 2 32.27 es ee eee 50
Scale insects, use of hydrocyanic acid gas, notes on use_________.__-___- LS) ea
wihite.or fluted. destruction; motes <2_028 2 e) 220 eet ed eee 153
School, district, suggestions of location of agricultural library_._________ 495,512
for instruction:in meteorolopy ...225es Seo ce eee 81, 82
schools, agricultural, carly establishment. 2222222222) se sss eee 225
common, instruction insmeteorolezye: !). _- 222-2 eee 83
of agriculture, secondary courses. <2 2+ 22.22. eeeee 188
OTSaANImAbiOMy a2 5 U So. ee 177
veterinary, establishment of first, dates and places ___._-_.--.-_-_- 96
Sciences related to agriculture, provision for teaching _____ _______-__._-- 184
Scientific, agriculture at middle of century, discussion _______-----_------ 218-224
and technical reports, note on distribution _________._--.---___-- 676
farming, note on change in system of agriculture ______---_._-_- 246
or systematic agrostology, review of work ___.__-____-_-_____- 362-366
problems in meteorology, note on study in Weather Bureau _---_- 82
research by expermment stations 24) ee eee 523
training in Department, remarks by Secretary -_-.--------------- 67
SCRIBNER, F, LAMSON, article on ‘‘ Progress of economic and scientific agros-
tology? so ee sk et eee 347-366
note on work on pliant diseases _______-_-..---2-2-2- 194
Seaweed as fertilizer, note on early use 222222 32Eseee ee 21
Secretary of Agriculture, authority to contract for telegraph service ---- -- 84
conclusion .of report 225" =... Se eee 69
duties. 22 Sk ee . ee 667
Ofice publications #242 4s) /. +... ee 677
recommendations ____- 14, 15, 26, 42, 53, 59, 64, 65, 66, 351
reports..: =e Sew eee 9-7
seed catalooue,development...2222-.. ic. 22.2 eee 553
difference in results from differences in growing_______-------------- 563
export dtadee Seer anes Saas ee ORNS. ee ee Se 557
for planting, present general theory. 2.222- -. -. ...--2 eee 47
eermination, siudy ‘of chemisiny = 2 se) 2 ee eee 744
prowine, discussion —925 S22 las FAYE oo ER en a 557-564
harvesting — <..chuecl. See , Uwe Sle s) be ee 564
houses, srowth, remarks! 20. 3) eee =e eee ee 506
of Egyptian: cotton, note on distribution Jo 222-2 a eee 65
Tarkestan. clover, note! 22.2 25h ka ee ee ee ee 64
selling, growing, and testing, article by A.J. Pieters. ____._-.-_----- 549-574
testing, discussion _._.__-=- noe Sg. Se Mee ea Set tn a 570-574
laboratory; commercial note — 4022 295 els eee 57
tests, in distribution by Department .22)22-.2.. 2.2220 0uea eee 56
trade during first half century. 2.22.24. 0212.2 Se Re ee eee 552
Seedlings, ungrafted, use in early fruit culture ___.......-...---------.---- A471
peeds, Division, organization and duties {225202 eee 87
moses on tests; notes on introduction 2225222525222 222 seeeee eRe 16
Seedsman’s modern catalogue, importance and use_________-_------------- 595
secdsmen, methods of seed testing... 2.2.24. eu be uel d72
Seepage from irrigation canals, note on effect in alkali soils _______._------ 25
Self-registering apparatus, note on evolution .__.___-_..__-_.:--.--.-------- 84
Semiarid regions, remarks by Secretary on efforts to secure plants_-------- 60

Separator, cream, advantages, forms, and improvements-_--_-_------------ 293, 304

INDEX. 875

Page
Pamtiareatmont.for hog cholera, note S342 se262.4- 0522 ee ee 453
Setting cream, notes on methods’... < eMEMO es csi Ad ce cee 390
Shade, fruit, and other tr ees, diseases: 6 cee ts eae. ee eee Se eee 750
PeaKors oTowine and selling of scedss 222222. ht es oe ee eee 558
eeecp and cattle industries compared.-..2222- 202-0 6 eee 629
percentages of Tosses/atisea. ..-..2e eee 459
hermasture, use of woodland: 2). ..2. 42.2... -eee ee 422
Horses, production of anthrax.) 2 si. 4. ae eee ee ee 115
insecdorsr associations, listagssc: 3. lekker eee 694
im poOrlLanonvwor Dreedine = 2-255, 223255... aL ee eee 633
DSP EC BOM LOMO PONG 2.02 oe i EN ee 49, 456
PUBL OL, AN eval t eas fe SL ae eee eee Be eee 818-821
reduction of mortality by use of anthrax vaccine____.__._.__..__-- 120
scab and hog cholera, work of Bureau of Animal Industry ______-_- 452
ToMmarks by, secretary ..o: . 5202 552 lL ee 50
RoOURces OL ANcOMe! NOLOse{O4s. . sa... 52... Ue eee 639
trafic, regulation against sheep scab, note -_......_-..-..---------- 453
Shipment of sheep, measures to prevent spread of scab __...___._..__----- 51
Ships for export of cattle,improvement under inspection _______._______-- 458
PEER CALC GISCUISHION. 2022... 4-2 Sete 2 eee 632, 637
PeenouiS and. blue prama,remarkslo 2222 -522.22 2 Jeo esl oe ee 307
Signal Corps, transfer of weather service _._.__..___.--.-------.---------- (Ae,
Service, establishment of Climate and Crop Bulletin _____________-_- 88
Silicic acid, as cause of availability of phosphoric acid___._..__._..___.--- 742
Hos construction and treatment of contents... ...22..-0.22.222-2.- 2285. 618
Pateren UOMmmnsi. 22 .20ts- Un 2 eee acd oe ee 619, 620
pioneer attempts at preserving forage __._-..---.....---------..-- 616, 617

SINCLAIR, ANGUS, article on ‘‘ Development of transportation in the United

MDT te roy ne ot apd ee ce 643-663
PEMBEINLGS CISGASES | -. -: Jc 2 she Rees Soe oe ek Se Se 751
Bmax. cowpox, and horsepox, relation --.-.. 22. Lis..22.0. 2526 soc2 eee 108
Oxuavartiola,: GISCUSSION ». 2. eee es es ee eee 102, 103
Smithson, Hugh, proposal to use bequest as aid to agriculture ______..___-- 164
Smithsonian Institution, display of weather maps--------.--.------------- 77

Smoking and manufacturi ine tobaeeos, Giscussion: 4-525) 2s eee 45
Smuts of wheat, corn, etc., MObeE,/cs net. ea ne ee 192
Smyrna fig trees in California, remarks on fertilization._.._.-..----------- 15
Snowstorm of Hebruaryyl809, remarks 2222-25200) DS 2 ee 12
Societies, agricultural, note on early organizations in England__-__-__- aS
Society and State board (agricultural) libraries ._._............_...----- 502-504
Sodium nitrate, early notice of value as fertilizer__...2.._.......---._--_-- 239
Soil analysis, methods described by Sir Humphry Davy_-_----.----------.-- 204
Baeterm=s: useful andinymurmous <. 2225.5. 0.2. 6225.2 eee Ss eee 249, 252
iMvesnpations, Important summary .2---.-2..-252. See 345
in the United States, article by Milton Whitney_____- 330-346
physical and chemical, remarks by Secretary_.--.--.--- 28
mapping in the East, remagks by Secretary ------.---.-----.+--------- 26
necessity of aeration, moisture, and liming, to nitrification.____...___- 252
physicist, proposed study of abandoned farms _____.___-......-____-_- 60
memreeista, lack, notes: 23 = fee ves = 82.82. ee ee suat Jul ee 37, 67
problems, ‘effect of chemical research ...__...-..---------------------- 341
Soiling, growth-of practice in the United States. -..-..--.--.--.--..--.+--- 615
pasturage, or silage, minor crops... --..2522 :.422¢ 22224522 ee 625
Sollssanalysis.reporhor Chemishtor i869 sos.) 2225 ee ee 238
chemical and bacteriological inyesticationse.2.- =. 2. ees 339, 341
collection and exper iments at Sitka and other Alaskan points _______ 35
comparative studies by Division of Chemistry____._.-........__.---- 245
derivation from rocks, statement by Davy -...-.--..---------------- 205
Division, organization and duties; publications ___________.-_----- 669, 684
[early] knowledge of composition and functions ______-.------------ 203
Girect Of sea water, Compositions 232 22 soa! 246 2 ee ee eee 743,
open and porous, early preference, note... .2-.~./ 3-62 ee 217
study by experiment stations; in chemical laboratories.._.___. .__. 534, 743
temperature and moisture, remarks; texture, remarks __________-- 343, 344
Song Birds, European, Society for Introduction, note on work _____._----- 288
Sore heels jorerease. relation tor cowpoOx ss 225 2225 5-5 eee ee eee 103

Sorghum study by Chemist, semarks; tsefulness2. 2 - 222-525-4825... -255 242, 243

876 INDEX.

Page
Sorghums, value for succulent forage... 2232 -2e2ot ee ee eee 625
South America, introduction: of potatoesssa.---- 2 a ae ee eee 484
Carolina phosphates; introduction, N0te,.26se se ee ee eee 338
Railroad Company, operation with locomotives------------ 646
grazing and forage problems -...._. -<22-2i22-42>_25_ eae 352
ilusiration-.of lumbering. 22. . es 2uaaeete8 See See ee ee 421
Southern cattle as source of disease, early observations (see also Texas)... 125
note.on Inspection 2215225. U8 = ee 49
grown vegetables, beginning of effect on Northern market ------ 483
Spanish language as obstacle to Weather Bureau work in Puerto Rico -_-- 12
Sparrow, Jinglish, bounty laws .__-_=-----<:-~--+--.55-s-220-5 =e 280
Biuropean, tree, introduction—. -.-<2-2:222_.-- a 288
Splenetic fever. (See Texas fever.)
Spores, anthrax, survival of treatment with alcohol and oxygen _.__-_--__- 119
Sportsmen, League of American, work for enforcement of game laws -__--. 287
Spraying nursery stock, growth and saving, notes_-___._. ---------------- 196, 199
of orchards with Paris green, etc., notes_--------- | 147
with copper sulphate, note. 2-2) =e 2s. -52 fee). 18
Sprout land, careful cutting. ...2 22 4:s29 sss -esee i 2 ee 419
Spruce, early conservative eutting.....2.-- =. 22. ae ee 419, 420
in Adirondacks, improvement in cutting___-_____-------_--------- 2
Squash, improvement by crossing and selection_---._:-..--.-.------------ 486
Stable, model (French) (commission, note. 2-52. --22-22-..-22 eee 99
‘‘Stamping out” of hog cholera, effectiveness of work---_---.-----.-------- 454
Starch manutacture, remarks <: ..- =) 35 pe eee 253
yield in potatoes, study 2. .s---s-<-s2.605--45-- .< -328 3 743
Stassfurt salts, study of effect on starch yield in potatoes___________-____-- 743
State agricultural societies, secretaries, list -...-22---2+-2....-.--22 25a 687
board and. society. (agricultural) Wbraries 225 = eee 502-504
forestry, review of work in United States; list of States ______.__-__- 299
officials: in.charge of agriculture, list 2252-2 2 eee ' 686
weather services, note on establishment...) 225.) 2 eee eee 87
Statistics, Division, organization and duties; publications -_--__________- 668, 685
Steam engine, early discussion of use for transportation -__-__-__----.------ 645
railroads, introduction and development 2222---- -< .-_ = 52s 3875
Steel rails, introduction on railroads and advantages----___.--------------- 651
siding forsilo, mote _..us-<0-/2s.-8:. 2234. eee 619
track roads, notes on experimental sections_-__-_.__-..-__------------ 41
Sterna, spp: notes on extermination) 22 2-2 en _._. -_ 222 eee 272
Stock breeding, improvement; effect of foreign demand_---_----_-------- 630, 631
speculation.in. pedierée =: - .. .. <2 eee 634
grazing, combination with forestry by West Virginia landowner_--_ 421
live, work of breeder in improvement, article by John Clay, jr____ 627-642
value of ensilage.as food... 2. = 22 <2 eee 2. . eee 620
Stone‘as roadbed. for railroad 2.4... 34 2-22 eee. +. - Se ee 649
use in making smooth roads in early times_-_.-:_____.-_-------------- 644
Storer, F. H., early publication of bulletins for Bussey Institution __---__-- 227
SLOLMWarnines: TES ISSUES Aa. ee ee eee re = 81
Storms, dangerous, note on success in forecasting; origin --____--_-------- 90,91
observations of Franklin; generalizations of Redfield_____________ 1374:
remarks on description in Monthly Weather Review _-_-_-.--------- 86
Straw, coarse, and manure, effect of application to soils___-______--.__---- 742
witaw berries, improvement, remarks ..2-22210-2 G2) 2250 2-)-. 2 ee 482
Streams, note on study of effect of forest growth____._________------------ 23
Struthio australis, note on farms for raising :__....._.-.--.-....¢_. eee 274
Stumps, method of cutting to prevent: decay: =_--=.-2_- 222. 2 eee 419
Subsoiling as.a fad, remarks.222 2235). oe eee eee 343
Sugar as fertilizing material, opinion of Sir Humphry Davy_-__---_--------- 210
beet, results of chemical study; new factories ___..._.._....-.------- 744
seed, note on distribution... 22) 2e2522-0 2 eee 56
work of Chemist. 22 252245 5 eee 14
beets, note on early study ~~~ 2ssui -2; ste eek Cs eho. cae ee 238
remarks by Secretary: .2s¢ bs 5. Se eee 57
cane and beet, work of experiment stations..........---.-.--------- 544
eropand imports, statistics 2.2 ee ee eee 781, 839, 840
Davy’s method of purifying; notes <2c.st2veho2a_ee 22. eee, See JG a

eitect.of beet sugar on market. 2222:4-<-2euc cee eo 243

INDEX. 877

Page

pagarexports, training at New Orleans2:6 2. 22.2002 .eL ee ee IST
from sorghum study by Chemist ____-_-- NG i hs ee ee 242

land); imigationin Louisiana eee ea ee oa 39
mannfachure; remarks 22225 eee 28 2 rs ee 254
remarks on imports from island possessions ______........_--------- 60
Eiphuric acid, note on use in fertilization. ._.-23). 2-22. ee 221
mercatra tobacco, Florida-grown, notes ..._.__.20. 052 c sede ese Le 437,438
Superintendent of Documents, sale of publications of Department.____. __- 43
raCigion, Chiok, duties .<.5/.00.--.-. ...-.c-lcevos ee ee eee 667
Sweet pea, development of varietiesite. 1225. 2 So ee 569
improvement)2.2.. 2. ss s2 =) 2.080. ot eee eee 488

potato, note on freatment of disease 2. .-... 22 2222s ene i Jeon 18
Swine breeders’ associations, lists (see also Hogs)_.......-. ---------.----- 696
Bran berand alunos. SoCs uae el ee 818

Tags, usein inspection of animals and meats by Bureau of Animal Industry_. 460

seantine Telaion of Ghemistry ©... 2.2. 22) ol. eee 256
eEmenituTe, Temarks Of ecretary 222. ee ee 56, 57, 58
note onexperiment in irrigation. 222222 20 eee 39
RISUOER, NOCESSIYAMOLO sae 565 oF. J2 oul Sees. es ee ee 58
Meaeners, instruction in nature teaching _..._. 2.022.222 22 222 see 178
Meaning, arriculbural, NECSSIby 22... 22- 1.21022 es. eee 67
of agriculture, usefulness; early endowment __________ ._-__--- 224, 226
Technical education in agriculture, development at land-grant colleges_... 169
Telegraph, effect of invention on weather forecasting ___._.__.-.--_-_----- 76
Telegraphic messages in weather service, precedence and cost _.__-.__---- 84, 85
Telford and Macadam, introduction of broken-stone roads______.______---- 372
Hemperature-and moisture of soils. 2... = 22.2 1.22.22. 2211... eee 343
average daily departures from normal for 1899 ________.__- 732-737
for-1899 In: seyeral resions: 2) ee eee 731
Wemperavures, study at Alaska stations .......2__..2.._.222220L. 22 ee 1s
mennesses, extension of tobacco industry .-.!-...2..2.2-.2.i._-.-- L222 430
Tenth Census, chemical work, notes___________- i: SOUL eee 340, 341, 344
Seeseind culls, notes on destruction =. .22:2...2.2.2222.0 2 eee 270
remarks on extermination along Atlantic coast ___._..._-----.---- 272, pe
Testing garden on Potomac flats, pve ak eee) TT reece ee 16
Gf seed: dinvusGn:... = ..- 42. 26) RO et a IU 570-574
Tests of hybrid fruits at subtropical gar dens notes... 222) eee 19
Texas cattle, connection with cattle disease in Mississippi Valley _____._._- 125
Coleetion of birdspecrs! 02 eee Se eee ee | eee 271
Favor GeCrease OLMORSOS =o 2 ool ee ee ee . 452
district, fmameylines:.... . 2-22-22. -2 19) 2 eee 449
investigations, remarks by Secretary -.-.....:---------------- 50
regulations issued by Secretary Wilson for control _-------- 449-452
splenetic fever, or Southern fever, of cattle, discussion __-__..- 124-134
work of Bureau of Animal Industry) 222232 =~ -_ 448-452
experiment stations 2 22. +42. eee 546
eerie ol SOls: Temas) 4-2uee Coc Pac be eee 344
THOMPSON, GEORGE F., article on ‘‘Administrative work of the Federal Gov-
ernment in relation to the animal industry” ._...._.--------------.--- 441-464
Thornton, Dr., Commissioner of Patents, suggestion of agricultural fairs__. 160
freke. relation.to: Texas Lever...2228) 22 2 ee ee eee 129, 180, 131
problem of destruction as preventive of Texas fever ___-..-__------- 154
Puerto Rican, freedom from Texas fever contagion_.-._.._---------- 50
menper-Culture aches... <2 2. ey ee ee ee 427
Ta WS nOleS 265. Josde to ae ae Se a eee eee 294
diseases; Note On. siud yee oo = 2052S see ee ee ee a fyi
Tobacco and su:phur dip for sheep scab, composition. ___._-..------------- 453
cause of fermentation, remarks of Secretary___.....--_----------- 27
Gubhing 1899 a= see LE oak ee ee bee, re See 729
date of firsticrops= 42-5. -.2 0 ee 310
growing. previous to present century. =. == =.= 22224 ee 429
industry, growth, article by Milton Whitney and Marcus L.
Bloyd. 2 Se 4.2 Se ee Se a ee en pe 429-440
investigations, remarks by Secretary. 94-2 2o ee 27
leaf, filler; exports from the United States, statistics__.__--..-_-- 27,489

lemon-yellow, origin and growth of trade..............--.------- 430

878 INDEX.

Page.
Tobacco manufactured snuff, cigars, and cigarettes, statistics__-._.-___-__- 438
planting tn 28002). Soe eee ee I eee 724
statistics, production, estimated, from manufacture_______.___.- 770, 771
White Burley, origin and growth of trade______-----_------_----- 430
Toll. on railtoads.rates2 so. bee Se Ree Se = Se ae ee 648
system of maintaining roads, results... 22.- tll ice 2 ee 372
Tomato, development, of :varieties __<.5.J2-020 0.4. Pe eee 568
improvements by breeding new varieties___-____-___--_---_----_- 483
origin‘and improvement = '2os0 27+) 2 eee eee 466
Tornadoes, early study by Redfield, Espy, and others-_--__--.-------------- 74
Trade, Danish export, secret of success... ..--.2c.. a5. 25 2 eee 47
journal’ in: flowertrade 2 220... eee 8 eS ee eee 589
Tramways, £Orms and Uses. ee See ee ee eee 644
Transportation, development in the United States, article by Angus Sin-
Clair 3. 92:58 52 2220S ee ee eee 643-66
distant, in United ‘States; discussion .:-.. _. =.= eae 658
early pressure:cf productiom._=: 22.35 s-02-.3 245 643
expansion‘and (progress. ===2- 44.2529) 653-66
problem, relation of country roads_....22- 2.455 see 376
WHOS 24— (2a he i See ee ee ee ee 841-849
regulations for cattle for control of Texas fever______ ._. 449
Travelsand transportation, difficulties:=- 1-4. 22. 376
Traveling libraries, agricultural books- ----- sweat kee nk ee 509
failure to supply farmers’ needs --.-------.------------ 491
Tree planting, economic, discussion by Secretary -----.------------=------. 23
work of Division of:.Forestry. -..- -.<.2-.<22-422es 303
in treeless, West; notes... 23-55. 24a eee 804
Treeless regions, note on forestry reports of competent men _____________-- 23
Prees as indicatiomotiquality of soil 2.2%. 2 a eee 341
commercial, studies by Division of Forestry ...__..----..----_----- 23, 303
fruit,;shade and:other, diseases. 2. 23-2: .42 Se ee eee
species planted for forest reproduction, notes __-_--_.----_- 425, 426, 427, 428
‘Drchine, microscopic inspection of pork: *- =... i-83335 =. 2 eee 463
statistics‘of inspection of hogs -2 _-.=--- 4s. 8e— = = 49
Tropical.agriculiure, note on interest, 2 3.2 3: = 5. ae eee 16
imports, discussion bythe Secretary ..2-.22 .-<-_...2. 4. 60
TrueE, A.C. and R. D. MILNER, article on ‘‘ Development of the nutrition
investigations of the Department of Agriculture” ___-__-- 403-414
article on ‘‘Agricultural education in the United States” ___ 157-190
“Agricultural experiment stations in the United
ptates” <2 2.8. te 2... 513-548
Tuberculosis, bovine, work of Bureau of Animal Industry_____--_--------- 455
effect on improvement of cattle by breeding -___------_____- 635
furnpike roads of chartered compahies 22.34: 2-2 3a hon ee 370, 371
Turpentine forest; prevention Of fires... 2 24 c20eees .... =5 ee 425
LE MPANUChUS CNVETICANUS NOES 232.320 Se. 268
Lypein breeding cattle and sheep, remarks) 225) <.- 22-35 298e eee 638
Underdrainage, remarks on eraze_22- 520 lst 2 Le eee 342
imvormity in breeding stock, remarks 955.22. 5-02 e ee ee 641
Universities, colleges of agriculture, list; extension in agriculture --_---_- 183, 187
Urea, effect of muscular exertion on production ..._.-_-.----------------- 404
(OSDD:, NOtES . 22. 2) SAB Sa = yan ae pk ee) 271
Vaccination, introduction as preventive of smallpox ________-.__----____-- 1038
Vaccine, for anthrax, note on inerease Of Use -_-.__.-.-___ 10. 2 eee 120
production for blackleg; use for blackleg .....__.------_------- 124, 454
remarks by Secretary on use for blackleg __.._......----.-------. 49
Valentine, Lawson, attempt to establish experiment station ____..-_.-_---- d17
Van Mons, Jean Baptiste, plant breeding...........-..-.-...5 2-2-0 oeeee 469
Variola (cow pox, horse pox), discussion ___.......1..2-00--02- 24... 102, 105, 106
Vasey, George, notes on work on grasses ___...------------------ 349, 350, 364, 365
Vegetable and animal matter in soil, statement of Sir Humphry Davy----- 20
growth, early study of relation of gases _....._...--.---+.------ 247.
Physiology and Pathology, Division, publications_-__-_-.--------- 685
organization and duties_._---------- 669

proteids, chemical study 744

INDEX. «879

Page.
Vegetable seed, sections for profitable growing; varieties __.__..-...-___- 561, 566
substances, note on number “described by Dr... Thomson .22522322 215
Vegetables, cotton, and cereals, diseases__.......-.-.---------------------- 751
early dpfinition, <.-! cack Ae re na) 214
foraime under glass, statasties 24). .......2_.- .. ee al2ee eee 586
amprovement, Pomarks<. 252 ess 2 es eee 483
winter; Southern-grown, effect on Northern market--------- 582, 583
eearawon house: use in study of sous. -. 20 -.....20 = ee ee 245
Remecios sarm. notes on provréss._ 0 3 oll Doe Se a eee 315
Meesneincarryine export cattle, inspection —...-.. 2. s.545.- 32222 5sk nee 457
mote On inspection for export animals 5-2. 2. bosses 2 oe Se 49
Veterinarians, English, views on communication of diseasefromhorsetocow 105
France, views as to contagiousness of glanders ___...------- 97
State and secretaries of sanitary boards _._.__..._..------ 698-701
Veterinary science, commencement of systematic study -.....------------- 96
work of experiment stations. --.........-.-.--.---- --- 537
Vineyards, brief review of grape growing and diseases __________.--------- 197
Virus, anthrax, failures in effort to destroy _-..__....-.---.--------------- 119
Volunteer experiments in. aerostolosy 222220022505 3. eee 360
observers of weather, note on Work 200 3.78.6. eee 86
Voorhees, E. B., collection of data on irrigation in New Jersey_..-. ....---- 39
Wade, Benjamin, bill for land-grant colleges .............----......_---4- 167
Walsh, Benjamin D., work in economic entomology. -..--.....------------ 139
War Department, relations to weather service -__._.__-.------------------ 78,79
Warnings by Weather Bureau, notes and discussion-..._......--______-- 9, 11,42
““emergency,” in weather service, note .._._.......--_._--.-.--- 90
storm and meteorological reports, devolopment ______-___._-__- = 80
Washington, George, remarks on need of roads__..._.._--_-_--_-__._--_-_- 369
President, recommendation of national board of agriculture__ 513
memes wands, early planting of forest trees___._..-_..-_---.--.2)_ ee 417
Wastes of cities and towns as fertilizers, note on chemical investigations __ 239
Water duty, note on objects of study__...._...--_.---- osteo 38
ws ang problemsin imiegation .--* 22 eee 605, 606, es

notes on use and control in irrigated regions -___.--.---------------
power as source of wealth in arid region -_..._--______-=--------=-., 600
of soils to absorb, statement by Davy-_---------.---_-.--.---- 205
freht CONLTACtS, PemImrns .. 32. 2 ee 39
problems’ ohana resions 2952 8 eee ee 595, 597
necessity for attention from Federal Government____________- 37
supply and water content of soil, chemical study..---------_---_-.__- 743
appropriatign’and distribution —-2--- 9 2-= eeee 608
Waterways, approach of railways in cheapness of transportation __________ 651
SVatson, Eikanah, origination of cattle shows _------:.~.--..-.-----__-___- 160
Weather and crop conditions, season of 1899. _-____--__--._-==-2. 2) 720-743
bulletin, daily, copy of first of daily series_-_--- ee ee 80
Bureau, annual reports of chief, remarks. ._.--_.. .-- =. 2 83
contributions to meteorology... 7... "= 24 se eee 91
extracts trom report of chief -. 22. -- <=. eee 11
library remarky 22)... 2k 2a a ee 87, 505
organization and duties; publications .__-_______-__- 79, 667, 685
publications, method of distribution and sale -.---______- "676
charts, early construction: <) -- 22 73
Map and 1o1eeash, Gully, GISCUSSIONG.--.. 2 eee eae - ee 88
Ob WL ly gaa 6) tS: ee a i nl EO ee ern SN ent ee hee nS 76,77
observations, collection and study, remarks _-_-___- 32-45. 85
relation of forecasts to Alaska, Canada, Mexico, and West Indies__ 72
Review, Monthly, remarks on establishment and contents _.__--_- 86
Service, Gtpanictawe bau a eee Pe ee 71
TEMarks OM SAVINGS, 22. of sea eee eee 90
SUCCESSIVE Chiets.~o2o5 >. 5.0 2d eee ee eee 78

WEBBER, HERBERT J., and ERNsT A. BESSEY, article on ‘‘ Progress of plant
preedin= inithe United States? sis: 2-2-2 fae. eae oo so eee 465-490
Wesleyan University, nutrition investigations_---___------------ 405, 406, 407, 409
West Indies note on: weather reports... .<- 2.522026 ee ee eee 8)
Wheat, acreage, production, etc., statistics_____- 760, 766, 776, 783, 788, 793, 798, 801
effect of latitude on content of Sluten z. asec nscdae set sa cews oe 244

880 INDEX.

Page.
Wheat, flour, American, sales to-Denmark. 22222202 ics cane ce. oe ee eee 46
grasses as means of reclaiming range lands, note.__.--__ 9 a aR 29
remarks on varieties and ses 2. sls 5 220.5~422\ a. See 857
hard and sott, difference of Hour. 222-2... 2. <a eS ae 216
harvesp abso. dese a see eee eee ee eee 726, 727, 728, 729, 730
impr ovement by selection of seed and hybridization.___________- 472, 486
machines for sowing and reaping. ...--225.2.----<-2:2b2.. Bee 318
note on gluten gontert.. 0. 2. etcus Sl yee eee 15
rust, relation to barberry plant, notes.-.2-2225-4.-2_-_2.— 3 ae 192
Spring, seeding In 1899... 2452 tlie ee ss oy oe 724
Whisky, relation of chemistry to aging, note_..-....-.._---_..---.-.----2- 256
White Burley tobacco, curing and assorting -..-~.-+.-..2:--.-.:°-_h 2 435
origin and growth of trade. .---2.-----222) 52 eee 430
pine, trees left for seeding in New Hampshire...__.._._._..._._-.-. 421

WHITNEY, MILTON, and Marcus L. FuLoyp, article on ‘‘Growth of the
tobacco: imdustny. «222-805. 25. tee oe 429-440

article on ‘‘ Soil investigations in the United States”__ 335-346 .

W. C., systematic lumbering, of land _.._-..2...:0:. . ee 420
Wickson, E.S.,remarks on grcwing flower seed ______.__-_.__..-.-.-.----- 560
Wilder, Marshall P., advice on origination of varieties of fruit___.._______- 473
Wilderness turnpike, early road from Virginia to Kentucky__...-.-._-____- 370

Wild pigeon. (See Passenger pigeon. )
WILEY, H. W., article on | “Relation of chemistry to the progress of agri-

CUIDHEG @ 2 oo oes alge he ee 2 es 8 es 201-258

inf coHEA HOR of cereals, sugars, and other products as food
and for adulterations 2... 65." 3. + 405, 406
WILLIAMS, THOMAS A., article on ‘‘ Succulent forage for farm and dairy” __ 613-626
WILSON, J AMES, report as Secretary of Agriculture Stine tne = io 9-70
Secretary, regulations for control of Texas fever... 28 449-452
J. P., patent application for potato bugs ...-...---=.---...__ JE 147
Wand breaks, tree planting 2.2 2s52 sos ee ee . 427
Wine-making industry, chemical investigation --_---_---------.------------ 237
value of ‘chemistry 2. 222.222. - 2=n-4e eee 235
Winogradsky, study of nitrification ........2..2.-202-.u----..-..5 eee 252
Wisconsin agricultural college library =_....:---2¢..-.=-...-2_ =r 502
farmers’ institutes and annual bulletin_____.-..--.---.-------_- 187
Wood ashes, remarks of Davy on use as fertilizer .____-__-_-.-----_____.__- 212
Woodcock, months of legal Jalling.-*. 2.2 2.022220... .. 22 284
Woodland, cutting for firewood (see alsOMOrest) ==. -— .-- =e 418, 419
W ood lots, tree planting ° 2-2-2) 5-24 Polo ge... 426
Woodpeckers, study by Biological Survey =. +... --.-.coaeeee oe - 266
Wiood* usefulness im construction Of silo) 22s =~ -- 2 ee 619
Wool, relation to sheep breeding... ==. 23. Ses. t .._ + eee ee 659
remarks on effect of price on sheep industry --_----.-------+------.-- 629
wholesale prices in leading cities.:= 22. - 2. ----- 20: +e aoe 2-- - S 817
World’s fairs, note on Weather Bureau exhibitions____.._-_--.----__------ 91
Wrapper leaf (tobacco). note on production in Connecticut._...__._______- 27
Wright, Carroll D., studies of dietaries (2... -... Jo. 407
Wyoming experiment station, success with Turkestan alfalfa_..._..______- 63
Wale, chemical work for agriculttre, 222022244. 2 -. eat
College, appointment of professor for agricultural subjects_-_-__.__-- 164
experimental workin agriculture.) 2222 22) 2. eee 515
Yearbook for 1899, remarks by Secr etary Sie es oe eee 43
Yeasts, chemical studies, NOUS ob) ese See eae eee 255, 256
note on use in making WINES 2 325.32 oes Soe kk eon 18
Young, J. R., first American. study of human nutrition, note_._....-..-_-- 403
Zimmer Spanish tobacco, description _._____.__- eee 2 437
ZOHOSY. WOlk of Experiment stations. _=....--. 2) eee 535

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1899
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UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY

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